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White is an achromatic color , a color without hue . An incoming light to the human eye that stimulates all its three types of color sensitive cone cells in nearly equal amounts results in white . White is one of the most common colors in nature , the color of sunlight , snow , milk , chalk , limestone and other common minerals . In many cultures white represents or signifies purity , innocence , and light , and is the symbolic opposite of black , or darkness . According to surveys in Europe and the United States , white is the color most often associated with perfection , the good , honesty , cleanliness , the beginning , the new , neutrality , and exactitude . In ancient Egypt and ancient Rome , priestesses wore white as a symbol of purity , and Romans wore a white toga as a symbol of citizenship . In the Middle Ages and Renaissance a white unicorn symbolized chastity , and a white lamb sacrifice and purity ; the widows of kings dressed in white rather than black as the color of mourning . It sometimes symbolizes royalty ; it was the color of the French kings ( black being the color of the queens ) and of the monarchist movement after the French Revolution as well as of the movement called the White Russians ( not to be confounded with Belarus , literally `` White Russia '' ) who fought the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War ( 1917–1922 ) . Greek and Roman temples were faced with white marble , and beginning in the 18th century , with the advent of neoclassical architecture , white became the most common color of new churches , capitols and other government buildings , especially in the United States . It was also widely used in 20th century modern architecture as a symbol of modernity , simplicity and strength . White is an important color for almost all world religions . The Pope , the head of the Roman Catholic Church , has worn white since 1566 , as a symbol of purity and sacrifice . In Islam , and in the Shinto religion of Japan , it is worn by pilgrims ; and by the Brahmins in India . In Western cultures and in Japan , white is the most common color for wedding dresses , symbolizing purity and virginity . In many Asian cultures , white is also the color of mourning . The white color on television screens and computer monitors is created with the RGB color model by mixing red , green and blue light at equal intensities . White in nature and culture File : Alps.jpg|Ice and snow . The Weisshorn ( `` white mountain '' ) , in the high Alps . File : Milk glass.jpg|A glass of milk File : Cloud.jpg|Cumulus clouds File : Taj Mahal ( Edited ) .jpeg|White marble - the Taj Mahal . File : Ivory cover of the Lorsch Gospels , c. 810 , Carolingian , Victoria and Albert Museum.jpg| Ivory cover of the Lorsch Gospels , circa 810 AD , ( Victoria and Albert Museum , London . ) File : Three Maries.jpg|Alabaster statue of the three Maries , ( circa 1450 ) , Warsaw Museum . File : Andalusian.jpg|A white Andalusian horse . White is commonly associated with innocence , perfection and purity . File : Polar bear with young - ANWR.jpg|Polar bear with young , Arctic National Wildlife Refuge , Alaska . File : Douvres ( 6 ) .JPG|The White Cliffs of Dover are composed of chalk , or calcium carbonate . In nature , snow and clouds appear white because they are composed of water droplets or ice crystals mixed with air ; when white sunlight enters snow , very little of the spectrum is absorbed ; almost all of the light is reflected or scattered by the air and water molecules , so the snow appears to be the color of sunlight , white . Beaches with sand containing high amounts of quartz or eroded limestone also appear white , since quartz and limestone reflect or scatter sunlight , rather than absorbing it . Tropical white sand beaches may also have a high quantity of white calcium carbonate from tiny bits of seashells ground to fine sand by the action of the waves . An individual that has an aversion or hatred for the color white is called a leukophobe . Etymology The word white continues Old English ' , ultimately from a Common Germanic ' also reflected in OHG ' , ON ' , Goth . ' . The root is ultimately from Proto-Indo-European language ' , surviving also in Sanskrit ' `` to be white or bright '' and Slavonic ' `` light '' . The Icelandic word for white , ' , is directly derived from the Old Norse form of the word ' . Common Germanic also had the word * blankaz ( `` white , bright , blinding '' ) , borrowed into Late Latin as * blancus , which provided the source for Romance words for `` white '' ( Catalan , Occitan and French blanc , Spanish blanco , Italian bianco , Galician-Portuguese branco , etc . ) . The antonym of white is black . Some non-European languages have a wide variety of terms for white . The Inuit language has seven different words for seven different nuances of white . Sanskrit has specific words for bright white , the white of teeth , the white of sandalwood , the white of the autumn moon , the white of silver , the white of cow 's milk , the white of pearls , the white of a ray of sunlight , and the white of stars . Japanese has six different words , depending upon brilliance or dullness , or if the color is inert or dynamic . White in history and art The Ancient World White was one of the first colors used by Paleolithic artists ; they used calcite or chalk , sometimes as a background , sometimes as a highlight , along with charcoal and red and yellow ochre in their vivid cave paintings . In ancient Egypt , white was connected with the goddess Isis . The priests and priestesses of Isis dressed only in white linen , and it was used to wrap mummies . In Greece and other ancient civilizations , white was often associated with mother 's milk . In Greek mythology , the chief god Zeus was nourished at the breast of the nymph Amalthea . In the Talmud , milk was one of four sacred substances , along with wine , honey , and the rose . The ancient Greeks saw the world in terms of darkness and light , so white was a fundamental color . According to Pliny the Elder in his Natural History , Apelles ( 4th century BC ) and the other famous painters of ancient Greece used only four colors in their paintings ; white , red , yellow and black ; For painting , the Greeks used lead white , made by a long and laborious process . A plain white toga , known as a toga virilis , was worn for ceremonial occasions by all Roman citizens over the age of 14–18 . Magistrates and certain priests wore a toga praetexta , with a broad purple stripe . In the time of the Emperor Augustus , no Roman man was allowed to appear in the Roman forum without a toga . The ancient Romans had two words for white ; albus , a plain white , ( the source of the word albino ) ; and candidus , a brighter white . A man who wanted public office in Rome wore a white toga brightened with chalk , called a toga candida , the origin of the word candidate . The Latin word candere meant to shine , to be bright . It was the origin of the words candle and candid . In ancient Rome , the priestesses of the goddess Vesta dressed in white linen robes , a white palla or shawl , and a white veil . They protected the sacred fire and the penates of Rome . White symbolized their purity , loyalty , and chastity . File : Paintings from the Chauvet cave ( museum replica ) .jpg|Prehistoric paintings in Chauvet Cave , France ( 30,000 to 32,000 BC ) File : Ägyptischer Maler um 1360 v. Chr . 001.jpg|Painting of the goddess Isis ( 1380–1385 BC ) . The priests of her cult wore white linen . File : Maler der Grabkammer des Thot 001.jpg|Paintings of women in white from a tomb ( 1448–1422 BC ) . File : Chief Vestal.jpg|Statue of the chief Vestal Virgin , wearing a white palla and a white veil . The Middle Ages and the Renaissance The early Christian church adopted the Roman symbolism of white as the color of purity , sacrifice and virtue . It became the color worn by priests during Mass , the color worn by monks of the Cistercian Order , and , under Pope Pius V , a former monk of the Dominican Order , it became the official color worn by the pope himself . Monks of the Order of Saint Benedict dressed in the white or gray of natural undyed wool , but later changed to black , the color of humility and penitence . In Medieval art , the white lamb became the symbol of the sacrifice of Christ on behalf of mankind . John the Baptist described Christ as the lamb of God , who took the sins of the world upon himself . The white lamb was the center of one of the most famous paintings of the Medieval period , the Ghent Altarpiece by Jan van Eyck . White was also the symbolic color of the transfiguration . The Gospel of Saint Mark describes Jesus ' clothing in this event as `` shining , exceeding white as snow . '' Artists such as Fra Angelico used their greatest skill to capture the whiteness of his garments . In his painting of the transfiguration at the Convent of Saint Mark in Florence , Fra Angelico emphasized the white garment by using a light gold background , placed in an almond-shaped halo . The white unicorn was a common subject of Medieval and Renaissance manuscripts , paintings and tapestries . It was a symbol of purity , chastity and grace , which could only be captured by a virgin . It was often portrayed in the lap of the Virgin Mary . During the Middle Ages , painters rarely ever mixed colors ; but in the Renaissance , the influential humanist and scholar Leon Battista Alberti encouraged artists to add white to their colors to make them lighter , brighter , and to add hilaritas , or gaiety . Many painters followed his advice , and the palette of the Renaissance was considerably brighter . In the Middle Ages and Renaissance , white was commonly worn by widows as a color of mourning . The widows of the kings of France wore white until Anne of Brittany in the 16th century . A white tunic was also worn by many knights , along with a red cloak , which showed the knights were willing to give their blood for the king or Church . File : Sodoma - Life of St Benedict , Scene 31 - Benedict Feeds the Monk - WGA21581.jpg|The monks of the order of Saint Benedict ( circa 480-542 ) first dressed in undyed white or gray wool robes , here shown in painting by Sodoma on the life of Saint Benedict ( 1504 ) . They later changed to black robes , the color of humility and penitence . File : Unicorn hunt - British Library Royal 12 F xiii f10v ( detail ) .jpg|The white unicorn frequently appeared in Medieval art , often as a symbol of virginity and purity . This the unicorn hunt from the Rochester Bestiary , from about 1230 , in the British Library . File : Bartolomeo Passarotti Pope Pius V.jpg|Under Pope Pius V ( 1504–1572 ) , a former monk of the Dominican Order , white became the official color worn by the Pope . File : Ghent Altarpiece D - Adoration of the Lamb 2.jpg|The white lamb in the Ghent Altarpiece by Jan van Eyck . ( 1432 ) File : Transfiguration by fra Angelico ( San Marco Cell 6 ) .jpg|The Transfiguration by Fra Angelico ( 1440–1442 ) File : Leonardo da Vinci - Portrait of Cecilia Gallerani ( Lady with an Ermine ) - WGA12698.jpg|Lady with an ermine , by Leonardo da Vinci ( 1490 ) . The ermine symbolized nobility and purity . It was believed that an ermine would rather die than allow its white fur to become dirty . File : Mary Queen of Scots in mourning.jpg|Mary Stuart wore white in mourning for her husband , King Francis II of France , who died in 1560 . 18th and 19th centuries White was the dominant color of architectural interiors in the Baroque period and especially the Rococo style that followed it in the 18th century . Church interiors were designed to show the power , glory and wealth of the church . They seemed to be alive , filled with curves , asymmetry , mirrors , gilding , statuary and reliefs , unified by white . White was also a fashionable color for both men and women in the 18th century . Men in the aristocracy and upper classes wore powdered white wigs and white stockings , and women wore elaborate embroidered white and pastel gowns . After the French Revolution , a more austere white ( blanc cassé ) became the most fashionable color in women 's costumes which were modeled after the outfits of Ancient Greece and Republican Rome . Because of the rather revealing design of these dresses , the ladies wearing them were called les merveilleuses ( the marvellous ) by French men of that era . The Empire style under Emperor Napoléon I was modeled after the more conservative outfits of Ancient Imperial Rome . The dresses were high in fashion but low in warmth considering the more severe weather conditions of northern France ; in 1814 the former wife of Napoleon , Joséphine de Beauharnais , caught pneumonia and died after taking a walk in the cold night air with Tsar Alexander I of Russia . White was the universal color of both men and women 's underwear and of sheets in the 18th and 19th centuries . It was unthinkable to have sheets or underwear of any other color . The reason was simple ; the manner of washing linen in boiling water caused colors to fade . When linen was worn out , it was collected and turned into high-quality paper . The 19th-century American painter James McNeill Whistler ( 1834–1903 ) , working at the same time as the French impressionists , created a series of paintings with musical titles where he used color to create moods , the way composers used music . His painting `` Symphony in White No . 1 - The White Girl '' , which used his mistress Joanna Hiffernan as a model , used delicate colors to portray innocence and fragility , and a moment of uncertainty . File : BasilikaOttobeurenHauptschiff02.JPG|A highly theatrical white Rococo interior from the 18th century , at the Basilica at Ottobeuren , in Bavaria . File : Marie-Antoinette par Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun - 1783.jpg|White gown of Marie Antoinette , painted by Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun in 1783 . File : Gilbert Stuart , George Washington ( Lansdowne portrait , 1796 ) .jpg|President George Washington in a white powdered wig . The first five Presidents of the United States wore dark suits with powdered wigs for formal occasions . File : Emprjose.jpg|Portrait of Joséphine de Beauharnais in a classic Empire gown , modeled after the clothing of ancient Rome . ( 1801 ) , by François Gérard . ( The State Hermitage Museum ) . File : Whistler James Symphony in White no 1 ( The White Girl ) 1862.jpg|Symphony in White No . 1 - The White Girl , by James McNeill Whistler ( 1862 ) . 20th and 21st centuries The White movement was the opposition that formed against the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War , which followed the Russian Revolution in 1917 . It was finally defeated by the Bolsheviks in 1921-22 , and many of its members emigrated to Europe . At the end of the 19th century , lead white was still the most popular pigment ; but between 1916 and 1918 , chemical companies in Norway and the United States began to produce titanium white , made from titanium oxide . It had first been identified in the 18th century by the German chemist Martin Klaproth , who also discovered uranium . It had twice the covering power of lead white , and was the brightest white pigment known . By 1945 , 80 percent of the white pigments sold were titanium white . The absoluteness of white appealed to modernist painters . It was used in its simplest form by the Russian suprematist painter Kazimir Malevich in his 1917 painting 'the white square , ' the companion to his earlier 'black square . ' It was also used by the Dutch modernist painter Piet Mondrian . His most famous paintings consisted of a pure white canvas with grid of vertical and horizontal black lines and rectangles of primary colors . Black and white also appealed to modernist architects , such as Le Corbusier ( 1887–1965 ) . He said a house was `` a machine for living in '' and called for a `` calm and powerful architecture '' built of reinforced concrete and steel , without any ornament or frills . Almost all the buildings of contemporary architect Richard Meier , such as his museum in Rome to house the ancient Roman Ara Pacis , or Altar of Peace , are stark white , in the tradition of Le Corbusier . File : За единую Россію.jpg|Poster for the White Army during the Russian Civil War ( 1917–22 ) . The poster says : `` for a United Russia . '' File : Kazimir_Malevich_-_ % 27Suprematist_Composition-_White_on_White % 27 , _oil_on_canvas , _1918 , _Museum_of_Modern_Art.jpg|White on White ( 1917 ) by Kazimir Malevich , Museum of Modern Art , New York File : VillaSavoye.jpg|The Villa Savoye ( 1928–31 ) by Le Corbusier . Le Corbusier called for a `` calm and powerful '' architecture built of steel and reinforced concrete . Science Optics and white light White is the color the human visual system senses when the incoming light to the eye stimulates all three types of color sensitive cone cells in the eye in nearly equal amounts . Materials that do not emit light themselves appear white if their surfaces reflect back most of the light that strikes them in a diffuse way . In 1666 , Isaac Newton demonstrated that white light could be broken up into its composite colors by passing it through a prism , then using a second prism to reassemble them . Before Newton , most scientists believed that white was the fundamental color of light . White light can be generated by the sun , by stars , or by earthbound sources such as fluorescent lamps , white LEDs and incandescent bulbs . On the screen of a color television or computer , white is produced by mixing the primary colors of light : red , green and blue ( RGB ) at full intensity , a process called additive mixing ( see image below ) . White light can be fabricated using light with only two wavelengths , for instance by mixing light from a red and cyan laser or yellow and blue lasers . This light will however have very few practical applications since color rendering of objects will be greatly distorted . The fact that light sources with vastly different spectral power distributions can result in a similar sensory experience is due to the way the light is processed by the visual system . One color that arise from two different spectral power distributions is called a metamerism . The International Commission on Illumination defines white ( adapted ) as `` a color stimulus that an observer who is adapted to the viewing environment would judge to be perfectly achromatic and to have a luminance factor of unity . The color stimulus that is considered to be the adapted white may be different at different locations within a scene . The adaptation mentioned in the CIE definition above is the chromatic adaptation by which the same colored object in a scene experienced under very different illuminations will be perceived as having nearly the same color . The same principle is used in photography and cinematography where the choice of white point determines a transformation of all other color stimuli . Changes in or manipulation of the white point can be used to explain some optical illusions such as The dress . File : Synthese+.svg|In the RGB color model , used to create colors on TV and computer screens , white is made by mixing red , blue and green light at full intensity . File : Dispersion prism.jpg|White light refracted in a prism revealing the color components . Many of the light sources that emit white light emit light at almost all visible wavelengths ( sun light , incandescent lamps of various Color temperatures ) . This has led to the notion that white light can be defined as a mixture of `` all colors '' or `` all visible wavelengths '' . This misconception is widespread and might originally stem from the fact that Newton discovered that sunlight is composed of light with wavelengths across the visible spectrum . Concluding that since `` all colors '' produce white light then white must be made up of `` all colors '' is a common logical error called affirming the consequent , which might be the cause of the misunderstanding . Why snow , clouds and beaches are white Snow is a mixture of air and tiny ice crystals . When white sunlight enters snow , very little of the spectrum is absorbed ; almost all of the light is reflected or scattered by the air and water molecules , so the snow appears to be the color of sunlight , white . Sometimes the light bounces around inside the ice crystals before being scattered , making the snow seem to sparkle . In the case of glaciers , the ice is more tightly pressed together and contains little air . As sunlight enters the ice , more light of the red spectrum is absorbed , so the light scattered will be bluish . Clouds are white for the same reason as ice . They are composed of water droplets or ice crystals mixed with air , very little light that strikes them is absorbed , and most of the light is scattered , appearing to the eye as white . Shadows of other clouds above can make clouds look gray , and some clouds have their own shadow on the bottom of the cloud . Many mountains with winter or year-round snow cover are named accordingly : Mauna Kea means white mountain in Hawaiian , Mont Blanc means white mountain in French . Changbai Mountains literally meaning perpetually white mountains , marks the border between China and Korea . Beaches with sand containing high amounts of quartz or eroded limestone also appear white , since quartz and limestone reflect or scatter sunlight , rather than absorbing it . Tropical white sand beaches may also have a high quantity of white calcium carbonate from tiny bits of seashells ground to fine sand by the action of the waves . File : Snow-covered fir trees.jpg|Snow is composed of ice and air ; it scatters or reflects sunlight without absorbing other colors of the spectrum . File : MontBlanc2c.jpg|Mont Blanc in the Alps . It takes its name from the white snow on its summit . File : Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg|Cumulus clouds look white because the water droplets reflect and scatter the sunlight without absorbing other colors . File : Pensacola Beach 1957 White Sand.jpg|Pensacola Beach , Florida . White sand beaches look white because the quartz or eroded limestone in the sand reflects or scatters sunlight without absorbing other colors . Chemistry- white pigments and dyes Chalk is a kind of limestone , made of the mineral calcite , or calcium carbonate . It was originally deposited under the sea as the scales or plates of tiny micro-organisms called Coccolithophore . It was the first white pigment used by prehistoric artists in cave paintings . The chalk used on blackboards today is usually made of gypsum or calcium sulphate , a powder pressed into sticks . Bianco di San Giovanni is a pigment used in the Renaissance , which was described by the painter Cennino Cennini in the 15th century . It is similar to chalk , made of calcium carbonate with calcium hydroxide . It was made of dried lime which was made into a powder , then soaked in water for eight days , with the water changed each day . It was then made into cakes and dried in the sun . Lead white was being produced during the 4th century BC ; the process is described is Pliny the Elder , Vitruvius and the ancient Greek author Theophrastus . Pieces of lead were put into clay pots which had a separate compartment filled with vinegar . The pots in turn were piled on shelves close to cow dung . The combined fumes of the vinegar and the cow dung caused the lead to corrode into lead carbonate . It was a slow process which could take a month or more . It made an excellent white and was used by artists for centuries , but it was also toxic . It was replaced in the 19th century by zinc white and titanium white . Titanium white is the most popular white for artists today ; it is the brightest available white pigment , and has twice the coverage of lead white . It first became commercially available in 1921 . It is made out of titanium dioxide , from the minerals brookite , anatase , rutile , or ilmenite , currently the major source . Because of its brilliant whiteness , it is used as a colorant for most toothpaste and sunscreen . Zinc white is made from zinc oxide . It is similar to but not as opaque as titanium white . It is added to some breakfast cereals , since zinc is an important nutrient . Some materials can be made to look `` whiter than white '' , this is achieved using optical brightener agents ( OBA ) . These are chemical compounds that absorb light in the ultraviolet and violet region ( usually 340-370 nm ) of the electromagnetic spectrum , and re-emit light in the blue region ( typically 420-470 nm ) . OBAs are often used in paper and clothing to create an impression of very bright white . This is due to the fact that the materials actually send out more visible light than they receive . Chinese white is a variety of zinc white made for artists . File : Titanium ( IV ) oxide.jpg|Titanium white , made with titanium dioxide , is the brightest white paint available . It also colors most toothpaste and sunscreen . File : Zinc oxide.jpg|Zinc white , made from zinc oxide . Bleach and bleaching Bleaching is a process for whitening fabrics which has been practiced for thousands of years . Sometimes it was simply a matter of leaving the fabric in the sun , to be faded by the bright light . In the 18th century several scientists developed varieties of chlorine bleach , including sodium hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite ( bleaching powder ) . Bleaching agents that do not contain chlorine most often are based on peroxides , such as hydrogen peroxide , sodium percarbonate and sodium perborate . While most bleaches are oxidizing agents , a fewer number are reducing agents such as sodium dithionite . Bleaches attack the chromophores , the part of a molecule which absorbs light and causes fabrics to have different colors . An oxidizing bleach works by breaking the chemical bonds that make up the chromophore

qz_76--White.txt

What colour is the number 10 on the door of 10 Downing Street? White, Yellow or Brown?

Edward `` Kid '' Ory ( December 25 , 1886 – January 23 , 1973 ) was a jazz trombonist and bandleader . He was born in Woodland Plantation near La Place , Louisiana . Biography Ory started playing music with home-made instruments in his childhood , and by his teens was leading a well-regarded band in Southeast Louisiana . He kept La Place , Louisiana , as his base of operations due to family obligations until his twenty-first birthday , when he moved his band to New Orleans , Louisiana . He was one of the most influential trombonists of early jazz . Ory was a banjo player during his youth and it is said that his ability to play the banjo helped him develop `` tailgate '' , a particular style of playing the trombone . In `` tailgate '' style the trombone plays a rhythmic line underneath the trumpets and cornets . While Ory was living on Jackson Avenue , he was discovered by Buddy Bolden , playing his first New trombone , instead of the old civil war trombone . But his sister said he was too young to play with Bolden . Ory had one of the best-known bands in New Orleans in the 1910s , hiring many of the great jazz musicians of the city , including cornetists Joe `` King '' Oliver , Mutt Carey , and Louis Armstrong , who joined the band in 1919 ; and clarinetists Johnny Dodds and Jimmie Noone . In 1919 he moved to Los Angeles—one of a number of New Orleans musicians to do so near that time—and he recorded there in 1921 with a band that included Mutt Carey , clarinetist and pianist Dink Johnson , and string bassist Ed Garland . Garland and Carey were longtime associates who would still be playing with Ory during his 1940s comeback . While in Los Angeles Ory and his band recorded two instrumentals , `` Ory 's Creole Trombone '' and `` Society Blues '' , as well as a number of songs . They were the first jazz recordings made on the west coast by an African-American jazz band from New Orleans . His band recorded with the recording company Nordskog and Ory paid them for the pressings and then sold them under his own label of `` Kid Ory 's Sunshine Orchestra '' at a store in Los Angeles called Spikes Brothers Music Store . In 1925 , Ory moved to Chicago , where he was very active , working and recording with Louis Armstrong , Jelly Roll Morton , Oliver , Johnny Dodds , Bessie Smith , Ma Rainey , and many others . He mentored Benny Goodman , and later Charles Mingus . During the Great Depression Ory retired from music and did not play again until 1943 . From 1944 to about 1961 he led one of the top New Orleans style bands of the period . In addition to Mutt Carey and Ed Garland , trumpeters Alvin Alcorn and Teddy Buckner ; clarinetists Darnell Howard , Jimmie Noone , Albert Nicholas , Barney Bigard , and George Probert ; pianists Buster Wilson , Cedric Haywood , and Don Ewell ; and drummer Minor Hall were among his sidemen during this period . All but Probert , Buckner , and Ewell were originally from New Orleans . The Ory band was an important force in reviving interest in New Orleans jazz , making popular 1940s radio broadcasts—among them a number of slots on The Orson Welles Almanac program ( beginning March 15 , 1944 ) . In 1944–45 the group made a series of recordings on the Crescent Records label , founded by Nesuhi Ertegun for the express purpose of recording Ory 's band . During the late 1940s and early 1950s , Ory and his group appeared at the Beverly Cavern in Los Angeles . Ory retired from music in 1966 and spent his last years in Hawaii , with the assistance of Trummy Young . Ory died in Honolulu . He was buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City , California . Discography With Red Allen * Red Allen , Kid Ory & Jack Teagarden at Newport ( Verve , 1957 )

sfq_22693--Kid_Ory.txt

What was the first name of the jazz trombonist Kid Ory?

Prospero ( ) is a fictional character and the protagonist of William Shakespeare 's play The Tempest . The Tempest Prospero is the rightful Duke of Milan , whose usurping brother , Antonio , had put him ( with his then three-year old daughter , Miranda ) to sea on `` a rotten carcass of a butt [ boat ] '' to die , 12 years before the play begins . Prospero and Miranda survived and found exile on a small island . He has learned sorcery from books , and uses it while on the island to protect Miranda and control the other characters . Before the play has begun , Prospero frees Ariel from entrapment within `` a cloven pine '' , about which Prospero states : Prospero 's sorcery is sufficiently powerful to control Ariel and other spirits , as well as to alter weather and even raise the dead : `` Graves at my command have waked their sleepers , oped , and let 'em forth , by my so potent Art . `` - Act V , scene 1 . On the island , Prospero becomes master of the monster Caliban ( the son of Sycorax , a malevolent witch ) and forces Caliban into submission by punishing him with magic if he does not obey . Ariel is beholden to Prospero after he is freed from his imprisonment inside the pine tree . At the end of the play , Prospero intends to drown his book and renounce magic . In the view of the audience , this may have been required to make the ending unambiguously happy , as magic was associated with diabolical works ; he will drown his books for the same reason that Doctor Faust , in an earlier play by Christopher Marlowe , promised in vain to burn his books . Prospero 's speech The final soliloquy and epilogue in The Tempest is considered to be one of the most memorable speeches in Shakespearean literature . Now my charms are all o'erthrown , And what strength I have 's mine own , Which is most faint : now , 't is true , I must be here confined by you , Or sent to Naples . Let me not , Since I have my dukedom got And pardon 'd the deceiver , dwell In this bare island by your spell ; But release me from my bands With the help of your good hands : Gentle breath of yours my sails Must fill , or else my project fails , Which was to please . Now I want Spirits to enforce , art to enchant , And my ending is despair , Unless I be relieved by prayer , Which pierces so that it assaults Mercy itself and frees all faults . As you from crimes would pardon 'd be , Let your indulgence set me free . In it , Prospero states his loss ( magic ) and his continuing imprisonment if the audience is not pleased . Many feel that since The Tempest was the last play that Shakespeare wrote alone , Prospero 's feelings echo Shakespeare 's own , or perhaps may even have been his `` retirement speech '' . Portrayal * Sir Michael Redgrave played Prospero in a BBC Play of the Month production in 1968 . * Heathcote Williams played Prospero in Derek Jarman 's 1979 film version of The Tempest . * Sir Michael Hordern played Prospero in a 1980 production for BBC television . * A Stratford Shakespeare Festival production was videotaped and broadcast on television in 1983 , starring Len Cariou as Prospero . * Paul Mazursky 's film , Tempest ( 1983 ) , features a Prospero-esque character portrayed by John Cassavetes who is an exile of his own cynical discontent , ego and self-betrayal and who abandons America for a utopian `` kingdom '' on a secluded Greek isle . * In Peter Greenaway 's film Prospero 's Books ( 1991 ) , Prospero is played by John Gielgud . * In Julie Taymor 's 2010 film adaptation of the play , Prospero is played by Helen Mirren and is now named Prospera . * BBC Radio 3 broadcast a production of The Tempest ( 7 October 2001 ) adapted for radio and directed by David Hunter , starring Philip Madoc as Prospero , Nina Wadia as Ariel , Josh Richards as Caliban , Catrin Rhys as Miranda , Andrew Cryer as Ferdinand , Rudolph Walker as Gonzalo , James Laurenson as Alonso , Christian Rodska as Sebastian , and Ioan Meredith as Antonio . * David Warner played Prospero in the BBC Radio 3 Drama on 3 production of The Tempest , broadcast ( on 6 May 2012 ) as part of the Shakespeare Unlocked series on the BBC . The production included Carl Prekopp as Ariel , Rose Leslie as Miranda , James Garnon as Caliban , James Lailey as Antonio and Peter Hamilton Dyer as Sebastian , and was adapted for radio and directed by Jeremy Mortimer . * In 2015 , Richard Cox plays a rendition of Prospero for the TNT series The Librarians . In popular culture * In the comic book series The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen by Alan Moore and Kevin O'Neill , Prospero appears as a founding member of the first such grouping in 1610 , alongside his familiars Caliban and Ariel . * Paul Prospero , the protagonist of The Vanishing of Ethan Carter ( 2014 ) , is named after Prospero . * In John Bellairs 's novel The Face in the Frost ( 1969 ) , Prospero is one of the protagonists . * T. S. Eliot 's poem `` The Waste Land '' references Prospero . * In the The Horus Heresy series , several books take place on a planet called Prospero . The citizens of the planet are versed in sorcery and psychic powers , earning them the suspicion and ire of the rest of the Imperium of Man . * Melon Cauliflower , by NZ playwright Tom McCrory , is about a man Prospero , in his late sixties , who struggles to come to terms with the death of his wife and has mistreated his daughter Miranda . * The Masque of the Red Death , by Edgar Allen Poe is set at the manor of a Prince Prospero

qb_7765--Prospero.txt

In the Shakespeare play ‘The Tempest’, Prospero is the overthrown Duke of ‘where’?

Count Duckula is a British animated comedy-drama dark fantasy television series created by British studio Cosgrove Hall as a spin-off from Danger Mouse , a series in which the Count Duckula character was a recurring villain . Count Duckula premiered for four series from 6 September 1988 to 16 February 1993 , and was produced by Thames Television . In all , 65 episodes were made , each about 22 minutes long . All have been released on DVD in the U.K. , while only the first series has been released in North America . This show should not be confused with the short lived 1979 Quackula which was produced by Filmation and appeared as part of their Mighty Mouse and Heckle and Jeckle cartoon hour . History Count Duckula was created by British studio Cosgrove Hall as a spin-off from Danger Mouse . In 1984 Nickelodeon acquired the rights to Danger Mouse which became a hit for the channel . After a few years the Nickelodeon management came to Cosgrove Hall wishing to co-produce a new series . After being shown a number of ideas , the then head of Nickelodeon , Jenny Lebron , spotted a picture of Count Duckula in Brian Cosgrove 's office , and said `` that 's the one I want '' . As the series went into production one of the writers suggested he become a vegetarian , which added an even sillier concept to the series . Spin-offs In a move mirroring Duckula 's adaptation from Danger Mouse , the characters of Gaston and Pierre were reinvented and given a spinoff series as the now-human Victor and Hugo . Count Duckula appeared in North American comics under Star Comics ( an imprint of Marvel Comics ) and introduced an additional difference between this incarnation of Duckula which separated him from his predecessors . Due to ketchup being used in the resurrection ceremony , this version of Duckula has ketchup , rather than blood , flowing through his veins . This was discovered when Duckula was given a blood test in order to get a passport into a fictional country which produced a salad which Duckula was obsessed with getting to eat . In the same issue , Duckula , Nanny , and Igor were photographed as a means of formal ID for said country , however due to the classic stereotype of vampires not appearing in film , Duckula did not appear in the photo which was taken . Duckula would also gain a romantic interest in the Star Comics run ; Vanna Von Goosewing , who turned out to be the niece of his long time adversary Dr . Von Goosewing . The attraction was mutual , and the two continued their relationship though the majority of the series after their introduction , though Vanna did n't always appear in every issue of the book . Plot Several episodes explore the theme that each resurrection creates a new incarnation with little to no memory of its past life , the immediate past incarnation referred to as the current 's `` father '' . Thus , every incarnation is free to develop its own personality and pursue its own personal interests . The vampire is able to pose as a `` dreadful dynasty , the counts of Duckula '' . The preceding generations included knights , sorcerers , scientists , artists , Egyptologists and even professional gamblers , all of whom are also secretly `` vicious vampire ducks '' . However , as the title sequence puts it , `` the latest reincarnation did not run according to plan '' . The successful conclusion of the ritual requires blood ( a send-up of the Hammer Dracula films ) , the source of sustenance for any vampire , but Nanny accidentally substitutes tomato ketchup . Consequently , the newest version is not a blood-sucking vampire , but a vegetarian one . He is more interested in juicy carrots than hunting for victims . Igor is appalled . Even worse , his `` new '' master is obsessed with pursuing wealth and fame as an entertainer . The stories often centre around Duckula 's adventures in search of riches and fame , assisted by the castle 's ability to teleport around the world . Another regularly occurring theme is the repeated attempt by Igor to turn Duckula into a proper vampire . Some episodes feature Duckula 's nemesis Doctor Von Goosewing ( based on Dr. Abraham Van Helsing , the nemesis of Dracula ) , a vampire hunter who blindly refuses to believe the current incarnation of Duckula is harmless . There is also an array of bizarre , often supernatural foes , from zombies to mechanical werewolves . Another feature of the show is a cuckoo clock whose bat-like Russian-accented characters come out and make jokes about the current situation ( or corny jokes in general ) . The clock is also a vital part of the castle 's travelling mechanism , and even has the ability to turn back time . A series of annuals and monthly comics further detailing the adventures of Count Duckula and associated characters were released throughout the time that the series originally aired and for a short time afterwards . Voice cast * Count Duckula : David Jason * Igor : Jack May * Nanny/Dimitri : Brian Trueman * Dr . Von Goosewing/Sviatoslav : Jimmy Hibbert * Narrator : Barry Clayton * Various other characters : Barry Clayton , Jimmy Hibbert , David Jason , Jack May , Brian Trueman and Ruby Wax * Theme song vocalists : Doreen Edwards and Mike Harding Characters Count Duckula Duckula ( full title : Count Duckula the 17th , ) is a short green duck with black parted hair and the traditional vampire evening wear , and speaks with an American accent , despite being voiced by a British actor . He is egotistical and selfish , but Duckula is good natured , often trying to help people . He has no fangs , His favourite food , as a vegetarian , is broccoli sandwiches . He occasionally has been seen wearing pyjamas with a Danger Mouse logo , a reference to the character 's origin . The Duckula family motto is Per ardua ad sanguina , which means `` work hard for blood '' . He has a very modern outlook , and often despairs over the traditional vampire image he is expected to embody . He hates living in a dark , gloomy castle , and finds the behaviour of his servants to be depressing . Duckula frequently expresses frustration with Igor 's attempts to change him back into a proper vampire and his lecturing Duckula as a disgrace and disappointment to the Duckula lineage . Although he retains some vampiric powers and qualities ( such as teleportation and an image invisible to mirrors ) , he also possesses a lesser power , seen only once , which is the ability to create a lightning flash when angry . He often goes outside in the daytime without suffering any ill effects , but this is likely because of his not being a full `` traditional '' vampire , which do not do so as a result of the 1922 film Nosferatu , which introduced the idea that sunlight destroyed vampires into modern interpretations of vampires and vampirism in general . It may also be a reference to the fact that Dracula , whom the character is based on , was able to move about by daylight in the original novel , though with his powers reduced or rendered nonexistent until the sun set . In the episode `` Doctor Goosewing and Mr . Duck '' , Count Duckula briefly turns into a `` proper '' vampire , desiring blood from the villagers outside the castle , but he turns away from the door when he discovers that the sun is still out . Although he is often egotistical and selfish , Duckula is good natured , often trying to help people , although he usually succeeds only in making them hate him . He is prone to short-lived obsessions , often forming the plots for episodes , such as attempting to become a blues musician in New Orleans , prospecting for gold , or becoming a cowboy or performer . The character differs considerably from his predecessor on the Danger Mouse series . In fact , the only similarities , other than the name , is they are both vampire ducks with ambitions in show business with little actual talent . The previous version was an evil villain , willing to blackmail and force his way into stardom ( as opposed to the current Count , who merely tries to get in the legitimate way ) and was fixated on being a TV star , rather than settle for fame in some other branch of entertainment . He has far greater magical powers and makes much more use of them . He has a thick accent consisting of lisping , stuttering and occasional squawks . Most notably , he was not a vegetarian in the Danger Mouse version . In his very first appearance , he threatened to drink Danger Mouse 's blood , only to be chased away by the sun . The Danger Mouse Duckula was destroyed and fell to ashes , resurrected during the 8th astronomical house of Aquarius . During his recent appearance in the 2015 reboot , the new Duckula is a mix of the original and the vegetarian version from his spin-off . Marvel Comics ( via their Star Comics imprint ) produced a comic series based on Count Duckula , and introduced an additional difference between this incarnation of Duckula which separated him from his predecessors . Due to ketchup being used in the resurrection ceremony , this version of Duckula has ketchup , rather than blood , flowing through his veins . This was discovered when Duckula was given a blood test in order to get a passport into a fictional country which produced a salad which Duckula was obsessed with getting to eat . In the same issue , Duckula , Nanny , and Igor were photographed as a means of formal ID for said country , however due to the classic stereotype of vampires not appearing in film , Duckula did not appear in the photo which was taken . Duckula would also gain a romantic interest in the Star Comics run ; Vanna Von Goosewing , who turned out to be the niece of his long time adversary Dr . Von Goosewing . The attraction was mutual , and the two continued their relationship though the majority of the series after their introduction , though Vanna did n't always appear in every issue of the book . Igor Igor , the Count 's butler , is a traditional horror servant based on the stock character Igor , and adds a decidedly dark streak to some of the show 's humour . He greatly dislikes his master 's behaviour , and often encourages him to act in a far more ghastly manner . Although he will generally obey Duckula 's specific orders , he remains convinced that , if he could only talk Duckula into biting , maiming , torturing and otherwise brutalising people , he would return to the `` good old days '' of the previous counts who behaved more like evil vampires . Igor hates words such as `` bless you , '' `` nice , '' `` good , '' and `` lovely '' . Such words make him cringe , since he prefers the darker and more sinister side of life . He is a hunched , balding vulture with a deep , slow voice . In the episode `` Arctic Circles , '' he states that he has served for `` seven-and-a-half centuries '' . If this is approximate of the 17 incarnations of Duckula , his age is probably 800+ years old , and he may have started his service to the Duckula family around the time of Count Duckula the 1st , or shortly afterwards . Nanny Nanny , is Duckula 's nanny , as well as housekeeper . She is an extremely large ( in the episode `` Alps-A-Daisy , '' it 's revealed she 's seven feet tall ) and clumsy hen , possessing incredible strength and inevitably messing up whatever task she is set to do . She has a blind spot regarding doors , and often crashes through a door without opening it first , or ( more commonly ) walks right through the wall , especially a few feet off from the door 's position . Not surprisingly , she is the one who mistakes ketchup for blood in Duckula 's current resurrection . In the episode `` Prime-Time Duck '' her real name is revealed to be `` Amnesia . '' She is supremely unintelligent , and completely unreliable . She is devoted to her `` Ducky-boos , '' as she calls Duckula , and has a deep maternal affection for him , although her clumsiness often inadvertently causes him harm . A recurring gag is her inability to understand what people around her are talking about . She often mixes up words and takes insult at conversations not directed at her . She is very ditzy and motherly , sometimes hugging Duckula so tightly she nearly suffocates him . In `` Dr Goosewing and Mr Duck '' when she accidentally drinks the carpet stain removal liquid created by Goosewing she becomes extremely intelligent . Castle Duckula Count Duckula 's home is an archetypal Transylvanian castle with all the trimmings : dungeon , torture chamber , library of macabre texts , laboratory , and more . The castle is also home to an often referred-to , but never seen , werewolf named Towser , which Duckula does not believe exists ( he often refers to it as `` the werewolf we do n't have '' ) . The castle can teleport to any place on earth ( and beyond ) , but returns automatically at dawn , `` Eastern Transylvanian Standard Time '' . The teleportation is activated when Duckula enters an upright coffin while he states where he wants it to take him ( often , he will have to come up with a rhyme to activate it properly ) . The controls to this device are inside an old-fashioned cuckoo clock that hangs on the wall , who have live two mechanical bats , Dmitri and Sviatoslav . Dr . Von Goosewing Dr . Von Goosewing is a mad scientist and vampire hunter , a spoof of Abraham Van Helsing . He is a goose that speaks in a German accent , and wears an outfit not unlike that of Sherlock Holmes . He pursues Count Duckula relentlessly , never able to comprehend that Duckula is actually completely harmless . He is a terrible scientist , often getting maimed by his own crackpot inventions , he is supremely unobservant , and often bumps into Duckula and converses with him for several minutes without realising to whom he is speaking . Von Goosewing appears to have an assistant named Heinrich ( who never appears on screen ) . Von Goosewing often calls for Heinrich , and often blames his failures on him . In fact , `` Heinrich '' seems to be just a figment of Von Goosewing 's imagination , an imaginary friend .. However , the comic book version of the characters by Marvel reveal that Heinrich is actually his former assistant who is always complaining about his paltry wages .. The Marvel Comics run also introduced Vanna Von Goosewing , who was stated to be Von Goosewing 's niece . Vanna and Duckula 's reciprocal romance further infuriated Von Goosewing , as he now believed that Vanna was under some form of mental manipulation , assuming it to be the only reason she would have any interest in Duckula . This belief made him all the more intent on destroying Duckula as he now considered his mission to have a personal component to it , believing Duckula to be a threat to Vanna 's safety . In an alternate universe depicted in the final issue of the comic , Von Goosewing , though he does not appear in the issue directly , is stated to have succeeded in destroying the counterpart Duckula of that reality , indicating it to be the reason why the 'regular ' Duckula of the series had no reflection , and leaving Igor and Nanny without anyone to serve until the next time the resurrection ritual could be performed . The Crow brothers The Crow brothers are four criminally-inclined crows named Ruffles , Burt , Junior , and the masked brother ( according to a comic in a Count Duckula annual ) . They typically scale the walls of Castle Duckula with the aid of climbing equipment . They are always seen hanging off one another with the use of bungee cords to climb the walls of whatever building they plan to scale . Their goal is to get at the treasure inside the castle , but they 'll rarely make it to the top . Gaston and Pierre Gaston and Pierre are a pair of French criminals and occasional villains . Although they are both undeniably incompetent , the arrogant Gaston is ostensibly the `` brains '' of the outfit . Gaston is a tall , thin , black stork , while Pierre is a short , stubby parakeet who sounds similar to Bluebottle from The Goon Show . The characters were adapted into non-bird form for yet another Cosgrove-Hall animated series , Victor and Hugo . Pirate penguins A ruthless crew of piratical penguins originally hired by Count Duckula , this crew of seafarers turn on Count Duckula when his antics crash their ship . All of the penguins are typical pirate stereotypes , one of which is known as Mr. Mate and shouts that he will `` bite their legs off ! '' Narrator The narrator ( Barry Clayton ) opens and closes every episode . Episodes usually began with him describing Castle Duckula and its gloomy atmosphere , and close with him saying a phrase popularised in the 1950s and 1960s by American TV horror host John Zacherle , `` Goodnight out there ... WHATever you are ! '' Variants of this line are also used to close certain programmes . Relatives Duckula has numerous vampiric relatives all over the world , who are more classic vampires than Duckula , possessing fangs , red eyes and evil personalities . Only a small number , such as Don Diego , show any affinity or friendship toward the benign Count Duckula . They come from many different countries , such as Spain and Scotland , and their costumes represent their native cultures . The relatives include Don Diego , a Spanish vampire duck who makes his fun and games by burning down villages , and Rory McDuckula , a Scottish vampire duck who later makes himself an enemy of Duckula . The peasants The town situated below Castle Duckula is home to many peasants who live in constant fear of the count , despite his harmless current incarnation . A recurring joke in the series and associated books is that `` the peasants are revolting '' ( a pun that works because the word `` revolting '' can mean `` rebelling '' or `` foul '' ) . Their local pub is called `` The Teeth and Jugular , '' a reference to vampires ' practice of biting into blood vessels in their victims ' necks . The regulars are often seen singing a variation of the traditional song `` One Man Went to Mow a Meadow ! '' replacing the words `` mow a meadow '' with `` kill a vampire '' . Episode list Home media DVD releases Despite being mostly available in the U.K. , the Count Duckula disks from Fremantle Media are in Region 0 , PAL format . The first season was released on Region 1 DVD on 4 October 2005 . Seasons 2 , 3 & 4 have , as of 2015 , not been released in North America . Complete set Individual series Individual episodes VHS releases During the show 's original run , Count Duckula episodes were released on numerous VHS titles from Thames Video collection , often in a different sequence than that when televised . Amongst the releases were : * Count Duckula : The Vampire Strikes Back ! ( TV8038 ) – Released : 9 February 1989 Episodes : `` The Vampire Strikes Back ! `` , `` Hardluck Hotel , '' `` Dear Diary '' * Count Duckula : Special Bumper Edition – Released : 6 December 1989 Consisted of several episodes from Series 2 , but in a different sequence than that when first televised.Episodes contained : `` Ghostly Gold , '' `` Prime-time Duck , '' `` The Incredible Shrinking Duck , '' `` Ducknapped ! `` , `` Bloodsucking Bats of the Lower Amazon '' * Count Duckula : A Fright at the Opera ( TV8045 ) – Released : 28 February 1990 Episodes contained : `` A Fright at the Opera , '' `` Hunchbudgie of Notre Dame , '' `` Dr. Goosewing and Mr Duck '' * Count Duckula : The Great Ducktective ( TV8102 ) – Released : 1990 Episodes contained : `` The Great Ducktective , '' `` Private Beak , '' `` Whodunnit ? '' * Count Duckula : O.O . duck ( TV8105 ) – Released : 19 September 1990 Episodes contained : `` O.O . Duck , '' `` A Mountie Always Gets His Duck ! `` , `` Manhattan Duck '' * Count Duckula : Astro Duck – Released : 31 December 1990 Episodes contained : `` Astro Duck , '' `` The Rest is History ! `` , `` Around the World in a Total Daze ! `` , `` The Zombie Awakes ! '' * Count Duckula : Bombay Duck – Released : 31 December 1990 , and 8 February 1991 Episodes contained : `` Bombay Duck , '' `` Mississippi Duck , '' `` Mystery Cruise '' Interestingly , this VHS title appeared in 1990 but , at the time , the episodes contained were somewhat exclusive to video ( the first was not televised until 1991 , neither was the latter until 1993 ) . Count Duckula episodes were also released on special VHS compilations with episodes of other series . In 1989 , the episode `` Down under Duckula '' was released on Thames ' VHS title More Children 's Summer Stories , with episodes from Danger Mouse and The Wind in the Willows . In 2001 , in the twilight years of VHS , the episodes `` The Ghost of Castle McDuckula '' and `` Venice a Duck , Not a Duck ! '' were featured on two cult kids ' collection tapes , with episodes of Rainbow , Chorlton & the Wheelies , Button Moon and Jamie & the Magic Torch . Computer games Alternative Software released a computer game based on Count Duckula called `` No Sax Please , We 're Egyptian ! `` . In the game , Igor , Nanny and Count Duckula have decided to search the tomb of the great Pharaoh Upanatem ( a pun on `` up and at 'em '' ) to find the mystic saxophone . What they do not know is that they have brought along some unwanted guests in the form of the Crow brothers . The game was a basic jump and run platform-type game . At the start , the castle was transported to an ancient pyramid . Then , players had a set amount of time to go through the castle , evading the various baddies inside the castle , to retrieve the mystic sax before the Count 's castle automatically returns to Transylvania , leaving the player stranded in Egypt . The title of the game was a parody on the title of a British comedy play No Sex Please , We 're British ! . The game was available for various 8-bit computers such as the ZX Spectrum , Commodore 64 , & Amstrad CPC , and was also released as a `` Kid 's Pack '' with other TV shows that Alternative Software turned into games , including `` Postman Pat , '' `` Sooty and Sweep , '' `` Count Duckula , '' `` Popeye 2 , '' `` The Wombles , '' and `` Superted '' . Alternative Software was one of the few software companies of the 1980s that still survives today as an independent software producer . There was also a Count Duckula 2 sequel in 1992 .

sfq_24487--Count_Duckula.txt

Who voiced Count Duckula in an animated 1980's and 1990's television series of the same name?

Coincident full censuses have taken place in the different jurisdictions of the United Kingdom every ten years since 1801 , with the exceptions of 1941 ( during the Second World War ) and both Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State in 1921 . Simultaneous censuses were taken in the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man , with the returns being archived with those of England . In addition to providing detailed information about national demographics , the results of the census play an important part in the calculation of resource allocation to regional and local service providers by the governments of both the UK and the European Union . The most recent UK census took place in 2011 . History Tax assessments ( known in the later Empire as the indiction ) were made in Britain in Roman times , but detailed records have not survived . In the 7th century AD , Dál Riata ( parts of what is now Scotland and Northern Ireland ) conducted a census , called the `` Tradition of the Men of Alba '' ( Senchus fer n-Alban ) . England conducted its first formal census when the Domesday Book was compiled in 1086 under William I for tax purposes . Distinct from earlier , less inclusive censuses ( e.g . for religious purposes ) , national decennial censuses of the general population started in 1801 , championed by the statistician John Rickman . The censuses were initially conducted partly to ascertain the number of men able to fight in the Napoleonic Wars , and partly over population concerns stemming from the 1798 work An Essay on the Principle of Population by Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus . Rickman 's twelve reasons – set out in 1798 and repeated in Parliamentary debates – for conducting a census of Great Britain included the following justifications : * `` the intimate knowledge of any country must form the rational basis of legislation and diplomacy '' * `` an industrious population is the basic power and resource of any nation , and therefore its size needs to be known '' * `` the number of men who were required for conscription to the militia in different areas should reflect the area 's population '' * `` there were defence reasons for wanting to know the number of seamen '' * `` the need to plan the production of corn and thus to know the number of people who had to be fed '' * `` a census would indicate the Government 's intention to promote the public good '' , and * `` the life insurance industry would be stimulated by the results '' . Regular national censuses have taken place nearly every ten years since 1801 , most recently in 2011 ; other partial censuses have been made on some of the intervening fifth anniversaries . The first four censuses ( 1801–1831 ) were mainly statistical : that is , mainly headcounts , with virtually no personal information . A small number of older records exist in local record offices as by-products of the notes made by enumerators in the production of those earlier censuses ; these might list all persons or just the heads of households . The 1841 Census was the first to intentionally record names of all individuals in a household or institution . The Census Act of 1920 provides the legal framework for conducting all censuses in Great Britain ( Scotland , England , and Wales ) . The primary legislation for Northern Ireland was introduced in 1969 . Before this legislation , it was necessary to have a separate act of parliament for each census . Britain was also responsible for initiating and co-ordinating censuses in many of its overseas colonies . Because of the disruption caused by the Second World War , there was no census in 1941 . However , following the passage into law on 5 September 1939 of the National Registration Act 1939 , a population count was carried out on 29 September 1939 . The resulting National Register was later used to develop the NHS Central Register . Censuses were taken on 26 April 1931 in Great Britain , but the returns for England and Wales were destroyed in an accidental fire during the Second World War . On 24 April 1966 , the UK trialled an alternative method of enumeration – long form/short form . Every household was given a short form to complete , while a sample of the population was given a long form to collect more detailed information . The short form was used for the population count and to collect basic information such as usual address , sex , age and relationships to other household members . This was the first and only time that a five-yearly census was carried out in the UK . Release of information England and Wales The British government undertakes the census for policy and planning purposes , and publishes the results in printed reports and on the website of the Office for National Statistics ( ONS ) . A number of datasets are also made available . Public access to individual census returns in England and Wales is normally restricted under the terms of the 100-year rule ( Lord Chancellor 's Instrument no.12 , issued in 1966 under S.5 ( 1 ) of the Public Records Act 1958 ) ; until recently , returns made available to researchers were those of the 1901 Census . Some argue that ministers and civil servants in England and Wales made no attempts to strictly enforce the 100-year census closure policy until 2005 , five years after the Freedom of Information Act 2000 was passed , which , they argue , effectively abolished the 100-year rule . However , personal information provided in confidence is likely to be exempted if disclosure could result in successful prosecution for breach of confidence . In exceptional circumstances , the Registrar General for England and Wales does release specific information from 70- , 80- , or 90-year-old closed censuses . Scotland National censuses in Scotland have been taken on the same dates as those in England and Wales , but with differing legislation , governorship and archiving arrangements . The 2001 census was the first to be taken under full domestic control , while all preceding censuses since 1861 had been under the control of the Registrar General for Scotland . The 19th-century Scottish censuses were all released after 50–80 years of closure , while the 1901 and 1911 censuses was made available to the public after their 100th anniversaries . Unlike the censuses for England and Wales , there was a statutory bar on early release of the 1911 census details . Ireland and Northern Ireland Irish censuses from before 1901 have not generally survived to the present day , due to a combination of official incompetence ( the 1881 and 1891 returns were pulped before they could be transcribed into books ) , non-retention ( 1861 and 1871 ) , and a fire during the Irish Civil War in 1922 . The 1901 and 1911 censuses for Ireland ( all of which was then part of the UK ) have been available for inspection since 1960 – they were made available earlier than the other British records , since Irish law is different on this matter . No census was taken in 1921 due to the disruption of the Irish War of Independence . The first census taken in the Irish Free State ( now the Republic of Ireland ) was in April 1926 ; the first Northern Ireland census occurred at the same time . No census took place in Northern Ireland in 1931 . Coverage In 2001 , the census form was completed by 94 per cent of the population in England and Wales , with a further 4 per cent identified by the census enumerators , though the results still represented 100 per cent of the population through the use of cross-matching with a follow-up survey . The Census Act 1920 ( as amended ) legislates a fine of up to £1,000 for those who refuse to complete their census forms . In some censuses , significant numbers of people intentionally did not participate for political reasons . In 1911 , the Women 's Freedom League , a suffragette organisation campaigning for female suffrage in the United Kingdom , organised a boycott of the census . They encouraged women to go to all-night parties or to stay at friends ' houses to avoid the census . In 1991 , many people again avoided the census , which was conducted during the time of the poll tax debate , in case the government used it to enforce the tax . It was estimated that up to one million people were not counted by the 1991 census due to such evasion . Criminal law Under section 8 of the Census Act 1920 , whoever refuses or neglects to comply with the census , makes a false declaration , makes , signs , or delivers a false document , or causes the same , or refuses to answer , or gives false answers , shall be liable on summary conviction and face a maximum fine of £1,000 . Exceptions exist for refusing or neglecting to respond to questions about religion , as stipulated by the Census ( Amendment ) Act 2000 . Data sets Traditionally , outputs are released in the form of tables of counts at various levels of geography . However , microdata , known Samples of Anonymised Records ( SARs ) are UK data-sets consisting of samples of individual records from national censuses . These very large datasets resemble survey data and are used for a range of applications by social scientists and policymakers . The first SAR was released in 1991 . In 2001 , the SAR system was extended , and it is anticipated that there will be SAR files from the 2011 census . 2001 The 1851 census included a question about religion on a separate response sheet , whose completion was not compulsory . But the 2001 census was the first in which the government asked about religion on the main census form . New legislation was enacted through the Census ( Amendment ) Act 2000 to allow the question to be asked , and to make its response optional . Perhaps encouraged by a chain letter that started in New Zealand , 390,000 people entered their religion as `` Jedi Knight '' , with some areas registering up to 2.6 % of people as Jedi . Thus , `` Jedi '' was the fourth-largest reported religion in the country . ( See : Jedi census phenomenon ) . 2011 The UK 's most recent national census took place on 27 March 2011 . Several identity and status options were included for the first time in the census , including options relating to civil partnerships . The first set of data to be released from this census ( basic counts of population by age and sex ) was made available in July 2012 , with the remainder of the tables following thereafter . 2021 The next UK census is scheduled to take place in March 2021 . However , on behalf of the Government , the UK Statistics Authority has initiated a research programme , called Beyond 2011 to investigate a range of alternative options to conducting a UK-wide census in 2021 . List of UK censuses

sfq_4400--Census_in_the_United_Kingdom.txt

In what year was the most recent census in the UK ?

The Sixth Doctor is an incarnation of the Doctor , the protagonist of the BBC science fiction television series Doctor Who . He is portrayed by Colin Baker . Although his televisual time on the series was comparatively brief and turbulent , Baker has continued as the Sixth Doctor in Big Finish 's range of original Doctor Who audio adventures . Within the series ' narrative , the Doctor is a centuries-old Time Lord alien from the planet Gallifrey who travels in time and space in his TARDIS , frequently with companions . When the Doctor is critically injured , he can regenerate his body ; in doing so , his physical appearance and personality change . Baker portrays the sixth such incarnation , a flamboyant man in brightly coloured , mismatched clothes whose brash and overbearing personality set him apart from all his previous incarnations . The Sixth Doctor appeared in three seasons . His appearance in the first of these was at the end of the final episode of The Caves of Androzani which featured the regeneration from the Fifth Doctor and thereafter in the following serial The Twin Dilemma , the end of that season . The Sixth Doctor 's era was marked by the decision of the BBC controller Michael Grade to put the series on an 18-month `` hiatus '' between seasons 22 and 23 , with only one new Doctor Who story , Slipback , made on radio during the hiatus , broadcast as 6 parts ( at 10 minutes each ) on BBC Radio 4 from 25 July to 8 August 1985 , as part of a children 's magazine show called Pirate Radio Four . Colin Baker had been signed up for four years , as the previous actor Peter Davison had left after only three years . Prior to its postponement , season 23 was well advanced with episodes already drafted and in at least one case distributed to cast and production . Alongside `` The Nightmare Fair '' , The Ultimate Evil '' , `` Mission to Magnus '' , `` Yellow Fever and How to Cure It '' , the remaining stories were still under development in a 25-minute episode format after the season was postponed . These were all dropped with the reconception of the season in mid 1985 in favour of a 14 episode story arc called The Trial of a Time Lord . The Sixth Doctor also appeared in the special Dimensions in Time . There are also novels and audio plays featuring the Sixth Doctor , and the character has been visually referenced several times in the revived 2000s production of the show . Biography The sixth Doctor 's regeneration was initially unstable , and he nearly strangled Peri before he came to his senses . Realising what he had nearly done , he initially considered going into a hermitlike existence on the planet Titan 3 , only to be caught up in events on the planet Jocanda , after which he resumed his travels ( The Twin Dilemma ) . He encountered many old foes including the Master , Daleks , Cybermen and Sontarans , and even shared an adventure with his own second incarnation in The Two Doctors . He also faced a renegade female Time Lord scientist , the Rani , who was conducting experiments on humans using the Luddite riots as a cover . Later , the Doctor and Peri landed on the devastated planet Ravolox , which they discovered was actually Earth , moved across space with devastating consequences . Before they could discover the reason for this disaster , the TARDIS landed on Thoros Beta . What actually happened here is unclear , but initial accounts suggest that Peri was killed after being cruelly used as a test subject in brain transplant experiments and the Doctor was pulled out of time to a Time Lord space station where he was put on trial for the second time by his own race , the Time Lords . In reality the trial was a cover-up organised by the High Council . A race from Andromeda had stolen Time Lord secrets and hidden on Earth , so to protect themselves the Time Lords had moved Earth through space , burning the surface in a massive fireball and leaving it as Ravolox . The prosecutor at that trial , the Valeyard , turned out to be a possible future , an evil incarnation of the Doctor himself who was out to steal his remaining lives . He had also edited the Matrix recordings of the Doctor 's travels ; in reality Peri had survived events on Thoros Beta . The events of the trial tangled the Doctor 's timeline slightly , as he left in the company of Mel , whom he technically had not yet met . When the TARDIS is attacked by the Rani , the Sixth Doctor was somehow injured and regenerated into the Seventh Doctor ; the exact cause of the regeneration , however , has never been revealed on-screen . Beyond the trial and before the regeneration in spin-off media Doctor Who was put on hiatus for 18 months following The Trial of a Time Lord , and Colin Baker was asked to return for a single story which would have led to an event precipitating the Doctor 's regeneration . As he declined to do so , there were limits as to what could be done on screen for the purposes of transitioning to a new Doctor when the series resumed with Time and the Rani and there were other unresolved questions , such as when and how the Doctor and Mel actually met . Attempts have been made by various authors to fill in these narrative gaps . The Virgin Missing Adventures novel Time of Your Life states that the Doctor went into a self-imposed exile to avoid becoming the Valeyard . He was lured back into travelling by the Time Lords , and recruited Grant Markham as a companion . Although now travelling again , he attempted to avoid meeting Mel and recruited other companions such as history lecturer Evelyn Smythe and `` Edwardian adventuress '' Charley Pollard . He eventually encounters Mel accidentally during the events of the BBC Books novel Business Unusual and accepts his fate once she stows away in the TARDIS . Pip and Jane Baker 's novelisation of Time and the Rani provides the first relatively brief attempt to explain the Doctor 's regeneration ( specifically , that it was triggered by `` tumultuous buffeting '' as the Rani attacked the TARDIS ) . The Virgin New Adventures series suggests that the Seventh Doctor somehow deliberately killed the Sixth , because he could not become the masterplanner and manipulator that his next incarnation became , due to his fear of becoming the Valeyard . The BBC Books Past Doctor Adventures novel Spiral Scratch proposes that the Sixth Doctor died as a result of his chronal energy being drained in a confrontation with a powerful pan-dimensional entity before being snared by the Rani 's beam . The unofficial , for-charity-published , novel Time 's Champion by Craig Hinton and Chris McKeon consigns the events of Spiral Scratch to an alternate timeline , and makes the Sixth Doctor the eponymous Time 's Champion , to save Mel from the clutches of the Time Lord God , Death . In these events , the Doctor , through the TARDIS ' telepathic circuits , forces his own regeneration and then travels towards Lakertya , setting up the events of Time and the Rani . In 2015 , Big Finish Productions released The Sixth Doctor : The Last Adventure , an audio drama depicting the events leading up to the Sixth Doctor 's death and regeneration . [ http : //www.bigfinish.com/news/v/coming-in-september-doctor-who -- -the-sixth-doctor-the-last-adventure Doctor Who – The Sixth Doctor : The Last Adventure ] According to this account , an alternative future Sixth Doctor , determined to stop the Valeyard from using parasitic creatures to steal the lives of every Time Lord to ever exist , sent a telepathic message to himself in the past . The message caused the past Sixth Doctor to fly his TARDIS to Lakertya , where he ended up exposed to radiation deadly to Time Lords . His death and subsequent regeneration into the Seventh Doctor killed the parasites , stopping the Valeyard from succeeding with his plan . Personality The Sixth Doctor was an unpredictable and somewhat petulant egoist , whose garish , multicoloured attire reflected his volatile personality . He was both portentous and eloquent , even for the Doctor – of whom he saw himself as the finest incarnation yet – and his unpredictability was made even wilder by his mood swings , manic behaviour , bombastic outbursts and glib , unflappable wit . His personality also displayed occasionally fatalistic overtones . The Sixth Doctor was almost supremely confident in his abilities and did not suffer fools gladly ; he sometimes seemed to endure Peri 's presence far more than he actually appreciated it , and his superiority complex applied to almost everyone he encountered . His intellect could support his ego ; for instance , the Sixth Doctor was the only one who was able to repair and operate the Chameleon Circuit within the TARDIS , allowing it to change shape to suit its surroundings rather than looking constantly like a police box ( although the appropriateness of the TARDIS 's appearance to its environment was more-or-less nil ) in Attack of the Cybermen . However , not only did his melodramatic arrogance and caustic wit eventually subside , it actually hid the fact that this incarnation retained the Doctor 's strong moral sense and empathy , as seen in Revelation of the Daleks , in which he showed great compassion for a dying mutant ; and The Trial of a Time Lord , where he displayed outrage at his own people for their part in a plot and cover-up which resulted in the death of most of the Earth 's population . Underneath his blustering exterior , he was more determined than ever in his universal battles against evil , possessed of a tenacity and a thirst to do what was right that was far more visible than ever before . Despite his often unstable demeanour , he was always ready to act when necessary , and very little – even his companions – could hope to stand in his way . His condescension towards the universe around him also extended to his companions , especially Peri . While his use of violence against his foes and his abrasive relationship with Peri were both often criticised by fans , the violence was largely in self-defence , and his relationship with Peri had mellowed significantly when the programme returned from hiatus for Season 23 's The Trial of a Time Lord . The events surrounding the production of Doctor Who in the mid-1980s caused the Sixth Doctor 's tenure to be cut short . During the Sixth Doctor 's tenure in the Big Finish Productions audio plays , voiced by Baker , he appeared to be a somewhat calmer , wittier and altogether happier character ( attributed in-story to the influence of companion Evelyn Smythe ) . In a 2001 poll in Doctor Who Magazine , Baker was voted the `` greatest Doctor '' of the audio plays . Baker has said that he was not given enough time in the 1980s to 'unpeel the layers ' of his character . Appearance Colin Baker wished to dress his Doctor in black , specifically black velvet , to reflect his character 's darker personality . Producer John Nathan-Turner , however , opted for a deliberately `` totally tasteless '' costume with clashing colours , a brief so demanding that designer Pat Godfrey 's made several attempts which were considered too good before Nathan-Turner finally accepted the last one as `` sufficiently garish '' . Colin Baker later described the outfit as `` an explosion in a rainbow factory '' . The Sixth Doctor wears a red plaid frock coat , with green patchwork , and yellow and pink lapels over a white shirt with red question marks embroidered in the collar ( a feature of the programme since 1980 ) , a waistcoat and large Victorian style necktie , and yellow trousers with black stripes was a pair of green ankle boots with red spats . There were many variants on the waistcoat and tie , the earliest being the knitted brown waistcoat and turquoise polka-dot tie . The waistcoat was later changed to red check , and in the following story a new red polka-dot tie appeared . The `` future '' version of the Sixth Doctor seen in aboard the Hyperion III ( The Trial of a Time Lord ) wore a stripey waistcoat and a yellow tie speckled with black stars . Baker added a cat badge to the ensemble . During Baker 's run in the stage play Doctor Who – The Ultimate Adventure , the original frock coat was replaced by a similar one with a red , blue and purple colour scheme . More recently , a blue version of the original costume has appeared on covers of new BBC spin-off materials . First used in the webcast Real Time , due to the limited availability of colours for the purposes in the type of animation used , it has appeared subsequently on covers of audio dramas from Big Finish Productions . Story style Season 22 attracted some criticism for its violent content . Coincidentally , torture for entertainment was explored as a theme in the story Vengeance on Varos . After the 18-month hiatus , Season 23 featured a reduction of episodes produced , and the 14-part serial The Trial of a Time Lord was felt by some fans to reflect the fact that the series itself was `` on trial '' all this time . Other appearances * The Sixth Doctor 's image appears among other incarnations in the revival series episodes `` The Next Doctor '' and `` The Eleventh Hour '' . He also appears in `` The Day of the Doctor '' using archived footage . * '' A Fix with Sontarans '' , a segment of the children 's television programme Jim 'll Fix It . * In Top Gear ( Season 2 , Episode 8 ) , the Sixth Doctor 's TARDIS appears on the test track , distracting a Cyberman trying to set a lap time in a Honda Civic . The Doctor sets a lap time of 1:43 . Webcasts * Real Time Novels ; Target Books Missing Episodes * The Nightmare Fair by Graham Williams * The Ultimate Evil by Wally K. Daly * Mission to Magnus by Philip Martin ; Virgin New Adventures * Head Games by Steve Lyons ( Manifestation of the Sixth Doctor 's persona attacks the Seventh Doctor ) ; Virgin Missing Adventures * State of Change by Christopher Bulis * Time of Your Life by Steve Lyons * Millennial Rites by Craig Hinton * Killing Ground by Steve Lyons * Burning Heart by Dave Stone ; Past Doctor Adventures * Business Unusual by Gary Russell * Mission : Impractical by David A. McIntee * Players by Terrance Dicks ( Also features a flashback to the Second Doctor ) * Grave Matter by Justin Richards * The Quantum Archangel by Craig Hinton ( Also features a brief appearance by an alternate version of the Third Doctor ) * The Shadow in the Glass by Justin Richards and Stephen Cole * Instruments of Darkness by Gary Russell * Palace of the Red Sun by Christopher Bulis * Blue Box by Kate Orman * Synthespians™ by Craig Hinton * Spiral Scratch by Gary Russell ( Ends in the Sixth Doctor 's regeneration ) ; Eighth Doctor Adventures * The Eight Doctors by Terrance Dicks * Seen in the TARDIS mirror in Camera Obscura ; Make Your Own Adventure * Search for the Doctor by Dave Martin * Crisis in Space by Michael Holt ; Time 's Champion In 2008 , an unofficial Doctor Who novel Time 's Champion was published , written by Chris McKeon and the late Craig Hinton . All proceeds went to the British Heart Foundation . ; Telos Doctor Who novellas * Shell Shock by Simon A Forward ; Short stories * `` Brief Encounter : A Wee Deoch an .. ? '' by Colin Baker ( Doctor Who Magazine Winter Special 1991 ) Penguin Fiftieth Anniversary eBook novellas * Something Borrowed by Richelle Mead Comics The Sixth Doctor was featured in a number of acclaimed comic strips drawn by John Ridgway . These featured visuals and storylines of a whimsical fantasy nature , similar to Alice in Wonderland . The Sixth Doctor was somewhat calmer and more restrained than on television . All of these comic strips appeared in Doctor Who magazine in the 1980s . Colin Baker himself wrote a comic book special called The Age of Chaos in which the Sixth Doctor and Frobisher visit an older version of Peri . Doctor Who Magazine * The Shape-Shifter * Voyager * Polly the Glot * Once upon a Time Lord * War-Game * Fun-House * Kane 's Story / Abel 's Story / Warriors ' Story / Frobisher 's Story * Exodus / Revelation / Genesis * Nature of the Beast * Time Bomb * Salad Daze * Changes * Profit of Doom * The Gift * World Shapers * Emperor of the Daleks * Up Above the Gods Classic Comic Special * The Age of Chaos IDW Comics * The Forgotten * Prisoners of Time Video games * Doctor Who and the Mines of Terror * Destiny of the Doctors * Lego Dimensions Audio dramas * Sixth Doctor audio plays * Gallifrey : Disassembled ( Alternate Sixth Doctor ) Short Trips audios * The Wings of a Butterfly * The Doctor 's Coat * Seven to One * Murmurs of Earth * To Cut a Blade of Grass

sfq_7681--Sixth_Doctor.txt

Which actor was the fifth Doctor Who from 1982-1984, and in that role often wore Edwardian cricket costume?

Shakoor Rana ( April 3 , 1936 – April 9 , 2001 ) was a Pakistani cricketer and umpire Playing career Shakoor Rana had an undistinguished playing career . He played in 11 first-class matches between 1957 and 1973 , accumulating 226 runs and 12 wickets . He was overshadowed by his brothers Shafqat Rana and Azmat Rana who both represented Pakistan at Test level . Umpiring career Rana made his international debut as an umpire in 1974 at Lahore , the city that had become his hometown . The match was between Pakistan and the West Indies . His career continued until his last match between Pakistan and New Zealand in 1996 , also at Lahore . He stood in 18 test matches and 22 One Day Internationals . Gatting controversy In a test match in Faisalabad in 1987 , Rana argued furiously with Mike Gatting . The argument stopped the match , and footage of the English cricket captain and the umpire shouting at each other with fingers waved in the other 's face was widely broadcast . The incident occurred on the second day of the test after Gatting was considered by Rana to have made an alteration to the fielding positions as Eddie Hemmings ran in to bowl - Rana stopped the game and accused Gatting of cheating . Rana had already upset the English by wearing a Pakistan sweater and placing Mudassar Nazar 's cap on his own head . The game was stopped by the incident and only resumed the following day . Rana and Gatting were both accused of using foul language , much of which was heard by a worldwide TV audience via the stump microphone . [ http : //news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/in_depth/2000/england_on_tour/976662.stm BBC SPORT | ENGLAND ON TOUR | Gatt regrets Rana row ] Shakoor refused to stand again in that Test until he received an unconditional apology from Gatting for the language used in the dispute . Gatting was threatened with being stripped of the England captaincy and was forced into issuing a written apology to Rana . Gatting has since expressed regret at his part in the row . Coney incident Gatting was not the only international captain to have had a run-in with Rana . In December 1984 during a Test match in Karachi , New Zealand captain Jeremy Coney threatened to lead his side from the field following a controversial decision of not-out for Pakistan player Javed Miandad . Legacy The controversy surrounding Shakoor Rana was a driver in the move towards neutral umpires at Test matches . The home side had previously supplied the umpires but the International Cricket Council have since brought in neutral officials .

qw_9516--Shakoor_Rana.txt

Which English cricket captain had a well-publicised row with Pakistani umpire Shakoor Rana in Faisalabad in 1987?

The Beatles appeared in five motion pictures , most of which were very well received . The exception was the ( mostly unscripted ) television film Magical Mystery Tour which was panned by critics and the public alike . Each of their films had the same name as their associated soundtrack album and a song on that album . Films starring The Beatles A Hard Day 's Night The Beatles had a successful film career , beginning with A Hard Day 's Night ( 1964 ) , a loosely scripted comic farce , sometimes compared to the Marx Brothers in style . A black-and-white film , it focused on Beatlemania and the band 's hectic touring lifestyle and was directed by the up-and-coming Richard Lester , who was known for having directed a television version of the successful BBC radio series The Goon Show as well as the off-beat short film The Running , Jumping and Standing Still Film , with Peter Sellers and Spike Milligan . A Hard Day 's Night is a mockumentary of the four members as they make their way to a London television programme . The film , released at the height of Beatlemania , was well received by critics , and remains one of the most influential jukebox musicals . Help ! In 1965 came Help ! ; an Eastmancolour extravaganza , which was also directed by Lester . The film was shot in exotic locations ( such as Salisbury Plain , with Stonehenge visible in the background ; the Bahamas ; Salzburg and the Austrian Alps ) in the style of a Mr. Magoo spoof along with even more Marx Brothers-style zaniness : For example , the film is dedicated `` to Elias Howe , who , in 1846 , invented the sewing machine . '' It was the first Beatles film filmed in colour . Magical Mystery Tour The Magical Mystery Tour film was essentially McCartney 's idea , which was thought up as he returned from a trip to the U.S. in the late spring of 1967 , and was loosely inspired by press coverage McCartney had read about Ken Kesey 's Merry Pranksters ' LSD-fuelled American bus odyssey . McCartney felt inspired to take this idea and blend it with the peculiarly English working class tradition of charabanc mystery tours , in which children took chaperoned bus rides through the English countryside , destination unknown . The film was critically dismissed when it was aired on the BBC 's premier television network , BBC-1 , on Boxing Day — a day primarily for traditional `` cosy , family entertainment '' . While the film has historical importance as an early advance into the music video age , at the time many viewers found it plotless and confusing . Compounding this culture clash was the fact that the film was made in colour and made use of colour filters for some of the scenes - particularly in a sequence for `` Blue Jay Way '' - but in December 1967 practically no-one in the UK owned a colour receiver , the service only having started a few months earlier . Yellow Submarine The animated Yellow Submarine followed in 1968 , but had little direct input from The Beatles , save for a live-action epilogue and the contribution of five new songs ( including `` Only a Northern Song '' , an unreleased track from the Sgt . Pepper sessions ) . It was acclaimed for its boldly innovative graphic style . The Beatles are said to have been pleased with the result and attended its highly publicised London premiere . Let It Be Let It Be was an ill-fated documentary of the band that was shot over a four-week period in January 1969 . The documentary — which was originally intended to be simply a chronicle of the evolution of an album and the band 's possible return to live performances — captured the prevailing tensions between the band members , and in this respect it unwittingly became a document of the beginning of their break-up . The band initially rejected both the film and the album , instead recording and issuing the Abbey Road album . But with so much money having been spent on the project , it was decided to finish , and release , the film and album ( the latter with considerable post-production by Phil Spector ) in the spring of 1970 . When the film finally appeared , it was after the break-up had been announced , which gave the film 's depiction of the band 's acrimony and attempts to recapture the group 's spirit a significant poignancy . Individual projects In late 1966 , John Lennon took time off to play a supporting character , Gripweed , in a film called How I Won the War , also directed by Lester . It was a satire of World War II films , and its dry , ironic British humour was not well received by American audiences . He would later produce avant-garde films with his second wife Yoko Ono , such as Rape which was produced for the Austrian television network ORF . In 1969 , Ringo Starr took second billing to Peter Sellers in the satirical comedy The Magic Christian , in a part which had been written especially for him . In 1971 , Starr played the part of Frank Zappa in Zappa 's epic cult film about a rock and roll band touring , entitled 200 Motels . In 1973 , Ringo played the part of Mike in That 'll Be The Day along with David Essex as Jim MacLaine . In 1974 , Ringo starred with musician Harry Nilsson in the film Son of Dracula and in 1981 , starred in the film Caveman with Shelley Long . Starr later embarked on an irregular career in comedy films through the early 1980s , and his interest in the subject led him to be the most active of the group in the film division of Apple Corps , although it was Harrison who would achieve the most success as a film producer ( The Life of Brian , Mona Lisa , Time Bandits , Shanghai Surprise , Withnail and I ) and even made cameo appearances in some of these as well ( including a reporter in All You Need Is Cash ) . Paul McCartney appeared in a cameo role in Peter Richardson 's 1987 film Eat the Rich and released his own film Give My Regards to Broad Street in 1984 in which Ringo Starr co-starred . Unmade films During the 1960s , there were many ideas pitched for films , but these were either rejected or else never saw the light of day ; such projects included A Talent for Loving , a Western film written by Richard Condon ; Shades of a Personality ; film versions of The Lord of the Rings and The Three Musketeers starring the group ( although Richard Lester , who directed the group 's first two movies , went on to direct his own version of The Three Musketeers in 1973 ) , and a script by playwright Joe Orton called Up Against It . Documentaries The Beatles have been the subject of a number of documentary films . * The Beatles at Shea Stadium * The Compleat Beatles * The Beatles : The First U.S. Visit * The Beatles Anthology * All Together Now * Good Ol ' Freda ( December 3 , 2013 ) Documentary about Freda Kelly , secretary of Brian Epstein and The Beatles Fan Club and her life near to the Fab Four for 11 years . * The Beatles : Eight Days a Week Promotional films * `` Rain '' * `` Paperback Writer '' * `` Strawberry Fields Forever '' * `` Penny Lane '' * `` A Day in the Life '' * `` Hello , Goodbye '' * `` Lady Madonna '' * `` Hey Jude '' * `` Revolution '' * `` Something '' Fictionalised Beatles * Birth of The Beatles ( 1979 ) , focusing on period from ca . 1957 at art college through Hamburg days to first number one * Beatlemania ( 1981 ) , a poorly received movie version of the Broadway show of the same name * The Hours and Times ( 1991 ) , speculation about the weekend Brian Epstein and John Lennon spent together in Barcelona in 1963 * Backbeat ( 1994 ) , the Stuart Sutcliffe story * The Linda McCartney Story ( 2000 ) , A TV film covering the relationship between Paul McCartney and Linda Eastman . * Two of Us ( 2000 ) , covering a mid-1970s meeting between Paul McCartney and John Lennon * In His Life : The John Lennon Story ( 2000 ) , focusing on period from 1957 to 1964 . * Nowhere Boy ( 2009 ) , a John Lennon biopic , focusing on his teens * Lennon Naked ( 2010 ) , a TV movie based on the life of Lennon from 1967 to 1971 starring Christopher Eccleston as John Lennon Inspired by The Beatles Several fictional films not depicting The Beatles have been entirely based on Beatles themes and songs * Pinoy Beatles ( 1964 ) , a Tagalog musical made in the Philippines . It was released 3 months after A Hard Day 's Night * The Girls on the Beach ( 1965 ) , a beach party film in which college coeds mistakenly believe the Beatles are going to perform at their sorority fundraiser * All This and World War II ( 1976 ) , documentary of World War II using Beatles music * Sgt . Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( 1978 ) , a musical based on the Beatles ' album of the same name * I Wan na Hold Your Hand ( 1978 ) , a coming of age film about Beatlemania * All You Need Is Cash ( 1978 ) , TV mockumentary featuring The Rutles , a parody of the Beatles * Secrets ( 1992 ) , a drama about five Australian teenagers who get locked in the basement of a hotel where the Beatles are staying * I Am Sam ( 2001 ) , a drama about the story of an intellectually disabled father who loves the Beatles and his efforts to retain custody of his daughter * The Rutles 2 : Ca n't Buy Me Lunch ( 2005 ) , mockumentary featuring The Rutles * Across the Universe ( 2007 ) , a musical * Beatles ( 2014 ) Norwegian film based on Beatles ( novel ) written by Lars Saabye Christensen . It 's about five boys in the seventh grade in school , they live on the west side of Oslo , they are all great fans of the band `` The Beatles '' . Other * Howard Kaylan 's autobiographical film , My Dinner with Jimi , from 2003 , tells the story of Kaylan and his band The Turtles ' first tour of England , where they met many British rock stars , including The Beatles . John Lennon was portrayed by Brian Groh ; Paul McCartney , by Quinton Flynn ; George Harrison , by Nate Dushku and Ringo Starr , by Ben Bodé . * In the 2007 mock-biopic film Walk Hard : The Dewey Cox Story , Dewey Cox and his bandmates go to India to pray with the Maharishi . There , they encounter the intentionally miscast Beatles with Paul Rudd , Jack Black , Justin Long and Jason Schwartzman as John , Paul , George and Ringo , respectively . * The vultures in the 1967 film of The Jungle Book are considered caricatures of the Beatles . The Beatles were originally planned to voice them , but later declined due to scheduling conflicts .

bt_4229--The_Beatles_in_film.txt

What was the Beatles first film

Dada or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century . Dada in Zürich , Switzerland , began in 1916 at Cabaret Voltaire , spreading to Berlin shortly thereafter , but the height of New York Dada was the year before , in 1915 . The term anti-art , a precursor to Dada , was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 when he created his first readymades . Dada , in addition to being anti-war , had political affinities with the radical left and was also anti-bourgeois . At least two works qualified as pre-Dadaist , a posteriori , had already sensitized the public and artists alike : Ubu Roi ( 1896 ) by Alfred Jarry , and the ballet Parade ( 1916–17 ) by Erik Satie . The roots of Dada lay in pre-war avant-garde . Cubism and the development of collage , combined with Wassily Kandinsky 's theoretical writings and abstraction , detached the movement from the constraints of reality and convention . The influence of French poets and the writings of German Expressionists liberated Dada from the tight correlation between words and meaning . Avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments . They had seen ( or participated in ) Cubist exhibitions held at Galería Dalmau , Barcelona ( 1912 ) , Galerie Der Sturm in Berlin ( 1912 ) , the Armory show in New York ( 1913 ) , SVU Mánes in Prague ( 1914 ) , several Jack of Diamonds exhibitions in Moscow and at De Moderne Kunstkring , Amsterdam ( between 1911 and 1915 ) . Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists . Dada subsequently combined these approaches . Dada activities included public gatherings , demonstrations , and publication of art/literary journals ; passionate coverage of art , politics , and culture were topics often discussed in a variety of media . Key figures in the movement included Hugo Ball , Emmy Hennings , Hans Arp , Raoul Hausmann , Hannah Höch , Johannes Baader , Tristan Tzara , Francis Picabia , Richard Huelsenbeck , George Grosz , John Heartfield , Marcel Duchamp , Beatrice Wood , Kurt Schwitters , Hans Richter , and Max Ernst , among others . The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements , and groups including surrealism , Nouveau Réalisme , pop art and Fluxus . Overview Dada was an informal international movement , with participants in Europe and North America . The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I . For many participants , the movement was a protest against the bourgeois nationalist and colonialist interests , which many Dadaists believed were the root cause of the war , and against the cultural and intellectual conformity—in art and more broadly in society—that corresponded to the war . Many Dadaists believed that the 'reason ' and 'logic ' of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war . They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos and irrationality . For example , George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest `` against this world of mutual destruction . '' According to Hans Richter Dada was not art : it was `` anti-art . '' Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for . Where art was concerned with traditional aesthetics , Dada ignored aesthetics . If art was to appeal to sensibilities , Dada was intended to offend . As Hugo Ball expressed it , `` For us , art is not an end in itself ... but it is an opportunity for the true perception and criticism of the times we live in . '' A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that `` Dada philosophy is the sickest , most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man . '' Art historians have described Dada as being , in large part , a `` reaction to what many of these artists saw as nothing more than an insane spectacle of collective homicide . '' Years later , Dada artists described the movement as `` a phenomenon bursting forth in the midst of the postwar economic and moral crisis , a savior , a monster , which would lay waste to everything in its path ... [ It was ] a systematic work of destruction and demoralization ... In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege . '' To quote Dona Budd 's The Language of Art Knowledge , Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War . This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich . Dada rejected reason and logic , prizing nonsense , irrationality and intuition . The origin of the name Dada is unclear ; some believe that it is a nonsensical word . Others maintain that it originates from the Romanian artists Tristan Tzara 's and Marcel Janco 's frequent use of the words `` da , da , '' meaning `` yes , yes '' in the Romanian language . Another theory says that the name `` Dada '' came during a meeting of the group when a paper knife stuck into a French–German dictionary happened to point to 'dada ' , a French word for 'hobbyhorse ' . The movement primarily involved visual arts , literature , poetry , art manifestos , art theory , theatre , and graphic design , and concentrated its anti-war politics through a rejection of the prevailing standards in art through anti-art cultural works . History Zürich In 1916 , Hugo Ball , Emmy Hennings , Tristan Tzara , Jean Arp , Marcel Janco , Richard Huelsenbeck , Sophie Taeuber , and Hans Richter , along with others , discussed art and put on performances in the Cabaret Voltaire expressing their disgust with the war and the interests that inspired it . Some sources state that Dada coalesced on October 6 at the Cabaret Voltaire . Other sources state that Dada did not originate fully in a Zürich literary salon but grew out of an already vibrant artistic tradition in Eastern Europe , particularly Romania , that transposed to Switzerland when a group of Jewish modernist artists ( Tzara , Janco , Arthur Segal , and others ) settled in Zürich . In the years prior to the First World War similar art had already risen in Bucharest and other Eastern European cities ; it is likely that Dada 's catalyst was the arrival in Zürich of artists like Tzara and Janco . Having left Germany and Romania during the Great War , the artists found themselves in Switzerland , a country recognized for its neutrality . Inside this space of political neutrality they decided to use abstraction to fight against the social , political , and cultural ideas of that time . The dadaists believed those ideas to be a byproduct of bourgeois society , a society so apathetic it would rather fight a war against itself than challenge the status quo . Janco recalled , `` We had lost confidence in our culture . Everything had to be demolished . We would begin again after the tabula rasa . At the Cabaret Voltaire we began by shocking common sense , public opinion , education , institutions , museums , good taste , in short , the whole prevailing order . '' The Cabaret closed its doors in early July and then at the first public soiree at Waag Hall on July 14 , 1916 , Ball recited the first manifesto . In 1917 , Tzara wrote a second Dada manifesto considered one of the most important Dada writings , which was published in 1918 . Other manifestos followed . A single issue of the magazine Cabaret Voltaire was the first publication to come out of the movement . After the cabaret closed down , Dada activities moved on to a new gallery , and Hugo Ball left for Bern . Tzara began a relentless campaign to spread Dada ideas . He bombarded French and Italian artists and writers with letters , and soon emerged as the Dada leader and master strategist . The Cabaret Voltaire re-opened , and is still in the same place at the Spiegelgasse 1 in the Niederdorf . Zürich Dada , with Tzara at the helm , published the art and literature review Dada beginning in July 1917 , with five editions from Zürich and the final two from Paris . Other artists , such as André Breton and Philippe Soupault , created “ literature groups to help extend the influence of Dada . ” After the fighting of the First World War had ended in the armistice of November 1918 , most of the Zürich Dadaists returned to their home countries , and some began Dada activities in other cities . Others , such as the Swiss native Sophie Taeuber , would remain in Zürich into the 1920s . Berlin `` Berlin was a city of tightened stomachers , of mounting , thundering hunger , where hidden rage was transformed into a boundless money lust , and men 's minds were concentrating more and more on questions of naked existence ... Fear was in everybody 's bones `` - Richard Hülsenbeck The groups in Germany were not as strongly anti-art as other groups . Their activity and art were more political and social , with corrosive manifestos and propaganda , satire , public demonstrations and overt political activities . The intensely political and war-torn environment of Berlin had a dramatic impact on the ideas of Berlin Dadaists . Conversely , New York 's geographic distance from the war spawned its more theoretically-driven , less political nature . In February 1918 , while the Great War was approaching its climax , Huelsenbeck gave his first Dada speech in Berlin , and he produced a Dada manifesto later in the year . Following the October Revolution in Russia , by then out of the war , Hannah Höch and George Grosz used Dada to express communist sympathies . Grosz , together with John Heartfield , Höch and Hausmann developed the technique of photomontage during this period . After the war , the artists published a series of short-lived political magazines and held the First International Dada Fair , 'the greatest project yet conceived by the Berlin Dadaists ' , in the summer of 1920 . As well as work by the main members of Berlin Dada – Grosz , Raoul Hausmann , Hannah Höch , Johannes Baader , Huelsenbeck and Heartfield – the exhibition also included the work of Otto Dix , Francis Picabia , Jean Arp , Max Ernst , Rudolf Schlichter , Johannes Baargeld and others . In all , over 200 works were exhibited , surrounded by incendiary slogans , some of which also ended up written on the walls of the Nazi 's Entartete Kunst exhibition in 1937 . Despite high ticket prices , the exhibition lost money , with only one recorded sale . The Berlin group published periodicals such as Club Dada , Der Dada , Everyman His Own Football , and Dada Almanach . Cologne In Cologne , Ernst , Baargeld , and Arp launched a controversial Dada exhibition in 1920 which focused on nonsense and anti-bourgeois sentiments . Cologne 's Early Spring Exhibition was set up in a pub , and required that participants walk past urinals while being read lewd poetry by a woman in a communion dress . The police closed the exhibition on grounds of obscenity , but it was re-opened when the charges were dropped . New York Like Zürich , New York City was a refuge for writers and artists from the First World War . Soon after arriving from France in 1915 , Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia met American artist Man Ray . By 1916 the three of them became the center of radical anti-art activities in the United States . American Beatrice Wood , who had been studying in France , soon joined them , along with Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven . Arthur Cravan , fleeing conscription in France , was also present for a time . Much of their activity centered in Alfred Stieglitz 's gallery , 291 , and the home of Walter and Louise Arensberg . The New Yorkers , though not particularly organized , called their activities Dada , but they did not issue manifestos . They issued challenges to art and culture through publications such as The Blind Man , Rongwrong , and New York Dada in which they criticized the traditionalist basis for museum art . New York Dada lacked the disillusionment of European Dada and was instead driven by a sense of irony and humor . In his book Adventures in the arts : informal chapters on painters , vaudeville and poets Marsden Hartley included an essay on `` The Importance of Being 'Dada ' '' . During this time Duchamp began exhibiting `` readymades '' ( everyday objects found or purchased and declared art ) such as a bottle rack , and was active in the Society of Independent Artists . In 1917 he submitted the now famous Fountain , a urinal signed R. Mutt , to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition only to have the piece rejected . First an object of scorn within the arts community , the Fountain has since become almost canonized by some as one of the most recognizable modernist works of sculpture . Art world experts polled by the sponsors of the 2004 Turner Prize , Gordon 's gin , voted it `` the most influential work of modern art . '' As recent scholarship documents , the work is likely more collaborative than it has been given credit for in twentieth-century art history . Duchamp indicates in a 1917 letter to his sister that a female friend was centrally involved in the conception of this work . As he writes : `` One of my female friends who had adopted the pseudonym Richard Mutt sent me a porcelain urinal as a sculpture . '' The piece is more in line with the scatological aesthetics of Duchamp 's friend and neighbour , the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven , than Duchamp 's . In an attempt to `` pay homage to the spirit of Dada '' a performance artist named Pierre Pinoncelli made a crack in The Fountain with a hammer in January 2006 ; he also urinated on it in 1993 . Picabia 's travels tied New York , Zürich and Paris groups together during the Dadaist period . For seven years he also published the Dada periodical 391 in Barcelona , New York City , Zürich , and Paris from 1917 through 1924 . By 1921 , most of the original players moved to Paris where Dada experienced its last major incarnation . Paris The French avant-garde kept abreast of Dada activities in Zürich with regular communications from Tristan Tzara ( whose pseudonym means `` sad in country , '' a name chosen to protest the treatment of Jews in his native Romania ) , who exchanged letters , poems , and magazines with Guillaume Apollinaire , André Breton , Max Jacob , Clément Pansaers , and other French writers , critics and artists . Paris had arguably been the classical music capital of the world since the advent of musical Impressionism in the late 19th century . One of its practitioners , Erik Satie , collaborated with Picasso and Cocteau in a mad , scandalous ballet called Parade . First performed by the Ballets Russes in 1917 , it succeeded in creating a scandal but in a different way than Stravinsky 's Le Sacre du Printemps had done almost five years earlier . This was a ballet that was clearly parodying itself , something traditional ballet patrons would obviously have serious issues with . Dada in Paris surged in 1920 when many of the originators converged there . Inspired by Tzara , Paris Dada soon issued manifestos , organized demonstrations , staged performances and produced a number of journals ( the final two editions of Dada , Le Cannibale , and Littérature featured Dada in several editions . ) The first introduction of Dada artwork to the Parisian public was at the Salon des Indépendants in 1921 . Jean Crotti exhibited works associated with Dada including a work entitled , Explicatif bearing the word Tabu . In the same year Tzara staged his Dadaist play The Gas Heart to howls of derision from the audience . When it was re-staged in 1923 in a more professional production , the play provoked a theatre riot ( initiated by André Breton ) that heralded the split within the movement that was to produce Surrealism . Tzara 's last attempt at a Dadaist drama was his `` ironic tragedy '' Handkerchief of Clouds in 1924 . Netherlands In the Netherlands the Dada movement centered mainly around Theo van Doesburg , best known for establishing the De Stijl movement and magazine of the same name . Van Doesburg mainly focused on poetry , and included poems from many well-known Dada writers in De Stijl such as Hugo Ball , Hans Arp and Kurt Schwitters . Van Doesburg and ( a cordwainer in Drachten ) became friends of Schwitters , and together they organized the so-called Dutch Dada campaign in 1923 , where Van Doesburg promoted a leaflet about Dada ( entitled What is Dada ? ) , Schwitters read his poems , Vilmos Huszàr demonstrated a mechanical dancing doll and Nelly van Doesburg ( Theo 's wife ) , played avant-garde compositions on piano . Van Doesburg wrote Dada poetry himself in De Stijl , although under a pseudonym , I.K . Bonset , which was only revealed after his death in 1931 . 'Together ' with I.K . Bonset , he also published a short-lived Dutch Dada magazine called Mécano ( 1922–3 ) . Another Dutchman identified by K. Schippers in his study of the movement in the Netherlands was the Groningen typographer H. N. Werkman , who was in touch with Van Doesburg and Schwitters while editing his own magazine , The Next Call ( 1923–6 ) . Two more artists mentioned by Schippers were German-born and eventually settled in the Netherlands . These were Otto van Rees , who had taken part in the liminal exhibitions at the Café Voltaire in Zürich , and Paul Citroen . Georgia Although Dada itself was unknown in Georgia until at least 1920 , from 1917 until 1921 a group of poets called themselves `` 41st Degree '' ( referring both to the latitude of Tbilisi , Georgia and to the temperature of a high fever ) organized along Dadaist lines . The most important figure in this group was Iliazd , whose radical typographical designs visually echo the publications of the Dadaists . After his flight to Paris in 1921 , he collaborated with Dadaists on publications and events . Yugoslavia In Yugoslavia there was heavy Dada activity between 1920 and 1922 , run mainly by Dragan Aleksić and including work by Mihailo S. Petrov , Zenitist 's two brothers Ljubomir Micić and Branko Ve Poljanski . Aleksić used the term `` Yougo-Dada '' and is known to have been in contact with Raoul Hausmann , Kurt Schwitters , and Tristan Tzara . Italy The Dada movement in Italy , based in Mantua , was met with distaste and failed to make a significant impact in the world of art . It published a magazine for a short time and held an exhibition in Rome , featuring paintings , quotations from Tristan Tzara , and original epigrams such as `` True Dada is against Dada '' . The most notable member of this group was Julius Evola , who went on to become an eminent scholar of occultism , as well as a right-wing philosopher and an assistant to Benito Mussolini . Tokyo A prominent Dada group in Japan was MAVO ( JA ) , founded in July 1923 by Tomoyoshi Murayama and Masamu Yanase ( DE , JA ) . Other prominent artists were Jun Tsuji , Eisuke Yoshiyuki , Shinkichi Takahashi ( JA ) and Katsue Kitasono . In the Tsuburaya Productions 's Ultra Series , an Ultra Monster named Dada was designed after the Dadaism movement , with said character first appeared in episode 28 the 1966 tokusatsu series , Ultraman made by the show 's monster designer , Toru Narita . In May 19 , 2016 , in celebration to the 100 year anniversary of Dadaism in Tokyo , the Ultra Monster was invited to meet the Swiss Ambassador Urs Bucher . Russia The Russian literary group `` Nichevoki '' came close to the Dada ideologies . Members became famous for proposing that Vladimir Mayakovsky should go to the Pushkin monument at Tverskoy Boulevard and clean the shoes of anyone who asked , after he had declared that he would `` clean up Russian poetry '' . Poetry , music and sound Dada was not confined to the visual and literary arts ; its influence reached into sound and music . Kurt Schwitters developed what he called sound poems , while Francis Picabia and Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes composed Dada music performed at the Festival Dada in Paris on 26 May 1920 . Other composers such as Erwin Schulhoff , Hans Heusser and Albert Savinio all wrote Dada music , while members of Les Six collaborated with members of the Dada movement and had their works performed at Dada gatherings . Erik Satie also dabbled with Dadaist ideas during his career , although he is primarily associated with musical Impressionism . In the very first Dada publication , Hugo Ball describes a `` balalaika orchestra playing delightful folk-songs . '' African music and jazz were common at Dada gatherings . Marc Lowenthal , in I Am a Beautiful Monster : Poetry , Prose , and Provocation , writes : Dada is the groundwork to abstract art and sound poetry , a starting point for performance art , a prelude to postmodernism , an influence on pop art , a celebration of antiart to be later embraced for anarcho-political uses in the 1960s and the movement that laid the foundation for Surrealism . Legacy While broadly based , the movement was unstable . By 1924 in Paris , Dada was melding into surrealism , and artists had gone on to other ideas and movements , including surrealism , social realism and other forms of modernism . Some theorists argue that Dada was actually the beginning of postmodern art . By the dawn of the Second World War , many of the European Dadaists had emigrated to the United States . Some died in death camps under Adolf Hitler , who actively persecuted the kind of `` degenerate art '' that he considered Dada to represent . The movement became less active as post-war optimism led to the development of new movements in art and literature . Dada is a named influence and reference of various anti-art and political and cultural movements , including the Situationist International and culture jamming groups like the Cacophony Society . Upon breaking up in July 2012 , famous anarchist pop band Chumbawamba issued a statement which compared their own legacy with that of the Dada art movement . At the same time that the Zürich Dadaists were making noise and spectacle at the Cabaret Voltaire , Lenin was planning his revolutionary plans for Russia in a nearby apartment . Tom Stoppard used this coincidence as a premise for his play Travesties ( 1974 ) , which includes Tzara , Lenin , and James Joyce as characters . French writer Dominique Noguez imagined Lenin as a member of the Dada group in his tongue-in-cheek Lénine Dada ( 1989 ) . The former building of the Cabaret Voltaire fell into disrepair until it was occupied from January to March 2002 , by a group proclaiming themselves Neo-Dadaists , led by Mark Divo . The group included Jan Thieler , Ingo Giezendanner , Aiana Calugar , Lennie Lee , and Dan Jones . After their eviction , the space was turned into a museum dedicated to the history of Dada . The work of Lee and Jones remained on the walls of the new museum . Several notable retrospectives have examined the influence of Dada upon art and society . In 1967 , a large Dada retrospective was held in Paris . In 2006 , the Museum of Modern Art in New York City mounted a Dada exhibition in partnership with the National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C. and the Centre Pompidou in Paris . The LTM label has released a large number of Dada-related sound recordings , including interviews with artists such as Tzara , Picabia , Schwitters , Arp , and Huelsenbeck , and musical repertoire including Satie , Ribemont-Dessaignes , Picabia , and Nelly van Doesburg . Art techniques developed Collage The Dadaists imitated the techniques developed during the cubist movement through the pasting of cut pieces of paper items , but extended their art to encompass items such as transportation tickets , maps , plastic wrappers , etc . to portray aspects of life , rather than representing objects viewed as still life . Cut-up technique Cut-up technique is an extension of collage to words themselves , Tristan Tzara describes this in the Dada Manifesto : TO MAKE A DADAIST POEM Take a newspaper . Take some scissors . Choose from this paper an article of the length you want to make your poem . Cut out the article . Next carefully cut out each of the words that makes up this article and put them all in a bag . Shake gently . Next take out each cutting one after the other . Copy conscientiously in the order in which they left the bag . The poem will resemble you . And there you are – an infinitely original author of charming sensibility , even though unappreciated by the vulgar herd . Photomontage The Dadaists – the `` monteurs '' ( mechanics ) – used scissors and glue rather than paintbrushes and paints to express their views of modern life through images presented by the media . A variation on the collage technique , photomontage utilized actual or reproductions of real photographs printed in the press . In Cologne , Max Ernst used images from the First World War to illustrate messages of the destruction of war . Assemblage The assemblages were three-dimensional variations of the collage – the assembly of everyday objects to produce meaningful or meaningless ( relative to the war ) pieces of work including war objects and trash . Objects were nailed , screwed or fastened together in different fashions . Assemblages could be seen in the round or could be hung on a wall . Readymades Marcel Duchamp began to view the manufactured objects of his collection as objects of art , which he called `` readymades '' . He would add signatures and titles to some , converting them into artwork that he called `` readymade aided '' or `` rectified readymades '' . Duchamp wrote : `` One important characteristic was the short sentence which I occasionally inscribed on the 'readymade . ' That sentence , instead of describing the object like a title , was meant to carry the mind of the spectator towards other regions more verbal . Sometimes I would add a graphic detail of presentation which in order to satisfy my craving for alliterations , would be called 'readymade aided . ' '' One such example of Duchamp 's readymade works is the urinal that was turned onto its back , signed `` R. Mutt '' , titled `` Fountain '' , and submitted to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition that year . The piece was not displayed during the show , a fact that unmasked the inherently biased system that was the art establishment , seeing as any artist that paid the entry fee could in theory display their art , but the work of R. Mutt was banished by the judgment of a group of artists . Artists * Louis Aragon ( 1897–1982 ) , France * Jean Arp ( 1886–1966 ) , Germany , France * Hugo Ball ( 1886–1927 ) , Germany , Switzerland * André Breton ( 1896–1966 ) , France * Otto Dix ( 1891–1969 ) , Germany * Theo van Doesburg

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In 1919, which Dadaist created L.H.O.O.Q., a parody of the Mona Lisa, in which a moustache and goatee beard were added to a reproduction of the painting?

Ronald Gerald Wayne ( born May 17 , 1934 ) is a retired American electronics industry worker . He co-founded Apple Computer ( now Apple Inc. ) with Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs , providing administrative oversight for the new venture . He soon , however , sold his share of the new company for $ 800 US dollars , and later accepted $ 1,500 to forfeit any claims against Apple ( in total , ) . Early life Wayne was born in Cleveland , Ohio , United States on May 17 , 1934 . He trained as a technical draftsman at the School of Industrial Arts in New York . In 1956 he moved to California . Wayne 's first business venture was a company selling slot machines . The company failed , with Wayne reflecting in 2014 that , `` I discovered very quickly that I had no business being in business . I was far better working in engineering . '' Career Apple Wayne worked with Steve Jobs at Atari before he , Jobs , and Wozniak founded Apple Computer on April 1 , 1976 . Serving as the venture 's `` adult supervision '' , Wayne drew the first Apple logo , wrote the three men 's original partnership agreement , and wrote the Apple I manual . Wayne received a 10 % stake in Apple but relinquished his equity for US $ 800 less than two weeks later , on April 12 , 1976 . Legally , all members of a partnership are personally responsible for any debts incurred by any partner ; unlike Jobs and Wozniak , then 21 and 25 , Wayne had personal assets that potential creditors could seize . The failure of a slot machine company that he had started five years earlier also contributed to his decision to exit the partnership . Later that year , venture capitalist Arthur Rock and Mike Markkula helped develop a business plan and converted the partnership to a corporation . A year after leaving Apple , Wayne received $ 1,500 for his agreement to forfeit any claims against the new company . In its first year of operations ( 1976 ) , Apple 's sales reached US $ 174,000 . In 1977 sales rose to US $ 2.7 million , in 1978 to US $ 7.8 million , and in 1980 to US $ 117 million . By 1982 Apple had a billion dollars in annual sales . In February 2015 , Apple 's value exceeded $ 700 billion , making it the most valuable U.S. company by far . Had Wayne kept his 10 % stock until then , it would have been worth billions . Wayne has stated that he does not regret selling his share of the company as he made the `` best decision with the information available to me at the time '' . Wayne also stated that he felt the Apple enterprise `` would be successful , but at the same time there would be significant bumps along the way and I could n't risk it . I had already had a rather unfortunate business experience before . I was getting too old and those two were whirlwinds . It was like having a tiger by the tail and I could n't keep up with these guys . '' Post-Apple After leaving Apple , Wayne resisted Jobs ' attempts to get him to return , remaining at Atari until 1978 , when he joined Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and later an electronics company in Salinas , California . Wayne retired to a Pahrump , Nevada mobile home park selling stamps and rare coins in Pahrump . Wayne never owned an Apple product until 2011 , when he was given an iPad 2 by Aral Balkan at the Update Conference in Brighton , England . Wayne also ran a stamp shop in Milpitas , California for a short time in the late 1970s , Wayne 's Philatelics . After a number of break-ins , he moved his stamp operations to Nevada . The logo for the business was a wood-cut style design , with a man sitting under an apple tree , with the `` Wayne 's Philatelics '' name written in a flowing ribbon curved around the tree . This was the original logo he designed for Apple Computer . In the early 1990s Wayne sold the original Apple company agreement , signed in 1976 by Jobs , Wozniak and himself , for $ 500 . In 2011 the contract was sold at auction for $ 1.6 million . Wayne has stated that it is the one thing he regrets about his involvement with Apple . He holds a dozen patents . Author Wayne published a memoir titled , Adventures of an Apple Founder , in July 2011 . Plans for initial exclusivity on the Apple iBookstore did not pan out . Wayne has also written a socio-economic treatise titled Insolence of Office , released on October 1 , 2011 which he describes as : Documentaries Wayne appeared in the documentary Welcome to Macintosh where he describes some of his experiences with Steve Jobs , Steve Wozniak , and Apple Computer . Personal life Wayne came out as gay to Jobs shortly after February 1974 , while both men were employees at Atari . Jobs later recalled , `` It was my first encounter with someone who I knew was gay . '' Wayne recalled in 2011 that , `` Nobody at Atari knew , and I could count on my toes and fingers the number of people I told in my whole life . But I guess it just felt right to tell him , that he would understand , and it did n't have any effect on our relationship . ''

qb_8316--Ronald_Wayne.txt

Steve Jobs, Ronald Wayne and Steve Wozniak founded which company in 1976?

Romanesque architecture is an architectural style of medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular arches . There is no consensus for the beginning date of the Romanesque style , with proposals ranging from the 6th to the late 10th century , this later date being the most commonly held . It developed in the 12th century into the Gothic style , marked by pointed arches . Examples of Romanesque architecture can be found across the continent , making it the first pan-European architectural style since Imperial Roman Architecture . The Romanesque style in England is traditionally referred to as Norman architecture . Combining features of ancient Roman and Byzantine buildings and other local traditions , Romanesque architecture is known by its massive quality , thick walls , round arches , sturdy pillars , groin vaults , large towers and decorative arcading . Each building has clearly defined forms , frequently of very regular , symmetrical plan ; the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow . The style can be identified right across Europe , despite regional characteristics and different materials . Many castles were built during this period , but they are greatly outnumbered by churches . The most significant are the great abbey churches , many of which are still standing , more or less complete and frequently in use.Bannister Fletcher , A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method . The enormous quantity of churches built in the Romanesque period was succeeded by the still busier period of Gothic architecture , which partly or entirely rebuilt most Romanesque churches in prosperous areas like England and Portugal . The largest groups of Romanesque survivors are in areas that were less prosperous in subsequent periods , including parts of southern France , northern Spain and rural Italy . Survivals of unfortified Romanesque secular houses and palaces , and the domestic quarters of monasteries are far rarer , but these used and adapted the features found in church buildings , on a domestic scale . Definition According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the word `` Romanesque '' means `` descended from Roman '' and was first used in English to designate what are now called Romance languages ( first cited 1715 ) . The French term `` '' was first used in the architectural sense by archaeologist Charles de Gerville in a letter of 18 December 1818 to Auguste Le Prévost to describe what Gerville sees as a debased Roman architecture . In 1824 Gerville 's friend Arcisse de Caumont adopted the label `` '' to describe the `` degraded '' European architecture from the 5th to the 13th centuries , in his Essai sur l'architecture religieuse du moyen-âge , particulièrement en Normandie , at a time when the actual dates of many of the buildings so described had not been ascertained : Jean Hubert , Romanesque Art . The first use in a published work is in William Gunn 's An Inquiry into the Origin and Influence of Gothic Architecture ( London 1819 ) . The word was used by Gunn to describe the style that was identifiably Medieval and prefigured the Gothic , yet maintained the rounded Roman arch and thus appeared to be a continuation of the Roman tradition of building . The term is now used for the more restricted period from the late 10th to 12th centuries . The term `` Pre-romanesque '' is sometimes applied to architecture in Germany of the Carolingian and Ottonian periods and Visigothic , Mozarab and Asturian constructions between the 8th and the 10th centuries in the Iberian Peninsula while `` First Romanesque '' is applied to buildings in north of Italy and Spain and parts of France that have Romanesque features but pre-date the influence of the Abbey of Cluny . File : Viu_de_Llevata , _Alta_Ribagorça._Església_de_Sta._Maria_ ( A-SiT_D9236 ) .jpg| Portal , Church of Santa Maria , Viu de Llevata , Catalonia , Spain File : Voûte_en_berceau_Conques.JPG|The vault at the Abbey Church of Saint Foy , Conques , France File : Rooma 2006 047.jpg|Cloister of the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano , Rome File : Ang cath c1.JPG| Bell tower of Angoulême Cathedral , Charente , SW France Tomè14.JPG| Window and Lombard band of the Rotunda of San Tomè , Almenno San Bartolomeo Scope Buildings of every type were constructed in the Romanesque style , with evidence remaining of simple domestic buildings , elegant town houses , grand palaces , commercial premises , civic buildings , castles , city walls , bridges , village churches , abbey churches , abbey complexes and large cathedrals.Rolf Toman , Romanesque : Architecture , Sculpture , Painting Of these types of buildings , domestic and commercial buildings are the most rare , with only a handful of survivors in the United Kingdom , several clusters in France , isolated buildings across Europe and by far the largest number , often unidentified and altered over the centuries , in Italy . Many castles exist , the foundations of which date from the Romanesque period . Most have been substantially altered , and many are in ruins . By far the greatest number of surviving Romanesque buildings are churches . These range from tiny chapels to large cathedrals , and although many have been extended and altered in different styles , a large number remain either substantially intact or sympathetically restored , demonstrating the form , character and decoration of Romanesque church architecture . File : Cieszyn 9891 crop.JPG | Saint Nicholas Rotunda in Cieszyn , Poland File : Poreč064.jpg|Romanesque house in Poreč , Croatia |alt=A small three-storey stone house with an exterior stone staircase to the first floor , and a wooden balcony around the upper floor File : Palazzo Comunale Massa Marittima crop.JPG|The Civic Hall in Massa Marittima , Italy|alt=An imposing four-storey stone building with battlements and rows of paired windows , facing onto a town square . File : Lebeny-churche1.jpg |Abbey Church of St James , Lebeny , Hungary ( 1208 ) |alt=The facade of a tall grey church with paired towers and a single ornately carved doorway File : Conisbrough Castle keep - geograph.org.uk - 922015 crop.JPG|The keep of Conisbrough Castle , England.|alt=A circular castle tower with enormous jutting buttresses . There are few windows and entrance is on an upper floor , is reached by a modern staircase . History Origins Romanesque architecture was the first distinctive style to spread across Europe since the Roman Empire . With the decline of Rome , Roman building methods survived to an extent in Western Europe , where successive Merovingian , Carolingian and Ottonian architects continued to build large stone buildings such as monastery churches and palaces . In the more northern countries Roman building styles and techniques had never been adopted except for official buildings , while in Scandinavia they were unknown . Although the round arch continued in use , the engineering skills required to vault large spaces and build large domes were lost . There was a loss of stylistic continuity , particularly apparent in the decline of the formal vocabulary of the Classical Orders . In Rome several great Constantinian basilicas continued in use as an inspiration to later builders . Some traditions of Roman architecture also survived in Byzantine architecture with the 6th-century octagonal Byzantine Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna being the inspiration for the greatest building of the Dark Ages in Europe , the Emperor Charlemagne 's Palatine Chapel , Aachen , Germany , built around the year AD 800.Helen Gardner , Art through the Ages . Dating shortly after the Palatine Chapel is a remarkable 9th-century Swiss manuscript known as the Plan of Saint Gall and showing a very detailed plan of a monastic complex , with all its various monastic buildings and their functions labelled . The largest building is the church , the plan of which is distinctly Germanic , having an apse at both ends , an arrangement not generally seen elsewhere . Another feature of the church is its regular proportion , the square plan of the crossing tower providing a module for the rest of the plan . These features can both be seen at the Proto-Romanesque St. Michael 's Church , Hildesheim , 1001–1030 . Architecture of a Romanesque style also developed simultaneously in the north of Italy , parts of France and in the Iberian Peninsula in the 10th century and prior to the later influence of the Abbey of Cluny . The style , sometimes called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque , is characterised by thick walls , lack of sculpture and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as a Lombard band . File : Santa Maria del Naranco 2 crop.JPG |Santa Maria del Naranco , Oviedo , Spain . ( AD 848 ) Built as a palace for Ramiro I of Asturias File : Santa Maria in Cosmedin-templom belso.jpg|Santa Maria in Cosmedin , Rome ( 8th – early 12th century ) has a basilical plan and reuses ancient Roman columns . |alt=The interior of a narrow and rather dark church that has columns down each side supporting a plain wall with small high windows . File : Aachener1723aDom.jpg|Charlemagne 's Palatine Chapel , Aachen , 9th century , modelled on the Byzantine church of San Vitale , Ravenna |alt=The interior of a tall octagonal church , rising in three rows of decorated arches . A large candelabra hangs above the central altar . File : Hildesheim-St Michaels Church.interior.01.JPG |Interior of St. Michael 's , Hildesheim , ( 1001–31 ) with alternating piers and columns and a 13th-century painted wooden ceiling |alt=The interior of another long narrow church with high windows . The arch leading into the chancel at the far end has alternating red and white stones . File : Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F078941-0014 , Hildesheim , Michaeliskirche.jpg |St . Michael 's Church , Hildesheim has similar characteristics to the church in the Plan of Saint Gall . |alt=The exterior of the same church shows a short square tower with a pointed metal roof over the crossing , and a small round tower at the end of the transept . Politics Charlemagne was crowned by the Pope in Old St. Peter 's Basilica on Christmas Day in the year 800 , with an aim to re-establishing the old Roman Empire . Charlemagne 's political successors continued to rule much of Europe , with a gradual emergence of the separate political states that were eventually to become welded into nations , either by allegiance or defeat , the Kingdom of Germany giving rise to the Holy Roman Empire . The invasion of England by William , Duke of Normandy , in 1066 , saw the building of both castles and churches that reinforced the Norman presence . Several significant churches that were built at this time were founded by rulers as seats of temporal and religious power , or places of coronation and burial . These include the Abbaye-Saint-Denis , Speyer Cathedral and Westminster Abbey ( where little of the Norman church now remains ) . At a time when the remaining architectural structures of the Roman Empire were falling into decay and much of its learning and technology lost , the building of masonry domes and the carving of decorative architectural details continued unabated , though greatly evolved in style since the fall of Rome , in the enduring Byzantine Empire . The domed churches of Constantinople and Eastern Europe were to greatly affect the architecture of certain towns , particularly through trade and through the Crusades . The most notable single building that demonstrates this is St Mark 's Basilica , Venice , but there are many lesser-known examples , particularly in France , such as the church of Saint-Front , Périgueux and Angoulême Cathedral.George Holmes , ed . The Oxford History of Medieval Europe . Much of Europe was affected by feudalism in which peasants held tenure from local rulers over the land that they farmed in exchange for military service . The result of this was that they could be called upon , not only for local and regional spats , but to follow their lord to travel across Europe to the Crusades , if they were required to do so . The Crusades , 1095–1270 , brought about a very large movement of people and , with them , ideas and trade skills , particularly those involved in the building of fortifications and the metal working needed for the provision of arms , which was also applied to the fitting and decoration of buildings . The continual movement of people , rulers , nobles , bishops , abbots , craftsmen and peasants , was an important factor in creating a homogeneity in building methods and a recognizable Romanesque style , despite regional differences . Life became generally less secure after the Carolingian period . This resulted in the building of castles at strategic points , many of them being constructed as strongholds of the Normans , descendants of the Vikings who invaded northern France under Rollo in 911 . Political struggles also resulted in the fortification of many towns , or the rebuilding and strengthening of walls that remained from the Roman period . One of the most notable surviving fortifications is that of the city of Carcassonne . The enclosure of towns brought about a lack of living space within the walls , and resulted in a style of town house that was tall and narrow , often surrounding communal courtyards , as at San Gimignano in Tuscany.Rolf Toman , pp . 114-117 In Germany , the Holy Roman Emperors built a number of residences , fortified , but essentially palaces rather than castles , at strategic points and on trade routes . The Imperial Palace of Goslar ( heavily restored in the 19th century ) was built in the early 11th century by Otto III and Henry III , while the ruined Palace at Gelnhausen was received by Frederick Barbarossa prior to 1170.Rolf Toman , pp . 70-73 The movement of people and armies also brought about the building of bridges , some of which have survived , including the 12th-century bridge at Besalú , Catalonia , the 11th-century Puente de la Reina , Navarre and the Pont-Saint-Bénézet , Avignon . File : London Tower ( 1 ) .JPG|alt=A huge square tower of grey stone is seen beyond fortifications on the edge of a river.|The Tower of London ( 1078 ) . William the Conqueror built the central White Tower as his stronghold and residence . File : Speyer -- -Cathedral -- -South-View -- - ( Gentry ) .jpg|alt=An enormous cathedral , of red stone with green copper roofs , has a two tall towers framing an octagonal dome at each end of the building.|Speyer Cathedral , begun by Conrad II , Holy Roman Emperor in 1030 , as an expression of imperial power and architectural innovation File : Erice castle.jpg|alt=A castle with a tall narrow tower and walls topped by battlements stretches along the edge of a cliff covered in trees and palm trees.| , Erice ( 12th-13th century ) , is one of many built by the Normans in Sicily , Italy . File : San Gimignano.JPG|alt=View of a small town on a hilltop surrounded by trees and vineyards . There are eight tall square towers rising from among the densely packed houses.|Many towns , such as San Gimignano , were enclosed with walls , causing crowding and the building of tower houses . Religion Across Europe , the late 11th and 12th centuries saw an unprecedented growth in the number of churches . A great number of these buildings , both large and small , remain , some almost intact and in others altered almost beyond recognition in later centuries . They include many very well known churches such as Santa Maria in Cosmedin in Rome , the Baptistery in Florence and San Zeno Maggiore in Verona . In France , the famous abbeys of Aux Dames and Les Hommes at Caen and Mont Saint-Michel date from this period , as well as the abbeys of the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela . Many cathedrals owe their foundation to this date , with others beginning as abbey churches , and later becoming cathedrals . In England , of the cathedrals of ancient foundation , all were begun in this period with the exception of Salisbury , where the monks relocated from the Norman church at Old Sarum , and several , such as Canterbury , which were rebuilt on the site of Saxon churches.John Harvey , English CathedralsAlec Clifton-Taylor , The Cathedrals of England In Spain , the most famous church of the period is Santiago de Compostela . In Germany , the Rhine and its tributaries were the location of many Romanesque abbeys , notably Mainz , Worms , Speyer and Bamberg . In Cologne , then the largest city north of the Alps , a very important group of large city churches survives largely intact . As monasticism spread across Europe , Romanesque churches sprang up in Scotland , Scandinavia , Poland , Hungary , Sicily , Serbia and Tunisia . Several important Romanesque churches were built in the Crusader kingdoms.Rolf Toman , Romanesque . Monasticism The system of monasticism in which the religious become members of an order , with common ties and a common rule , living in a mutually dependent community , rather than as a group of hermits living in proximity but essentially separate , was established by the monk Benedict in the 6th century . The Benedictine monasteries spread from Italy throughout Europe , being always by far the most numerous in England . They were followed by the Cluniac order , the Cistercians , Carthusians and Augustinian Canons . During the Crusades , the military orders of the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar were founded . The monasteries , which sometimes also functioned as cathedrals , and the cathedrals that had bodies of secular clergy often living in community , were a major source of power in Europe . Bishops and the abbots of important monasteries lived and functioned like princes . The monasteries were the major seats of learning of all sorts . Benedict had ordered that all the arts were to be taught and practiced in the monasteries . Within the monasteries books were transcribed by hand , and few people outside the monasteries could read or write . In France , Burgundy was the centre of monasticism . The enormous and powerful monastery at Cluny was to have lasting effect on the layout of other monasteries and the design of their churches . Unfortunately , very little of the abbey church at Cluny remains ; the `` Cluny II '' rebuilding of 963 onwards has completely vanished , but we have a good idea of the design of `` Cluny III '' from 1088 to 1130 , which until the Renaissance remained the largest building in Europe . However , the church of St. Sernin at Toulouse , 1080–1120 , has remained intact and demonstrates the regularity of Romanesque design with its modular form , its massive appearance and the repetition of the simple arched window motif . File : Slidredomen , Vestre Slidre.JPG|alt=A little stone church with a little steeple on a wooden belfry sits in a green graveyard overlooking a lake and mountains.|Many parish churches across Europe , such as this in Vestre Slidre , Norway , are of Romanesque foundation File : Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg|alt=In a wooded valley is a large church with small windows and a square stone belfry . It is surrounded by ancient buildings arranged around courtyards , and a lavender garden.|The Romanesque Sénanque Abbey church and surrounding monastic buildings , Gordes , Provence , France File : Celles JPG00.jpg|alt=The houses of a small town , surrounded by green hillsides , are dominated by a huge church with a large square tower and a spire like a witch 's hat.|Collegiate churches such as that of Saint Hadelin , Celles , Belgium , were administered by lay canons . File : Trier Dom BW 24.JPG|alt=A huge cathedral with numerous towers , both square and round , rises above a town square where people are sitting in the shade of clipped trees.|Many cathedrals such as Trier Cathedral , Germany , date from this period , with many later additions . Pilgrimage and Crusade One of the effects of the Crusades , which were intended to wrest the Holy Places of Palestine from Islamic control , was to excite a great deal of religious fervour , which in turn inspired great building programs . The Nobility of Europe , upon safe return , thanked God by the building of a new church or the enhancement of an old one . Likewise , those who did not return from the Crusades could be suitably commemorated by their family in a work of stone and mortar . The Crusades resulted in the transfer of , among other things , a great number of Holy Relics of saints and apostles . Many churches , like Saint-Front , Périgueux , had their own home grown saint while others , most notably Santiago de Compostela , claimed the remains and the patronage of a powerful saint , in this case one of the Twelve Apostles . Santiago de Compostela , located near Galicia ( present day Spain ) became one of the most important pilgrimage destinations in Europe . Most of the pilgrims travelled the Way of St. James on foot , many of them barefooted as a sign of penance . They moved along one of the four main routes that passed through France , congregating for the journey at Jumièges , Paris , Vézelay , Cluny , Arles and St. Gall in Switzerland . They crossed two passes in the Pyrenees and converged into a single stream to traverse north-western Spain . Along the route they were urged on by those pilgrims returning from the journey . On each of the routes abbeys such as those at Moissac , Toulouse , Roncesvalles , Conques , Limoges and Burgos catered for the flow of people and grew wealthy from the passing trade . Saint-Benoît-du-Sault , in the Berry province , is typical of the churches that were founded on the pilgrim route . File : Jerusalem Holy Sepulchre BW 23.JPG|The Church of the Holy Sepulchre , Jerusalem , a major pilgrimage site from the 4th century onwards , its rotunda inspired the construction of many Romanesque circular churches . File : Krak des chevaliers15 ( js ) .jpg|Like many castles built by crusader knights , the inner fortress of Krak des Chevaliers , Syria , was mainly constructed in this period , with the outer walls being later . File : Abbatiale de Conques.jpg|The Abbey of Saint Foy , Conques , France , was one of many such abbeys to be built along the pilgrimage Way of St James that led to Santiago de Compostela . File : Périgueux 3.JPG|The plan of the Church of Saint Front , Périgueux , France , was influenced by Byzantine architecture seen by the Crusaders . The present appearance is largely due to restorer Paul Abadie , mid-19th Century Characteristics The general impression given by Romanesque architecture , in both ecclesiastical and secular buildings , is one of massive solidity and strength . In contrast with both the preceding Roman and later Gothic architecture , in which the load-bearing structural members are , or appear to be , columns , pilasters and arches , Romanesque architecture , in common with Byzantine architecture , relies upon its walls , or sections of walls called piers . Romanesque architecture is often divided into two periods known as the `` First Romanesque '' style and the `` Romanesque '' style . The difference is chiefly a matter of the expertise with which the buildings were constructed . The First Romanesque employed rubble walls , smaller windows and unvaulted roofs . A greater refinement marks the Second Romanesque , along with increased use of the vault and dressed stone . Walls The walls of Romanesque buildings are often of massive thickness with few and comparatively small openings . They are often double shells , filled with rubble . The building material differs greatly across Europe , depending upon the local stone and building traditions . In Italy , Poland , much of Germany and parts of the Netherlands , brick is generally used . Other areas saw extensive use of limestone , granite and flint . The building stone was often used in comparatively small and irregular pieces , bedded in thick mortar . Smooth ashlar masonry was not a distinguishing feature of the style , particularly in the earlier part of the period , but occurred chiefly where easily worked limestone was available.Rene Hyughe , Larousse Encyclopedia of Byzantine and Medieval Art Buttresses Because of the massive nature of Romanesque walls , buttresses are not a highly significant feature , as they are in Gothic architecture . Romanesque buttresses are generally of flat square profile and do not project a great deal beyond the wall . In the case of aisled churches , barrel vaults , or half-barrel vaults over the aisles helped to buttress the nave , if it was vaulted . In the cases where half-barrel vaults were used , they effectively became like flying buttresses . Often aisles extended through two storeys , rather than the one usual in Gothic architecture , so as to better support the weight of a vaulted nave . In the case of Durham Cathedral , flying buttresses have been employed , but are hidden inside the triforium gallery . File : Abaziasanvittorefrasassi.jpg|alt=A small church sits on a steep rise , surrounded by craggy mountains . It is basically square with three bulging projections and a castle-like tower.|The monastery of San Vittore alle Chiuse , Genga , Italy , of undressed stone , has a typically fortress-like appearance with small windows of early Romanesque . File : Castle-rising-castle.JPG|alt=A large square castle keep of pinkish-grey stone , with a projecting entrance tower , has architectural details to its windows , mouldings and stonework.|Castle Rising , England , shows flat buttresses and reinforcing at the corners of the building typical in both castles and churches . File : FranceNormandieCerisyLaForetAbbaye.jpg|alt= A tall church of grey stone with fine details and a crossing tower topped with a slate-covered spire rises out of rural countryside , where two mares are grazing.|Abbaye Cerisy le Foret , Normandy , France , has a compact appearance with aisles rising through two storeys buttressing the vault . File : StAlbansCathedral-PS01.JPG|alt=A long , low cathedral has a fine Norman brick crossing-tower rising in three stages of round-topped paired windows . The rest of the building is a conglomeration of styles in ancient brick , modern brick , ashlar and flint.|St Albans Cathedral England , demonstrates the typical alterations made to the fabric of many Romanesque buildings in different styles and materials Arches and openings The arches used in Romanesque architecture are nearly always semicircular , for openings such as doors and windows , for vaults and for arcades . Wide doorways are usually surmounted by a semi-circular arch , except where a door with a lintel is set into a large arched recess and surmounted by a semi-circular `` lunette '' with decorative carving . These doors sometimes have a carved central jamb . Narrow doors and small windows might be surmounted by a solid stone lintel . Larger openings are nearly always arched . A characteristic feature of Romanesque architecture , both ecclesiastic and domestic , is the pairing of two arched windows or arcade openings , separated by a pillar or colonette and often set within a larger arch . Ocular windows are common in Italy , particularly in the facade gable and are also seen in Germany . Later Romanesque churches may have wheel windows or rose windows with plate tracery . There are a very small number of buildings in the Romanesque style , such as Autun Cathedral in France and Monreale Cathedral in Sicily in which pointed arches have been used extensively , apparently for stylistic reasons . It is believed that in these cases there is a direct imitation of Islamic architecture . At other late Romanesque churches such as Durham Cathedral , and Cefalù Cathedral , the pointed arch was introduced as a structural device in ribbed vaulting . Its increasing application was fundamental to the development of Gothic architecture . Arcades An arcade is a row of arches , supported on piers or columns . They occur in the interior of large churches , separating the nave from the aisles , and in large secular interiors spaces , such as the great hall of a castle , supporting the timbers of a roof or upper floor . Arcades also occur in cloisters and atriums , enclosing an open space . Arcades

qw_2048--Romanesque_architecture.txt

What is the name for a large circular stained glass window found in Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals that is divided by elaborate tracery into a central compartment with others radiating from it?

Harold Edward Holt , ( ; 5 August 1908 - 17 December 1967 ) , was an Australian politician and the 17th Prime Minister of Australia . He was born in Stanmore , New South Wales and won a scholarship to study law at the University of Melbourne . Holt went into business as a solicitor , during which time he joined the United Australia Party ( UAP ) . In 1935 , aged just 27 , he was elected for Fawkner . Holt spent 32 years in Parliament , including many years as a senior Cabinet Minister , but was Prime Minister for only 22 months before he disappeared in December 1967 while swimming at Cheviot Beach near Portsea , Victoria , and was presumed drowned . As Minister for Immigration ( 1949–1956 ) , Holt was responsible for the relaxation of the White Australia policy and as Treasurer under Menzies , he initiated major fiscal reforms including the establishment of the Reserve Bank of Australia , and launched and guided the process to convert Australia to decimal currency . As Prime Minister , he oversaw landmark changes including the decision not to devalue the Australian dollar in line with the British pound , and the 1967 constitutional referendum in which an overwhelming majority of Australians voted in favour of giving the Commonwealth power to legislate specifically for indigenous Australians . He controversially expanded Australia 's involvement in the Vietnam War , with the slogan `` All the way with LBJ '' . Early life Born in Stanmore , New South Wales on 5 August 1908 , Holt was the elder son of Thomas and Olive ( née Williams ) . He and his brother Cliff ( Clifford Thomas Holt , born 1910 ) , spent their early life in Sydney , attending three different schools . In 1918 , Thomas Holt divorced Olive and went to work with the Hugh D. McIntosh , manager of the Tivoli theatre circuit . He later became the Tivoli-J C Williamson representative in London and New York . Meanwhile , he enrolled his sons as boarders at Wesley College in Melbourne . In 1924 , when Holt was sixteen , his mother died and he did not attend her funeral . A formative event was his singing performance at his school 's annual Speech Night in December 1926 . None of his family were present , and he never forgot the loneliness he felt that night . Holt won a scholarship to Queen 's College at the University of Melbourne and began his law degree in 1927 . He excelled in many areas of university life – he won College 'Blues ' for cricket and Australian rules football , as well as the College Oratory and Essay Prize . A member of the Melbourne Inter-University Debating team and the United Australia Organization ' A ' Grade debating team , he was president of both the Sports and Social Club and the Law Students ' Society . Holt graduated with a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1930 . He was admitted to the Victorian Bar in November 1932 and served his articles with the Melbourne firm of Fink , Best & Miller , but the Great Depression meant that he was unable to find work as a barrister . His father , based in London at the time , wanted him to further his studies in England , but the worsening economy also made this impossible . Instead , in 1933 , Holt went into sole practice as a solicitor . He later entered into a partnership , which became the firm of Holt , Graham & Newman , which Holt remained with until 1963 . While at university , Holt had met Zara Kate Dickins . In 1934 they were contemplating marriage , but , after a quarrel , they split up . Zara travelled overseas , meeting Captain James Fell , a British Army officer stationed in India , whom she married in March 1935 . Her first son Nicholas was born in 1937 , followed by twin boys Sam and Andrew , born in 1939 . Author Tom Frame has suggested that Holt was the father of the twins . Zara and Fell subsequently divorced , and she married Holt in 1946 . Although they remained married until Holt 's death in 1967 , Zara later commented that Holt had had a number of extramarital affairs . Meanwhile , Thomas Holt married Lola Thring , the daughter of his business partner F. W. Thring , in 1936 . He died in 1945 . Early political career While developing his legal practice , Holt was drawn to politics and joined the Prahran branch of the United Australia Party ( UAP ) in 1933 . At the 1934 federal election , Holt unsuccessfully contested the safe Labor seat of Yarra for the UAP , running against former Prime Minister James Scullin . In March 1935 , he unsuccessfully contested the safe Victorian state Labor seat of Clifton Hill . Holt stood again for the federal House of Representatives on 17 August 1935 , at a by-election for the marginally conservative seat of Fawkner , this time successfully . At age 27 , he was one of Australia 's youngest-ever MPs . Holt opposed socialism , but favoured a more equitable distribution of resources . From his maiden speech onwards , he emphasised the importance of physical fitness . In 1939 , Holt 's mentor Robert Menzies became Prime Minister after the sudden death of the incumbent Joseph Lyons and the short-term caretaker ministry of Sir Earle Page . Holt 's energy , dedication and ability earned him rapid promotion and in April 1939 , he was appointed Minister without Portfolio assisting the Minister for Supply and Development . In October 1939 , he became Minister in charge of Scientific and Industrial Research , and during November–December 1939 , he was Acting Minister for Air and Civil Aviation . In May 1940 , without resigning his seat , Holt joined the Second Australian Imperial Force as a gunner , but a few months later three Cabinet ministers and several of Australia 's top military staff were killed in an air crash in Canberra . Menzies recalled Holt from the army , appointing him Minister without Portfolio assisting the Minister for Trade and Customs , and his recall earned him the ironic nickname `` Gunner Holt . '' In October 1940 , Holt was elevated to Cabinet , becoming Minister for Labour and National Service , and one of his most significant achievements in this portfolio was the introduction of child endowment in 1941 . In August 1941 , a front-bench revolt forced Menzies to resign as Prime Minister . He was replaced by the Country Party leader Arthur Fadden . Holt was among those who withdrew their support , although he never revealed his reasons for doing so . In October 1941 , the UAP was ousted by a no-confidence vote ; the ALP leader John Curtin was invited to form a new government . By 1944 , the UAP had effectively disintegrated and in 1945 , Menzies formally established a new political party , the Liberal Party of Australia , and forged an enduring coalition with the Country Party . Holt was one of the first members to join the Liberal Party 's Prahran branch . Postwar ministerial career After eight years in opposition , the Coalition won the federal election of December 1949 and Menzies began his record-setting second term as Prime Minister . At this election , Holt saw his majority in Fawkner nearly disappear in the redistribution . He transferred to Higgins , one of several new seats created in the 1949 redistribution . The seat was created as a safe Liberal seat ; it had been carved out of the wealthier portions of Fawkner . Holt won it easily . He was appointed to the prestigious portfolios of Minister for Labour and National Service ( 1949–1958 ; he had previously served in this portfolio 1940–41 ) and Minister for Immigration ( 1949–1956 ) , by which time he was being touted in the press as a `` certain successor to Menzies and a potential Prime Minister '' . In Immigration , Holt continued and expanded the massive immigration program initiated by his ALP predecessor , Arthur Calwell . However , he displayed a more flexible and caring attitude than Calwell , who was a strong advocate of the White Australia policy . He also had ministerial responsibility for the Melbourne Olympics in 1956 . Holt excelled in the Labour portfolio and has been described as one of the best Labour ministers since Federation . Although the conditions were ripe for industrial unrest—Communist influence in the union movement was then at its peak , and the right-wing faction in Cabinet was openly agitating for a showdown with the unions—the combination of strong economic growth and Holt 's enlightened approach to industrial relations saw the number of working hours lost to strikes fall dramatically , from over two million in 1949 to just 439,000 in 1958 . Holt fostered greater collaboration between the government , the courts , employers and trade unions . He enjoyed good relationships with union leaders like Albert Monk , President of the Australian Council of Trade Unions ; and Jim Healy , leader of the radical Waterside Workers Federation ; and he gained a reputation for tolerance , restraint and a willingness to compromise , although his controversial decision to use troops to take control of cargo facilities during a waterside dispute in Bowen , Queensland in September 1953 provoked bitter criticism . Holt 's personal profile and political standing grew throughout the 1950s . He served on numerous committees and overseas delegations , he was appointed a Privy Counsellor in 1953 , and in 1954 he was named one of Australia 's six best-dressed men . In 1956 , he was elected Deputy Leader of the Liberal Party and became Leader of the House , and from this point on , he was generally acknowledged as Menzies ' heir apparent . In December 1958 , following the retirement of Arthur Fadden , Holt succeeded him as Treasurer . Holt had little knowledge or interest in economics , but the job cemented his position as Menzies ' likely successor . As Treasurer , Holt relied strongly on the advice of Treasury secretary Roland Wilson . His achievements included major reforms to the banking system ( originated by Fadden ) - including the establishment of the Reserve Bank of Australia - and the planning and preparation for the introduction of decimal currency . It was Holt who convinced Cabinet to call the new currency the `` dollar '' rather than the `` royal '' . The economy Holt inherited was growing strongly , aided by the opening of new iron ore mines . However , in 1959 , inflation was running at 4.5 % and Treasury was alarmed . Holt was reluctant to act , but in November 1960 introduced a deflationary package of tax changes . He also reluctantly agreed to an interest rate rise by the Reserve Bank . These measures became known as the `` credit squeeze '' or the `` Holt jolt '' . The economy went into recession , but unemployment was still relatively low . The credit squeeze brought the Coalition dangerously close to losing the 1961 election , with the Coalition being returned with a precarious one-seat majority . There were calls for Holt to be sacked , but he retained Menzies ' support . He later described 1960–61 as `` my most difficult year in public life '' . Most of the deflationary measures were reversed in 1962 . In later budgets , Holt retreated to his Queensland holiday home while it was being prepared . After presenting the budget , he took an overseas trip . In contrast to his colleagues , he travelled widely in South-East Asia , which he believed was key to Australia 's future prosperity . Holt continued as federal Treasurer until January 1966 , when Menzies finally retired . With Menzies ' support , Holt was elected leader of the Liberal Party , thus becoming Prime Minister after having been an MP for almost 31 years . Holt as Prime Minister Holt was sworn in as Prime Minister on Australia Day , 26 January 1966 . His original Cabinet included : * John McEwen ( CP ) Deputy Prime Minister , leader of the Country Party , Minister for Trade and Industry ; * William McMahon ( LP ) , Treasurer ; * Paul Hasluck ( LP ) , Minister for External Affairs ; * Allen Fairhall ( LP ) , Minister for Defence ; * Charles Adermann ( CP ) Minister for Primary Industry ; * Charles Barnes ( CP ) , Minister for Territories ; * David Fairbairn ( LP ) , Minister for National Development ; * Senator John Gorton ( LP ) , Minister for Works and Minister in Charge of Commonwealth Activities in Education and Research ; * Senator Denham Henty ( LP ) , Minister for Supply ; * Alan Hulme ( LP ) , Postmaster-General ; * Les Bury ( LP ) , Minister for Labour ; * Malcolm Fraser ( LP ) , Minister for the Army . Holt 's term in office covered almost exactly the tumultuous calendar years of 1966–67 . His short tenure meant that he had limited personal and political impact as Prime Minister , and he is remembered mainly for the dramatic circumstances of his disappearance and presumed death . His untoward demise has tended to obscure the major events and political trends of his term in office , especially his role in maintaining and expanding Australia 's military commitment to the Vietnam War . The transfer of power from Menzies was smooth and unproblematic , and at the federal election later that year , the electorate overwhelmingly endorsed Holt , giving the Holt-McEwen Coalition government a 41-seat majority , the largest in Australian history up to that time . They also won 57 % of the two-party preferred vote , which is still the greatest winning margin at a federal election in Australian political history . Stylistically , Holt was more informal and contemporary than Menzies , and his wife accompanied him into the political spotlight . Political historian James Jupp says that , in domestic policy , Holt identified with the reformist wing of Victorian Liberalism . One of his most notable achievements was to initiate the process of breaking down the preferential White Australia policy by ending the distinction between Asian and European migrants and by permitting skilled Asians to settle with their families . He also established the Australian Council for the Arts ( later the Australia Council ) , which began the tradition of federal government support for Australian arts and artists , an initiative that was considerably expanded by Holt 's successor John Gorton . In the area of constitutional reform , undoubtedly the most significant event of Holt 's time as Prime Minister was the 1967 referendum in which an overwhelming majority of Australians voted in favour of giving the Commonwealth power to legislate specifically for indigenous Australians and to include them in the Commonwealth census . In 1967 the Holt government made the historic decision not to depreciate the Australian dollar in line with Britain 's depreciation of the pound sterling , a break with previous policy , which was strongly opposed by Country Party leader John McEwen . Holt and Vietnam During Holt 's term in office , the Vietnam War was the dominant foreign policy issue . The Holt government significantly increased Australia 's military involvement in the war and Holt vehemently defended U.S. policy in the region . He also forged a close relationship with U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson , whom he had first met in Melbourne in 1942 . Whilst Holt stated that his friendship with Johnson was reflected in the strong relationship between Australia and the US , former Australian diplomat and foreign-affairs expert Alan Renouf was more cynical in his assessment of the situation . In the chapter on Vietnam in The Frightened Country , his 1979 book on Australian foreign policy , Renouf bluntly suggested that Holt was in effect `` seduced '' by Johnson , and notes that the Johnson administration criticized the Holt government for not doing enough and repeatedly pressured Australia to increase its troop commitment in Vietnam . On taking office , Holt declared that Australia had no intention of increasing its commitment to the war , but just one month later , in December 1966 , he announced that Australia would treble its troop commitment to 4,500 , including 1,500 National Service conscripts , creating a single independent Australian task force based at Nui Dat . Five months later , in May , Holt was obliged to announce the death of the first National Service conscript in Vietnam , Private Errol Wayne Noack , aged 21 . Just before his disappearance , Holt approved a further increase in troop numbers , committing a third battalion to the war—a decision that was subsequently revoked by his successor , John Gorton . Holt visited the US in late June 1966 , where he gave a speech in Washington in the presence of President Johnson . Reported in The Australian on 1 July 1966 , Holt 's speech concluded with a remark which has come to be seen as encapsulating his unquestioning support for Johnson , for America 's Vietnam policy and for continued Australian military involvement in the Vietnam War : `` You have in us not merely an understanding friend but one staunch in the belief of the need for our presence in Vietnam . `` We are not there because of our friendship , we are there because , like you , we believe it is right to be there and , like you , we shall stay there as long as it seems necessary to achieve the purposes of the South Vietnamese Government and the purposes that we join in formulating and progressing together . `` And so , sir , in the lonelier and perhaps even more disheartening moments which come to any national leader , I hope there will be a corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend , a staunch friend that will be all the way with LBJ . '' Following his Washington visit Holt went on to London and in a speech there given on 7 July he was sharply critical of the UK , France and other U.S. allies that had refused to commit troops to the Vietnam War . On 20 October 1966 , President Johnson arrived in Australia at Holt 's invitation for a three-day state visit , the first to Australia by a serving U.S. President . The tour marked the first major anti-war demonstrations staged in Australia . In Sydney , protesters lay down in front of the car carrying Johnson and the Premier of New South Wales , Robert Askin ( prompting Askin 's notorious order to `` Run over the bastards '' ) . In Melbourne , a crowd estimated at 750,000 turned out to welcome Johnson , although a vocal anti-war contingent demonstrated against the visit by throwing paint bombs at Johnson 's car and chanting `` LBJ , LBJ , how many kids did you kill today ? `` . In December , Australia signed a controversial agreement with the United States that would allow the U.S. to establish a secret strategic communications facility at Pine Gap in the Northern Territory . On 20 December 1966 , Holt announced that Australia 's military force in Vietnam was to be increased again to 6,300 troops plus an additional twelve tanks , two minesweepers and eight bombers . 1966 general election Holt fought his first and only general election as Prime Minister on 26 November 1966 , focusing his campaign on the issue of Vietnam and the supposed Communist threat in Asia . Labor leader Arthur Calwell bitterly opposed Australia 's part in the war and promised that Australian troops would be brought home if Labor won office , and opposition to overseas service by Australian conscripts had long been part of ALP policy . Australia 's involvement in Vietnam still enjoyed majority popular support and Calwell 's anti-war campaign did not garner much positive reaction from voters . The Coalition scored a stunning victory over the ALP , winning many former ALP seats and sweeping back into power with the largest parliamentary majority since Federation . The Liberal Party increased its numbers from 52 to 61 , and the Country Party from 20 to 21 , with Labor dropping from 51 to 41 seats , and one Independent . Among the new members elected was future federal Treasurer Phillip Lynch . 1967 In early 1967 , Arthur Calwell retired as ALP leader and Gough Whitlam succeeded him . Whitlam proved a far more effective opponent , both in the media and in parliament , and Labor soon began to recover from its losses and gain ground , with Whitlam repeatedly besting Holt in Parliament . By this time , the long-suppressed tensions between the Coalition partners over economic and trade policies were also beginning to emerge . Throughout his reign as Liberal leader , Menzies had enforced strict party discipline but , once he was gone , dissension began to surface . Some Liberals soon became dissatisfied by what they saw as Holt 's weak leadership . Alan Reid asserts that Holt was being increasingly criticised within the party in the months before his death , that he was perceived as being `` vague , imprecise and evasive '' and `` nice to the point that his essential decency was viewed as weakness '' . Holt 's popularity and political standing was damaged by his perceived poor handling of a series of controversies that emerged during 1967 . In April , the ABC 's new nightly current affairs program This Day Tonight ran a story which criticised the government 's decision not to reappoint the Chair of the ABC Board , Sir James Darling . Holt responded rashly , questioning the impartiality of the ABC and implying political bias on the part of journalist Mike Willesee ( whose father Don Willesee was an ALP Senator and future Whitlam government minister ) , and his statement drew strong protests from both Willesee and the Australian Journalists ' Association . In May , increasing pressure from the media and within the Liberal Party forced Holt to announce a parliamentary debate on the question of a second inquiry into the 1964 sinking of HMAS Voyager to be held on 16 May . The debate included the maiden speech by newly elected NSW Liberal MP Edward St John QC , who used the opportunity to criticize the government 's attitude to new evidence about the disaster . An enraged Holt interrupted St John 's speech , in defiance of the parliamentary convention that maiden speeches are heard in silence ; his blunder embarrassed the government and further undermined Holt 's support in the Liberal Party . A few days later , Holt announced a new Royal Commission into the disaster . In June , Holt travelled to London via Canada , where on 6 June he opened the Australian Pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal ; on the return journey , the Holts stayed with the Johnsons at the presidential summer resort , Camp David , in Maryland . In October the government became embroiled in another embarrassing controversy over the alleged misuse of VIP aircraft , which came to a head when John Gorton ( Government Leader in the Senate ) tabled documents that showed that Holt had unintentionally misled Parliament in his earlier answers on the matter . Support for his leadership was eroded even further by his refusal to sack the Minister for Air , Peter Howson , in order to defuse the scandal , fuelling criticism from within the party that Holt was `` weak '' and lacked Menzies ' ruthlessness . Much of the blame for the episode within the Public Service was visited upon Sir John Bunting , Secretary of the Prime Minister 's Department , although other figures such as the Deputy Secretary Peter Lawler were able to protect themselves . One of John Gorton 's first acts upon becoming Prime Minister in January 1968 was to sideline Bunting by creating a separate Department of the Cabinet Office with Bunting as its head , and replaced him with Lenox Hewitt . In November 1967 , the government suffered a serious setback in the Senate election , winning just 42.8 per cent of the vote against Labor 's 45 per cent . The coalition also lost the seats of Corio and Dawson to Labor in by-elections . Alan Reid says that , within the party , the reversal was blamed on Holt 's mishandling of the VIP planes scandal . Disquiet was growing about his leadership style and possible health problems . Disappearance On the morning of Sunday 17 December 1967 , Holt , his neighbour and rumoured lover , Marjorie Gillespie , her daughter , Vyner , Vyner 's boyfriend , Martin Simpson , and a Gillespie family friend , Alan Stewart , drove down from Melbourne to see the lone British yachtsman Alec Rose sail through Port Phillip Heads . Around noon , the party drove to one of Holt 's favourite swimming and snorkelling spots , Cheviot Beach on Point Nepean near Portsea , on the eastern arm of Port Phillip Bay . Holt decided to go swimming , although the surf was high and fierce . Holt began swimming , but he soon disappeared from view . Fearing the worst , the others raised the alert . A large contingent of police , Royal Australian Navy divers , Royal Australian Air Force helicopters , Army personnel from nearby Point Nepean and local volunteers converged on the beach . This quickly escalated into one of the largest search operations in Australian history , but no trace of Holt could be found . Two days later , on 19 December 1967 , the government made an official announcement that Holt was thought to be dead . The Governor-General Lord Casey sent for the Country Party leader and Coalition Deputy Prime Minister John McEwen , and he was sworn in as caretaker Prime Minister until such time as the Liberals elected a new leader . Holt was a strong swimmer and an experienced skindiver , with what his biographer Tom Frame describes as `` incredible powers of endurance underwater '' . However , his health was far from perfect at the time of his death—he had collapsed in Parliament earlier in the year , apparently suffering from a vitamin deficiency , and this had raised fears among some senior Liberals that he might have a heart condition . In September 1967 , Holt had suffered a recurrence of an old shoulder injury , which reportedly caused him agonising pain , and for this he was prescribed strong painkillers . He ignored recent advice from his doctor Marcus de Laune Faunce not to play tennis or swim until the shoulder healed and reportedly obtained a prescription for morphine from another doctor . Tom Frame also records that Holt had already got into trouble twice while skindiving earlier in 1967—on the first occasion , while snorkelling at Portsea in May , he got into severe difficulties because of a leaking snorkel and had to be pulled from the water by friends , gasping for breath , blue in the face , and vomiting seawater . Memorial service A memorial service held at St Paul 's Anglican Cathedral in Melbourne on 22 December was attended by a number of international dignitaries including President Johnson , Charles , Prince of Wales , and British Prime Minister Harold Wilson . Among the many Asian leaders were Nguyễn Văn Thiệu , President of South Vietnam and Park Chung-hee , President of South Korea . It was also one of the first events to be transmitted from Australia to other countries via satellite . Speculation Media speculation focused on the possibility that Holt took his own life . Journalist Ray Martin made a documentary , Who Killed Harold Holt ? , screened in November 2007 , which suggested that Holt might have committed suicide . The Bulletin magazine featured a story supporting the suicide theory . In support of the view , The Bulletin quoted fellow cabinet minister Doug Anthony who spoke about Holt 's depression shortly before his death . The suggestion of

qb_9081--Harold_Holt.txt

Harold Holt became Prime Minister of which country in January 1966?

St. Augustine ( ) is a city in northeastern Florida . It is the oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement within the borders of the contiguous United States . The county seat of St. Johns County , it is part of Florida 's First Coast region and the Jacksonville metropolitan area . According to the 2010 census , the city population was 12,975 . The United States Census Bureau 's 2013 estimate of the city 's population was 13,679 , while the urban area had a population of 69,173 in 2012 . Saint Augustine was founded on September 8 , 1565 , by Spanish admiral and Florida 's first governor , Pedro Menéndez de Avilés . He named the settlement `` San Agustín '' , as his ships bearing settlers , troops , and supplies from Spain had first sighted land in Florida on August 28 , 1565 , the feast day of St. Augustine . The city served as the capital of Spanish Florida for over 200 years , and became the capital of British East Florida when the territory briefly changed hands between Spain and Britain . Spain ceded Florida to the United States in 1819 , and when the treaty was ratified in 1821 , St. Augustine was designated the capital of the Florida Territory until Tallahassee was made the capital in 1824 . Since the late 19th century , St. Augustine 's distinct historical character has made the city a major tourist attraction . It is also the headquarters for the Florida National Guard . History Founding by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés Founded in 1565 by the Spanish conquistador , Pedro Menéndez de Avilés , St. Augustine is the oldest continuously occupied settlement of European origin in the United States . In 1562 , a group of French Protestants known as Huguenots , led by Jean Ribault , arrived in Spanish Florida to establish a colony in the territory claimed by Spain . They explored the mouth of the St. Johns River , calling it la Rivière de Mai ( the River May ) , then sailed northward and established a settlement called Charlesfort at Port Royal Sound in present-day South Carolina . Spain learned of this French expedition through its spies at ports on the Atlantic coast of France . The Huguenot nobleman René de Laudonnière , who had participated in the expedition , returned to Florida in 1564 with three ships and 300 Huguenot colonists . He arrived at the mouth of the River May on June 22 , 1564 , sailed up it a few miles , and founded Fort Caroline . Desiring to protect its claimed territories in North America against such incursions , the Spanish Crown issued an asiento to Menéndez , signed by King Philip II on March 20 , 1565 , granting him expansive trade privileges , the power to distribute lands , licenses to sell 500 slaves , as well as various titles , including that of adelantado of Florida . This contract directed Menéndez to sail for La Florida , reconnoitre it from the Florida Keys to present-day Canada , and report on its coastal features , with a view to establishing a permanent colony for the defense of the Spanish treasure fleet . He was ordered as well to drive away any intruders who were not subjects of the Spanish crown . On July 28 , Menéndez set sail from Cádiz with a fleet led by his 600-ton flagship , the San Pelayo , accompanied by several smaller ships , and carrying over 1,000 sailors , soldiers , and settlers . On the feast day of St. Augustine , August 28 , the fleet sighted land and anchored off the north inlet of the tidal channel the French called the River of Dolphins . Menéndez then sailed north and confronted Ribault 's fleet outside the bar of the River May in a brief skirmish . On September 6 , he returned to the site of his first landfall , naming it after the Catholic saint , disembarked his troops , and quickly constructed fortifications to protect his people and supplies . Menéndez then marched his soldiers overland for a surprise attack on Fort Caroline , where they killed almost everyone in the fort except for the women and children . Jean Ribault had already put out to sea with his ships for an assault on St. Augustine , but was surprised by a storm that wrecked his ships further south . Informed by his Indian allies that the survivors were walking northward on the coast , Menéndez began to search for the Frenchmen , who had made it as far as the banks of the river 's south entrance . There they were confronted by the Spaniard and his men on the opposite side . After several parleys with the Spanish , Jean Ribault and the Frenchmen with him ( between 150–350 , sources differ ) surrendered ; almost all of them were executed in the dunes near the inlet , thereafter called Matanzas ( Spanish for `` slaughters '' ) . In May 1566 , as relations with the neighboring Timucua Indians deteriorated , Menéndez moved the Spanish settlement to a more defensible position on the north end of the barrier island between the mainland and the sea , and built a wooden fort there . In 1572 , the settlement was relocated to the mainland , in the area just south of the future town plaza . Confident that he had fulfilled the primary conditions of his contract with the King , including the building of forts along the coast of La Florida , Menéndez returned to Spain in 1567 . After several more transatlantic crossings , Menéndez fell ill and died on September 17 , 1574 . Invasions by pirates and enemies of Spain Succeeding governors of the province maintained a peaceful coexistence with the local Native Americans , allowing the isolated outpost of St. Augustine some stability for a few years . On May 28 and 29 , 1586 , soon after the Anglo-Spanish War began between England and Spain , the English privateer Sir Francis Drake sacked and burned St. Augustine . The approach of his large fleet obliged Governor Pedro Menéndez Márquez and the townspeople to flee for their safety . When the English got ashore , they seized some artillery pieces and a royal strongbox containing gold ducats , the garrison payroll . The killing of their sergeant major by the Spanish rearguard caused Drake to order the town burnt . In 1609 and 1611 , expeditions were sent out from St. Augustine against the English settlement at Jamestown , Virginia . In the second half of the 17th century , unsettled groups of Indians , forced southward by the expanding English colony in Carolina , made raids into Florida and killed the Franciscan priests who served at the Catholic missions . Requests by successive governors of the province to strengthen the presidio ’ s garrison and fortifications were ignored by the Crown . The charter of 1663 for the new Province of Carolina , issued by King Charles II of England , was revised in 1665 , claiming lands as far southward as 29 degrees north latitude , about 65 miles south of the existing Spanish settlement at St. Augustine . The English buccaneer Robert Searle sacked St. Augustine in 1688 , killing sixty people and pillaging government buildings , churches and houses , after which his pirates ransomed off some of their hostages and sold others into slavery . This raid and the establishment of the English settlement at Charles Town spurred the Spanish monarchy to finally acknowledge the threat represented by the new English colonies to the north and strengthen the city 's defenses . In 1669 , Queen Regent Mariana ordered the Viceroy of New Spain to disburse funds for the construction of a permanent masonry fortress , which began in 1672 . The Castillo de San Marcos was completed in 1695 , not long before an attack by Governor Moore 's forces from Carolina in November , 1702 . Failing to take the fort after a siege of 58 days , the British troops burned St. Augustine to the ground as they retreated . In 1740 , the town was again besieged , this time by the governor of the British colony of Georgia , General James Oglethorpe , who was also unable to take the fort . Loyalist haven under British rule The Treaty of Paris ( 1763 ) , signed after Great Britain 's victory over France and Spain during the Seven Years ' War , ceded Florida to Great Britain and consequently St. Augustine became a Loyalist haven during the American Revolutionary War . The second Treaty of Paris ( 1783 ) , which recognized the independence of the former British colonies north of Florida , ceded Florida back to Spain , and many of the town 's Spanish citizens returned in 1784 . Refugees from Dr. Andrew Turnbull 's troubled colony in New Smyrna had fled to St. Augustine in 1777 , and made up the majority of the city 's population when the British left . This group was ( and still is ) referred to locally as `` Minorcans '' , even though it included settlers from Corsica , Italy and the Greek islands as well as those from the Mediterranean island of Minorca , who were the most numerous among them . Second Spanish Period During the Second Spanish Period ( 1784-1821 ) of its rule in Florida , Spain was dealing with invasions of the Iberian peninsula by Napoleon 's armies in the Peninsular War , and struggled to maintain a tenuous hold on its colonies in the western hemisphere as revolution swept South America . The royal administration of Florida was neglected , as the province had long been regarded as an unprofitable backwater by the Crown . The United States , however , considered Florida vital to its political and military interests as it expanded its territory in North America , and maneuvered by sometimes clandestine means to acquire it . The Adams–Onís Treaty , negotiated in 1819 and concluded in 1821 , ceded Florida and St. Augustine , still its capital at the time , to the United States . Territory of Florida Florida remained an organized territory of the United States until 1845 , when it was admitted into the Union as the State of Florida . The Territorial Period ( 1821-1845 ) was marked by protracted wars with the Creek Indian groups who occupied the peninsula , collectively known as `` Seminoles '' , during the Second Seminole War ( 1835-1842 ) . The United States Army took command of the Castillo de San Marcos and renamed it Fort Marion after General Francis Marion , who fought in the American Revolutionary War . Civil War Florida joined the Confederacy after the Civil War began in 1861 , and Confederate authorities remained in control of St. Augustine for fourteen months , even though it was barely defended , and in spite of the Union blockade of shipping off the coast . Union troops occupied St. Augustine in 1862 and controlled the city through the rest of the war . Its economy already devastated , many of the town 's citizens fled . Henry Flagler and the railroad Henry Flagler , a co-founder with John D. Rockefeller of the Standard Oil Company , spent the winter of 1883 in St. Augustine and found the city charming , but considered its hotels and transportation systems inadequate . He had the idea to make St. Augustine a winter resort for wealthy Americans from the north , and to bring them south he bought several short line railroads and combined these in 1885 to form the Florida East Coast Railway . He built a railroad bridge over the St. Johns River in 1888 , opening up the Atlantic coast of Florida to development . Flagler began construction in 1887 of two large ornate hotels , the 540-room Ponce de León Hotel and the Hotel Alcazar , and bought the Casa Monica Hotel the next year . His chosen architectural firm , Carrère and Hastings , radically altered the appearance of St. Augustine and gave it a skyline , beginning an architectural trend in the state characterized by the use of elements of the Moorish Revival style . With the opening of the Ponce in 1888 , St. Augustine became the winter resort of American high society for a few years . After Flagler 's Florida East Coast Railroad had been extended southward to Palm Beach and then Miami , the rich mostly abandoned St. Augustine in the early 20th century and began to customarily spend their winters in South Florida , where the climate was warmer and freezes were rare . St. Augustine nevertheless still attracted tourists , and eventually became a destination for families traveling in automobiles as new roads were built and Americans took to the road for annual summer vacations . The tourist industry soon became the dominant sector of the local economy . With the help of state and federal government monies , St. Augustine began a program in 1935 to preserve thirty-six surviving colonial buildings and reconstruct others that were gone . 400th year In 1965 , St. Augustine celebrated the quadricentennial of its founding , and jointly with the State of Florida , inaugurated a program to restore part of the colonial city . When the State of Florida abolished the Historic St. Augustine Preservation Board in 1997 , the City of St. Augustine assumed control of more than thirty-six buildings that had been reconstructed or restored to their historical appearance , as well as other historic properties including the Government House . Geography and climate St. Augustine is located at ( 29.8946910 , −81.3145170 ) . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of , of which is land and ( 21.99 % ) is water . Access to the Atlantic Ocean is via the St. Augustine Inlet of the Matanzas River . St. Augustine has a humid subtropical climate or Cfa – typical of the Gulf and South Atlantic states . The low latitude and coastal location gives the city a mostly warm and sunny climate . Like much of Florida , St. Augustine enjoys a high number of sunny days , averaging 2,900 hours annually . Unlike much of the continental United States , St. Augustine ’ s driest time of year is winter . The hot and wet season extends from May through October , while the cool and dry season extends November through April . In the hot season average daytime highs are in the upper 80s to low 90s °F ( 26° to 33 °C ) and average night-time lows are in the low 70s °F ( 21 °C ) . The Bermuda High pumps in hot and unstable tropical air from the Bahamas and Gulf of Mexico , which help create the daily thundershowers that are so typical in the summer months . Intense but very brief downpours are common in mid-summer in the city . Fall and spring are warm and sunny with highs in the 75 to 80 F ( 21 to 24 °C ) range and overnight lows in the 50s to low 60s ( 10 to 17 °C ) . In the dry winter season , St. Augustine has mild and sunny weather typical of the Florida peninsula . The coolest months are from December through February , with average daytime highs that range from 65 to 70 °F ( 18 to 21 °C ) and nighttime lows in the 46-49 F ( 8 to 10 °C ) range . From November through April , St. Augustine often has long periods of rainless weather . Early spring ( April ) can see near drought conditions with brush fires and water restrictions in place . St. Augustine averages six frosts per year . Tropical cyclones occasionally impact the region ; however , like most areas prone to tropical cyclones , a direct hit by a major hurricane is rare . The last direct hit by a major hurricane to the city was Hurricane Dora in 1964 . Demographics As of the 2010 United States Census , there were 12,975 people , 5,743 households , and 2,679 families residing in the city . The population density was 1,376.2 people per square mile ( 531/km² ) . There were 6,978 housing units at an average density of 549.4 per square mile ( 211.4/km² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 84.2 % Caucasian , 11.6 % African American , 0.4 % Native American , 1.2 % Asian , 0.1 % Pacific Islander , 0.8 % from other races , and 1.6 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.1 % of the population . There were 5,743 households out of which 14.6 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 31.7 % were married couples living together , 10.9 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 53.4 % were non-families . 37.8 % of all households were made up of individuals and 14.4 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2.03 and the average family size was 2.67 . In the city the population was spread out with 13.1 % under the age of 18 , 15.3 % from 18 to 24 , 23.9 % from 25 to 44 , 25.2 % from 45 to 64 , and 19 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 42.6 years . For every 100 females there were 88.1 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 85.8 males . The median income for a household in the city was $ 36,424 , and the median income for a family was $ 56,055 . Males had a median income of $ 32,409 versus $ 30,188 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 23,485 . About 7.6 % of families and 21.1 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 18.8 % of those under age 18 and 24.4 % of those age 65 or over . Transportation Highways * Interstate 95 runs north–south . * U.S. Route 1 runs north–south . * State Road A1A runs north–south . * State Road 16 runs east–west * State Road 207 runs northeast–southwest * State Road 312 runs east–west Buses Bus service is operated by the Sunshine Bus Company . Buses operate mainly between shopping centers across town , but a few go to Hastings and Jacksonville , where one can connect to JTA for additional service across Jacksonville . Airport St. Augustine has one public airport 4 mi north of town . It has six runways ( with three water runways for seaplanes ) . The airport was once served by Skybus , however Skybus ceased operations as of April 4 , 2008 . In addition to private flights and tour helicopters , Frontier Airlines provides service to Philadelphia International Airport and Chicago O ’ Hare International Airport . Points of interest Spanish Eras * Avero House * Castillo de San Marcos National Monument * Fort Matanzas National Monument * Fort Mose Historic State Park * Nombre de Dios * Gonzalez-Alvarez House * Fountain of Youth Archaeological Park * The Spanish Military Hospital Museum * St. Francis Barracks * Colonial Quarter * Ximenez-Fatio House * Oldest Wooden Schoolhouse * Tolomato Cemetery and Huguenot Cemetery British Era * The King 's Bakery Pre-Flagler Era * St. Augustine Lighthouse and Museum * Markland Mansion Flagler Era * Ponce de León Hotel * Casa Monica Hotel * Hotel Alcazar * Zorayda Castle * Bridge of Lions * Old St. Johns County Jail * Ripley 's Believe it or Not ! Museum located in 1887 mansion of William Worden . * Alligator Farm Historic Churches * Grace United Methodist Church * Cathedral Basilica of St. Augustine * Memorial Presbyterian Church * Trinity Church of St. Augustine * First Congregation Sons of Israel Lincolnville National Historic District – Civil Rights Era * Freedom Trail of Historic Sites of the Civil Rights Movement * Excelsior School Museum of African American History * St. Benedict the Moor School Other * Anastasia State Park * Florida School for the Deaf and Blind * St. Augustine Amphitheatre * St. Augustine Pirate & Treasure Museum * World Golf Hall of Fame Sister cities * Avilés , Asturias , Spain * Cartagena , Colombia * Minorca , Balearic Islands , Spain * Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic Education Primary and secondary education in St. Augustine is overseen by the St. Johns County School District . There are no county high schools located within St. Augustine 's current city limits , but St. Augustine High School , Pedro Menendez High School , and St. Johns Technical High School are located in the vicinity . The Florida School for the Deaf and Blind , a state-operated boarding school for deaf and blind students , was founded in the city in 1885 . The Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine operates the St. Joseph Academy , Florida 's oldest Catholic high school , to the west of the city . There are several institutions of higher education in and around St. Augustine . Flagler College is a four-year liberal arts college founded in 1968 . It is located in the former Ponce de León Hotel in downtown St. Augustine . St. Johns River State College , a state college in the Florida College System , has its St. Augustine campus just west of the city . Also in the area are the University of North Florida , Jacksonville University , and Florida State College at Jacksonville in Jacksonville . The institution now known as Florida Memorial University was located in St. Augustine from 1918 to 1968 , when it relocated to its present campus in Miami . Originally known as Florida Baptist Academy , then Florida Normal , and then Florida Memorial College , it was a historically black institution and had a wide impact on St. Augustine while it was located there . During World War II it was chosen as the site for training the first blacks in the U. S. Signal Corps . Among its faculty members was Zora Neale Hurston ; a historic marker is placed at the house where she lived while teaching at Florida Memorial ( and where she wrote her autobiography Dust Tracks on a Road . ) Notable residents * Jim Albrecht , poker tournament director and commentator * Andrew Anderson , physician , St. Augustine mayor * John Alexander Armstrong , political theorist and scholar * Murray Armstrong , hockey coach * Frances Bemis , public relations specialist * Jorge Biassou , Haitian revolutionary and first black American general * Richard Boone , actor * James Branch Cabell , novelist * Doug Carn , jazz musician * Cris Carpenter , Major League baseball player * Ray Charles , pianist , singer , composer * George J. F. Clarke , Surveyor General of Spanish East Florida * Earl Cunningham , artist * Alexander Darnes , born a slave , became a celebrated physician * Edmund Jackson Davis , governor of Texas * Frederick Delius , composer * Henry Flagler , industrialist * Willie Galimore , football player * Michael Gannon , historian * Laura Jane Grace , singer * William H. Gray , U. S. congressman and president of the United Negro College Fund * Robert Hayling , civil rights leader * Hurley Haywood endurance race car driver * Martin Johnson Heade , artist * Louise Homer , opera singer * Sidney Homer , composer * Jack D. Hunter , novelist , author of The Blue Max * Zora Neale Hurston , novelist and folklorist * Lindy Infante , professional football coach * Willie Irvin , professional football player * Brandon James , professional football player * Stetson Kennedy , author and human rights activist * Jack Temple Kirby , historian * LaChanze , Tony Award & Emmy Award winning actor , singer , and dancer * Scott Lagasse Jr. , race car driver * Charlie LaPradd , college football player , college president * Jacob Lawrence , artist * Sinclair Lewis , novelist * John C. Lilly , neuroscientist , developer of the isolation tank * William W. Loring , Confederate general * Mary MacLane , author * Albert Manucy , historian , author , Fulbright Scholar * George McGovern , U.S . Senator , presidential candidate * Howell W. Melton , United States district judge * Howell W. Melton Jr. , attorney , law firm managing partner * Johnny Mize , Hall of Fame baseball player * Prince Achille Murat , nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte * David Nolan , author and historian * Osceola , Seminole War leader ( held prisoner at Fort Marion , now Castillo de San Marcos ) * Tom Petty , rock musician * Scott Player , professional football punter * Verle A. Pope , state legislator * Richard Henry Pratt , soldier and educator * Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings , novelist * Marcus Roberts , musician * Gamble Rogers , folksinger * John M. Schofield , Union general * Steven L. Sears , television writer-producer * Sheamus , Irish professional wrestler * Edmund Kirby Smith , Confederate general * Steve Spurrier , college/pro ( American ) football coach * Peter Taylor , novelist * Travis Tomko , professional wrestler * The Wobbly Toms , music group * Felix Varela , Cuban national hero * Augustin Verot , first Bishop of St. Augustine * Patty Wagstaff , aerobatic pilot * DeWitt Webb , physician , St. Augustine mayor , state representative * David Levy Yulee , first Jewish U.S . Senator , Levy County and Yulee , Florida namesake * Lisa Lewis , noted dermatologist and pilot Gallery File : St. Augustine Waterfront 1860s 2.jpg|St . Augustine waterfront with Castillo de San Marcos in distance ( 1860s ) . File : Town Plaza Government House St. Augustine.jpg|Government House as seen from the Town Plaza c. 1861–65 File : Hugenot Cemetery St. Augustine.png|Historic Huguenot Cemetery File : St. Francis Barracks.jpg|St . Francis Barracks , c.1890 File : Tovar House St. Augustine Florida.jpg|Tovar House , 22 St. Francis St . File : Fort Marion Entrance Civil War.jpg|Castillo de San Marcos , Civil War era . File : St. Augustine Florida Panoramic View.jpg|Panorama of Castillo de San Marcos , Flagler College and downtown St. Augustine from lighthouse , June 2011 File : Replicas of the Medici lions at the Bridge of Lions.jpg|Replicas of the Medici lions at the Bridge of Lions , post restoration in 2011

qw_2197--St._Augustine,_Florida.txt

Saint Augustine, the oldest city in the USA, is in which state?

Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of eleven players on a cricket field , at the centre of which is a rectangular 22-yard-long pitch with a wicket , a set of three wooden stumps sited at each end . One team , designated the batting team , attempts to score as many runs as possible , whilst their opponents field . Each phase of play is called an innings . After either ten batsmen have been dismissed or a set number of overs have been completed , the innings ends and the two teams then swap roles . The winning team is the one that scores the most runs , including any extras gained , during their period batting . At the start of each game , two batsmen and eleven fielders enter the field of play . The play begins when a designated member of the fielding team , known as the bowler , delivers the ball from one end of the pitch to the other , towards a set of wooden stumps , in front of which stands one of the batsmen , known as the striker . The striker 's role is to prevent the ball from hitting the stumps through use of his bat , and simultaneously strike it sufficiently well to score runs . The other batsman , known as the non-striker , waits at the opposite end of the pitch by the bowler . The bowler 's intention is to both prevent the scoring of runs and to dismiss the batsman , at which point the dismissed batsman has to leave the field and another teammate replaces him at the crease . The most common forms of dismissal are bowled , when the bowler hits the stumps directly with the ball , leg before wicket , when the batsman prevents the ball from hitting the stumps with his body instead of his bat , and caught , when the batsman hits the ball into the air and it is intercepted by a fielder before touching the ground . Runs are scored through two main methods : either hitting the ball sufficiently powerfully that it crosses the boundary , or through the two batsmen swapping ends by each simultaneously running the length of the pitch in opposite directions whilst the fielders are retrieving the ball . If a fielder is able to retrieve the ball sufficiently quickly and put down the wicket with either batsman out of his ground , a run-out occurs . Adjudication is performed on-field by two umpires . The laws of cricket are maintained by the International Cricket Council ( ICC ) and Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) . There are various formats ranging from Twenty20 , played over a few hours with each team having a single innings of 20 overs , to Test cricket , played over five days with unlimited overs and the teams playing two innings apiece . Traditionally , cricketers play in all-white kit but in limited overs cricket they wear club or team colours . In addition to the basic kit , some players wear protective gear to prevent injury caused by the ball which is a hard , solid object made of compressed leather enclosing a cork core . Although cricket 's origins are uncertain , it is first recorded in south-east England in the 16th century . It spread globally with the expansion of the British Empire , leading to the first international matches in the mid-19th century . ICC , the game 's governing body , has over 100 members , ten of which are full members who play Test cricket . Women 's cricket , which is organised and played separately , has also achieved international standard . Cricket is the world 's second most popular spectator sport , after association football , and is followed primarily in Australasia , Great Britain and Ireland , the Indian subcontinent , southern Africa and the West Indies . Etymology A number of words have been suggested as sources for the term `` cricket '' . In the earliest definite reference to the sport in 1598 it is called creckett . One possible source for the name is the Old English cricc or cryce meaning a crutch or staff.Birley , p. 3 . In Samuel Johnson 's Dictionary , he derived cricket from `` cryce , Saxon , a stick '' . In Old French , the word criquet seems to have meant a kind of club or stick . Given the strong medieval trade connections between south-east England and the County of Flanders when the latter belonged to the Duchy of Burgundy , the name may have been derived from the Middle Dutch krick ( -e ) , meaning a stick ( crook ) . Another possible source is the Middle Dutch word krickstoel , meaning a long low stool used for kneeling in church and which resembled the long low wicket with two stumps used in early cricket . According to Heiner Gillmeister , a European language expert of Bonn University , `` cricket '' derives from the Middle Dutch phrase for hockey , met de ( krik ket ) sen ( i.e. , `` with the stick chase '' ) . Dr Gillmeister believes that not only the name but the sport itself is of Flemish origin . History Cricket can definitely be traced back to Tudor times in early 16th-century England though there have been a number of claims , many of them spurious and/or lacking evidence , supporting earlier dates from 1301 . The earliest definite reference to cricket being played comes from evidence given at a 1598 court case which mentions that `` creckett '' ( sic ) was played on common land in Guildford around 1550 . The court in Guildford heard on Monday , 17 January 1597 ( Julian date , equating to the year 1598 in the Gregorian calendar ) from a 59-year-old coroner , John Derrick , who gave witness that when he was a scholar at the `` Free School at Guildford '' , fifty years earlier , `` hee and diverse of his fellows did runne and play [ on the common land ] at creckett and other plaies . '' Altham , p. 21 . It is believed that cricket was originally a children 's game but references around 1610 indicate that adults had started playing it and the earliest reference to inter-parish or village cricket occurs soon afterwards . In 1624 , a player called Jasper Vinall died after he was struck on the head during a match between two parish teams in Sussex.McCann , pp . xxxiii–xxxiv . During the 17th century , numerous references indicate the growth of cricket in the south-east of England . By the end of the century , it had become an organised activity being played for high stakes and it is believed that the first professionals appeared in the years following the Restoration in 1660 . A newspaper report survives of `` a great cricket match '' with eleven players a side that was played for high stakes in Sussex in 1697 , and this is the earliest known reference to a cricket match of such importance . The game underwent major development in the 18th century . Betting played a key part in that development with rich patrons forming their own `` select XIs '' . Cricket was prominent in London as early as 1707 and , in the middle years of the century , large crowds flocked to matches on the Artillery Ground in Finsbury . The single wicket form of the sport attracted huge crowds and wagers to match , its popularity peaking in the 1748 season . Bowling underwent an evolution around 1760 when bowlers began to pitch the ball instead of rolling or skimming it towards the batsman . This caused a revolution in bat design because , to deal with the bouncing ball , it was necessary to introduce the modern straight bat in place of the old `` hockey stick '' shape . The Hambledon Club was founded in the 1760s and , for the next twenty years until the formation of Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) and the opening of Lord 's Old Ground in 1787 , Hambledon was both the game 's greatest club and its focal point . MCC quickly became the sport 's premier club and the custodian of the Laws of cricket . New Laws introduced in the latter part of the 18th century included the three stump wicket and leg before wicket ( lbw ) . The 19th century saw underarm bowling superseded by first roundarm and then overarm bowling . Both developments were controversial . Organisation of the game at county level led to the creation of the county clubs , starting with Sussex in 1839 , which ultimately formed the official County Championship in 1890 . Meanwhile , the British Empire had been instrumental in spreading the game overseas and by the middle of the 19th century it had become well established in India , North America , the Caribbean , South Africa , Australia and New Zealand . In 1844 , the first-ever international match took place between the United States and Canada . In 1859 , a team of English players went to North America on the first overseas tour . The first Australian team to tour overseas was a team of Aboriginal stockmen who travelled to England in 1868 to play matches against county teams . In 1862 , an English team made the first tour of Australia . The most famous player of the 19th century was W. G. Grace , who started his long and influential career in 1865 . In 1876–77 , an England team took part in what was retrospectively recognised as the first-ever Test match at the Melbourne Cricket Ground against Australia . The rivalry between England and Australia gave birth to The Ashes in 1882 and this has remained Test cricket 's most famous contest . Test cricket began to expand in 1888–89 when South Africa played England . The last two decades before the First World War have been called the `` Golden Age of cricket '' . It is a nostalgic name prompted by the collective sense of loss resulting from the war , but the period did produce some great players and memorable matches , especially as organised competition at county and Test level developed . The inter-war years were dominated by one player : Australia 's Don Bradman , statistically the greatest batsman of all time . Test cricket continued to expand during the 20th century with the addition of the West Indies , India and New Zealand before the Second World War and then Pakistan , Sri Lanka , and Bangladesh in the post-war period . South Africa was banned from international cricket from 1970 to 1992 because of its government 's apartheid policy . Cricket entered a new era in 1963 when English counties introduced the limited overs variant . As it was sure to produce a result , limited overs cricket was lucrative and the number of matches increased . The first Limited Overs International was played in 1971 . The governing International Cricket Council ( ICC ) saw its potential and staged the first limited overs Cricket World Cup in 1975 . In the 21st century , a new limited overs form , Twenty20 , has made an immediate impact . Rules and game-play Cricket is a bat and ball game , played between two teams of eleven players each . One team bats , attempting to score runs , while the other bowls and fields the ball , attempting to restrict the scoring and dismiss the batsmen . The objective of the game is for a team to score more runs than its opponent . In some forms of cricket , it may also be necessary to dismiss the opposition in order to win the match , which would otherwise be drawn . Format of the game A cricket match is divided into periods called innings ( which ends with `` s '' in both singular and plural form ) . It is decided before the match whether the teams will have one innings or two innings each . During an innings one team fields and the other bats . The two teams switch between fielding and batting after each innings . All eleven members of the fielding team take the field , but only two members of the batting team ( two batsmen ) are on the field at any given time . The order of batsmen is usually announced just before the match , but it can be varied . A coin toss is held by the team captains ( who are also players ) just before the match starts : the winner decides whether to bat or field first . The cricket field is usually circular or oval in shape , with a rectangular pitch at the center . The edge of the playing field is marked with a boundary , which could be a fence , part of the stands , a rope or a painted line . At each end of the pitch is a wooden target called a wicket , placed 22 yards apart . The pitch is marked with painted lines : a bowling crease in line with the wicket , and a batting or popping crease four feet in front of it . The wicket is made of three vertical stumps supporting two small horizontal bails . A wicket is put down if at least one bail is dislodged , or one stump is knocked down ( usually by the ball , but also if the batsman does it with his body , clothing or equipment ) . This is also described as breaking , knocking down , or hitting the wicket - though if the ball hits the wicket but does not dislodge a bail or stump then it is not considered to be down . At any instant each batsman owns a particular wicket ( usually the one closer to him ) and , except when actually batting , is safe when he is in his ground . This means that at least one part of his body or bat is touching the ground behind the popping crease . If his wicket is put down while the ball is live and he is out of his ground then he is dismissed , but the other batsman is safe . The two batsmen take positions at opposite ends of the pitch . One designated member of the fielding team , called the bowler , bowls the ball from one end of the pitch to the striking batsman at the other end . The batsman at the bowling end is called the non-striker , and stands to the side of his wicket , behind his crease . The batsman are allowed to step forward of their creases , though at some risk . Another member of the fielding team , the wicket keeper , is positioned behind the striker 's wicket . The fielding team 's other nine members stand outside the pitch , spread out across the field . The fielding captain often strategically changes their position between balls . There is always an umpire at each end of the pitch . The bowler usually retreats a few yards ( metres ) behind the wicket , runs towards it ( his run-up ) , and then releases the ball over-hand as he reaches the bowling crease . ( If he crosses the crease before he releases the ball , or if he flexes his elbow too much in a throw , then it is a no ball , and the batting team gets a penalty or extra run . If the ball passes the far wicket out of reach of the batsman then it is called a wide , also with an extra run . ) The ball can be bowled so that it bounces on the pitch , lands exactly on the crease ( a yorker ) , or crosses the crease without bouncing ( a full toss ) . The batsman tries to prevent the ball from hitting the wicket by striking the ball with his bat . ( This includes the handle of the bat , and his gloves . ) If the bowler succeeds in putting down the wicket the batsman is dismissed and is said to be bowled out . If the batsman misses the ball , but any part of his body prevents it from reaching the wicket , then he is out leg before wicket , or `` LBW '' . If the batsman hits the ball but it is caught by a fielder without bouncing then he is caught out . If it is caught by the bowler then he is caught and bowled ; by the wicket keeper , caught behind . If the batsman is successful in striking the ball and it is not caught without bouncing , then the two batsmen may try to score points ( runs ) for their team . Both batsmen run the length of the pitch , exchanging positions , and grounding their bats behind the opposite crease . Each crossing and grounding by both batsmen is worth one run . The batsmen may attempt one run , multiple runs , or elect not to run at all . By attempting runs , the batsmen risk dismissal . This happens if the fielding team retrieves the ball and hits either wicket with the ball ( either by throwing it , or while holding it ) before the batsman who owns that wicket reaches his ground behind the crease . The dismissed batsman is run out . Batsmen will sometimes start to run , change their mind , and return to their original positions . If the batsman hits the ball over the field boundary without the ball touching the field , the batting team scores six runs . If the ball touches the ground and then reaches the boundary , the batting team scores four runs . The batsmen might start running before the ball reaches the boundary , but those runs do n't count . If the batsman misses the ball they can still attempt extra runs : these are called byes . If the ball bounces off his body then it is called a leg bye . If the striking batsman leaves his ground and misses the ball , then the wicket keeper can catch it and put down the wicket – stumped . In case of a no ball or a wide the batsman can choose to strike the ball , earning runs in addition to the fixed penalty . If he does so he can only be dismissed by being run out . When the batsmen have finished attempting their runs the ball is dead , and is returned to the bowler to be bowled again . The ball becomes live when he starts his run up . The bowler continues to bowl toward the same wicket , regardless of any switch of the batsmen 's positions . A batsman may retire from an innings without being dismissed , usually after reaching a milestone like a hundred runs ( a century ) . A dismissed batsman leaves the field , to be replaced by another batsman from the batting team . However , even though the wicket may have been put down , or the ball caught , the batsman is not actually dismissed until the fielding team appeal to the umpires for a decision , traditionally using the expression `` How 's that '' ( or `` Howzat '' ) . In some matches , particularly test matches , either team may request a review by a third umpire who can use a decision review system ( DRS ) , which includes TV replays and other electronic equipment such as Hawk-Eye , Hot Spot and the Snickometer . After a bowler has bowled six times ( an over ) , another member of the fielding team is designated as the new bowler , the old bowler taking up a fielding position . The batsmen stay in place , and the new bowler bowls to the opposite wicket , so the role of striker and non-striker reverse . The wicket keeper and the two umpires always change positions , as do many of the fielders , and play continues . Fielding team members may bowl multiple times during an innings , but may not bowl two overs in succession . The innings is complete when 10 of the 11 members of the batting team have been dismissed ( all out - although one always remaining `` not out '' ) , when a set number of overs has been played , or when the batting team declares that they have enough runs . The number of innings and the number of overs per innings vary depending on the format of the match . In a match which is not a limited overs format the umpires will usually specify that the last session of the last innings will have a specified number of overs . The match always ends when all innings have been completed . The umpires can also call an end to the match in case of bad light or weather . But in many cases the match ends immediately when the first team to bat has played all of its innings , and the last team to bat has more runs . In four-innings games the last team may not even need to play its second innings : this team is said to win by an innings . If this winning team has not completed its last innings , and still has , for example , five batsmen who are not out or have not even batted , then they are said to `` win by five wickets '' . If the last team to bat is losing , is all out , and has 10 fewer runs than the other team , then the winning team `` wins by 10 runs '' . If the two teams both play all their innings and they have the same number of runs , then it is a tie . In four-innings matches there is also the possibility of a draw : the team with fewer runs still has batsmen on the field when the game ends . This has a major effect on strategy : a team will often declare an innings when they have accumulated enough runs , in the hope that they will have enough time left to dismiss the other team and thus avoid a draw , but risking a loss if the other team scores enough runs . Pitch , wickets and creases Playing surface Cricket is played on a grassy field . The Laws of Cricket do not specify the size or shape of the field , but it is often oval . In the centre of the field is a rectangular strip , known as the pitch . The pitch is a flat surface 10 ft wide , with very short grass that tends to be worn away as the game progresses . At either end of the pitch , 22 yd apart , are placed wooden targets , known as the wickets . These serve as a target for the bowling ( also known as the fielding ) side and are defended by the batting side , which seeks to accumulate runs . Stumps , bails and creases Each wicket on the pitch consists of three wooden stumps placed vertically , in line with one another . They are surmounted by two wooden crosspieces called bails ; the total height of the wicket including bails is and the combined width of the three stumps , including small gaps between them is 9 in . Four lines , known as creases , are painted onto the pitch around the wicket areas to define the batsman 's `` safe territory '' and to determine the limit of the bowler 's approach . These are called the `` popping '' ( or batting ) crease , the bowling crease and two `` return '' creases . The stumps are placed in line on the bowling creases and so these creases must be 22 yd apart . A bowling crease is 8 ft long , with the middle stump placed dead centre . The popping crease has the same length , is parallel to the bowling crease and is 4 ft in front of the wicket . The return creases are perpendicular to the other two ; they are adjoined to the ends of the popping crease and are drawn through the ends of the bowling crease to a length of at least 8 ft . When bowling the ball , the bowler 's back foot in his `` delivery stride '' must land within the two return creases while at least some part of his front foot must land on or behind the popping crease . If the bowler breaks this rule , the umpire calls `` No ball '' . The importance of the popping crease to the batsman is that it marks the limit of his safe territory . He can be dismissed stumped or run out ( see Dismissals below ) if the wicket is broken while he is `` out of his ground '' . Bat and ball The essence of the sport is that a bowler delivers the ball from his end of the pitch towards the batsman who , armed with a bat is `` on strike '' at the other end . The bat is made of wood ( usually White Willow ) and has the shape of a blade topped by a cylindrical handle . The blade must not be more than wide and the total length of the bat not more than 38 in . The ball is a hard leather-seamed spheroid , with a circumference of 9 in . The hardness of the ball , which can be delivered at speeds of more than 90 mph , is a matter for concern and batsmen wear protective clothing including pads ( designed to protect the knees and shins ) , batting gloves for the hands , a helmet for the head and a box inside the trousers ( to protect the crotch area ) . Some batsmen wear additional padding inside their shirts and trousers such as thigh pads , arm pads , rib protectors and shoulder pads . The ball has a `` seam '' : six rows of stitches attaching the leather shell of the ball to the string and cork interior . The seam on a new ball is prominent , and helps the bowler propel it in a less predictable manner . During cricket matches , the quality of the ball changes to a point where it is no longer usable , and during this decline its properties alter and thus influence the match . Players will therefore attempt to changes the properties of the ball in order to influence its flight . Polishing the ball and wetting it with sweat or saliva is legal , even when the polishing is deliberately done on one side only to increase the ball 's swing , while rubbing other substances into the ball , scratching the surface or picking at the seam is illegal ball tampering . Umpires and scorers The game on the field is regulated by two umpires , one of whom stands behind the wicket at the bowler 's end , the other in a position called `` square leg '' , a position 15–20 metres to the side of the `` on strike '' batsman . The main role of the umpires is to adjudicate on whether a ball is correctly bowled ( not a no ball or a wide ) , when a run is scored , and whether a batsman is out ( the fielding side must appeal to the umpire , usually with the phrase How 's That ? ) . Umpires also determine when intervals start and end , decide on the suitability of the playing conditions and can interrupt or even abandon the match due to circumstances likely to endanger the players , such as a damp pitch or deterioration of the light . Off the field and in televised matches , there is often a third umpire who can make decisions on certain incidents with the aid of video evidence . The third umpire is mandatory under the playing conditions for Test matches and limited overs internationals played between two ICC full members . These matches also have a match referee whose job is to ensure that play is within the Laws of cricket and the spirit of the game

qf_1621--Cricket.txt

Which Australian cricketer in his very last innings in 1948 scored a duck (0)?

Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A. is an Italian company that designs and manufactures motorcycles . Headquartered in Bologna , Italy , Ducati is owned by German automotive manufacturer Audi through its Italian subsidiary Lamborghini , which is all owned by the Volkswagen Group . History In 1926 Antonio Cavalieri Ducati and his three sons , Adriano , Marcello , and Bruno Cavalieri Ducati ; founded Società Scientifica Radio Brevetti Ducati in Bologna to produce vacuum tubes , condensers and other radio components . In 1935 they had become successful enough to enable construction of a new factory in the Borgo Panigale area of the city . Production was maintained during World War II , despite the Ducati factory being a repeated target of Allied bombing . Meanwhile , at the small Turinese firm SIATA ( Societa Italiana per Applicazioni Tecniche Auto-Aviatorie ) , Aldo Farinelli began developing a small pushrod engine for mounting on bicycles . Barely a month after the official liberation of Italy in 1944 , SIATA announced its intention to sell this engine , called the `` Cucciolo '' ( Italian for `` puppy , '' in reference to the distinctive exhaust sound ) to the public . The first Cucciolos were available alone , to be mounted on standard bicycles , by the buyer ; however , businessmen soon bought the little engines in quantity , and offered complete motorized-bicycle units for sale . In 1950 , after more than 200,000 Cucciolos had been sold , in collaboration with SIATA , the Ducati firm finally offered its own Cucciolo-based motorcycle . This first Ducati motorcycle was a 48 cc bike weighing , with a top speed of , and had a 15 mm giving just under . Ducati soon dropped the Cucciolo name in favor of `` 55M '' and `` 65TL '' . When the market moved toward larger motorcycles , Ducati management decided to respond , making an impression at an early-1952 Milan show , introducing their 65TS cycle and Cruiser ( a four-stroke motor scooter ) . Despite being described as the most interesting new machine at the 1952 show , the Cruiser was not a great success , and only a few thousand were made over a two-year period before the model ceased production . In 1953 , management split the company into two separate entities , Ducati Meccanica SpA and Ducati Elettronica , in acknowledgment of its diverging motorcycle and electronics product lines . Ducati Elettronica became Ducati Energia SpA in the eighties . Dr. Giuseppe Montano took over as head of Ducati Meccanica SpA and the Borgo Panigale factory was modernized with government assistance . By 1954 , Ducati Meccanica SpA had increased production to 120 bikes a day . In the 1960s , Ducati earned its place in motorcycling history by producing the fastest 250 cc road bike then available , the Mach 1 . In the 1970s Ducati began producing large-displacement V-twin motorcycles and in 1973 , released a V-twin with the trademarked desmodromic valve design . In 1985 , Cagiva bought Ducati and planned to rebadge Ducati motorcycles with the `` Cagiva '' name . By the time the purchase was completed , Cagiva kept the `` Ducati '' name on its motorcycles . Eleven years later , in 1996 , Cagiva accepted the offer from Texas Pacific Group and sold a 51 % stake in the company for US $ 325 million ; then , in 1998 , Texas Pacific Group bought most of the remaining 49 % to become the sole owner of Ducati . In 1999 , TPG issued an initial public offering of Ducati stock and renamed the company `` Ducati Motor Holding SpA '' . TPG sold over 65 % of its shares in Ducati , leaving TPG the majority shareholder . In December 2005 , Ducati returned to Italian ownership with the sale of Texas Pacific 's stake ( minus one share ) to Investindustrial Holdings , the investment fund of Carlo and Andrea Bonomi . In April 2012 , Volkswagen Group 's Audi subsidiary announced its intention to buy Ducati for € ( US $ ) . Volkswagen chairman Ferdinand Piëch , a motorcycle enthusiast , had long coveted Ducati , and had regretted that he passed up an opportunity to buy the company from the Italian government in 1984 . Analysts doubted a tiny motorcycle maker would have a meaningful effect on a company the size of Volkswagen , commenting that the acquisition has `` a trophy feel to it , '' and , `` is driven by VW 's passion for nameplates rather than industrial or financial logic '' . Italian luxury car brand Lamborghini was strengthened under VW ownership . AUDI AG 's Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. subsidiary acquired 100 percent of the shares of Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A. on July 19 , 2012 for € ( US $ ) . Ownership Since 1926 , Ducati has been owned by a number of groups and companies . * 1926–1950 – Ducati family * 1950–1967 – Government Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale ( IRI ) management * * 1953 – Split into Ducati Meccanica ( now called Ducati Motor ) and Ducati Elettronica ( now called Ducati Energia ) * 1967–1978 – Government EFIM management ( control over day-to-day factory operations ) * * 1967–1973 – Headed By Giuseppe Montano * * 1973–1978 – Headed by Cristiano de Eccher * 1978–1985 – VM Group * 1985–1996 – Cagiva Group ownership * 1996–2005 – Texas-Pacific Group ( US-based ) ownership and going public * * Headed by CEO Federico Minoli , 1996–2001 ; returning for 2003–2007 * 2005–2008 – Investindustrial Holdings SpA * 2008–2012 – Performance Motorcycles SpA : An investment vehicle formed by Investindustrial Holdings , BS Investimenti and Hospitals of Ontario Pension Plan * July 19 , 2012 – present – Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A . : AUDI AG acquired 100 % of the voting rights of Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A. via Audi 's Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. subsidiary From the 1960s to the 1990s , the Spanish company MotoTrans licensed Ducati engines and produced motorcycles that , although they incorporated subtle differences , were clearly Ducati-derived . MotoTrans 's most notable machine was the 250 cc 24 Horas ( Spanish for `` 24 hours '' ) . Motorcycle designs Ducati is best known for high-performance motorcycles characterized by large-capacity four-stroke , 90° V-twin engines , with a desmodromic valve design . Ducati refers to this configuration as L-twin because one cylinder is vertical while the other is horizontal , making it look like a letter `` L '' . Modern Ducatis remain among the dominant performance motorcycles available today partly because of the desmodromic valve design , which is nearing its 50th year of use . Desmodromic valves are closed with a separate , dedicated cam lobe and lifter instead of the conventional valve springs used in most internal combustion engines in consumer vehicles . This allows the cams to have a more radical profile , thus opening and closing the valves more quickly without the risk of valve-float , which causes a loss of power that is likely when using a `` passive '' closing mechanism under the same conditions . While most other manufacturers use wet clutches ( with the spinning parts bathed in oil ) Ducati previously used multiplate dry clutches in many of their motorcycles . The dry clutch eliminates the power loss from oil viscosity drag on the engine , even though the engagement may not be as smooth as the oil-bath versions , but the clutch plates can wear more rapidly . Ducati has converted to wet clutches across their current product lines . Ducati also extensively uses a trellis frame , although Ducati 's MotoGP project broke with this tradition by introducing a revolutionary carbon fibre frame for the Ducati Desmosedici GP9 . Product history The chief designer of most Ducati motorcycles in the 1950s was Fabio Taglioni ( 1920–2001 ) . His designs ranged from the small single-cylinder machines that were successful in the Italian 'street races ' to the large-capacity twins of the 1980s . Ducati introduced the Pantah in 1979 ; its engine was updated in the 1990s in the Ducati SuperSport ( SS ) series . All modern Ducati engines are derivatives of the Pantah , which uses a toothed belt to actuate the engine 's valves . Taglioni used the Cavallino Rampante ( identified with the Ferrari brand ) on his Ducati motorbikes , Taglioni chose this emblem of courage and daring as a sign of respect and admiration for Francesco Baracca , a heroic World War I fighter pilot who died during an air raid in 1918 . 1950s 1960s 1970s In 1973 , Ducati commemorated its 1972 win at the Imola 200 with the production model green frame Ducati 750 SuperSport . Ducati also targeted the offroad market with the two-stroke Regolarità 125 , building 3,486 models from 1975 to 1979 , but the bike was not successful . In 1975 , the company introduced the 860 GT , designed by noted car stylist Giorgetto Giugiaro . Its angular lines were unique , but raised handlebars made for an uncomfortable seating position at high speeds and also caused steering issues . 1980s Ducati 's liquid-cooled , multi-valve V-twins , made from 1985 on , are known as Desmoquattro ( `` desmodromic valve four '' ) . These include the 851 , 916 and 996 , 999 and a few predecessors and derivatives . The Ducati Paso was introduced in 1986 with the Paso 750 , followed in 1989 with the Paso 906 . The final version came in 1991 with the 907IE ( Iniezione Elettronica ) , now without the name `` Paso '' . The design was from the hand of Massimo Tamburini , who also designed the Ducati 916 and MV Agusta F4 . The Paso was a typical `` you love it , you hate it '' bike . However , at that time it looked like that all-enclosed bodywork would be the future for all motorcycles . The Paso design was copied for the Moto Morini Dart 400 and Cagiva Freccia 125 . Together with Tamburini 's Bimota DB1 , they were enormously influential in terms of styling . 1990s In 1993 , Miguel Angel Galluzzi introduced the Ducati Monster , a naked bike with exposed trellis and engine . Today the Monster accounts for almost half of the company 's worldwide sales . The Monster has undergone the most changes of any motorcycle that Ducati has ever produced . In 1993 , Pierre Terblanche , Massimo Bordi and Claudio Domenicali designed the Ducati Supermono . A 550 cc single-cylinder lightweight `` Catalog Racer '' . Only 67 were built between 1993 and 1997 . In 1994 , the company introduced the Ducati 916 model designed by Massimo Tamburini , a water-cooled version that allowed for higher output levels and a striking new bodywork that had aggressive lines , an underseat exhaust , and a single-sided swingarm . Ducati has since ceased production of the 916 , supplanting it ( and its progeny , the 748 , 996 and 998 ) with the 749 and 999 . 2000s In 2006 , the retro-styled Ducati PaulSmart 1000 LE was released , which shared styling cues with the 1973 750 SuperSport ( itself a production replica of Paul Smart 's 1972 race winning 750 Imola Desmo ) , as one of a SportClassic series representing the 750 GT , 750 Sport , and 750 SuperSport Ducati motorcycles . * Monster : 620 , 695 , 696 , 750 , 796 , 900 , S2R , S4R * ST2 , ST3 , ST4 * Paul Smart 1000LE and SportClassic variants * SuperSport 750 , 900 , 1000 * 748 , 749 , 848 * 996 , 998 , 999 , 1098 , 1098S , 1098R , 1198 * Desmosedici RR Current lineup ; Monster * 821 * 821 Dark * 821 Stripe * 1200 * 1200 S * 1200 R ; Multistrada * 1200 * 1200 S * 1200 S Pikes Peak * 1200 Endruro ; Diavel * Diavel * Diavel Carbon * XDiavel * XDiavel S ; Superbike * 959 Panigale * 1299 Panigale * 1299 Panigale S * Panigale R ; Hypermotard * Hypermotard 939 * Hypermotard 939 SP * Hyperstrada 939 ; Scrambler * Classic * Urban Enduro * Icon * Full Throttle * Sixty2 Current engines * Desmodue : Desmodromic two-valve , air-cooled , L-Twin , 60° included valve angle ( Scrambler ) * Testastretta 11° : Desmo four-valve , liquid-cooled , L-Twin , 11° valve overlap angle ( Hypermotard/Hyperstrada 939 , Monster 821 ) * Testastretta 11° DS : Desmo four-valve , liquid-cooled , L-Twin , 11° valve overlap angle , dual ignition ( Monster 1200 , Diavel MY'15 ) * Testastretta 11° DVT : Desmo four-valve , liquid-cooled , L-Twin , variable valve timing , dual ignition ( Multistrada 1200 MY'15 , XDiavel ) * Superquadro : Desmo four-valve , liquid cooled , L-Twin , 157 - ( Panigale ) Past engines * Desmodue Evoluzione : Desmo two-valve , air-cooled ( Hypermotard 1100 Evo , Monster 1100 Evo ) * Desmodue DS : Desmo two-valve , air-cooled , 56° included valve angle , dual ignition ( Hypermotard 1100 , Multistrada 1100 , Monster 1100 , Monster S2R 1000 , SportClassic GT 1000 , SuperSport 1000 ) * Desmodue LC : Desmo two-valve , liquid-cooled ( ST2 ) * Desmotre DS : Desmo three-valve , liquid-cooled , 40° included valve angle , dual ignition ( ST3 ) * Desmoquattro : Desmo four-valve , liquid-cooled , 40° included valve angle , ( 851 , 888 , 916 , 996 , 748 , Monster S4 , Monster S4R ) * Testastretta : Desmo four-valve , liquid-cooled , 25° included valve angle , ( 996R , 998 , 999 , 749 , Monster S4R Testastretta ) * Testastretta Evoluzione : Desmo four-valve , liquid-cooled , 24.3° included valve angle , 41° valve overlap angle ( 848 , 1098/1198 , Streetfighter 1098 ) Motorcycle design history Ducati has produced several styles of motorcycle engines , including varying the number of cylinders , type of valve actuation and fuel delivery . Ducati is best known for its V-twin engine , called a L-twin by the company , which is the powerplant in the majority of Ducati-marqued motorcycles . Ducati has also manufactured engines with one , two , three or four cylinders ; operated by pull rod valves and push rod valves ; single , double and triple overhead camshafts ; two-stroke and even at one stage manufactured small diesel engines , many of which were used to power boats , generators , garden machinery and emergency pumps ( for example , for fire fighting ) . The engines were the IS series from 7 to air-cooled and the larger twin DM series water- and air-cooled . The engines have been found in all parts of the globe . Wisconsin Diesel even assembled and `` badge engineered '' the engines in the USA . They have also produced outboard motors for marine use . Currently , Ducati makes no other engines except for its motorcycles . On current Ducati motors , except for the Desmosedici and 1199 Panigale , the valves are actuated by a standard valve cam shaft which is rotated by a timing belt driven by the motor directly . The teeth on the belt keep the camshaft drive pulleys indexed . On older Ducati motors , prior to 1986 , drive was by solid shaft that transferred to the camshaft through bevel-cut gears . This method of valve actuation was used on many of Ducati 's older single-cylinder motorcycles — the shaft tube is visible on the outside of the cylinder . Ducati is also famous for using the desmodromic valve system championed by engineer and designer Fabio Taglioni , though the firm has also used engines that use valve springs to close their valves . In the early days , Ducati reserved the desmodromic valve heads for its higher performance bikes and its race bikes . These valves do not suffer from valve float at high engine speeds , thus a desmodromic engine is capable of far higher revolutions than a similarly configured engine with traditional spring-valve heads . In the 1960s and 1970s , Ducati produced a wide range of small two-stroke bikes , mainly sub-100 cc capacities . Large quantities of some models were exported to the United States . Ducati has produced the following motorcycle engine types : * Single-cylinder , * * pullrod actuated , 48 cc and 65 cc ( Cucciolo ) * * pushrod actuated , 98 and 125 cc * * two-stroke , 50 , 80 , 90 , 100 , 125 cc * * bevel actuated , spring valved : 98 cc , 100 cc , 125 cc , 160 cc , 175 cc , 200 cc , 239 cc , 250 cc , 350 cc , 450 cc * * bevel actuated , desmodromic valved : 125 cc , 239 cc , 250 cc , 350 cc and 450 cc * * belt actuated , desmodromic valved : 549/572 cc Supermono , only 65 made . * Two-cylinder , * * bevel actuated , spring valved ( V-twin ) : 750 cc , 860 cc * * bevel actuated , desmo valved ( V-twin ) : 750 cc , 860 cc , 900 cc , 973 cc ( Mille ) * * bevel actuated , desmo valved ( parallel twin ) : 125 cc , * * chain actuated , spring valved ( parallel twin ) : 350 cc , 500 cc ( GTL ) * * chain actuated , desmo valved ( parallel twin ) : 500 cc ( 500SD ) * * belt actuated , desmo valved ( V-twin ) : Almost all motors since 1986 . * Four-cylinder , * * gear actuated , desmo valved ( V4 ) : Prototype Desmosedici , and Low volume Production Desmosedici RR , 1,500 made * * pushrod actuated , spring valved ( V4 ) : Prototype Apollo , only two made . Enthusiasts groups A key part of Ducati 's marketing strategy since the 1990s has been fostering a distinct community identity in connection with branding efforts including online communities and local , regional and national Ducati enthusiast clubs . There are more than 400 Ducati clubs worldwide and 20,000 registered users of the Ducati Owners Club web site and 17,000 subscribers to the racing web site . Enthusiasts and riders are informally referred to in the motorcycling community as Ducatista ( singular ) or Ducatisti ( plural ) . In North America there are several Ducati enthusiasts organizations with varying degrees of factory sponsorship . DESMO , the Ducati Enthusiast Sport Motorcycle Organization , is a North American group affiliated with the factory Desmo Owners Club . Some groups are focused on vintage Ducatis while several are based primarily or entirely on email discussion lists or web forums . Ducati products other than motorcycles Ducati Meccanica ( as the company was previously known ) has its marque on non-motorcycle products as well . In the 1930s and 1940s , Ducati manufactured radios , cameras , and electrical products such as a razor . Ducati made a marine binocular called the BIMAR for the Kriegsmarine during World War II , some of which were sold on the civilian market after the war . The Ducati Sogno was a half-frame Leica-like camera which is now a collector 's item . Ducati and Bianchi have developed and launched a new line of racing bicycles . There are four Ducati companies : # Ducati Motor Holding ( the subject of this article ) # Ducati Corse ( which runs the Ducati racing program and is wholly owned by Ducati Motor Holding ) # Ducati Energia , a designer and manufacturer of electrical and electronic components and systems ; and # Ducati Sistemi , a subsidiary of Ducati Energia . All are located in Borgo Panigale in Bologna , Italy . Ducati Motor Holding often uses electrical components and subsystems from Ducati Energia . Merchandising Ducati has a wide range of accessories , lifestyle products and co-branded merchandise bearing their logos and designs . The company has a licensing agreement with Tumi Inc. , launching a collection of eight co-branded luggage pieces in 2006 , sold through both of the brands ' retail outlets . Racing history Ducati 's history with motorsport began with speed records on Cucciolo motorized bicycle factory racers in 1951 , followed in 1954 with bringing in Fabio Taglioni to found a road-racing program with the 100 Gran Sport . , Ducati was still pursuing the `` win on Sunday , sell on Monday '' business model and spending 10 % of company revenues , € , on its racing business . MotoGP World Championship Ducati rejoined Grand Prix motorcycle racing in , after a 30-year absence . On September 23 , 2007 , Casey Stoner clinched his and Ducati 's first Grand Prix World Championship . When Ducati re-joined MotoGP in , MotoGP had changed its rules to allow four-stroke 990 cc engines to race . At the time Ducati was the fastest bike . In , MotoGP reduced the engine size to ' , and Ducati continued to be the fastest with a bike that was markedly quicker than its rivals as was displayed by Casey Stoner on tracks with long straights . For , Ducati Marlboro Team campaigned their Desmosedici GP9 with former World Champions Casey Stoner and Nicky Hayden . Ducati also supplies customer bikes to the Alice Team , with Mika Kallio and Niccolò Canepa riding for the team in 2009 . Nine-time world champion Valentino Rossi rode for Ducati Corse for the and seasons . Rossi returned to the Yamaha team for the 2013 season . For , Ducati Marlboro Team raced with Nicky Hayden and the Italian rider Andrea Dovizioso . In 2014 Cal Crutchlow teamed up with Dovizioso for the season , and he left at the end of the year . In , Ducati Marlboro Team , under the control of the new race team director Gigi Dall'Igna and the new Desmosedici GP15 , raced with two Italian riders : Andrea Dovizioso and Andrea Iannone . Dovizioso and Iannone returned for another season in with Michele Pirro as official tester . As well as this , Casey Stoner also tested Ducati machinery during the season . Superbike World Championship ( SBK ) The company has won 14 riders world championships and 17 manufacturers world championships , competing since the series ' inception in 1988 . At the end of 2015 , Ducati has amassed 318 wins , more than any other manufacturer involved in the championship . Ducati has also won the manufacturer world championship for years 1991–1996 , 1998–2004 , 2006 , 2008–2009 and 2011 . Supersport World Championship FIM Superstock 1000 Championship British Superbike Championship The British Superbike Championship has been won by Ducati riders on eight occasions and entered since 1988 : AMA Superbike Championship In the AMA Superbike Championship , Ducati has had its share of success , with Doug Polen winning the title in 1993 and Troy Corser the following year in 1994 . Ducati has entered a bike in every AMA Superbike season since 1986 , but withdrew from the series after the 2006 season . Ducati had an important place in early Superbike racing history in the United States and vice versa : In 1977 , Cycle magazine editors Cook Neilson and Phil Schilling took a Ducati 750SS to first place at Daytona in the second-ever season of AMA Superbike racing . `` Neilson retired from racing at the end of the year , but the bike he and Schilling built — nicknamed Old Blue for its blue livery — became a legend , '' says Richard Backus from Motorcycle Classics : `` How big a legend ? Big enough for Ducati to team with Italian specialty builder NCR to craft a limited-edition update , New Blue , based on the 2007 Sport 1000S , and big enough to inspire the crew at the Barber Vintage Motorsports Museum ( see Barber Motorsports Park ) , arguably one of the most important motorcycle museums in the world , to commission Ducati specialist Rich Lambrechts to craft a bolt-by-bolt replica for its collection . The finished bike 's name ? Deja Blue . '' Australian Superbike Championship Formula TT Ducati 's first ever world title was the 1978 TT Formula 1 World Championship , achieved thanks to Mike Hailwood 's victory at the Isle of Man TT . Between 1981 and 1984 Tony Rutter won four TT Formula 2 World Championships riding Ducati bikes .

qz_2053--Ducati.txt

The Ducati is manufactured in which city and what country?

The GBR code ( or Guy–Blandford–Roycroft code ) is a system of representing the position of chess pieces on a chessboard . Publications such as EG use it to classify endgame types and to index endgame studies . The code is named after Richard Guy , Hugh Blandford and John Roycroft . The first two devised the original system ( the Guy–Blandford code ) using different figures to represent the number of pieces . Roycroft suggested to count one for a white piece and three for a black piece in order to make the code easier to memorise . Definition In the GBR code , every chess position is represented by six digits , in the following format : abcd.ef * a = queens * b = rooks * c = bishops * d = knights * e = white pawns * f = black pawns For the first four digits , each white piece counts as 1 , and each black piece counts as 3 . Thus , for example , if White has two knights and Black has one knight , numeral d 1 + 1 + 3 5 . If that is all the material other than the kings , the position is classified 0005 . Values 0 through 8 represent all normal permutations of force ; 9 is used if either side has promoted material . The last two digits of the code represent the number of white and black pawns , respectively . Usage GBR code can be used to refer to a general class of material . For example , the endgame of two knights against pawn ( as famously analysed by A.A. Troitsky , leading to his discovery of the Troitsky line ) , is GBR class 0002.01 . When indexing or referring to specific positions , rather than generalised material imbalances , the code may be extended in various ways . Two common ones are to prefix `` + '' to indicate the stipulation `` White to play and win '' or `` '' for `` White to play and draw '' ; and to suffix the position of the white and black kings . With these additions , the position to the right , a draw study by Leonid Kubbel ( First Prize , Shakhmaty , 1925 ) , is classified as 0323.12g3g1 . ( The solution is : 1.Bf2+ Kh1 2.h7 c2+ 3.Be3 Rxe3+ 4.Kf2 Rh3 5.Bd5+ cxd5 6.hxg8Q Rh2+ 7.Kf3 c1 Q 8.Qg2+ Rxg2 . ) The positions of other pieces can also be added ; this produces a notation that provides the same information as Forsyth–Edwards Notation . Examples of GBR code

sfq_11783--GBR_code.txt

In which pastime/game would you use the Forsyth-Edwards Notation or the GBR code?

Tikki Tikki Tembo { Full name Tikki tikki tembo-no sa rembo- chari bari ruchi-pip peri pembo } is a 1968 picture book written by Arlene Mosel and illustrated by Blair Lent . The book tells the story of a Chinese boy with a long name who fell into a well . It is a sort of origin myth about why Chinese names are so short today . The book is controversial because it appears to retell a Japanese story and because it does not portray Chinese culture accurately . Plot Tikki Tikki Tembo is set in ancient China and invents an ancient Chinese custom whereby parents honor their first-born sons with long , elaborate names that everyone is obliged to say completely - no nicknames , no shortening of any kind - while second-born sons are typically given short , unimportant names . A boy named Tikki Tikki Tembo-no Sa Rembo-chari Bari Ruchi-pip Peri Pembo ( `` The Most Wonderful Thing in the Whole Wide World '' ) and his little brother Chang ( `` Little or Nothing '' ) are playing very close to a well at their house that their mother has warned them to avoid . Chang falls in the well and his older brother runs to their mother and tells her Chang has fallen down the well . Their mother tells him to get the Old Man with the Ladder . He goes and tells the old man . Chang is rescued and then recovers quickly . Some time later , the boys are again playing near the well . This time , the older brother falls in . Chang runs to their mother and tries to tell her that `` Tikki Tikki Tembo-no Sa Rembo-chari Bari Ruchi-pip Peri Pembo has fallen into the well . '' At first she can not hear him so he says it again . However , because Chang is out of breath from running he sputters and then mispronounces the name . His mother insists that he repeat the namebut with respect . He tries repeatedly until finally his mother tells Chang to get the Old Man with the Ladder . Chang goes to the Old Man with the Ladder . Initially , the old man does not respond because he is asleep . Further , when Chang tries to wake him up , the Old Man with the Ladderannoyedtries to fall back asleep . After Chang breathlessly repeats his brother 's predicament the Old Man goes with Chang to save his brother from the well . They get Tikki Tikki Tembo-no Sa Rembo-chari Bari Ruchi-pip Peri Pembo from the well , but because of the long time he was in the well , it was many moons before he was quite the same again . The end of the story says that this is why the Chinese have short names . Reception The book received accolades upon publication . The Kirkus Review found the illustrations to be `` a skillful counterpoint of diminutive detail and spacious landscape and a fine setting for a sprightly folktale . '' The book won a 1968 Boston Globe–Horn Book Award in the Picture Book category . In 1997 , The New York Times selected it as one of the 50 best children 's books of the previous 50 years . In a 1999-2000 National Education Association online survey of children , the book was one of the `` Kids ' Top 100 Books '' . Based on a 2007 online poll , the National Education Association named the book one of its `` Teachers ' Top 100 Books for Children '' . In a 2008 online poll of `` Top 100 Picture Books '' by School Library Journal , the book ranked 35th ; in a similar 2012 poll , the book ranked 89th . According to the publisher , over one million copies of the book had been sold by 2013 . The 2009 audio book version of the story received a Parents ' Choice Foundation rating of `` Approved '' . Background The publisher states that the author `` first heard the story ... as a child '' and that the book is `` her own retelling '' of it . However , the story is thought to have come from Japan rather than from China . Specifically , it has been suggested that the story originated from the very similar Japanese rakugo about Jugemu Jugemu Gokō-no surikire Kaijarisuigyo-no Suigyōmatsu Unraimatsu Fūraimatsu Kūnerutokoro-ni Sumutokoro Yaburakōji-no burakōji Paipopaipo Paipo-no-shūringan Shūringan-no Gūrindai Gūrindai-no Ponpokopī-no Ponpokonā-no Chōkyūmei-no Chōsuke . In 1924 , the National Association of Junior Chautauquas published a book that contained a story by an anonymous author entitled `` Tiki-Tiki-Tembo '' ; the story concerned a boy `` in old Japan '' named `` Tiki-tiki-tembo-no sa rembo-Hari bari broohski-Peri pen do-Hiki pon pom-Nichi no miano-Dom bori ko . `` Anonymous . `` Tiki-Tiki-Tembo . '' In : National Association of Junior Chautauquas . Through Story-Land with the Children . New York [ etc . ] : Fleming H. Revell Co. , 1924 , pp . 31–34 . LC 24022123 . OCLC 8693565 . Toward the end of the 1924 story , it is stated that after falling into the well , the title character `` never grew up to be a fine Japanese man . '' A book published in 1968 ( the same year as Tikki Tikki Tembo ) reprinted the 1924 version of the story . It is possible that a recorded 1960 version of the story called `` Long-Name-No-Can-Say '' with a fat elder brother named `` Nicki Nicki Tembo No So Rembo Oo Ma Moochi Gamma Gamma Goochi '' was the first to change it to a Chinese setting . A similar story is told in the American folksong `` ( Eddie Kucha Kacha Kama Tosa Nara Tosa Noma ) Sama Kama Wacky Brown '' recorded in 1960 by the Brothers Four on their eponymous first album ; the title character `` fell into the deep , dark well '' and drowned . A story published in 1961 by Golden Press , called `` The Little Boy With the Long Name '' , featured an older brother named `` Sticky Sticky Stumbo Nos E Rumbo E Pro Pennyo Hara Bara Brisko Nicky Prom Po Nish No Mennyo Dumbricko '' . Untermeyer , Bryna , editor . `` The Little Boy With the Long Name . '' In : Untermeyer , Bryna , and Louis Untermeyer , editors . Big and Little Creatures ( The Golden Treasury of Children 's Literature , Volume I ) . New York : Golden Press , 1961 , pp . 164–169 . LC 624314 . OCLC 6431887 . The 1961 story ends with the boy 's death by drowning , which was ironic because the parents had believed that giving children long names would cause them to live long lives . Criticisms and inaccuracies Some people have felt the story to be offensive as it seems to depict their language and culture inaccurately , while claiming to retell an actual Chinese folktale.Various . [ http : //www.fairrosa.info/disc/tikki.html `` Tikki Tikki Tembo and Cultural Accuracy in Folktales . '' ] Child_Lit Listserv Archive . June 410 , 1998 . Accessed February 18 , 2013 . Others see it as a fictional tale based superficially on a foreign land . It has been criticized for `` reinforc [ ing ] the stereotype that Asian names sound like nonsense syllables '' , especially as the name of the title character is nothing like actual Chinese and the common name Chang ( pinyin Zhāng ) is a surname and not a given name . No similar Chinese word means `` little or nothing '' . Some of the cultural incongruities are : * The mother 's dress resembles a Japanese kimono . * The title character appears to wear Japanese wooden sandals ( geta ) . * During the second visit to the well , on the `` Festival of the Eighth Moon '' ( presumably meaning the Mid-Autumn Festival ) , the boys eat rice cakes instead of mooncakes . * When Chang addresses his mother , he is depicted bowing backwards . Editions and translations Scholastic records released a LP record of the story in 1968 . Weston Woods Studios produced a filmstrip and cassette tape version in 1970 which was later distributed on VHS and DVD . Translations of the book include : * Tikki Tikki tembo ( 1975 , Afrikaans , ISBN 0949975257 ) * Eka Tikki Tikki Tembo ( 1976 , Zulu , ISBN 0869600648 ) * Tikki , Tikki , Tembo ( 1994 , Spanish , ISBN 1880507137 ) * Tikki tikki tembo ( 1995 , Xhosa , ISBN 1868430669 ) In popular culture * A 1975 jazz album Brown Rice by Don Cherry contains the song `` Brown Rice '' , in which the artist refers to Tikki Tikki Tembo . * A 1990 punk rock album by the band Cringer was titled Tikki Tikki Tembo No Sa Rembo Chari Bari Ruchi Pip Peri Pembo . * The 2003 Christmas decorations at the White House included a depiction of a scene from Tikki Tikki Tembo . * The 2010 song `` Wildstyle Method '' by Bassnectar says Tikki Tikki Tembo 's full name during certain parts of the song .

jp_657--Tikki_Tikki_Tembo.txt

What did Tikki Tikki Tembo fall into?

The piano is a musical instrument played using a keyboard , which is a row of keys ( small levers ) that the performer presses down or strikes with the fingers and thumbs of both hands . Invented in about 1700 ( the exact date is uncertain ) , the piano is widely employed in classical , jazz , traditional and popular music for solo and ensemble performances , accompaniment , and for composing and rehearsal . Although the piano is not portable and is often expensive , its versatility , wide range , ability to play chords , ability to play louder or softer , the large number of musicians trained in playing it and its ubiquity in performance venues and rehearsal spaces have made it one of the Western world 's most familiar musical instruments . An acoustic piano usually has a protective wooden case surrounding the soundboard and metal strings , and a row of 88 black and white keys ( 52 white keys for the note of the C Major scale and 36 shorter black keys , which are higher than the white keys , for the `` accidental '' notes , which are the sharp and flat notes needed to play in all 12 keys ) . The strings are sounded when the keys are pressed or struck , and silenced by a damper when the keys are released . The notes can be sustained , even when the keys are released , by the use of pedals at the base of the instrument . Unlike two of the major keyboard instruments that preceded the piano , the pipe organ and the harpsichord , the weight or force with which a performer presses or strikes the keys changes the dynamics and tone of the instrument . Pressing one or more keys on the piano 's keyboard causes a padded hammer ( often padded with firm felt ) to strike the strings . The hammer rebounds from the strings , and the strings continue to vibrate at their resonant frequency . These vibrations are transmitted through a bridge to a soundboard that amplifies by more efficiently coupling the acoustic energy to the air . When the key is released , a damper stops the strings ' vibration , ending the sound . Although an acoustic piano has strings , it is usually classified as a percussion instrument rather than as a stringed instrument , because the strings are struck rather than plucked ( as with a harpsichord or spinet ) ; in the Hornbostel-Sachs system of instrument classification , pianos are considered chordophones . With technological advances , Electric pianos ( 1929 ) , electronic ( 1970s ) , and digital pianos ( 1980s ) have also been developed . The electric piano became a popular instrument in the 1960s and 1970s genres of jazz fusion and rock music . The word piano is a shortened form of pianoforte , the Italian term for the instrument , which in turn derives from gravicembalo col piano e forte and fortepiano . The Italian musical terms piano and forte indicate `` soft '' and `` loud '' respectively , in this context referring to the variations in volume produced in response to a pianist 's touch on the keys : the greater the velocity of a key press , the greater the force of the hammer hitting the strings , and the louder the sound of the note produced . History The piano was founded on earlier technological innovations in keyboard instruments . The first string instruments with struck strings were the hammered dulcimers , which were used since the Middle Ages in Europe . During the Middle Ages , there were several attempts at creating stringed keyboard instruments with struck strings . By the 17th century , the mechanisms of keyboard instruments such as the clavichord and the harpsichord were well developed . In a clavichord , the strings are struck by tangents , while in a harpsichord , they are mechanically plucked by quills when the performer depresses the key . Centuries of work on the mechanism of the harpsichord in particular had shown the most effective ways to construct the case , soundboard , bridge , and mechanical action for a keyboard intended to sound strings . Invention The invention of the modern piano is credited to Bartolomeo Cristofori ( 1655–1731 ) of Padua , Italy , who was employed by Ferdinando de ' Medici , Grand Prince of Tuscany , as the Keeper of the Instruments ; he was an expert harpsichord maker , and was well acquainted with the body of knowledge on stringed keyboard instruments . It is not known exactly when Cristofori first built a piano . An inventory made by his employers , the Medici family , indicates the existence of a piano by the year 1700 ; another document of doubtful authenticity indicates a date of 1698 . The three Cristofori pianos that survive today date from the 1720s . Cristofori named the instrument un cimbalo di cipresso di piano e forte ( `` a keyboard of cypress with soft and loud '' ) , abbreviated over time as pianoforte , fortepiano , and simply , piano . While the clavichord allowed expressive control of volume and sustain , it was too quiet for large performances . The harpsichord produced a sufficiently loud sound , but offered little expressive control over each note . A harpsichord could not produce a variety of dynamic levels from the same keyboard during a musical passage ( although a harpischord with two manuals could be used to alternate between two different stops , which could include a louder stop and a quieter stop . The piano offered the best features of both instruments , combining the ability to play loudly with dynamic control that permitted a range of dynamics , including soft playing . Cristofori 's great success was solving , with no prior example , the fundamental mechanical problem of designing a stringed keyboard instrument in which the notes are struck by a hammer . The hammer must strike the string , but not remain in contact with it , because this would damp the sound . Moreover , the hammer must return to its rest position without bouncing violently , and it must return to a position in which it is ready to play almost immediately after its key is depressed so the player can repeat the same note rapidly . Cristofori 's piano action was a model for the many approaches to piano actions that followed . Cristofori 's early instruments were made with thin strings , and were much quieter than the modern piano , but much louder and with more sustain in comparison to the clavichord—the only previous keyboard instrument capable of dynamic nuance via the weight or force with which the keyboard is played . Early fortepiano Cristofori 's new instrument remained relatively unknown until an Italian writer , Scipione Maffei , wrote an enthusiastic article about it in 1711 , including a diagram of the mechanism , that was translated into German and widely distributed . Most of the next generation of piano builders started their work based on reading the article . One of these builders was Gottfried Silbermann , better known as an organ builder . Silbermann 's pianos were virtually direct copies of Cristofori 's , with one important addition : Silbermann invented the forerunner of the modern sustain pedal , which lifts all the dampers from the strings simultaneously . This allows the pianist to sustain the notes that she has depressed even after her fingers are no longer pressing down the keys . This innovation enabled pianists to , for example , play a loud chord with both hands in the lower register of the instrument , sustain the chord with the sustain pedal , and then , with the chord continuing to sound , relocate their hands to a different register of the keyboard in preparation for a subsequent section . Silbermann showed Johann Sebastian Bach one of his early instruments in the 1730s , but Bach did not like it at that time , claiming that the higher notes were too soft to allow a full dynamic range . Although this earned him some animosity from Silbermann , the criticism was apparently heeded . Bach did approve of a later instrument he saw in 1747 , and even served as an agent in selling Silbermann 's pianos . `` Instrument : piano et forte genandt '' –a reference to the instrument 's ability to play soft and loud–was an expression that Bach used to help sell the instrument when he was acting as Silbermann 's agent in 1749 . Piano-making flourished during the late 18th century in the Viennese school , which included Johann Andreas Stein ( who worked in Augsburg , Germany ) and the Viennese makers Nannette Streicher ( daughter of Stein ) and Anton Walter . Viennese-style pianos were built with wood frames , two strings per note , and leather-covered hammers . Some of these Viennese pianos had the opposite coloring of modern-day pianos ; the natural keys were black and the accidental keys white . It was for such instruments that Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart composed his concertos and sonatas , and replicas of them are built in the 2000s for use in authentic-instrument performance of his music . The pianos of Mozart 's day had a softer , more ethereal tone than 2000-era pianos or English pianos , with less sustaining power . The term fortepiano has in modern times come to be used to distinguish these early instruments ( and modern re-creations of them ) from later pianos . Modern piano In the period from about 1790 to 1860 , the Mozart-era piano underwent tremendous changes that led to the modern form of the instrument . This revolution was in response to a preference by composers and pianists for a more powerful , sustained piano sound , and made possible by the ongoing Industrial Revolution with resources such as high-quality piano wire for strings , and precision casting for the production of massive iron frames that could withstand the tremendous tension of the strings . Over time , the tonal range of the piano was also increased from the five octaves of Mozart 's day to the seven octave ( or more ) range found on modern pianos . Early technological progress in the late 1700s owed much to the firm of Broadwood . John Broadwood joined with another Scot , Robert Stodart , and a Dutchman , Americus Backers , to design a piano in the harpsichord case—the origin of the `` grand '' . They achieved this in about 1777 . They quickly gained a reputation for the splendour and powerful tone of their instruments , with Broadwood constructing pianos that were progressively larger , louder , and more robustly constructed . They sent pianos to both Joseph Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven , and were the first firm to build pianos with a range of more than five octaves : five octaves and a fifth ( interval ) during the 1790s , six octaves by 1810 ( Beethoven used the extra notes in his later works ) , and seven octaves by 1820 . The Viennese makers similarly followed these trends ; however the two schools used different piano actions : Broadwoods used a more robust action , whereas Viennese instruments were more sensitive . By the 1820s , the center of piano innovation had shifted to Paris , where the Pleyel firm manufactured pianos used by Frédéric Chopin and the Érard firm manufactured those used by Franz Liszt . In 1821 , Sébastien Érard invented the double escapement action , which incorporated a repetition lever ( also called the balancier ) that permitted repeating a note even if the key had not yet risen to its maximum vertical position . This facilitated rapid playing of repeated notes , a musical device exploited by Liszt . When the invention became public , as revised by Henri Herz , the double escapement action gradually became standard in grand pianos , and is still incorporated into all grand pianos currently produced in the 2000s . Other improvements of the mechanism included the use of felt hammer coverings instead of layered leather or cotton . Felt , which was first introduced by Jean-Henri Pape in 1826 , was a more consistent material , permitting wider dynamic ranges as hammer weights and string tension increased . The sostenuto pedal ( see below ) , invented in 1844 by Jean-Louis Boisselot and copied by the Steinway firm in 1874 , allowed a wider range of effects . One innovation that helped create the powerful sound of the modern piano was the use of a strong , cast iron frame . Also called the `` plate '' , the iron frame sits atop the soundboard , and serves as the primary bulwark against the force of string tension that can exceed 20 tons in a modern grand . The single piece cast iron frame was patented in 1825 in Boston by Alpheus Babcock , combining the metal hitch pin plate ( 1821 , claimed by Broadwood on behalf of Samuel Hervé ) and resisting bars ( Thom and Allen , 1820 , but also claimed by Broadwood and Érard ) . Babcock later worked for the Chickering & Mackays firm who patented the first full iron frame for grand pianos in 1843 . Composite forged metal frames were preferred by many European makers until the American system was fully adopted by the early 20th century . The increased structural integrity of the iron frame allowed the use of thicker , tenser , and more numerous strings . In 1834 , the Webster & Horsfal firm of Birmingham brought out a form of piano wire made from cast steel ; according to Dolge it was `` so superior to the iron wire that the English firm soon had a monopoly . '' But a better steel wire was soon created in 1840 by the Viennese firm of Martin Miller , and a period of innovation and intense competition ensued , with rival brands of piano wire being tested against one another at international competitions , leading ultimately to the modern form of piano wire . Other important advances included changes to the way the piano is strung , such as the use of a `` choir '' of three strings rather than two for all but the lowest notes , and the implementation of an over-strung scale , in which the strings are placed in two separate planes , each with its own bridge height . ( This is also called cross-stringing . Whereas earlier instruments ' bass strings were a mere continuation of a single string plane , over-stringing placed the bass bridge behind and to the treble side of the tenor bridge area . This crossed the strings , with the bass strings in the higher plane . ) This permitted a much narrower cabinet at the `` nose '' end of the piano , and optimized the transition from unwound tenor strings to the iron or copper-wrapped bass strings . Over-stringing was invented by Pape during the 1820s , and first patented for use in grand pianos in the United States by Henry Steinway , Jr. in 1859 . Some piano makers developed schemes to enhance the tone of each note . Julius Blüthner developed Aliquot stringing in 1893 as well as Pascal Taskin ( 1788 ) , and Collard & Collard ( 1821 ) . These systems were used to strengthen the tone of the highest register of notes on the piano , which up till this time were viewed as being too weak-sounding . Each used more distinctly ringing , undamped vibrations of sympathetically vibrating strings to add to the tone , except the Blüthner Aliquot stringing , which uses an additional fourth string in the upper two treble sections . While the hitchpins of these separately suspended Aliquot strings are raised slightly above the level of the usual tri-choir strings , they are not struck by the hammers but rather are damped by attachments of the usual dampers . Eager to copy these effects , Theodore Steinway invented duplex scaling , which used short lengths of non-speaking wire bridged by the `` aliquot '' throughout much of upper the range of the piano , always in locations that caused them to vibrate sympathetically in conformity with their respective overtones—typically in doubled octaves and twelfths . The mechanical action structure of the upright piano was invented in London , England in 1826 by Robert Wornum , and upright models became the most popular model . Upright pianos took less space than a grand piano , and as such they were a better size for use in private homes for domestic music-making and practice . Variations in shape and design Some early pianos had shapes and designs that are no longer in use . The square piano ( not truly square , but rectangular ) was cross strung at an extremely acute angle above the hammers , with the keyboard set along the long side . This design is attributed to Gottfried Silbermann or Christian Ernst Friderici on the continent , and Johannes Zumpe or Harman Vietor in England , and it was improved by changes first introduced by Guillaume-Lebrecht Petzold in France and Alpheus Babcock in the United States . Square pianos were built in great numbers through the 1840s in Europe and the 1890s in the United States , and saw the most visible change of any type of piano : the iron-framed , over-strung squares manufactured by Steinway & Sons were more than two-and-a-half times the size of Zumpe 's wood-framed instruments from a century before . Their overwhelming popularity was due to inexpensive construction and price , although their tone and performance were limited by narrow soundboards , simple actions and string spacing that made proper hammer alignment difficult . The tall , vertically strung upright grand was arranged like a grand set on end , with the soundboard and bridges above the keys , and tuning pins below them . The term was later revived by many manufacturers for advertising purposes . `` Giraffe pianos '' , `` pyramid pianos '' and `` lyre pianos '' were arranged in a somewhat similar fashion , using evocatively shaped cases . The very tall cabinet piano was introduced about 1805 and was built through the 1840s . It had strings arranged vertically on a continuous frame with bridges extended nearly to the floor , behind the keyboard and very large sticker action . The short cottage upright or pianino with vertical stringing , made popular by Robert Wornum around 1815 , was built into the 20th century . They are informally called birdcage pianos because of their prominent damper mechanism . The oblique upright , popularized in France by Roller & Blanchet during the late 1820s , was diagonally strung throughout its compass . The tiny spinet upright was manufactured from the mid-1930s until recent times . The low position of the hammers required the use of a `` drop action '' to preserve a reasonable keyboard height . Modern upright and grand pianos attained their present , 2000-era forms by the end of the 19th century . While improvements have been made in manufacturing processes , and many individual details of the instrument continue to receive attention , the 19th century was the era of the most dramatic innovations and modifications of the instrument . Types Modern acoustic pianos have two basic configurations , the grand piano and the upright piano , with various styles of each . There are also specialized and novelty pianos , electric pianos based on electromechanical designs , electronic pianos that synthesize piano-like tones using oscillators , and digital pianos using digital samples of acoustic piano sounds . Grand In grand pianos , the frame and strings are horizontal , with the strings extending away from the keyboard . The action lies beneath the strings , and uses gravity as its means of return to a state of rest . There are many sizes of grand piano . A rough generalization distinguishes the concert grand ( between 2.2 and 3 meters long , about –3 m ) from the parlor grand or boudoir grand ( 1.7 to 2.2 meters long , about – ) and the smaller baby grand ( around ) . All else being equal , longer pianos with longer strings have larger , richer sound and lower inharmonicity of the strings . Inharmonicity is the degree to which the frequencies of overtones ( known as partials or harmonics ) sound sharp relative to whole multiples of the fundamental frequency . This results from the piano 's considerable string stiffness ; as a struck string decays its harmonics vibrate , not from their termination , but from a point very slightly toward the center ( or more flexible part ) of the string . The higher the partial , the further sharp it runs . Pianos with shorter and thicker string ( i.e. , small pianos with short string scales ) have more inharmonicity . The greater the inharmonicity , the more the ear perceives it as harshness of tone . Inharmonicity requires that octaves be stretched , or tuned to a lower octave 's corresponding sharp overtone rather than to a theoretically correct octave . If octaves are not stretched , single octaves sound in tune , but double—and notably triple—octaves are unacceptably narrow . Stretching a small piano 's octaves to match its inherent inharmonicity level creates an imbalance among all the instrument 's intervallic relationships , not just its octaves . In a concert grand , however , the octave `` stretch '' retains harmonic balance , even when aligning treble notes to a harmonic produced from three octaves below . This lets close and widespread octaves sound pure , and produces virtually beatless perfect fifths . This gives the concert grand a brilliant , singing and sustaining tone quality—one of the principal reasons that full-size grands are used in the concert hall . Smaller grands satisfy the space and cost needs of domestic use . Upright ( vertical ) Upright pianos , also called vertical pianos , are more compact because the frame and strings are vertical . Upright pianos are widely used in elementary schools , high schools , music conservatories and university music programs as rehearsal and practice instruments and they are popular models for in-home purchase . The hammers move horizontally , and return to their resting position via springs , which are susceptible to degradation . Upright pianos with unusually tall frames and long strings are sometimes called upright grand pianos . Some authors classify modern pianos according to their height and to modifications of the action that are necessary to accommodate the height . * Studio pianos are around 42 to 45 inches ( 106 to 114 cm ) tall . This is the shortest cabinet that can accommodate a full-sized action located above the keyboard . * Console pianos have a compact action ( shorter hammers ) , and are a few inches shorter than studio models . * The top of a spinet model barely rises above the keyboard . The action is located below , operated by vertical wires that are attached to the backs of the keys . * Anything taller than a studio piano is called an upright . Specialized The toy piano , introduced in the 19th century , is a small piano-like instrument , that generally uses round metal rods to produce sound , rather than strings . The US Library of Congress recognizes the toy piano as a unique instrument with the subject designation , Toy Piano Scores : M175 T69 . In 1863 , Henri Fourneaux invented the player piano , which plays itself from a piano roll . A machine perforates a performance recording into rolls of paper , and the player piano replays the performance using pneumatic devices . Modern equivalents of the player piano include the Bösendorfer CEUS , Yamaha Disklavier and QRS Pianomation , using solenoids and MIDI rather than pneumatics and rolls . A silent piano is an acoustic piano having an option to silence the strings by means of an interposing hammer bar . They are designed for private silent practice . Edward Ryley invented the transposing piano in 1801 . It has a lever under the keyboard as to move the keyboard relative to the strings so a pianist can play in a familiar key while the music sounds in a different key . The minipiano , an instrument patented by the Brasted brothers of the Eavestaff Ltd. piano company , was patented in 1934 . This instrument has a braceless back , and a soundboard positioned below the keys—meaning that long metal rods pulled on the levers to make the hammers strike the strings . The first model , known as the Pianette , was unique in that the tuning pins extended through the instrument , so it could be tuned at the front . The prepared piano , present in some contemporary art music , is a piano with objects placed inside it to alter its sound , or has had its mechanism changed in some other way . The scores for music for prepared piano specify the modifications , for example instructing the pianist to insert pieces of rubber , paper , metal screws , or washers in between the strings . These either mute the strings or alter their timbre . A harpsichord-like sound can be produced by placing or dangling small metal buttons in front of the hammer . In 1954 a German company exhibited a wire-less piano at the Spring Fair in Frankfurt , Germany that sold for $ 238 . The wires were replaced by metal bars of different alloys that replicated the standard wires when played . A similar concept is used in the electric-acoustic Rhodes piano . Electric , electronic , and digital The first electric pianos from the late 1920s used metal strings with a magnetic pickup , an amplifier and a loudspeaker . The electric pianos that became most popular in pop and rock music in the 1960s and 1970s , such as the Fender Rhodes use metal tines in place of strings and use electromagnetic pickups similar to those on an electric guitar . The resulting electrical , analogue signal can then be amplified with a keyboard amplifier or electronically manipulated with effects units . Electric pianos are rarely used in classical music , where the main usage of them is as inexpensive rehearsal or practice instruments in music schools . However , electric pianos , particularly the Fender Rhodes , became important instruments in funk , jazz fusion and some rock music genres . Electronic pianos are non-acoustic ; they do not have strings , tines or hammers , but are a type of synthesizer that simulates or imitates piano sounds using oscillators that synthesize the sound of an acoustic piano . Digital pianos are also non-acoustic and do not have strings or hammers but use digital sampling technology to accurately reproduce the acoustic sound of each piano note . Digital pianos can include sustain pedals , weighted keys , multiple voice options ( e.g. , sampled or synthesized imitations of electric piano , Hammond organ , violin , etc . ) , and MIDI interfaces . MIDI inputs and outputs allow a digital piano to be connected to other electronic instruments or musical devices . For example , a digital piano 's MIDI out signal could be connected by a patch cord to a synth module , which would allow the performer to use the keyboard of the digital piano to play modern synthesizer sounds . Early digital pianos tended to lack a full set of pedals but the synthesis software of later models such as the Yamaha Clavinova series synthesised the sympathetic vibration of the other strings ( such as when the sustain pedal is depressed ) and full pedal sets can now be replicated . The processing power of digital pianos has enabled highly realistic pianos using multi-gigabyte piano sample sets with as many as ninety recordings , each lasting many seconds , for each key under different conditions ( e.g. , there are samples of each note being struck softly , loudly , with a sharp attack , etc . ) . Additional samples emulate sympathetic resonance of the strings when the sustain pedal is depressed , key release , the drop of the dampers , and simulations of techniques such as re-pedalling . Digital , MIDI-equipped , pianos can output a stream of MIDI data , or record and play via a CD ROM or USB flash drive using MIDI format files , similar in concept to a pianola . The MIDI file records the physics of a note rather than its resulting sound and

qf_3671--Piano.txt

When was basketball invented: 17th, 18th or 19th century?

The Communist Party of Peru ( Spanish : Partido Comunista del Perú ) , more commonly known as the Shining Path ( Sendero Luminoso ) , is a radical organization in Peru . When it first launched the internal conflict in Peru in 1980 , its stated goal was to replace what it saw as bourgeois democracy with `` New Democracy '' . The Shining Path believed that by establishing a dictatorship of the proletariat , inducing cultural revolution , and eventually sparking world revolution , they could arrive at pure communism . Their representatives said that existing socialist countries were revisionist , and they claimed to be the vanguard of the world communist movement . The Shining Path 's ideology and tactics have been influential among other Maoist insurgent groups , notably the Communist Party of Nepal ( Maoist ) and other Revolutionary Internationalist Movement-affiliated organizations . Widely condemned for its brutality , [ http : //www.britannica.com/eb/article-9067404/ `` Shining-Path '' ] , Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved June 11 , 2009 including violence deployed against peasants , trade union organizers , popularly elected officials and the general civilian population , the Shining Path is classified by the Peruvian government , the U.S. , the European Union , and Canada as a terrorist organization . Since the capture of its leader Abimael Guzmán in 1992 , the Shining Path has declined in activity . Similar to militant groups in Colombia , some factions of the Shining Path have functioned as a highly efficient cocaine-smuggling operation , with an ostensibly paternalistic relationship to villagers.Simon Romero , [ http : //www.nytimes.com/2009/03/18/world/americas/18peru.html ? _r 1 `` Cocaine Trade Helps Rebels Reignite War in Peru '' ] , The New York Times , March 17 , 2009 Name The common name of this group , Shining Path , distinguishes it from several other Peruvian communist parties with similar names ( see Communism in Peru ) . The name is derived from a maxim of José Carlos Mariátegui , founder of the original Peruvian Communist Party in the 1920s : `` El Marxismo-Leninismo abrirá el sendero luminoso hacia la revolución '' ( `` Marxism–Leninism will open the shining path to revolution '' ) . This maxim was featured in the masthead of the newspaper of a Shining Path front group . Peruvian communist groups are often distinguished by the names of their publications . The followers of this group are generally called senderistas . All documents , periodicals and other materials produced by the organization are signed by the Communist Party of Peru ( PCP ) . Academics often refer to them as PCP-SL . Origins The Shining Path was founded in the late 1960s by Abimael Guzmán , a former university philosophy professor ( referred to by his followers by his nom de guerre Presidente Gonzalo ) . His teachings created the foundation of its militant Maoist doctrine . It was an offshoot of the Communist Party of Peru — Bandera Roja ( red flag ) , which in turn split from the original Peruvian Communist Party , a derivation of the Peruvian Socialist Party founded by José Carlos Mariátegui in 1928 . The Shining Path first established a foothold at San Cristóbal of Huamanga University , in Ayacucho , where Guzmán taught philosophy . The university had recently reopened after being closed for about half a century , and many students of the newly educated class adopted the Shining Path 's radical ideology . Between 1973 and 1975 , Shining Path members gained control of the student councils in the Universities of Huancayo and La Cantuta , and developed a significant presence in the National University of Engineering in Lima and the National University of San Marcos . Sometime later , it lost many student elections in the universities , including Guzmán 's San Cristóbal of Huamanga . It decided to abandon recruiting at the universities and reconsolidate . Beginning on March 17 , 1980 , the Shining Path held a series of clandestine meetings in Ayacucho , known as the Central Committee 's second plenary . It formed a `` Revolutionary Directorate '' that was political and military in nature and ordered its militias to transfer to strategic areas in the provinces to start the `` armed struggle '' , despite the revisionism instituted in China by Deng Xiaoping and its economic success since 1978 . The group also held its `` First Military School '' where members were instructed in military tactics and in the use of weapons . They also engaged in `` Criticism and Self-criticism '' , a Maoist practice intended to purge bad habits and to avoid the repetition of mistakes , but the indiscriminate killings were their first mistakes , which caused the population 's fear but not their support ( Lucanamarca ) . During the existence of the First Military School , members of the Central Committee came under heavy criticism . Guzmán did not , and he emerged from the First Military School as the clear leader of the Shining Path . Guerrilla war When Peru 's military government allowed elections for the first time in a dozen years in 1980 , the Shining Path was one of the few leftist political groups that declined to take part . It chose to begin guerrilla war in the highlands of Ayacucho Region . On May 17 , 1980 , on the eve of the presidential elections , it burned ballot boxes in the town of Chuschi . It was the first `` act of war '' by the Shining Path . The perpetrators were quickly caught and additional ballots were shipped to Chuschi . The elections proceeded without further problems , and the incident received little attention in the Peruvian press . Throughout the 1980s , the Shining Path grew , both in terms of the territory it controlled , and in the number of militants in its organization , particularly in the Andean highlands . It gained support from local peasants by filling the political void left by the central government and providing `` popular justice '' . This caused the peasantry of many Peruvian villages to express some sympathy for the Shining Path , especially in the impoverished and neglected regions of Ayacucho , Apurímac , and Huancavelica . At times , the civilian population of small , neglected towns participated in popular trials , especially when the victims of the trials were widely disliked . The Shining Path 's credibility was helped by the government 's initially tepid response to the insurgency . For over a year , the government refused to declare a state of emergency in the region where the Shining Path was operating . The Interior Minister , José María de la Jara , believed the group could be easily defeated through police actions . Additionally , the president , Fernando Belaúnde Terry , who returned to power in 1980 , was reluctant to cede authority to the armed forces , as his first government had ended in a military coup . The result was that the peasants in the areas where the Shining Path was active thought the state was either impotent or not interested in their issues . On December 29 , 1981 , the government declared an `` emergency zone '' in the three Andean regions of Ayacucho , Huancavelica and Apurímac , and granted the military the power to arbitrarily detain any suspicious person . The military abused this power , arresting scores of innocent people , at times subjecting them to torture during interrogation and rape . Police , military forces , and members of the Popular Guerrilla Army ( Ejército Guerrillero Popular , or EGP ) carried out several massacres throughout the conflict . Military personnel took to wearing black ski-masks to hide their identities and protect their safety , and that of their families . The masks were intimidating , however , and also hid the identities of military personnel as they committed crimes . In some areas , the military trained peasants and organized them into anti-rebel militias , called `` rondas '' . They were generally poorly-equipped , despite being provided arms by the state . The rondas attacked the Shining Path guerrillas . The first such reported attack was in January 1983 , near Huata , when `` ronderos '' killed 13 `` senderistas '' in February , in Sacsamarca . In March 1983 , ronderos brutally killed Olegario Curitomay , one of the commanders of the town of Lucanamarca . They took him to the town square , stoned him , stabbed him , set him on fire , and finally shot him.Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación . August 28 , 2003 . [ http : //www.cverdad.org.pe/ifinal/pdf/TOMO % 20VII/Casos % 20Ilustrativos-UIE/2.6. % 20LUCANAMARCA.pdf `` La Masacre de Lucanamarca ( 1983 ) '' ] . ( in Spanish ) Retrieved January 13 , 2008 . In an April response , the Shining Path entered the province of Huanca Sancos and the towns of Yanaccollpa , Ataccara , Llacchua , Muylacruz and Lucanamarca , where they killed 69 people , in what became known as the Lucanamarca massacre . This was the first time the Shining Path massacred peasants . Similar events followed , such as the ones in Hauyllo , Tambo District . The guerrillas killed 47 peasants , including 14 children aged four to fifteen . Additional massacres by the Shining Path occurred , such as the one in Marcas on August 29 , 1985 . The Shining Path 's attacks were not limited to the countryside . It mounted attacks against the infrastructure in Lima , killing civilians in the process . In 1983 , it sabotaged several electrical transmission towers , causing a citywide blackout , and set fire and destroyed the Bayer industrial plant . That same year , it set off a powerful bomb in the offices of the governing party , Popular Action . Escalating its activities in Lima , in June 1985 it blew up electricity transmission towers in Lima , producing a blackout , and detonated car bombs near the government palace and the justice palace . It was believed to be responsible for bombing a shopping mall . At the time , President Fernando Belaúnde Terry was receiving the Argentine president Raúl Alfonsín . In one of its last attacks in Lima , on July 16 , 1992 , the group detonated a powerful bomb on Tarata Street in the Miraflores District , full of civilian people , adults and children , killing 25 people and injuring an additional 155 . During this period , the Shining Path assassinated specific individuals , notably leaders of other leftist groups , local political parties , labor unions , and peasant organizations , some of whom were anti-Shining Path Marxists . On April 24 , 1985 , in the midst of presidential elections , it tried to assassinate Domingo García Rada , the president of the Peruvian National Electoral Council , severely injuring him and mortally wounding his driver . In 1988 , Constantin Gregory , an American citizen working for the United States Agency for International Development , was assassinated . Two French aid workers were killed on December 4 that same year . In August 1991 , the group killed one Italian and two Polish priests in the Ancash Region . The following February , it assassinated María Elena Moyano , a well-known community organizer in Villa El Salvador , a vast shantytown in Lima . By 1991 , the Shining Path had control of much of the countryside of the center and south of Peru and had a large presence in the outskirts of Lima . As the organization grew in power , a cult of personality grew around Guzmán . The official ideology of the Shining Path ceased to be `` Marxism–Leninism–Mao Tse-tung thought '' , and was instead referred to as `` Marxism–Leninism–Maoism–Gonzalo thought '' . The Shining Path fought against Peru 's other major guerrilla group , the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement ( MRTA ) , as well as campesino self-defense groups organized by the Peruvian armed forces . Although the reliability of reports regarding the Shining Path 's atrocities remains a matter of controversy in Peru for some people , the organization 's use of violence is well documented . Lisa North , an expert on Peru at York University , noted that `` the assassinations they carried out were absolutely ruthless ... It was so extremist – absolutely , totally doctrinaire and absolutely , totally ruthless in pursuit of its aims . '' Furthermore , the Shining Path brutally killed its victims and rejected the idea of human rights . A Shining Path document stated : Level of support While the Shining Path quickly seized control of large areas of Peru , it soon faced serious problems . The Shining Path 's Maoism never had the support of the majority of the Peruvian people ; according to opinion polls , only 15 % of the population considered subversion to be justifiable in June 1988 , while only 17 % considered it justifiable in 1991 . In June 1991 , `` the total sample disapproved of the Shining Path by an 83 to 7 percent margin , with 10 percent not answering the question . Among the poorest , however , only 58 % stated disapproval of the Shining Path ; 11 percent said they had a favorable opinion of the Shining Path , and some 31 percent would not answer the question . `` Kenney , Charles D. 2004 . Fujimori 's Coup and the Breakdown of Democracy in Latin America . Notre Dame , Indiana : University of Notre Dame . A September 1991 poll found that 21 percent of those polled in Lima believed that the Shining Path did not kill and torture innocent people . The same poll found that 13 % believed that society would be more just if the Shining Path won the war and 22 % believed society would be equally just under the Shining Path as it was under the government . Many peasants were unhappy with the Shining Path 's rule for a variety of reasons , such as its disrespect for indigenous culture and institutions , and the brutality of its `` popular trials '' that sometimes included `` slitting throats , strangulation , stoning , and burning . '' While punishing and killing cattle thieves was popular in some parts of Peru , the Shining Path also killed peasants and popular leaders for minor offenses.Isbell , p. 79 Peasants were offended by the rebels ' injunction against burying the bodies of Shining Path victims . The Shining Path became disliked for its policy of closing small and rural markets in order to end small-scale capitalism and to starve Lima . As a Maoist organization , it strongly opposed all forms of capitalism . It followed Mao 's dictum that guerrilla warfare should start in the countryside and gradually choke off the cities . As the peasants ' livelihoods depended on trade in the markets , they rejected such closures . In several areas of Peru , the Shining Path launched unpopular restrictive campaigns , such as a prohibition on parties and the consumption of alcohol . Government response and abuses In 1991 , President Alberto Fujimori issued a law that gave the rondas a legal status , and from that time they were officially called Comités de auto defensa ( `` Committees of Self Defence '' ) . They were officially armed , usually with 12-gauge shotguns , and trained by the Peruvian Army . According to the government , there were approximately 7,226 comités de auto defensa as of 2005 ; almost 4,000 are located in the central region of Peru , the stronghold of the Shining Path . The Peruvian government also cracked down on the Shining Path in other ways . Military personnel were dispatched to areas dominated by the Shining Path , especially Ayacucho , to fight the rebels . Ayacucho itself was declared an emergency zone , and constitutional rights were suspended in the area . Initial government efforts to fight the Shining Path were not very effective or promising . Military units engaged in many human rights violations , which caused the Shining Path to appear in the eyes of many as the lesser of two evils . They used excessive force and killed many innocent civilians . Government forces destroyed villages and killed campesinos suspected of supporting the Shining Path . They eventually lessened the pace at which the armed forces committed atrocities such as massacres . Additionally , the state began the widespread use of intelligence agencies in its fight against the Shining Path . However , atrocities were committed by the National Intelligence Service and the Army Intelligence Service , notably the La Cantuta massacre and the Barrios Altos massacre , both of which were committed by Grupo Colina . After the collapse of the Fujimori government , interim President Valentín Paniagua established a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate the conflict . The Commission found in its 2003 Final Report that 69,280 people died or disappeared between 1980 and 2000 as a result of the armed conflict.Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación . [ http : //www.cverdad.org.pe/ifinal/pdf/Tomo % 20- % 20ANEXOS/ANEXO % 202.pdf Annex 2 ] Page 17 . Retrieved January 14 , 2008 . The Shining Path was found to be responsible for about 54 % of the deaths and disappearances reported to the Commission . A statistical analysis of the available data led the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to estimate that the Shining Path was responsible for the death or disappearance of 31,331 people , 46 % of the total deaths and disappearances . According to a summary of the report by Human Rights Watch , `` Shining Path… killed about half the victims , and roughly one-third died at the hands of government security forces… The commission attributed some of the other slayings to a smaller guerrilla group and local militias . The rest remain unattributed . '' The MRTA was held responsible for 1.5 % of the deaths . Capture of Guzmán and collapse On September 12 , 1992 , Peruvian police captured Guzmán and several Shining Path leaders in an apartment above a dance studio in the Surquillo district of Lima . The police had been monitoring the apartment , as a number of suspected Shining Path militants had visited it . An inspection of the garbage of the apartment produced empty tubes of a skin cream used to treat psoriasis , a condition that Guzmán was known to have . Shortly after the raid that captured Guzmán , most of the remaining Shining Path leadership fell as well . The capture of rebel leader Abimael Guzmán left a huge leadership vacuum for the Shining Path . `` There is no No . 2 . There is only Presidente Gonzalo and then the party , '' a Shining Path political officer said at a birthday celebration for Guzmán in Lurigancho prison in December 1990 . `` Without Presidente Gonzalo , we would have nothing . '' At the same time , the Shining Path suffered embarrassing military defeats to self-defense organizations of rural campesinos — supposedly its social base . When Guzmán called for peace talks , the organization fractured into splinter groups , with some Shining Path members in favor of such talks and others opposed . Guzmán 's role as the leader of the Shining Path was taken over by Óscar Ramírez , who himself was captured by Peruvian authorities in 1999 . After Ramírez 's capture , the group splintered , guerrilla activity diminished sharply , and peace returned to the areas where the Shining Path had been active.Rochlin , pp . 71–72 . 21st century , resurgence , and downfall Although the organization 's numbers had lessened by 2003 , a militant faction of the Shining Path called Proseguir ( `` Onward '' ) continued to be active . On March 21 , 2002 , a car bomb exploded outside the U.S. embassy in Lima just before a visit by President George W. Bush . Nine people were killed and 30 were injured ; the attack was determined to be the work of the Shining Path . On June 9 , 2003 , a Shining Path group attacked a camp in Ayacucho , and took 68 employees of the Argentinian company Techint and three police guards as hostages . They had been working in the Camisea gas pipeline project that would take natural gas from Cusco to Lima . According to sources from Peru 's Interior Ministry , the rebels asked for a sizable ransom to free the hostages . Two days later , after a rapid military response , the rebels abandoned the hostages ; according to government sources no ransom was paid . However , there were rumors that US $ 200,000 was paid to the rebels . Government forces have captured three leading Shining Path members . In April 2000 , Commander José Arcela Chiroque , called `` Ormeño '' , was captured , followed by another leader , Florentino Cerrón Cardozo , called `` Marcelo '' in July 2003 . In November of the same year , Jaime Zuñiga , called `` Cirilo '' or `` Dalton , '' was arrested after a clash in which four guerrillas were killed and an officer was wounded . Officials said he took part in planning the kidnapping of the Techint pipeline workers . He was also thought to have led an ambush against an army helicopter in 1999 in which five soldiers died . In 2003 , the Peruvian National Police broke up several Shining Path training camps and captured many members and leaders.United States Department of State , Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism . April 29 , 2004 . [ http : //www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2003/31640.htm `` Patterns of Global Terrorism : Western Hemisphere Overview '' ] . Retrieved January 13 , 2008 . It also freed about 100 indigenous people held in slavery.United States Department of State . February 25 , 2004 . [ http : //www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2003/27916.htm Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – 2003 : Peru ] . Retrieved January 13 , 2008 . By late October 2003 there were 96 terrorist incidents in Peru , projecting a 15 % decrease from the 134 kidnappings and armed attacks in 2002 . Also for the year , eight or nine people were killed by the Shining Path , and 6 senderistas were killed and 209 were captured . In January 2004 , a man known as Comrade Artemio and identifying himself as one of the Shining Path 's leaders , said in a media interview that the group would resume violent operations unless the Peruvian government granted amnesty to other top Shining Path leaders within 60 days . Peru 's Interior Minister , Fernando Rospigliosi , said that the government would respond `` drastically and swiftly '' to any violent action . In September that same year , a comprehensive sweep by police in five cities found 17 suspected members . According to the interior minister , eight of the arrested were school teachers and high-level school administrators . Despite these arrests , the Shining Path continues to exist in Peru . On December 22 , 2005 , the Shining Path ambushed a police patrol in the Huánuco region , killing eight . Later that day they wounded an additional two police officers . In response , then President Alejandro Toledo declared a state of emergency in Huánuco , and gave the police the power to search houses and arrest suspects without a warrant . On February 19 , 2006 , the Peruvian police killed Héctor Aponte , believed to be the commander responsible for the ambush . In December 2006 , Peruvian troops were sent to counter renewed guerrilla activity and , according to high level government officials , the Shining Path 's strength has reached an estimated 300 members . In November 2007 , police claimed to have killed Artemio 's second-in-command , a guerrilla known as JL . In September 2008 , government forces announced the killing of five rebels in the Vizcatan region . This claim has subsequently been challenged by the APRODEH , a Peruvian human rights group , which believes that those who were killed were in fact local farmers and not rebels . That same month , Artemio gave his first recorded interview since 2006 . In it he stated that the Shining Path would continue to fight despite escalating military pressure . In October 2008 , in Huancavelica Region , the guerrillas engaged a military convoy with explosives and firearms , demonstrating their continued ability to strike and inflict casualties on military targets . The conflict resulted in the death of 12 soldiers and two to seven civilians . It came one day after a clash in the Vizcatan region , which left five rebels and one soldier dead . In November 2008 , the rebels utilized hand grenades and automatic weapons in an assault that claimed the lives of 4 police officers . In April 2009 , the Shining Path ambushed and killed 13 government soldiers in Ayacucho . Grenades and dynamite were used in the attack . The dead included eleven soldiers and one captain , and two soldiers were also injured , with one reported missing . Poor communications were said to have made relay of the news difficult . The country 's Defence Minister , Antero Flores Aráoz claimed many soldiers `` plunged over a cliff '' . His Prime Minister Yehude Simon said these attacks were `` desperate responses by the Shining Path in the face of advances by the armed forces '' , and expressed his belief that the area would soon be freed of `` leftover terrorists '' . In the aftermath , a Sendero leader called this `` the strongest [ anti-government ] blow ... ... in quite a while '' . In November 2009 , Defense Minister Rafael Rey announced that Shining Path militants had attacked a military outpost in southern Ayacucho province . One soldier was killed and three others wounded in the assault . On April 28 , 2010 Shining Path rebels in Peru ambushed and killed a police officer and two civilians who were destroying coca plantations of Aucayacu , in the central region of Haunuco , Peru . The victims were gunned down by sniper fire coming from the thick forest as more than 200 workers were destroying coca plants . Since this attack , the Shining Path faction , based in the Upper Huallaga Valley of Peru and headed by Florindo Eleuterio Flores Hala , alias Comrade Artemio , has been operating in a survival mode , and has lost 9 of their top 10 leaders to Peruvian National Police ( PNP ) -led capture operations . Two of the eight leaders were killed by PNP personnel during the attempted captures . Those nine arrested/killed Shining Path ( Upper Huallaga Valley faction ) leaders include Mono ( Aug. 2009 ) , Rubén ( May 2010 ) , Izula ( Oct. 2010 ) , Sergio ( Dec. 2010 ) , Yoli/Miguel/Jorge ( Jun . 2011 ) , Gato Larry ( Jun . 2011 ) , Oscar Tigre ( Aug. 2011 ) , Vicente Roger ( Aug. 2011 ) and Dante/Delta ( Jan. 2012 ) . This loss of leadership coupled with a sweep of Shining Path ( Upper Huallaga Valley ) supporters executed by the PNP in November 2010 , prompted Comrade Artemio to declare in December 2011 to several international journalists that the guerrilla war against the Peruvian Government has been lost , and that his only hope was to negotiate an amnesty agreement with the Government of Peru . On February 12 , 2012 , Comrade Artemio was found badly wounded after a clash with troops in a remote jungle region of Peru . President Ollanta Humala said the capture of Artemio marked the defeat of the Shining Path in the Alto Huallaga valley – a centre of cocaine production . President Humala has stated that he would now step up the fight against the remaining bands of Shining Path rebels in the Ene-Apurímac valley . On March 3 , Walter Diaz , the lead candidate to succeed Artemio , was captured , further ensuring the disintegration of the Alto Huallaga valley faction . On April 3 , 2012 , Jaime Arenas Caviedes , a senior leader in the group 's remnants in Alto Huallaga Valley who was also regarded to be the leading candidate to succeed Artemio following Diaz 's arrest , was captured . After Caviedes , alias `` Braulio , '' was captured , Humala declared that the Shining Path was now unable to operate in the Alto Huallaga Valley . On October 7 , 2012 , Shining Path rebels carried out an attack on three helicopters being used by an international gas pipeline consortium , in the central region of Cusco . According to the military Joint Command spokesman

tc_635--Shining_Path.txt

Where did the Shinning Path terrorists operate?

The Copa Libertadores de América ( ) is an annual international club football competition organized by CONMEBOL since 1960 . It is one of the most prestigious tournaments in the world and the most prestigious club competition in Latin American football . The tournament is named in honor of the Libertadores ( Spanish and Portuguese for liberators ) , the main leaders of the South American wars of independence , so a literal translation of its name into English would be `` Liberators of America Cup '' . The tournament is currently sponsored by Bridgestone and is thus known as the Copa Bridgestone Libertadores . The competition has had several different formats over its lifetime . At the beginning , only the champions of the South American leagues participated . In 1966 , the runners-up of the South American leagues began to join . In 1998 , Mexican teams were invited to compete , and have contested regularly since 2000 , when the tournament was expanded from 20 to 32 teams . Today at least three clubs per country compete in the tournament , while Argentina and Brazil each have five clubs participating . Traditionally , a group stage has always been used but the number of teams per group has varied several times . In the present format , the tournament consists of six stages , with the first stage taking place in early February . The six surviving teams from the first stage join 26 teams in the second stage , in which there are eight groups consisting of four teams each . The eight group winners and eight runners-up enter the final four stages , better known as the knockout stages , which ends with the finals anywhere between June and August . The winner of the Copa Libertadores becomes eligible to play in the FIFA Club World Cup and the Recopa Sudamericana . Independiente of Argentina are the most successful club in the cup 's history , having won the tournament seven times . Argentine clubs have accumulated the most victories with 23 wins , while Brazil has the largest number of different winning teams , with a total of 10 clubs having won the title . The cup has been won by 24 different clubs , 13 of which have won the title more than once , and won consecutively by six clubs . The defending champions were Argentine side River Plate , who won their third title after beating Tigres UANL of Mexico . History The clashes for the Copa Río de La Plata between the champions of Argentina and Uruguay kindled the idea of a continental competition in the 1930s . In 1948 , the South American Championship of Champions ( ) , the most direct precursor to the Copa Libertadores , was played and organized by Chilean club Colo-Colo after years of planning and organization . Held in Santiago , it brought together the champions of each nation 's top national leagues . The tournament was won by Vasco da Gama of Brazil . In 1958 , the basis and format of the competition was created by Peñarol 's board leaders . On March 5 , 1959 , at the 24th South American Congress held in Buenos Aires , the competition was approved by the International Affairs Committee . In 1966 , it was named in honor of the heroes of South American liberation , such as José Gervasio Artigas , Bernardo O'Higgins , José de San Martín , Pedro I , and Simón Bolívar , among others . Beginnings : 1960–1969 The first edition of the Copa Libertadores took place in 1960 . Seven teams participated : Bahia of Brazil , Jorge Wilstermann of Bolivia , Millonarios of Colombia , Olimpia of Paraguay , Peñarol of Uruguay , San Lorenzo of Argentina and Universidad de Chile . All these teams were domestic champions of their respective leagues in 1959 . The first Copa Libertadores match took place on April 19 , 1960 . It was won by Peñarol , who defeated Jorge Wilstermann 7–1 . The first goal in Copa Libertadores history was scored by Carlos Borges of Peñarol . The Uruguayans won the first ever edition , defeating Olimpia in the finals , and successfully defended the title in 1961 . The Copa Libertadores did not receive international attention until its third edition , when the sublime football of a Santos team led by Pelé , considered by some the best club team of all time , earned worldwide admiration . Os Santásticos , also known as O Balé Branco ( the white ballet ) won the title in 1962 defeating defending champions Peñarol in the finals . A year later , O Rei and his compatriot Coutinho demonstrated their skills again in the form of tricks , dribbles , backheels , and goals including two in the second leg of the final at La Bombonera , to subdue Boca Juniors 2–1 and retain the trophy . Argentine football finally inscribed their name on the winner 's list in 1964 when Independiente became the champions after disposing of reigning champions Santos and Uruguayan side Nacional in the finals . Independiente successfully defended the title in 1965 ; Peñarol would defeat River Plate in a playoff to win their third title , and Racing would go on to claim the spoils in 1967 . One of the most important moments in the tournament 's early history occurred in 1968 which saw Estudiantes participate for the first time . Estudiantes , a modest neighborhood club and a relatively minor team in Argentina , had an unusual style that prioritized athletic preparation and achieving results at all costs . Led by coach Osvaldo Zubeldía and a team built around figures such as Carlos Bilardo , Oscar Malbernat and Juan Ramón Verón , went on to become the first ever tricampeon of the competition . The pincharratas won their first title in 1968 by defeating Palmeiras . They successfully defended the title in 1969 and 1970 against Nacional and Peñarol , respectively . Although Peñarol was the first club to win three titles , Estudiantes were the first to win three consecutive titles . Argentine decade : 1970–1979 The 1970s were dominated by Argentine clubs , with the exception of three seasons . In a rematch of the 1969 finals , Nacional emerged as the champions of the 1971 tournament after overcoming an Estudiantes squad depleted of key players . With two titles already under their belt , Independiente created a winning formula with the likes of Francisco Sa , José Omar Pastoriza , Ricardo Bochini and Daniel Bertoni : pillars of the titles of 1972 , 1973 , 1974 , and 1975 . Independiente 's home stadium , La Doble Visera , became one of the most dreaded venues for visiting teams to play at . The first of these titles came in 1972 when Independiente came up against Universitario de Deportes of Peru in the finals . Universitario became the first team from the Pacific coast to reach the finals after eliminating Uruguayan giants Peñarol and defending champions Nacional at the semifinal stage . The first leg in Lima ended in a 0–0 tie , while the second leg in Avellaneda finished 2–1 in favor of the home team . Independiente successfully defended the title a year later against Colo-Colo after winning the playoff match 2–1 . Los Diablos Rojos retained the trophy in 1974 after defeating São Paulo 1–0 in a hard-fought playoff . In 1975 , Unión Española also failed to dethrone the champions in the finals after losing the playoff 2–0 . The reign of Los Diablos Rojos finally ended in 1976 when they were defeated by fellow Argentine club River Plate in the second phase in a dramatic playoff for a place in the finals . However , in the finals River Plate themselves would be beaten by Cruzeiro of Brazil , which was the first victory by a Brazilian club in 13 years . After having the trophy elude them in 1963 at the hands of Pelé 's Santos , Boca Juniors finally managed to appear on the continental football map . Towards the end of the decade , the Xeneizes reached the finals in three consecutive years . The first was in 1977 in which Boca earned their first victory against defending champions Cruzeiro . After both teams won their home legs 1–0 , a playoff at a neutral venue was chosen to break the tie . The playoff match finished in a tense 0–0 tie and was decided by a penalty shootout . Boca Juniors won the trophy again in 1978 after thumping Deportivo Cali of Colombia 4–0 in the second leg of the finals . In the following year , it looked as though Boca Juniors would also achieve a triple championship , only to have Olimpia end their dream after a highly volatile second leg match in Buenos Aires . As in 1963 , Boca Juniors had to watch as the visiting team lifted the Copa Libertadores in their home ground and Olimpia became the first ( and , as of 2015 , only ) Paraguayan team to lift the Copa . Pacific emergence and last Uruguayan triumphs : 1980–1989 Nine years after their first triumph , Nacional won their second cup in 1980 after overcoming Internacional . Despite Brazil 's strong status as a football power in South America , 1981 marked only the fourth title won by a Brazilian club . Flamengo , led by stars such as Zico , Júnior , Leandro , Adílio , Nunes , Cláudio Adão , Tita and Carpegiani , sparkled as the Mengão 's Golden Generation reached the pinnacle of their careers by beating Cobreloa of Chile . After 16 years of near-perennial failure , Peñarol would go on to win the cup for the fourth time in 1982 after beating the 1981 finalists in consecutive series . First , the Manyas disposed of defending champions Flamengo 1–0 in the last match of the second phase at Flamengo 's home ground , the famed Estádio do Maracanã . In the final , they repeated the feat , beating Cobreloa in a decisive second leg match 1–0 in Santiago . Grêmio of Porto Alegre made history by defeating Peñarol to become the champion in 1983 . In 1984 , Independiente won their seventh cup , a record that stands today , after defeating title holders Grêmio in a final which included a 1–0 win in the first away leg , highlighting Jorge Burruchaga and a veteran Ricardo Bochini . Another team rose from the Pacific , as had Cobreloa . Colombian club América reached three consecutive finals in 1985 , 1986 and 1987 but like Cobreloa they could not manage to win a single one . In 1985 , Argentinos Juniors , a small club from the neighborhood of La Paternal in Buenos Aires , astonished South America by eliminating holders Independiente in La Doble Visera 2–1 during the last decisive match of the second round , to book a place in the final . Argentinos Juniors went on to win an unprecedented title by beating America de Cali in the play-off match via a penalty shootout . After the frustrations of 1966 and 1976 , River Plate reached a third final in 1986 and were crowned champions for the first time ever after winning both legs of the final series against America de Cali , 2–1 at the Estadio Pascual Guerrero and 1–0 at Estadio Monumental Antonio Vespucio Liberti . Peñarol won the Cup again in 1987 after beating America de Cali 2–1 in the decisive playoff ; it proved to be their last hurrah in the international scene as Uruguayan football , in general , suffered a great decline at the end of the 1980s . The Manyas fierce rivals , Nacional , also won one last cup in 1988 before falling from the continental limelight . It was not until 1989 that a Pacific team finally broke the dominance of the established Atlantic powers . Atlético Nacional of Medellín won the final series , thus becoming the first team from Colombia to win the tournament . Atletico Nacional faced off against Olimpia losing the first leg in Asunción 2–0 . Because Estadio Atanasio Girardot , their home stadium , did not have the minimum capacity CONMEBOL required to host a final , the second leg was played in Bogota 's El Campín with the match ending 2–0 in favor of Atletico Nacional . Having tied the series , Atletico Nacional become that year 's champions after winning a penalty shootout which required four rounds of sudden death . Goalkeeper René Higuita cemented his legendary status with an outstanding performance as he stopped four of the nine Paraguayan kicks and scored one himself . The 1989 edition also had another significant first : it was the first ever time that no club from Argentina , Uruguay , or Brazil managed to reach the final . That trend would continue until 1992 . Renaissance : 1990–1999 Having led Olimpia to the 1979 title as manager , Luis Cubilla returned to the club in 1988 . With the legendary goalkeeper Ever Hugo Almeida , Gabriel González , Adriano Samaniego , and star Raul Vicente Amarilla , a rejuvenated decano boasted a formidable side that promised a return to the glory days of the late 1970s . After coming up short in 1989 against Atlético Nacional , Olimpia reached the 1990 Copa Libertadores finals after defeating the defending champion in a climactic semifinal series decided on penalties . In the finals , Olimpia defeated Barcelona of Ecuador 3–1 in aggregate to win their second title . Olimpia reached the 1991 Copa Libertadores finals , once again , defeating Atlético Nacional in the semifinals and facing Colo-Colo of Chile in the final . Led by Yugoslavian coach Mirko Jozić , the Chilean squad beat the defending champion 3–0 . The defeat brought Olimpia 's second golden era to a close . In 1992 , São Paulo rose from being a mere great in Brazil to become an international powerhouse . Manager Telê Santana turned to the Paulistas youth and instilled his style of quick , cheerful , and decisive football . Led by stars such as Zetti , Müller , Raí , Cafu , Palhinha , São Paulo beat Newell 's Old Boys of Argentina to begin a dynasty . In 1993 São Paulo successfully defended the title by thumping Universidad Católica of Chile in the finals . The Brazilian side became the first club since Boca Juniors in 1978 to win 2 consecutive Copa Libertadores . Like Boca Juniors , however , they would reach another final in 1994 only to lose the title to Vélez Sársfield of Argentina in a penalty shoot-out . With a highly-compact tactical lineup and the goals of the formidable duo Jardel and Paulo Nunes , Grêmio won the coveted trophy again in 1995 after beating an Atlético Nacional led , once again , by the iconic figure of René Higuita . Jardel finished the season as top scorer with 12 goals . The team coached by Luiz Felipe Scolari was led by defender ( and captain ) Adilson and the skilful midfielder Arilson . In the 1996 season , figures such as Hernán Crespo , Matías Almeyda and Enzo Francescoli helped River Plate secure its second title after defeating América de Cali in a rematch of the 1986 final . The Copa Libertadores stayed on Brazilian soil for the remainder of the 1990s as Cruzeiro , Vasco da Gama and Palmeiras took the spoils . The cup of 1997 pitted Cruzeiro against Peruvian club Sporting Cristal . The key breakthrough came in the second leg of the final when Cruzeiro broke the deadlock with just under 15 minutes left in a match attended by over 106,000 spectators in the Mineirão . Vasco da Gama defeated Barcelona SC with ease to record their first title in 1998 . The decade ended on a high note when Palmeiras and Deportivo Cali , both runners-up in the competition before , vied to become winners for the first time in 1999 . The final was a dramatic back-and-forth match that went into penalties . Luiz Felipe Scolari managed to lead yet another club to victory as the Verdão won 4–3 in São Paulo . This decade proved to be a major turning point in the history of the competition as the Copa Libertadores went through a great deal of growth and change . Having long been dominated by teams from Argentina , Brazil began to overshadow their neighbors as their clubs reached eight finals and won six titles in the 1990s . From 1998 onwards , the Copa Libertadores was sponsored by Toyota and became known as the Copa Toyota Libertadores . That same year , Mexican clubs , although affiliated to CONCACAF , started taking part in the competition thanks to quotas obtained from the Pre-Libertadores which pitted Mexican and Venezuelan clubs against each other for two slots in the group stage . The tournament was expanded to 36 teams and economic incentives were introduced by an agreement between CONMEBOL and Toyota Motor Corporation . All teams that advanced to the second stage of the tournament received $ 25,000 for their participation . Decade of resurgences : 2000–2009 During the 2000 Copa Libertadores , Boca Juniors returned to the top of the continent and raised the Copa Libertadores again after 22 years . Led by Carlos Bianchi , the Virrey , along with outstanding players like Mauricio Serna , Jorge Bermúdez , Óscar Córdoba , Juan Roman Riquelme , and Martín Palermo , among others , revitalized the club to establish it among the world 's best . The Xeneizes started this legacy by defeating defending champion Palmeiras in the final series . Boca Juniors won the 2001 edition after , once again , defeating Palmeiras in the semifinals and Cruz Azul in the final series to successfully defend the trophy . Cruz Azul became the first ever Mexican club to reach the final after great performances against River Plate and an inspired Rosario Central . Like their predecessors from the late 1970s however , Boca Juniors would fall short of winning three consecutive titles . As with Juan Carlos Lorenzo 's men , the Xeneizes became frustrated as they were eliminated by Olimpia , this time during the quarterfinals . Led by World Cup winner-turned manager Nery Pumpido , Olimpia would overcome Grêmio ( after some controversy ) and surprise finalists São Caetano . Despite this triumph , Olimpia did not create the winning mystique of its past golden generations and bowed out in the round of 16 the following season , after being routed by Grêmio 6–2 , avenging their controversial loss from the year before . The 2003 tournament became an exceptional show as many teams such as América de Cali , River Plate , Grêmio , Cobreloa , and Racing , among others , brought their best sides in generations and unexpected teams such as Independiente Medellín and Paysandu became revelations in what was , arguably , the best Copa Libertadores in history . The biggest news of the competition was previous champion Santos . Qualifying to the tournament as Brazilian champion , coached by Emerson Leão and containing marvelous figures such as Renato , Alex , Léo , Ricardo Oliveira , Diego , Robinho , and Elano , the Santásticos became a symbol of entertaining and cheerful football that resembled Pelé 's generation of the 1960s . Boca Juniors once again found talent in their ranks to fill the gap left by the very successful group of 2000–2001 ( with upcoming stars Rolando Schiavi , Roberto Abbondanzieri and Carlos Tevez ) . Boca Juniors and Santos would eventually meet in a rematch of the 1963 final ; Boca avenged the 1963 loss by defeating Santos in both legs of the final . Carlos Bianchi won the Cup for a fourth time and became the most successful manager in the competition 's history and Boca Juniors hailed themselves pentacampeones . Boca reached their fourth final in five tournaments in 2004 but were beaten by surprise-outfit Once Caldas of Colombia , ending Boca 's dream generation . Once Caldas , employing a conservative and defensive style of football , became the second Colombian side to win the competition . Ruing their semifinal exit in 2004 , São Paulo made an outstanding comeback in 2005 to contest the final with Atlético Paranaense . This became the first ever Copa Libertadores finals to feature two teams from the same football association ; The Tricolor won their third crown after thrashing Atlético Paranaense in the final leg . The 2006 final was also an all-Brazilian affair , with defending champions São Paulo lining up against Internacional . Led by team captain Fernandão , the Colorados beat São Paulo 2–1 at Estádio do Morumbi and held the defending champions at a 2–2 draw at home in Porto Alegre as Internacional won their first ever title . Internacional 's arch-rivals , Grêmio , surprised many by reaching the 2007 final with a relatively young squad . However , it was not to be as Boca Juniors , reinforced by aging but still-capable players , came away with the trophy to win their sixth title . In 2008 the tournament severed its relationship with Toyota . Grupo Santander , one of the largest banks in the world , became the sponsor of the Copa Libertadores , and thus the official name changed to Copa Santander Libertadores . In that season , LDU Quito became the first team from Ecuador to win the Copa Libertadores after defeating Fluminense 3–1 on penalties . Goalkeeper Jose Francisco Cevallos played a key role , saving three penalties in the final shootout in what is considered one of the best ever final series in the competition 's history . It was also the highest-scoring final in the history of the tournament . The biggest resurgence of the decade happened in the 50th edition of the Copa Libertadores and it was won by a former power that has reinvented itself . Estudiantes de La Plata , led by Juan Sebastián Verón , won their fourth title 39 long years after the successful generation of the 1960s ( led by Juan Sebastián 's father , Juan Ramón ) . The pincharatas managed to emulate their predecessors by defeating Cruzeiro 2–1 on the return leg in Belo Horizonte . Brazilian dominance : 2010–2013 In 2010 , a spell of the competition only being won by Brazilian clubs for four years began with Internacional defeating Guadalajara . In 2011 , Santos won their third Copa , overcoming Peñarol by 2–1 in the final . In 2012 , Corinthians won the tournament undefeated , beating Boca Juniors 2–0 in the final . It was Corinthians ' first title . In 2013 , Atlético Mineiro needed to beat Olimpia 2–0 in the second leg to take the match to penalties and did so ; Victor , the goalkeeper , performed spectacularly and helped secure the title for the club . It was Atlético Mineiro 's first title . Argentine comeback : 2014–2015 The Brazilian spell ended with San Lorenzo 's first title , beating Nacional of Paraguay in the finals . But another trend was born , as once again a new champion was crowned , for the third consecutive year . San Lorenzo 's victory was then followed by another Argentine club 's victory , River Plate , winning its third title on 2015 . But Atletico Nacional stop this new trend , the colombian team won their second title after 27 years and one former failure attempt in 1995 against Grêmio , becoming the first pacific team to reach that achievement in the history of the tournament . Format Qualification Most teams qualify for the Copa Libertadores by winning half-year tournaments called the Apertura and Clausura tournaments or by finishing among the top teams in their championship . The countries that use this format are Argentina , Bolivia , Chile , Colombia , Mexico , Paraguay and Venezuela . Peru and Ecuador have developed new formats for qualification to the Copa Libertadores involving several stages . Brazil is the only South American league to use a European league format instead of the Apertura and Clausura format . However , one berth for the Copa Libertadores can be won by winning the Copa do Brasil . Peru , Uruguay and Mexico formerly used a second tournament to decide qualification for the Libertadores ( the `` Liguilla Pre-Libertadores '' between 1992 and 1997 , the `` Liguilla Pre-Libertadores de América '' since 1974 to 2009 , and the InterLiga from 2004 to 2010 , respectively ) . Chile still uses a competition to determine a Copa Libertadores participant , the `` Liguilla para Copa Libertadores '' . Argentina used an analogous method only once in 1992 . Since 2011 , the winner of the Copa Sudamericana has qualified automatically for the following Copa Libertadores . The first , second and final stages of the competition are currently contested by the following : The winners of the previous season 's Copa Libertadores are given an additional entry if they do not qualify for the tournament through their domestic performance ; however , if the title holders qualify for the tournament through their domestic performance , an additional entry is granted to the next eligible team , `` replacing '' the title holder . If the winners of the Copa Sudamericana do not qualify for the tournament through their domestic performance , this entry will come at the expense of the last-placed team of their association . Rules Unlike most other competitions around the world , the Copa Libertadores historically did not use extra time , with the only exception the final match encounter , an additional period of play specified under the rules of a sport to bring a game to a decision and avoid declaring the match a tie or draw , or away goals , a method of breaking ties in football and other sports when teams play each other twice , once at each team 's home ground , to decide a tie that was level on aggregate . From 1960 to 1987 , two-legged ties were decided on points ( teams would be awarded 2 points for a win , 1 point for a draw and 0 points for a loss ) , without taking goal difference into consideration . If both teams were level on points after two legs , a third match would be played at a neutral venue . Goal difference would only come into play if the third match was drawn . If the third match did not produce an immediate winner , a penalty shootout was used to determine a winner . From 1988 onwards , two-legged ties were decided on points , followed by goal difference , with an immediate penalty shootout if the tie was level on aggregate after full-time in the second leg . Starting with the 2005 season , CONMEBOL began to use the away goals rule . In 2008 , the finals became an exception to the away goals rule and employed extra time . From 1995 onwards , the `` Three points for a win '' standard , a system adopted by FIFA in 1995 that places additional value on wins , was adopted in CONMEBOL , with teams now earning 3 points for a win , 1 point for a draw and 0 points for a loss . Tournament The current tournament features 38 clubs competing over a six- to eight-month period . There are three stages : the first stage , the second stage and the knockout stage . The first stage involves 12 clubs in a series of two-legged knockout ties . The six survivors join 26 clubs in the second stage , in which they are divided into eight groups of four . The teams in each group play in a double round-robin format , with each team playing home and away games against every other team in their group . The top two teams from each group are then drawn into the knockout stage , which consists of two-legged knockout ties . From that point , the competition proceeds with two-legged knockout ties to quarterfinals , semifinals , and the finals . Between 1960 and 1987 the previous winners did not enter the competition until the semifinal stage , making it much easier to retain the cup . Between 1960 and 2004 , the winner of the tournament participated for the now-defunct Intercontinental Cup or ( after 1980 ) Toyota Cup , a football competition endorsed by UEFA and CONMEBOL , contested against the winners of the European Cup ( since renamed the UEFA Champions League ) Since 2004 , the winner has played in the Club World Cup , an international competition contested by the champion clubs from all six continental confederations . It is organized by the Fédération Internationale de Football

sfq_9248--Copa_Libertadores.txt

How many Copa de America winners medals did Pele and Maradona win between them?

Hydrogen peroxide is a chemical compound with the formula . In its pure form , it is a colourless liquid , slightly more viscous than water ; however , for safety reasons it is normally used as a solution . Hydrogen peroxide is the simplest peroxide ( a compound with an oxygen–oxygen single bond ) and finds use as a weak oxidizer , bleaching agent and disinfectant . Concentrated hydrogen peroxide , or `` high-test peroxide '' , is a reactive oxygen species and has been used as a propellant in rocketry . Hydrogen peroxide is often described as being `` water but with one more oxygen atom '' , a description that can give the incorrect impression of significant chemical similarity between the two compounds . While they have a similar melting point and appearance , pure hydrogen peroxide will explode if heated to boiling , will cause serious contact burns to the skin and can set materials alight on contact . For these reasons it is usually handled as a dilute solution ( household grades are typically 3–6 % in the U.S. and somewhat higher in Europe ) . Its chemistry is dominated by the nature of its unstable peroxide bond . Structure and properties Properties The boiling point of has been extrapolated as being 150.2 °C , approximately 50 °C higher than water . In practice hydrogen peroxide will undergo potentially explosive thermal decomposition if heated to this temperature . It may be safely distilled at lower temperatures under reduced pressure . Aqueous solutions In aqueous solutions hydrogen peroxide differs from the pure material due to the effects of hydrogen bonding between water and hydrogen peroxide molecules . Hydrogen peroxide and water form a eutectic mixture , exhibiting freezing-point depression ; pure water has a melting point of 0 °C and pure hydrogen peroxide of −0.43 °C , but a 50 % ( by volume ) solution of the two freezes at −51 °C . The boiling point of the same mixtures is also depressed in relation with the mean of both boiling points ( 125.1 °C ) . It occurs at 114 °C . This boiling point is 14 °C greater than that of pure water and 36.2 °C less than that of pure hydrogen peroxide . Structure Hydrogen peroxide ( ) is a nonplanar molecule with ( twisted ) C2 symmetry . Although the O−O bond is a single bond , the molecule has a relatively high rotational barrier of 2460 cm−1 ( 29.45 kJ/mol ) ; for comparison , the rotational barrier for ethane is 12.5 kJ/mol . The increased barrier is ascribed to repulsion between the lone pairs of the adjacent oxygen atoms and results in hydrogen peroxide displaying atropisomerism . The molecular structures of gaseous and crystalline are significantly different . This difference is attributed to the effects of hydrogen bonding , which is absent in the gaseous state . Crystals of are tetragonal with the space group D'P4121 . Comparison with analogues Hydrogen peroxide has several structural analogues with Hm−X−X−Hn bonding arrangements ( water also shown for comparison ) . It has the highest ( theoretical ) boiling point of this series ( X = O , N , S ) . Its melting point is also fairly high , being comparable to that of hydrazine and water , with only hydroxylamine crystallising significantly more readily , indicative of particularly strong hydrogen bonding . Diphosphane and hydrogen disulfide exhibit only weak hydrogen bonding and have little chemical similarity to hydrogen peroxide . All of these analogues are thermodynamically unstable . Structurally , the analogues all adopt similar skewed structures , due to repulsion between adjacent lone pairs . Discovery Hydrogen peroxide was first described in 1818 by Louis Jacques Thénard , who produced it by treating barium peroxide with nitric acid . An improved version of this process used hydrochloric acid , followed by addition of sulfuric acid to precipitate the barium sulfate byproduct . Thénard 's process was used from the end of the 19th century until the middle of the 20th century . Pure hydrogen peroxide was long believed to be unstable , as early attempts to separate it from the water , which is present during synthesis , all failed . This instability was due to traces of impurities ( transition-metal salts ) , which catalyze the decomposition of the hydrogen peroxide . Pure hydrogen peroxide was first obtained in 1894 — almost 80 years after its discovery — by Richard Wolffenstein , who produced it by vacuum distillation . Determination of the molecular structure of hydrogen peroxide proved to be very difficult . In 1892 the Italian physical chemist Giacomo Carrara ( 1864–1925 ) determined its molecular mass by freezing-point depression , which confirmed that its molecular formula is H2O2.G . Carrara ( 1892 ) [ https : //books.google.com/books ? idYk46AQAAMAAJ & pg PA19 # vonepage & q & f false `` Sul peso molecolare e sul potere rifrangente dell ' acqua ossigenata '' ] ( On the molecular weight and on the refractive power of oxygenated water [ i.e. , hydrogen peroxide ] ) , Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei , series 5 , 1 ( 2 ) : 19–24 . Carrara 's findings were confirmed by : W. R. Orndorff and John White ( 1893 ) [ https : //books.google.com/books ? idQKYwAAAAYAAJ & pg PA347 # vonepage & q & f false `` The molecular weight of hydrogen peroxide and of benzoyl peroxide , '' ] American Chemical Journal , 15 : 347–356 . At least half a dozen hypothetical molecular structures seemed to be consistent with the available evidence.See , for example : * In 1882 , Kingzett proposed as a structure H2OO . See : Charles Thomas Kingzett ( 29 September 1882 ) [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id 1OYEAAAAQAAJ & pgRA1-PA141 # v onepage & q & f=false `` On the activity of oxygen and the mode of formation of hydrogen dioxide , '' ] The Chemical News , 46 ( 1192 ) : 141–142 . * In his 1922 textbook , Joseph Mellor considered three hypothetical molecular structures for hydrogen peroxide , admitting ( p. 952 ) : `` ... the constitution of this compound has not been yet established by unequivocal experiments '' . See : Joseph William Mellor , A Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry , vol . 1 ( London , England : Longmans , Green and Co. , 1922 ) , [ https : //books.google.com/books ? idPnjVAAAAMAAJ & pg PA952 # vonepage & q & f false p . 952–956 . ] * W. C. Schumb , C. N. Satterfield , and R. L. Wentworth ( 1 December 1953 ) [ http : //hydrogen-peroxide.us/chemical-properties/MIT-Schumb_etal-hydrogen_Peroxide_ch5_n_ch6-1954.pdf `` Report no . 43 : Hydrogen peroxide , Part two '' ] , Office of Naval Research , Contract No . N5ori-07819 On p. 178 , the authors present six hypothetical models for hydrogen peroxide 's molecular structure . On p. 184 , the present structure is considered almost certainly correct — although a small doubt remained . ( Note : The report by Schumb et al . was reprinted as : W. C. Schumb , C. N. Satterfield , and R. L. Wentworth , Hydrogen Peroxide ( New York , New York : Reinhold Publishing Corp. ( American Chemical Society Monograph ) , 1955 ) . ) In 1934 , the English mathematical physicist William Penney and the Scottish physicist Gordon Sutherland proposed a molecular structure for hydrogen peroxide that was very similar to the presently accepted one.See : * W. G. Penney and G. B . B. M. Sutherland ( 1934 ) `` The theory of the structure of hydrogen peroxide and hydrazine '' , Journal of Chemical Physics , 2 ( 8 ) : 492–498 . * W. G. Penney and G. B . B. M. Sutherland ( 1934 ) `` A note on the structure of H2O2 and H4N2 with particular reference to electric moments and free rotation '' , Transactions of the Faraday Society , 30 : 898–902 . Manufacture Previously , hydrogen peroxide was prepared industrially by hydrolysis of the ammonium peroxydisulfate , which was itself obtained by the electrolysis of a solution of ammonium bisulfate ( ) in sulfuric acid : + 2 → + 2 Today , hydrogen peroxide is manufactured almost exclusively by the anthraquinone process , which was formalized in 1936 and patented in 1939 . It begins with the reduction of an anthraquinone ( such as 2-ethylanthraquinone or the 2-amyl derivative ) to the corresponding anthrahydroquinone , typically by hydrogenation on a palladium catalyst ; the anthrahydroquinone then undergoes to autoxidation to regenerate the starting anthraquinone , with hydrogen peroxide being produced as a by-product . Most commercial processes achieve oxidation by bubbling compressed air through a solution of the derivatized anthracene , whereby the oxygen present in the air reacts with the labile hydrogen atoms ( of the hydroxy group ) , giving hydrogen peroxide and regenerating the anthraquinone . Hydrogen peroxide is then extracted , and the anthraquinone derivative is reduced back to the dihydroxy ( anthracene ) compound using hydrogen gas in the presence of a metal catalyst . The cycle then repeats itself . The simplified overall equation for the process is deceptively simple : + → The economics of the process depend heavily on effective recycling of the quinone ( which is expensive ) and extraction solvents , and of the hydrogenation catalyst . A process to produce hydrogen peroxide directly from the elements has been of interest for many years . Direct synthesis is difficult to achieve , as the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen thermodynamically favours production of water . Systems for direct synthesis have been developed , most of which are based around finely dispersed metal catalysts . None of these has yet reached a point where they can be used for industrial-scale synthesis . Availability Hydrogen peroxide is most commonly available as a solution in water . For consumers , it is usually available from pharmacies at 3 and 6 wt % concentrations . The concentrations are sometimes described in terms of the volume of oxygen gas generated ; one milliliter of a 20-volume solution generates twenty milliliters of oxygen gas when completely decomposed . For laboratory use , 30 wt % solutions are most common . Commercial grades from 70 % to 98 % are also available , but due to the potential of solutions of more than 68 % hydrogen peroxide to be converted entirely to steam and oxygen ( with the temperature of the steam increasing as the concentration increases above 68 % ) these grades are potentially far more hazardous and require special care in dedicated storage areas . Buyers must typically allow inspection by commercial manufacturers . In 1994 , world production of was around 1.9 million tonnes and grew to 2.2 million in 2006 , most of which was at a concentration of 70 % or less . In that year bulk 30 % sold for around 0.54 USD/kg , equivalent to 1.50 USD/kg ( 0.68 USD/lb ) on a `` 100 % basis '' . Reactions Decomposition Hydrogen peroxide is thermodynamically unstable and decomposes to form water and oxygen with a ΔHo of −98.2 kJ/mol and a ΔS of 70.5 J/ ( mol·K ) : 2 → 2 + The rate of decomposition increases with rising temperature , concentration and pH , with cool , dilute , acidic solutions showing the best stability . Decomposition is catalysed by various compounds , including most transition metals and their compounds ( e.g . manganese dioxide , silver , and platinum ) . Certain metal ions , such as or , can cause the decomposition to take a different path , with free radicals such as ( HO· ) and ( HOO· ) being formed . Non-metallic catalysts include potassium iodide , which reacts particularly rapidly and forms the basis of the elephant toothpaste experiment . Hydrogen peroxide can also be decomposed biologically by enzyme catalase . The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide liberates oxygen and heat ; this can be dangerous , as spilling high-concentration hydrogen peroxide on a flammable substance can cause an immediate fire . Redox reactions Hydrogen peroxide exhibits oxidizing and reducing properties , depending on pH . In acidic solutions , is one of the most powerful oxidizers known—stronger than chlorine , chlorine dioxide , and potassium permanganate . Also , through catalysis , can be converted into hydroxyl radicals ( ·OH ) , which are highly reactive . In acidic solutions is oxidized to ( hydrogen peroxide acting as an oxidizing agent ) : 2 ( aq ) + + 2 ( aq ) → 2 ( aq ) + 2 ( l ) and sulfite ( ) is oxidized to sulfate ( ) . However , potassium permanganate is reduced to by acidic . Under alkaline conditions , however , some of these reactions reverse ; for example , is oxidized to ( as ) . In basic solution , hydrogen peroxide can reduce a variety of inorganic ions . When it acts as a reducing agent , oxygen gas is also produced . For example , hydrogen peroxide will reduce sodium hypochlorite and potassium permanganate , which is a convenient method for preparing oxygen in the laboratory : NaOCl + → + NaCl + 2 + 3 → 2 + 2 KOH + 2 + 3 Organic reactions Hydrogen peroxide is frequently used as an oxidizing agent . Illustrative is oxidation of thioethers to sulfoxides : Ph + → Ph + Alkaline hydrogen peroxide is used for epoxidation of electron-deficient alkenes such as acrylic acid derivatives , and for the oxidation of alkylboranes to alcohols , the second step of hydroboration-oxidation . It is also the principal reagent in the Dakin oxidation process . Precursor to other peroxide compounds Hydrogen peroxide is a weak acid , forming hydroperoxide or peroxide salts with many metals . It also converts metal oxides into the corresponding peroxides . For example , upon treatment with hydrogen peroxide , forms an unstable blue peroxide CrO ( . This kind of reaction is used industrially to produce peroxoanions . For example , reaction with borax leads to sodium perborate , a bleach used in laundry detergents : + 4 + 2 NaOH → 2 + converts carboxylic acids ( RCO2H ) into peroxy acids ( RC ( O ) O2H ) , which are themselves used as oxidizing agents . Hydrogen peroxide reacts with acetone to form acetone peroxide and with ozone to form trioxidane . Reaction with urea produces the adduct , hydrogen peroxide - urea , used for whitening teeth . An acid-base adduct with triphenylphosphine oxide is a useful `` carrier '' for in some reactions . Biological function Hydrogen peroxide is also one of the two chief chemicals in the defence system of the bombardier beetle , reacting with hydroquinone to discourage predators . A study published in Nature found that hydrogen peroxide plays a role in the immune system . Scientists found that hydrogen peroxide presence inside cells increased after tissues are damaged in zebrafish , which is thought to act as a signal to white blood cells to converge on the site and initiate the healing process . When the genes required to produce hydrogen peroxide were disabled , white blood cells did not accumulate at the site of damage . The experiments were conducted on fish ; however , because fish are genetically similar to humans , the same process is speculated to occur in humans . The study in Nature suggested asthma sufferers have higher levels of hydrogen peroxide in their lungs than healthy people , which could explain why asthma sufferers have inappropriate levels of white blood cells in their lungs . Hydrogen peroxide has important roles as a signalling molecule in the regulation of a wide variety of biological processes . The compound is a major factor implicated in the free-radical theory of aging , based on how readily hydrogen peroxide can decompose into a hydroxyl radical and how superoxide radical byproducts of cellular metabolism can react with ambient water to form hydrogen peroxide . These hydroxyl radicals in turn readily react with and damage vital cellular components , especially those of the mitochondria . At least one study has also tried to link hydrogen peroxide production to cancer . These studies have frequently been quoted in fraudulent treatment claims . The amount of hydrogen peroxide in biological systems can be assayed using a fluorimetric assay . Applications Industrial About 60 % of the world 's production of hydrogen peroxide is used for pulp- and paper-bleaching . The second major industrial application is the manufacture of sodium percarbonate and sodium perborate which are used as mild bleaches in laundry detergents . It is used in the production of various organic peroxides with dibenzoyl peroxide being a high volume example . This is used in polymerisations , as a flour bleaching agent and as a treatment for acne . Peroxy acids , such as peracetic acid and meta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid are also typically produced using hydrogen peroxide . Hydrogen peroxide is used in certain waste-water treatment processes to remove organic impurities . This is achieved by advanced oxidation processes , such as the Fenton reaction , which use it to generate highly reactive hydroxyl radicals ( ·OH ) . These are able to destroy organic contaminates which are ordinarily difficult to remove , such as aromatic or halogenated compounds . It can also oxidize sulfur based compounds present in the waste ; which is beneficial as it generally reduces their odour . Medical Disinfectant Hydrogen peroxide can be used for the sterilization of various surfaces , including surgical tools and may be deployed as a vapour ( VHP ) for room sterilization . H2O2 demonstrates broad-spectrum efficacy against viruses , bacteria , yeasts , and bacterial spores . In general , greater activity is seen against gram-positive than gram-negative bacteria ; however , the presence of catalase or other peroxidases in these organisms can increase tolerance in the presence of lower concentrations . Higher concentrations of H2O2 ( 10 to 30 % ) and longer contact times are required for sporicidal activity . Hydrogen peroxide is seen as an environmentally safe alternative to chlorine-based bleaches , as it degrades to form oxygen and water and it is generally recognized as safe as an antimicrobial agent by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) . Historically hydrogen peroxide was used for disinfecting wounds , partly because of its low cost and prompt availability compared to other antiseptics . It is now thought to slow healing and lead to scarring because it destroys newly formed skin cells . Only a very low concentration of H2O2 can induce healing , and only if not repeatedly applied . Surgical use can lead to gas embolism formation . Despite this it is still used for wound treatment in many developing countries . It is absorbed by skin upon contact and creates a local capillary embolism that appears as a temporary whitening of the skin . Cosmetic applications Diluted ( between 1.9 % and 12 % ) mixed with ammonium hydroxide is used to bleach human hair . The chemical 's bleaching property lends its name to the phrase `` peroxide blonde '' . Hydrogen peroxide is also used for tooth whitening and can be mixed with baking soda and salt to make a home-made toothpaste . Hydrogen peroxide may be used to treat acne , although benzoyl peroxide is a more common treatment . Use in alternative medicine Practitioners of alternative medicine have advocated the use of hydrogen peroxide for the treatment of various conditions , including emphysema , influenza , AIDS and in particular cancer . The practice calls for the daily consumption of hydrogen peroxide , either orally or by injection and is , in general , based around two precepts . First , that hydrogen peroxide is naturally produced by the body to combat infection ; and second , that human pathogens ( including cancer : See Warburg hypothesis ) are anaerobic and can not survive in oxygen-rich environments . The ingestion or injection of hydrogen peroxide is therefore believed to kill disease by mimicking the immune response in addition to increasing levels of oxygen within the body . This makes it similar to other oxygen-based therapies , such as ozone therapy and hyperbaric oxygen therapy . Both the effectiveness and safety of hydrogen peroxide therapy is scientifically questionable . Hydrogen peroxide is produced by the immune system but in a carefully controlled manner . Cells called by phagocytes engulf pathogens and then use hydrogen peroxide to destroy them . The peroxide is toxic to both the cell and the pathogen and so is kept within a special compartment , called a phagosome . Free hydrogen peroxide will damage any tissue it encounters via oxidative stress ; a process which also has been proposed as a cause of cancer . Claims that hydrogen peroxide therapy increase cellular levels of oxygen have not been supported . The quantities administered would be expected to provide very little additional oxygen compared to that available from normal respiration . It should also be noted that it is difficult to raise the level of oxygen around cancer cells within a tumour , as the blood supply tends to be poor , a situation known as tumor hypoxia . Large oral doses of hydrogen peroxide at a 3 % concentration may cause irritation and blistering to the mouth , throat , and abdomen as well as abdominal pain , vomiting , and diarrhea . Intravenous injection of hydrogen peroxide has been linked to several deaths . The American Cancer Society states that `` there is no scientific evidence that hydrogen peroxide is a safe , effective or useful cancer treatment . '' Furthermore , the therapy is not approved by the U.S. FDA . Propellant High-concentration is referred to as `` high-test peroxide '' ( HTP ) . It can be used either as a monopropellant ( not mixed with fuel ) or as the oxidizer component of a bipropellant rocket . Use as a monopropellant takes advantage of the decomposition of 70–98 % concentration hydrogen peroxide into steam and oxygen . The propellant is pumped into a reaction chamber , where a catalyst , usually a silver or platinum screen , triggers decomposition , producing steam at over 600 C , which is expelled through a nozzle , generating thrust . monopropellant produces a maximal specific impulse ( Isp ) of 161 s ( 1.6 kN·s/kg ) . Peroxide was the first major monopropellant adopted for use in rocket applications . Hydrazine eventually replaced hydrogen-peroxide monopropellant thruster applications primarily because of a 25 % increase in the vacuum specific impulse . Hydrazine ( toxic ) and hydrogen peroxide ( less-toxic [ ACGIH TLV 0.01 and 1 ppm respectively ] ) are the only two monopropellants ( other than cold gases ) to have been widely adopted and utilized for propulsion and power applications . The Bell Rocket Belt , reaction-control systems for X-1 , X-15 , Centaur , Mercury , Little Joe , as well as the turbo-pump gas generators for X-1 , X-15 , Jupiter , Redstone and Viking used hydrogen peroxide as a monopropellant . As a bipropellant , is decomposed to burn a fuel as an oxidizer . Specific impulses as high as 350 s ( 3.5 kN·s/kg ) can be achieved , depending on the fuel . Peroxide used as an oxidizer gives a somewhat lower Isp than liquid oxygen , but is dense , storable , noncryogenic and can be more easily used to drive gas turbines to give high pressures using an efficient closed cycle . It can also be used for regenerative cooling of rocket engines . Peroxide was used very successfully as an oxidizer in World War II German rocket motors ( e.g . T-Stoff , containing oxyquinoline stabilizer , for both the Walter HWK 109-500 Starthilfe RATO externally podded monopropellant booster system , and for the Walter HWK 109-509 rocket motor series used for the Me 163B ) , most often used with C-Stoff in a self-igniting hypergolic combination , and for the low-cost British Black Knight and Black Arrow launchers . In the 1940s and 1950s , the Hellmuth Walter KG-conceived turbine used hydrogen peroxide for use in submarines while submerged ; it was found to be too noisy and require too much maintenance compared to diesel-electric power systems . Some torpedoes used hydrogen peroxide as oxidizer or propellant . Operator error in the use of hydrogen-peroxide torpedoes was named as possible causes for the sinkings of HMS Sidon and the Russian submarine Kursk . SAAB Underwater Systems is manufacturing the Torpedo 2000 . This torpedo , used by the Swedish Navy , is powered by a piston engine propelled by HTP as an oxidizer and kerosene as a fuel in a bipropellant system . Explosives Hydrogen peroxide has been used for creating organic peroxide-based explosives , such as acetone peroxide , for improvised explosive devices . Hydrogen peroxide itself also acts as an explosive in high concentrations when placed in an absorbent , and has been used in attacks including the 7 July 2005 London bombings . [ http : //www.nbcnews.com/id/32976055/ns/us_news-security/t/tiny-cheap-deadly-hydrogen-peroxide-bombs/ Tiny cheap deadly hydrogen peroxide bombs ] , 2009 article about home made bombs and their use in terror attacks . ( NBC News ) These explosives tend to degrade quickly and hence are not used as commercial or military explosives . Other uses Hydrogen peroxide has various domestic uses , primarily as a cleaning and disinfecting agent . ; Glow sticks Hydrogen peroxide reacts with certain di-esters , such as phenyl oxalate ester ( cyalume ) , to produce chemiluminescence ; this application is most commonly encountered in the form of glow sticks . ; Horticulture : Some horticulturalists and users of hydroponics advocate the use of weak hydrogen peroxide solution in watering solutions . Its spontaneous decomposition releases oxygen that enhances a plant 's root development and helps to treat root rot ( cellular root death due to lack of oxygen ) and a variety of other pests . ; Fish aeration Laboratory tests conducted by fish culturists in recent years have demonstrated that common household hydrogen peroxide can be used safely to provide oxygen for small fish . The hydrogen peroxide releases oxygen by decomposition when it is exposed to catalysts such as manganese dioxide . Safety Regulations vary , but low concentrations , such as 6 % , are widely available and legal to buy for medical use . Most over-the-counter peroxide solutions are not suitable for ingestion . Higher concentrations may be considered hazardous and are typically accompanied by a Material Safety Data Sheet ( MSDS ) . In high concentrations , hydrogen peroxide is an aggressive oxidizer and will corrode many materials , including human skin . In the presence of a reducing agent , high concentrations of will react violently . High-concentration hydrogen peroxide streams , typically above 40 % , should be considered hazardous due to concentrated hydrogen peroxide 's meeting the definition of a DOT oxidizer according to U.S. regulations , if released into the environment . The EPA Reportable Quantity ( RQ ) for D001 hazardous wastes is 100 lb , or approximately 10 USgal , of concentrated hydrogen peroxide . Hydrogen peroxide should be stored in a cool , dry , well-ventilated area and away from any flammable or combustible substances . It should be stored in a container composed of non-reactive materials such as stainless steel or glass ( other materials including some plastics and aluminium alloys may also be suitable ) . Because it breaks down quickly when exposed to light , it should be stored in an opaque container , and pharmaceutical formulations typically come in brown bottles that block light . Hydrogen peroxide , either in pure or diluted form , can pose several risks , the main one being that it forms explosive mixtures upon contact with organic compounds . Highly concentrated hydrogen peroxide itself is unstable and can cause a boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion ( BLEVE ) of the remaining liquid . Distillation of hydrogen peroxide at normal pressures is thus highly dangerous . It is also corrosive , especially when concentrated , but even domestic-strength solutions can cause irritation to the eyes , mucous membranes and skin . Swallowing hydrogen peroxide solutions is particularly dangerous , as decomposition in the stomach releases large quantities of

bb_3702--Hydrogen_peroxide.txt

Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) is one of several different forms of what commonly named chemical agent?

The second city of the United Kingdom is an unofficial claim made at various times by several cities since the establishment of the UK in 1801 . Commonly a country 's second city is the city that is thought to be the second most important , usually after the capital or first city according to criteria such as population size , economic importance and cultural contribution . Historically several cities have been considered the `` second city of the British Empire '' , both Glasgow and Liverpool were burgeoning major industrial cities throughout the 19th century with competing claims to be the busiest ports in the world for ship building and freight transport , Calcutta also laid the claim from as far away as India as the most populous city while in 1911 the editor of the Irish Times laid a claim for Dublin during a ceremonial visit by George V. Since the establishment of the Commonwealth in 1949 several cities have made claims to be the `` second city of the Commonwealth '' ( often with particular reference to the significance of the Commonwealth Games ) in particular Manchester in 2000 and Glasgow again in 2012 . In contrast throughout much of the 20th and 21st Century Birmingham has generally been regarded as the second city of the United Kingdom in terms of populace and GDP while Edinburgh has been promoted as the second city by virtue as the capital of Scotland . Less authoratitive claims have been made on behalf of Cardiff & Belfast due to their status as the respective capital cities of Wales & Northern Ireland . History Since the formation of the United Kingdom , several places have been described as the `` second city '' . Dublin was the second most populous city at the time of the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801 , though it lost that position later in the 19th century as other cities grew through more rapid industrialisation . As such , it was often described as the second city of the UK . Dublin , and the rest of the Republic of Ireland , became independent of the UK in the 1920s . The title Second City of Empire or Second City of the British Empire was claimed by a number of cities in the 18th , 19th and early 20th centuries . Commercial trading city Liverpool was regarded as holding this title with its massive port , merchant fleet and world-wide trading links . [ http : //www.nottingham.ac.uk/home/ahzsh1/Empire/Project.htm Untitled Document ] Liverpool was constantly referred to as the New York of Europe . Others included Dublin , Glasgow ( which continues to use the title as a marketing slogan ) , and ( outside the UK ) Calcutta and Philadelphia . Prior to the union with Scotland in 1707 , from the English Civil War until the 18th century , Norwich was the second-largest city of England , being a major trading centre , Britain 's richest provincial city and county town of Norfolk , at that time the most populous county of England . Bristol was the second wealthiest city in England in the 16th century ; and by the 18th century , Bristol was often described as the second city of England . During the 19th century , claims were made for Manchester , Liverpool and York . York had also been named as the second city in earlier centuries . By the early 19th century , Glasgow was frequently referred to as the second city ; and during much of the 20th century it had a population of over one million , larger than that of Birmingham until the 1951 census . For example , the Official Census population for Glasgow was 0.784 million in April 1911 ; 1.034 million in April 1921 ; 1.088 million in April 1931 and 1.090 million in April 1951 . However , slum clearances in the 1960s led to displacement of residents from the city centre to new communities located outside the city boundaries . This , together with local government reorganisation , resulted in the official population of Glasgow falling sharply . The Glasgow City Council area currently has a population of 600,000 although the surrounding conurbation of Greater Glasgow has a population of 1,199,629 . In contrast , the population of the city of Birmingham has remained steady around the one million mark ; its central population fell like Glasgow 's , but the city boundaries were extended several times in the early 20th century . Occasional claims were made for Liverpool , Birmingham and Manchester . Modern points of view Since World War I , and up to the beginning of the 21st century , Birmingham had been considered by many to be the second city , but recent polls and media references have indicated that Manchester is now considered to be the second city of the United Kingdom . Based on population within actual city boundaries the City of Birmingham , the most populous local government district in Europe , is substantially larger than the City of Manchester , which is the fifth largest in the UK ( 2006 estimates , see List of English districts by population ) . However , most sources do not use formal city boundaries as the sole criterion for population comparison . The surrounding conurbations and the areas that can be considered informally part of each city are hard to define . However , after the 1974 reorganisation of local government and the creation of metropolitan counties , the City of Birmingham was included with the City of Coventry and five other metropolitan boroughs ( one , Wolverhampton gained city status in 2000 ) in a new West Midlands county . The City of Manchester joined with the neighbouring City of Salford and eight other Metropolitan boroughs within the County of Greater Manchester . While the 'second city ' status of any country is decided upon a variety of economic or cultural indices , both Birmingham and Manchester have shown an edge in each over the years . For example , in 2010 , Manchester City Centre became second to London for new office building take-up with almost a million square foot ( 86,400 m2 ) occupied in the year , whilst praise for Birmingham 's striking modern architecture was cited as confirmation of its claim to second city status . [ http : //www.eurocheapo.com/blog/birmingham-britain ’ s-second-city.html Birmingham : Britain ’ s second city | EuroCheapo 's Travel Tips ] Public opinion polls As the Second City is an unofficial title and one of subjective opinion , a number of polls have been conducted over the years . Despite Birmingham being view as the traditional second city , public polls have shown a consistent preference for Manchester since 2000 . This shift has been attributed to Manchester 's and the wider Greater Manchester 's region of rebranding itself , most notably after the 1996 Manchester bombing and the successful hosting of the 2002 Commonwealth Games : * A 2002 survey conducted by Ipsos MORI , commissioned by `` Visit Manchester '' ( Manchester 's tourism department ) , Manchester received the highest response for the category of second city at 34 % , compared to Birmingham at 29 % ; and in the same poll , Manchester had the highest response for the category of third city with 27 % of the vote , 6 % more than the 21 % for Birmingham . Only 85 % of respondents put London as first City . * A 2007 survey conducted by GfK commissioned by the BBC in December 2006 investigating the subject of the `` 'Second city ' of England '' ( as opposed to the UK as a whole ) , 48 % of 1,000 people placed Manchester , with 40 % choosing Birmingham . * A 2015 survey by YouGov showed that 30 % thought Manchester was the second city , 20 % thought Birmingham and 12 % thought Edinburgh . Ministerial statements There have been a variety of Ministerial statements and opinions on the subject for some time . These include : * In February 2015 UK Prime Minister David Cameron stated `` Birmingham is Britain ’ s second city , it is a powerhouse . '' On 16 February 2016 he emphasised that `` We recognise Birmingham ’ s status as Britain ’ s second city '' . He repeated this claim on the 16th March 2016 when he stated `` Birmingham is the second city of our country '' during Prime Minister 's Questions . * David Miliband , the former Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs , and former Shadow Foreign Secretary said `` However , if you look at Birmingham , I think a lot of people would say that it 's a city , Britain 's second city ... '' * Digby Jones , Baron Jones of Birmingham ( born and raised in Birmingham ) , former Minister of State at the Department for Business , Enterprise and Regulatory Reform and the Foreign Office ( former Director-General of the Confederation of British Industry ( CBI ) said `` Birmingham is naturally the second most important city in Britain after London because of where she is and how important she is as part of that crossroads , '' . Jones later said `` As a Brummie it 's not easy to say , but I can find no better place than the north west in terms of having a diverse manufacturing base , whether it 's engineering manufacturing at Rolls-Royce , automotive manufacturing at Bentley or pharmaceuticals manufacturing at AstraZeneca . '' which contradicts what he said about Birmingham being the most important base outside London . He also praised `` Manchester 's 'first-class global ' university , knowledge and transport infrastructure were the two key factors that determined the success of a city or region . '' In 2011 , Jones stated that Birmingham is now in danger of losing its unofficial title to Manchester * John Prescott ( born in Wales and raised in Cheshire ) , former Deputy Prime Minister and Member of Parliament for the constituency of Hull East , was also quoted as saying `` Manchester – our second city '' , but this was later played down by his department , claiming they were made in a `` light-hearted context '' . * Graham Stringer ( born and raised in and currently representing Manchester ) , MP for Blackley and Broughton , responded with `` Manchester has always been the second city after the capital , in many ways it is the first . Birmingham has never really been in the competition . '' * Sandra White ( born and raised in and representing Glasgow ) , a Scottish National Party MSP for Glasgow , claimed `` Glasgow was always seen as the second city in the Empire , and Glasgow is still the second British city . Manchester is probably the second city in England after London . '' * Phil Woolas ( born in Scunthorpe , Lincolnshire , living in Lees , Greater Manchester and representing the constituency of Oldham East and Saddleworth ) , Former Minister of State for the Environment – `` And , of course , I , and colleagues in Manchester , am pleased to see its very sensible plans to relocate to Manchester – Britain 's third city . ''

qz_6268--Second_city_of_the_United_Kingdom.txt

What is the second biggest city in the UK?

Mohamed Muktar Jama `` Mo '' Farah CBE ( born 23 March 1983 ) is a British distance runner . On the track , he mostly competes over 5000 metres and 10,000 metres , but has run competitively from 1500 metres to the marathon . He was a gold medallist in the 5000 m and 10,000 m at the 2012 Summer Olympics and the 2015 World Championships in Athletics . He also completed that double at the 2013 World Championships in Athletics and the European Athletics Championships in 2010 and 2014 ( the first British male winner of all those events ) . He was the second man in history to win long-distance doubles at successive Olympics and World Championships , and the first in history to do the triple-double . Born in Somalia , Farah moved to the United Kingdom as a child . He was originally based in London and ran for Newham and Essex Beagles athletics club , training at St Mary 's University College , Twickenham from 2001 to 2011 . He has trained with Alberto Salazar in Portland , Oregon since 2011 . Farah runs distances races tactically , but also can maintain a fast pace and has a quick sprint finish . In addition to the above titles , he was the European 5000 m champion in 2012 , twice 3000 m champion at the European Athletics Indoor Championships ( 2009 and 2011 ) and the winner of the European Cross Country Championships in 2006 . He was also the 5000 m gold medallist and 10,000m silver medallist at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics and 5000m silver medallist at the 2006 European Athletics Championships . He is a two-time winner of the Great North Run half marathon . Farah is the European record holder for the 1500 m , 10,000 m , half marathon and two miles , the British record holder for the 5000 m , the European indoor record holder for 5000 m , the British indoor record in the 3000 m and the current indoor world record holder for the two miles . He is the most decorated person in British athletics history , with seven global titles , and was the first British athlete to win two gold medals at the same world championships . His five gold medals at the European Athletics Championships make him the most successful individual athlete in championships history . He was European Athlete of the Year in both 2011 and 2012 , and has been the British Athletics Writers Association British Athlete of the Year five times ( more than any other ) . Farah was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in 2013 . Early life and education Farah was born on 23 March 1983 in Mogadishu , Somalia . His full name is Mohamed Muktar Jama Farah and he hails from the Isaaq clan . He spent the early years of his childhood in Djibouti with his twin brother . He later moved to Britain at the age of eight to join his father , speaking barely a word of English . His grandfather , Jama , was born in the British protectorate of Somaliland . His father , Mukhtar Farah , is an IT consultant and a British citizen , who was born in London , England and grew up in Hounslow . Mohamed 's parents had met during a holiday . Farah attended Isleworth and Syon in Isleworth , and Feltham Community College in Feltham . His athletic talent was first identified by physical education teacher Alan Watkinson . Farah 's ambition was to become a car mechanic or play as a right winger for Arsenal football club . He later joined the Borough of Hounslow Athletics Club in west London . Junior career Farah represented Hounslow at cross-country in the London Youth Games . In 1996 , at the age of 13 , he entered the English schools cross-country and finished ninth . The following year he won the first of five English school titles . Recognising his talent , athletics philanthropist Eddie Kulukundis paid the legal fees to complete Farah 's naturalisation as a British citizen , allowing Farah to travel to competitions without visa issues . Farah 's first major title was at 5000 metres at the European Athletics Junior Championship in 2001 , the same year that he began training at St Mary 's University College , Twickenham . That year , Farah became one of the first two athletes in the newly formed Endurance Performance Centre at St Mary ’ s . He lived and trained at the College , and took some modules in an access course before becoming a full-time athlete as his career progressed . Senior career 2005–2008 : First titles and personal bests In 2005 , Farah moved in with Australian Craig Mottram and a group of Kenyan runners that included 10,000 metres world number one Micah Kogo . `` They sleep , eat , train and rest , that 's all they do but as an athlete you have to do all those things . Running with Craig made me feel more positive , '' Farah said . `` If I ever want to be as good as these athletes I 've got to work harder . I do n't just want to be British number one , I want to be up there with the best . '' In July 2006 , Farah clocked a time of 13 minutes 9.40 seconds for 5000 m to become Britain 's second-fastest runner after Dave Moorcroft . A month later Farah collected the silver medal in the European Championship 5000m in Gothenburg . Coaches Alan Storey and Mark Rowland made sure that Farah remained competitive and a few words from Paula Radcliffe before the 5000 m final inspired Farah . He has stated that : `` She said to me , 'Go out and be brave . Just believe in yourself ' . '' In December 2006 , Farah won the 2006 European Cross Country Championships in San Giorgio su Legnano , Italy . Farah represented the UK at 5000 m in the 2007 World Championships in Osaka , Japan . Farah finished sixth in a time of 13:47.54 . In May 2008 , Farah ran 10,000 m events , claiming the fastest UK men 's time for almost eight years . However , he was knocked out before the 5000 m final at the 2008 Olympics in Beijing . 2009–2010 : British records and European champion In January 2009 , Farah set a new British indoor record in the 3000 metres , breaking John Mayock 's record with a time of 7 minutes 40.99 seconds in Glasgow . A few weeks later , he broke his own record by more than six seconds with a time of 7 minutes 34.47 at the UK Indoor Grand Prix in Birmingham , a performance which commentator Steve Cram called `` the best performance by a male British distance runner for a generation '' . Farah attributed his good form to a spell of winter training at altitude in Ethiopia and Kenya . In March 2009 he took gold in the 3000 m at the European Indoor Championships in Turin , recording a time of 7 minutes 40.17 . Farah competed at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics : he was in the leading pack early on in the 5000 metres race and eventually finished seventh – the best by a European runner . After the championships , he scored a victory in his first road competition over 10 miles , winning the Great South Run in 46:25 to become the third fastest Briton in spite of strong winds . Farah was one of the favourites to upset Serhiy Lebid 's dominance at the 2009 European Cross Country Championships . However , Lebid was never in contention as Farah and Alemayehu Bezabeh were some distance ahead throughout the run . Farah was overtaken by Bezabeh in the latter stages of the race , leaving the Briton with a second consecutive silver medal at the competition . He did not manage to attend the medal ceremony , however , as he collapsed immediately after the race and needed medical attention . After a close third place behind Edwin Soi at the BOclassic , Farah competed in the short course race at the Great Edinburgh Cross Country . He was the favourite to win and surged ahead to build a comfortable lead . However , he appeared tired in the latter stages and finished third behind British runners Ricky Stevenson and Steve Vernon . Farah again required post-race medical attention and subsequent tests revealed he had low levels of iron and magnesium . He was prescribed supplements for the condition and his high altitude training plans in Kenya were unaffected . Farah won the 2010 London 10,000 in late May in a time of 27:44 , in the process beating 10K world record holder Micah Kogo . His success continued the following week at the European Cup 10,000 m. There , he improved his track best by nearly 16 seconds , finishing in a time of 27:28.86 . Farah won by a margin of over forty seconds ahead of second placed Abdellatif Meftah . After training in Africa , he returned to Europe for the 2010 European Athletics Championships . He took the 10,000 metres gold medal , overtaking Ayad Lamdassem with two laps to go and finishing the race unpressured in a time of 28:24.99 . This was Farah 's first major title and also the first European gold medal in the event for Great Britain . He then went on to win the 5000 m from Jesus Espana , becoming only the fifth man in the 66-year history of the European Championships to achieve the 5000 m/10,000 m double , and the first for 20 years , following in the footsteps of the Czech Emil Zátopek in 1950 , Zdzislaw Krzyszkowiak of Poland in 1958 , Finland ’ s Juha Vaatainen in 1971 and Salvatore Antibo , of Italy , in 1990 . On 19 August 2010 , at a Diamond League meeting in Zürich , Farah ran 5000 m in 12:57.94 , breaking David Moorcroft 's long-standing British record and becoming the first ever British athlete to run under 13 minutes . In December 2010 , Farah was named track-and-field athlete of the year by the British Olympic Association . He closed the year at the BOclassic and just missed out on the 10 kilometre title , losing to Imane Merga in a sprint finish by 0.2 seconds . 2011 : European and British records , and world medals 2011 was a successful year for Farah , beginning on 8 January at the Edinburgh Cross Country , where he defeated the top four finishers of that year 's European Championships to take victory in the long race . In February 2011 , Farah announced that he would be relocating to Portland , Oregon to work with new coach Alberto Salazar , train alongside Galen Rupp , and escape the British tabloids . On 19 February 2011 in Birmingham , England , Farah broke the European 5000 m indoor record with a time of 13:10.60 , at the same time taking ten seconds off the 29-year-old British indoor record of Nick Rose . On 5 March 2011 , he won gold in the 3000 metres at the European Indoor Championships . On 20 March , Farah also won the NYC Half Marathon in a time of 1:00:23 , a new British record . He and training partner Galen Rupp had originally planned on running a 10,000 m race in New Zealand . However , after the race was cancelled due to the Christchurch earthquake and damage done to the track , they entered the half-marathon in New York . On 3 June 2011 , at a Diamond League meeting in Eugene , Oregon , Farah won the Prefontaine Classic 's 10,000 m event in 26:46.57 , setting a new British and European record.Jon Mulkeen ( 4 June 2011 ) . [ http : //www.athleticsweekly.com/news/farah-smashes-european-10000m-record-mosop-breaks-distance-world-records/ Farah smashes European 10,000m record , Mosop breaks distance world records ] . athleticsweekly.com . On 22 July 2011 , at a Diamond League meeting in Monaco , he set a new British national record in the 5000 m with a time of 12:53.11 . Farah edged out American Bernard Lagat to win the race . In the 2011 World Championships in Athletics in Daegu , South Korea , Farah made a major breakthrough on the world stage by taking the silver medal in the 10,000 m and then the gold in the 5000 m. He became the first British man to win a World Championships medal over either distance . Farah had in fact been more strongly favored to take the 10,000 m title , but was narrowly beaten in a last lap sprint by Ethiopian Ibrahim Jeilan . In the 5000 m , he overcame Lagat , beating him into second place . Following the race , Dave Moorcroft , former 5000 metres world record holder , hailed Farah as `` the greatest male distance runner that Britain has ever seen '' . 2012 : Double Olympic champion At the London 2012 Olympics , on 4 August , Farah won the 10,000 m gold in a time of 27:30.42 . This was Great Britain 's first Olympic gold medal in the 10,000 m , and came after two other gold medals for the country in the same athletics session . His training partner , Galen Rupp of the United States , took second place . Both runners are coached by Alberto Salazar . Farah stated that he would observe his Ramadan fast later in the year . On 11 August 2012 , Farah made it a long-distance double , winning the 5000 metres in a time of 13:41.66 . He dedicated the two golds to his twin daughters . On 23 August 2012 , Farah returned to the track at a Diamond League meet in Birmingham , where he capped off a winning season with another victory over a distance of two miles ( 2 mi ) . The noise from the crowd in the 5,000 m race was so loud it made the camera shake and distorted the photo-finish image . CBE Following his 2012 successes , Farah was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 2013 New Year Honours for services to athletics . The move was met with anger by many in the general public , including erstwhile Minister of Sports Gerry Sutcliffe , who felt that Farah instead deserved a higher accolade . Farah 's former physical education teacher Alan Watkinson similarly indicated that he was disappointed that Farah was not knighted and that the decision `` discredits the system although it 's still a fantastic achievement for Mo and well deserved . '' However , deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg cited Farah 's Olympic double gold win in his 2013 New Year 's message and 2012 Autumn conference , and David Cameron on August 2013 expressed support for a knighthood for Mo Farah . 2013 : 1500 m record and world medals On 19 July 2013 , at the Herculis meeting in Monaco , Farah broke the European 1500 m record with a time of 3:28.81 . The feat rendered him the sixth fastest man ever over the distance , overtaking Steve Cram 's 28-year-old British record and Fermín Cacho 's 16-year-old European record . It also made Farah the seventh man , behind Saïd Aouita , Daniel Komen , Ali Saïdi-Sief , Hicham El Gerrouj , Augustine Kiprono Choge and Bernard Lagat to break both the 3:30 barrier in the 1500 metres and the 13-minute barrier in the 5000 metres . More remarkably , it made Farah the only athlete in history to run sub 3:30 , sub 13-minute and sub 27-minute for 1500 metres , 5000 metres and 10,000 metres respectively . Additionally he has a sub 1 hour run in the half-marathon . The following month , Farah won the London Diamond League Anniversary Games ' 3000 metres event in a time of seven minutes and 36.85 seconds . He twice broke the national record in the half-marathon , first on 24 February in New Orleans , then broke his own record on 15 September in the Bupa Great North run . On 10 August 2013 , Farah held off a run by Ibrahim Jeilan to win the 10,000 m event at the World Championships in Moscow . The victory was his fourth global title . On 16 August 2013 , Farah won the 5,000 m event , in the process becoming double world and Olympic champion . After this victory , BBC commentator Brendan Foster and Sebastian Coe called Farah 'Britain 's greatest ever athlete ' . Farah became only the second man in history to win a long-distance titles at successive editions of the Olympics and World Championships , after Kenenisa Bekele 's 2008–09 feat . He was the first British athlete to win two individual gold medals at a World Championships . In December 2013 , Farah was the second favourite sportsperson behind Wimbledon tennis champion Andy Murray to become the BBC Sports Personality of the Year . Asked what drives him to keep pushing back the boundaries of athletic accomplishment , he noted sprinter Usain Bolt 's record breaking streak as a motivating example of what 's possible for all dedicated athletes . Farah was a finalist for the 2013 IAAF World Athlete of the year award . In preparation for his marathon debut , he also extended his training schedule to 120 miles a week . 2014 : Double gold in Zürich Farah began 2014 preparing for the year 's London Marathon , his first such run . He described running the event as a longstanding ambition of his , particularly to do so in London . Farah finished in eighth place in a time of 2:08.21 . This was outside Steve Jones ' GB record , but set a new English national record . Farah was due to compete at the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow . However , he withdrew due to illness from a stomach ailment and an infection caused from having a tooth removed . Farah later appeared in Zürich at the 2014 European Athletics Championships . He successfully defended his 5000 m title and won a gold in the 10,000 m , thus completing another major championship double . This made him the most successful individual in the history of the European Athletics Championships , with five titles to his name . On 7 September 2014 , Farah competed in the Great North Run , a British half marathon . He won the race with a personal best time of 1:00:00 , exactly 1 hour . 2015 : World and European records On 21 February 2015 , Farah broke the indoor two-mile world record at the Birmingham Indoor Grand Prix . He ran an 8:03.4 to break Kenenisa Bekele 's record . On 22 March 2015 , Farah broke the European record for half marathon in Lisbon . He ran a time of 59 minutes , 32 seconds , 20 seconds , surpassing the record set 14 years previously by Spain 's Fabián Roncero . He repeated his long-distance gold medal double at the 2015 World Championships in Athletics . His seven global titles are four more than any other British athlete ( Daley Thompson , Jonathan Edwards , Jessica Ennis-Hill and Christine Ohurougu have three each ) . In winning the 10,000 m he became the oldest ever global winner at the event at age 32 . 2016 On 26 March , Farah finished a close third in the 2016 IAAF World Half Marathon Championships in Cardiff , finishing in 59:59 , behind two Kenyans Geoffrey Kamworor ( 59:10 ) and Bedan Karoki ( 59:36 ) , barely beating out Abayneh Ayele in a sprint for third in 59:59 . On the fifth on June 2016 , Farah broke the 34-year old British 3000 meter record set by Moorcroft , which was set before he was born . Running style His running style has been described as `` bouncy '' and tactical , which he has attempted to alter for a more efficient and energy-saving stride pattern , especially in the longer distances . Farah runs distance races tactically , but also maintains a fast pace and has a quick sprint finish . `` Mobot '' signature pose Farah is noted for his unique victory celebration dance known as the `` Mobot '' . He adopted the move following a television appearance in May 2012 opposite sports presenter Clare Balding on the panel game show A League of Their Own . The host James Corden suggested to the panelists that they should think of a new dance to mark Farah 's winning celebration , and Balding subsequently came up with the `` M '' gesture called `` Mobot '' . While demonstrating it for the first time , she indicated that the part of the move intended to represent the `` M '' in `` Mo '' was inspired by the dance to `` Y.M.C.A . `` , a popular song by the Village People . Corden himself then named it as the `` Mobot '' . A robot was named `` Mobot '' at a university research exhibition , in honour of Farah 's celebration . Farah has since used the pose as part of a charity to raise funds for his foundation . Virgin Media has promised to donate £2 for every YouTube video that is uploaded with someone doing the mobot . Personal life Family and interests Farah has a twin brother , Hassan , who lives in Somalia . They were separated at eight years old , when Mo , his two younger brothers , and his mother joined their father who had been working and studying in the UK ; however Hassan was unwell and unable to travel , so stayed behind with family in Djibouti . When Farah 's father returned to collect Hassan , the family he was living with had moved and could n't be found . Farah and his twin ended up being separated for twelve years . Hassan is now a successful telecoms engineer with a wife and five children . Farah has a third younger brother who was also born after the family 's move to London . In April 2010 , Farah married his longtime girlfriend Tania Nell in Richmond , London . Other athletes at the wedding included Paula Radcliffe , Steve Cram , Hayley Yelling , Jo Pavey , Mustafa Mohamed and Scott Overall , who was an usher . Farah has a stepdaughter named Rhianna from this relationship . He and his wife have twin daughters called Aisha and Amani , born in August 2012 . In 2015 , Farah and Nell had a son called Hussein . Farah is a devout Muslim , and is an active supporter of the Muslim Writers Awards . Islam is an important part of his preparation : `` I normally pray before a race , I read dua [ Islamic prayers or invocations ] , think about how hard I 've worked and just go for it . '' He notes that `` the Qur'an says that you must work hard in whatever you do , so I work hard in training and that 's got a lot to do with being successful . [ It ] does n't just come overnight , you 've got to train for it and believe in yourself ; that 's the most important thing . '' An RISSC publication named Mo Farah as among the 500 most influential Muslims in the world in 2013 . Farah is also a fan of Arsenal F.C. , and has trained with its first team squad . He has indicated a desire to become a fitness coach for the club once he retires so as to improve its conditioning record . In October 2013 , he launched a book titled Mo Farah , Twin Ambitions : My autobiography in Canary Wharf , London . Farah has a large following on social media . This includes roughly 1 million followers on Twitter and 400,000 on Facebook . In 2013 , he was the top-ranked query for a sportsperson on the search engine Microsoft UK Bing who was not a footballer . As of January 2014 , Farah 's main place of residence is Portland , Oregon , USA where he and his wife and daughters have a home . Philanthropy Farah is additionally involved in various philanthropic initiatives , launching the Mo Farah Foundation after a trip to Somalia in 2011 . The following year , he participated in ITV 's The Cube and won £250,000 for his foundation , becoming the first person ever to win the top prize on the show . Along with other high-profile athletes , Farah later took part in the 2012 Olympic hunger summit at 10 Downing Street hosted by Prime Minister David Cameron , part of a series of international efforts which have sought to respond to the return of hunger as a high-profile global issue . Olympic memorabilia featuring and signed by Farah has also been auctioned off to raise funds for the London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games ( LOCOG ) . In 2013 , he likewise joined legislators and activists in a campaign urging Barclays Bank to repeal its decision to withdraw from the UK remittance market . Farah often used the money transfer operators to send remittances to family , and some of the world 's largest organizations and charities , including the UN and his own foundation , likewise paid staff and channeled funds through these services . In March 2013 , Farah , singer Robbie Williams , and a number of other celebrities also urged Chancellor George Osborne to clamp down on global corporations that avoid paying taxes in poor countries in which they operate . Endorsements , advertising and sponsorships Farah has endorsement deals with a number of companies , including PACE Sports Management , Nike , Lucozade , Quorn , Bupa and Virgin Media . He is expected to earn roughly £10 million in advertising and sponsorships besides making roughly £250,000 – £450,000 during exhibitions , and promoting `` Brand Mo '' with the management firm Octagen . His work with Nike Inc. includes training at the Nike Oregon Project and marketing of clothing and shoes . In order to better preserve his earnings after taxes , Farah also applied in 2013 to have his main place of residence changed to Portland , where he spends most of the year training . In December 2013 , Farah signed a marketing deal with Quorn , part of a multimillion-pound campaign aimed at doubling the firm 's sales . He led television advertisements for Quorn 's vegetarian forms of protein , with the campaign scheduled to last throughout the following year . Travel security In 2012–2013 , Farah intimated that he had been stopped a number of times by U.S. Customs officials under suspicion of being a terrorist , which he attributed to confusion between his full name `` Mohamed '' and a computerized check-in process . On one occasion after the 2012 Olympics , he asserted that he had attempted to prove his identity by showing his Olympic gold medals to customs officials , but that this was not accepted . Blood test In summer 2015 , Farah provided a public blood test in an effort to dispel concerns following various events including pictures posted by Hamza Driouch , who is banned from competing for doping violations , to Facebook which showed him training with Farah . Farah was seen running directly in front of Driouch during a training session . Management for Mo Farah suggested however , that the training session was merely Farah employing local athletes to pace him and that he does n't have any control over who joins in the training session . Hamza Driouch has been officially banned from attending training sessions of any capacity since 31 December and for two years ongoing . In June 2015 , in a BBC Panorama documentary , it was alleged that Farah 's coach Alberto Salazar was guilty of doping offences at the Nike Oregon Project . The programme did not accuse Farah of any wrongdoing . On 6 June 2015 Farah held a press conference in which he expressed his anger that his name was `` being dragged through mud '' . He pulled out of a 1500 metres event at the Birmingham Diamond League race on 7 June ,

odql_15051--Mo_Farah.txt

What is the name of Mo Farah's coach who has recently been at the centre of doping allegations?

Whisky or whiskey is a type of distilled alcoholic beverage made from fermented grain mash . Various grains ( which may be malted ) are used for different varieties , including barley , corn ( maize ) , rye , and wheat . Whisky is typically aged in wooden casks , generally made of charred white oak . Whisky is a strictly regulated spirit worldwide with many classes and types . The typical unifying characteristics of the different classes and types are the fermentation of grains , distillation , and aging in wooden barrels . Etymology The word whisky ( or whiskey ) is an anglicisation of the Classical Gaelic word uisce ( or uisge ) meaning `` water '' ( now written as uisce in Irish Gaelic , and uisge in Scottish Gaelic ) . Distilled alcohol was known in Latin as aqua vitae ( `` water of life '' ) . This was translated to Classical Gaelic as / `` water of life '' . Early forms of the word in English included uskebeaghe ( 1581 ) , usquebaugh ( 1610 ) , usquebath ( 1621 ) , and usquebae ( 1715 ) . Names and spellings Much is made of the word 's two spellings : whisky and whiskey . There are two schools of thought on the issue . One is that the spelling difference is simply a matter of regional language convention for the spelling of a word , indicating that the spelling varies depending on the intended audience or the background or personal preferences of the writer ( like the difference between color and colour ; or recognize and recognise ) , and the other is that the spelling should depend on the style or origin of the spirit being described . There is general agreement that when quoting the proper name printed on a label , the spelling on the label should not be altered . Some writers refer to `` whisk ( e ) y '' or `` whisky/whiskey '' to acknowledge the variation . The spelling whiskey is common in Ireland and the United States , while whisky is used in all other whisky producing countries . In the US , the usage has not always been consistent . From the late eighteenth century to the mid twentieth century , American writers used both spellings interchangeably until the introduction of newspaper style guides . Since the 1960s , American writers have increasingly used whiskey as the accepted spelling for aged grain spirits made in the US and whisky for aged grain spirits made outside the US . However , some prominent American brands , such as George Dickel , Maker 's Mark , and Old Forester ( all made by different companies ) , use the whisky spelling on their labels , and the Standards of Identity for Distilled Spirits , the legal regulations for spirit in the US , also use the whisky spelling throughout . `` Scotch '' is the internationally recognized term for `` Scotch whisky '' . History It is possible that distillation was practised by the Babylonians in Mesopotamia in the 2nd millennium BC , with perfumes and aromatics being distilled , but this is subject to uncertain and disputed interpretation of evidence . The earliest certain chemical distillations were by Greeks in Alexandria in the 1st century AD , but these were not distillations of alcohol . The medieval Arabs adopted the distillation technique of the Alexandrian Greeks , and written records in Arabic begin in the 9th century , but again these were not distillations of alcohol . Distilling technology passed from the medieval Arabs to the medieval Latins , with the earliest records in Latin in the early 12th century.Book [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id XeqWOkKYn28C & printsecfrontcover A Short History of the Art of Distillation ] , by Robert James Forbes ( year 1948 ) . That book covers distillation in general . For the early history of the distillation of alcohol specifically , search for the word `` alcohol '' in that book here [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id XeqWOkKYn28C & printsecfrontcover & redir_esc y # vonepage & q alcohol & ffalse ] . The earliest records of the distillation of alcohol are in Italy in the 13th century , where alcohol was distilled from wine . An early description of the technique was given by Ramon Llull ( 1232 – 1315 ) . Its use spread through medieval monasteries , largely for medicinal purposes , such as the treatment of colic and smallpox . The art of distillation spread to Ireland and Scotland no later than the 15th century , as did the common European practice of distilling 'Aqua Vitae ' or spirit alcohol primarily for medicinal purposes . The practice of medicinal distillation eventually passed from a monastic setting to the secular via professional medical practitioners of the time , The Guild of Surgeon Barbers . The first confirmed written record of whisky in Ireland comes from 1405 , in the Irish Annals of Clonmacnoise , which attributes the death of a chieftain to `` taking a surfeit of aqua vitae '' at Christmas . In Scotland , the first evidence of whisky production comes from an entry in the Exchequer Rolls for 1494 where malt is sent `` To Friar John Cor , by order of the king , to make aquavitae '' , enough to make about 500 bottles . James IV of Scotland ( r. 1488–1513 ) reportedly had a great liking for Scotch whisky , and in 1506 the town of Dundee purchased a large amount of whisky from the Guild of Surgeon Barbers , which held the monopoly on production at the time . Between 1536 and 1541 , King Henry VIII of England dissolved the monasteries , sending their monks out into the general public . Whisky production moved out of a monastic setting and into personal homes and farms as newly independent monks needed to find a way to earn money for themselves . The distillation process was still in its infancy ; whisky itself was not allowed to age , and as a result tasted very raw and brutal compared to today 's versions . Renaissance-era whisky was also very potent and not diluted . Over time whisky evolved into a much smoother drink . With a licence to distil Irish whiskey from 1608 , the Old Bushmills Distillery in Northern Ireland is the oldest licensed whiskey distillery in the world . In 1707 , the Acts of Union merged England and Scotland , and thereafter taxes on it rose dramatically . After the English Malt Tax of 1725 , most of Scotland 's distillation was either shut down or forced underground . Scotch whisky was hidden under altars , in coffins , and in any available space to avoid the governmental excisemen or revenuers . Scottish distillers , operating out of homemade stills , took to distilling whisky at night when the darkness hid the smoke from the stills . For this reason , the drink became known as moonshine . At one point , it was estimated that over half of Scotland 's whisky output was illegal . In America , whisky was used as currency during the American Revolution ; George Washington operated a large distillery at Mount Vernon . Given the distances and primitive transportation network of colonial America , farmers often found it easier and more profitable to convert corn to whisky and transport it to market in that form . It also was a highly coveted sundry and when an additional excise tax was levied against it , the Whiskey Rebellion erupted in 1791 . The drinking of Scotch whisky was introduced to India in the nineteenth century . The first distillery in India was built by Edward Dyer at Kasauli in the late 1820s . The operation was soon shifted to nearby Solan ( close to the British summer capital Shimla ) , as there was an abundant supply of fresh spring water there . In 1823 , the UK passed the Excise Act , legalizing the distillation ( for a fee ) , and this put a practical end to the large-scale production of Scottish moonshine . In 1831 , Aeneas Coffey patented the Coffey still , allowing for cheaper and more efficient distillation of whisky . In 1850 , Andrew Usher began producing a blended whisky that mixed traditional pot still whisky with that from the new Coffey still . The new distillation method was scoffed at by some Irish distillers , who clung to their traditional pot stills . Many Irish contended that the new product was , in fact , not whisky at all . By the 1880s , the French brandy industry was devastated by the phylloxera pest that ruined much of the grape crop ; as a result , whisky became the primary liquor in many markets . During the Prohibition era in the United States lasting from 1920 to 1933 , all alcohol sales were banned in the country . The federal government made an exemption for whisky prescribed by a doctor and sold through licensed pharmacies . During this time , the Walgreens pharmacy chain grew from 20 retail stores to almost 400 . Production Distillation A still for making whisky is usually made of copper , since it removes sulfur-based compounds from the alcohol that would make it unpleasant to drink . Modern stills are made of stainless steel with copper innards ( piping , for example , will be lined with copper along with copper plate inlays along still walls ) . The simplest standard distillation apparatus is commonly known as a pot still , consisting of a single heated chamber and a vessel to collect purified alcohol . Column stills are frequently used in the production of grain whisky and are the most commonly used type of still in the production of Bourbon and other American whiskeys . Column stills behave like a series of single pot stills , formed in a long vertical tube . Whereas a single pot still charged with wine might yield a vapour enriched to 40–50 % alcohol , a column still can achieve a vapour alcohol content of 95.6 % ; an azeotropic mixture of alcohol and water . Aging Whiskies do not mature in the bottle , only in the cask , so the `` age '' of a whisky is only the time between distillation and bottling . This reflects how much the cask has interacted with the whisky , changing its chemical makeup and taste . Whiskies that have been bottled for many years may have a rarity value , but are not `` older '' and not necessarily `` better '' than a more recent whisky that matured in wood for a similar time . After a decade or two , additional aging in a barrel does not necessarily improve a whisky . While aging in wooden casks , especially American oak and French oak casks , whisky undergoes six processes that contribute to its final flavor : extraction , evaporation , oxidation , concentration , filtration , and colouration . Extraction in particular results in whisky acquiring a number of compounds , including aldehydes and acids such as vanillin , vanillic acid , and syringaldehyde . Packaging Most whiskies are sold at or near an alcoholic strength of 40 % abv , which is the statutory minimum in some countries – although the strength can vary , and cask-strength whisky may have as much as twice that alcohol percentage . Exports Whisky is probably the best known of Scotland 's manufactured products . Exports have increased by 87 % in the decade to 2012 and it contributes over £4.25 billion to the UK economy , making up a quarter of all its food and drink revenues . In 2012 , the US was the largest market for Scotch whisky ( £655 million ) , followed by France ( £535 million ) . It is also one of the UK 's overall top five manufacturing export earners and it supports around 35,000 jobs . Principal whisky producing areas include Speyside and the Isle of Islay , where there are eight distilleries providing a major source of employment . In many places , the industry is closely linked to tourism , with many distilleries also functioning as attractions worth £30 million GVA each year . In 2011 , 70 per cent of Canadian whisky was exported , with about 60 per cent going to the US , and the rest mostly to Europe and Asia . 15 million cases of Canadian whisky were sold in the US in 2011 . Types Whisky or whisky-like products are produced in most grain-growing areas . They differ in base product , alcoholic content , and quality . * Malt whisky is made primarily from malted barley . * Grain whisky is made from any type of grains . Malts and grains are combined in various ways : * Single malt whisky is whisky from a single distillery made from a mash that uses only one particular malted grain . Unless the whisky is described as single-cask , it contains whisky from many casks , and different years , so the blender can achieve a taste recognisable as typical of the distillery . In most cases , single malts bear the name of the distillery , with an age statement and perhaps some indication of some special treatments such as maturation in a port wine cask . * Blended malt whisky is a mixture of single malt whiskies from different distilleries . If a whisky is labelled `` pure malt '' or just `` malt '' it is almost certainly a blended malt whisky . This was formerly called a `` vatted malt '' whisky . * Blended whisky is made from a mixture of different types of whisky . A blend may contain whisky from many distilleries so that the blender can produce a flavour consistent with the brand . The brand name may , therefore , omit the name of a distillery . Most Scotch , Irish and Canadian whisky is sold as part of a blend , even when the spirits are the product of one distillery , as is common in Canada . American blended whisky may contain neutral spirits . * Cask strength ( also known as barrel proof ) whiskies are rare , and usually only the very best whiskies are bottled in this way . They are bottled from the cask undiluted or only lightly diluted . * Single cask ( also known as single barrel ) whiskies are bottled from an individual cask , and often the bottles are labelled with specific barrel and bottle numbers . The taste of these whiskies may vary substantially from cask to cask within a brand . American American whiskey is distilled from a fermented mash of cereal grain . It must have the taste , aroma , and other characteristics commonly attributed to whiskey . Some types of whiskey listed in the United States federal regulations are : * Bourbon whiskey—made from mash that consists of at least 51 % corn ( maize ) * Corn whiskey—made from mash that consists of at least 80 % corn * Malt whiskey—made from mash that consists of at least 51 % malted barley * Rye whiskey—made from mash that consists of at least 51 % rye * Rye malt whiskey—made from mash that consists of at least 51 % malted rye * Wheat whiskey—made from mash that consists of at least 51 % wheat These types of American whiskey must be distilled to no more than 80 % alcohol by volume , and barrelled at no more than 125 proof . Only water may be added to the final product ; the addition of colouring or flavouring is prohibited . These whiskeys must be aged in new charred-oak containers , except for corn whiskey which does not have to be aged . If it is aged , it must be in uncharred oak barrels or in used barrels . Corn whiskey is usually unaged and sold as a legal version of moonshine . If one of these whiskey types reaches two years aging or beyond , it is additionally designated as straight , e.g. , straight rye whiskey . A whiskey that fulfils all above requirements but derives from less than 51 % of any one specific grain can be called simply a straight whiskey without naming a grain . US regulations recognize other whiskey categories , including : * Blended whiskey—a mixture that contains a blend of straight whiskeys and neutral grain spirits ( NGS ) , and may also contain flavourings and colourings . The percentage of NGS must be disclosed on the label and may be as much at 80 % on a proof gallon basis . * Light whiskey—produced in the US at more than 80 % alcohol by volume and stored in used or uncharred new oak containers * Spirit whiskey—a mixture of neutral spirits and at least 5 % of certain stricter categories of whiskey Another important labelling in the marketplace is Tennessee whiskey , of which Jack Daniel 's , George Dickel , Collier and McKeel , and Benjamin Prichard 's are the only brands currently bottled . The main difference defining a Tennessee whiskey is its use of the Lincoln County Process , which involves filtration of the whiskey through charcoal . The rest of the distillation process is identical to bourbon whiskey . Whiskey sold as `` Tennessee whiskey '' is defined as Bourbon under NAFTA and at least one other international trade agreement , [ http : //www.sice.oas.org/Trade/chiusa_e/Text_e.asp SICE - Free Trade Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Republic of Chile ] , Section E , Article 3.15 Distinctive products . and is similarly required to meet the legal definition of Bourbon under Canadian law . Australian Australian whiskies have won global whisky awards and medals , including the World Whiskies Awards and Jim Murray 's Whisky Bible `` Liquid Gold Awards '' . Canadian By Canadian law Canadian whiskies must be produced and aged in Canada , be distilled from a fermented mash of cereal grain , be aged in wood barrels with a capacity limit of 700 L for not less than three years , and `` possess the aroma , taste and character generally attributed to Canadian whisky '' . [ http : //laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/C.R.C. , _c._870/page-57.html # docCont `` Canadian Food and Drug Regulations ( C.R.C. , c. 870 ) - Canadian Whisky , Canadian Rye Whisky or Rye Whisky ( B.02.020 ) '' ] . Retrieved 30 December 2013 . The terms `` Canadian Whisky '' , `` Rye Whisky '' , and `` Canadian Rye Whisky '' are legally indistinguishable in Canada and do not require any specific grain in their production and are often blends of two or more grains . Canadian whiskies may contain caramel and flavouring in addition to the distilled mash spirits , and there is no maximum limit on the alcohol level of the distillation . To be exported under one of the `` Canadian Whisky '' designations , a whisky can not contain more than 9.09 % imported spirits . Canadian whiskies are available throughout the world and are a culturally significant export . Well known brands include Crown Royal , Canadian Club , Seagram 's , and Wiser 's among others . The historic popularity of Canadian whisky in the United States is partly a result of rum runners illegally importing it into the country during the period of American Prohibition . Danish Denmark began producing whisky early in 1974 . The first Danish single malt to go on sale was Lille Gadegård from Bornholm , in 2005 . Lille Gadegård is a winery as well , and uses its own wine casks to mature whisky . The second Danish distilled single malt whisky for sale was Edition No.1 from the Braunstein microbrewery and distillery . It was distilled in 2007 , using water from the Greenlandic ice sheet , and entered the market in March 2010 . English There are currently at least six distilleries producing English whisky . Though England is not very well known for making whisky , there were distillers previously operating in London , Liverpool and Bristol until the late 19th century , after which production of English single malt whisky ceased until 2003 . [ http : //news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cornwall/2992925.stm Cornish take on Scotch ] , BBC news , Thursday , 1 May 2003 . Finnish There are two working distilleries in Finland and a third one is under construction . Whisky retail sales in Finland are controlled solely by the state alcohol monopoly Alko and advertising of strong alcoholic beverages is banned . German German whisky production is a relatively recent phenomenon having only started in the last 30 years . The styles produced resemble those made in Ireland , Scotland and the United States : single malts , blends , wheat , and bourbon-like styles . There is no standard spelling of German whiskies with distilleries using both `` whisky '' and `` whiskey '' . In 2008 there were 23 distilleries in Germany producing whisky . Indian India consumes almost as much whisky as the rest of the world put together . Distilled alcoholic beverages that are labelled as `` whisky '' in India are commonly blends based on neutral spirits that are distilled from fermented molasses with only a small portion consisting of traditional malt whisky , usually about 10 to 12 percent . Outside India , such a drink would more likely be labelled a rum . [ http : //online.wsj.com/article/SB115653128082145738-search.html `` Where 'Whisky ' Can Be Rum '' ] , from The Wall Street Journal , 26 August 2006 . Retrieved 27 January 2012 . According to the Scotch Whisky Association 's 2013 annual report , `` there is no compulsory definition of whisky in India , and the Indian voluntary standard does not require whisky to be distilled from cereals or to be matured . '' Ninety percent of the whisky consumed in India is molasses-based , [ http : //www.beveragedaily.com/news/ng.asp ? id 48996-india-stretches-whisky `` India stretches whisky market lead '' ] , Beverage Daily , 13 January 2004 . Retrieved 25 June 2007 although whisky wholly distilled from malt and other grains , is also manufactured and sold . [ http : //www.amrutdistilleries.com/ Official web site ] of Amrut Distilleries , Retrieved 25 June 2007 Amrut , the first single malt whisky produced in India , was launched on 24 August 2004 . Irish Irish whiskeys are normally distilled three times , Cooley Distillery being the exception as they also double distill . Though traditionally distilled using pot stills , the column still is now used to produce grain whiskey for blends . By law , Irish whiskey must be produced in Ireland and aged in wooden casks for a period of no less than three years , although in practice it is usually three or four times that period . Unpeated malt is almost always used , the main exception being Connemara Peated Malt whiskey . There are several types of whiskey common to Ireland : single malt , single grain , blended whiskey and pure pot still whiskey . Japanese The model for Japanese whiskies is the single malt Scotch , although there are also examples of Japanese blended whiskies . The base is a mash of malted barley , dried in kilns fired with a little peat ( although considerably less than in Scotland ) , and distilled using the pot still method . Before 2000 , Japanese whisky was primarily for the domestic market and exports were limited . Japanese whiskies such as Suntory and Nikka won many prestigious international awards between 2007 and 2014 . Japanese whisky has earned a reputation for quality . Scotch Scotch whiskies are generally distilled twice , although some are distilled a third time and others even up to twenty times . Scotch Whisky Regulations require anything bearing the label `` Scotch '' to be distilled in Scotland and matured for a minimum of three years in oak casks , among other , more specific criteria . Any age statement on the bottle , in the form of a number , must reflect the age of the youngest Scotch whisky used to produce that product . A whisky with an age statement is known as guaranteed age whisky . Scotch whisky without an age statement may , by law , be as young as three years old . The basic types of Scotch are malt and grain , which are combined to create blends . Scotch malt whiskies are divided into five main regions : Highland , Lowland , Islay , Speyside and Campbeltown . Swedish Whisky started being produced in Sweden in 1955 by the now defunct Skeppets whisky brand . Their last bottle was sold in 1971 . In 1999 Mackmyra Whisky was founded and is today the largest producer and has won several awards including European Whisky of the Year in Jim Murray 's 2011 Whisky Bible and the International Wine & Spirits Competition ( IWSC ) 2012 Award for Best European Spirits Producer of 2012 . Welsh Although distillation of whisky in Wales began in Middle Ages there were no commercially operated distilleries during the 20th century . The rise of the temperance movement saw the decline the commercial production of liquor during the 19th century and in 1894 Welsh whisky production ceased . Recently , however , there has been a revival of Welsh whisky . The revival of Welsh whisky began in the 1990s . Initially a `` Prince of Wales '' malt whisky was sold as Welsh whisky but was simply blended scotch bottled in Wales . A lawsuit by Scotch distillers ended this enterprise . In 2000 , Penderyn Distillery started production of Penderyn single malt whisky . The first bottles went on sale on 1 March 2004 , Saint David 's Day , and it is now sold worldwide . Penderyn Distillery is located in the Brecon Beacons National Park and is considered to be the smallest distillery in the world . Other ManX Spirit from the Isle of Man is distilled elsewhere and re-distilled in the country of its nominal `` origin '' . The ManX distillery takes a previously matured Scotch malt whisky and re-distills it . In 2010 a Czech whisky was released , the 21-year-old `` Hammer Head '' . In 2008 at least two distilleries in the traditionally brandy-producing Caucasus region announced their plans to enter the Russian domestic market with whiskies . The Stavropol-based Praskoveysky distillery bases its product on Irish whiskey , while in Kizlyar , Dagestan 's `` Russian Whisky '' announced a Scotch-inspired drink in single malt , blended and wheat varieties . Destilerías y Crianza del Whisky S.A. is a whisky distillery in Spain . Its eight-year-old Whisky DYC is a combination of malts and spirits distilled from barley aged separately a minimum of eight years in American oak barrels . Frysk Hynder is a Dutch single malt , distilled and bottled in the Frisian Us Heit Distillery . It is the first single malt produced in the Netherlands . Buckwheat whisky is produced by Distillerie des Menhirs in Brittany , France , and by several distillers in the United States . Chemistry Overview Whiskies and other distilled beverages , such as cognac and rum , are complex beverages that contain a vast range of flavouring compounds , of which some 200 to 300 are easily detected by chemical analysis . The flavouring chemicals include `` carbonyl compounds , alcohols , carboxylic acids and their esters , nitrogen- and sulphur-containing compounds , tannins and other polyphenolic compounds , terpenes , and oxygen-containing heterocyclic compounds '' and esters of fatty acids . The nitrogen compounds include pyridines , picolines and pyrazines . Flavours from treating the malt The distinctive smoky flavour found in various types of whisky , especially Scotch , is due to the use of peat smoke to treat the malt . Flavours from distillation The flavouring of whisky is partially determined by the presence of congeners and fusel oils . Fusel oils are higher alcohols than ethanol , are mildly toxic , and have a strong , disagreeable smell and taste . An excess of fusel oils in whisky is considered a

qw_12428--Whisky.txt

What cereal crop is used to make single malt whisky in Scotland?

Speculation abounded over potential nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States by Ronald Reagan even before his presidency officially began , due to the advanced ages of several justices , and Reagan 's own highlighting of Supreme Court nominations as a campaign issue . Reagan had promised `` to appoint only those opposed to abortion and the 'judicial activism ' of the Warren and Burger Courts '' . Conversely , some opposed to Reagan argued that he could `` appoint as many as five Justices '' and would `` use the opportunity to stack the Court against women , minorities and social justice '' . Sandra Day O'Connor nomination During his 1980 campaign , Reagan pledged that , if given the opportunity , he would appoint the first female Supreme Court Justice . That opportunity came in his first year in office when he nominated Sandra Day O'Connor to fill the vacancy created by the retirement of Justice Potter Stewart . O'Connor was approved by the Senate by a vote of 99-0 on September 21 , 1981 . Senator Max Baucus ( D-MT ) did not vote . William Rehnquist elevation In his second term , Reagan elevated William Rehnquist to succeed Warren Burger as Chief Justice . Rehnquist 's confirmation was largely split along party lines , showing that he had not improved his standing among Senate Democrats since his contentious 1971 nomination to the Court . Rehnquist 's elevation to Chief Justice was approved by the Senate by a vote of 65-33 on September 17 , 1986 . Senators Jake Garn ( R-UT ) and Barry Goldwater ( R-AZ ) did not vote . Senator Alan Simpson ( R-WY ) made public note on the Senate floor that Senator Garn 's vote would have been to confirm had he been present . Democratic Senators who voted against Rehnquist 's confirmation as an Associate Justice in 1971 and as Chief Justice in 1986 were Alan Cranston ( CA ) , Daniel Inouye ( HI ) , Edward M. Kennedy ( MA ) and Claiborne Pell ( RI ) . Two Democrats who voted for Rehnquist 's nomination as Associate Justice voted against his nomination as Chief Justice , Thomas Eagleton ( MO ) and Robert Byrd ( WV ) . Antonin Scalia nomination After deciding to elevate Rehnquist to Chief Justice , Reagan considered both Robert Bork and Antonin Scalia to fill the vacant seat left by Rehnquist 's elevation , but ultimately chose the younger and more charismatic Scalia . Scalia was approved by the Senate by a vote of 98-0 on September 17 , 1986 . Senators Jake Garn ( R-UT ) and Barry Goldwater ( R-AZ ) did not vote . Anthony Kennedy nomination Robert Bork selection Supreme Court Justice Lewis Powell was a moderate , and even before his expected retirement on June 27 , 1987 , Senate Democrats had asked liberal leaders to form `` a solid phalanx '' to oppose whomever President Ronald Reagan nominated to replace him , assuming it would tilt the court rightward ; Democrats warned Reagan there would be a fight . Reagan considered appointing Utah Senator Orrin Hatch to the seat , but Congress had approved $ 6,000 pay raises for Supreme Court Justices in February , raising a problem under the Ineligibility Clause of the United States Constitution , which prohibits a member of Congress from accepting an appointment for which the pay had been increased during that member 's term . A memorandum by Assistant Attorney General Charles J. Cooper rejected the notion that a Saxbe fix—a rollback of the salary for the position—could satisfy the Ineligibility Clause . Hatch had been on the short list of two finalists with Robert Bork , but after the Ineligibility Clause had been brought to light , Hatch was no longer under consideration . Reagan nominated Robert Bork for the seat on July 1 , 1987 . Within 45 minutes of Bork 's nomination to the Court , Ted Kennedy ( D-MA ) took to the Senate floor with a strong condemnation of Bork in a nationally televised speech , declaring , `` Robert Bork 's America is a land in which women would be forced into back-alley abortions , blacks would sit at segregated lunch counters , rogue police could break down citizens ' doors in midnight raids , schoolchildren could not be taught about evolution , writers and artists could be censored at the whim of the Government , and the doors of the Federal courts would be shut on the fingers of millions of citizens . '' A brief was prepared for Joe Biden , head of the Senate Judiciary Committee , called the Biden Report . Bork later said in his best-selling book The Tempting of America that the report `` so thoroughly misrepresented a plain record that it easily qualifies as world class in the category of scurrility '' . TV ads narrated by Gregory Peck attacked Bork as an extremist , and Kennedy 's speech successfully fueled widespread public skepticism of Bork 's nomination . The rapid response of Kennedy 's `` Robert Bork 's America '' speech stunned the Reagan White House ; though conservatives considered Kennedy 's accusations slanderous , the attacks went unanswered for two-and-a-half months . A hotly contested United States Senate debate over Bork 's nomination ensued , partly fueled by strong opposition by civil rights and women 's rights groups concerned with what they claimed was Bork 's desire to roll back civil rights decisions of the Warren and Burger courts . Bork is one of only three Supreme Court nominees to ever be opposed by the ACLU . Bork was also criticized for being an `` advocate of disproportionate powers for the executive branch of Government , almost executive supremacy '' , as demonstrated by his role in the Saturday Night Massacre . During debate over his nomination , Bork 's video rental history was leaked to the press , which led to the enactment of the 1988 Video Privacy Protection Act . His video rental history was unremarkable , and included such harmless titles as A Day at the Races , Ruthless People and The Man Who Knew Too Much . The list of rentals was originally printed by Washington D.C. 's City Paper . To pro-choice legal groups , Bork 's originalist views and his belief that the Constitution does not contain a general `` right to privacy '' were viewed as a clear signal that , should he become a Justice on the Supreme Court , he would vote to reverse the Court 's 1973 decision in Roe v. Wade . Accordingly , a large number of liberal advocacy groups mobilized to press for Bork 's rejection , and the resulting 1987 Senate confirmation hearings became an intensely partisan battle . Bork was faulted for his bluntness before the committee , including his criticism of the reasoning underlying Roe v. Wade . As Chairman of the Judiciary Committee , Senator Joe Biden presided over Bork 's hearing . Biden stated his opposition to Bork soon after the nomination , reversing an approval in an interview of a hypothetical Bork nomination he had made the previous year and angering conservatives who thought he could not conduct the hearings dispassionately . At the close , Biden won praise for conducting the proceedings fairly and with good humor and courage , as his 1988 presidential campaign collapsed in the middle of the hearings . Biden framed his discussion around the belief that the U.S. Constitution provides rights to liberty and privacy that extend beyond those explicitly enumerated in the text , and that Bork 's strong originalism was ideologically incompatible with that view . Bork 's nomination was rejected in the committee by a 9–5 vote , and then rejected in the full Senate by a 58–42 margin . [ http : //www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/348_1987.pdf U.S. Senate Roll Call Votes - Nomination of Robert Bork ] , senate.gov On October 23 , 1987 , the Senate rejected Bork 's confirmation , with 42 senators voting in favor and 58 voting against . Senators David Boren ( D-OK ) and Ernest Hollings ( D-SC ) voted in favor , with Senators John Chafee ( R-RI ) , Bob Packwood ( R-OR ) , Richard Shelby ( D-AL ) , Arlen Specter ( R-PA ) , Robert Stafford ( R-VT ) , John Warner ( R-VA ) and Lowell P. Weicker , Jr. ( R-CT ) all voting no . Douglas Ginsburg selection Following Bork 's defeat , Reagan announced his intention to nominate Douglas H. Ginsburg , a former Harvard Law professor whom Reagan had appointed to the District of Columbia Circuit the previous year . Ginsburg almost immediately came under some fire for an entirely different reason when NPR 's Nina Totenberg revealed that Ginsburg had used marijuana `` on a few occasions '' during his student days in the 1960s and while an Assistant Professor at Harvard in the 1970s . In 1991 , a similar admission by then-nominee Clarence Thomas that he had used the drug during his law school days had no effect on his nomination . It was Ginsburg 's continued use of marijuana after graduation and as a professor that made his indiscretions more serious in the minds of many senators and members of the public . Prior to being formally nominated , Ginsburg withdrew his name from consideration due to the allegations but remained on the federal appellate bench . Anthony Kennedy selection After Ginsburg 's withdrawal , Reagan nominated Anthony Kennedy on November 11 , 1987 , and he was then confirmed to fill the vacancy on February 3 , 1988 . [ http : //www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/16_1988.pdf U.S. Senate Roll Call Votes - Nomination of Anthony Kennedy ] , senate.gov While vetting Kennedy for potential nomination , some of Reagan 's Justice Department lawyers said Kennedy was too eager to put courts in disputes many conservatives would rather leave to legislatures , and to identify rights not expressly written in the Constitution . Kennedy 's stance in favor of privacy rights drew criticism ; Kennedy cited Roe v. Wade and other privacy right cases favorably , which one lawyer called `` really very distressing '' . In another of the opinions Kennedy wrote before coming to the Supreme Court , he criticized ( in dissent ) the police for bribing a child into showing them where the child 's mother hid her heroin ; Kennedy wrote that `` indifference to personal liberty is but the precursor of the state 's hostility to it '' . The Reagan lawyers also criticized Kennedy for citing a report from Amnesty International to bolster his views in that case . Another lawyer pointed out `` Generally , [ Kennedy ] seems to favor the judiciary in any contest between the judiciary and another branch . '' Kennedy endorsed Griswold as well as the right to privacy , calling it `` a zone of liberty , a zone of protection , a line that 's drawn where the individual can tell the Government , 'Beyond this line you may not go . ' '' This gave Kennedy more bipartisan support than Bork and Ginsburg . The Senate confirmed him by a vote of 97 to 0 . Names frequently mentioned Following is a list of individuals who were mentioned in various news accounts and books as having been considered by Reagan or being the most likely potential nominees for a Supreme Court appointment under Reagan : United States Supreme Court ( considered for elevation to Chief Justice ) * William Rehnquist ( nominated and elevated ) * Byron R. White * Sandra Day O'Connor United States Courts of Appeals * Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit * * Amalya L. Kearse * * Ralph K. Winter , Jr . * Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit * * A. Leon Higginbotham , Jr . * Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit * * William W. Wilkins Jr . * Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit * * Patrick Higginbotham * Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit * * Cornelia Groefsema Kennedy * Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit * * Anthony Kennedy ( Nominated and Confirmed ) * * J. Clifford Wallace * Court of Appeals for the D.C . Circuit * * Robert Bork ( Nomination rejected ) * * Douglas H. Ginsburg ( Nomination withdrawn ) * * Antonin Scalia ( Nominated and Confirmed ) * * Malcolm Wilkey United States District Courts * Charles E. Simons Jr. , chief judge of the United States District Court for the District of South Carolina State Supreme Courts * Mary Stallings Coleman , Chief Justice of the Michigan Supreme Court * C. Bruce Littlejohn , Associate Justice of the South Carolina Supreme Court * Frank Richardson , Associate Justice of the California Supreme Court * Susie Marshall Sharp , Chief Justice of the North Carolina Supreme Court * David H. Souter , Associate Justice of the New Hampshire Supreme Court ( Nominated in 1990 by George H.W . Bush and Confirmed ) Administration officials * William P. Clark , Deputy Secretary of State * Elizabeth Dole , assistant to the President for public liaison , later Secretary of Transportation * Edwin Meese , Counselor to the President and later Attorney General * William French Smith , Attorney General Other backgrounds * Anne Armstrong , former ambassador to Britain * Sylvia Bacon , District of Columbia superior court judge * William Thaddeus Coleman , Jr. , former United States Secretary of Transportation * Orrin Hatch , senator from Utah * Rita Hauser former representative to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights * Carla Anderson Hills , former United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development * Mildred Lillie , California appeals court Judge * Wade H. McCree , former United States Solicitor General * Sandra Day O'Connor , judge of the Arizona Court of Appeals ( Nominated and Confirmed )

qg_3333--Ronald_Reagan_Supreme_Court_candidates.txt

Sep 21, 1981 saw the confirmation of which associate justice, the first female Supreme Court justice?

Henry VIII ( 28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547 ) was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death . He was the first English King of Ireland , and continued the nominal claim by English monarchs to the Kingdom of France . Henry was the second monarch of the Tudor dynasty , succeeding his father , Henry VII . Henry is known for his consequential role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church , besides his six marriages and many extramarital affairs , as well as his effort to obtain an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon , which led to conflict with the Pope . His disagreements with the Pope led Henry to separate the Church of England from papal authority , with himself as king and as the Supreme Head of the Church of England ; the disputes also led to the Dissolution of the Monasteries . His principal dispute was with papal authority rather than with doctrinal matters , and he remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings despite his excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church . Henry oversaw the legal union of England and Wales with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 . He is also well known for a long personal rivalry with both Francis I of France and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , with whom he frequently warred . Domestically , Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution , ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings to England . Besides asserting the sovereign 's supremacy over the Church of England , thus initiating the English Reformation , he greatly expanded royal power . Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quash dissent , and those accused were often executed without a formal trial , by means of bills of attainder . He achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers , some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour . People such as Thomas Wolsey , Thomas More , Thomas Cromwell , Richard Rich , and Thomas Cranmer figured prominently in Henry 's administration . He was an extravagant spender and used the proceeds from the Dissolution of the Monasteries and acts of the Reformation Parliament to convert money into royal revenue that was formerly paid to Rome . Despite the influx of money from these sources , Henry was continually on the verge of financial ruin due to his personal extravagance as well as his numerous costly continental wars . His contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive , educated , and accomplished king , and he has been described as `` one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne '' . Besides ruling with considerable power , he was also an author and composer . His desire to provide England with a male heir stemmed partly from personal vanity and partly from his belief that a daughter would be unable to consolidate Tudor power and maintain the fragile peace that existed following the Wars of the Roses . This led to the two things for which Henry is most remembered : his six marriages and his break with the Pope ( who would not allow an annulment of Henry 's first marriage ) . As he aged , Henry became severely obese and his health suffered , contributing to his death in 1547 . He is frequently characterised in his later life as a lustful , egotistical , harsh , and insecure king . He was succeeded by his son Edward VI . Early years Born 28June 1491 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich , London , Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York . Of the young Henry 's six siblings , only three – Arthur , Prince of Wales ; Margaret ; and Mary – survived infancy . He was baptised by Richard Fox , the Bishop of Exeter , at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to the palace . In 1493 , at the age of two , Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports . He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three , and was inducted into the Order of the Bath soon after . The day after the ceremony he was created Duke of York and a month or so later made Warden of the Scottish Marches . In May 1495 , he was appointed to the Order of the Garter . Henry was given a first-rate education from leading tutors , becoming fluent in Latin and French , and learning at least some Italian . Not much is known about his early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king . In November 1501 , Henry also played a considerable part in the ceremonies surrounding the marriage of his brother , Prince Arthur , to Catherine of Aragon , the youngest surviving child of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile . As Duke of York , Henry used the arms of his father as king , differenced by a label of three points ermine . In 1502 , Arthur died at the age of 15 of sweating sickness , just 20 weeks after his marriage to Catherine . Arthur 's death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother , the 10-year-old Henry . After a little debate , Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall in October 1502 , and the new Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in February 1503 . Henry VII gave the boy few tasks . Young Henry was strictly supervised and did not appear in public . As a result , the young Henry would later ascend the throne `` untrained in the exacting art of kingship . '' Henry VII renewed his efforts to seal a marital alliance between England and Spain , by offering his second son in marriage to Arthur 's widow Catherine . Both Isabella and Henry VII were keen on the idea , which had arisen very shortly after Arthur 's death . On 23 June 1503 , a treaty was signed for their marriage , and they were betrothed two days later . A papal dispensation was only needed for the `` impediment of public honesty '' if the marriage had not been consummated as Catherine and her duenna claimed , but Henry VII and the Spanish ambassador set out instead to obtain a dispensation for `` affinity '' , which took account of the possibility of consummation . The young Henry 's age , only eleven , prevented cohabitation . Isabella 's death in 1504 , and the ensuing problems of succession in Castile , complicated matters . Her father preferred her to stay in England , but Henry VII 's relations with Ferdinand had deteriorated . Catherine was therefore left in limbo for some time , culminating in Prince Henry 's rejection of the marriage as soon he was able , at the age of 14 . Ferdinand 's solution was to make his daughter ambassador , allowing her to stay in England indefinitely . Devout , she began to believe that it was God 's will that she marry the prince despite his opposition . Early reign Henry VII died on 21 April 1509 , and the 17-year-old Henry succeeded him as king . Soon after his father 's burial on 10 May , Henry suddenly declared that he would indeed marry Catherine , leaving unresolved several issues concerning the papal dispensation and a missing part of the marriage portion . The new king maintained that it had been his father 's dying wish that he marry Catherine . Whether or not this was true , it was certainly convenient . Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I had been attempting to marry his granddaughter ( and Catherine 's niece ) Eleanor to Henry ; she had now been jilted . Henry 's wedding to Catherine was kept low-key and was held at the friar 's church in Greenwich on 11 June 1509 . On 23 June 1509 , Henry led the now 23-year-old Catherine from the Tower of London to Westminster Abbey for their coronation , which took place the following day . It was a grand affair : the king 's passage was lined with tapestries and laid with fine cloth . Following the ceremony , there was a grand banquet in Westminster Hall . As Catherine wrote to her father , `` our time is spent in continuous festival '' . Two days after Henry 's coronation , he arrested his father 's two most unpopular ministers , Sir Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley . They were charged with high treason and were executed in 1510 . Historian Ian Crofton has maintained that such executions would become Henry 's primary tactic for dealing with those who stood in his way ; the two executions were certainly not the last . Henry also returned to the public some of the money supposedly extorted by the two ministers . By contrast , Henry 's view of the House of York – potential rival claimants for the throne – was more moderate than his father 's had been . Several who had been imprisoned by his father , including the Marquess of Dorset , were pardoned . Others ( most notably Edmund de la Pole ) went unreconciled ; de la Pole was eventually beheaded in 1513 , an execution prompted by his brother Richard siding against the king . Soon after , Catherine conceived , but the child , a girl , was stillborn on 31 January 1510 . About four months later , Catherine again became pregnant . On New Year 's Day 1511 , the child – Henry – was born . After the grief of losing their first child , the couple were pleased to have a boy and there were festivities to celebrate , including a jousting tournament . However , the child died seven weeks later . Catherine had two stillborn sons in 1514 and 1515 , but gave birth in February 1516 to a girl , Mary . Relations between Henry and Catherine had been strained , but they eased slightly after Mary 's birth . Although Henry 's marriage to Catherine has since been described as `` unusually good '' , it is known that Henry took mistresses . It was revealed in 1510 that Henry had been conducting an affair with one of the sisters of Edward Stafford , 3rd Duke of Buckingham , either Elizabeth or Anne Hastings , Countess of Huntingdon . The most significant mistress for about three years , starting in 1516 , was Elizabeth Blount . Blount is one of only two completely undisputed mistresses , few for a virile young king . Exactly how many Henry had is disputed : David Loades believes Henry had mistresses `` only to a very limited extent '' , whilst Alison Weir believes there were numerous other affairs . Catherine did not protest , and in 1518 fell pregnant again with another girl , who was also stillborn . Blount gave birth in June 1519 to Henry 's illegitimate son , Henry FitzRoy . The young boy was made Duke of Richmond in June 1525 in what some thought was one step on the path to his eventual legitimisation . In 1533 , FitzRoy married Mary Howard , but died childless three years later . At the time of Richmond 's death in June 1536 , Parliament was enacting the Second Succession Act , which could have allowed him to become king . France and the Habsburgs In 1510 , France , with a fragile alliance with the Holy Roman Empire in the League of Cambrai , was winning a war against Venice . Henry renewed his father 's friendship with Louis XII of France , an issue that divided his council . Certainly war with the combined might of the two powers would have been exceedingly difficult . Shortly thereafter , however , Henry also signed a pact with Ferdinand . After the creation of the anti-French Holy League by Pope Julius II in October 1511 , Henry , following Ferdinand 's lead , brought England into the League . An initial joint Anglo-Spanish attack on Aquitaine was planned for the spring to recover it for England . It appeared to be the start of making Henry 's dreams of ruling France a reality . The attack , following a formal declaration of war in April 1512 , was not led by Henry personally and was a considerable failure ; Ferdinand used it simply to further his own ends , and it strained the Anglo-Spanish alliance . Nevertheless , the French were pushed out of Italy soon after , and the alliance survived , with both parties keen to win further victories over the French . Henry then pulled off a diplomatic coup by convincing the Emperor to join the Holy League . Remarkably , Henry had also secured the promised title of `` Most Christian King of France '' , and possibly coronation by the Pope himself in Paris , if only Louis could be defeated . On 30 June 1513 , Henry invaded France , and his troops defeated a French army at the Battle of the Spurs – a relatively minor result , but one which was seized on by the English for propaganda purposes . Soon after , the English took Thérouanne and handed it over to Maximillian ; Tournai , a more significant settlement , followed . Henry had led the army personally , complete with large entourage . His absence from the country , however , had prompted his brother-in-law , James IV of Scotland , to invade England at the behest of Louis . Nevertheless , the English army , overseen by Queen Catherine , decisively defeated the Scots at the Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513 . Among the dead was the Scottish king , thus ending Scotland 's brief involvement in the war . These campaigns had given Henry a taste of the military success he so desired . However , despite initial indications that he would pursue a 1514 campaign , Henry decided against such a move . He had been supporting Ferdinand and Maximilian financially during the campaign but had got back little ; England 's own coffers were now empty . With the replacement of Julius by Pope Leo X , who was inclined to negotiate for peace with France , Henry signed his own treaty with Louis : his sister Mary would become Louis ' wife , having previously been pledged to the younger Charles , and peace was secured for eight years , a remarkably long time . Following the deaths of his grandfathers , Ferdinand and Maximilian , in 1516 and 1519 respectively , Charles of Austria ascended the thrones of both Spain and the Holy Roman Empire . Likewise , Francis I became king of France on Louis ' death in 1515 , leaving three relatively young rulers and an opportunity for a clean slate . Cardinal Thomas Wolsey 's careful diplomacy had resulted in the Treaty of London in 1518 , aimed at uniting the kingdoms of western Europe in the wake of a new Ottoman threat , and it seemed that peace might be secured . Henry met Francis I on 7 June 1520 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold near Calais for a fortnight of lavish entertainment . Both hoped for friendly relations in place of the wars of the previous decade . The strong air of competition laid to rest any hopes of a renewal of the Treaty of London , however , and conflict was inevitable . Henry had more in common with Charles , whom he met once before and once after Francis . Charles brought the Empire into war with France in 1521 ; Henry offered to mediate , but little was achieved and by the end of the year Henry had aligned England with Charles . He still clung to his previous aim of restoring English lands in France , but also to securing an alliance with Burgundy and the continuing support of Charles . A small English attack in the north of France made up little ground . Charles defeated and captured Francis at Pavia , and could dictate peace ; but he believed he owed Henry nothing . Sensing this , Henry decided to take England out of the war before his ally , signing the Treaty of the More on 30 August 1525 . Annulment from Catherine During his first marriage to Catherine of Aragon , Henry conducted an affair with Mary Boleyn , Catherine 's lady-in-waiting . There has been speculation that Mary 's two children , Henry and Catherine Carey , were fathered by Henry , but this has never been proved and the King never acknowledged them as he did Henry FitzRoy . In 1525 , as Henry grew more impatient with Catherine 's inability to produce the male heir he desired , he became enamoured of Mary 's sister , Anne , then a charismatic young woman of 25 in the Queen 's entourage . Anne , however , resisted his attempts to seduce her , and refused to become his mistress as her sister Mary Boleyn had . It was in this context that Henry considered his three options for finding a dynastic successor and hence resolving what came to be described at court as the King 's `` great matter '' . These options were legitimising Henry FitzRoy , which would take the intervention of the pope and would be open to challenge ; marrying off Mary as soon as possible and hoping for a grandson to inherit directly , but Mary was considered unlikely to conceive before Henry 's death ; or somehow rejecting Catherine and marrying someone else of child-bearing age . Probably seeing the possibility of marrying Anne , the third was ultimately the most attractive possibility to the 34-year-old Henry , and it soon became the King 's absorbing desire to annul his marriage to the now 40-year-old Catherine . It was a decision that would see Henry reject papal authority and initiate the English Reformation . Henry 's precise motivations and intentions over the coming years are not widely agreed on . Henry himself , at least in the early part of his reign , was a devout and well-informed Catholic to the extent that his 1521 publication Assertio Septem Sacramentorum ( `` Defence of the Seven Sacraments '' ) earned him the title of Fidei Defensor ( Defender of the Faith ) from Pope Leo X . The work represented a staunch defence of papal supremacy , albeit one couched in somewhat contingent terms . It is not clear exactly when Henry changed his mind on the issue as he grew more intent on a second marriage . Certainly , by 1527 he had convinced himself that in marrying Catherine , his brother 's wife , he had acted contrary to Leviticus 20:21 , Although Henry would have read the verse in its Latin ( vulgate ) form , the translation used in the 1604 King James Bible is instructive : `` And if a man shall take his brother 's wife , it is an unclean thing : he hath uncovered his brother 's nakedness ; they shall be childless '' . an impediment the Pope had never had ( he now believed ) the authority to dispense with . It was this argument Henry took to Pope Clement VII in 1527 in the hope of having his marriage to Catherine annulled , forgoing at least one less openly defiant line of attack . In going public , all hope of tempting Catherine to retire to a nunnery or otherwise stay quiet were lost . Henry sent his secretary , William Knight , to appeal directly to the Holy See by way of a deceptively worded draft papal bull . Knight was unsuccessful ; the Pope could not be misled so easily . Other missions concentrated on arranging an ecclesiastical court to meet in England , with a representative from Clement VII . Though Clement agreed to the creation of such a court , he never had any intention of empowering his legate , Lorenzo Campeggio , to decide in Henry 's favour . This bias was perhaps the result of pressure from Charles V , Catherine 's nephew , though it is not clear how far this influenced either Campeggio or the Pope . After less than two months of hearing evidence , Clement called the case back to Rome in July 1529 , from which it was clear that it would never re-emerge . With the chance for an annulment lost and England 's place in Europe forfeit , Wolsey bore the blame . He was charged with praemunire in October 1529 and his fall from grace was `` sudden and total '' . Briefly reconciled with Henry ( and officially pardoned ) in the first half of 1530 , he was charged once more in November 1530 , this time for treason , but died while awaiting trial . After a short period in which Henry took government upon his own shoulders , Sir Thomas More took on the role of Lord Chancellor and chief minister . Intelligent and able , but also a devout Catholic and opponent of the annulment , More initially cooperated with the king 's new policy , denouncing Wolsey in Parliament . A year later , Catherine was banished from court , and her rooms were given to Anne . Anne was an unusually educated and intellectual woman for her time , and was keenly absorbed and engaged with the ideas of the Protestant Reformers , though the extent to which she herself was a committed Protestant is much debated . When Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died , Anne 's influence and the need to find a trustworthy supporter of the annulment had Thomas Cranmer appointed to the vacant position . This was approved by the Pope , unaware of the King 's nascent plans for the Church . Marriage to Anne Boleyn In the winter of 1532 , Henry met with Francis I at Calais and enlisted the support of the French king for his new marriage . Immediately upon returning to Dover in England , Henry , now 41 , and Anne , now 32 , went through a secret wedding service . She soon became pregnant , and there was a second wedding service in London on 25 January 1533 . On 23 May 1533 , Cranmer , sitting in judgment at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of the king 's marriage to Catherine of Aragon , declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void . Five days later , on 28 May 1533 , Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be valid . Catherine was formally stripped of her title as queen , becoming instead `` princess dowager '' as the widow of Arthur . In her place , Anne was crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533 . The queen gave birth to a daughter slightly prematurely on 7 September 1533 . The child was christened Elizabeth , in honour of Henry 's mother , Elizabeth of York . Following the marriage , there was a period of consolidation taking the form of a series of statutes of the Reformation Parliament aimed at finding solutions to any remaining issues , whilst protecting the new reforms from challenge , convincing the public of their legitimacy , and exposing and dealing with opponents . Although the canon law was dealt with at length by Cranmer and others , these acts were advanced by Thomas Cromwell , Thomas Audley and the Duke of Norfolk and indeed by Henry himself . With this process complete , in May 1532 More resigned as Lord Chancellor , leaving Cromwell as Henry 's chief minister . With the Act of Succession 1533 , Catherine 's daughter , Mary , was declared illegitimate ; Henry 's marriage to Anne was declared legitimate ; and Anne 's issue was decided to be next in the line of succession . With the Acts of Supremacy in 1534 , Parliament also recognised the King 's status as head of the church in England and , with the Act in Restraint of Appeals in 1532 , abolished the right of appeal to Rome . It was only then that Pope Clement took the step of excommunicating Henry and Thomas Cranmer , although the excommunication was not made official until some time later . The king and queen were not pleased with married life . The royal couple enjoyed periods of calm and affection , but Anne refused to play the submissive role expected of her . The vivacity and opinionated intellect that had made her so attractive as an illicit lover made her too independent for the largely ceremonial role of a royal wife and it made her many enemies . For his part , Henry disliked Anne 's constant irritability and violent temper . After a false pregnancy or miscarriage in 1534 , he saw her failure to give him a son as a betrayal . As early as Christmas 1534 , Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the chances of leaving Anne without having to return to Catherine . Henry is traditionally believed to have had an affair with Margaret ( `` Madge '' ) Shelton in 1535 , although historian Antonia Fraser argues that Henry in fact had an affair with her sister Mary Shelton . Opposition to Henry 's religious policies was quickly suppressed in England . A number of dissenting monks , including the first Carthusian Martyrs , were executed and many more pilloried . The most prominent resisters included John Fisher , Bishop of Rochester , and Sir Thomas More , both of whom refused to take the oath to the King . Neither Henry nor Cromwell sought to have the men executed ; rather , they hoped that the two might change their minds and save themselves . Fisher openly rejected Henry as supreme head of the Church , but More was careful to avoid openly breaking the Treason Act , which ( unlike later acts ) did not forbid mere silence . Both men were subsequently convicted of high treason , however – More on the evidence of a single conversation with Richard Rich , the Solicitor General . Both were duly executed in the summer of 1535 . These suppressions , as well as the Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries Act of 1536 , in turn contributed to more general resistance to Henry 's reforms , most notably in the Pilgrimage of Grace , a large uprising in northern England in October 1536 . Some 20,000 to 40,000 rebels were led by Robert Aske , together with parts of the northern nobility . Henry VIII promised the rebels he would pardon them and thanked them for raising the issues . Aske told the rebels they had been successful and they could disperse and go home . Henry saw the rebels as traitors and did not feel obliged to keep his promises with them , so when further violence occurred after Henry 's offer of a pardon he was quick to break his promise of clemency . The leaders , including Aske , were arrested and executed for treason . In total , about 200 rebels were executed , and the disturbances ended . Execution of Anne Boleyn On 8 January 1536 news reached the king and the queen that Catherine of Aragon had died . Henry called for public displays of joy regarding Catherine 's death . The queen was pregnant again , and she was aware of the consequences if she failed to give birth to a son . Later that month , the King was unhorsed in a tournament and was badly injured and it seemed for a time that the king 's life was in danger . When news of this accident reached the queen , she was sent into shock and miscarried a male child that was about 15 weeks old , on the day of Catherine 's funeral , 29 January 1536 . For most observers , this personal loss was the beginning of the end of the royal marriage . Given the king 's desperate desire for a son , the sequence of Anne 's pregnancies has attracted much interest . Author Mike Ashley speculated that Anne had two stillborn children after Elizabeth 's birth and before the birth of the male child she miscarried in 1536 . Most sources attest only to the birth of Elizabeth in September 1533 , a possible miscarriage in the summer of 1534 , and the miscarriage of a male child , of almost four months gestation , in

sfq_16104--Henry_VIII_of_England.txt

The Pilgrimage of Grace was a popular uprising in 1536, led by Robert Aske, in which city did it take place?

The English term enlightenment is the western translation of the term bodhi , `` awakening '' , which was popularised in the Western world through the 19th century translations of Max Müller . It has the western connotation of a sudden insight into a transcendental truth . The term is also being used to translate several other Buddhist terms and concepts used to denote insight ( prajna , kensho and satori ) ; knowledge ( vidhya ) ; the `` blowing out '' ( Nirvana ) of disturbing emotions and desires and the subsequent freedom or release ( vimutti ) ; and the attainment of Buddhahood , as exemplified by Gautama Buddha . What exactly constituted the Buddha 's awakening is unknown . It may probably have involved the knowledge that liberation was attained by the combination of mindfulness and dhyāna , applied to the understanding of the arising and ceasing of craving . The relation between dhyana and insight is a core problem in the study of Buddhism , and is one of the fundamentals of Buddhist practice . In the western world the concept of ( spiritual ) enlightenment has taken on a romantic meaning . It has become synonymous with self-realization and the true self and false self , being regarded as a substantial essence being covered over by social conditioning. , , , Translation Robert S. Cohen notes that the majority of English books on Buddhism use the term `` enlightenment '' to translate the term bodhi . The root budh , from which both bodhi and Buddha are derived , means `` to wake up '' or `` to recover consciousness '' . Cohen notes that bodhi is not the result of an illumination , but of a path of realization , or coming to understanding . The term `` enlightenment '' is event-oriented , whereas the term `` awakening '' is process-oriented . The western use of the term `` enlighten '' has Christian roots , as in Calvin 's `` It is God alone who enlightens our minds to perceive his truths '' . Early 19th century bodhi was translated as `` intelligence '' . The term `` enlighten '' was first being used in 1835 , in an English translation of a French article , while the first recorded use of the term 'enlightenment ' is credited ( by the Oxford English Dictionary ) to the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal ( February , 1836 ) . In 1857 The Times used the term `` the Enlightened '' for the Buddha in a short article , which was reprinted the following year by Max Müller . Thereafter , the use of the term subsided , but reappeared with the publication of Max Müller 's Chips from a german Workshop , which included a reprint from the Times-article . The book was translated 1969 into German , using the term `` der Erleuchtete '' . Max Müller was an essentialist , who believed in a natural religion , and saw religion as an inherent capacity of human beings . `` Enlightenment '' was a means to capture natural religious truths , as distinguished from mere mythology . By the mid-1870s it had become commonplace to call the Buddha `` enlightened '' , and by the end of the 1880s the terms `` enlightened '' and `` enlightenment '' dominated the English literature . Terms Insight Bodhi Bodhi ( Sanskrit , Pāli ) , from the verbal root budd , `` to awaken '' , `` to understand '' , means literally `` to have woken up and understood '' . According to Johannes Bronkhorst , Tillman Vetter , and K.R . Norman , bodhi was at first not specified . K.R . Norman : According to Norman , bodhi may basically have meant the knowledge that nibbana was attained , due to the practice of dhyana . Originally only `` prajna '' may have been mentioned , and Tillman Vetter even concludes that originally dhyana itself was deemed liberating , with the stilling of pleasure of pain in the fourth jhana . Gombrich also argues that the emphasis on insight is a later development . In Theravada Buddhism , bodhi refers to the realisation of the four stages of enlightenment and becoming an Arahant . In Theravada Buddhism , bodhi is equal to supreme insight , and the realisation of the four noble truths , which leads to deliverance . According to Nyanatiloka , This equation of bodhi with the four noble truths is a later development , in response to developments within Indian religious thought , where `` liberating insight '' was deemed essential for liberation . The four noble truths as the liberating insight of the Buddha eventually were superseded by Pratītyasamutpāda , the twelvefold chain of causation , and still later by anatta , the emptiness of the self . In Mahayana Buddhism , bodhi is equal to prajna , insight into the Buddha-nature , sunyata and tathatā . This is equal to the realisation of the non-duality of absolute and relative . Prajna In Theravada Buddhism pannā ( Pali ) means `` understanding '' , `` wisdom '' , `` insight '' . `` Insight '' is equivalent to vipassana , insight into the three marks of existence , namely anicca , dukkha and anatta . Insight leads to the four stages of enlightenment and Nirvana . In Mahayana Buddhism Prajna ( Sanskrit ) means `` insight '' or `` wisdom '' , and entails insight into sunyata . The attainment of this insight is often seen as the attainment of `` enlightenment '' . Kensho and satori Kensho and Satori are Japanese terms used in Zen traditions . Kensho means `` seeing into one 's true nature . '' Ken means `` seeing '' , sho means `` nature '' , `` essence '' , c.q Buddha-nature . Satori ( Japanese ) is often used interchangeably with kensho , but refers to the experience of kensho . The Rinzai tradition sees kensho as essential to the attainment of Buddhahood , but considers further practice essential to attain Buddhahood . East-Asian ( Chinese ) Buddhism emphasizes insight into Buddha-nature . This term is derived from Indian tathagata-garbha thought , `` the womb of the thus-gone '' ( the Buddha ) , the inherent potential of every sentient being to become a Buddha . This idea was integrated with the Yogacara-idea of the ālaya vijñāna , and further developed in Chinese Buddhism , which integrated Indian Buddhism with native Chinese thought . Buddha-nature came to mean both the potential of awakening and the whole of reality , a dynamic interpenetration of absolute and relative . In this awakening it is realized that observer and observed are not distinct entities , but mutually co-dependent . Knowledge The term vidhya is being used in contrast to avidhya , ignorance or the lack of knowledge , which binds us to samsara . The Mahasaccaka Sutta describes the three knowledges which the Buddha attained : # Insight into his past lives # Insight into the workings of Karma and Reincarnation # Insight into the Four Noble Truths According to Bronkhorst , the first two knowledges are later additions , while insight into the four truths represents a later development , in response to concurring religious traditions , in which `` liberating insight '' came to be stressed over the practice of dhyana . Freedom Vimutti , also called moksha , means `` freedom '' , `` release '' , `` deliverance '' . Sometimes a distinction is being made between ceto-vimutti , `` liberation of the mind '' , and panna-vimutti , `` liberation by understanding '' . The Buddhist tradition recognises two kinds of ceto-vimutti , one temporarily and one permanent , the last being equivalent to panna-vimutti . Yogacara uses the term āśraya parāvŗtti , `` revolution of the basis '' , Nirvana Nirvana is the `` blowing out '' of disturbing emotions , which is the same as liberation . [ http : //studybuddhism.com/web/en/archives/sutra/level2_lamrim/intermediate_scope/nirvana_enlightenment/transcript.html Dr. Alexander Berzin , Nirvana and enlightenment ] The usage of the term `` enlightenment '' to translate `` nirvana '' was popularized in the 19th century , due , in part , to the efforts of Max Muller , who used the term consistently in his translations . Buddhahood Anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi Siddhartha Gautama , known as the Buddha , is said to have achieved full awakening , known as samyaksaṃbodhi ( Sanskrit ; Pāli : sammāsaṃbodhi ) , `` perfect Buddhahood '' , or anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi , `` highest perfect awakening '' . The term buddha has acquired somewhat different meanings in the various Buddhist traditions . An equivalent term for Buddha is Tathāgata , `` the thus-gone '' . The way to Buddhahood is somewhat differently understood in the various buddhist traditions . Buddha 's awakening Canonical accounts In the suttapitaka , the Buddhist canon as preserved in the Theravada-tradition , a couple of texts can be found in which the Buddha 's attainment of liberation forms part of the narrative . The Ariyapariyesana Sutta describes how the Buddha was dissatisfied with the teachings of Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta , wandered further through Magadhan country , and then found `` an agreeable piece of ground '' which served for striving . The sutra then only says that he attained Nibbana . The Mahasaccaka Sutta describes his ascetic practices , which he abandoned . There-after he remembered a spontaneous state of jhana , and set out for jhana-practice . After destroying the disturbances of the mind , and attaining concentration of the mind , he attained three knowledges ( vidhya ) : # Insight into his past lives # Insight into the workings of Karma and Reincarnation # Insight into the Four Noble Truths According to the Mahasaccaka Sutta these insights , including the way to attain liberation , led the Buddha himself straight to liberation . called `` awakening . '' Critical assessment Schmithausen notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting `` liberating insight '' , which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas , is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36 . Bronkhorst notices that It calls in question the reliability of these accounts , and the relation between dhyana and insight , which is a core problem in the study of early Buddhism . Originally the term prajna may have been used , which came to be replaced by the four truths in those texts where `` liberating insight '' was preceded by the four jhanas . Bronkhorst also notices that the conception of what exactly this `` liberating insight '' was developed throughout time . Whereas originally it may not have been specified , later on the four truths served as such , to be superseded by pratityasamutpada , and still later , in the Hinayana schools , by the doctrine of the non-existence of a substantial self or person . And Schmithausen notices that still other descriptions of this `` liberating insight '' exist in the Buddhist canon : An example of this substitution , and its consequences , is Majjhima Nikaya 36:42-43 , which gives an account of the awakening of the Buddha . Development of Buddhahood in Buddhist traditions In Theravada Buddhism , reaching full awakening is equivalent in meaning to reaching Nirvāṇa . [ http : //www.urbandharma.org/udharma6/enlightnirvana.html Kusala Bhikshu ( 3/2008 ) , Buddhist Enlightenment vs Nirvana ] Attaining Nirvāṇa is the ultimate goal of Theravada and other śrāvaka traditions . `` [ http : //ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-AN/26715.htm David Loy ( 2010 ) , Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta : Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same ? ] It involves the abandonment of the ten fetters and the cessation of dukkha or suffering . Full awakening is reached in four stages . In Mahāyāna Buddhism the Bodhisattva is the ideal . The ultimate goal is not only of one 's own liberation in Buddhahood , but the liberation of all living beings . In time , the Buddha 's awakening came to be understood as an immediate full awakening and liberation , instead of the insight into and certainty about the way to follow to reach enlightenment . However , in some Zen traditions this perfection came to be relativized again ; according to one contemporary Zen master , `` Shakyamuni buddha and Bodhidharma are still practicing . '' But Mahayana Buddhism also developed a cosmology with a wide range of buddhas and bodhisattvas , who assist humans on their way to liberation . Western understanding of enlightenment In the western world the concept of enlightenment has taken on a romantic meaning . It has become synonymous with self-realization and the true self , being regarded as a substantial essence being covered over by social conditioning . Enlightenment as `` Aufklärung '' The use of the western word enlightenment is based on the supposed resemblance of bodhi with Aufklärung , the independent use of reason to gain insight into the true nature of our world . In fact there are more resemblances with Romanticism than with the Enlightenment : the emphasis on feeling , on intuitive insight , on a true essence beyond the world of appearances . Awakening The equivalent term `` awakening '' has also been used in a Christian context , namely the Great Awakenings , several periods of religious revival in American religious history . Historians and theologians identify three or four waves of increased religious enthusiasm occurring between the early 18th century and the late 19th century . Each of these `` Great Awakenings '' was characterized by widespread revivals led by evangelical Protestant ministers , a sharp increase of interest in religion , a profound sense of conviction and redemption on the part of those affected , an increase in evangelical church membership , and the formation of new religious movements and denominations . Romanticism and transcendentalism The romantic idea of enlightenment as insight into a timeless , transcendent reality has been popularized especially by D.T . Suzuki . [ http : //www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/whose % 20zen_sharf.pdf Robert H. Sharf , Whose Zen ? Zen Nationalism Revisited ] [ http : //www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/HistoricalZen/Chan_in_China.html Hu Shih : Ch'an ( Zen ) Buddhism in China . Its History and Method ] Further popularization was due to the writings of Heinrich Dumoulin . [ http : //www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/HistoricalZen/McRaeIntroduction.pdf Critical introduction by John McRae to the reprint of Dumoulin 's A history of Zen ] Dumoulin viewed metaphysics as the expression of a transcendent truth , which according to him was expressed by Mahayana Buddhism , but not by the pragmatic analysis of the oldest Buddhism , which emphasizes anatta . This romantic vision is also recognizable in the works of Ken Wilber . In the oldest Buddhism this essentialism is not recognizable . [ http : //nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/publications/nlarc/Pruning_the_bodhi_tree.htm Nanzan Institute : Pruning the bodhi Tree ] According to critics it does n't really contribute to a real insight into Buddhism : [ http : //meaningness.wordpress.com/2011/08/12/effing-the-ineffable/ David Chapman : Effing the ineffable ] ... most of them labour under the old cliché that the goal of Buddhist psychological analysis is to reveal the hidden mysteries in the human mind and thereby facilitate the development of a transcendental state of consciousness beyond the reach of linguistic expression . Enlightenment and experience A common reference in western culture is the notion of `` enlightenment experience '' . This notion can be traced back to William James , who used the term `` religious experience '' in his book , The Varieties of Religious Experience . Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of `` religious experience '' further back to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher ( 1768-1834 ) , who argued that religion is based on a feeling of the infinite . Schleiermacher used the notion of `` religious experience '' to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique . It was popularised by the Transcendentalists , and exported to Asia via missionaries . Transcendentalism developed as a reaction against 18th Century rationalism , John Locke 's philosophy of Sensualism , and the predestinationism of New England Calvinism . It is fundamentally a variety of diverse sources such as Hindu texts like the Vedas , the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita , various religions , and German idealism . It was adopted by many scholars of religion , of which William James was the most influential . The notion of `` experience '' has been criticised . Robert Sharf points out that `` experience '' is a typical western term , which has found its way into Asian religiosity via western influences . The notion of `` experience '' introduces a false notion of duality between `` experiencer '' and `` experienced '' , whereas the essence of kensho is the realisation of the `` non-duality '' of observer and observed . `` Pure experience '' does not exist ; all experience is mediated by intellectual and cognitive activity . The specific teachings and practices of a specific tradition may even determine what `` experience '' someone has , which means that this `` experience '' is not the proof of the teaching , but a result of the teaching . A pure consciousness without concepts , reached by `` cleaning the doors of perception '' as per romantic poet William Blake , would , according to Mohr , be an overwhelming chaos of sensory input without coherence . Bodhi Day Sakyamuni 's Buddhahood is celebrated on Bodhi Day . In Sri Lanka and Japan different days are used for this celebration . According to the Theravada tradition in Sri Lanka , Sakyamuni reached Buddhahood at the full moon in May . This is celebrated at Wesak Poya , the full moon in May , as Sambuddhatva jayanthi ( also known as Sambuddha jayanthi ) . [ http : //dedunu.wordpress.com/2008/06/12/vesak-full-moon-poya-day/ Vesak full moon poya day ] According to the Zen tradition , the Buddha reached his decisive insight on 8 December . This is celebrated in Zen monasteries with a very intensive eight-day session of Rōhatsu .

jp_3850--Enlightenment_in_Buddhism.txt

Who is said to have gained enlightenment sitting under the Bodhi Tree?

Brownsville is a city in Haywood County , Tennessee . It is the county seat of Haywood County . Its population as of the 2010 census is 10,292 . The city is named after General Jacob Jennings Brown , an officer of The War of 1812 . [ http : //www.epodunk.com/cgi-bin/genInfo.php ? locIndex 12324 Community Information ] History Brownsville 's history is strongly connected with agriculture in the Mid-South . The town is notable for its many well-preserved antebellum homes and multi-generational family owned farms . Tabernacle Campground , home to the yearly `` camp-meeting '' for descendants of the Rev . Howell Taylor , was established in 1826 , soon after Brownsville was founded . Brownsville 's synagogue , Temple Adas Israel , was built in 1882 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The building is believed to be the oldest synagogue in Tennessee , and is a rare example of a synagogue built in the Gothic Revival style . Geography According to the United States Census Bureau , Brownsville has a total area of , all land . Brownsville is situated on the southeastern edge of the New Madrid Seismic Zone , an area with a high earthquake risk . The Hatchie River runs through Brownsville . It is the longest free-flowing tributary of the lower Mississippi , and contains the largest forested floodplain in Tennessee . The river is home to hundreds of species of fish , including 11 species of catfish , and the alligator snapping turtle . The Hatchie River was named by the Nature Conservancy as one of the `` great places '' to save . The Hatchie is also designated as a `` scenic river '' under the Tennessee Wild and Scenic Rivers Act . Demographics As of the census of 2000 , there were 10,748 people , 4,105 households , and 2,865 families residing in the city . The population density was 1,178.1 people per square mile ( 455.0/km² ) . There were 4,372 housing units at an average density of 479.2 per square mile ( 185.1/km² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 36.52 % White , 60.72 % African American , 0.14 % Native American , 0.10 % Asian , 0.07 % Pacific Islander , 1.83 % from other races , and 0.61 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.61 % of the population . There were 4,105 households out of which 35.4 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 38.8 % were married couples living together , 27.3 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 30.2 % were non-families . 27.0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11.8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 3.11 . In the city the population was spread out with 29.5 % under the age of 18 , 10.4 % from 18 to 24 , 27.1 % from 25 to 44 , 19.4 % from 45 to 64 , and 13.6 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 33 years . For every 100 females there were 80.2 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 73.3 males . The median income for a household in the city was $ 27,276 , and the median income for a family was $ 33,782 . Males had a median income of $ 30,313 versus $ 22,030 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 15,217 . About 18.0 % of families and 21.3 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 26.3 % of those under age 18 and 27.0 % of those age 65 or over . Arts Pioneer musicians Blues singer and guitarist Sleepy John Estes was born in Ripley ( Nutbush ) and later moved to Brownsville in 1915.The Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture , Rutledge PressA History of Tennessee Arts , University of Tennessee Press Yank Rachell , blues artist and mandolin player , was born in Brownsville in the early 1900s . He recorded , toured Europe , Japan and shortly before his death in 1997 returned to Brownsville to perform Jug Band recordings with John Sebastian and the J-Band.Norris , Sharon , Black America Series : Haywood County Tennessee , Arcadia Publishing Contemporary music In the song `` Delta Dawn '' ( recorded by Tanya Tucker and others ) , the lyric `` All the folks around Brownsville say she 's crazy '' is a reference to Brownsville , Tennessee . Credit for the writing of the song is given to songwriter Alex Harvey and former child rockabilly star Larry Collins . Tina Turner According to a 1990s interview with singer Tina Turner 's mother , Zelma Bullock , the singer was born Anna Mae Bullock in a sharecroppers ' cabin in Nutbush on November 26 , 1939 . Her father was farm overseer and she spent her childhood in the Knoxville area , Nutbush , Ripley and Brownsville . The Mindfield `` The Mindfield '' is the creation and life ’ s work of Brownsville artist Billy Tripp . The structure was begun in 1989 and will continue to evolve until Tripp 's death , at which point it will become the site of his interment . Included in the network of steel are individual pieces representing various events and periods of Tripp 's life , especially the death of his father , Rev . Charles Tripp , in 2002 . One of the latest additions , a water tower salvaged from a defunct factory in Western Kentucky , was dismantled , transported to Brownsville , and reconstructed single-handedly by the artist . It now stands as a memorial to Tripp ’ s parents as well as a testimonial to his current life , his belief in the inherent beauty of our world , and the importance of tolerance in our communities and governmental systems . Tripp ’ s book , The Mindfield Years , is a further representation of his life told through the voices of three main characters and their efforts to find meaning , purpose , and contentment in the existence to which they were born . Written in stream of consciousness style , the novel contains elements of short story , poetry , philosophy , and psychology intermingled into a multi-layered yet deceptively simple tale . Tripp is currently at work on volume two of this series , his Goodbye , and volume three , which is yet to be titled . Notable people * Son Bonds , musician * Paul Burlison , rockabilly pioneer , guitarist , member of The Rock and Roll Trio * Tony Delk of the Boston Celtics graduated from Haywood High School * Joseph Folk ( 1869–1923 ) , Circuit Attorney of the City of St. Louis , later 31st Governor of Missouri * Alfred Alexander Freeman ( 1838–1926 ) , politician and judge , candidate for governor in 1872 * Richard Halliburton , adventurer and author * Brett Scallions , leader of the band Fuel * Billy Tripp , author , artist * Jarvis Varnado ( born 1988 ) , basketball player for Hapoel Jerusalem B.C . Climate The climate in this area is characterized by hot , humid summers and generally mild to cool winters . According to the Köppen Climate Classification system , Brownsville has a humid subtropical climate , abbreviated `` Cfa '' on climate maps .

sfq_10025--Brownsville,_Tennessee.txt

Tina Turner Highway, Tennessee, links Brownsville and which town?

A sea is a large body of salt water that is surrounded in whole or in part by land . More broadly , `` the sea '' is the interconnected system of Earth 's salty , oceanic waters—considered as one global ocean or as several principal oceanic divisions . The sea moderates Earth 's climate and has important roles in the water cycle , carbon cycle , and nitrogen cycle . Although the sea has been travelled and explored since prehistory , the modern scientific study of the sea—oceanography—dates broadly to the British Challenger expedition of the 1870s . The sea is conventionally divided into up to five large oceanic sections—including the IHO 's four named oceans ( the Atlantic , Pacific , Indian , and Arctic ) and the Southern Ocean ; smaller , second-order sections , such as the Mediterranean , are known as seas . Owing to the present state of continental drift , the Northern Hemisphere is now fairly equally divided between land and sea ( a ratio of about 2:3 ) but the South is overwhelmingly oceanic ( 1:4.7 ) .Reddy , M.P.M . ( 2001 ) [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id 2NC3JmKI7mYC & lpg=PA112 Descriptive Physical Oceanography ] . p. 112 . A.A. Balkema , Leiden . ISBN 90-5410-706-5 . Salinity in the open ocean is generally in a narrow band around 3.5 % by mass , although this can vary in more landlocked waters , near the mouths of large rivers , or at great depths . About 85 % of the solids in the open sea are sodium chloride . Deep-sea currents are produced by differences in salinity and temperature . Surface currents are formed by the friction of waves produced by the wind and by tides , the changes in local sea level produced by the gravity of the Moon and Sun . The direction of all of these is governed by surface and submarine land masses and by the rotation of the Earth ( the Coriolis effect ) . Former changes in the sea levels have left continental shelves , shallow areas in the sea close to land . These nutrient-rich waters teem with life , which provide humans with substantial supplies of food—mainly fish , but also shellfish , mammals , and seaweed—which are both harvested in the wild and farmed . The most diverse areas surround great tropical coral reefs . Whaling in the deep sea was once common but whales ' dwindling numbers prompted international conservation efforts and finally a moratorium on most commercial hunting . Oceanography has established that not all life is restricted to the sunlit surface waters : even under enormous depths and pressures , nutrients streaming from hydrothermal vents support their own unique ecosystem . Life may have started there and aquatic microbial mats are generally credited with the oxygenation of Earth 's atmosphere ; both plants and animals first evolved in the sea . The sea is an essential aspect of human trade , travel , mineral extraction , and power generation . This has also made it essential to warfare and left major cities exposed to earthquakes and volcanoes from nearby faults ; powerful tsunami waves ; and hurricanes , typhoons , and cyclones produced in the tropics . This importance and duality has affected human culture , from early sea gods to the epic poetry of Homer to the changes induced by the Columbian Exchange , from Viking funerals to Basho 's haikus to hyperrealist marine art , and inspiring music ranging from the shanties in The Complaynt of Scotland to Rimsky-Korsakov 's `` The Sea and Sinbad 's Ship '' to A-mei 's `` Listen to the Sea '' . It is the scene of leisure activities including swimming , diving , surfing , and sailing . However , population growth , industrialization , and intensive farming have all contributed to present-day marine pollution . Atmospheric carbon dioxide is being absorbed in increasing amounts , lowering its pH in a process known as ocean acidification . The shared nature of the sea has made overfishing an increasing problem . Definition Both senses of sea date to Old English ; the larger sense has required a definite article since Early Middle English . As the term has been applied over time , there are no sharp distinctions between seas and oceans , although seas are smaller and are—with the notable exception of the Sargasso Sea created by the North Atlantic Gyre—usually bounded by land on a smaller scale than multiple continents . Seas are generally larger than lakes and contain salt water , but the Sea of Galilee is a freshwater lake . There is no accepted technical definition of `` sea '' among oceanographers . In international law , the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea states that all the ocean is `` the sea '' . Physical science Earth is the only known planet with seas of liquid water on its surface , although Mars possesses ice caps and similar planets in other solar systems may have oceans . It is still unclear where Earth 's water came from , but , seen from space , our planet appears as a `` blue marble '' of its various forms : oceans , ice caps , clouds . Earth 's of sea contain about 97.2 percent of its known water and cover more than 70 percent of its surface . Another 2.15 % of Earth 's water is frozen , found in the sea ice covering the Arctic Ocean , the ice cap covering Antarctica and its adjacent seas , and various glaciers and surface deposits around the world . The remainder ( about 0.65 % of the whole ) form underground reservoirs or various stages of the water cycle , containing the freshwater encountered and used by most terrestrial life : vapor in the air , the clouds it slowly forms , the rain falling from them , and the lakes and rivers spontaneously formed as its waters flow again and again to the sea.NOAA . `` [ http : //oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/edu/learning/player/lesson07.html Lesson 7 : The Water Cycle ] '' in Ocean Explorer . The sea 's dominance of the planet is such that the British author Arthur C. Clarke once noted that `` Earth '' would have been better named `` Ocean '' . The scientific study of water and Earth 's water cycle is hydrology ; hydrodynamics studies the physics of water in motion . The more recent study of the sea in particular is oceanography . This began as the study of the shape of the ocean 's currents but has since expanded into a large and multidisciplinary field : Monkhouse , F.J. ( 1975 ) Principles of Physical Geography . pp . 327–328 . Hodder & Stoughton . ISBN 978-0-340-04944-0. it examines the properties of seawater ; studies waves , tides , and currents ; charts coastlines and maps the seabeds ; and studies marine life . The subfield dealing with the sea 's motion , its forces , and the forces acting upon it is known as physical oceanography . Marine biology ( biological oceanography ) studies the plants , animals , and other organisms inhabiting marine ecosystems . Both are informed by chemical oceanography , which studies the behavior of elements and molecules within the oceans : particularly , at the moment , the ocean 's role in the carbon cycle and carbon dioxide 's role in the increasing acidification of seawater . Marine and maritime geography charts the shape and shaping of the sea , while marine geology ( geological oceanography ) has provided evidence of continental drift and the composition and structure of the Earth , clarified the process of sedimentation , and assisted the study of volcanism and earthquakes . Seawater Seawater is invariably salty and , although its degree of saltiness ( salinity ) can vary , about 90 % of the water in the ocean has 34– ( 1.2 oz . ) of dissolved solids per liter , producing a salinity between 3.4 and 3.5 % . To easily describe small differences , however , oceanographers usually express salinity as a millage ( ‰ ) or part per thousand ( ppt ) instead of using percents . The surface salinity of waters in the Northern Hemisphere are generally closer to the 34‰ mark , while those in the South are closer to 35‰ . The solutes in ocean water come both from inflowing river water and from the ocean floor . The relative composition of the solutes is stable throughout the world 's oceans : sodium ( Na ) and chloride ( Cl ) make up about 85 % . Other solutes include metal ions such as magnesium ( Mg ) and calcium ( Ca ) and negative ions such as sulfate ( SO₄ ) , carbonate ( CO₃ ) , and bromides . In the absence of other pollution , seawater would not be harmful to drink except that it is much too saline ; similarly , it can not be used for irrigating most plants without being desalinated . For scientific and technical purposes , a standardized form of artificial seawater is often used . Variations in salinity are caused by many factors : currents flowing between the seas ; incoming freshwater from rivers and glaciers ; precipitation ; the formation and melting of sea ice ; and evaporation , which is in turn affected by temperature , winds , and waves . For example , the upper level of the Baltic Sea has a very low salinity ( 10 to 15‰ ) because the low temperatures of the surrounding climate produce minimal evaporation ; it has many inflowing rivers ; and its small connection to the North Sea tends to create a cold , dense under-layer that hardly mixes with the surface waters . By contrast , the Red Sea lies between the Sahara and Arabian Deserts ; it has high evaporation but little precipitation ; it has few ( and mostly seasonal ) inflowing rivers ; and its connection to other seas—the Suez Canal in the north and the Bab-el-Mandeb in the south—are both very narrow . Its salinity averages 40‰ . The Mediterranean is a little lower , at 37‰ , while some landlocked lakes are much higher : The Dead Sea has 300 g of dissolved solids per liter ( 300‰ ) . Sea temperature chiefly depends on the amount of solar radiation it absorbs . In the tropics where sunlight falls more directly , the temperature of the surface layers can rise to over 30 °C ; near the poles , the temperature is in equilibrium with the sea ice at its freezing point . Its salinity makes this lower than freshwater 's , usually about . These temperature differences contribute to the continuous circulation of water through the sea . Warm surface currents cool as they move away from the tropics ; as the water becomes denser , it sinks . The cold water in the deep sea moves back towards the equator before welling up again to the surface . Deep seawater has a temperature between in all parts of the globe . In freezing seas , ice crystals begin to form on the surface . These break into small pieces and coalesce into flat discs that form a thick suspension known as frazil . In calm conditions , frazil will freeze into a thin , flat sheet called nilas , which thickens as new ice forms in the sea beneath it . In turbulent waters , frazil instead join together into larger flat discs known as `` pancakes '' . These slide over and under one another to form floes . During these processes , salt water and air are trapped amid the ice . Nilas forms with a salinity around 12–15‰ and is grayish in color but grows fresher over time : after a year , it is bluish and closer to 4–6‰ saline . The amount of light that penetrates the sea depends on the angle of the sun , the local weather , and the sea 's turbidity . Of the light that reaches the surface of the sea , much of it is reflected at the surface and its red wavelengths are absorbed in the top few meters . Yellow and green reach greater depths , and the longer blue and violet wavelengths may penetrate as deep as 1000 m . The amount of oxygen present in seawater depends primarily upon its temperature and the photosynthetic organisms living in it , particularly algae , phytoplankton , and plants such as seagrass . During the day , their photosynthetic activity produces oxygen , which dissolves into the seawater and is used by marine animals . The water 's oxygen saturation is lower during the night and much lower in the deep sea . Below a depth of about 200 m , there is insufficient light for photosynthesisRussell , F.S . ( 1928 ) The Seas . pp . 225–227 . Frederick Warne . and consequently little dissolved oxygen . Below this , anaerobic bacteria break down falling organic material , producing hydrogen sulfide ( H₂S ) . It is projected that global warming will reduce oxygen both in surface and deep waters , due to oxygen 's decreased solubility as temperatures increase and increased oceanic stratification . Waves Ocean surface waves are oscillations caused by the friction from air moving across the surface of the water . This friction transfers energy and forms surface waves in the water perpendicular to the direction of the wind . The top of a wave is known as its crest and its foot as its trough ; the distance between two crests is the wavelength . These waves are mechanical : as they approach , the water molecules at a given point rise up and , as they pass , the water molecules go down , tracing a roughly circular path . The energy is passed across the surface and does not represent a horizontal motion of the water itself . The sea state of the ocean is determined by the size of these waves , which—on the open ocean—depends upon the wind speed and the fetch , the distance over which the wind blows upon the water . The smallest waves are called ripples . As strong and prolonged winds push against ripples ' raised crests , larger and more irregular waves form , which known as seas . These waves reach their maximum height when the rate at which they are traveling nearly matches the speed of the wind and , over time , they naturally separate into long , powerful waves with a common direction and wavelength . These swells are particularly common in the Roaring Forties of the Southern Hemisphere where the wind blows continuously . When the wind dies down , ripples easily disappear owing to water 's surface tension , but seas and swells are only slowly reduced by gravity and destructive interference from other waves . Constructive interference , however , can also cause individual rogue waves much higher than normal.Garrison , Tom ( 2012 ) . [ https : //books.google.com/books ? idDVgKAAAAQBAJ & pg PA204 Essentials of Oceanography ] . 6th ed . pp . 204 ff . Brooks/Cole , Belmont . ISBN 0321814053 . Most waves are less than 3 m high and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple that height ; offshore construction such as wind farms and oil platforms use these measurements in computing the hundred-year wave they are designed against . Rogue waves , however , have been documented at heights above 25 m . As waves approach land and move into shallow water , they change their behavior . If approaching at an angle , waves may bend or wrap rocks and headlands . When the wave reaches a point where its deepest oscillating molecules contact the seabed , friction begins to slow the wave down . This pulls the crests closer together and increases the waves ' height . When the ratio of a wave 's height to its wavelength exceeds 1:7 , it `` breaks '' , toppling over in a mass of foaming water . This rushes in a sheet up the beach before retreating into the sea under the influence of gravity . Tsunami A tsunami is an unusual form of wave caused by a sudden and powerful event such as an underwater earthquake or landslide , a meteorite impact , a volcanic eruption , or a collapse of land into the sea . These events can temporarily lift or lower the surface of the sea in the affected area , usually by a few feet . The potential energy of the displaced seawater is turned into kinetic energy , creating a shallow wave radiating outwards at a velocity proportional to the square root of the depth of the water . Tsunamis , therefore , travel much faster in the open ocean than on a continental shelf . Despite traveling at speeds of over 600 mph , tsunamis in deep seas have wavelengths from 80 to and an amplitude of less than three feet . Standard surface waves in the same region may only have wavelengths of a few hundred feet and speeds up to 65 mph but , when compared to their possible amplitudes of up to 45 ft , tsunamis at this stage are often able to pass unnoticed . Tsunami warning systems rely on the fact that seismic waves caused by earthquakes travel around the world at around 14400 km per hour , allowing threatened regions to be alerted to the possibility of a tsunami . Measurements from a network of sea-level measuring stations make it possible to confirm or cancel a tsunami warning . A trigger event on the continental shelf may cause a local tsunami on the land side and a distant tsunami that travels out across the ocean . The energy of the wave is dissipated only gradually but is spread out over the wave front . As the wave radiates away from the source , the front gets longer and the average energy reduces , so distant shores will generally be hit by weaker waves . However , as the speed of the wave is controlled by the water depth , it does not travel at the same speed in all directions and this affects the direction of the wave front . This effect , known as refraction , can focus the strength of an advancing tsunami on some areas while weakening it in others , according to the undersea topography along its path . Just as with other waves , moving into shallow water causes the tsunami to slow but grow in height . Either the trough or the crest of the tsunami can arrive at the coast first . In the former case , the sea draws back and leaves subtidal areas unusually exposed . When the crest arrives , it does not usually break but rushes inland , flooding all in its path . Much of the disaster 's destruction can be produced by these flood waters , which drain back into the sea while pulling people and debris along . Several tsunamis can be caused by a single geological event . In such cases , it is common for the later waves to arrive between eight minutes and two hours after the first , which may not be the biggest or most destructive . Occasionally , in a shallow bay or estuary , a tsunami may transform into a bore . Tides Tides are the regular rise and fall in water level experienced by seas and oceans in response to the gravitational influences of the Moon and the Sun , and the effects of the Earth 's rotation . At any given place , the water rises over the course of the tidal cycle to a maximum height known as `` high tide '' before ebbing away again to a minimum `` low tide '' level . As the water recedes , it uncovers more and more of the foreshore or intertidal zone . The difference in height between the high tide and low tide is known as the tidal range or tidal amplitude . Tidal bores can occur at the mouths of rivers , where the force of the incoming tide pushes waves of seawater upstream against the current . At Hangzhou in China , the bore can reach 9 m high and travel up to 40 km per hour . Most places experience two high tides each day , occurring at intervals of about 12 hours and 25 minutes , half the period that it takes for the Earth to make a complete revolution and return the Moon to its previous position relative to an observer . The Moon 's mass is some 27 million times smaller than the Sun , but it is 400 times closer to the Earth . Tidal force or tide-raising force decreases rapidly with distance , so the moon has more than twice as great an effect on tides as the Sun . A bulge is formed in the ocean at the place where the Earth is closest to the Moon , because it is also where the effect of the Moon 's gravity is stronger . On the opposite side of the Earth , the lunar force is at its weakest and this causes another bulge to form . These bulges rotate around the Earth as the moon does . The Sun 's effect is less powerful but , when the Sun , Moon and Earth are all aligned at the full and new moons , the combined effect results in the high `` spring tides '' . In contrast , when the Sun is at 90° from the Moon as viewed from Earth , the combined gravitational effect on tides is correspondingly reduced , causing the lower `` neap tides '' . Tidal flows of seawater are resisted by the water 's inertia and can be affected by land masses . In places like the Gulf of Mexico where land constrains the movement of the bulges , only one set of tides may occur each day . Inshore from an island , there may be a complex daily cycle with four high tides . The island straits at Chalkis on Euboea experience strong currents which abruptly switch direction , generally four times per day but up to 12 times per day when the moon and the sun are 90 degrees apart . See also the commentary about this explanation in Where there is a funnel-shaped bay or estuary , the tidal range can be magnified . The Bay of Fundy in Canada can experience spring tides of 15 m. Although tides are regular and predictable , the height of high tides can be lowered by offshore winds and raised by onshore winds . The high pressure at the center of an anticyclones pushes down on the water and is associated with abnormally low tides while low-pressure areas may cause extremely high tides . A storm surge can occur when high winds pile water up against the coast in a shallow area and this , coupled with a low pressure system , can raise the surface of the sea at high tide dramatically . In 1900 , Galveston , Texas , experienced a 15 ft surge during a hurricane that overwhelmed the city , killing over 3,500 people and destroying 3,636 homes . Currents Wind blowing over the surface of the sea causes friction at the interface between air and sea . Not only does this cause waves to form but it also makes the surface seawater move in the same direction as the wind . Although winds are variable , in any one place they predominantly blow from a single direction and thus a surface current can be formed . Westerly winds are most frequent in the mid-latitudes while easterlies dominate the tropics . When water moves in this way , other water flows in to fill the gap and a circular movement of surface currents known as a gyre is formed . There are five main gyres in the world 's oceans : two in the Pacific , two in the Atlantic , and one in the Indian Ocean . The North Atlantic gyre that produces the Sargasso Sea accumulates salinity levels as high as 38‰ . Other smaller gyres are found in lesser seas and a single gyre flows around Antarctica . These gyres have followed the same routes for millennia , guided by the topography of the land , the wind direction , and the Coriolis effect . The surface currents flow in a clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere . The water moving away from the equator is warm , while that flowing towards it has lost most of its heat . These currents tend to moderate the Earth 's climate , cooling the equatorial region , and warming regions at higher latitudes . Global climate and weather forecasts are powerfully affected by the world ocean , so global climate modelling makes use of ocean circulation models as well as models of other major components such as the atmosphere , land surfaces , aerosols , and sea ice . Ocean models make use of a branch of physics , geophysical fluid dynamics , that describes the large-scale flow of fluids such as seawater . Surface currents only affect the top few hundred meters ( yards ) of the sea , but there are also large-scale flows in the ocean depths caused by the movement of deep water masses . A main deep ocean current flows through all the world 's oceans and is known as the thermohaline circulation or global conveyor belt . This movement is slow and is driven by differences in density of the water caused by variations in salinity and temperature . At high latitudes , the water is chilled by the low atmospheric temperature and becomes saltier as sea ice crystallizes out . Both these factors make it denser and the water sinks . From the deep sea near Greenland , such water flows southwards between the continental landmasses on either side of the Atlantic . When it reaches the Antarctic , it is joined by further masses of cold , sinking water and flows eastwards . It then splits into two streams that move northwards into the Indian and Pacific Oceans . Here it is gradually warmed , becomes less dense , rises towards the surface , and loops back on itself . Some flows back into the Atlantic . It takes a thousand years for this circulation pattern to be completed . Besides gyres , there are temporary surface currents that occur under specific conditions . When waves meet a shore at an angle , a longshore current is created as water is pushed along parallel to the coastline . The water swirls up onto the beach at right angles to the approaching waves but drains away straight down the slope under the effect of gravity . The larger the breaking waves , the longer the beach , and the more oblique the wave 's approach , the stronger the longshore current is . These currents can shift great volumes of sand or pebbles , create spits , and make beaches disappear and water channels silt up . A rip current can occur when water piles up near the shore from advancing waves and is funnelled out to sea through a channel in the seabed . It may occur at a gap in a sandbar or near a man-made structure such as a groyne . These strong currents can have a velocity of 1 m/s , can form at different places at different stages of the tide , and can carry away unwary swimmers . Temporary upwelling currents occur when the wind pushes water away from the land and deeper water rises to replace it . This cold water is often rich in nutrients and creates blooms of phytoplankton and a great increase in the productivity of the sea . Basins Bathymetry is the mapping and study of the topography of the ocean floor . Methods used for measuring the depth of the sea include single or multibeam echosounders , laser airborne depth sounders and the calculation of depths from satellite remote sensing data . This information is used for determining the routes of undersea cables and pipelines , for choosing suitable locations for siting oil rigs and offshore wind turbines and for identifying possible new fisheries . The Earth is composed of a magnetic central core , a mostly liquid mantle , and a hard rigid outer shell ( or lithosphere ) , which is composed of the Earth 's rocky crust and the deeper and mostly solid outer layer of the mantle . The crust below land is known as continental while that under the abyssal sea is called oceanic . The latter is composed of relatively dense basalt and is some five to ten kilometers ( three to six miles ) thick . The relatively thin lithosphere floats on the weaker and hotter mantle below and is fractured into a number of

sfq_9178--Sea.txt

What name is given to the unofficial accolade awarded to the fastest passenger ship to cross the Atlantic in the westbound direction?

Assassination is the murder of a prominent person , often ( but not always ) a political leader or ruler , usually for political reasons or payment . An assassination may be prompted by religious , political , or military motives ; it is an act that may be done for financial gain , to avenge a grievance , from a desire to acquire fame or notoriety , or because of a military , security or insurgent group 's command to carry out the homicide . Etymology The word assassin is often believed to derive from the word Hashshashin ( Arabic : حشّاشين , ħashshāshīyīn , also Hashishin , Hashashiyyin , or Assassins ) , and shares its etymological roots with hashish ( or ; from Arabic : ' ) . It referred to a group of Nizari Shia Persians who worked against various Arab and Persian targets . Founded by the Persian Hassan-i Sabbah , the Assassins were active in the fortress of Alamut in Iran from the 8th to the 14th centuries , and also controlled the castle of Masyaf in Syria . The group killed members of the Persian , Abbasid , Seljuq , and Christian Crusader élite for political and religious reasons . Although it is commonly believed that Assassins were under the influence of hashish during their killings or during their indoctrination , there is debate as to whether these claims have merit , with many Eastern writers and an increasing number of Western academics coming to believe that drug-taking was not the key feature behind the name . The earliest known literary use of the word assassination is in Macbeth by William Shakespeare ( 1605 ) . The word for `` murder '' in many Romance languages is derived from this same root word ( see Spanish asesinato ) . Use in history Ancient to medieval times Assassination is one of the oldest tools of power politics . It dates back at least as far as recorded history . The Old Testament story of Judith illustrates how a woman frees the Israelites by tricking and assassinating Holofernes , a warlord of the rival Assyrians , with whom the Israelites were at war . King Joash of Judah was recorded as being assassinated by his own servants ; Joab assassinated Absalom , King David 's son ; and King Sennacherib of Assyria was assassinated by his own sons . Chanakya ( c. 350–283 BC ) wrote about assassinations in detail in his political treatise Arthashastra . His student Chandragupta Maurya , the founder of the Maurya Empire , later made use of assassinations against some of his enemies , including two of Alexander the Great 's generals , Nicanor and Philip . Other famous victims are Philip II of Macedon ( 336 BC ) , the father of Alexander the Great , and Roman consul Julius Caesar ( 44 BC ) . Emperors of Rome often met their end in this way , as did many of the Muslim Shia Imams hundreds of years later . The practice was also well known in ancient China , as in Jing Ke 's failed assassination of Qin king Ying Zheng in 227 BC . Whilst many assassination were performed by an individual or a small group , there were also specialized units who used a collective group of people to perform more than one assassination . The earliest were the sicarii in 6 A.D. , who predated the Middle Eastern assassins and Japanese ninjas by centuries . In the Middle Ages , regicide was rare in Western Europe , but it was a recurring theme in the Eastern Roman Empire . Blinding and strangling in the bathtub were the most commonly used procedures . With the Renaissance , tyrannicide—or assassination for personal or political reasons—became more common again in Western Europe . High medieval sources mention the assassination of King Demetrius Zvonimir ( 1089 ) , dying at the hands of his own people , who objected to a proposition by the Pope to go on a campaign to aid the Byzantines against the Seljuk Turks . This account is , however , contentious among historians , it being most commonly asserted that he died of natural causes . The myth of the `` Curse of King Zvonimir '' is based on the legend of his assassination . In 1192 , Conrad of Montferrat , the de facto King of Jerusalem , was killed by an assassin . The reigns of King Przemysł II of Poland ( 1296 ) , William the Silent of the Netherlands ( 1584 ) , and the French kings Henry III ( 1589 ) and Henry IV ( 1610 ) were all ended by assassins . Modern history In the modern world , the killing of important people began to become more than a tool in power struggles between rulers themselves and was also used for political symbolism , such as in the propaganda of the deed . In Russia alone , two emperors , Paul I and Alexander II , were assassinated within 80 years . In the United States , within 100 years , four presidents—Abraham Lincoln , James Garfield , William McKinley , and John F. Kennedy—died at the hands of assassins . There have been at least 20 known attempts on U.S. presidents ' lives . Robert Kennedy , a presidential candidate , was also assassinated in June 1968 in the US . In Austria , the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie , Duchess of Hohenberg , in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 was carried out by Gavrilo Princip , a Serbian national and a member of the Serbian nationalist insurgents ( The Black Hand ) is blamed for igniting World War I after a succession of minor conflicts , while belligerents on both sides in World War II used operatives specifically trained for assassination . Reinhard Heydrich was killed after an attack by British-trained Czechoslovak soldiers on behalf of the Czechoslovak government in exile in Operation Anthropoid , and knowledge from decoded transmissions allowed the U.S. to carry out a targeted attack , killing Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto while he was travelling by plane . The Polish Home Army conducted a regular campaign of assassinations against top Nazi German officials in occupied Poland . Adolf Hitler , meanwhile , was almost killed by his own officers , and survived various attempts by other persons and organizations ( such as Operation Foxley , though this plan was never put into practice ) . During the 1930s and 1940s Joseph Stalin 's NKVD carried out numerous assassinations outside of the Soviet Union , such as the killings of Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists leader Yevhen Konovalets , Ignace Poretsky , Fourth International secretary Rudolf Klement , Leon Trotsky , and the Workers ' Party of Marxist Unification ( POUM ) leadership in Catalonia . India 's `` Father of the Nation , '' Mohandas K. Gandhi , was shot to death on January 30 , 1948 , by Nathuram Godse . The American civil rights activist , Martin Luther King , Jr. was assassinated on April 4 , 1968 , at the Lorraine Motel ( now the National Civil Rights Museum ) in Memphis , Tennessee . Three years prior , another civil African-American civil rights activist , Malcolm X , was assassinated at the Audubon Ballroom on February 21 , 1965 . Fred Hampton of the Black Panther Party was assassinated on December 4 , 1969 . Cold War and beyond Liaquat Ali Khan , the first Prime Minister of Pakistan , was assassinated by Saad Akbar , a lone assassin , in 1951 . Conspiracy theorists believe his conflict with certain members of the Pakistani military ( Rawalpindi conspiracy ) or suppression of Communists and antagonism towards the Soviet Union , were potential reasons for his assassination . In 1960 , Inejiro Asanuma , Chairman of the Japanese Socialist Party , was assassinated in a stabbing by an extreme rightist . The U.S. Senate Select Committee chaired by Senator Frank Church ( the Church Committee ) reported in 1975 that it had found `` concrete evidence of at least eight plots involving the CIA to assassinate Fidel Castro from 1960 to 1965 . '' Most major powers repudiated Cold War assassination tactics , though many allege that this was merely a smokescreen for political benefit and that covert and illegal training of assassins continues today , with Russia , Israel , the U.S. , Argentina , Paraguay , Chile , and other nations accused of engaging in such operations . In 1986 , U.S. President Ronald Reagan ( who survived an assassination attempt himself ) ordered the Operation El Dorado Canyon air raid on Libya in which one of the primary targets was the home residence of Libyan ruler Muammar Gaddafi . Gaddafi escaped unharmed ; however , his adopted daughter Hanna was claimed to be one of the civilian casualties . In the Philippines , the assassination of Benigno Aquino , Jr. triggered the eventual downfall of the 20-year autocratic rule of President Ferdinand Marcos . Aquino , a former Senator and a leading figure of the political opposition , was assassinated in 1983 at the Manila International Airport ( now the Ninoy Aquino International Airport ) upon returning home from exile . His death thrust his widow , Corazon Aquino , into the limelight and , ultimately , the presidency following the peaceful 1986 EDSA Revolution . After the Iranian Revolution of 1979 , the new Islamic government of Iran began an international campaign of assassination that lasted into the 1990s . At least 162 killings in 19 countries have been linked to the senior leadership of the Islamic Republic of Iran . This campaign came to an end after the Mykonos restaurant assassinations , because a German court publicly implicated senior members of the government and issued arrest warrants for Ali Fallahian , the head of the Iranian Intelligence . Evidence indicates that Fallahian 's personal involvement and individual responsibility for the murders were far more pervasive than his current indictment record represents . Anwar Sadat , President of the Arab Republic of Egypt ( formerly President of the United Arab Republic ) , was assassinated October 6 , 1981 , during the annual parade celebrating Operation Badr , the opening maneuver of the Yom Kippur War . On August 17 , 1988 , President of Pakistan Gen. M. Zia ul Haq died alongside 31 others including the Chief of Staff of the Pakistani Armed Forces , the US Ambassador to Pakistan and the chief of the US Military Mission to Pakistan when his C-130 transport plane mysteriously crashed . The crash is widely considered – inside of Pakistan – to be an act of political assassination . In post-Saddam Iraq , the Shiite-dominated government used death squads to perform extrajudicial executions of radical Sunni Iraqis , with some alleging that the death squads were trained by the U.S . Concrete allegations have since surfaced that the Iranian government has actively armed and funded Shia death-squads in post-Saddam Iraq . In India , Prime Ministers Indira Gandhi and her son Rajiv Gandhi ( neither of whom were related to Mohandas Gandhi , who was assassinated in 1948 ) , were assassinated in 1984 and 1991 respectively . The assassinations were linked to separatist movements in Punjab and northern Sri Lanka , respectively . In Israel , Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated on November 4 , 1995 . Yigal Amir confessed and was convicted of the crime . Israeli tourist minister Rehavam Ze'evi was assassinated on October 17 , 2001 , by Hamdi Quran and three other members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( PFLP ) . The PFLP stated that the assassination was in retaliation for the August 27 , 2001 , killing of Abu Ali Mustafa , the Secretary General of the PFLP , by the Israeli Air Force under its policy of targeted killings . In Lebanon , the assassination of former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri on February 14 , 2005 , prompted an investigation by the United Nations . The suggestion in the resulting Mehlis report that there was Syrian involvement , prompted the Cedar Revolution , which drove Syrian troops out of Lebanon . In Pakistan , former prime minister and opposition leader Benazir Bhutto was assassinated in 2007 , while running for re-election . Bhutto 's assassination drew unanimous condemnation from the international community . In Guinea Bissau , President João Bernardo Vieira was assassinated in the early hours of March 2 , 2009 , in the capital , Bissau . Unlike typical assassinations his death was not swift ; he first survived an explosion at the Presidential Villa , was then shot and wounded , and finally was butchered with machetes . His assassination was carried out by renegade soldiers who were apparently revenging the killing of General Tagme Na Waie , the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of Guinea Bissau , who had been killed in a bomb explosion the day before . Further motivations As military doctrine Assassination for military purposes has long been espoused – Sun Tzu , writing around 500 BC , argued in favor of using assassination in his book The Art of War . Nearly 2000 years later , in his book The Prince , Machiavelli also argued assassination could be useful . An army and even a nation might be based upon and around a particularly strong , canny , or charismatic leader , whose loss could paralyze the ability of both to make war . There is also the risk that the target could be replaced by an even more competent leader , or that such a killing ( or a failed attempt ) will `` martyr '' a leader and lead to greater support of his or her cause ( by showing the moral ruthlessness of the assassins ) . Faced with particularly brilliant leaders , this possibility has in various instances been risked , such as in the attempts to kill the Athenian Alcibiades during the Peloponnesian War . A number of additional examples from World War II show how assassination was used as a tool : * The assassination of Reinhard Heydrich in Prague on 27 May 1942 by the British and Czechoslovak government-in-exile . * The American interception of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto 's plane during World War II , after his travel route had been decrypted . * Operation Gaff was a planned British commando raid to capture or kill the German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel ( also known as `` The Desert Fox '' ) . Use of assassination has continued in more recent conflicts : * During the Vietnam War , partly in response to Viet Cong assassinations of government leaders , the U.S. engaged in the Phoenix Program to assassinate Viet Cong leaders and sympathizers , and killed between 6,000 and 41,000 people , with official 'targets ' of 1,800 per month . As tool of insurgents Insurgent groups have often employed assassination as a tool to further their causes . Assassinations provide several functions for such groups , namely the removal of specific enemies and as propaganda tools to focus the attention of media and politics on their cause . The Irish Republican Army guerrillas of 1919–21 killed many RIC Police Intelligence officers during the Irish War of Independence . Michael Collins set up a special unit – the Squad – for this purpose , which had the effect of intimidating many policemen into resigning from the force . The Squad 's activities peaked with the killing of 14 British agents in Dublin on Bloody Sunday in 1920 . This tactic was used again by the Provisional IRA during the Troubles in Northern Ireland ( 1969–1998 ) . Killing of RUC officers and assassination of RUC politicians was one of a number of methods used in the Provisional IRA campaign 1969–1997 . The IRA also attempted to assassinate British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher by bombing the Conservative Party Conference in a Brighton hotel . Loyalist paramilitaries retaliated by killing Catholics at random and assassinating Irish nationalist politicians . Basque terrorists ETA in Spain have assassinated many security and political figures since the late 1960s , notably Luis Carrero Blanco , 1st Duke of Carrero-Blanco Grandee of Spain , in 1973 . Since the early 1990s , they have also targeted academics , journalists and local politicians who publicly disagreed with them . The Red Brigades in Italy carried out assassinations of political figures , as to a lesser extent , did the Red Army Faction in Germany in the 1970s and 1980s . In the Vietnam War , Communist insurgents routinely assassinated government officials and individual civilians deemed to offend or rival the revolutionary movement . Such attacks , along with widespread military activity by insurgent bands , almost brought the Diem regime to collapse before the U.S. intervention . Psychology A major study about assassination attempts in the U.S. in the second half of the 20th century came to the conclusion that most prospective assassins spend copious amounts of time planning and preparing for their attempts . Assassinations are thus rarely a case of 'impulsive ' action . However , about 25 % of the actual attackers were found to be delusional , a figure that rose to 60 % with 'near-lethal approachers ' ( people apprehended before reaching their target ) . This shows that while mental instability plays a role in many modern-age assassinations , the more delusional attackers are less likely to succeed in their attempt . The report also found that around two-thirds of attackers had previously been arrested ( not necessarily for related offenses ) , that 44 % had a history of serious depression , and that 39 % had a history of substance abuse . Techniques Ancient methods It seems likely that the first assassinations would have been direct and simple : stabbing , strangling or bludgeoning . The key technique was likely infiltration , with the actual assassination by stabbing , smothering or strangulation . Poisons also started to be used in many forms . Death cap mushrooms and similar plants became a traditional choice of assassins especially if they could not be perceived as poisonous by taste , and the symptoms of the poisoning did not show until after some time . In ancient Rome , paid mobs were sometimes used to beat political enemies to death . Modern methods With the advent of effective ranged weaponry , and later firearms , the position of an assassination target was more precarious . Bodyguards were no longer enough to hold back determined killers , who no longer needed to directly engage or even subvert the guard to kill the leader in question . Moreover , the engagement of targets at greater distance dramatically increased the chances of an assassin 's survival . The first heads of government to be assassinated with a firearm were the Regent Moray of Scotland in 1570 , and William the Silent , the Prince of Orange of the Netherlands in 1584 . Gunpowder and other explosives also allowed the use of bombs or even greater concentrations of explosives for deeds requiring a larger touch . Explosives , especially the car bomb , become far more common in modern history , with grenades and remote-triggered land mines also used , especially in the Middle East and Balkans ( the initial attempt on Archduke Franz Ferdinand 's life was with a grenade ) . With heavy weapons , the rocket-propelled grenade ( RPG ) has become a useful tool given the popularity of armored cars ( discussed below ) , while Israeli forces have pioneered the use of aircraft-mounted missiles , as well as the innovative use of explosive devices . A sniper with a precision rifle is often used in fictional assassinations . However , certain difficulties attend long-range shooting , including finding a hidden shooting position with a clear line-of-sight , detailed advance knowledge of the intended victim 's travel plans , the ability to identify the target at long range , and the ability to score a first-round lethal hit at long range , usually measured in hundreds of meters . A dedicated sniper rifle is also expensive , often costing thousands of dollars because of the high level of precision machining and hand-finishing required to achieve extreme accuracy . Despite their comparative disadvantages , handguns are more easily concealable , and consequentially much more commonly used than rifles . Of 74 principal incidents evaluated in a major study about assassination attempts in the U.S. in the second half of the 20th century , 51 % were undertaken by a handgun , 30 % with a rifle or shotgun , 15 % used knives , and 8 % explosives ( usage of multiple weapons/methods was reported in 16 % of all cases ) . In the case of state-sponsored assassination , poisoning can be more easily denied . Georgi Markov , a Bulgarian dissident was assassinated by ricin poisoning . A tiny pellet containing the poison was injected into his leg through a specially designed umbrella . Widespread allegations involving the Bulgarian government and KGB have not led to any legal results . However , it was learned after fall of the USSR , that the KGB had developed an umbrella that could inject ricin pellets into a victim , and two former KGB agents who defected said the agency assisted in the murder . The CIA has allegedly made several attempts to assassinate Fidel Castro , many of the schemes involving poisoning his cigars . In the late 1950s , KGB assassin Bohdan Stashynsky killed Ukrainian nationalist leaders Lev Rebet and Stepan Bandera with a spray gun that fired a jet of poison gas from a crushed cyanide ampule , making their deaths look like heart attacks . A 2006 case in the UK concerned the assassination of Alexander Litvinenko who was given a lethal dose of radioactive polonium-210 , possibly passed to him in aerosol form sprayed directly onto his food . Litvinenko , a former KGB agent , had been granted asylum in the UK in 2000 after citing persecution in Russia . Shortly before his death he issued a statement accusing then-President of Russia Vladimir Putin of involvement in his assassination . President Putin denies he had any part in Litvinenko 's death . Targeted killing Targeted killing is the intentional killing–by a government or its agents–of a civilian or `` unlawful combatant '' targeted by the government , who is not in the government 's custody . The target is a person asserted to be taking part in an armed conflict or terrorism , whether by bearing arms or otherwise , who has thereby lost the immunity from being targeted that he would otherwise have under the Third Geneva Convention . Note that this is a different term and concept from that of `` targeted violence '' as used by specialists who study violence . On the other hand , Georgetown Law Professor Gary Solis , in his 2010 book entitled The Law of Armed Conflict : International Humanitarian Law in War , writes : `` Assassinations and targeted killings are very different acts '' . The use of the term assassination is opposed , as it denotes murder , whereas the terrorists are targeted in self-defense , and thus it is viewed as a killing , but not a crime . Judge Abraham Sofaer , former federal judge for the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York , wrote on the subject : When people call a targeted killing an `` assassination , '' they are attempting to preclude debate on the merits of the action . Assassination is widely defined as murder , and is for that reason prohibited in the United States ... U.S. officials may not kill people merely because their policies are seen as detrimental to our interests ... But killings in self-defense are no more `` assassinations '' in international affairs than they are murders when undertaken by our police forces against domestic killers . Targeted killings in self-defense have been authoritatively determined by the federal government to fall outside the assassination prohibition . Author and former U.S. Army Captain Matthew J. Morgan has argued that `` there is a major difference between assassination and targeted killing ... targeted killing [ is ] not synonymous with assassination . Assassination ... constitutes an illegal killing . '' Similarly , Amos Guiora , professor of law at the University of Utah , writes : `` Targeted killing is ... not an assassination '' , Steve David , Professor of International Relations at Johns Hopkins University , writes : `` There are strong reasons to believe that the Israeli policy of targeted killing is not the same as assassination '' . Syracuse Law Professor William Banks and GW Law Professor Peter Raven-Hansen write : `` Targeted killing of terrorists is ... not unlawful and would not constitute assassination '' , Rory Miller writes : `` Targeted killing ... is not 'assassination ' '' . Associate Professor Eric Patterson and Teresa Casale write : `` Perhaps most important is the legal distinction between targeted killing and assassination '' . On the other hand , the American Civil Liberties Union also states on its website , `` A program of targeted killing far from any battlefield , without charge or trial , violates the constitutional guarantee of due process . It also violates international law , under which lethal force may be used outside armed conflict zones only as a last resort to prevent imminent threats , when non-lethal means are not available . Targeting people who are suspected of terrorism for execution , far from any war zone , turns the whole world into a battlefield . '' Yael Stein , the research director of B'Tselem , The Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories , also states in her article `` By Any Name Illegal and Immoral : Response to 'Israel 's Policy of Targeted Killing ' '' : The argument that this policy affords the public a sense of revenge and retribution could serve to justify acts both illegal and immoral . Clearly , lawbreakers ought to be punished . Yet , no matter how horrific their deeds , as the targeting of Israeli civilians indeed is , they should be punished according to the law . David 's arguments could , in principle , justify the abolition of formal legal systems altogether . Targeted killing has become a frequent tactic of the United States and Israel in their fight against terrorism . The tactic can raise complex questions and lead to contentious disputes as to the legal basis for its application , who qualifies as an appropriate `` hit list '' target , and what circumstances must exist before the tactic may be employed . Opinions range from people considering it a legal form of self-defense that reduces terrorism , to people calling it an extra-judicial killing that lacks due process , and which leads to further violence . Methods used have included firing a five-foot-long Hellfire missile from a Predator or Reaper drone ( an unmanned , remote-controlled plane ) , detonating a cell phone bomb , and long-range sniper shooting . Countries such as the U.S. ( in Pakistan and Yemen ) and Israel ( in the West Bank and Gaza ) have used targeted killing to eliminate members of groups such as Al-Qaeda and Hamas . In early 2010 , with President Obama 's approval , Anwar al-Awlaki became the first U.S. citizen to be publicly approved for targeted killing by the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) . Awlaki was killed in a drone strike in September 2011 . Counter-measures Early forms One of the earliest forms of defense against assassins was employing bodyguards . Bodyguards act as a shield for the potential target , keeping lookout for potential attackers ( sometimes in advance , for example on a parade route ) , and putting themselves in harm 's way—both by simple presence , showing that physical force is available to protect the target , and by shielding the target during any attack . To neutralize an attacker , bodyguards are typically armed as much as legal and practical concerns permit . This bodyguard function was often executed by the leader 's most loyal warriors , and was extremely effective throughout most of early human history , leading assassins to attempt stealthy means , such as poison ( which risk was answered by having another person taste the leader 's food first ) . Another notable measure is the use of a body

qz_5039--Assassination.txt

Who was the 16th president of the U.S.A.,assasinated in 1865

Venice ( ; ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region . It is situated across a group of 117 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by bridges . These are located in the marshy Venetian Lagoon which stretches along the shoreline , between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers . Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings , their architecture , and artwork . The lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site . In 2009 , 270,098 people resided in Venice 's comune ( the population estimate of 272,000 inhabitants includes the population of the whole Comune of Venezia ; of whom around 60,000 live in the historic city of Venice ( Centro storico ) ; 176,000 in Terraferma ( the mainland ) , mostly in the large frazioni ( roughly equivalent to `` parishes '' or `` wards '' in other countries ) of Mestre and Marghera ; and 31,000 on other islands in the lagoon ) . Together with Padua and Treviso , the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area ( PATREVE ) , with a total population of 2,600,000 . PATREVE is only a statistical metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy . The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC . The city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice . Venice has been known as the `` La Dominante '' , `` Serenissima '' , `` Queen of the Adriatic '' , `` City of Water '' , `` City of Masks '' , `` City of Bridges '' , `` The Floating City '' , and `` City of Canals '' . The Republic of Venice was a major maritime power during the Middle Ages and Renaissance , and a staging area for the Crusades and the Battle of Lepanto , as well as a very important center of commerce ( especially silk , grain , and spice ) and art in the 13th century up to the end of the 17th century . This made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history . It is also known for its several important artistic movements , especially the Renaissance period . After the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna , the Republic was annexed by the Austrian Empire , until it became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1866 , following a referendum held as a result of the Third Italian War of Independence . Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music , and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi . Etymology The name of the city , deriving from Latin forms Venetia and Venetiae , is most likely taken from `` Venetia et Histria '' , the Roman name of Regio X of Roman Italy , but applied to the coastal part of the region that remained under Roman Empire outside of Gothic , Lombard , and Frankish control . The name Venetia , however , derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti , and called by the Greeks Eneti ( Ἐνετοί ) . The meaning of the word is uncertain , although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names , such as the Celtic Veneti , Baltic Veneti , and the Slavic Wends . Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root * wen ( `` love '' ) , so that * wenetoi would mean `` beloved '' , `` lovable '' , or `` friendly '' . A connection with the Latin word venetus , meaning the color 'sea-blue ' , is also possible . Supposed connections of Venetia with the Latin verb venire ( to come ) , such as Marin Sanudo 's veni etiam ( `` Yet , I have come ! `` ) , the supposed cry of the first refugees to the Venetian lagoon from the mainland , or even with venia ( `` forgiveness '' ) are fanciful . The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia ; ( Venetian : Venèxia ; ; ) . History Origins Although no surviving historical records deal directly with the founding of Venice , tradition and the available evidence have led several historians to agree that the original population of Venice consisted of refugees from Roman cities near Venice such as Padua , Aquileia , Treviso , Altino and Concordia ( modern Portogruaro ) and from the undefended countryside , who were fleeing successive waves of Germanic and Hun invasions . Some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons . They were referred to as incolae lacunae ( `` lagoon dwellers '' ) . The traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church , that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto ( Rivoalto , `` High Shore '' ) — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421 ( the Feast of the Annunciation ) . Beginning as early as AD 166 to 168 , the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the main center in the area , the current Oderzo . The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and , some 50 years later , by the Huns led by Attila . The last and most enduring immigration into the north of the Italian peninsula , that of the Lombards in 568 , left the Eastern Roman Empire a small strip of coast in the current Veneto , including Venice . The Roman/Byzantine territory was organized as the Exarchate of Ravenna , administered from that ancient port and overseen by a viceroy ( the Exarch ) appointed by the Emperor in Constantinople , but Ravenna and Venice were connected only by sea routes ; and with the Venetians ' isolated position came increasing autonomy . New ports were built , including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon . The tribuni maiores , the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon , dated from c. 568 . The traditional first doge of Venice , Paolo Lucio Anafesto , was actually Exarch Paul , and his successor , Marcello Tegalliano , was Paul 's magister militum ( General : literally , `` Master of Soldiers '' ) . In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the iconoclastic controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II . The Exarch was murdered and many officials put to flight in the chaos . At about this time , the people of the lagoon elected their own leader for the first time , although the relationship of this to the uprisings is not clear . Ursus was the first of 117 `` doges '' ( doge is the Venetian dialect development of the Latin dux ( `` leader '' ) ; the corresponding word in English is duke , in standard Italian duce . ) Whatever his original views , Ursus supported Emperor Leo III 's successful military expedition to recover Ravenna , sending both men and ships . In recognition of this , Venice was `` granted numerous privileges and concessions '' and Ursus , who had personally taken the field , was confirmed by Leo as dux and given the added title of hypatus ( Greek for `` Consul '' . ) In 751 the Lombard King Aistulf conquered most of the Exarchate of Ravenna , leaving Venice a lonely and increasingly autonomous Byzantine outpost . During this period , the seat of the local Byzantine governor ( the `` duke/dux '' , later `` doge '' ) , was situated in Malamocco . Settlement on the islands in the lagoon probably increased with the Lombard conquest of other Byzantine territories , as refugees sought asylum there . In 775/6 the episcopal seat of Olivolo ( San Pietro di Castello ; Helipolis ) was created . During the reign of duke Agnello Particiaco ( 811–827 ) the ducal seat moved from Malamocco to the highly protected Rialto , the current location of Venice . The monastery of St Zachary and the first ducal palace and basilica of St. Mark , as well as a walled defense ( civitatis murus ) between Olivolo and Rialto , were subsequently built here . Charlemagne sought to subdue the city to his own rule . He ordered the Pope to expel the Venetians from the Pentapolis along the Adriatic coast , and Charlemagne 's own son Pepin of Italy , king of the Lombards under the authority of his father , embarked on a siege of Venice itself . This , however , proved a costly failure . The siege lasted six months , with Pepin 's army ravaged by the diseases of the local swamps and eventually forced to withdraw ( 810 ) . A few months later , Pepin himself died , apparently as a result of a disease contracted there . In the aftermath , an agreement between Charlemagne and the Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus in 814 recognized Venice as Byzantine territory and granted the city trading rights along the Adriatic coast . In 828 the new city 's prestige increased with the acquisition of the claimed relics of St Mark the Evangelist from Alexandria , which were placed in the new basilica . ( Winged lions , visible throughout Venice , symbolise St Mark . ) The patriarchal seat also moved to Rialto . As the community continued to develop and as Byzantine power waned , its autonomy grew , leading to eventual independence . Expansion From the 9th to the 12th century , Venice developed into a city state ( an Italian thalassocracy or Repubblica Marinara : the other three of these were Genoa , Pisa , and Amalfi ) . Its strategic position at the head of the Adriatic made Venetian naval and commercial power almost invulnerable . With the elimination of pirates along the Dalmatian coast , the city became a flourishing trade center between Western Europe and the rest of the world ( especially the Byzantine Empire and Asia ) with a naval power protecting sea routes from Islamic piracy . The Republic of Venice seized a number of places on the eastern shores of the Adriatic before 1200 , mostly for commercial reasons , because pirates based there were a menace to trade . The Doge already carried the titles of Duke of Dalmatia and Duke of Istria . Later mainland possessions , which extended across Lake Garda as far west as the Adda River , were known as the `` Terraferma '' , and were acquired partly as a buffer against belligerent neighbours , partly to guarantee Alpine trade routes , and partly to ensure the supply of mainland wheat , on which the city depended . In building its maritime commercial empire , the Republic dominated the trade in salt , acquired control of most of the islands in the Aegean , including Cyprus and Crete , and became a major power-broker in the Near East . By the standards of the time , Venice 's stewardship of its mainland territories was relatively enlightened and the citizens of such towns as Bergamo , Brescia and Verona rallied to the defence of Venetian sovereignty when it was threatened by invaders . Venice remained closely associated with Constantinople , being twice granted trading privileges in the Eastern Roman Empire , through the so-called Golden Bulls or `` chrysobulls '' in return for aiding the Eastern Empire to resist Norman and Turkish incursions . In the first chrysobull , Venice acknowledged its homage to the Empire ; but not in the second , reflecting the decline of Byzantium and the rise of Venice 's power . Venice became an imperial power following the Fourth Crusade , which , having veered off course , culminated in 1204 by capturing and sacking Constantinople and establishing the Latin Empire . As a result of this conquest , considerable Byzantine plunder was brought back to Venice . This plunder included the gilt bronze horses from the Hippodrome of Constantinople , which were originally placed above the entrance to the cathedral of Venice , St Mark 's Basilica , although the originals have been replaced with replicas and are now stored within the basilica . After the fall of Constantinople , the former Roman Empire was partitioned among the Latin crusaders and the Venetians . Venice subsequently carved out a sphere of influence in the Mediterranean known as the Duchy of the Archipelago , and captured Crete . The seizure of Constantinople proved as decisive a factor in ending the Byzantine Empire as the loss of the Anatolian themes after Manzikert . Although the Byzantines recovered control of the ravaged city a half-century later , the Byzantine Empire was terminally weakened , and existed as a ghost of its old self until Sultan Mehmet The Conqueror took the city in 1453 . Situated on the Adriatic Sea , Venice always traded extensively with the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim world . By the late 13th century , Venice was the most prosperous city in all of Europe . At the peak of its power and wealth , it had 36,000 sailors operating 3,300 ships , dominating Mediterranean commerce . Venice 's leading families vied with each other to build the grandest palaces and support the work of the greatest and most talented artists . The city was governed by the Great Council , which was made up of members of the noble families of Venice . The Great Council appointed all public officials and elected a Senate of 200 to 300 individuals . Since this group was too large for efficient administration , a Council of Ten ( also called the Ducal Council or the Signoria ) , controlled much of the administration of the city . One member of the great council was elected `` Doge '' , or duke , the chief executive , who usually held the title until his death ; although several Doges were forced by pressure from their oligarchical peers to resign and retire into monastic seclusion when they were felt to have been discredited by political failure . The Venetian government structure was similar in some ways to the republican system of ancient Rome , with an elected chief executive ( the Doge ) , a senate-like assembly of nobles , and a mass of citizens with limited political power , who originally had the power to grant or withhold their approval of each newly elected Doge . Church and various private properties were tied to military service , although there was no knight tenure within the city itself . The Cavalieri di San Marco was the only order of chivalry ever instituted in Venice , and no citizen could accept or join a foreign order without the government 's consent . Venice remained a republic throughout its independent period , and politics and the military were kept separate , except when on occasion the Doge personally headed the military . War was regarded as a continuation of commerce by other means ( hence , the city 's early production of large numbers of mercenaries for service elsewhere , and later its reliance on foreign mercenaries when the ruling class was preoccupied with commerce ) . Although the people of Venice generally remained orthodox Roman Catholics , the state of Venice was notable for its freedom from religious fanaticism and executed nobody for religious heresy during the Counter-Reformation . This apparent lack of zeal contributed to Venice 's frequent conflicts with the Papacy . In this context , the writings of the Anglican divine William Bedell are particularly illuminating . Venice was threatened with the interdict on a number of occasions , and twice suffered its imposition . The second , most famous , occasion was in 1606 , by order of Pope Paul V . Venetian ambassadors sent home still-extant secret reports of the politics and rumours of European courts , providing fascinating information to modern historians . The newly invented German printing press spread rapidly throughout Europe in the 15th century , and Venice was quick to adopt it . By 1482 , Venice was the printing capital of the world , and the leading printer was Aldus Manutius , who invented paperback books that could be carried in a saddlebag . His Aldine Editions included translations of nearly all the known Greek manuscripts of the era . Decline Venice 's long decline started in the 15th century , when it first made an unsuccessful attempt to hold Thessalonica against the Ottomans ( 1423–1430 ) . It also sent ships to help defend Constantinople against the besieging Turks ( 1453 ) . After Constantinople fell to Sultan Mehmet II , he declared war on Venice . The war lasted thirty years and cost Venice much of its eastern Mediterranean possessions . Next , Christopher Columbus discovered the New World in 1492 . Then Vasco da Gama of Portugal found a sea route to India by rounding the Cape of Good Hope during his first voyage of 1497-99 , destroying Venice 's land route monopoly . France , England and the Dutch Republic followed . Venice 's oared galleys were at a disadvantage when it came to traversing the great oceans , and therefore Venice was left behind in the race for colonies . The Black Death devastated Venice in 1348 and once again between 1575 and 1577 . In three years , the plague killed some 50,000 people . In 1630 , the Italian plague of 1629–31 killed a third of Venice 's 150,000 citizens . Venice began to lose its position as a center of international trade during the later part of the Renaissance as Portugal became Europe 's principal intermediary in the trade with the East , striking at the very foundation of Venice 's great wealth ; while France and Spain fought for hegemony over Italy in the Italian Wars , marginalising its political influence . However , the Venetian empire was a major exporter of agricultural products , and until the mid-18th century , a significant manufacturing center . Modern age During the 18th century , Venice became perhaps the most elegant and refined city in Europe , greatly influencing art , architecture and literature . But the Republic lost its independence when Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Venice on 12 May 1797 during the First Coalition . Napoleon was seen as something of a liberator by the city 's Jewish population , although it can be argued they had lived with fewer restrictions in Venice . He removed the gates of the Ghetto and ended the restrictions on when and where Jews could live and travel in the city . Venice became Austrian territory when Napoleon signed the Treaty of Campo Formio on 12 October 1797 . The Austrians took control of the city on 18 January 1798 . But Venice was taken from Austria by the Treaty of Pressburg in 1805 and became part of Napoleon 's Kingdom of Italy ; however it was returned to Austria following Napoleon 's defeat in 1814 , when it became part of the Austrian-held Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia . In 1848–9 , a revolt briefly re-established the Venetian Republic under Daniele Manin . In 1866 , after the Third Italian War of Independence , Venice , along with the rest of the Veneto , became part of the newly created Kingdom of Italy . During the Second World War , the historic city was largely free from attack , the only aggressive effort of note being Operation Bowler , a successful Royal Air Force precision strike on the German naval operations in the city in March 1945 . The targets were destroyed with virtually no architectural damage inflicted on the city itself . However the industrial areas in Mestre and Marghera and the railway lines to Padua , Trieste and Trento were repeatedly bombed . On 29 April 1945 , New Zealand troops under Freyberg of the Eighth Army reached Venice and relieved the city and the mainland , which were already in partisan hands . Subsidence Subsidence , the gradual lowering of the surface of Venice , has led to the seasonal Acqua alta when much of the city 's surface is occasionally covered at high tide . Foundations The buildings of Venice are constructed on closely spaced wooden piles . Most of these piles are still intact after centuries of submersion . The foundations rest on plates of Istrian limestone placed on top of the piles , and buildings of brick or stone sit above these footings . The piles penetrate a softer layer of sand and mud until they reach a much harder layer of compressed clay . Submerged by water , in oxygen-poor conditions , wood does not decay as rapidly as on the surface . Most of these piles were made from trunks of alder trees , a wood noted for its water resistance . The alder came from the westernmost part of today 's Slovenia ( resulting in the barren land of the Kras region ) , in two regions of Croatia , Lika and Gorski kotar ( resulting in the barren slopes of Velebit ) and south of Montenegro . History The city is often threatened by flood tides pushing in from the Adriatic between autumn and early spring . Six hundred years ago , Venetians protected themselves from land-based attacks by diverting all the major rivers flowing into the lagoon and thus preventing sediment from filling the area around the city . This created an ever-deeper lagoon environment . In 1604 , to defray the cost of flood relief , Venice introduced what could be considered the first example of a 'stamp tax ' . When the revenue fell short of expectations in 1608 , Venice introduced paper with the superscription 'AQ ' and imprinted instructions , which was to be used for 'letters to officials ' . At first , this was to be a temporary tax , but it remained in effect until the fall of the Republic in 1797 . Shortly after the introduction of the tax , Spain produced similar paper for general taxation purposes , and the practice spread to other countries . During the 20th century , when many artesian wells were sunk into the periphery of the lagoon to draw water for local industry , Venice began to subside . It was realised that extraction of water from the aquifer was the cause . The sinking has slowed markedly since artesian wells were banned in the 1960s . However , the city is still threatened by more frequent low-level floods ( called Acqua alta , `` high water '' ) that creep to a height of several centimetres over its quays , regularly following certain tides . In many old houses , the former staircases used to unload goods are now flooded , rendering the former ground floor uninhabitable . Studies indicate that the city continues sinking at a relatively slow rate of 1-2mm per annum ; therefore , the state of alert has not been revoked . In May 2003 , the Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi inaugurated the MOSE project ( Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico ) , an experimental model for evaluating the performance of hollow floatable gates ; the idea is to fix a series of 78 hollow pontoons to the sea bed across the three entrances to the lagoon . When tides are predicted to rise above 110 centimetres , the pontoons will be filled with air , causing them to float and block the incoming water from the Adriatic Sea . This engineering work is due to be completed by 2016 . Geography The whole pensolon ( municipality ) is divided into 6 boroughs . One of these ( the historic city ) is divided into six areas called sestieri : Cannaregio , San Polo , Dorsoduro ( including the Giudecca and Isola Sacca Fisola ) , Santa Croce , San Marco ( including San Giorgio Maggiore ) and Castello ( including San Pietro di Castello and Sant'Elena ) . Each sestiere was administered by a procurator and his staff . Nowadays each sestiere is a statistical and historical area without any degree of autonomy . The six fingers or flanges of the ferro on the bow of a gondola represent the six sestieri . The sestieri are divided into parishes – initially 70 in 1033 , but reduced under Napoleon and now numbering just 38 . These parishes predate the sestieri , which were created in about 1170 . Other islands of the Venetian Lagoon do not form part of any of the sestieri , having historically enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy . Each sestiere has its own house numbering system . Each house has a unique number in the district , from one to several thousand , generally numbered from one corner of the area to another , but not usually in a readily understandable manner . Climate According to the Köppen climate classification , Venice has a Humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) , with cool winters and very warm summers . The 24-hour average in January is , and for July this figure is . Precipitation is spread relatively evenly throughout the year , and averages 748 mm . Government File : MunicipalitaVCE.png|The 6 boroughs of the whole comune of Venice File : Map of comune of Venice ( province of Venice , region Veneto , Italy ) .svg|The whole comune ( red ) in the Metropolitan City of Venice File : Ca'Loredan Venice.jpg|Ca ' Loredan , Venice 's City Hall The legislative body of the municipality is the City Council ( Consiglio Comunale ) , which is composed of 45 councillors elected every five years with a proportional system , contextually to the mayoral elections . The executive body is the City Committee ( Giunta Comunale ) , composed of 12 assessors nominated and presided over by a directly elected Mayor . Venice was governed by center-left parties from the 1990s until the 2010s , when the mayor started to be elected directly . This is remarkable because Veneto has long been a conservative stronghold , with the coalition between the regionalist Lega Nord and the center-right Forza Italia winning absolute majorities of the electorate in many elections at communal , national , and regional levels . After a corruption scandal that forced the center-left mayor Giorgio Orsoni to resign , Venice voted for the first time in June 2015 for a conservative directly-elected mayor : the center-right businessman Luigi Brugnaro won the election in the second round of voting with the 53 % of the votes against the leftist magistrate and member of the Italian Senate Felice Casson , who led in the first round with 38 % of the votes . The municipality of Venice is subdivided into six administrative Boroughs ( Municipalità ) . Each Borough is governed by a Council ( Consiglio ) and a President , elected contextually to the city Mayor . The urban organization is governed by the Italian Constitution ( art . 114 ) . The Boroughs have the power to advise the Mayor with nonbinding opinions on a large spectrum of topics ( environment , construction , public health , local markets ) and exercise the functions delegated to them by the City Council ; in addition they are supplied with autonomous funding to finance local activities . The Boroughs are : Lagoon area : * Venezia ( historic city ) -Murano–Burano ( also known as Venezia insulare ) ; population : 69,136 ; * Lido–Pellestrina ( also known as Venezia litorale ) ; population : 21,664 . Mainland ( terraferma ) , annexed with a Royal Decree , in 1926 , to the municipality of Venezia : * Favaro Veneto ; population : 23,615 ; * Mestre-Carpenedo ( also known as Mestre centro ) ; population : 88,952 ; * Chirignago-Zelarino ; population : 38 ; 179 ; * Marghera ; population : 28 ; 466 . After the 2015 elections , five of the six boroughs are governed by the Democratic Party and its allies , and one by the center-right mayoral majority . Economy Venice 's economy has changed throughout history . In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance , Venice was a major center for commerce and trade , as it controlled a vast sea-empire , and became an extremely wealthy European city , a leader in political and economic affairs and a centre for trade and commerce . From the 11th century until the 15th century , pilgrimages to the Holy Land were offered in Venice . Other ports such

sfq_26249--Venice.txt

Canaletto is famous for his landscapes of Venice and which other city?

The Beatles were an English rock band , formed in Liverpool in 1960 . With members John Lennon , Paul McCartney , George Harrison and Ringo Starr , they became widely regarded as the foremost and most influential act of the rock era . Rooted in skiffle , beat , and 1950s rock and roll , the Beatles later experimented with several musical styles , ranging from pop ballads and Indian music to psychedelia and hard rock , often incorporating classical elements in innovative ways . In the early 1960s , their enormous popularity first emerged as `` Beatlemania '' , but as the group 's music grew in sophistication , led by primary songwriters Lennon and McCartney , they came to be perceived as an embodiment of the ideals shared by the counterculture of the 1960s . The Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over a three-year period from 1960 , with Stuart Sutcliffe initially serving as bass player . The core of Lennon , McCartney and Harrison went through a succession of drummers , most notably Pete Best , before asking Starr to join them . Manager Brian Epstein moulded them into a professional act , and producer George Martin guided and developed their recordings , greatly expanding their popularity in the United Kingdom after their first hit , `` Love Me Do '' , in late 1962 . They acquired the nickname `` the Fab Four '' as Beatlemania grew in Britain the next year , and by early 1964 became international stars , leading the `` British Invasion '' of the United States pop market . From 1965 onwards , the Beatles produced increasingly innovative recordings , including the widely influential albums Rubber Soul ( 1965 ) , Revolver ( 1966 ) , Sgt . Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( 1967 ) , The Beatles ( commonly known as the White Album , 1968 ) and Abbey Road ( 1969 ) . After their break-up in 1970 , they each enjoyed successful musical careers of varying lengths . McCartney and Starr , the surviving members , remain musically active . Lennon was shot and killed in December 1980 , and Harrison died of lung cancer in November 2001 . According to the RIAA , the Beatles are the best-selling music artists in the United States , with 178 million certified units . They have had more number-one albums on the British charts and sold more singles in the UK than any other act . In 2008 , the group topped Billboard magazine 's list of the all-time most successful `` Hot 100 '' artists ; , they hold the record for most number-one hits on the Hot 100 chart with twenty . They have received ten Grammy Awards , an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards . Collectively included in Time magazine 's compilation of the twentieth century 's 100 most influential people , they are the best-selling band in history , with estimated sales of over 600 million records worldwide . The group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988 , and all four were inducted individually from 1994 to 2015 . History 1957–62 : Formation , Hamburg , and UK popularity In March 1957 , John Lennon , then aged sixteen , formed a skiffle group with several friends from Quarry Bank school . They briefly called themselves the Blackjacks , before changing their name to the Quarrymen after discovering that a respected local group was already using the other name . Fifteen-year-old Paul McCartney joined as a rhythm guitarist shortly after he and Lennon met that July . In February 1958 , McCartney invited his friend George Harrison to watch the band . The fourteen-year-old auditioned for Lennon , impressing him with his playing , but Lennon initially thought Harrison was too young to join them . After a month of Harrison 's persistence , they enlisted him as their lead guitarist . By January 1959 , Lennon 's Quarry Bank friends had left the group , and he began studies at the Liverpool College of Art . The three guitarists , billing themselves at least three times as Johnny and the Moondogs , were playing rock and roll whenever they could find a drummer . Lennon 's art school friend Stuart Sutcliffe , who had recently sold one of his paintings and was persuaded to purchase a bass guitar , joined in January 1960 , and it was he who suggested changing the band 's name to Beatals , as a tribute to Buddy Holly and the Crickets . They used the name until May , when they became the Silver Beetles , before undertaking a brief tour of Scotland as the backing group for pop singer and fellow Liverpudlian Johnny Gentle . By early July , they had changed their name to the Silver Beatles and by the middle of August to the Beatles . Allan Williams , the Beatles ' unofficial manager , arranged a residency for them in Hamburg , but lacking a full-time drummer they auditioned and hired Pete Best in mid-August 1960 . The band , now a five-piece , left four days later , contracted to club owner Bruno Koschmider for what would be a 3½-month residency . Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn writes : `` They pulled into Hamburg at dusk on 17 August , the time when the red-light area comes to life ... flashing neon lights screamed out the various entertainment on offer , while scantily clad women sat unabashed in shop windows waiting for business opportunities . '' Koschmider had converted a couple of strip clubs in the district into music venues , and he initially placed the Beatles at the Indra Club . After closing the Indra due to noise complaints , he moved them to the Kaiserkeller in October . When he learned they had been performing at the rival Top Ten Club in breach of their contract , he gave the band one month 's termination notice , and reported the underage Harrison , who had obtained permission to stay in Hamburg by lying to the German authorities about his age . The authorities arranged for Harrison 's deportation in late November . One week later , Koschmider had McCartney and Best arrested for arson after they set fire to a condom in a concrete corridor ; the authorities deported them . Lennon returned to Liverpool in early December , while Sutcliffe remained in Hamburg through late February with his German fiancée Astrid Kirchherr , who took the first semi-professional photos of the Beatles . During the next two years , the Beatles were resident for periods in Hamburg , where they used Preludin both recreationally and to maintain their energy through all-night performances . In 1961 , during their second Hamburg engagement , Kirchherr cut Sutcliffe 's hair in the `` exi '' ( existentialist ) style , later adopted by the other Beatles . When Sutcliffe decided to leave the band early that year and resume his art studies in Germany , McCartney took up the bass . Producer Bert Kaempfert contracted what was now a four-piece group through June 1962 , and he used them as Tony Sheridan 's backing band on a series of recordings for Polydor Records . As part of the sessions , the Beatles were signed to Polydor for one year . Credited to `` Tony Sheridan & the Beat Brothers '' , the single `` My Bonnie '' , recorded in June 1961 and released four months later , reached number 32 on the Musikmarkt chart . After the Beatles completed their second Hamburg residency , they enjoyed increasing popularity in Liverpool with the growing Merseybeat movement . However , they were also growing tired of the monotony of numerous appearances at the same clubs night after night . In November 1961 , during one of the group 's frequent performances at the Cavern Club , they encountered Brian Epstein , a local record-store owner and music columnist . He later recalled : `` I immediately liked what I heard . They were fresh , and they were honest , and they had what I thought was a sort of presence ... [ a ] star quality . '' Epstein courted the band over the next couple of months , and they appointed him as their manager in January 1962 . Throughout early and mid-1962 , Epstein sought to free the Beatles from their contractual obligations to Bert Kaempfert Productions . He eventually negotiated a one-month-early release from their contract in exchange for one last recording session in Hamburg . Tragedy greeted them on their return to Germany in April , when a distraught Kirchherr met them at the airport with news of Sutcliffe 's death the previous day from what would later be determined to have been a brain hemorrhage . Epstein began negotiations with record labels for a recording contract . In order to secure a UK record contract , Epstein negotiated an early end to the band 's contract with Polydor , in exchange for more recordings backing Tony Sheridan . After a New Year 's Day audition , Decca Records rejected the band with the comment `` Guitar groups are on the way out , Mr . Epstein . '' However , three months later , producer George Martin signed the Beatles to EMI 's Parlophone label . Martin 's first recording session with the Beatles took place at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios in London on 6 June 1962 . Martin immediately complained to Epstein about Best 's poor drumming and suggested they use a session drummer in his place . Already contemplating Best 's dismissal , the Beatles replaced him in mid-August with Ringo Starr , who left Rory Storm and the Hurricanes to join them . A 4 September session at EMI yielded a recording of `` Love Me Do '' featuring Starr on drums , but a dissatisfied Martin hired drummer Andy White for the band 's third session a week later , which produced recordings of `` Love Me Do '' , `` Please Please Me '' and `` P.S . I Love You '' . Martin initially selected the Starr version of `` Love Me Do '' for the band 's first single , though subsequent re-pressings featured the White version , with Starr on tambourine . Released in early October , `` Love Me Do '' peaked at number seventeen on the Record Retailer chart . Their television debut came later that month with a live performance on the regional news programme People and Places . After Martin suggested rerecording `` Please Please Me '' at a faster tempo , a studio session in late November yielded that recording , of which Martin accurately predicted , `` You 've just made your first No.1 . '' In December 1962 , the Beatles concluded their fifth and final Hamburg residency . By 1963 , they had agreed that all four band members would contribute vocals to their albums – including Starr , despite his restricted vocal range , to validate his standing in the group . Lennon and McCartney had established a songwriting partnership , and as the band 's success grew , their dominant collaboration limited Harrison 's opportunities as a lead vocalist . Epstein , in an effort to maximise the Beatles ' commercial potential , encouraged them to adopt a professional approach to performing . Lennon recalled him saying , `` Look , if you really want to get in these bigger places , you 're going to have to change – stop eating on stage , stop swearing , stop smoking ... '' Lennon said : `` We used to dress how we liked , on and off stage . He 'd tell us that jeans were not particularly smart and could we possibly manage to wear proper trousers , but he did n't want us suddenly looking square . He 'd let us have our own sense of individuality . '' 1963–66 : Beatlemania and touring years Please Please Me and With the Beatles On 11 February 1963 , the Beatles recorded ten songs during a single studio session for their debut LP , Please Please Me . The album was supplemented by the four tracks already released on their first two singles . Martin originally considered recording the Beatles ' debut LP live at the Cavern Club , but after deciding that the building 's acoustics were inadequate , he elected to simulate a `` live '' album with minimal production in `` a single marathon session at Abbey Road '' . After the moderate success of `` Love Me Do '' , the single `` Please Please Me '' met with a more emphatic reception . Released in January 1963 , two months ahead of the album of the same name , the song reached number one on every chart in London except Record Retailer , where it stalled at number two . Recalling how the Beatles `` rushed to deliver a debut album , bashing out Please Please Me in a day '' , AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine comments , `` Decades after its release , the album still sounds fresh , precisely because of its intense origins . '' Lennon said little thought went into composition at the time ; he and McCartney were `` just writing songs à la Everly Brothers , à la Buddy Holly , pop songs with no more thought of them than that – to create a sound . And the words were almost irrelevant . '' Released in March 1963 , the album initiated a run during which eleven of their twelve studio albums released in the United Kingdom through 1970 reached number one . The band 's third single , `` From Me to You '' , came out in April and was also a chart-topping hit , starting an almost unbroken string of seventeen British number-one singles for the Beatles , including all but one of the eighteen they released over the next six years . Issued in August , the band 's fourth single , `` She Loves You '' , achieved the fastest sales of any record in the UK up to that time , selling three-quarters of a million copies in under four weeks . It became their first single to sell a million copies , and remained the biggest-selling record in the UK until 1978 , when `` Mull of Kintyre '' , by McCartney 's post-Beatles band Wings , surpassed it in sales . Their commercial success brought increased media exposure , to which the Beatles responded with an irreverent and comical attitude that defied the expectations of pop musicians at the time , inspiring even more interest . The band toured the UK three times in the first half of the year : a four-week tour that began in February , the Beatles 's first nationwide , preceded three-week tours in March and May–June . As their popularity spread , a frenzied adulation of the group took hold . Greeted with riotous enthusiasm by screaming fans , the press dubbed the phenomenon `` Beatlemania '' . Although not billed as tour leaders , the Beatles overshadowed American acts Tommy Roe and Chris Montez during the February engagements and assumed top billing `` by audience demand '' , something no British act had previously accomplished while touring with artists from the US . A similar situation arose during their May–June tour with Roy Orbison . In late October , the Beatles began a five-day tour of Sweden , their first time abroad since the final Hamburg engagement of December 1962 . On their return to the UK on 31 October , according to Lewisohn , `` several hundred screaming fans '' greeted them in heavy rain at Heathrow Airport . Around 50 to 100 journalists and photographers as well as representatives from the BBC also joined the airport reception , the first of more than 100 such events . The next day , the band began its fourth tour of Britain within nine months , this one scheduled for six weeks . In mid-November , as Beatlemania intensified , police resorted to using high-pressure water hoses to control the crowd before a concert in Plymouth . Please Please Me maintained the top position on the Record Retailer chart for 30 weeks , only to be displaced by its follow-up , With the Beatles . On 22 November EMI released With the Beatles to record advance orders of 270,000 copies , and the LP topped a half-million albums sold in one week . Recorded between July and October , With the Beatles made better use of studio production techniques than its predecessor . It held the top spot for 21 weeks with a chart life of 40 weeks . Erlewine described the LP as `` a sequel of the highest order – one that betters the original '' . In a reversal of then standard practice , EMI released the album ahead of the impending single `` I Want to Hold Your Hand '' , with the song excluded to maximise the single 's sales . The album caught the attention of music critic William Mann of The Times , who suggested that Lennon and McCartney were `` the outstanding English composers of 1963 '' . The newspaper published a series of articles in which Mann offered detailed analyses of the music , lending it respectability . With the Beatles became the second album in UK chart history to sell a million copies , a figure previously reached only by the 1958 South Pacific soundtrack . When writing the sleeve notes for the album , the band 's press officer , Tony Barrow , used the superlative the `` fabulous foursome '' , which the media widely adopted as `` the Fab Four '' . `` British Invasion '' EMI 's American subsidiary , Capitol Records , hindered the Beatles ' releases in the United States for more than a year by initially declining to issue their music , including their first three singles . Concurrent negotiations with the independent US label Vee-Jay led to the release of some of the songs in 1963 , but not all . Vee-Jay finished preparation for the album Introducing ... The Beatles , culled from most of the songs of Parlophone 's Please Please Me , but a management shake-up led to the album not being released . Then when it surfaced that the label did not report royalties on their sales , the licence Vee-Jay signed with EMI was voided . A new licence was granted to the Swan label for the single `` She Loves You '' , but legal issues with royalties and publishing rights proved an obstacle to the successful marketing of the group in the US . American chart success began after Epstein arranged for a $ 40,000 US marketing campaign and secured the support of disc jockey Carrol James , who first played the band 's records in mid-December 1963 . Late that same month , the Beatles were introduced in the Tidewater area of Virginia by Gene Loving of radio station WGH , accompanied by a full marketing campaign , including Beatles shirt giveaways . Within days , almost every other song played on the station was a Beatles recording . It was not until the end of first week of January 1964 that their records were played in New York City ( also accompanied by a major marketing campaign and with similar play frequency ) , and then the rest of the country , initiating their music 's spread across US radio . This caused an increase in demand , leading Capitol to rush-release `` I Want to Hold Your Hand '' later that month . Issued on 26 December 1963 , with the band 's previously scheduled debut there just weeks away , `` I Want to Hold Your Hand '' sold a million copies , becoming a number-one hit in the US by mid-January . In its wake , Vee-Jay released Introducing ... The Beatles to go along with Capitol 's debut album , Meet the Beatles ! , while Swan reactivated production of `` She Loves You '' . On 7 February 1964 , the Beatles left the United Kingdom with an estimated 4000 fans gathered at Heathrow , waving and screaming as the aircraft took off . Upon landing at New York 's John F. Kennedy Airport , an uproarious crowd estimated at 3000 greeted them . They gave their first live US television performance two days later on The Ed Sullivan Show , watched by approximately 73 million viewers in over 23 million households , or 34 per cent of the American population . Biographer Jonathan Gould writes that , according to the Nielsen rating service , it was `` the largest audience that had ever been recorded for an American television `` . The next morning , the Beatles awoke to a negative critical consensus in the US , but a day later their first US concert saw Beatlemania erupt at Washington Coliseum . Back in New York the following day , the Beatles met with another strong reception during two shows at Carnegie Hall . The band then flew to Florida and appeared on the weekly Ed Sullivan Show a second time , before another 70 million viewers , before returning to the UK on 22 February . A Hard Day 's Night Capitol Records ' lack of interest throughout 1963 had not gone unnoticed , and a competitor , United Artists Records , encouraged their film division to offer the group a three-motion-picture deal , primarily for the commercial potential of the soundtracks . Directed by Richard Lester , A Hard Day 's Night involved the band for six weeks in March–April 1964 as they played themselves in a mock-documentary . The film premiered in London and New York in July and August , respectively , and was an international success , with some critics drawing comparison with the Marx Brothers . According to Erlewine , the accompanying soundtrack album , A Hard Day 's Night , saw them `` truly coming into their own as a band . All of the disparate influences on their first two albums had coalesced into a bright , joyous , original sound , filled with ringing guitars and irresistible melodies . '' That `` ringing guitar '' sound was primarily the product of Harrison 's 12-string electric Rickenbacker , a prototype given to him by the manufacturer , which made its debut on the record . During the week of 4 April 1964 , the Beatles held twelve positions on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart , including the top five . Their popularity generated unprecedented interest in British music , and a number of other UK acts subsequently made their own American debuts , successfully touring over the next three years in what was termed the British Invasion . Their hairstyle , unusually long for the era and mocked by many adults , became an emblem of rebellion to the burgeoning youth culture . Touring internationally in June and July , the Beatles staged 37 shows over 27 days in Denmark , the Netherlands , Hong Kong , Australia and New Zealand . In August they returned to the US , with a 30-concert tour of 23 cities . Generating intense interest once again , the month-long tour attracted between 10,000 and 20,000 fans to each 30-minute performance in cities from San Francisco to New York . In August , journalist Al Aronowitz arranged for the Beatles to meet Bob Dylan . Visiting the band in their New York hotel suite , Dylan introduced them to cannabis . Gould points out the musical and cultural significance of this meeting , before which the musicians ' respective fanbases were `` perceived as inhabiting two separate subcultural worlds '' : Dylan 's audience of `` college kids with artistic or intellectual leanings , a dawning political and social idealism , and a mildly bohemian style '' contrasted with their fans , `` veritable 'teenyboppers ' – kids in high school or grade school whose lives were totally wrapped up in the commercialised popular culture of television , radio , pop records , fan magazines , and teen fashion . They were seen as idolaters , not idealists . '' Within six months of the meeting , Gould writes , `` Lennon would be making records on which he openly imitated Dylan 's nasal drone , brittle strum , and introspective vocal persona '' . Within a year , Dylan would `` proceed , with the help of a five-piece group and a Fender Stratocaster electric guitar , to shake the monkey of folk authenticity permanently off his back ... the distinctions between the folk and rock audiences would have nearly evaporated [ and the group 's ] audience ... [ was ] showing signs of growing up . '' Beatles for Sale , Help ! and Rubber Soul According to Gould , Beatles for Sale , the Beatles ' fourth studio LP , evidenced a growing conflict between the commercial pressures of their global success and their creative ambitions . They had intended the album , recorded between August and October 1964 , to continue the format established by A Hard Day 's Night which , unlike the group 's first two LPs , contained only original songs . The band had nearly exhausted their backlog of songs on the previous album , however , and given the challenges constant international touring posed to their songwriting efforts , Lennon admitted , `` Material 's becoming a hell of a problem '' . As a result , six covers from their extensive repertoire were chosen to complete the album . Released in early December , its eight original compositions stood out , demonstrating the growing maturity of the Lennon–McCartney songwriting partnership . In early 1965 , while they were his guests for dinner , Lennon and Harrison 's dentist secretly added LSD to their coffee . Lennon described the experience : `` It was just terrifying , but it was fantastic . I was pretty stunned for a month or two . '' He and Harrison subsequently became regular users of the drug , joined by Starr on at least one occasion . McCartney was initially reluctant to try it , but eventually did so in late 1966 . He became the first Beatle to discuss LSD publicly , declaring in a magazine interview that `` it opened my eyes '' and `` made me a better , more honest , more tolerant member of society '' . Controversy erupted in June 1965 when Queen Elizabeth II appointed all four Beatles Members of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) after Prime Minister Harold Wilson nominated them for the award . In protest – the honour was at that time primarily bestowed upon military veterans and civic leaders – some conservative MBE recipients returned their own insignia . Released in July , the Beatles ' second film , Help ! , was again directed by Lester . Described as `` mainly a relentless spoof of Bond '' , it inspired a mixed response among both reviewers and the band . McCartney said : `` Help ! was great but it was n't our film – we were sort of guest stars . It was fun , but basically , as an idea for a film , it was a bit wrong . '' The soundtrack was dominated by Lennon , who wrote and sang lead on most of its songs , including the two singles : `` Help ! '' and `` Ticket to Ride '' . The accompanying album , the group 's fifth studio LP , contained all original material save for two covers , `` Act Naturally '' and `` Dizzy Miss Lizzy '' ; they were the last covers the band would include on an album , with the exception of Let It Be 's brief rendition of the traditional Liverpool folk song `` Maggie Mae '' . The band expanded their use of vocal overdubs on Help ! and incorporated classical instruments into some arrangements , notably a string quartet on the pop ballad `` Yesterday '' . Composed by McCartney , `` Yesterday '' would inspire the most recorded cover versions of any song ever written . The group 's third US tour opened with a performance before a world-record crowd of 55,600 at New York 's Shea Stadium on 15 August 1965 – `` perhaps the most famous of all Beatles ' concerts '' , in Lewisohn 's description . A further nine successful concerts followed in other American cities . At a show in Atlanta , the Beatles gave one of the first live performances ever to make use of a foldback system of on-stage monitor speakers . Towards the end of the tour , they met with Elvis Presley , a foundational musical influence on the band , who invited them to his home in Beverly Hills . September saw

dpql_4700--The_Beatles.txt

Which Beatles offering was first shown on British TV on Boxing Day 1967?

The Commonwealth of Nations , or the Commonwealth ( formerly the British Commonwealth ) , is an intergovernmental organisation of 53 member states that were mostly territories of the former British Empire . The Commonwealth operates by intergovernmental consensus of the member states , organised through the Commonwealth Secretariat , and non-governmental organisations , organised through the Commonwealth Foundation . The Commonwealth dates back to the mid-20th century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories . It was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949 , which established the member states as `` free and equal '' . The symbol of this free association is Queen Elizabeth II who is the Head of the Commonwealth . The Queen is also the monarch of 16 members of the Commonwealth , known as Commonwealth realms . The other Commonwealth members have different heads of state : 32 members are republics and five are monarchies with a different monarch . Member states have no legal obligation to one another . Instead , they are united by language , history , culture and their shared values of democracy , human rights , and the rule of law . These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games . On 3 October 2013 , after 48 years of membership , The Gambia became the most recent nation to withdraw from the Commonwealth . The Commonwealth covers more than 29958050 km2 , almost a quarter of the world 's land area , and spans all six inhabited continents . With an estimated population of 2.328 billion , nearly a third of the world population , the Commonwealth in 2014 produced a nominal gross domestic product ( GDP ) of $ 10.45 trillion , representing 17 % of the gross world product when measured in purchasing power parity ( PPP ) and 14 % of the gross world product when measured nominally . History Origin Queen Elizabeth II , in her address to Canada on Dominion Day in 1959 , pointed out that the confederation of Canada on 1 July 1867 had been the birth of the `` first independent country within the British Empire '' . She declared : `` So , it also marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations . '' As long ago as 1884 , however , Lord Rosebery , while visiting Australia , had described the changing British Empire—as some of its colonies became more independent—as a `` Commonwealth of Nations '' . Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically from the first one in 1887 , leading to the creation of the Imperial Conferences in 1911 . The Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences . A specific proposal was presented by Jan Smuts in 1917 when he coined the term `` the British Commonwealth of Nations '' and envisioned the `` future constitutional relations and readjustments in essence '' at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 by delegates from the Dominions as well as Britain . The term first received imperial statutory recognition in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 , when the term British Commonwealth of Nations was substituted for British Empire in the wording of the oath taken by members of parliament of the Irish Free State . Dominions In the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference , Britain and its dominions agreed they were `` equal in status , in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs , though united by common allegiance to the Crown , and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations . '' These aspects to the relationship were formalised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931 , which applied to Canada without the need for ratification , but Australia , New Zealand , and Newfoundland had to ratify the statute for it to take effect . Newfoundland never did , as on 16 February 1934 , with the consent of its parliament , the government of Newfoundland voluntarily ended and governance reverted to direct control from London . Newfoundland later joined Canada as its 10th province in 1949 . Australia and New Zealand ratified the Statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively . Although the Union of South Africa was not among the Dominions that needed to adopt the Statute of Westminster for it to take effect , two laws—the Status of the Union Act , 1934 , and the Royal Executive Functions and Seals Act of 1934—were passed to confirm South Africa 's status as a sovereign state After World War II ended , the British Empire was gradually dismantled to the 14 British overseas territories still held by the United Kingdom . In April 1949 , following the London Declaration , the word `` British '' was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature . Burma ( also known as Myanmar , 1948 ) and Aden ( 1967 ) are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence . Former British protectorates and mandates that did not become members of the Commonwealth are Egypt ( independent in 1922 ) , Iraq ( 1932 ) , Transjordan ( 1946 ) , British Palestine ( part of which became the state of Israel in 1948 ) , Sudan ( 1956 ) , British Somaliland ( which united with the former Italian Somaliland in 1960 to form the Somali Republic ) , Kuwait ( 1961 ) , Bahrain ( 1971 ) , Oman ( 1971 ) , Qatar ( 1971 ) , and the United Arab Emirates ( 1971 ) . Republics On 18 April 1949 , Ireland formally became a republic in accordance with the Irish Republic of Ireland Act 1948 . Because it did this , it was automatically excluded from the Commonwealth . While Ireland had not actively participated in the Commonwealth since the early 1930s and was content to leave the Commonwealth , other dominions wished to become republics without losing Commonwealth ties . The issue came to a head in April 1949 at a Commonwealth prime ministers ' meeting in London . Under the London Declaration , India agreed that , when it became a republic in January 1950 , it would accept the British Sovereign as a `` symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth '' . Upon hearing this , King George VI told the Indian politician Krishna Menon : `` So , I 've become 'as such ' '' . The other Commonwealth countries recognised India 's continuing membership of the association . At Pakistan 's insistence , India was not regarded as an exceptional case and it was assumed that other states would be accorded the same treatment as India . The London Declaration is often seen as marking the beginning of the modern Commonwealth . Following India 's precedent , other nations became republics , or constitutional monarchies with their own monarchs , while some countries retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom , but their monarchies developed differently and soon became fully independent of the British monarchy . The monarch is regarded as a separate legal personality in each realm , even though the same person is monarch of each realm . New Commonwealth As the Commonwealth grew , Britain and the pre-1945 dominions became informally known as the Old Commonwealth and planners in the interwar period , like Lord Davies , who had also taken `` a prominent part in building up the League of Nations Union '' in the United Kingdom , in 1932 founded the New Commonwealth Society , of which British section Winston Churchill became the president . [ http : //www.churchillbookcollector.com/pages/books/003235/winston-s-churchill/a-message-from-the-rt-hon-winston-s-churchill-c-h-m-p-president-british-section-new-commonwealth ] This new society was aimed at the creation of an international air force to be the arm of the League of Nations , to allow nations to disarm and safeguard the peace . The term New Commonwealth has been used in Great Britain ( especially in the 1960s and 1970s ) to refer to recently decolonised countries , predominantly non-white and developing . It was often used in debates about immigration from these countries . Plan G and inviting Europe to join At a time when Germany and France , together with Belgium , Italy , Luxembourg , and the Netherlands , were planning for what later became the European Union , and newly independent African countries were joining the Commonwealth , new ideas were floated to prevent Britain from becoming isolated in economic affairs . British trade with the Commonwealth was four times larger than trade with Europe . The British government under Prime Minister Anthony Eden considered in 1956 and 1957 a `` plan G '' to create a European free trade zone while also protecting the favoured status of the Commonwealth . Britain also considered inviting Scandinavian and other European countries to join the Commonwealth so it would become a major economic common market . At one point in October 1956 Eden and French Prime Minister Guy Mollet discussed having France join the Commonwealth . Nothing came of any of the proposals . Structure Head of the Commonwealth Under the formula of the London Declaration , Queen Elizabeth II is the Head of the Commonwealth , a title that is by law a part of Elizabeth 's royal titles in each of the Commonwealth realms , the 16 members of the Commonwealth that recognise the Queen as their monarch . However , when the monarch dies , the successor to the crown does not automatically become Head of the Commonwealth . The position is symbolic , representing the free association of independent members , the majority of which ( 32 ) are republics , and five have monarchs of different royal houses ( Brunei , Lesotho , Malaysia , Swaziland , and Tonga ) . Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting The main decision-making forum of the organisation is the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting ( CHOGM ) , where Commonwealth heads of government , including ( amongst others ) prime ministers and presidents , assemble for several days to discuss matters of mutual interest . CHOGM is the successor to the Meetings of Commonwealth Prime Ministers and , earlier , the Imperial Conferences and Colonial Conferences , dating back to 1887 . There are also regular meetings of finance ministers , law ministers , health ministers , etc . Members in arrears , as special members before them , are not invited to send representatives to either ministerial meetings or CHOGMs . The head of government hosting the CHOGM is called the Commonwealth Chairperson-in-Office and retains the position until the following CHOGM . After the most recent CHOGM , in Valletta , Malta , from 26 to 29 November 2015 Malta 's prime minister , Joseph Muscat , became the Chairperson-in-Office and will continue to hold the title until the next CHOGM . Commonwealth Secretariat The Commonwealth Secretariat , established in 1965 , is the main intergovernmental agency of the Commonwealth , facilitating consultation and co-operation among member governments and countries . It is responsible to member governments collectively . The Commonwealth of Nations is represented in the United Nations General Assembly by the secretariat as an observer . The secretariat organises Commonwealth summits , meetings of ministers , consultative meetings and technical discussions ; it assists policy development and provides policy advice , and facilitates multilateral communication among the member governments . It also provides technical assistance to help governments in the social and economic development of their countries and in support of the Commonwealth 's fundamental political values . The secretariat is headed by the Commonwealth Secretary-General who is elected by Commonwealth heads of government for no more than two four-year terms . The secretary-general and two deputy secretaries-general direct the divisions of the Secretariat . The present secretary-general is Patricia Scotland , Baroness Scotland of Asthal , from Dominica , who took office on 1 April 2016 , succeeding Kamalesh Sharma of India ( 2008–2016 ) . The first secretary-general was Arnold Smith of Canada ( 1965–75 ) , followed by Sir Shridath Ramphal of Guyana ( 1975–90 ) , Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria ( 1990–99 ) , and Don McKinnon of New Zealand ( 2000-2008 ) . Commonwealth citizenship and High Commissioners In recognition of their shared heritage and culture , Commonwealth countries are not considered to be `` foreign '' to each other . The exception is Australia , where no such distinction is made – in the High Court case of Sue v Hill , other Commonwealth countries were held to be foreign powers . Similarly , in Nolan v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs , the nationals of other Commonwealth realms were held to be 'aliens ' . When engaging bilaterally with one another , Commonwealth governments exchange High Commissioners instead of ambassadors . Between two Commonwealth realms , they represent the Head of Government rather than the Head of State . In addition , some members treat resident citizens of other Commonwealth countries preferentially to citizens of non-Commonwealth countries . Britain and several others , mostly in the Caribbean , grant the right to vote to Commonwealth citizens who reside in those countries . Some states , such as Canada , Australia and New Zealand , have abolished such preferences . In non-Commonwealth countries in which their own country is not represented , Commonwealth citizens may seek consular assistance at the British embassy . Other alternatives can also occur such as an emergency consular services agreement between Canada and Australia that began in 1986 . Membership Criteria The criteria for membership of the Commonwealth of Nations have developed over time from a series of separate documents . The Statute of Westminster 1931 , as a fundamental founding document of the organisation , laid out that membership required dominionhood . The 1949 London Declaration ended this , allowing republican and indigenous monarchic members on the condition that they recognised the British monarch as the `` Head of the Commonwealth '' . In the wake of the wave of decolonisation in the 1960s , these constitutional principles were augmented by political , economic , and social principles . The first of these was set out in 1961 , when it was decided that respect for racial equality would be a requirement for membership , leading directly to the withdrawal of South Africa 's re-application ( which they were required to make under the formula of the London Declaration upon becoming a republic ) . The 14 points of the 1971 Singapore Declaration dedicated all members to the principles of world peace , liberty , human rights , equality , and free trade . These criteria were unenforceable for two decades , until , in 1991 , the Harare Declaration was issued , dedicating the leaders to applying the Singapore principles to the completion of decolonisation , the end of the Cold War , and the end of apartheid in South Africa . The mechanisms by which these principles would be applied were created , and the manner clarified , by the 1995 Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme , which created the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group ( CMAG ) , which has the power to rule on whether members meet the requirements for membership under the Harare Declaration . Also in 1995 , an Inter-Governmental Group was created to finalise and codify the full requirements for membership . Upon reporting in 1997 , as adopted under the Edinburgh Declaration , the Inter-Governmental Group ruled that any future members would have to have a direct constitutional link with an existing member . In addition to this new rule , the former rules were consolidated into a single document . These requirements are that members must accept and comply with the Harare principles , be fully sovereign states , recognise the monarch of the Commonwealth realms as the Head of the Commonwealth , accept the English language as the means of Commonwealth communication , and respect the wishes of the general population with regard to Commonwealth membership . These requirements had undergone review , and a report on potential amendments was presented by the Committee on Commonwealth Membership at the 2007 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting . New members were not admitted at this meeting , though applications for admission were considered at the 2009 CHOGM . New members must `` as a general rule '' have a direct constitutional link to an existing member . In most cases , this is due to being a former colony of the United Kingdom , but some have links to other countries , either exclusively or more directly ( e.g . Samoa to New Zealand , Papua New Guinea to Australia , and Namibia to South Africa ) . The first member to be admitted without having any constitutional link to the British Empire or a Commonwealth member was Mozambique , a former Portuguese colony , in 1995 following its first democratic elections and South Africa 's re-admission in 1994 . Mozambique 's controversial entry led to the Edinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines . In 2009 , Rwanda became the second Commonwealth member admitted not to have any such constitutional links . It was a Belgian trust territory that had been a German colony until World War I . Consideration for its admission was considered an `` exceptional circumstance '' by the Commonwealth Secretariat . Members The Commonwealth comprises 53 countries , across all six inhabited continents . The members have a combined population of 2.1 billion people , almost a third of the world population , of which 1.26 billion live in India and 94 % live in Asia and Africa combined . After India , the next-largest Commonwealth countries by population are Pakistan ( 180 million ) , Nigeria ( 170 million ) , Bangladesh ( 156 million ) , the United Kingdom ( 63 million ) and South Africa ( 52 million ) . Tuvalu is the smallest member , with about 10,000 people . The land area of the Commonwealth nations is about 31500000 km2 , or about 21 % of the total world land area . The three largest Commonwealth nations by area are Canada at 9984670 km2 , Australia at 7617930 km2 , and India at 3287263 km2 . The Commonwealth members have a combined gross domestic product of over $ 9 trillion , 78 % of which is accounted for by the four largest economies : United Kingdom ( $ 2.95 trillion ) , India ( $ 2.05 trillion ) , Canada ( $ 1.79 trillion ) , and Australia ( $ 1.44 trillion ) . The status of `` Member in Arrears '' is used to denote those that are in arrears in paying subscription dues . The status was originally known as `` special membership '' , but was renamed on the Committee on Commonwealth Membership 's recommendation . There are currently no Members in Arrears . The most recent Member in Arrears , Nauru , returned to full membership in June 2011 . Nauru has alternated between special and full membership since joining the Commonwealth , depending on its financial situation . Applicants In 1997 the Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that , to become a member of the Commonwealth , an applicant country should , as a rule , have had a constitutional association with an existing Commonwealth member ; that it should comply with Commonwealth values , principles and priorities as set out in the Harare Declaration ; and that it should accept Commonwealth norms and conventions . South Sudan is currently ( 2013 ) the only country specifically expressing an interest in joining the Commonwealth . A senior Commonwealth source argued in 2006 that `` many people have assumed an interest from Israel , but there has been no formal approach '' . The State of Palestine is also a potential candidate for membership . Other eligible applicants could be any of the remaining inhabited British overseas territories , Crown dependencies , Australian external territories and Associated States of New Zealand if they become fully independent . Many such jurisdictions are already directly represented within the Commonwealth , particularly through the Commonwealth Family . There are also former British possessions that have not become independent , for example , Hong Kong , which still participates in some of the institutions within the Commonwealth Family . All three Crown dependencies regard the existing situation as unsatisfactory and have lobbied for change . The States of Jersey have called on the UK Foreign Secretary to request that the Commonwealth Heads of Government `` consider granting associate membership to Jersey and the other Crown Dependencies as well as any other territories at a similarly advanced stage of autonomy '' . Jersey has proposed that it be accorded `` self-representation in all Commonwealth meetings ; full participation in debates and procedures , with a right to speak where relevant and the opportunity to enter into discussions with those who are full members ; and no right to vote in the Ministerial or Heads of Government meetings , which is reserved for full members '' . The States of Guernsey and the Government of the Isle of Man have made calls of a similar nature for a more integrated relationship with the Commonwealth , including more direct representation and enhanced participation in Commonwealth organisations and meetings , including Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings . The Chief Minister of the Isle of Man has said : `` A closer connection with the Commonwealth itself would be a welcome further development of the Island 's international relationships '' At the time of the Suez Crisis in 1956 , in the face of colonial unrest and international tensions , French Premier Guy Mollet proposed to British Prime Minister Anthony Eden that their two countries be joined in a `` union '' . When that proposal was turned down , Mollet suggested that France joined the Commonwealth , possibly with `` a common citizenship arrangement on the Irish basis . '' Talks regarding a form of union faded away with the end of the Suez crisis . No records of those confidential talks appear to exist in French archives and it is likely that the project was the brainchild of Mollet , an anglophile . Suspension In recent years , the Commonwealth has suspended several members `` from the Councils of the Commonwealth '' for `` serious or persistent violations '' of the Harare Declaration , particularly in abrogating their responsibility to have democratic government . This is done by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group ( CMAG ) , which meets regularly to address potential breaches of the Harare Declaration . Suspended members are not represented at meetings of Commonwealth leaders and ministers , although they remain members of the organisation . Currently , there are no suspended members . Nigeria was suspended between 11 November 1995 and 29 May 1999 , following its execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa on the eve of the 1995 CHOGM . Pakistan was the second country to be suspended , on 18 October 1999 , following the military coup by Pervez Musharraf . The Commonwealth 's longest suspension came to an end on 22 May 2004 , when Pakistan 's suspension was lifted following the restoration of the country 's constitution . Pakistan was suspended for a second time , far more briefly , for six months from 22 November 2007 , when Musharraf called a state of emergency . Zimbabwe was suspended in 2002 over concerns regarding the electoral and land reform policies of Robert Mugabe 's ZANU-PF government , before it withdrew from the organisation in 2003 . The declaration of a Republic in Fiji in 1987 , after military coups designed to deny Indo-Fijians political power , was not accompanied by an application to remain . Commonwealth membership was held to have lapsed until 1997 , after discriminatory provisions in the republican constitution were repealed and reapplication for membership made . Fiji has since been suspended twice , with the first imposed from 6 June 2000 to 20 December 2001 after another coup . Fiji was suspended yet again in December 2006 , following the most recent coup . At first , the suspension applied only to membership on the Councils of the Commonwealth . After failing to meet a Commonwealth deadline for setting a date for national elections by 2010 , Fiji was `` fully suspended '' on 1 September 2009 . The Secretary-General of the Commonwealth , Kamalesh Sharma , confirmed that full suspension meant that Fiji would be excluded from Commonwealth meetings , sporting events and the technical assistance programme ( with an exception for assistance in re-establishing democracy ) . Sharma stated that Fiji would remain a member of the Commonwealth during its suspension , but would be excluded from emblematic representation by the secretariat . On 19 March 2014 Fiji ’ s full suspension was amended to a suspension from councils of the Commonwealth by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group , permitting Fiji to join a number of Commonwealth activities , including the Commonwealth Games . Fiji 's suspension was lifted in September 2014 . The Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group fully reinstated Fiji as a member following elections in September 2014 . Most recently , international pressure has been mounting to suspend Sri Lanka from the Commonwealth , citing grave human rights violations by the host country . There were also calls to change the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2013 from Sri Lanka to another member country . Canadian prime minister Stephen Harper threatened to boycott the event , but was instead represented at the meeting by Deepak Obhrai . The UK Foreign Affairs Committee called upon Prime Minister David Cameron to boycott the event , however , he chose to attend . Termination As membership is purely voluntary , member governments can choose at any time to leave the Commonwealth . Pakistan left on 30 January 1972 in protest at the Commonwealth 's recognition of breakaway Bangladesh , but rejoined on 2 August 1989 . Zimbabwe 's membership was suspended in 2002 on the grounds of alleged human rights violations and deliberate misgovernment , and Zimbabwe 's government terminated its membership in 2003 . The Gambia left the Commonwealth on 3 October 2013 . Although heads of government have the power to suspend member states from active participation , the Commonwealth has no provision for the expulsion of members . Until 2007 , Commonwealth realms that became republics automatically ceased to be members , until ( like India in 1950 ) they obtained the permission of other members to remain in the organisation . This policy has been changed , so if any current Commonwealth realms were to become republics , they would not have to go through this process . Ireland had withdrawn its participation in the Commonwealth in the 1930s , attending its last Commonwealth governmental heads ' meeting in 1932 . However it continued to be regarded by the Commonwealth as a Commonwealth member until it declared itself a republic , on 18 April 1949 . It is the only country whose membership terminated without any declaration withdrawing from the organisation . Instead , it was ( with its own tacit support ) excluded from the organisation under the rules then applicable . South Africa was barred from continuing as a member after it became a republic in 1961 , due to hostility from many members , particularly those in Africa and Asia as well as Canada , to its policy of racial apartheid . The South African government withdrew its application to remain in the organisation as a republic when it became clear at the 1961 Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Conference that any such application would be rejected . South Africa was re-admitted to the Commonwealth in 1994 , following its first multiracial elections that year . The transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong in 1997 ended the colony 's ties to the Commonwealth through the United Kingdom . The government of Hong Kong , as a special administrative region of China , did not pursue membership . Hong Kong has nevertheless continued to participate in some of the organisations of the Commonwealth family , such as the Commonwealth Lawyers Association , the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association , the Association of Commonwealth Universities and the Commonwealth Association of Legislative Counsel . Politics Objectives and activities The Commonwealth 's objectives were first outlined in the 1971 Singapore Declaration , which committed the Commonwealth to the institution of world peace ; promotion of representative democracy and individual liberty ; the pursuit of equality and opposition to racism ; the fight against poverty , ignorance , and disease ; and free trade . To these were added opposition to discrimination on

dpql_6278--Commonwealth_of_Nations.txt

In which Commonwealth country are the Southern Alps?

Prague ( ; , , ) is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic . It is the 14th largest city in the European Union . It is also the historical capital of Bohemia . Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava River , the city is home to about 1.26 million people , while its larger urban zone is estimated to have a population of nearly 2 million . The city has a temperate climate , with warm summers and chilly winters . Prague has the lowest unemployment rate in the European Union . Prague has been a political , cultural , and economic centre of central Europe with waxing and waning fortunes during its 1,100-year existence . Founded during the Romanesque and flourishing by the Gothic , Renaissance and Baroque eras , Prague was not only the capital of the Czech state , but also the seat of two Holy Roman Emperors and thus also the capital of the Holy Roman Empire . It was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire and after World War I became the capital of Czechoslovakia . The city played major roles in the Bohemian and Protestant Reformation , the Thirty Years ' War , and in 20th-century history , during both World Wars and the post-war Communist era . Prague is home to a number of famous cultural attractions , many of which survived the violence and destruction of 20th-century Europe . Main attractions include the Prague Castle , the Charles Bridge , Old Town Square with the Prague astronomical clock , the Jewish Quarter , Petřín hill and Vyšehrad . Since 1992 , the extensive historic centre of Prague has been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites . The city boasts more than ten major museums , along with numerous theatres , galleries , cinemas , and other historical exhibits . An extensive modern public transportation system connects the city . Also , it is home to a wide range of public and private schools , including Charles University in Prague , the oldest university in Central Europe . Prague is classified as an `` Alpha- '' global city according to GaWC studies , comparable to Vienna , Seoul and Washington , D.C. Prague ranked sixth in the Tripadvisor world list of best destinations in 2016 . Its rich history makes it a popular tourist destination , and the city receives more than 6.4 million international visitors annually , . Prague is the fifth most visited European city after London , Paris , Istanbul and Rome . Prague 's low cost of living makes it a popular destination for expats relocating to Europe . History During the thousand years of its existence , the city grew from a settlement stretching from Prague Castle in the north to the fort of Vyšehrad in the south , becoming the multicultural capital of a modern European state , the Czech Republic , a member state of the European Union . Early history The area on which Prague was founded was settled as early as the Paleolithic age . According to the Jewish historian and chronicler David Solomon Ganz ( 1541–1613 ) , author of a book published in Hebrew , entitled Tzemach Dovid , the city was founded by an ancient king , Boyya ( Boiia ) , in c. 1306 BC.Tzemach Dovid , David Solomon Ganz , Warsaw , 1878 , p. 71 ( [ http : //www.hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx ? req 21930 & st & pgnum 72 & hilitep . 72 ] in pdf ) . The dates are brought down in Anno Mundi , the year [ 2 ] 455 anno mundi being in the abbreviated form , without the millennium : e.g . תנה 455 of the 3rd millennium ( Hebrew ) . In the words of Ganz ( Translated from the Hebrew ) : `` [ 2 ] 455 . Boiia reigned over Ashkenaz during the days of king Ashketāris , around the year [ 2 ] 455 [ anno mundi ] , and was a strong and valiant king , and a man of war , and he conquered and built a good and large land , calling it after his own name , Bayern ( Bavaria ) . He also built a large city on the Inn river , and called it Boioduron . It is the city whose name was changed afterwards to Passau , unto this very day . King Boiia also conquered that fat and broad land , and called it Boihaem ( Bohemia ) , after his own name , to this very day . Also in the very midst of the country Boihaem he built a large city and called it after his name , Boiinhaem , which is the city whose name was afterwards changed to Prague . Thus did write Spangenberg , etc . '' He gave his name to the city that lay around the place where Prague now stands , calling it Boiinhaem . The historical territory of Bohemia ( Latin : Boihaemum ) , located within the western portion of the Czech Republic , and the neighboring Bavaria ( Bayern ) also took their names from this ancient king , Boyya ( Boiia ) . Around 200 BC the Celts ( Boii ) established an oppidum ( settlement ) in the south of present Prague , now called Závist . By the end of the 1st century BC , the population in Bohemia was composed mostly of the Germanic tribes ( Marcomanni , Quadi , Lombards and possibly the Suebi ) . During the reign of Augustus Caesar ( 27 BC – 14 AD ) , the city 's name was Maroboden , after a ruler at that time whose name was Maroboduus , who was a contemporary of Augustus.Tzemach Dovid , David Solomon Ganz , Warsaw , 1878 , p. 85 ( [ http : //www.hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx ? req 21930 & st & pgnum 86 & hilite= p. 86 ] in pdf ) . According to David Solomon Ganz , the king who gave the city its new name , Maroboden , was a contemporary of Augustus Caesar . ( Hebrew ) . Around the area where modern-day Prague stands , the map of Ptolemaios ( 2nd century ) mentioned a Germanic city called Casurgis . In the late 5th century AD , during the great migration period following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire , the Germanic tribes moved westwards and , in the 6th century , the Slavic tribes settled Central Europe . By the 9th century , the city was called Praha ( Prague ) , by which name it is still called today . According to legends , Prague was founded in the 8th century by the Czech duchess and prophetess Libuše and her husband , Přemysl , founder of the Přemyslid dynasty . Legend says that Libuše came out on a rocky cliff high above the Vltava and prophesied : `` I see a great city whose glory will touch the stars . '' On the site she ordered to build a castle and a town called Prague . By the year 800 there was a simple fort fortified with wooden buildings , occupying about two-thirds of the area that is now Prague Castle . The first masonry under Prague Castle dates from the year 885 . The other Prague fort , the Přemyslid fort Vyšehrad was founded in the 10th century , some 70 years later than Prague Castle . Prague Castle is dominated by the cathedral , which was founded in 1344 , but completed in the 20th century . The region became the seat of the dukes , and later kings of Bohemia . Under Roman Emperor Otto II the area became a bishopric in 973 . Until Prague was elevated to archbishopric in 1344 , it was under the jurisdiction of the Archbishopric of Mainz . Prague was an important seat for trading where merchants from all of Europe settled , including many Jews , as recalled in 965 by the Hispano-Jewish merchant and traveller Ibrahim ibn Ya'qub . The Old New Synagogue of 1270 still stands . Prague contained an important slave market . At the site of the ford in the Vltava river , King Vladislaus I had the first bridge built in 1170 , the Judith Bridge ( Juditin most ) , named in honour of his wife Judith of Thuringia . This bridge was destroyed by a flood in 1342 . Some of the original foundation stones of that bridge remain . In 1257 , under King Ottokar II , Malá Strana ( `` Lesser Quarter '' ) was founded in Prague on the site of an older village in what would become the Hradčany ( Prague Castle ) area . This was the district of the German people , who had the right to administer the law autonomously , pursuant to Magdeburg rights . The new district was on the bank opposite of the Staré Město ( `` Old Town '' ) , which had borough status and was bordered by a line of walls and fortifications . The era of Charles IV Prague flourished during the 14th-century reign ( 1346–1378 ) of Charles IV , Holy Roman Emperor and the king of Bohemia of the new Luxembourg dynasty . As King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor , he transformed Prague into an imperial capital and it was at that time the third-largest city in Europe ( after Rome and Constantinople ) . He ordered the building of the New Town ( Nové Město ) adjacent to the Old Town and laid out the design himself . The Charles Bridge , replacing the Judith Bridge destroyed in the flood just prior to his reign , was erected to connect the east bank districts to the Malá Strana and castle area . On 9 July 1357 at 5:31 am , Charles IV personally laid the first foundation stone for the Charles Bridge . The exact time of laying the first foundation stone is known because the palindromic number 135797531 was carved into the Old Town bridge tower having been chosen by the royal astrologists and numerologists as the best time for starting the bridge construction . In 1347 , he founded Charles University , which remains the oldest university in Central Europe . He began construction of the Gothic Saint Vitus Cathedral , within the largest of the Prague Castle courtyards , on the site of the Romanesque rotunda there . Prague was elevated to an archbishopric in 1344 , the year the cathedral was begun . The city had a mint and was a centre of trade for German and Italian bankers and merchants . The social order , however , became more turbulent due to the rising power of the craftsmen 's guilds ( themselves often torn by internal fights ) , and the increasing number of poor people . The Hunger Wall , a substantial fortification wall south of Malá Strana and the Castle area , was built during a famine in the 1360s . The work is reputed to have been ordered by Charles IV as a means of providing employment and food to the workers and their families . Charles IV died in 1378 . During the reign of his son , King Wenceslaus IV ( 1378–1419 ) , a period of intense turmoil ensued . During Easter 1389 , members of the Prague clergy announced that Jews had desecrated the host ( Eucharistic wafer ) and the clergy encouraged mobs to pillage , ransack and burn the Jewish quarter . Nearly the entire Jewish population of Prague ( 3,000 people ) perished . Jan Hus , a theologian and rector at the Charles University , preached in Prague . In 1402 , he began giving sermons in the Bethlehem Chapel . Inspired by John Wycliffe , these sermons focused on what were seen as radical reforms of a corrupt Church . Having become too dangerous for the political and religious establishment , Hus was summoned to the Council of Constance , put on trial for heresy , and burned at the stake in Constanz in 1415 . Four years later Prague experienced its first defenestration , when the people rebelled under the command of the Prague priest Jan Želivský . Hus ' death , coupled with Czech proto-nationalism and proto-Protestantism , had spurred the Hussite Wars . Peasant rebels , led by the general Jan Žižka , along with Hussite troops from Prague , defeated Emperor Sigismund , in the Battle of Vítkov Hill in 1420 . During the Hussite Wars when the City of Prague was attacked by `` Crusader '' and mercenary forces , the city militia fought bravely under the Prague Banner . This swallow-tailed banner is approximately 4 by , with a red field sprinkled with small white fleurs-de-lis , and a silver old Town Coat-of-Arms in the centre . The words `` PÁN BŮH POMOC NAŠE '' ( The Lord is our Relief ) appeared above the coat-of-arms , with a Hussite chalice centred on the top . Near the swallow-tails is a crescent shaped golden sun with rays protruding . One of these banners was captured by Swedish troops in Battle of Prague ( 1648 ) , when they captured the western bank of the Vltava river and were repulsed from the eastern bank , they placed it in the Royal Military Museum in Stockholm ; although this flag still exists , it is in very poor condition . They also took the Codex Gigas and the Codex Argenteus . The earliest evidence indicates that a gonfalon with a municipal charge painted on it was used for Old Town as early as 1419 . Since this city militia flag was in use before 1477 and during the Hussite Wars , it is the oldest still preserved municipal flag of Bohemia . In the following two centuries , Prague strengthened its role as a merchant city . Many noteworthy Gothic buildings were erected and Vladislav Hall of the Prague Castle was added . Habsburg era In 1526 , the Bohemian estates elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg . The fervent Catholicism of its members was to bring them into conflict in Bohemia , and then in Prague , where Protestant ideas were gaining popularity . These problems were not pre-eminent under Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II , elected King of Bohemia in 1576 , who chose Prague as his home . He lived in the Prague Castle , where his court welcomed not only astrologers and magicians but also scientists , musicians , and artists . Rudolf was an art lover too , and Prague became the capital of European culture . This was a prosperous period for the city : famous people living there in that age include the astronomers Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler , the painter Arcimboldo , the alchemists Edward Kelley and John Dee , the poet Elizabeth Jane Weston , and others . In 1618 , the famous second defenestration of Prague provoked the Thirty Years ' War , a particularly harsh period for Prague and Bohemia . Ferdinand II of Habsburg was deposed , and his place as King of Bohemia taken by Frederick V , Elector Palatine ; however his army was crushed in the Battle of White Mountain ( 1620 ) not far from the city . Following this in 1621 was an execution of 27 Czech leaders ( involved in the uprising ) in Old Town Square and the exiling of many others . The city suffered subsequently during the war under Saxon ( 1631 ) and Battle of Prague ( 1648 ) . Prague began a steady decline which reduced the population from the 60,000 it had had in the years before the war to 20,000 . In the second half of the 17th century Prague 's population began to grow again . Jews have been in Prague since the end of the 10th century and , by 1708 , they accounted for about a quarter of Prague 's population . In 1689 , a great fire devastated Prague , but this spurred a renovation and a rebuilding of the city . In 1713–14 , a major outbreak of plague hit Prague one last time , killing 12,000 to 13,000 people . The economic rise continued through the 18th century , and the city in 1771 had 80,000 inhabitants . Many of these were rich merchants and nobles who enriched the city with a host of palaces , churches and gardens full of art and music , creating a Baroque style renowned throughout the world . After the Battle of Prague in 1757 Prussian bombardment destroyed more than one quarter of the city and heavily damaged St. Vitus Cathedral . However next month after the Battle of Kolín , Frederick II . lost and had to retreat from Bohemia . In 1784 , under Joseph II , the four municipalities of Malá Strana , Nové Město , Staré Město , and Hradčany were merged into a single entity . The Jewish district , called Josefov , was included only in 1850 . The Industrial Revolution had a strong effect in Prague , as factories could take advantage of the coal mines and ironworks of the nearby region . A first suburb , Karlín , was created in 1817 , and twenty years later the population exceeded 100,000 . The revolutions in Europe in 1848 also touched Prague , but they were fiercely suppressed . In the following years the Czech National Revival began its rise , until it gained the majority in the town council in 1861 . Prague had a German-speaking majority in 1848 , but by 1880 the number of German speakers had decreased to 14 % ( 42,000 ) , and by 1910 to 6.7 % ( 37,000 ) , due to a massive increase of the city 's overall population caused by the influx of Czechs from the rest of Bohemia and Moravia and also due to return of social status importance of the Czech language . 20th century First Czechoslovak Republic World War I ended with the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the creation of Czechoslovakia . Prague was chosen as its capital and Prague Castle as the seat of president Tomáš Masaryk . At this time Prague was a true European capital with highly developed industry . By 1930 , the population had risen to 850,000 . Second World War Hitler ordered the German Army to enter Prague on 15 March 1939 and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate . For most of its history Prague had been a multi-ethnic city with important Czech , German and ( mostly Czech- and/or German-speaking ) Jewish populations . From 1939 , when the country was occupied by Nazi Germany , and during the Second World War , most Jews were deported and killed by the Germans . In 1942 , Prague was witness to the assassination of one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany – Reinhard Heydrich – during Operation Anthropoid , accomplished by Czechoslovak national heroes Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš . Hitler ordered bloody reprisals . At the end of the war Prague suffered several bombing raids by the US Army Air Forces . 701 people were killed , over 1,000 people were injured and some of buildings , factories and historical landmarks were destroyed ( Emmaus Monastery , Faust House , Vinohrady Synagogue ) . Many historic structures in Prague , however , escaped the destruction of the war and the damage was small compared to the total destruction of many other cities in that time . According to American pilots , it was the result of a navigational mistake . On 5 May 1945 , two days before Germany capitulated , an uprising against Germany occurred . Four days later the 3rd Shock Army of the Red Army liberated the city . The majority ( about 50,000 people ) of the German population of Prague either fled or were expelled by the Beneš decrees in the aftermath of the war . Cold War Prague was a city in the territory of military and political control of the Soviet Union ( see Iron Curtain ) . The biggest Stalin Monument was unveiled on Letná hill in 1955 and destroyed in 1962 . The 4th Czechoslovakian Writers ' Congress held in the city in June 1967 took a strong position against the regime . On 31 October 1967 students demonstrated at Strahov . This spurred the new secretary of the Communist Party , Alexander Dubček , to proclaim a new deal in his city 's and country 's life , starting the short-lived season of the `` socialism with a human face '' . It was the `` Prague Spring '' , which aimed at the renovation of institutions in a democratic way . The other Warsaw Pact member countries , except Romania and Albania , reacted with the invasion of Czechoslovakia and the capital on 21 August 1968 by tanks , suppressing any attempt at reform . Jan Palach and Jan Zajíc committed suicide by self-immolation in January and February 1969 to protest against the `` normalization '' of the country . Era after the Velvet Revolution In 1989 , after the riot police beat back a peaceful student demonstration , the Velvet Revolution crowded the streets of Prague , and the Czechoslovak capital benefited greatly from the new mood . In 1993 , after the split of Czechoslovakia , Prague became the capital city of the new Czech Republic . From 1995 highrise buildings began to be built in Prague in large quantities . In the late 1990s Prague again became an important cultural centre of Europe and was notably influenced by globalisation . In 2000 , IMF and World Bank summits took place in Prague . In 2002 Prague suffered from widespread floods that damaged buildings and its underground transport system . Prague launched a bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics , but failed to make the candidate city shortlist . In June 2009 , as the result of financial pressures due to the global recession , Prague 's officials also chose to cancel the city 's planned bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics . Etymology and other names The Czech name Praha is derived from an old Slavic word , práh , which means `` ford '' or `` rapid '' , referring to the city 's origin at a crossing point of the Vltava river . The same etymology is associated with the Praga district of Warsaw . Another view to the origin of name is also related to the Czech word práh ( in the mean of a threshold ) and a legendary etymology connects the name of the city with princess Libuše , prophetess and a wife of mythical founder of the Přemyslid dynasty . She is said to have ordered the city `` to be built where a man hews a threshold of his house '' . The Czech práh might thus be understood to refer to rapids or fords in the river , the edge of which could have acted as a means of fording the river – thus providing a `` threshold '' to the castle . Another derivation of the name Praha is suggested from na prazě , the original term for the shale hillside rock upon which the original castle was built . At that time , the castle was surrounded by forests , covering the nine hills of the future city – the Old Town on the opposite side of the river , as well as the Lesser Town beneath the existing castle , appeared only later . The English spelling of the city 's name is borrowed from French . Prague is also called the `` City of a Hundred Spires '' , based on a count by 19th century mathematician Bernard Bolzano , today 's count is estimated by Prague Information Service at 500 . Nicknames for Prague have also included : the Golden City , the Mother of Cities and the Heart of Europe . Main sights Since the fall of the Iron Curtain , Prague has become one of the world 's most popular tourist destinations . Prague suffered considerably less damage during World War II than some other major cities in the region , allowing most of its historic architecture to stay true to form . It contains one of the world 's most pristine and varied collections of architecture , from Romanesque , to Gothic , Renaissance , Baroque , Rococo , Neo-Renaissance , Neo-Gothic , Art Nouveau , Cubist , Neo-Classical and ultra-modern . Some popular sights include : Hradčany and Lesser Town ( Malá Strana ) * Prague Castle with the St. Vitus Cathedral which store the Czech Crown Jewels * The picturesque Charles Bridge ( Karlův most ) * The Baroque Saint Nicholas Church * Church of Our Lady Victorious and Infant Jesus of Prague * Písek Gate , one of the last preserved city gate of Baroque fortification * Petřín Hill with Petřín Lookout Tower , Mirror Maze and Petřín funicular * Lennon Wall * The Franz Kafka Museum * Kampa Island , an island with a view of the Charles Bridge Old Town ( Staré Město ) and Josefov * The Astronomical Clock ( Orloj ) on Old Town City Hall * The Gothic Church of Our Lady before Týn ( Kostel Matky Boží před Týnem ) from the 14th century with 80 m high towers * The vaulted Gothic Old New Synagogue ( Staronová Synagoga ) of 1270 * Old Jewish Cemetery * Powder Tower ( Prašná brána ) , a Gothic tower of the old city gates * Spanish Synagogue with its beautiful interior * Old Town Square ( Staroměstské náměstí ) with gothic and baroque architectural styles * The art nouveau Municipal House , a major civic landmark and concert hall known for its Art Nouveau architectural style and political history in the Czech Republic . * Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague , with an extensive collections including glass , furniture , textile , toys , Art Nouveau , Cubism and Art Deco * Clam-Gallas Palace , a baroque palace from 1713 New Town ( Nové Město ) * Busy and historic Wenceslas Square * The neo-renaissance National Museum with large scientific and historical collections * The National Theatre , a neo-Renaissance building with golden roof , alongside the banks of the Vltava River * The deconstructivist Dancing House ( Fred and Ginger Building ) * Charles Square , the largest medieval square in Europe ( now turned into a park ) * The Emmaus monastery and WW Memorial `` Prague to Its Victorious Sons '' at Palacky Square ( Palackého náměstí ) * The museum of the Heydrich assassination in the crypt of the Church of Saints Cyril and Methodius * Stiassny 's Jubilee Synagogue is the largest in Prague * The Mucha Museum , showcasing the Art Nouveau works of Alphonse Mucha Vinohrady and Žižkov * Jan Žižka large bronze equestrian statue in Vítkov Park , Žižkov – Prague 3 * The neo-Gothic Church of St. Ludmila at Náměstí Míru ( Peace Square ) in Vinohrady * Žižkov Television Tower with sculptures of crawling babies * New Jewish Cemetery in Olšany , location of Franz Kafka 's grave – Prague 3 * The Roman Catholic Sacred Heart Church at George of Poděbrady Square ( Jiřího z Poděbrad ) * The early-20th-century grand Art Nouveau apartment buildings in the area between Náměstí Míru ( Peace Square ) in Vinohrady and Riegrovy Sady Other places * Vyšehrad Castle with Basilica of St Peter and St Paul , Vyšehrad cemetery and Prague oldest Rotunda of St. Martin * The Prague Metronome at Letná Park , a giant , functional metronome that looms over the city * Prague Zoo in Troja , selected as one of the world 's best zoos by Forbes magazine * Industrial Palace ( Průmyslový palác ) , Křižík 's Light fountain , funfair Lunapark and Sea World Aquarium in Výstaviště compound in Holešovice * Letohrádek Hvězda ( Star Villa ) in Liboc , a renaissance villa in the shape of a six-pointed star surrounded by a game reserve * National Gallery in Prague with large collection of Czech and international paintings and sculptures by artists such as Mucha , Kupka , Picasso , Monet or Van Gogh * Anděl , a busy part of the city with modern architecture and a shopping

odql_10056--Prague.txt

Which capital city is known as Praha by its inhabitants?

Herman Cyril McNeile , MC ( 28 September 1888 – 14 August 1937 ) , commonly known as Cyril McNeile and publishing under the name H. C. McNeile or the pseudonym Sapper , was a British soldier and author . Drawing on his experiences in the trenches during the First World War , he started writing short stories and getting them published in the Daily Mail . As serving officers in the British Army were not permitted to publish under their own names , he was given the pen name `` Sapper '' by Lord Northcliffe , the owner of the Daily Mail ; the nickname was based on that of his corps , the Royal Engineers . After the war McNeile left the army and continued writing , although he changed from war stories to thrillers . In 1920 he published Bulldog Drummond , whose eponymous hero became his best-known creation . The character was based on McNeile himself , on his friend Gerard Fairlie and on English gentlemen generally . McNeile wrote ten Bulldog Drummond novels , as well as three plays and a screenplay . McNeile interspersed his Drummond work with other novels and story collections that included two characters who appeared as protagonists in their own works , Jim Maitland and Ronald Standish . He was one of the most successful British popular authors of the inter-war period before his death in 1937 from throat cancer , which has been attributed to damage sustained from a gas attack in the war . McNeile 's stories are either directly about the war , or contain people whose lives have been shaped by it . His thrillers are a continuation of his war stories , with upper class Englishmen defending England from foreigners plotting against it . Although he was seen at the time as `` simply an upstanding Tory who spoke for many of his countrymen '' , after the Second World War his work was criticised as having fascist overtones , while also displaying the xenophobia and anti-semitism apparent in some other writers of the period . Biography Early life McNeile was born in Bodmin , Cornwall . He was the son of Malcolm McNeile , a captain in the Royal Navy who at the time was governor of the naval prison at Bodmin , and Christiana Mary ( née Sloggett ) . The McNeile family had ancestral roots from both Belfast and Scotland , and counted a general in the British Indian Army among their members . McNeile did not like either of his given names but preferred to be called Cyril , although he was always known by his friends as Mac . After attending a prep school in Eastbourne , he was further educated at Cheltenham College . On leaving the college , he joined the Royal Military Academy , Woolwich , from which he was commissioned into the Royal Engineers as a second lieutenant in July 1907 . He underwent further training at the Royal School of Military Engineering before a short posting to Aldershot Garrison . He received promotion to lieutenant in June 1910 and was posted to Canterbury , serving three years with the 3rd Field Troop , until January 1914 , when he was posted to Malta . In 1914 McNeile was promoted to the rank of captain . He was still in Malta when the war broke out and was ordered to France in October 1914 ; he travelled via England and married Violet Evelyn Baird on 31 October 1914 . Baird was the daughter of Lieutenant-Colonel Arthur Baird Douglas of the Cameron Highlanders . First World War service On 2 November 1914 McNeile travelled to France as part of the British Expeditionary Force . Few details are known about McNeile 's wartime service , as his records were destroyed by incendiary bombs during the Second World War . He spent time with a number of Royal Engineer units on the Western Front , including 1st Field Squadron RE , 15th Field Company RE and RE elements of the 33rd Division . McNeile 's first known published story , Reminiscences of Sergeant Michael Cassidy , was serialised on page four of the Daily Mail from 13 January 1915 . As serving officers in the British Army were not permitted to publish under their own names except during their half-pay sabbaticals , many would write under a pseudonym ; Lord Northcliffe , the owner of the Daily Mail , gave McNeile the pen name `` Sapper '' , as the Royal Engineers were commonly known as the Sappers . McNeile later confided that he had started writing through `` sheer boredom '' . Some of his stories appeared on page four of the Daily Mail over the following months . Northcliffe was impressed by his writing and attempted , but failed , to have him released from the army to work as a war correspondent . By the end of 1915 , he had written two collections of short stories , The Lieutenant and Others and Sergeant Michael Cassidy , R.E. , both of which were published by Hodder & Stoughton . Although many of the stories had already appeared in the Daily Mail , between 1916 and 1918 Sergeant Michael Cassidy , R.E . sold 135,000 copies and The Lieutenant and Others sold 139,000 copies . By the end of the war he had published three more collections , Men , Women , and Guns ( 1916 ) , No Man 's Land ( 1917 ) and The Human Touch ( 1918 ) . In 1916 he wrote a series of articles titled The Making of an Officer , which appeared under the initials C. N. , in five issues of The Times between 8 and 14 June 1916 . The articles were aimed at young and new officers to explain their duties to them ; these were collected together and published by Hodder & Stoughton later in 1916 . During his time with the Royal Engineers , McNeile saw action at the First and Second Battles of Ypres—he was gassed at the second battle—and the Battle of the Somme . In 1916 he was awarded the Military Cross and was mentioned in dispatches ; in November that year he was gazetted to acting major . From 1 April to 5 October 1918 , he commanded a battalion of the Middlesex Regiment and was promoted to acting lieutenant-colonel ; the scholar Lawrence Treadwell observes that `` for an engineer to command an infantry regiment was ... a rarity '' . 18th Battalion , Middlesex Regiment under McNeile saw action for the remainder of his command , and were involved in fighting during the Hundred Days Offensive in the St. Quentin-Cambrai sector in September 1918 ; during the year , he was again mentioned in dispatches . On 2 October 1918 he broke his ankle and was briefly hospitalised , which forced him to relinquish his command of the regiment on 4 October . He was on convalescent leave when the war ended in November 1918 . During the course of the war , he had spent a total of 32 months in France , and had probably been gassed more than once . His literary output from 1915 to 1918 accounted for more than 80 collected and uncollected stories . His brother—also in the Royal Engineers—had been killed earlier in the war . Post-war years McNeile had a quiet life after the war ; his biographer Jonathon Green notes that `` as in the novels of fellow best-selling writers such as P. G. Wodehouse or Agatha Christie , it is the hero who lives the exciting life '' . Although he was an `` unremittingly hearty man '' , he suffered from delicate health following the war . He had a loud voice and a louder laugh , and `` liked to enliven clubs and restaurants with the sight and sound of military good fellowship '' ; his friend and collaborator Gerard Fairlie described him as `` not everybody 's cup of tea '' , and commented that `` he was loud in every possible way—in his voice , in his laugh , in his clothes , in the unconscious swagger with which he always motivated himself , in his whole approach to life '' . McNeile and his wife had two sons . On 13 June 1919 McNeile retired onto the reserve officer list and was confirmed in the rank of major . The same year he also published a short-story collection , Mufti , in which he introduced a type of character as `` the Breed '' , a class of Englishman who was patriotic , loyal and `` physically and morally intrepid '' . Although well received by the critics , the book failed commercially and , by the end of 1922 , had only sold 16,700 copies from its first print run of 20,000 ; the unsold copies were pulped and the novel went out of print later that year . In 1920 McNeile published Bull-Dog Drummond , whose eponymous hero—a member of `` the Breed '' —became his most famous creation . He had first written Drummond as a detective for a short story in The Strand Magazine , but the character was not successful and was changed for the novel , which was a thriller . Captain Hugh `` Bulldog '' Drummond DSO , MC was described in the novel 's sub-title as `` a demobilised officer who found peace dull '' after service during the First World War with the fictional Loamshire Regiment . Drummond went on to appear in ten full-length novels by McNeile and a further seven by his friend Gerard Fairlie . The character was an amalgam of Fairlie , himself , and his idea of an English gentleman . Drummond also had roots in the literary characters Sherlock Holmes , Sexton Blake , Richard Hannay and The Scarlet Pimpernel . Drummond was characterised as large , very strong , physically unattractive and an `` apparently brainless hunk of a man '' , who was also a gentleman with a private income ; he could also be construed as `` a brutalized ex-officer whose thirst for excitement is also an attempt to reenact the war '' . The character was later described by Cecil Day-Lewis as an `` unspeakable public school bully '' . Drummond 's main adversary across four novels is Carl Peterson , a master criminal with no national allegiance , who is often accompanied by his wife , Irma . Irma is described by Jonathon Green as `` the slinky epitome of a twenties 'vamp , and by Lawrence Treadwell as dark , sexy and from an oriental background , `` a true femme fatale '' . After Carl Peterson 's death in The Final Count , Irma swears revenge on Drummond and kidnaps his wife—whom he had met in Bull-Dog Drummond—with the intent of killing him in the ensuing chase . Irma Peterson appears in six of McNeile 's books , and in a further five by Fairlie . McNeile adapted Bulldog Drummond for the stage . It was shown at Wyndham 's Theatre during the 1921–22 season , with Gerald du Maurier playing the title role ; it ran for 428 performances . The play also ran in New York during the same season , with A. E. Matthews as Drummond . Later in 1922 McNeile resigned his reserve commission with the rank of lieutenant-colonel , and moved as a tax exile to Territet , Montreux , Switzerland , with his wife ; the Swiss countryside was later described in a number of his stories . The following year McNeile introduced the character of Jim Maitland , a `` footloose sahib of the period '' . Maitland was the protagonist of the 1923 novel Jim Maitland ; he later appeared in a second novel in 1931 , The Island of Terror . Around the time McNeile killed off the Carl Peterson character in The Final Count ( 1926 ) , he also introduced the character Ronald Standish , who first appeared in `` The Saving Clause '' ( 1927 ) and `` Tiny Carteret '' ( 1930 ) before becoming the protagonist in two collections of short stories , Ronald Standish ( 1933 ) and Ask for Ronald Standish ( 1936 ) . The character also appeared in the final three Drummond novels , Knock-Out ( 1933 ) , Bull-Dog Drummond at Bay ( 1935 ) and Challenge ( 1937 ) . Standish was a sportsman who played cricket for England and was a part-time consultant with the War Office . In 1929 McNeile edited a volume of short stories from O. Henry , The Best of O. Henry ; the stories had served as models for him when he had started as a writer . The same year , the film Bulldog Drummond was released , starring Ronald Colman in the title role . Colman was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor at the 3rd Academy Awards ceremony . The film earned $ 750,000 at the box office , and McNeile received an estimated £5,000 for the rights to his novel . The same year he wrote his second play—The Way Out—which was staged at the Comedy Theatre in January 1930 . About a year later he and his wife returned to England , and settled near Pulborough , West Sussex . In 1935 McNeile , Fairlie , Sidney Gilliat and J.O.C . Orton collaborated on the screenplay Bulldog Jack , a `` comedy thriller '' with Jack Hulbert and Fay Wray , which was produced by Gaumont British . Death and legacy In 1937 McNeile was working with Fairlie on the play Bulldog Drummond Hits Out when he was diagnosed with terminal throat cancer . He came to an agreement with Fairlie for the play to continue after his death and for Fairlie to continue writing the Drummond stories . McNeile died on 14 August 1937 at his home in West Chiltington , West Sussex . Although most sources identify throat cancer as the cause of death , Treadwell also suggests that it may have been lung cancer . It was `` traceable to his war service '' , and attributed to a gas attack . His funeral , with full military honours , was conducted at Woking crematorium . At his death his estate was valued at over £26,000 . Bulldog Drummond Hits Out was finished by Fairlie and had a short tour of Brighton , Birmingham , Manchester and Edinburgh , before opening in London at the Savoy Theatre on 21 December 1937 . The story was later turned into a novel by Fairlie , with the title Bulldog Drummond on Dartmoor . Fairlie continued to write Drummond novels , seven in total . Drummond , McNeile 's chief literary legacy , became a model for other literary heroes created in the 1940s and '50s . W. E. Johns used McNeile 's work as a model for his character Biggles , while Ian Fleming admitted that James Bond was `` Sapper from the waist up and Mickey Spillane below '' . Sydney Horler 's popular character `` Tiger '' Standish was also modelled on Drummond . Writing McNeile 's works fall into two distinct phases . Those works published between 1915 and 1918 are his war stories , and relate directly to his experiences during the First World War , while the later works are largely thrillers . His war stories were marketed by the Daily Mail and Hodder & Stoughton as a soldier 's eyewitness accounts . When he started writing thrillers , Hodder & Stoughton advertised McNeile as a `` light and entertaining '' writer , and began publishing his works in the `` Yellow Jacket '' series . Style and technique McNeile 's early works , the war stories published before 1919 , are either `` plot-driven adventure narrative [ s ] '' , such as the short stories `` The Song of the Bayonet '' and `` Private Meyrick , Company Idiot '' , or `` atmospheric vignette [ s ] '' , such as `` The Land of Topsy Turvy '' and `` The Human Touch '' . McNeile would write about 1,000 words every morning in a routine that was rarely disturbed ; he took no breaks while writing and would do no re-writes until he completed his work . The academic Jessica Meyer has criticised his style as having `` little aesthetic merit , being stylised , clichéd and often repetitive '' ; Richard Usborne agreed , adding that the female characters were `` cardboard '' and that McNeile was `` wonderfully forgetful '' about characters dead in one book and alive in the next . In the Bulldog Drummond stories , Watson identifies the central character as `` a melodramatic creation , workable only within a setting of melodrama '' . The academic Joan DelFattore points out that while the characters and plots can not be considered to be unique , credible or well-rounded , his books `` make no claim to literary excellence '' , and are instead , `` good , solid thrillers '' . Usborne agrees , and believes that McNeile wrote good stories that were flawed but well told . Meyer classifies the non-war stories as middlebrow , with `` sentimental plotlines and presenting a social message about the condition of England '' . His early novels , particularly Bull-Dog Drummond and The Black Gang , were structured loosely and in some ways as short stories . The academic Hans Bertens blamed this on McNeile 's lack of experience and self-confidence , noting that in his later novels , McNeile `` mastered the tricks of his trade '' . DelFattore outlines the use of double adjectives to reinforce feelings towards enemies in both his war stories and thrillers , such as `` filthy , murdering Boche '' , and `` stinking , cowardly Bolshevik '' . She and the scholar Lise Jaillant also comment on the dehumanisation of the enemy , comparing them to animals and vermin . Watson noted the frequency of the use of the word `` devil '' —and variations—when discussing antagonists . Major themes First World War The major theme running throughout McNeile 's works is the First World War . Between 1915 and 1918 he had five collections of short stories published about the war , while his post-war fiction can be seen as an extension of those stories , as `` both treat the war as a trial with manhood at stake '' . His war stories were considered by contemporary audiences as anti-sentimental , realistic depictions of the trenches , and as a `` celebration of the qualities of the Old Contemptibles '' . McNeile 's view , as expressed through his writing , was that war was a purposeful activity for the nation and for individuals , even if that purpose was later wasted : a `` valuable chance at national renewal that had been squandered '' . The positive effects of war on the individual were outlined by McNeile in The Making of an Officer , his series of articles in The Times , in which he wrote about `` the qualities of leadership and selflessness essential to 'inspire ' subalterns '' , a theme he returned to in his war stories—particularly The Lieutenant and Others and Sergeant Michael Cassidy , R.E—and then afterwards in his fictional stories , notably the Bulldog Drummond works . McNeile 's fictional work—particularly his Drummond series of books—shows characters who have served in the war and have been affected by it ; Jaillant comments that Drummond 's war-time experience `` has shaped his social identity , his skills , and even his physical appearance '' . The Drummond character has been `` brutalized by war '' , which accounts for his physical approach when dealing with Peterson and others . England McNeile provided Drummond with a `` flamboyantly aggressive patriotism '' towards England , which Drummond defends physically against those who challenge its stability or morality . Hans Bertens argued that the patriotism demonstrated by Drummond was closer to nationalistic pride and a paranoia about threats directed at the upper middle classes , of which Drummond was a member . Drummond 's nickname—Bulldog—is symbolic of England , and he and his English gentlemen friends— '' the Breed '' —fight the conspiracy of foreigners threatening England 's stability . McNeile 's thriller stories do not often pit Englishman against Englishman as the main characters ; most of the foreigners in his books are the villains . Sport Running throughout McNeile 's books is the metaphor of warfare as sport . His war stories include descriptions of fights between individuals that carry a sporting motif : in Sergeant Michael Cassidy , R.E. , he writes , `` To bag a man with a gun is one thing ; there is sport—there is an element of one against one , like when the quality goes big game shooting . But to bag twenty men by a mine has not the same feeling at all , even if they are Germans '' . The motif was continued into the Drummond novels . McNeile reinforces this theme through his use of the language of public school sports , or of boxing , poker or hunting . The titles of his books also use sporting imagery : The Third Round , The Final Count , Knock-Out and Challenge . Reception McNeile 's war story collections sold well ; nearly 50,000 copies of his first book , Sergeant Michael Cassidy , R.E. , were purchased in its first year , and nearly 58,000 copies the following year . His thrillers were also popular , with Bulldog Drummond selling 396,302 copies between 1920 and 1939 , exceeding the 100,000-copies benchmark for `` best-sellers '' . At his peak in the 1920s , he was the highest paid short story writer in the world , and it was estimated that in the last five years of his life he was earning around £10,000 a year ; the Daily Mirror estimated that during his writing career he had earned £85,000 . McNeile 's war stories were seen by reviewers as honest portrayals of the war , with British and American reviewers in the mainstream press praising his realism and avoidance of sentimentality in dealing with his subject matter . Reviewing Men , Women , and Guns for The Times Literary Supplement , Francis Henry Gribble wrote that `` Sapper has been successful in previous volumes of war stories ... When the time comes for picking out the writers whose war fiction has permanent value , his claim to be included in the list will call for serious examination . '' The reviewer of Sergeant Michael Cassidy , R.E . for The Atlanta Constitution reminded its readers that McNeile `` has been called the foremost literary genius of the British army . '' Jaillant observes that once McNeile moved from war stories to thrillers , with the concurrent re-positioning of advertising and marketing by Hodder & Stoughton , the reviewers also treated him differently , and presented him as `` a writer of thrillers , without any pretension to literary seriousness '' . When reviewing Bulldog Drummond Strikes Back for The New York Times , the critic observed that `` if you like a good knock-down-and-drag-out yarn with excitement and violence on nearly every page , you ca n't go wrong on Bulldog Drummond '' ; for the novel Bulldog Drummond at Bay , the reviewer considered that `` as a piece of fictional melodrama , the book is first rate '' . In the British market , The Times Literary Supplement also characterised him as a mass-market thriller writer , which contrasted with its consideration of his earlier works . Controversy From the 1950s on , McNeile 's work came to be viewed in the light of events of the Second World War , and journalists such as Richard Usborne highlighted aspects of the stories which he considered were `` carrying the Führer-principle '' . DelFattore agrees , and considers that the second Bulldog Drummond novel—The Black Gang ( 1922 ) —is when the fascist element was introduced . Jaillant notes that the accusations of fascism only came about after the Second World War , while the academic Ion Trewin considers that through the Drummond stories , McNeile was seen at the time as `` simply an upstanding Tory who spoke for many of his countrymen '' . Throughout the Drummond stories , much of the language used by McNeile relating to ethnic minorities or Jews is considered by DelFattore to be `` intensely conservative by modern standards '' ; Green observes that while the characters of other contemporary writers , such as Agatha Christie , `` exhibit the inevitable xenophobia and anti-semitism of the period , McNeile 's go far beyond the 'polite ' norms '' . J. D. Bourn considers his language to be `` rather distasteful '' , while the academic Michael Denning observed that `` Drummond is a bundle of chauvinisms , hating Jews , Germans , and most other foreigners '' . Works Notes and references Notes References Bibliography * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

wh_1754--H._C._McNeile.txt

"""The Black Gang"" in 1922 and ""Temple Tower"" in 1929 were books that featured which fictional character created by Cyrile McNeile?"

A hongi is a traditional Māori greeting in New Zealand . It is done by pressing one 's nose and forehead ( at the same time ) to another person at an encounter . It is used at traditional meetings among Māori people and on major ceremonies and serves a similar purpose to a formal handshake in modern western culture , and indeed a hongi is often used in conjunction with one . In the hongi , the ha ( or breath of life ) , is exchanged and intermingled . The breath of life can also be interpreted as the sharing of both party 's souls . Through the exchange of this physical greeting , one is no longer considered manuhiri ( visitor ) but rather tangata whenua , one of the people of the land . For the remainder of one 's stay one is obliged to share in all the duties and responsibilities of the home people . In earlier times , this may have meant bearing arms in times of war , or tending crops , such as kumara . When Māori greet one another by pressing noses , the tradition of sharing the breath of life is considered to have come directly from the gods . In Māori folklore , woman was created by the gods moulding her shape out of the earth . The god Tāne ( meaning male ) embraced the figure and breathed into her nostrils . She then sneezed and came to life . Her name was Hineahuone ( earth formed woman ) . Examples * Performed by Hillary Clinton by a 4 November 2010 visit to Wellington New Zealand * Performed by Ambassador of Turkey * Performed by Prince William and Sir Paul Reeves

bb_8821--Hongi.txt

What is the traditional Maori greeting in which people press noses together?

Carry On Screaming is the twelfth in the series of Carry On films to be made and was released in 1966 . It was the last of the series to be made by Anglo-Amalgamated before the series moved to The Rank Organisation . Of the regular cast , it features Kenneth Williams , Jim Dale , Charles Hawtrey and Joan Sims . It also features Harry H. Corbett in his only Carry on and Fenella Fielding making her second and final appearance . Angela Douglas makes the second of her four Carry on appearances . Carry On Screaming is a parody of the Hammer horror films , which were also popular at the time . Plot The film opens in Edwardian times in Hocombe Woods , where Doris Mann ( Angela Douglas ) and Albert Potter ( Jim Dale ) are courting . When Albert searches the woods for a Peeping Tom , Doris is abducted by a monster named Oddbod ( Tom Clegg ) , which leaves a finger behind . Albert , finding the finger , rushes to the police station and reports the matter to Detective Constable Slobotham ( Peter Butterworth ) , who in turn tells his superior , the henpecked Detective Sergeant Sidney Bung ( Harry H. Corbett ) , who has been investigating similar disappearances in the same woods . After searching the woods for further clues , the group stumble across the eerie Bide-A-Wee Rest Home , and are shown to the sitting-room by the butler , Sockett ( Bernard Bresslaw ) . Sockett informs the mistress of the house , Valeria ( Fenella Fielding ) , of their presence , and she awakens her electrically-charged brother , Dr. Orlando Watt ( Kenneth Williams ) . Dr Watt speaks to the three men , who are frightened from the house when Dr. Watt vanishes and re-appears when his electrical charge runs down . The next day , Bung , Slobotham and Potter interview Dan Dann , a lavatory man ( Charles Hawtrey ) , who once worked at Bide-A-Wee as a gardener but is silenced by Oddbod before he can reveal anything . Meanwhile , the police scientist ( Jon Pertwee ) accidentally creates a second creature—Oddbod Junior ( Billy Cornelius ) —when subjecting Oddbod 's finger to an electrical charge . After killing the scientist , Oddbod Junior makes his way to the mansion , where Valeria and Watt are turning people into mannequins in the manner of House of Wax to sell . Bung arrives at the house , investigating Dann 's death but becomes infatuated with Valeria instead . The next day , Potter discovers Doris—in mannequin form—in a milliner 's shop but no proof can be found that it really is Doris . Bung returns to the house and discovers evidence that links Valeria and Watt to the mannequin but remains oblivious . Believing him to be on their scent , Valeria and Watt use a potion to turn Bung into Mr. Hyde and order him to steal the mannequin for them . After recovering the next day , Bung and Slobotham decide to set a trap in Hocombe Woods , with Slobotham disguised as a woman for bait . Bung 's sharp-tongued wife , Emily ( Joan Sims ) , follows , thinking Bung to be having an affair and is captured by Oddbod Junior , whilst Slobotham is captured by Oddbod . Bung , now teamed up with Potter , makes his way to the house whilst following their footprints . After failing to dispose of Bung and Potter with a snake , the Oddbods are dispatched to deal with them . Bung and Potter are re-united with Slobotham and manage to return Doris to human form but discover that Emily has been turned into a mannequin . A battle follows , in which Albert ( in Mr. Hyde form ) defeats the Oddbods . Dr. Watt menaces them with petrifying liquid but is threatened by the re-animated mummy of Rubatitti , which has come alive following a lightning strike . Rubatitti and Watt fall into a boiling vat in the cellar , killing them both . Albert and Doris marry some time later , only to discover that Bung , whose home lacks electricity , is unable to return his wife to human form , and is now living with Valeria . Production Production of the film ran from 10 January 1966 to 25 February 1966 ; it was shot at Pinewood Studios and on location in Berkshire and Buckinghamshire . Carry on Screaming was the second film in the series to have a sung main title theme - and the last until Carry on Emmanuelle in 1978 . The theme song `` Carry On Screaming '' ( film version only ) was credited as `` Anon '' and was thought to have been sung by Jim Dale who appears in the film . The singer is actually Ray Pilgrim , a session singer who sang for the Embassy label . A vinyl 45 rpm version of the song was also released in 1966 ( Columbia DB 7972 ) by vocalist Boz Burrell , before his notoriety as bassist for bands King Crimson and Bad Company . Charles Hawtrey was added at the eleventh hour , after American distributors specifically requested him , as he was such a hit and crowd-pleaser with audiences there . Cast * Harry H. Corbett – Detective Sergeant Sidney Bung * Kenneth Williams – Dr Orlando Watt * Jim Dale – Albert Potter * Charles Hawtrey – Dan Dann * Fenella Fielding – Valeria Watt * Joan Sims – Emily Bung * Angela Douglas – Doris Mann * Bernard Bresslaw – Sockett * Peter Butterworth – Detective Constable Slobotham * Jon Pertwee – Doctor Fettle * Michael Ward – Mr Vivian * Tom Clegg – Oddbod * Billy Cornelius – Oddbod Junior * Norman Mitchell – Cabby * Frank Thornton – Mr Jones * Frank Forsyth – Desk Sergeant * Anthony Sagar – Policeman * Sally Douglas – Girl * Marianne Stone – Mrs Parker * Denis Blake – Rubbatiti * Gerald Thomas – Voice of Oddbod Junior ( uncredited ) Filming and locations * Filming dates : 10 January – 25 February 1966 Interiors : * Pinewood Studios , Buckinghamshire Exteriors : * Windsor , Berkshire * Fulmer , Buckinghamshire

sfq_24189--Carry_On_Screaming!.txt

"Which actress played 'Valeria"" in the film Carry On Screaming?"

The 16th century begins with the Julian year 1501 and ends with either the Julian or the Gregorian year 1600 ( depending on the reckoning used ; the Gregorian calendar introduced a lapse of 10 days in October 1582 ) . It is regarded by historians as the century in which the rise of the West occurred . During the 16th century , Spain and Portugal explored the world 's seas and opened world-wide oceanic trade routes . Large parts of the New World became Spanish and Portuguese colonies , and while the Portuguese became the masters of Asia 's and Africa 's Indian Ocean trade , the Spanish opened trade across the Pacific Ocean , linking the Americas with Asia . This era of colonialism established mercantilism as the leading school of economic thought , where the economic system was viewed as a zero-sum game in which any gain by one party required a loss by another . The mercantilist doctrine encouraged the many intra-European wars of the period and arguably fueled European expansion and imperialism throughout the world until the 19th century or early 20th century . In Europe , the Protestant Reformation gave a major blow to the authority of the papacy and the Roman Catholic Church . European politics became dominated by religious conflicts , with the groundwork for the epochal Thirty Years ' War being laid towards the end of the century . In Italy , Luca Pacioli published the first work ever on accounting and Galileo Galilei made the first thermometer . In United Kingdom , the Italian Alberico Gentili wrote the first book on public international law and divided secularism from canon law and Roman Catholic theology . In the Middle East , the Ottoman Empire continued to expand , with the Sultan taking the title of Caliph , while dealing with a resurgent Persia . Iran and Iraq were caught by major popularity of the once-obscure Shiite sect of Islam under the rule of the Safavid dynasty of warrior-mystics , providing grounds for a Persia independent of the majority-Sunni Muslim world . China evacuated the coastal areas , because of Japanese piracy . Japan was suffering a severe civil war at the time . Mughal Emperor Akbar extended the power of the Mughal Empire to cover most of the South Asian sub continent . His rule significantly influenced arts , and culture in the region . Copernicus proposed the heliocentric universe , which was met with strong resistance , and Tycho Brahe refuted the theory of celestial spheres through observational measurement of the 1572 appearance of a Milky Way supernova . These events directly challenged the long-held notion of an immutable universe supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle , and led to major revolutions in astronomy and science . Events Undated * Polybius ' `` The Histories '' translated into Italian , English , German and French . * Mississippian culture disappears . * Medallion rug , variant Star Ushak style , Anatolia ( modern Turkey ) , is made . It is now kept at The Saint Louis Art Museum . 1500s * 1500 : Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain was born . * 1500 : Guru Nanak the beginning and spreading of the 5th largest Religion in the World Sikhism . * 1500 : Spanish navigator Vicente Yáñez Pinzón encounters Brazil but is prevented from claiming it by the Treaty of Tordesillas . * 1500 : Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral claims Brazil for Portugal . * 1500 : The Ottoman fleet of Kemal Reis defeats the Venetians at the Second Battle of Lepanto . * 1501 : Michelangelo returns to his native Florence to begin work on the statue David . * 1501 : Safavid dynasty reunified Iran and ruled over it until 1736 . Safavids adopt a Shia branch of Islam . * 1502 : First reported African slaves in The New World * 1503 : Foundation of the Sultanate of Sennar by Amara Dunqas , in what is modern Sudan * 1503 : Spain defeats France at the Battle of Cerignola . Considered to be the first battle in history won by gunpowder small arms . * 1503 : Leonardo da Vinci begins painting the Mona Lisa and completes it three years later . * 1503 : Nostradamus was born on either December 14 , or December 21 . * 1504 : A period of drought , with famine in all of Spain . * 1504 : Death of Isabella I of Castile , Joanna of Castille became the Queen . * 1505 : Zhengde Emperor ascended the throne of Ming Dynasty . * 1505 : King Sultan Trenggono built the first Moslem kingdom in Java , called Demak , in Indonesia . Many other small kingdoms were established in other islands to fight against Portuguese . Each kingdom introduced local language as a way of communication and unity . * 1506 : Leonardo da Vinci completes the Mona Lisa . * 1506 : King Afonso I of Kongo wins the battle of Mbanza Kongo , resulting in Catholicism becoming Kongo 's state religion . * 1506 : At least two thousand converted Jews are massacred in a Lisbon riot , Portugal . * 1506 : Christopher Columbus dies in Valladolid , Spain . * 1506 : Poland is invaded by Tatars from the Crimean Khanate . * 1507 : The first recorded epidemic of smallpox in the New World on the island of Hispaniola . It devastates the native Taíno population . * 1507 : Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Hormuz and Muscat , among other bases in the Persian Gulf , taking control of the region at the entrance of the Gulf . * 1508–1512 : Michelangelo paints the Sistine Chapel ceiling . * 1509 : The Battle of Diu marks the beginning of Portuguese dominance of the Spice trade and the Indian Ocean . * 1509 : The Portuguese king sends Diogo Lopes de Sequeira to find Malacca , the eastern terminus of Asian trade . After initially receiving Sequeira , Sultan Mahmud Syah captures and/or kills several of his men and attempts an assault on the four Portuguese ships , which escape . The Javanese fleet is also destroyed in Malacca . 1510s * 1509–10 : The 'great plague ' in various parts of Tudor England . * 1511 : Afonso de Albuquerque of Portugal conquers Malacca , the capital of the Sultanate of Malacca in present-day Malaysia . * 1512 : Copernicus writes Commentariolus , and proclaims the sun the center of the solar system . * 1512 : The southern part ( historical core ) of the Kingdom of Navarre is invaded by Castile and Aragon . * 1512 : The first Portuguese exploratory expedition was sent eastward from Malacca ( in present-day Malaysia ) to search for the 'Spice Islands ' ( Maluku ) led by Francisco Serrão . Serrao is shipwrecked but struggles on to Hitu ( northern Ambon ) and wins the favour of the local rulers . * 1513 : Machiavelli writes The Prince , a treatise about political philosophy * 1513 : The Portuguese mariner Jorge Álvares lands at Macau , China , during the Ming Dynasty . * 1513 : Henry VIII defeats the French at the Battle of the Spurs . * 1513 : The Battle of Flodden Field in which invading Scots are defeated by Henry VIII 's forces . * 1513 : Sultan Selim I ( `` The Grim '' ) orders the massacre of Shia Muslims in Anatolia ( present-day Turkey ) . * 1513 : Vasco Núñez de Balboa , in service of Spain arrives at the Pacific Ocean ( which he called Mar del Sur ) across the Isthmus of Panama . He was the first European to do so . * 1514 : The Battle of Orsha halts Muscovy 's expansion into Eastern Europe . * 1514 : Dózsa rebellion ( peasant revolt ) in Hungary . * 1514 : The Battle of Chaldiran , the Ottoman Empire gains decisive victory against Safavid dynasty . * 1515 : The Ottoman Empire wrests Eastern Anatolia from the Safavids after the Battle of Chaldiran . * 1516–1517 : The Ottomans defeat the Mamluks and gain control of Egypt , Arabia , and the Levant . * 1517 : The Sweating sickness epidemic in Tudor England . * 1517 : The Protestant Reformation begins when Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses in Saxony . * 1518 : Mir Chakar Khan Rind leaves Baluchistan and settled in Punjab . * 1518 : Leo Africanus , also known as al-Hasan ibn Muhammad al-Wazzan al-Fasi , Arabic : حسن ابن محمد الوزان الفاسي ) , an Andalusian Berber diplomat who is best known for his book Descrittione dell ’ Africa ( Description of Africa ) describing the geography of North Africa , is captured by Spanish pirates ; he will be taken to Rome and presented to Pope Leo X . * 1518 : The Dancing Plague of 1518 begins in Strasbourg , lasting for about one month . * 1519 : Leonardo da Vinci dies of natural causes on May 2 . * 1519 : Wang Yangming , the Chinese philosopher and governor of Jiangxi province , describes his intent to use the firepower of the fo-lang-ji , a breech-loading Portuguese culverin , in order to suppress the rebellion of Prince Zhu Chen-hao . * 1519 : Barbary pirates led by Hayreddin Barbarossa a Turk appointed to ruling position in Algiers by the Ottoman Empire , raid Provence and Toulon in southern France . * 1519 : Charles I of Spain becomes Emperor of Holy Roman Empire as Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor ( ruled until 1556 ) . * 1519–1522 : Spanish expedition commanded by Magellan and Elcano first to circle Earth * 1519–1521 : Hernán Cortés leads the Spanish conquest of Mexico . 1520s * 1520–1566 : The reign of Suleiman the Magnificent marks the zenith of the Ottoman Empire . * 1520 : The first European diplomatic mission to Ethiopia , sent by the Portuguese , arrives at Massawa 9 April , and reaches the imperial encampment of Emperor Dawit II in Shewa 9 October . * 1520 : The Yousafzais defeat Dilazaks at the battle of Katlang to found the Yousafzai dynasty in Pakhtunkhwa in modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan . * 1520 : The Portuguese established a trading post in the village of Lamakera on the eastern side of Solor ( in present-day Indonesia ) as a transit harbour between Maluku and Malacca . * 1520 : Sultan Ali Mughayat Shah of Aceh begins an expansionist campaign capturing Daya on the west Sumatran coast ( in present-day Indonesia ) , and the pepper and gold producing lands on the east coast . * 1521 : Belgrade ( in present-day Serbia ) is captured by the Ottoman Empire . * 1521 : After building fortifications at Tuen Mun , the Portuguese attempt to invade Ming Dynasty China , but are expelled by Chinese naval forces . * 1521 : Philippines encountered by Ferdinand Magellan . He was later killed in battle in central Philippines in the same year . * 1521 : Jiajing Emperor ascended the throne of Ming Dynasty , China . * 1521 : November , Ferdinand Magellan 's expedition reaches Maluku ( in present-day Indonesia ) and after trade with Ternate returns to Europe with a load of cloves . * 1521 : Pati Unus led invasion of Malacca ( in present-day Malaysia ) against the Portuguese occupation . Pati Unus was killed in this battle , and was succeeded by his brother , king Trenggana . * 1522 : Rhodes falls to the Ottoman Turks of Suleiman the Magnificent . * 1522 : The Portuguese ally themselves with the rulers of Ternate ( in present-day Indonesia ) and begin construction of a fort . * 1522 : August , Luso Sundanese Treaty signed between Portugal and Sunda Kingdom granted Portuguese permit to build fortress in Sunda Kelapa * 1523 : Sweden gains independence from the Kalmar Union . * 1523 : The cacao bean was introduced to Spain by Hernán Cortés * 1524–1525 : German Peasants ' War in the Holy Roman Empire . * 1524 – Giovanni da Verrazzano is the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of North America between South Carolina and Newfoundland . * 1524 - Ismail I , the founder of Safavid dynasty , dies and Tahmasp I becomes king . * 1525 : Spain and Germany defeat France at the Battle of Pavia , Francis I of France is captured . * 1526 : The Ottomans defeat the Kingdom of Hungary at the Battle of Mohács . * 1526 : Mughal Empire , founded by Babur , rules India until 1857 . * 1527 : Sack of Rome , which is considered the end of the Italian Renaissance . * 1527 : Protestant Reformation begins in Sweden . * 1527 : The last ruler of Majapahit falls from power . This state ( located in present-day Indonesia ) was finally extinguished at the hands of the Demak . A large number of courtiers , artisans , priests , and members of the royalty moved east to the island of Bali ; however , the power and the seat of government transferred to Demak under the leadership of Pangeran , later Sultan Fatah . * 1527 : June 22 , The Javanese Prince Fatahillah of the Cirebon Sultanate successfully defeated the Portuguese armed forces at the site of the Sunda Kelapa Harbor . The city was then renamed Jayakarta , meaning `` a glorious victory . '' This eventful day came to be acknowledged as Jakarta 's Founding Anniversary , and Fatahillah Park was named after the heroic prince . * 1529 : The Austrians defeat the Ottoman Empire at the Siege of Vienna . * 1529 : Treaty of Zaragoza defined the antimeridian of Tordesillas attributing the Moluccas to Portugal and Philippines to Spain . * 1529 : Imam Ahmad Gragn defeats the Ethiopian Emperor Dawit II in the Battle of Shimbra Kure , the opening clash of the Ethiopian–Adal War 1530s * 1531–32 : The Church of England breaks away from the Roman Catholic Church and recognizes King Henry VIII as the head of the Church . * 1531 : The Inca Civil War is fought between the two brothers , Atahualpa and Huáscar . * 1532 : Francisco Pizarro leads the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire . * 1533 : Anne Boleyn becomes Queen of England . * 1533 : Elizabeth Tudor is born . * 1534 : Jacques Cartier claims Quebec for France . * 1534 : The Ottomans capture Baghdad . * 1534 : Affair of the Placards – Francis becomes more active in repression of French Protestants . * 1535 : The Münster Rebellion , an attempt of radical , millennialist , Anabaptists to establish a theocracy ends in bloodshed . * 1535 : The Portuguese in Ternate depose Sultan Tabariji ( or Tabarija ) and send him to Portuguese Goa where he converts to Christianity and bequeaths his Portuguese godfather Jordao de Freitas the island of Ambon . * 1536 : Katherine of Aragon dies in Kimbolton Castle , in England . * 1536 : In England , Anne Boleyn is beheaded for adultery and treason . * 1536 : Establishment of the Inquisition in Portugal * 1536 : Foundation of Buenos Aires ( in present-day Argentina ) by Pedro de Mendoza * 1537 : Portuguese establishes Recife in Pernambuco , north-east of Brazil . * 1537 : William Tyndale 's partial translation of the Bible into English is published , which would eventually be incorporated into the King James Bible . * 1538 : Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada founds Bogotá . * 1538 : Spanish–Venetian fleet is defeated by the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Preveza . * 1539 : Hernando de Soto explores inland North America . 1540s * 1540 : Sher Shah Suri founds Suri dynasty in South Asia , an ethnic Pashtun ( Pathan ) of the house of Sur , who supplanted the Mughal dynasty as rulers of North India during the reign of the relatively ineffectual second Mughal emperor Humayun . Sher Shah decisively defeats Central Asian invader Humayun in the Battle of Bilgram ( May 17 , 1540 ) . * 1541 : Pedro de Valdivia founds Santiago de Chile . * 1541 : An Algerian military campaign by Charles V of Spain ( Habsburg ) is unsuccessful . * 1541 : Amazon River is encountered and explored by Francisco de Orellana . * 1541 : Capture of Buda and the absorption of the major part of Hungary by the Ottoman Empire . * 1541 : Sahib I Giray of Crimea invades Russia . * 1542 : War resumes between Francis I of France and Emperor Charles V. This time Henry VIII is allied with the Emperor , while James V of Scotland and Sultan Suleiman I are allied with the French . * 1542 : Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the island of Samar and Leyte Las Islas Filipinas honoring Philip II of Spain and became the official name of the archipelago . * 1543 : Ethiopian/Portuguese troops decisively defeat the Adal-Ottoman Muslim army at the Battle of Wayna Daga ; Imam Ahmad Gragn killed . * 1543 : Copernicus publishes his theory that the Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun * 1543 : The Nanban trade period begins after Portuguese traders make contact with Japan . * 1544 : The French defeat an Imperial–Spanish army at the Battle of Ceresole . * 1544 : Battle of the Shirts in Scotland . The Frasers and Macdonalds of Clan Ranald fight over a disputed chiefship ; reportedly , 5 Frasers and 8 Macdonalds survive . * 1545 : Songhai forces sack the Malian capital of Niani * 1545 : The Council of Trent meets for the first time in Trent ( in northern Italy ) . * 1546 : Michelangelo Buonarroti is made chief architect of St. Peter 's Basilica . * 1546 : Francis Xavier works among the peoples of Ambon , Ternate and Morotai ( Moro ) laying the foundations for a permanent mission . ( to 1547 ) * 1547 : Henry VIII dies in the Palace of Whitehall on 28 January at the age of 55 . * 1547 : Edward VI becomes King of England and Ireland on 28 January and is crowned on 20 February at the age of 9 . * 1547 : Emperor Charles V decisively dismantles the Schmalkaldic League at the Battle of Mühlberg . * 1547 : Grand Prince Ivan the Terrible is crowned tsar of ( All ) Russia , thenceforth becoming the first Russian tsar . * 1548 : Battle of Uedahara : Firearms are used for the first time on the battlefield in Japan , and Takeda Shingen is defeated by Murakami Yoshikiyo . * 1548 Askia Daoud , who reigned from 1548 to 1583 , establishes public libraries in Timbuktu ( in present-day Mali ) . * 1548 : The Ming Dynasty government of China issues a decree banning all foreign trade and closes down all seaports along the coast ; these Hai jin laws came during the Wokou wars with Japanese pirates . * 1549 : Tomé de Souza establishes Salvador in Bahia , north-east of Brazil . * 1549 : Arya Penangsang with the support of his teacher , Sunan Kudus , avenged the death of Raden Kikin by sending an envoy named Rangkud to kill Sunan Prawoto by Keris Kyai Satan Kober ( in present-day Indonesia ) . 1550s * 1550 : The architect Mimar Sinan builds the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul . * 1550 : Mongols led by Altan Khan invade China and besiege Beijing . * 1550–1551 : Valladolid debate concerning the human rights of the Indigenous people of the Americas * 1551 : Fifth outbreak of sweating sickness in England . John Caius of Shrewsbury writes the first full contemporary account of the symptoms of the disease . * 1551 : North African pirates enslave the entire population of the Maltese island Gozo , between 5,000 and 6,000 , sending them to Libya . * 1552 : Russia conquers the Khanate of Kazan in central Asia . * 1553 : Mary Tudor becomes the first queen regnant of England and restores the Church of England under Papal authority . * 1553 : Portuguese found a settlement at Macau . * 1554 : Portuguese missionaries José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega establishes São Paulo , southeast Brazil . * 1554 : Princess Elizabeth is imprisoned in the Tower of London upon the orders of Mary I for suspicion of being involved in the Wyatt rebellion . * 1555 : The Muscovy Company is the first major English joint stock trading company . * 1556 : Publication in Venice of Delle Navigiationi et Viaggi ( terzo volume ) by Giovanni Battista Ramusio , secretary of Council of Ten , with plan La Terra de Hochelaga , an illustration of the Hochelaga . * 1556 : The Shaanxi earthquake in China is history 's deadliest known earthquake during the Ming dynasty . * 1556 : Georgius Agricola , the `` Father of Mineralogy '' , publishes his De re metallica . * 1556 : Akbar the Great defeats the Sultan of Bengal at the Second battle of Panipat * 1556 : Russia conquers the Astrakhan Khanate . * 1556–1605 : During his reign , Akbar expands the Mughal Empire in a series of conquests ( in the Indian subcontinent ) . * 1556 : Mir Chakar Khan Rind captured Delhi with Emperor Humayun . * 1556 : Pomponio Algerio , radical theologian , is executed by boiling in oil as part of the Roman inquisition . * 1557 : Habsburg Spain declares bankruptcy . Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557 , 1560 , 1575 and 1596 . * 1557 : The Portuguese settle in Macau ( on the western side of the Pearl River Delta across from present-day Hong Kong ) . * 1557 : The Ottomans capture Massawa , all but isolating Ethiopia from the rest of the world . * 1558 Elizabeth Tudor becomes Queen Elizabeth I at age 25 . * 1558–1603 : The Elizabethan era is considered the height of the English Renaissance . * 1558–1583 : Livonian War between Poland , Grand Principality of Lithuania , Sweden , Denmark and Russia . * 1558 : After 200 years , the Kingdom of England loses Calais to France . * 1559 : With the Peace of Cateau Cambrésis , the Italian Wars conclude . * 1559 : Sultan Khairun of Ternate ( in present-day Indonesia ) protests the Portuguese 's Christianisation activities in his lands . Hostilities between Ternate and the Portuguese . 1560s * 1560 : Ottoman navy defeats the Spanish fleet at the Battle of Djerba . * 1560 : Elizabeth Bathory is born in Nyirbator , Hungary . * 1560 : By winning the Battle of Okehazama , Oda Nobunaga becomes one of the pre-eminent warlords of Japan * 1561 : Sir Francis Bacon is born in London . * 1561 : Guido de Bres draws up the Belgic Confession of Protestant faith . * 1562 : Mughal leader Akbar reconciles the Muslim and Hindu factions by marrying into the powerful Rajput Hindu caste . * 1562–98 : French Wars of Religion between Catholics and Huguenots . * 1562 : Massacre of Wassy and Battle of Dreux in the French Wars of Religion . * 1562 : Portuguese Dominican priests build a palm-trunk fortress which Javanese Muslims burned down the following year . The fort was rebuilt from more durable materials and the Dominicans commenced the Christianisation of the local population . * 1563 : Plague outbreak claimed 80,000 people in Elizabethan England . In London alone , over 20,000 people died of the disease . * 1564 : Galileo Galilei born on February 15 * 1564 : William Shakespeare baptized 26 April * 1565 : Battle of Talikota fought between the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar and the Deccan sultanates . * 1565 : Mir Chakar Khan Rind died age of 97 . * 1565 : Estácio de Sá establishes Rio de Janeiro in Brazil . * 1565 : The Hospitallers , a Crusading Order , defeat the Ottoman Empire at the Siege of Malta ( 1565 ) . * 1565 : Miguel López de Legazpi establishes in Cebu the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines starting a period of Spanish colonization that would last over three hundred years . * 1565 : Spanish navigator Andres de Urdaneta discovers the maritime route from Asia to the Americas across the Pacific Ocean , also known as the tornaviaje . * 1566 Suleiman the Magnificent , ruler of the Ottoman Empire , dies on September 7 . * 1566–1648 : Eighty Years ' War between Spain and the Netherlands . * 1567 : After 45 years ' reign , Jiajing Emperor died in the Forbidden City , Longqing Emperor ascended the throne of Ming Dynasty . * 1567 : Mary , Queen of Scots , is imprisoned by Elizabeth I . * 1568 : The Transylvanian Diet , under the patronage of the prince John Sigismund Zápolya , the former King of Hungary , inspired by the teachings of Ferenc Dávid , the founder of the Unitarian Church of Transylvania , promulgates the Edict of Torda , the first law of Freedom of religion and of conscience in the World . * 1568–1571 : Morisco Revolt in Spain . * 1568–1600 : The Azuchi-Momoyama period in Japan . * 1568 : Hadiwijaya sent his adopted son and son in-law Sutawijaya , who would later become the first ruler of the Mataram dynasty of Indonesia , to kill Aryo Penangsang . * 1569 : Rising of the North in England . * 1569 : The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth is created with the Union of Lublin which lasts until 1795 . * 1569 : Peace treaty signed by Sultan Khairun of Ternate and Governor Lopez De Mesquita of Portuguese . 1570s * 1570 : Ivan the Terrible , tsar of Russia , orders the massacre of inhabitants of Novgorod . * 1570 : Pope Pius V issues Regnans in Excelsis , a papal bull excommunicating all who obeyed Elizabeth I and calling on all Roman Catholics to rebel against her . * 1570 : Sultan Hairun of Ternate ( in present-day Indonesia ) is killed by the Portuguese . The reign of Sultan Baabullah . * 1571 : Pope Pius V completes the Holy League as a united front against the Ottoman Turks . * 1571 : The Spanish-led Holy League navy destroys the Ottoman Empire navy at the Battle of Lepanto . * 1571 : Crimean Tatars attack and sack Moscow , burning everything but the Kremlin . * 1571 : American Indians kill Spanish missionaries in what would later be Jamestown , Virginia . * 1571 : Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi establishes Manila , Philippines as the capital of the Spanish East Indies . * 1572 : Brielle is taken from Habsburg Spain by Protestant Watergeuzen in the Capture of Brielle , in the Eighty Years ' War . * 1572 : Spanish conquistadores apprehend the last Inca leader Tupak Amaru at Vilcabamba , Peru , and execute him in Cuzco . * 1572 : Catherine de ' Medici instigates the St. Bartholomew 's Day massacre which takes the lives of Protestant leader Gaspard de Coligny and thousands of Huguenots . The violence spreads from Paris to other cities and the countryside . * 1572 : First edition of the epic The Lusiads of Luís Vaz de Camões , three years after the author returned from the East . * 1572 : The 9 years old Taizi , Zhu Yijun ascended the throne of Ming Dynasty , known as Wanli Emperor . * 1573 : After heavy losses on both sides the Siege of Haarlem ends in a Spanish victory . * 1574 : in the Eighty

qb_5458--16th_century.txt

Which religion was founded by Guru Nanak in the 16th Century?

One Hundred and One Dalmatians , often written 101 Dalmatians , is a 1961 American animated adventure film produced by Walt Disney Productions and adapted from Dodie Smith 's 1956 novel of the same name . It is the 17th animated feature in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series . It stars Rod Taylor and Cate Bauer as , respectively , the voices of Pongo and Perdita , its canine protagonists , and Betty Lou Gerson as the voice of Cruella de Vil , its antagonist who kidnaps their puppies . The film was originally released to theaters on January 25 , 1961 , by Buena Vista Distribution . Upon release , it was a box office hit , successfully pulling the studio out of the financial setbacks caused by Sleeping Beauty , a costlier production released two years prior . Aside from its box office revenue , its commercial success was due to the employment of inexpensive animation techniques—such as using xerography during the process of inking and painting traditional animation cels—that kept production costs down . It was reissued to cinemas four times : in 1969 , 1979 , 1985 and 1991 . The 1991 reissue was the twentieth highest earning film of the year for domestic earnings . It was remade into a live action film in 1996 . Plot Songwriter Roger Radcliffe lives in a bachelor flat in London , along with his dalmatian , Pongo . Bored with bachelor life , Pongo decides to find a wife for Roger and a mate for himself . While watching various female dog-human pairs out the window , he spots the perfect one , a woman named Anita and her female dalmatian , Perdita . He quickly gets Roger out of the house and drags him through the park to arrange a meeting . He and Anita fall in love and get married . Later , Perdita gives birth to a litter of fifteen puppies . That same night , they are visited by Cruella De Vil , a wealthy former schoolmate of Anita 's . She offers to buy the entire litter , but Roger says they are not for sale . A few weeks later , she hires her henchmen , Jasper and Horace , to steal them . When Scotland Yard is unable to find them , Pongo and Perdita use the `` Twilight bark '' , a canine gossip line , to ask for help from the other dogs in London . Colonel , an old sheepdog , along with his compatriots Captain , a gray horse , and Sergeant Tibbs , a tabby cat , find the puppies in a place called Hell Hall ( Cruella 's abandoned and dilapidated family estate , also known as The De Vil Place ) , along with many other dalmatian puppies that she had bought from various dog stores . When Tibbs learns they are going to be made into dog-skin fur coats , Colonel quickly sends word back to London . Upon receiving the message , Pongo and Perdita leave town to retrieve their puppies . Winter has come , and they have to cross the Stour River which is running fast and laden with slabs of broken ice . Meanwhile , Tibbs overhears Cruella ordering Jasper and Horace to kill the puppies that night out of fear the police will soon find them . In response , Tibbs attempts to rescue them while Jasper and Horace are preoccupied watching television , but they finish their show and come for them before he can get them out of the house . Pongo and Perdita break in and confront Jasper and Horace just as they are about to kill the puppies . While the adult dogs attack them , Colonel and Tibbs guide the puppies from the house . After a happy reunion with their own puppies , Pongo and Perdita realize there are dozens of others with them , 99 altogether including their own . Shocked at Cruella 's plans , they decide to adopt all of them , certain that Roger and Anita would never reject them . They begin making their way back to London through deep snow ; all open water is frozen solid . Other animals help them along the way . Cruella , Jasper , and Horace chase them . In one town , they cover themselves with soot so they appear to be labrador retrievers , then pile inside a moving van bound for London . As it is leaving , melting snow clears off the soot and Cruella sees them . In a rage , she follows the van in her car and rams it , but Jasper and Horace , who try to cut it off from above , end up crashing into her . Both vehicles are smashed to smithereens and fall into a deep ravine ; and battered , bruised and stranded , Cruella and her henchmen are defeated at last . Cruella yells in frustration as the van drives away . Back in London , Roger and Anita are attempting to celebrate Christmas and his first big hit , a song about Cruella , but they miss their canine friends . Suddenly , barking is heard outside and , after their nanny opens the door , the house is filled with dogs . After wiping away the rest of the soot , they are delighted to realize their companions have returned home . After counting 84 extra puppies , they decide to use the money from the song to buy a large house in the country so they can keep all 101 dalmatians . Voice cast * Rod Taylor as Pongo ( voice ) * Cate Bauer as Perdita ( voice ) * Betty Lou Gerson as Cruella De Vil and Miss Birdwell ( voices ) * Ben Wright as Roger Radcliffe 's speaking voice * Bill Lee as Roger Radcliffe 's singing voice * Lisa Davis as Anita Radcliffe ( voice ) * Martha Wentworth as Nanny , Queenie , and Lucy ( voices ) * Frederick Worlock as Horace and Inspector Craven ( voices ) * J. Pat O'Malley as Jasper and Colonel ( voices ) * Thurl Ravenscroft as Captain ( voice ) * David Frankham as Sergeant Tibbs the Cat ( voice ) * Barbara Baird as Rolly ( voice ) * Mickey Maga as Patch ( voice ) * Sandra Abbott as Penny ( voice ) * Mimi Gibson as Lucky ( voice ) * Tudor Owen as Towser ( voice ) * George Pelling as Danny ( voice ) * Queenie Leonard as Princess ( voice ) * Marjorie Bennett as Duchess ( voice ) * Barbara Luddy as Rover ( voice ) * Rickie Sorenson as Spotty ( voice ) * Tom Conway as Collie and Quizmaster ( voices ) * Paul Wexler as Car Mechanic ( voice ) * Basil Ruysdael as Truck Driver ( voice ) * Paul Frees as Dirty Dawson ( voice ) * Jeanne Bruns as Radio Singer * Lucille Bliss as TV Commercial Singer * Helene Stanley as Anita Radcliffe ( live-action model ) * Mary Wickes as Cruella De Vil ( live-action model ) Production Development Dodie Smith wrote the book The Hundred and One Dalmatians in 1956 . When Walt Disney read it in 1957 , it immediately grabbed his attention , and he promptly acquired the rights . Smith had always secretly hoped that Disney would make it into a film . Disney assigned Bill Peet to write the story , which he did , marking the first time that the story for a Disney film was created by a single person.Thomas , Bob : `` Chapter 7 : The Postwar Films '' , page 106 . Disney 's Art of Animation : From Mickey Mouse to Hercules , 1997 Although Disney had not been as involved in the production of the animated films as frequently as in previous years , nevertheless he was always present at story meetings . However , he felt that Peet 's original draft was so perfect that he had little involvement in the making of it altogether . When Peet sent Dodie Smith some drawings of the characters , she wrote back saying that he had actually improved her story and that the designs looked better than the illustrations in the book . Changes made in the story from the book to the movie include : * Characters dropped : the liver-spotted Dalmatian Perdita ( and her name transferred to Missis ) ; the boy Tommy ; the old spaniel and his master ; the gipsies * Name changes : the farm near Hell Hall , from Dympling to Withermarsh * Events added : the car chase between Cruella 's car and the moving van Animation After the very expensive Sleeping Beauty ( 1959 ) failed at the box-office there was some talk of closing down the animation department at the Disney studio . During the production of it , Disney told animator Eric Larson : `` I do n't think we can continue , it 's too expensive '' . Despite this , he still had deep feelings towards animation because he had built the company upon it . Ub Iwerks , in charge of special processes at the studio , had been experimenting with Xerox photography to aid in animation.Finch , Christopher : `` Chapter 8 : Interruptions and Innovations '' , pages 245-246 . The Art of Walt Disney , 2004 By 1959 he had modified a Xerox camera to transfer drawings by animators directly to animation cels , eliminating the inking process , thus saving time and money while preserving the spontaneity of the penciled elements . However , because of its limitations , the camera was unable to deviate from a black scratchy outline and lacked the fine lavish quality of hand inking . One of the benefits of the Xerox however , was that it was a great help towards animating the spotted dogs . According to Chuck Jones , Disney was able to complete the film for about half of what it would have cost if they had had to animate all the dogs and spots . To achieve the spotted dalmatians , the animators used to think of the spot pattern as a constellation . Once they had an `` anchor spot '' , the next was placed in relation to that one spot , and so on until the full pattern was achieved . All totaled , the film featured 6,469,952 spots , with Pongo sporting 72 spots , Perdita 68 , and each puppy 32 . The production of the film also signaled a change in the graphic style of Disney 's animation . Sleeping Beauty had a more graphic , angular style than previous Disney films , and Dalmatians had an even more stylized look , inspired by British cartoonist Ronald Searle , which would become the norm for Disney animation for years to come . For the movie art director Ken Anderson and color stylist Walter Peregoy worked out a new way of painting backgrounds by leaving out the usual linework . The linework was instead printed on a separate animation cel before being laid over the background . This gave it an appearance similar to the Xeroxed animation . Disney disliked the artistic look of the film and felt he was losing the fantasy element of his animated films . Ken Anderson took this to heart , but Walt eventually forgave him on his final trip to the studio in late 1966 . As Anderson recalled in an interview : He looked very sick , I said `` Gee it 's great to see you Walt '' , and he said `` You know that thing you did on dalmatians '' . He did n't say anything else , but he just gave me this look and I knew that all was forgiven and in his opinion maybe what I did on dalmatians was n't so bad . That was the last time I ever saw him . Then a few weeks later I learned he was gone . Live-action reference As done with other Disney films , Disney hired an actress to perform live-action scenes as a reference for the animation process . Actress Helene Stanley performed the live-action reference for the character of Anita . She did the same kind of work for the characters of Cinderella and Princess Aurora in Sleeping Beauty . According to Christopher Finch , author of The Art of Walt Disney : Disney insisted that all scenes involving human characters should be shot first in live-action to determine that they would work before the expensive business of animation was permitted to start . The animators did not like this way of working , feeling it detracted from their ability to create character . [ ... ] [ The animators ] understood the necessity for this approach and in retrospect acknowledged that Disney had handled things with considerable subtlety . Casting The best known member of the cast was Australian actor Rod Taylor ( The Birds , The Time Machine ) , who before the making of this movie had had extensive radio experience . He was cast as Pongo . The filmmakers deliberately cast dogs with deeper voices than their human owners so they had more power . Walt Disney originally had Lisa Davis read the role of Cruella De Vil , but she did not think that she was right for the part and wanted to try reading the role of Anita . Disney agreed with her after the two of them read the script for a second time . Songs Unlike many Disney animated features , the film features only three songs , with just one , `` Cruella De Vil '' , playing a big part in it . The other two are `` Kanine Krunchies Jingle '' ( sung by Lucille Bliss , who voiced Anastasia Tremaine in Disney 's 1950 film Cinderella ) , and `` Dalmatian Plantation '' in which only two lines are sung by Roger at its closure . Songwriter Mel Leven had , in fact , written several additional songs for it including `` Do n't Buy a Parrot from a Sailor '' , a cockney chant , meant to be sung by Jasper and Horace at the De Vil Mansion , and `` March of the One Hundred and One '' , which the dogs were meant to sing after escaping Cruella by van . Different , longer versions of `` Kanine Krunchies Jingle '' and `` Dalmatian Plantation '' appear on the Disneyland Records read-along album based on the film . Cameos of Characters From Lady and the Tramp During the scene where all the dogs of London are sending out a message that the puppies have been puppy napped ( the twilight bark ) , Peg from Lady and the Tramp is seen in a pet store as one of the animals for sale . Lady , Tramp and Jock also appear , and get the message , and send it on . Release The film was first released to theaters on January 25 , 1961 . After its initial theatrical run , it was re-released to theaters four more times : January 1969 , June 1979 , December 1985 , and July 1991 . The 1991 reissue was the twentieth highest earning film of the year for domestic earnings . It has earned $ 215,880,014 in domestic box office earnings during its history . Τhe film was released on VHS on April 10 , 1992 , as part of the Walt Disney Classics video series . It was re-released on March 9 , 1999 , as part of the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection video series . Due to technical issues , it was never released on Laserdisc and was delayed numerous times before its release on DVD . On December 19 , 1999 , it received its first DVD release as part of Disney 's Limited Issue series . A two-disc Platinum Edition DVD was released on March 4 , 2008 . It was released on Blu-ray Disc in the United Kingdom on September 3 , 2012 . A Blu-ray Diamond Edition of it was released in North America on February 10 , 2015 . Reception Box Office The film was the tenth highest grossing film of 1961 in the US and Canada , accruing $ 6,400,000 in distributors ' domestic ( U.S. and Canada ) rentals during its first year of release . It was the most popular movie of the year in France , with admissions of 14,705,526 . It was one of the studio 's most popular films of the decade . Critical The film currently holds a 98 % `` fresh '' rating from critics and users on Rotten Tomatoes . It did receive some negative criticism . Phillip Martin of the Arkansas Democrat-Gazette only gave it 2 out of 5 stars . In 2011 , Craig Berman of MSNBC ranked it and its 1996 remake as two of the worst children 's films of all time saying , `` The plot itself is a bit nutty . Making a coat out of dogs ? Who does that ? But worse than Cruella de Vil 's fashion sense is the fact that your children will definitely start asking for a dalmatian of their own for their next birthday . '' ; American Film Institute Lists * AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies - Nominated * AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains : * * Cruella De Vil — No . 39 Villain * AFI 's 10 Top 10 - Nominated Animated Film Sequels and spin-offs In the years since the original release of the film , Disney has taken the property in various directions . The earliest of these endeavors was the live-action remake , 101 Dalmatians ( 1996 ) . Starring Glenn Close as Cruella De Vil , none of the animals talked in this version . Its success in theaters led to 102 Dalmatians , released on November 22 , 2000 . After the first live-action version of the film , a cartoon called 101 Dalmatians : The Series was launched . The designs of the characters were stylized further to allow for economic animation and to appeal to contemporary trends . 101 Dalmatians II : Patch 's London Adventure , the official sequel to the original animated film , was released straight-to-VHS/DVD on January 21 , 2003 . Disney has announced that another live-action remake is in development , but it will focus more on Cruella de Vil . Emma Stone is set to play Cruella .

qz_2458--One_Hundred_and_One_Dalmatians.txt

Who plays Cruella de Vil in the 1996 live action version of 101 Dalmations?

Steptoe and Son is a British sitcom written by Ray Galton and Alan Simpson about a father-and-son rag-and-bone business . They live on Oil Drum Lane , a fictional street in Shepherd 's Bush , London . Four series were broadcast by the BBC from 1962 to 1965 , followed by a second run from 1970 to 1974 . Its theme tune , `` Old Ned '' , was composed by Ron Grainer . The series was voted 15th in a 2004 BBC poll to find Britain 's Best Sitcom . It was remade in the US as Sanford and Son , in Sweden as Albert & Herbert and in the Netherlands as Stiefbeen en zoon . In 1972 a film adaptation of the series , Steptoe and Son , was released in cinemas , with a second Steptoe and Son Ride Again in 1973 . The series focused on the inter-generational conflict of father and son . Albert Steptoe , a `` dirty old man '' , is an old rag-and-bone man , set in his grimy and grasping ways . By contrast his 37-year-old son Harold is filled with social aspirations , not to say pretensions . The show contained elements of drama and tragedy , as Harold was continually prevented from achieving his ambitions . To this end the show was unusual at the time for casting actors rather than comedians in its lead roles , although both actors were drawn into more comedic roles as a consequence . Background The show had its roots in a 1962 episode of Galton & Simpson 's Comedy Playhouse . Galton and Simpson 's association with comedian Tony Hancock , for whom they had written Hancock 's Half Hour , had ended and they had agreed to a proposal from the BBC to write a series of ten comedy shows . The fourth in the series , `` The Offer '' , was born both out of writer 's block and budgetary constraints . Earlier shows in the series had cost more than expected , so the writers decided to write a two-hander set in one room . The idea of two brothers was considered but father and son worked best . Ronald Fraser was second choice for Harold , which would have produced a totally different character . Galton and Simpson were not aiming to make a pilot for a series , having worked for seven years with Hancock . However , Tom Sloan , the BBC 's Head of Comedy , told them during rehearsals that `` The Offer '' was a definite series pilot : he saw that the Steptoe idea had potential , as did the audience of that edition of Comedy Playhouse . Galton and Simpson were reportedly overwhelmed by this reaction , and the first of what became eight series was commissioned , the first four of which were transmitted between 1962 and 1965 . The last four series were broadcast between 1970 and 1974 , now in colour . At the peak of the series ' popularity , it commanded viewing figures of some 28 million per episode . In addition , the early 1970s saw two feature films , two 46-minute Christmas specials . In 2005 , the play Steptoe and Son in Murder at Oil Drum Lane , written by Ray Galton and John Antrobus , brought the storyline to a close . The series was one of the first UK situation comedy programmes to employ actors rather than comedians in the principal roles . Galton and Simpson had decided that they wanted to try to write for performers who `` did n't count their laughs '' . The series ' title music , `` Old Ned '' , won its composer Ron Grainer his second successive Ivor Novello award . The series had no standard set of opening titles but the opening sequences would often feature the Steptoes ' horse , Hercules . `` Steptoe and Son '' is the Steptoes ' trading name , but as established in the first episode , the `` Son '' is not Harold but Albert . The name dates from when he and his mother—Mrs . Steptoe—worked the rounds . The first series has the pair as very rough looking and often dirty and in ragged clothes but they quickly `` tidied up '' for later series . Outside filming of the Steptoe 's yard took place at a car breakers ' yard in Norland Gardens , London W11 , then changing to Stable Way , Latimer Road , for the later series . Both sites have subsequently been redeveloped with no evidence now remaining of the iconic entrance gates through which the horse and cart was frequently driven . Characters The father , Albert Edward Ladysmith Steptoe ( Wilfrid Brambell ) , was born on 21 January 1899 , though he always claimed to have been born in 1901 . His father was unknown but is believed to have been a local muffin man who died in 1910 ; the portrait Albert keeps of his father is in fact of William Gladstone . However , information delivered in some episodes suggests Albert 's father was also a rag and bone man . For example , it is revealed that the `` ... and Son '' in the business name referred to Albert , when his father had `` Steptoe and Son '' painted on the yard gate . Albert appears to have joined the army underage at the start of the First World War , and is seen wearing the Mons Star medals to prove it . On one occasion he tells a reporter that he joined the Grenadier Guards , somewhat unlikely given his small stature . Among his claims , he says he was hit by a grenade in 1917 which did not explode . He threw it back to the German trenches with devastating effect , especially on the canteen , sending sausages and sauerkraut flying into the air . He apparently served with the British Expeditionary Force to Archangel , White Russia , in 1919 . Steptoe Senior is lazy , stubborn , narrow-minded and foul-mouthed , and has revolting personal habits . Albert is content with his place in the world , utterly unpretentious and downright cynical . He can be extremely vindictive and does everything he can to prevent Harold , his son , from improving himself — especially if it means him leaving home . He is normally unshaven and wears a very old pair of false teeth , discoloured and with teeth missing . His wife died in 1936 . He mentions in one episode that he was one of fourteen children . Harold Albert Kitchener Steptoe ( Harry H. Corbett ) was born in 1925 ( Corbett 's birth date ) in the 1960s series , or around 1930 in the 1970s series . In the episode `` Loathe Story '' he says he was aged ten just before the outbreak of the Second World War , which would indicate a birth year in 1928 or 1929 , and in the episode `` A Star is Born '' he claims to be the same age as Sean Connery , born August 1930 . Harold was educated at Scrubs Lane Elementary School . He too is obstinate , though prone to moments of enthusiasm about an idea . Harold has aspirations . He wants to move up in the world — most of all to escape from the family home and his stifling relationship with his father . This is the subject of the first episode , `` The Offer '' . He likes to see his business as antiques rather than junk . He bitterly regrets leaving the army ; his army service took him to Malaya and he achieved the rank of Corporal . He nearly always wears a workman 's belt adorned with army cap badges . In the 1960s series , however , he had served in the final years of World War II , though he had tried to avoid being called up into the Royal Artillery on false medical grounds . He is a dreamer and idealist . Politically , Harold is a Labour supporter who is appalled that his father is a Conservative Party supporter . He aims to improve his mind and his social circle but always fails , often thanks to Albert 's deliberate put-downs or sabotage . Harold 's exasperation and disgust at his father 's behaviour often results in his repeating the catchphrase `` You dirty old man '' . Situation The episodes often revolve around ( sometimes violent ) disagreements between the two men , Harold 's attempts to bed women and momentary interest over things found on his round . As in many of the best examples of British comedy , much of the humour derives from the pathos of the protagonists ' situation , especially Harold 's continually thwarted ( usually by the elder Steptoe ) attempts to `` better himself '' and the unresolvable love/hate relationship that exists between the pair . Albert almost always comes out on top , and routinely and effortlessly proves himself easily superior to his son whenever they compete , e.g . in their frequent game-playing , such as snooker played into the night and pouring rain in 1970 and the Scrabble and badminton games in the 1972 series . Harold takes them desperately seriously and sees them as symbols of his desire to improve himself , but his efforts come to nothing every time . His father 's success is partly down to superior talent but is aided by cynical gamesmanship and undermining of his son 's confidence . In addition , Albert habitually has better judgement than his son , who blunders into all sorts of con tricks and blind alleys as a result of his unrealistic , straw-clutching ideas . Occasionally the tables are turned , but overall the old man is the winner , albeit in a graceless fashion . Harold is infuriated by these persistent frustrations and defeats , even going to the extent in `` Divided We Stand '' ( 1972 ) of partitioning the house in two so that he does not have to share with his selfish , uncultured and negative father . Predictably , his plan ends in failure and ultimately he can see no way out . However , for all the bitterness there is an essential bond between the pair . Deep down , Albert seems to love his son and his behaviour is perhaps a selfish but misguided way of holding on to him so he does not have to face life alone . When the crunch comes , Harold sticks by his father . This protective bond is much in evidence in `` The Seven Steptoerai '' ( 1974 ) when they are menaced by a local gangster running a protection racket . Typically though , it is Albert who gets them ingeniously out of a very hazardous predicament . The 1974 Christmas special ended the run and seems Harold once again is on the bad end of poor planning on finding his passport is out of date . His father must go alone , and Harold , tearfully it seems , waves him off to enjoy a potential good time without him . Harold trudges away , only to jump in a car with a lovely girl to drive off on his own holiday . A win but only a temporary one - the viewers know that once their holidays end they will return to the familiar status quo once more . Production Both of the main actors used voices considerably different from their own . Wilfrid Brambell , despite being Irish , spoke with a Received Pronunciation English accent , as did Harry H. Corbett . Brambell was aged 49 when he accepted the role of Albert , only 13 years older than Corbett . For his portrayal , he acquired a second set of `` rotten '' dentures to accentuate his character 's poor attitude to hygiene . During its production in the 1960s and 1970s , Steptoe and Son marked itself out as radical compared to most UK sitcoms . This was an age when the predominant sources of laughter in British comedy were farce , coincidence , slapstick and innuendo . However Steptoe and Son brought greater social realism . Its characters were not only working class but demonstrably poor . The earthy language and slang used were in marked contrast to the refined voices heard on most television of the time : e.g. , in `` Back in Fashion '' , Harold warns Albert that when the models arrive , `` if you feels like a d'Oyly Carte ( rhyming slang for 'fart ' ) , you goes outside . '' Social issues and debates were routinely portrayed , woven into the humour . The programme did not abandon the more traditional sources of comedy but used them in small doses . The characters , and their intense and difficult relationship , displayed deeper qualities of writing and performance than comedy fans were used to . Episodes Steptoe and Son is rare among 1960s BBC television programmes in that every episode has survived , despite the mass wiping of BBC archive holdings between 1972 and 1978 . However , all the installments from the first 1970 series and all but two from the second that were originally made in colour only survive in the form of black and white domestic videotape recordings . Myth has it that the episodes were recorded off-air by Galton and Simpson themselves , but in fact they were copies made from the master tapes for them by an engineer at the BBC using a Shibaden SV-700 half-inch reel-to-reel b/w video recorder—a forerunner of the video cassette recorder . In 2008 the first reel of a b/w telerecording of the series 5 episode `` A Winter 's Tale '' ( lasting approx 15 minutes ) was returned to the BBC ; this is the only telerecording of a colour Steptoe and Son episode known to still exist . The original 2 '' Quad videotapes of all the episodes of the original 1962–1965 series were wiped in the late 1960s . However , these episodes mostly survive on film transfers of the original videotapes as 16 mm black and white telerecordings . The exception being 'My Old Man 's a Tory ' which only exists as an optical transfer made from a domestic 405 line reel to reel videotape obtained from Galton and Simpson . The BBC has released ten DVDs of the series—each of the eight series , and two compilations entitled `` The Very Best of Steptoe and Son '' volumes 1 and 2 . Two Christmas specials are also available on DVD , as are two feature films : Steptoe and Son and Steptoe and Son Ride Again . A boxed set of Series 1–8 and the two Christmas specials was released on Region 2 DVD by 2entertain on 29 October 2007 . Also 52 episodes were remade for BBC radio , initially on the Light Programme in 1966-67 and later Radio 2 from 1971 to 1976 . On 10 March 2016 it was announced that a special one-off remake of the `` A Winters Tale '' episode would air BBC Four . Sketch appearances * In 1962 , Brambell and Corbett appeared as Steptoe and Son in a short sketch written by Galton and Simpson on the BBC 's annual Christmas Night with the Stars programme , broadcast on 25 December 1962 . There are no known copies . * In 1963 , they appeared on the ITV Royal Variety Performance in a sketch written by Galton and Simpson featuring Steptoe and Son totting outside Buckingham Palace , the telerecording of the live show , broadcast on 10 November 1963 , still exists . The audio of the sketch was also released on a 7 inch single . * In 1966 , they appeared on the BBC series The Ken Dodd Show in another live on stage sketch written by Galton and Simpson featuring Steptoe and Son on Blackpool beach , with Ken Dodd in the last two minutes as a strange golf professional . A telerecording of the show , broadcast on 24 July 1966 , still exists . * In 1967 , they appeared in character in a short filmed sequence for the BBC 's annual Christmas Night with the Stars programme . The black and white film sequence featuring Steptoe and Son , broadcast on 25 December 1967 , still exists . * In 1978 , they recorded a Radio 2 sketch , referred to by fans as `` Scotch on the Rocks '' , produced especially for a show titled Good Luck Scotland . This was again written by Galton and Simpson and had a basic premise of Albert wishing to go to Argentina to watch the Scottish football team play in the 1978 World Cup as the `` Good Luck Scotland '' title of the programme referred to Scotland 's chances of winning the World Cup that year . Adverts In 1977 the two actors appeared in character for two television ads for Ajax cleaning products , recorded during their tour of Australia . In 1981 their last ever appearance together was in a UK ad for Kenco Coffee . This led to what proved to be unfounded rumours of a new series for 1981 . Audio A number of LPs and EPs featuring TV soundtracks have been released . Books To tie-in with the original series , two novelisations were written by Gale Pedrick : * * In 2002 BBC Books published Steptoe and Son by Galton , Simpson and Ross which comprehensively covered the television series , the radio series , films , Royal Variety Shows , commercials and the Sanford & Son spin-off . Other countries * United States ; Sanford and Son , a top-rated series that ran for five years ( 1972–1977 ) on the NBC network . * Sweden ; Sten-Åke Cederhök and Tomas von Brömssen starred in Albert & Herbert . The pair lived at Skolgatan 15 , an address in a working-class neighbourhood of Haga , Gothenburg . * The Netherlands ; Stiefbeen en Zoon ( re-translation ; Stepbone and Son ) ran for seventeen episodes . It was awarded the 1964 Golden Televizier Ring . * Portugal ; Camilo & Filho Lda. , starring famous Portuguese comedian Camilo de Oliveira , with Nuno Melo as his son . Spin-offs Steptoe and Son in Murder at Oil Drum Lane In October 2005 , Ray Galton and John Antrobus premiered their play , Steptoe and Son in Murder at Oil Drum Lane , at the Theatre Royal , York . It then went on tour across the country . It was set in the present day and related the events leading to Harold killing his father and their eventual meeting thirty years later , Albert then appearing as a ghost . By the end , it is clearly established that this is very much a conclusion to the Steptoe saga . It was not the first time this idea had been considered . When Wilfrid Brambell left the UK after the third series to pursue an eventually unsuccessful Broadway musical career , Galton and Simpson toyed with the concept of 'killing off ' Albert in order to continue the show without having to await Brambell 's return . The character would have been replaced with Harold 's illegitimate son , Arthur ( a part thought to be intended for actor David Hemmings ) . This idea was detested by Corbett , who thought it ridiculous , although the 2008 drama The Curse of Steptoe depicts Corbett as being delighted with the concept , since assuming the role of father would allow Harold 's character some development and growth , which he felt was long overdue . Films In 1972 a film version was released of the show proving highly popular . This first film , also called Steptoe and Son - featuring a young Mike Reid and focusing on Harold getting married but still not being able to get away from his father . Due to popular demand another film , Steptoe and Son Ride Again , was released in 1973 which was also highly popular with fans . When Steptoe Met Son When Steptoe Met Son was a 2002 Channel 4 documentary about the personal lives of Wilfrid Brambell and Harry H. Corbett . It aired on 20 August 2002 . The programme reveals how Brambell and Corbett were highly dissimilar to their on-screen characters . Corbett felt he had a promising career as a serious actor , but was trapped by his role as Harold and forced to keep returning to the series after typecasting limited his choice of work . Brambell , meanwhile , was a homosexual , something that in the 1960s was still frowned upon and , until the Sexual Offences Act 1967 , illegal and was thus driven underground . The documentary went on to describe an ill-fated final tour of Australia , during which the already strained relationship between Corbett and Brambell finally broke down for good . The Curse of Steptoe The Curse of Steptoe is a television play which was first broadcast on 19 March 2008 on BBC Four as part of a season of dramas about television personalities . It stars Jason Isaacs as Harry H. Corbett and Phil Davis as Wilfrid Brambell . The drama is based upon the actors ' on-and-off-screen relationship during the making of the BBC sitcom Steptoe and Son , and is based on interviews with colleagues , friends and family of the actors , and the Steptoe writers , Ray Galton and Alan Simpson . The screenplay was written by Brian Fillis , also responsible for the similarly themed 2006 drama Fear of Fanny , which is about television personality Fanny Cradock off-screen . The 66-minute film is directed by Michael Samuels and produced by Ben Bickerton . Both programmes were considered inaccurate by writers Galton and Simpson and Corbett 's family . Steptoe and Son In March 2011 the Engine Shed Theatre Company performed three episodes of the iconic series live on stage at the Capitol Theatre , Horsham . Jack Lane played Albert Steptoe and Michael Simmonds played Harold . The three episodes performed by the company were : Men Of Letters , Robbery With Violence and Seance in a Wet Rag and Bone Yard . Engine Shed went on to adapt and perform the two Christmas Specials later that year . Many of the original TV episodes of Steptoe and Son have now been officially adapted to the stage by the original writers Ray Galton and Alan Simpson , with David Pibworth and are available for production on www.classiccomedyscripts.co.uk Steptoe and Son by Kneehigh Performed in 2012 and 2013 by Kneehigh , Steptoe and Son was adapted from four of the show 's original scripts . The production was designed to highlight the Beckettian nature of Albert and Harold 's situation , focusing on themes of over-reliance and being trapped within social class . The production toured the UK and received positive reviews from the Financial Times and three stars from The Guardians Lynn Gardner . DVD releases * The first series with all six episodes was released in 2004 followed by the second series in 2005 and the third , fourth and fifth in 2006 . Series 6 , 7 and 8 were released in 2007 alongside the Christmas specials . * The two Steptoe films were released in 2006 . * The complete boxed set containing all eight series and two Christmas specials was released in October 2007 . In October 2011 the boxset was re released with new packaging . In Australia , Season 1 was released in 2004 , Season 2 and Season 3 in 2006 , Season 4 and Season 5 in 2007 , Season 6 and Season 7 in 2008 and Season 8 in 2009 .

odql_4450--Steptoe_and_Son.txt

What is the surname of the father and son TV comedy characters with the first names Albert Edward Ladysmith and Harold Albert Kitchener?

Ashley Michelle Tisdale ( born July 2 , 1985 ) is an American actress , singer , and producer . During her childhood , she appeared in more than 100 TV advertisements and had roles in theatre and television shows . In 2004 , she was cast as Maddie Fitzpatrick in Disney Channel 's The Suite Life of Zack & Cody , and rose to prominence in 2006 as Sharpay Evans in the television film High School Musical . The High School Musical series included three films and the spin-off Sharpay 's Fabulous Adventure ( 2011 ) . Tisdale 's resultant popularity led her to sign a record deal with Warner Bros. Records in 2006 . Her debut album , Headstrong ( 2007 ) , was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and features the single `` He Said She Said '' . Two years later , Tisdale released her second studio album , Guilty Pleasure . In 2013 , she announced plans to make music again and confirmed that she has been recording her third studio album . From 2007 until 2015 , Tisdale voiced Candace Flynn in Disney Channel 's three-time Emmy Award-winning animated series Phineas and Ferb . The cartoon quickly became the television 's most-watched animated series among kids and tweens and has received critical acclaim . Her other roles have included Savannah Monroe in The CW 's television drama series Hellcats ( 2010–11 ) , Jody Sanders in Scary Movie 5 ( 2013 ) and the title character of Hub Network 's animated series Sabrina : Secrets of a Teenage Witch ( 2013–14 ) , for which she received a Daytime Emmy Award nomination in 2014 . Besides acting and singing , Tisdale has ventured into producing . After forming a production company in 2008 , she began working as the executive producer on films and television series including the ABC Family television film Picture This ( 2008 ) , the unscripted series Miss Advised ( 2013 ) , and the comedy series Young & Hungry ( 2014 ) . Life and career 1985–2003 : Early life and career beginnings Tisdale was born in Monmouth County , New Jersey , on July 2 , 1985 , to Lisa Morris and contractor Michael Tisdale . Her father is Christian and her mother is Jewish ; she was raised with `` a little bit of both '' religions . Tisdale 's elder sister Jennifer is an actress and producer . She is also related to businessman Ron Popeil through her maternal grandfather Arnold Morris who was best known for being a pitchman for the Ginsu knife . At the age of three , Tisdale met her manager , Bill Perlman , at a New Jersey mall . He sent her to various auditions for commercials , and she was placed in more than 100 national network TV advertisements as a child . She began her theatrical career by appearing in Gypsy : A Musical Fable and The Sound of Music at Monmouth County 's Jewish Community Center . Tisdale was eight years old when she was cast to play the part of Cosette in the musical Les Misérables , and only recalled taking a single singing lesson before landing the role . In 2007 , Tisdale told Newsday , `` When I was little , I saw the play Les Misérables on Broadway . I thought it was the most amazing thing I have ever seen , so I went to my manager and told him I wanted to be in it '' . Tisdale toured for two years with Les Misérables before landing a role in a touring production of Annie in Korea . At the age of 12 , Tisdale sang for President Bill Clinton during an event at the White House . In the late 1990s and early 2000s , after moving to Los Angeles , California with her family , Tisdale had minor roles in television shows including The Hughleys , Smart Guy , 7th Heaven , Boston Public , and Bette , appeared in the feature films A Bug 's Life and Donnie Darko , and worked as a model for Ford Models . For her role as Carol Prader in Boston Public , she received a 2000 Young Artist Award nomination for `` Best Guest Performance In a TV drama '' . 2004–06 : High School Musical and rise to prominence The producers of the Disney Channel television series The Suite Life of Zack & Cody cast Tisdale as Maddie Fitzpatrick , a teenage candy-counter girl who works in a fancy hotel , in 2004 . The series premiered in March 2005 and ended in September 2008 . For this role , she won her first award at the Nickelodeon UK Kids ' Choice Awards 2007 for `` Best TV Actress '' in 2008 . In 2006 , Tisdale played Sharpay Evans in the Disney Channel Original Movie High School Musical . High School Musical became Disney Channel 's most-watched movie that year , viewed by 7.7 million in its US premiere broadcast . The soundtrack , on which Tisdale contributed vocals for several songs , sold more than 3.7 million copies in the US and became the top-selling album that year . All of the songs featured on the soundtrack appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . Tisdale subsequently became the first female artist to debut with two songs simultaneously on the Hot 100 chart , with What I 've Been Looking For and `` Bop to the Top '' . High School Musical was nominated for six Primetime Emmy Awards , winning two . To promote the film , Tisdale and the cast embarked on a tour titled High School Musical : The Concert during 2006 and 2007 . After meeting dancer Jared Murillo while working on High School Musical , he and Tisdale dated from 2007 to 2009 . 2007–09 : Studio albums and film career After the release of High School Musical , Tisdale opted not to sign with Disney 's affiliated record label Hollywood Records like her co-stars . She eventually signed with Warner Bros. Records to a recording contract , and she began work on her debut album Headstrong . In December 2006 , producer J.R. Rotem confirmed he was producing and writing with Tisdale on the album . In contrast to her songs in High School Musical , Tisdale opted to pursue a more mature sound with R & B , dance-pop , and hip hop influences while working on her debut . To promote Headstrong , the song `` Be Good to Me '' was released to mainstream radio stations in the month preceding the album 's release as its lead single . Headstrong was released in February 2007 and debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 , selling 64,000 copies in the first week . The second single `` He Said She Said '' became Tisdale 's most successful single in the US . A documentary about the album 's creation , along with a three-song music video trilogy , was featured on a music DVD titled There 's Something About Ashley , released in November 2007 . Headstrong was eventually certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for sales exceeding 500,000 copies in the US . Work on High School Musical 2 began in 2007 , and Tisdale was confirmed to return for the sequel as Sharpay Evans . The film premiered on Disney Channel in August 2007 to 17 million viewers and became the most-watched movie on cable television . She received positive reviews for her performance in the film , which earned two Primetime Emmy Awards nominations . The soundtrack , featuring Tisdale , debuted at number one on the Billboard chart with sales of 615,000 copies , making it the fourth biggest week 's sales for a soundtrack album as of 2014 . Disney Channel picked up the animated series Phineas and Ferb in 2006 ; Tisdale was cast as the voice of Candace Flynn , a main character whose primary motivation is getting her brothers in trouble . The series ' first episode was broadcast immediately after the premiere of High School Musical 2 to 10 million viewers and became the most-watched animated series among kids and tweens in 2010 . Phineas and Ferb has also received acclaim by critics and has won three Primetime Emmy Awards . In 2008 , Tisdale formed her own production company , Blondie Girl Productions . The television film Picture This marked Tisdale 's debut as an executive producer and as an actress in a leading role ; she played Mandy Gilbert , an unpopular and bullied teenager . The film premiered on ABC Family in 2008 to 4.3 million viewers . Tisdale reprised her role as Sharpay Evans in High School Musical 3 : Senior Year , which premiered in October 2008 . It earned $ 42 million in its domestic opening weekend , and grossed a total of $ 255 million worldwide . Her performance in the film earned her critical acclaim , earning an MTV Movie Award for `` Breakthrough Performance Female '' in 2009 . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly labeled her one of film 's breakout stars , and Mark Kermode said Tisdale was 2008 's `` best supporting actress '' . Tisdale began work on her second studio album Guilty Pleasure soon after she finished promoting High School Musical 3 : Senior Year . She said she had been involved in every aspect of the production of the album , from its `` guitar-driven '' sound to much of the writing process . `` It 's Alright , It 's OK '' was the song chosen to precede the album as its lead single ; it was released to mainstream radio and digital retailers in April 2009 . Guilty Pleasure was eventually released in June 2009 . Described by Tisdale as a `` rocker and edgier '' album , it debuted at number 12 on the Billboard 200 , selling 25,000 copies in the first week ; this was significantly lower than the first-week sales for her previous album . Tisdale starred in the 2009 20th Century Fox family film Aliens in the Attic as teenager Bethany Pearson . Although she is credited as one of the main characters , The New York Times said Tisdale `` spends much of the film off screen '' . The film was a minor success in box offices , grossing $ 60 million worldwide . From 2009 to 2011 , she was in a relationship with director Scott Speer , who directed five of her music videos . 2010–12 : Return to broadcast television and producing Tisdale 's return to broadcast television was announced in 2010 . She starred in The CW drama series Hellcats as Savannah Monroe , the captain of a cheerleading team . The series based its script on the book Cheer : Inside the Secret World of College Cheerleaders by journalist Kate Torgovnick ; it was described by critics as `` Election meets Bring It On '' . TV Guide reported Tisdale was the best-paid cast member of the series , earning $ 30,000 per episode . Hellcats ran for one season before being cancelled by The CW in 2011 . She performed voice roles in animated series during 2010 , including The Cleveland Show , Family Guy , and Glenn Martin , DDS . In 2012 , she made a guest appearance in an episode of Raising Hope and had a starring role in a CBS pilot produced by Louis C.K. , which was not picked up by the channel . Tisdale also portrayed a desirable and high-priced escort in a two-episode arc in the fifth season of FX 's Sons of Anarchy . In 2010 , Disney Channel announced its intention to produce a High School Musical spin-off focusing on the life of Sharpay Evans in New York after she concluded high school . Tisdale was confirmed to return as Evans for the spin-off and serve as the executive producer of the project . Sharpay 's Fabulous Adventure premiered on Disney Channel to 5 million viewers in August 2011 . Tisdale and her production company Blondie Girl Productions signed a multiyear production deal with Relativity Media in 2010 to create , develop , and produce films and television series . Miss Advised was the first project on which Tisdale served as the executive producer without also performing in a starring role . A reality show that followed three single relationship experts , it debuted on Bravo in the United States and aired for one season in 2012 . 2013–present : Return to television and marriage In 2013 , E ! aired a television special produced by Tisdale named Inner Circle that focused on her friendship with actress Vanessa Hudgens . The next year , Tisdale teamed again with Disney Channel on the film Cloud 9 , on which she worked as an executive producer . ABC Family 's comedy series Young & Hungry is also produced by Tisdale ; it stars Emily Osment and premiered in June 2014 . Future projects Tisdale and her production company have been working on include three series intended for internet release . In June 2012 , The Weinstein Company announced that Tisdale had been given the leading role in Dimension Films ' Scary Movie 5 . Starring alongside Lindsay Lohan and Charlie Sheen , she portrayed Jody , a dancer in her late-20s . The film was released in April 2013 , and grossed $ 15 million on its first weekend , making it the lowest-grossing weekend for a Scary Movie film ; it was also panned by critics . Tisdale had a recurring role in ABC 's sitcom Super Fun Night as Jazmine , the sister of Rebel Wilson 's character , and guest starred on CBS 's The Crazy Ones in 2013 . That same year , Tisdale was cast to voice the title character of Hub Network 's animated series Sabrina : Secrets of a Teenage Witch . For her performance as Sabrina , Tisdale was nominated for `` Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program '' in the 41st Daytime Emmy Awards . In December 2014 , The Hollywood Reporter announced Tisdale was cast to star as a prostitute in the comedy Amateur Night alongside Jason Biggs . In 2014 , Tisdale auditioned for TBS 's workplace comedy series Clipped , on which she was eventually cast in a main role as Danni . The series ran from June to August 2015 , and was canceled in October after one season . Four years after the release of her second studio album Guilty Pleasure ( 2009 ) , Tisdale told MTV that she had been recording her third studio album . She said she was inspired to make music again and that she hoped to `` surprise people a little bit , something different from what I 've done before '' . Tisdale announced to MTV that she opted to pursue a dance-pop sound on the album , which was expected to be released in 2014 . In December 2013 , Tisdale teased on her Twitter account about a `` special project '' related to music . She confirmed that the project was a single titled `` You 're Always Here '' , which was written about her late grandfather . The song was eventually released independently to digital stores that same month . Tisdale began dating Christopher French , the lead singer of the band Annie Automatic , in December 2012 . They became engaged in August 2013 and married on September 8 , 2014 in a small private ceremony held in Santa Barbara , California . Tisdale confirmed in a 2016 interview that she will not be returning to the High School Musical franchise for its fourth installment . Artistry Acting Tisdale said that she brings something different with every character she portrays in order to make them her own . After the completion of the High School Musical series in 2008 , Tisdale was at first reluctant on accepting older roles because she felt `` you can never go backward '' . She eventually began to accept more mature roles in 2012 . Her first adult roles were Emma Jean , a high-priced escort in the drama series Sons of Anarchy ( 2012 ) , and Jody Sanders , a mother of three children in the feature film Scary Movie 5 ( 2013 ) . Tisdale commented after Scary Movie 5 that the role had taken her out of her comfort zone , and that she planned to continue to challenge herself in the future . While discussing her portrayal of Logan Rawlings , a lesbian , on Young & Hungry ( 2014 ) , she said she likes `` to play different characters and push the envelope out of [ her ] own comfort level '' , but confessed she had been nervous about the idea of playing a lesbian . Her acting performances have been met with praise by critics and film producers . She was named a `` scene stealer '' in High School Musical 2 ( 2007 ) by Laura Fries of Variety . Jennifer Frey of The Washington Post says that Tisdale dominated the film despite not being the lead character , while Andy Webster of The New York Times praised her acting style , mainly because of her `` elastic face [ that ] lends itself to numerous reaction shots '' . John Schultz , who directed the film Aliens in the Attic ( 2009 ) in which Tisdale starred , says she is a `` big comedic actress '' and has a `` gift '' for comedy . The creator of the television series Hellcats ( 2010 ) , Kevin Murphy , praised her acting skills and said Tisdale `` can hold multiple colors in the same palette . '' Her performance in Scary Movie 5 ( 2013 ) , however , received negative reviews . Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter panned the film as whole and said Tisdale was not funny enough . and Rafer Guzman of Newsday added she did not have `` comic timing '' in the film . Musical style Tisdale 's music , which is predominantly considered pop , has included ballads , dance-pop , hip hop , and rock influences . Boys , heartbreak , and relationship breakups are common themes in Tisdale 's songs . She defined her music career as a way to connect herself with the fans and to inspire them . She claimed that , while Headstrong ( 2007 ) allowed her to `` learn [ herself ] as an artist '' , with her second album , Guilty Pleasure ( 2009 ) , she knew exactly what she wanted to do as an artist . She often co-writes the songs she records ; for her debut album Headstrong , she had writing credits in four songs , while she co-wrote five tracks for her album Guilty Pleasure . The songs in which she has songwritting credits are often personal . In 2009 , while discussing the songs she co-wrote for her second studio album , Tisdale said that `` a lot of the songs on the album [ were ] about survival and staying strong '' and that she wanted those songs to be `` a statement and a reflection of what [ she went ] through over the past year and how [ she has ] grown up . '' She named the song `` What If '' as the most personal song she co-wrote for Guilty Pleasure . In 2013 , she discussed the death of her grandfather in the song `` You 're Always Here '' , which she wrote with her husband French . Her music has received mixed reactions by critics . Her debut album Headstrong was compared to the first works of Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera by Billboard . Heather Phares of AllMusic defined Tisdale 's voice as `` pleasant enough '' but not `` distinctive '' while reviewing her debut album Headstrong and added she had `` more character singing '' as her role in the High School Musical series . Phares later praised Tisdale 's voice by saying her `` chirpy , slightly saccharine voice is perfect '' . Her second studio album Guiilty Pleasure , released in 2009 , achieved a 48 % rating on Metacritic , which indicates `` mixed or average reviews '' . Keri Masson of Billboard stated that Tisdale `` can deliver the radio-ready goods '' with her 2009 album Guilty Pleasure , but criticized the album as a whole ; he believed the album `` does n't give the singer room to comfortably let loose '' . Stephen Thomas Erlewine , also of AllMusic , said she is not `` convincing '' on Guilty Pleasure , but praised the overall quality of the songs on the album . Margaret Wappler of the Los Angeles Times gave the album a negative review ; she said the album has `` few glimmers of hope '' and went on to criticize the producers as `` not seem [ ing ] to have gifted Tisdale with their best work '' . Despite the mixed reception by critics , the album was well received by fans ; it achieved a user score of 6.5 on Metacritic , which means `` generally favorable reviews '' , and was also named the seventh best album of the decade by Billboard readers in 2009 . Influences Tisdale has named many influences on her musical career , including Christina Aguilera , Michael Jackson , Lady Gaga , Pat Benatar , Pink , Katy Perry , Kelly Clarkson , Led Zeppelin , and AC/DC . Tisdale said that `` almost anything '' inspires her , but she is mainly inspired by female pop singers . Her main acting influences are Jake Gyllenhaal , Johnny Depp , Robin Williams and Rebel Wilson . Tisdale claims that she would like to emulate Shia LaBeouf 's career because `` he did it so well '' and that she is inspired by Wilson 's ability to work simultaneously as a writer , producer and actress in ABC 's Super Fun Night . Public image Tisdale is considered a sex symbol , ranking on Maxim 's Hot 100 list of sexiest women and hottest celebrities in the 2008 list ( at number 10 ) , in 2013 ( at number seven ) , and in 2014 ( at number 33 ) . She appeared on the cover of Maxim 's May 2013 issue and was in the 2011 annual `` nude issue '' for Allure in May of that year . She told Allure that `` being in this shoot was me saying , ' I 'm not just the young girl everybody thinks I am . I 'm actually a woman . ' '' Tisdale has become a popular and active figure in social media ; she is one of the most-followed musicians on Twitter , with more than 12 million followers , and she has more than 22 million Likes on Facebook . Her popularity on social media led her to appear for three weeks on Billboards Social 50 chart , peaking at number 18 , and to win the award for `` Social Media Superstar '' at the Young Hollywood Awards in 2014 . She was also named the 45th most influential woman on Twitter by The Huffington Post in 2015 . Other ventures Philanthropy Tisdale has supported various charitable organizations and causes during her career . She collaborated with the Make a Wish Foundation in 2008 by visiting sick children in hospitals and helping to raise funds for the organization . Tisdale is also a supporter of Habitat for Humanity , a charity devoted to building homes for people in need . She was scheduled to perform on Idol Gives Back 2008 , along with her High School Musical co-star Vanessa Hudgens . However , they were unable to appear due to their High School Musical 3 : Senior Year filming schedule ; they recorded a video from the film 's set to support the cause instead . She contributed to the A Very Special Christmas 7 album with her rendition of Wham ! 's `` Last Christmas '' ; proceeds from sales benefited the Special Olympics . Tisdale was a phone operator during Hope for Haiti Now : A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief , a charity telethon held on January 2010 to raise funds for seven non-profit organizations that carried out relief work in Haiti following the 2010 Haiti earthquake . Tisdale volunteered for the `` Get on the Bus '' charity campaign in 2011 , which was hosted by the television series Extreme Makeover : Home Edition . She helped to build a house for a family and later performed some of her songs to raise funds . In 2012 , she became the face of Project Pink , a campaign launched by Puma SE to raise money for the research of breast cancer treatments . As part of the campaign , she visited Los Angeles ' BEST After School Enrichment Program at Pacoima Charter School in California and presented each child that attended with shoes , clothes , and gift cards . In 2013 , Tisdale recorded her song titled `` You 're Always Here '' and later released it to digital stores as a charity single . During an interview with On Air with Ryan Seacrest , she confirmed that 30 percent of the proceeds of the song would go to St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital . Business endorsements In 2007 , Tisdale appeared in promotional campaigns for Staples , T-Mobile , Toys `` R '' Us , and the Eckō Red clothing brand ; the latter included a mall tour in the US , featuring performances in fashion shows . In 2008 , she was the face of Degree Girl in the US ; to promote the deodorant , she shot several commercials and covered five hit singles from the 1980s , including Cyndi Lauper 's `` Time After Time '' . That year , Tisdale was paid $ 5.5 million for her work in films , television , and endorsement deals , leading her to being named number 17 in the Forbes ' High Earners Under 30 list , number 94 on the Forbes 2008 Celebrity 100 list , and number six on the Forbes ' Hollywood 's 10 Top-Paid Tweens list , a chart that listed actors whose work is directed to the 8-to-14-year-old demographic . In 2011 , Tisdale joined the Got Milk ? campaign . She was the face of Ocean Pacific in 2012 , along with actress Sarah Hyland , in which they were required to pose for numerous shots wearing a variety of colorful bikinis . In 2014 , she promoted the U.S. launch of Lindt HELLO chocolates by producing an episode of the online series It Started with HELLO . In September 2015 , Tisdale was named creative director of Signorelli . She will be overseeing the creation of their spring 2017 sportswear line . Filmography Discography * Headstrong ( 2007 ) * Guilty Pleasure ( 2009 ) Awards and nominations

qw_11025--Ashley_Tisdale.txt

"According to a 2009 adventure family film starring Ashley Tisdale, Carter Jenkins, Robert Hoffman, Henri Young, Regan Young and Austin Butler, ""The aliens are"" where?"

Super Size Me is a 2004 American documentary film directed by and starring Morgan Spurlock , an American independent filmmaker . Spurlock 's film follows a 30-day period from February 1 to March 2 , 2003 , during which he ate only McDonald 's food . The film documents this lifestyle 's drastic effect on Spurlock 's physical and psychological well-being , and explores the fast food industry 's corporate influence , including how it encourages poor nutrition for its own profit . Spurlock ate at McDonald 's restaurants three times per day , eating every item on the chain 's menu at least once . Spurlock consumed an average of 20.9 megajoules or 5,000 kcal ( the equivalent of 9.26 Big Macs ) per day during the experiment . An intake of around 2,500 kcal within a healthy balanced diet is more generally recommended for a man to maintain his weight . As a result , the then-32-year-old Spurlock gained , a 13 % body mass increase , increased his cholesterol to 230 mg/dL , and experienced mood swings , sexual dysfunction , and fat accumulation in his liver . It took Spurlock fourteen months to lose the weight gained from his experiment using a vegan diet supervised by his then-girlfriend , a chef who specializes in gourmet vegan dishes . The reason for Spurlock 's investigation was the increasing spread of obesity throughout U.S. society , which the Surgeon General has declared `` epidemic '' , and the corresponding lawsuit brought against McDonald 's on behalf of two overweight girls , who , it was alleged , became obese as a result of eating McDonald 's food ( Pelman v. McDonald 's Corp. , 237 F. Supp . 2d 512 ) . Spurlock points out that although the lawsuit against McDonald 's failed ( and subsequently many state legislatures have legislated against product liability actions against producers and distributors of `` fast food '' ) , much of the same criticism leveled against the tobacco companies applies to fast food franchises whose product is both physiologically addictive and physically harmful . The documentary was nominated for an Academy Award for Documentary Feature . A comic book related to the movie has been made with Dark Horse Comics as the publisher containing stories based on numerous cases of fast food health scares . Content As the film begins , Spurlock is in physically above average shape according to his personal trainer . He is seen by three physicians ( a cardiologist , a gastroenterologist , and a general practitioner ) , as well as a nutritionist and a personal trainer . All of the health professionals predict the `` McDiet '' will have unwelcome effects on his body , but none expected anything too drastic , one citing the human body as being `` extremely adaptable '' . Prior to the experiment , Spurlock ate a varied diet but always had vegan evening meals to appease his girlfriend , Alexandra , a vegan chef . At the beginning of the experiment , Spurlock , who stood 6 feet 2 inches ( 185.42 cm ) tall , had a body weight of 84 kg . Experiment Spurlock followed specific rules governing his eating habits : * He must fully eat three McDonald 's meals per day : breakfast , lunch , and dinner . * He must consume every item on the McDonald 's menu at least once over the course of the 30 days ( he managed this in nine days ) . * He must only ingest items that are offered on the McDonald 's menu , including bottled water . All outside consumption of food is prohibited . * He must Super Size the meal when offered , but only when offered ( i.e. , he is not able to Super Size items himself ; Spurlock was offered 9 times , 5 of which were in Texas ) . * He will attempt to walk about as much as a typical United States citizen , based on a suggested figure of 5,000 standardized distance steps per day , but he did not closely adhere to this , as he walked more while in New York than in Houston . On February 1 , Spurlock starts the month with breakfast near his home in Manhattan , where there is an average of four McDonald 's locations ( and 66,950 residents , with twice as many commuters ) per square mile ( 2.6 km² ) . He aims to keep the distances he walks in line with the 5,000 steps ( approximately two miles ) walked per day by the average American . Day 2 brings Spurlock 's first ( of nine ) Super Size meal , at the McDonald 's on 34th Street and Tenth Avenue , which happens to be a meal made of a Double Quarter Pounder with Cheese , Super Size French fries , and a 42-ounce Coke , which takes 22 minutes to eat . He experiences steadily increasing stomach discomfort during the process , and then vomits in the McDonald 's parking lot . After five days Spurlock has gained 9.5 pounds ( 4.5 kg ) ( from 185.5 to about 195 pounds ) . It is not long before he finds himself experiencing depression , and he claims that his bouts of depression , lethargy , and headaches could be relieved by eating a McDonald 's meal . His general practitioner describes him as being `` addicted '' . At his second weigh-in , he had gained another 8 pounds ( 3.5 kg ) , putting his weight at 203.5 lb ( 92 kg ) . By the end of the month he weighs about 210 pounds ( 95.5 kg ) , an increase of about 24.5 pounds ( about 11 kg ) . Because he could only eat McDonald 's food for a month , Spurlock refused to take any medication at all . At one weigh-in Morgan lost 1 lb . from the previous weigh-in , and a nutritionist hypothesized that he had lost muscle mass , which weighs more than an identical volume of fat . At another weigh-in , a nutritionist said that he gained 17 pounds ( 8.5 kg ) in 12 days . Spurlock 's girlfriend , Alexandra Jamieson , attests to the fact that Spurlock lost much of his energy and sex drive during his experiment . It was not clear at the time whether or not Spurlock would be able to complete the full month of the high-fat , high-carbohydrate diet , and family and friends began to express concern . On Day 21 , Spurlock has heart palpitations . His internist , Dr. Daryl Isaacs , advises him to stop what he is doing immediately to avoid any serious health problems . He compares Spurlock with the protagonist played by Nicolas Cage in the movie Leaving Las Vegas , who intentionally drinks himself to death in a matter of weeks . Despite this warning , Spurlock decides to continue the experiment . On March 2 , Spurlock makes it to day 30 and achieves his goal . In thirty days , he has `` Supersized '' his meals nine times along the way ( five of which were in Texas , four in New York City ) . His physicians are surprised at the degree of deterioration in Spurlock 's health . He notes that he has eaten as many McDonald 's meals as most nutritionists say the ordinary person should eat in 8 years ( he ate 90 meals , which is close to the number of meals consumed once a month in an 8-year period ) . Findings The documentary 's end text states that it took Spurlock 5 months to lose 20.1 pounds ( 9 kg ) and another 9 months to lose the last 4.5 pounds ( 2 kg ) . His then-girlfriend Alex , now his ex-wife , began supervising his recovery with her `` detox diet '' , which became the basis for her book , The Great American Detox Diet . The movie ends with a rhetorical question , `` Who do you want to see go first , you or them ? '' This is accompanied by a cartoon tombstone , which reads `` Ronald McDonald ( 1954–2012 ) '' , which originally appeared in The Economist in an article addressing the ethics of marketing to children . A short epilogue was added to the film . Although it showed that the salads can contain even more calories than burgers if the customer adds liberal amounts of cheese and dressing prior to consumption , it also described McDonald 's discontinuation of the Super Size option six weeks after the movie 's premiere , as well as its recent emphasis on healthier menu items such as salads , and the release of the new adult Happy Meal . McDonald 's denied that these changes had anything to do with the film . Aesthetic context Spurlock juxtaposed humor with the life-and-death issue in his film ( Bloomfield , 2014 ) . Comedy helped to draw viewers into , and even resonate , with his message ( Renov , p131 ) . Exaggeration was justified by his humor here and there throughout the film . In one scene , five huge coke cups were standing in a line based on size . In another scene , doctors were operating on a seriously obese patient with the needles and thread going through his pure fat , and the background was classic joyous music . Music throughout appeared as if it was mocking the topic of fast food and healthy eating such as : `` Shimmy she Wobble '' , `` Fat Bottomed Girls '' , `` Rock n Roll McDonalds '' , `` Health Blues '' , `` Yummy , Yummy , Yummy '' and `` Oh Boy…The Damage That Ca n't Be Undone '' . ( Rebecca , 2012 ) Reception Super Size Me premiered at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival , where Morgan Spurlock won the Grand Jury Prize for directing the film . The film opened in the U.S. on May 7 , 2004 , and grossed a total of $ 11,536,423 worldwide , making it the 22nd highest-grossing documentary film of all time . It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary but lost to the film Born into Brothels . Super Size Me received two thumbs up on At the Movies with Ebert and Roeper . The film overall received positive reviews from other critics , as well as movie-goers , and holds a 93 % `` Certified Fresh '' rating on the film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes . Caroline Westbrook for BBC News stated that the hype for the documentary was proper `` to a certain extent '' , because of its serious message , and that , overall , the film 's `` high comedy factor and over-familiarity of the subject matter render it less powerful than other recent documentaries – but it still makes for enjoyable , thought-provoking viewing . '' Criticism and statistical notes Critics of the film , including McDonald 's , argue that the author intentionally consumed an average of 5,000 calories per day and did not exercise , and that the results would have been the same regardless of the source of overeating . One reviewer pointed out `` he 's telling us something everyone already knows : Fast food is bad for you . '' Robert Davis of Paste implied the film is an example of `` how the ignorance of , or willful distortion of , basic scientific methods is used to manipulate public opinion . '' In his reply documentary Fat Head , Tom Naughton `` suggests that Spurlock 's calorie and fat counts do n't add up '' and noted Spurlock 's refusal to publish the Super Size Me food log . The Houston Chronicle reports : `` Unlike Spurlock , Naughton has a page on his Web site that lists every item ( including nutritional information ) he ate during his fast-food month . '' The film addresses such objections by highlighting that a part of the reason for Spurlock 's deteriorating health was not just the high calorie intake but also the high quantity of sugar relative to vitamins and minerals in the McDonald 's menu , which is similar in that regard to the nutritional content of the menus of most other U.S. fast-food chains . About 1/3 of Spurlock 's calories came from sugar . His nutritionist , Bridget Bennett , warned him about his excess intake of sugar from `` milkshakes and Cokes '' . It is revealed toward the end of the movie that over the course of the diet , he consumed `` over 30 lb of sugar , and over 12 lb of fat from their food '' . After eating exclusively at McDonald 's for one month , Soso Whaley said , `` The first time I did the diet in April 2004 , I lost 10 pounds ( going from 175 to 165 ) and lowered my cholesterol from 237 to 197 , a drop of 40 points . '' Of particular note was that she exercised regularly and did not insist on consuming more food than she otherwise would . Despite eating at only McDonald 's every day , she maintained her caloric intake at around 2,000 per day . After John Cisna , a high school science teacher , lost 60 pounds while eating exclusively at McDonald 's for 180 days , he said , `` I 'm not pushing McDonald 's . I 'm not pushing fast food . I 'm pushing taking accountability and making the right choice for you individually ... As a science teacher , I would never show Super Size Me because when I watched that , I never saw the educational value in that ... I mean , a guy eats uncontrollable amounts of food , stops exercising , and the whole world is surprised he puts on weight ? What I 'm not proud about is probably 70 to 80 percent of my colleagues across the United States still show Super Size Me in their health class or their biology class . I do n't get it . '' Impact Six weeks after the film 's debut , McDonald 's dropped its supersize portions . In the United Kingdom , McDonald 's placed a brief ad in the trailers of showings of the film , pointing to the website www.supersizeme-thedebate.co.uk . The ads stated , `` See what we disagree with . See what we agree with . '' Internationally , Super Size Me was a major success in the box office of Australia . Thus , McDonald 's in Australia took that documentary very seriously , and tried to respond . They created an advertising campaign that includes three elements : two advertisements for TV and one produced to be shown in movie theaters . The film was the inspiration for the BBC television series The Supersizers ... in which the presenters dine on historical meals and take medical tests to ascertain the impact on their health .

qg_458--Super_Size_Me.txt

What documentary filmmaker gained fame, and 25lbs, when he ate nothing but McDonalds for 30 days, a diet which was immortalized in the film Super Size Me?

The modern Olympic Games or Olympics ( ) are the leading international sporting event featuring summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world participate in a variety of competitions . The Olympic Games are considered to be the world 's foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating . The Olympic Games are held every four years , with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years but two years apart . Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games , which were held in Olympia , Greece , from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD . Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) in 1894 . The IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement , with the Olympic Charter defining its structure and authority . The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in several changes to the Olympic Games . Some of these adjustments include the creation of the Winter Olympic Games for ice and winter sports , the Paralympic Games for athletes with a disability , and the Youth Olympic Games for teenage athletes . The IOC has had to adapt to a variety of economic , political , and technological advancements . As a result , the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism , as envisioned by Coubertin , to allowing participation of professional athletes . The growing importance of mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship and commercialization of the Games . World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916 , 1940 , and 1944 Games . Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games . The Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations ( IFs ) , National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) , and organizing committees for each specific Olympic Games . As the decision-making body , the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games , and organizes and funds the Games according to the Olympic Charter . The IOC also determines the Olympic program , consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games . There are several Olympic rituals and symbols , such as the Olympic flag and torch , as well as the opening and closing ceremonies . Over 13,000 athletes compete at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events . The first , second , and third-place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals : gold , silver , and bronze , respectively . The Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented . This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies , including boycotts , doping , bribery , and a terrorist attack in 1972 . Every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national and sometimes international fame . The Games also constitute an opportunity for the host city and country to showcase themselves to the world . Ancient Olympics The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia , Greece . Competition was among representatives of several city-states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece . These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat sports such as wrestling and the pankration , horse and chariot racing events . It has been widely written that during the Games , all conflicts among the participating city-states were postponed until the Games were finished . This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce . This idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars . The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were traveling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus . The origin of the Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend ; one of the most popular myths identifies Heracles and his father Zeus as the progenitors of the Games . According to legend , it was Heracles who first called the Games `` Olympic '' and established the custom of holding them every four years . The myth continues that after Heracles completed his twelve labors , he built the Olympic Stadium as an honor to Zeus . Following its completion , he walked in a straight line for 200 steps and called this distance a `` stadion '' ( , Latin : stadium , `` stage '' ) , which later became a unit of distance . The most widely accepted inception date for the Ancient Olympics is 776 BC ; this is based on inscriptions , found at Olympia , listing the winners of a footrace held every four years starting in 776 BC . The Ancient Games featured running events , a pentathlon ( consisting of a jumping event , discus and javelin throws , a foot race , and wrestling ) , boxing , wrestling , pankration , and equestrian events . Tradition has it that Coroebus , a cook from the city of Elis , was the first Olympic champion . The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance , featuring sporting events alongside ritual sacrifices honoring both Zeus ( whose famous statue by Phidias stood in his temple at Olympia ) and Pelops , divine hero and mythical king of Olympia . Pelops was famous for his chariot race with King Oenomaus of Pisatis . The winners of the events were admired and immortalized in poems and statues . The Games were held every four years , and this period , known as an Olympiad , was used by Greeks as one of their units of time measurement . The Games were part of a cycle known as the Panhellenic Games , which included the Pythian Games , the Nemean Games , and the Isthmian Games . The Olympic Games reached their zenith in the 6th and 5th centuries BC , but then gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power and influence in Greece . While there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Games officially ended , the most commonly held date is 393 AD , when the emperor Theodosius I decreed that all pagan cults and practices be eliminated . Another date commonly cited is 426 AD , when his successor , Theodosius II , ordered the destruction of all Greek temples . Modern Games Forerunners Various uses of the term `` Olympic '' to describe athletic events in the modern era have been documented since the 17th century . The first such event was the Cotswold Games or `` Cotswold Olimpick Games '' , an annual meeting near Chipping Campden , England , involving various sports . It was first organized by the lawyer Robert Dover between 1612 and 1642 , with several later celebrations leading up to the present day . The British Olympic Association , in its bid for the 2012 Olympic Games in London , mentioned these games as `` the first stirrings of Britain 's Olympic beginnings '' . L'Olympiade de la République , a national Olympic festival held annually from 1796 to 1798 in Revolutionary France also attempted to emulate the ancient Olympic Games . The competition included several disciplines from the ancient Greek Olympics . The 1796 Games also marked the introduction of the metric system into sport . In 1850 an Olympian Class was started by William Penny Brookes at Much Wenlock , in Shropshire , England . In 1859 , Brookes changed the name to the Wenlock Olympian Games . This annual sports festival continues to this day . The Wenlock Olympian Society was founded by Brookes on 15 November 1860 . Between 1862 and 1867 , Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival . Devised by John Hulley and Charles Melly , these games were the first to be wholly amateur in nature and international in outlook , although only 'gentlemen amateurs ' could compete . The programme of the first modern Olympiad in Athens in 1896 was almost identical to that of the Liverpool Olympics . In 1865 Hulley , Brookes and E.G . Ravenstein founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool , a forerunner of the British Olympic Association . Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic Charter . In 1866 , a national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organized at London 's Crystal Palace . Revival Greek interest in reviving the Olympic Games began with the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821 . It was first proposed by poet and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem `` Dialogue of the Dead '' , published in 1833 . Evangelos Zappas , a wealthy Greek-Romanian philanthropist , first wrote to King Otto of Greece , in 1856 , offering to fund a permanent revival of the Olympic Games . Zappas sponsored the first Olympic Games in 1859 , which was held in an Athens city square . Athletes participated from Greece and the Ottoman Empire . Zappas funded the restoration of the ancient Panathenaic Stadium so that it could host all future Olympic Games . The stadium hosted Olympics in 1870 and 1875 . Thirty thousand spectators attended that Games in 1870 , though no official attendance records are available for the 1875 Games . In 1890 , after attending the Olympian Games of the Wenlock Olympian Society , Baron Pierre de Coubertin was inspired to found the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) . Coubertin built on the ideas and work of Brookes and Zappas with the aim of establishing internationally rotating Olympic Games that would occur every four years . He presented these ideas during the first Olympic Congress of the newly created International Olympic Committee . This meeting was held from 16 to 23 June 1894 , at the University of Paris . On the last day of the Congress , it was decided that the first Olympic Games to come under the auspices of the IOC would take place in Athens in 1896 . The IOC elected the Greek writer Demetrius Vikelas as its first president . 1896 Games The first Games held under the auspices of the IOC was hosted in the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens in 1896 . The Games brought together 14 nations and 241 athletes who competed in 43 events . Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas had left the Greek government a trust to fund future Olympic Games . This trust was used to help finance the 1896 Games . George Averoff contributed generously for the refurbishment of the stadium in preparation for the Games . The Greek government also provided funding , which was expected to be recouped through the sale of tickets and from the sale of the first Olympic commemorative stamp set . Greek officials and the public were enthusiastic about the experience of hosting an Olympic Games . This feeling was shared by many of the athletes , who even demanded that Athens be the permanent Olympic host city . The IOC intended for subsequent Games to be rotated to various host cities around the world . The second Olympics was held in Paris . Changes and adaptations After the success of the 1896 Games , the Olympics entered a period of stagnation that threatened their survival . The Olympic Games held at the Paris Exposition in 1900 and the World 's fair at St. Louis in 1904 were side shows . The Games in Paris did not have a stadium , but were notable for being the first time women took part in the Games . When the St. Louis Games were celebrated roughly 650 athletes participated , but 580 were from the United States . The homogeneous nature of these celebrations was a low point for the Olympic Movement . The Games rebounded when the 1906 Intercalated Games ( so-called because they were the second Games held within the third Olympiad ) were held in Athens . These Games were , but are not now , officially recognized by the IOC and no Intercalated Games have been held since . The Games attracted a broad international field of participants and generated great public interest . This marked the beginning of a rise in both the popularity and the size of the Olympics . Winter Games The Winter Olympics was created to feature snow and ice sports that were logistically impossible to hold during the Summer Games . Figure skating ( in 1908 and 1920 ) and ice hockey ( in 1920 ) were featured as Olympic events at the Summer Olympics . The IOC desired to expand this list of sports to encompass other winter activities . At the 1921 Olympic Congress in Lausanne , it was decided to hold a winter version of the Olympic Games . A winter sports week ( it was actually 11 days ) was held in 1924 in Chamonix , France , in connection with the Paris Games held three months later ; this event became the first Winter Olympic Games . Although it was intended that the same country host both the Winter and Summer Games in a given year , this idea was quickly abandoned . The IOC mandated that the Winter Games be celebrated every four years on the same year as their summer counterpart . This tradition was upheld until the 1992 Games in Albertville , France ; after that , beginning with the 1994 Games , the Winter Olympics were held every four years , two years after each Summer Olympics . Paralympics In 1948 , Sir Ludwig Guttmann , determined to promote the rehabitation of soldiers after World War II , organized a multi-sport event between several hospitals to coincide with the 1948 London Olympics . Guttmann 's event , known then as the Stoke Mandeville Games , became an annual sports festival . Over the next twelve years , Guttmann and others continued their efforts to use sports as an avenue to healing . For the 1960 Olympic Games , in Rome , Guttmann brought 400 athletes to compete in the `` Parallel Olympics '' , which became known as the first Paralympics . Since then , the Paralympics have been held in every Olympic year . Since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea , the host city for the Olympics has also played host to the Paralympics . In 2001 the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) and the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) signed an agreement guaranteeing that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games . The agreement came into effect at the 2008 Summer Games in Beijing , and the 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver . Chairman of the London organising committee , Lord Coe , said about the 2012 Summer Paralympics and Olympics in London that , Youth Games In 2010 , the Olympic Games were complemented by the Youth Games , which give athletes between the ages of 14 and 18 the chance to compete . The Youth Olympic Games were conceived by IOC president Jacques Rogge in 2001 and approved during the 119th Congress of the IOC . The first Summer Youth Games were held in Singapore from 14–26 August 2010 , while the inaugural Winter Games were hosted in Innsbruck , Austria , two years later . These Games will be shorter than the senior Games ; the summer version will last twelve days , while the winter version will last nine days . The IOC allows 3,500 athletes and 875 officials to participate at the Summer Youth Games , and 970 athletes and 580 officials at the Winter Youth Games . The sports to be contested will coincide with those scheduled for the senior Games , however there will be variations on the sports including mixed NOC and mixed gender teams as well as a reduced number of disciplines and events . 21st-century games From 241 participants representing 14 nations in 1896 , the Games have grown to about 10,500 competitors from 204 nations at the 2012 Summer Olympics . The scope and scale of the Winter Olympics is smaller . For example , Sochi hosted 2,873 athletes from 88 nations competing in 98 events during the 2014 Winter Olympics . During the Games most athletes and officials are housed in the Olympic Village . This village is intended to be a self-contained home for all the Olympic participants , and is furnished with cafeterias , health clinics , and locations for religious expression . The IOC allowed the formation of National Olympic Committees representing nations that did not meet the strict requirements for political sovereignty that other international organizations demand . As a result , colonies and dependencies are permitted to compete at Olympic Games . Examples of this include territories such as Puerto Rico , Bermuda , and Hong Kong , all of which compete as separate nations despite being legally a part of another country . The current version of the Charter allows for the establishment of new National Olympic Committees to represent nations which qualify as `` an independent State recognized by the international community '' . Therefore , it did not allow the formation of National Olympic Committees for Sint Maarten and Curaçao when they gained the same constitutional status as Aruba in 2010 , although the IOC had recognized the Aruban Olympic Committee in 1986 . After 2012 , Netherlands Antilles athletes can choose to represent either the Netherlands or Aruba . Economic and social impact on host cities and countries Many economists are skeptical about the economic benefits of hosting the Olympic Games , emphasizing that such `` mega-events '' often have large costs while yielding relatively few tangible benefits in the long run . Conversely hosting ( or even bidding for ) the Olympics appears to increase the host country 's exports , as the host or candidate country sends a signal about trade openness when bidding to host the Games . Moreover , research suggests that hosting the Summer Olympics has a strong positive effect on the philanthropic contributions of corporations headquartered in the host city , which seems to benefit the local nonprofit sector . This positive effect begins in the years leading up to the Games and might persist for several years afterwards , although not permanently . This finding suggests that hosting the Olympics might create opportunities for cities to influence local corporations in ways that benefit the local nonprofit sector and civil society . The Games have also had significant negative effects on host communities ; for example , the Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions reports that the Olympics displaced more than two million people over two decades , often disproportionately affecting disadvantaged groups . The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi were the most expensive Olympic Games in history , costing in excess of US $ 50 billion . According to a report by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development that was released at the time of the games , this cost will not boost Russia 's national economy , but may attract business to Sochi and the southern Krasnodar region of Russia in the future as a result of improved services . But by December 2014 , The Guardian stated that Sochi `` now feels like a ghost town '' , citing the spread-out nature of the stadiums and arenas , the still-unfinished construction , and the overall effects Russia 's political and economic turmoil . Furthermore , at least four cities withdrew their bids for the 2022 Winter Olympics , citing the high costs or the lack of local support , resulting in only a two-city race between Almaty , Kazakhstan and Beijing , China . Thus in July 2016 , The Guardian stated that the biggest threat to the future of the Olympics is that very few cities want to host them . International Olympic Committee The Olympic Movement encompasses a large number of national and international sporting organizations and federations , recognized media partners , as well as athletes , officials , judges , and every other person and institution that agrees to abide by the rules of the Olympic Charter . As the umbrella organization of the Olympic Movement , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) is responsible for selecting the host city , overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games , updating and approving the sports program , and negotiating sponsorship and broadcasting rights . The Olympic Movement is made of three major elements : * International Federations ( IFs ) are the governing bodies that supervise a sport at an international level . For example , the International Federation of Association Football ( FIFA ) is the IF for association football , and the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball is the international governing body for volleyball . There are currently 35 IFs in the Olympic Movement , representing each of the Olympic sports . * National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) represent and regulate the Olympic Movement within each country . For example , the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) is the NOC of the United States . There are currently 205 NOCs recognized by the IOC . * Organizing Committees for the Olympic Games ( OCOGs ) are temporary committees responsible for the organization of each Olympic Games . OCOGs are dissolved after each Games once the final report is delivered to the IOC . French and English are the official languages of the Olympic Movement . The other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country ( or languages , if a country has more than one official language apart from French or English ) . Every proclamation ( such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the opening ceremony ) is spoken in these three ( or more ) languages , or the main two depending on whether the host country is an English or French speaking country . Criticism The IOC has often been criticized for being an intractable organization , with several members on the committee for life . The presidential terms of Avery Brundage and Juan Antonio Samaranch were especially controversial . Brundage was president for over 20 years , and during his tenure he protected the Olympics from political involvement and the influence of advertising . He was accused of both racism , for his handling of the apartheid issue with the South African delegation , and antisemitism . Under the Samaranch presidency , the office was accused of both nepotism and corruption . Samaranch 's ties with the Franco regime in Spain were also a source of criticism . In 1998 , it was uncovered that several IOC members had taken bribes from members of the Salt Lake City bid committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics . The IOC pursued an investigation which led to the resignation of four members and expulsion of six others . The scandal set off further reforms that changed the way host cities were selected , to avoid similar cases in the future . A BBC documentary entitled Panorama : Buying the Games , aired in August 2004 , investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics . The documentary claimed it was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city . After being narrowly defeated in their bid for the 2012 Summer Games , Parisian mayor Bertrand Delanoë specifically accused the British prime minister Tony Blair and the London Bid Committee ( headed by former Olympic champion Sebastian Coe ) of breaking the bid rules . He cited French president Jacques Chirac as a witness ; Chirac gave guarded interviews regarding his involvement . The allegation was never fully explored . The Turin bid for the 2006 Winter Olympics was also shrouded in controversy . A prominent IOC member , Marc Hodler , strongly connected with the rival bid of Sion , Switzerland , alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organizing Committee . These accusations led to a wide-ranging investigation . The allegations also served to sour many IOC members against Sion 's bid and potentially helped Turin to capture the host city nomination . In July 2012 , the Anti-Defamation League called the continued refusal by the International Olympic Committee to hold a moment of silence at the opening ceremony for the eleven Israeli athletes killed by Palestinian terrorists at the 1972 Munich Olympics , `` a continuing stubborn insensitivity and callousness to the memory of the murdered Israeli athletes . '' Commercialization Under national organizing committees The Olympics have been commercialized to various degrees since the initial 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens , when a number of companies paid for advertizing , including Kodak . In 1908 , Oxo , Odol mouthwash and Indian Foot Powder became official sponsors of the London Olympic Games . Coca Cola sponsored the 1928 Summer Olympics , and has subsequently remained a sponsor to the current time . Before the IOC took control of sponsorship , national organizing committees were responsible for negotiating their own contracts for sponsorship and the use of the Olympic symbols . Under IOC control The IOC originally resisted funding by corporate sponsors . It was not until the retirement of IOC president Avery Brundage , in 1972 , that the IOC began to explore the potential of the television medium and the lucrative advertising markets available to them . Under the leadership of Juan Antonio Samaranch the Games began to shift toward international sponsors who sought to link their products to the Olympic brand . Budget During the first half of the 20th century the IOC ran on a small budget . As president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972 , Avery Brundage rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interest . Brundage believed the lobby of corporate interests would unduly impact the IOC 's decision-making . Brundage 's resistance to this revenue stream meant the IOC left organizing committees to negotiate their own sponsorship contracts and use the Olympic symbols . When Brundage retired the IOC had US $ 2 million in assets ; eight years later the IOC coffers had swelled to US $ 45 million . This was primarily due to a shift in ideology toward expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights . When Juan Antonio Samaranch was elected IOC president in 1980 his desire was to make the IOC financially independent . The 1984 Summer Olympics became a watershed moment in Olympic history . The Los Angeles-based organizing committee , led by Peter Ueberroth , was able to generate a surplus of US $ 225 million , which was an unprecedented amount at that time . The organizing committee had been able to create such a surplus in part by selling exclusive sponsorship rights to select companies . The IOC sought to gain control of these sponsorship rights . Samaranch helped to establish The Olympic Program ( TOP ) in 1985 , in order to create an Olympic brand . Membership in TOP was , and is , very exclusive and expensive . Fees cost US $ 50 million for a four-year membership . Members of TOP received exclusive global advertising rights for their product category , and use of the Olympic symbol , the interlocking rings , in their publications and advertisements . Effect of television The 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin were the first Games to be broadcast on television , though only to local audiences . The 1956 Winter Olympics were the first internationally televised Olympic Games , and the following Winter Games had their broadcasting rights sold for the first time to specialized television broadcasting networks—CBS paid US $ 394,000 for the American rights , and the European Broadcasting Union ( EBU ) allocated US $ 660,000 . In the following decades the Olympics became one of the ideological fronts of the Cold War . Superpowers jockeyed for political supremacy , and the IOC wanted to take advantage of this heightened interest via the broadcast medium . The sale of broadcast rights enabled the IOC to increase the exposure of the Olympic Games , thereby generating more interest , which in turn created more appeal to advertisers time on television . This cycle allowed the IOC to charge ever-increasing fees for those rights . For example , CBS paid US $ 375 million for the rights of the 1998 Nagano Games , while NBC spent US $ 3.5 billion for the broadcast rights of all the Olympic Games from 2000 to 2012 . Viewership increased exponentially from the 1960s until the end of the century . This was due to the use of satellites to broadcast live television worldwide in 1964 , and the introduction of color television in 1968 . Global audience estimates for the 1968

qg_527--Olympic_Games.txt

Vancouver is not the first Canadian city to host the winter Olympics. What city holds that honor when they hosted the 1988 games?

Jenny Hanley ( born 15 August 1947 in Gerrards Cross , Buckinghamshire ) is an English actress , the daughter of Dinah Sheridan and Jimmy Hanley . She remains best known for being one of the presenters of the ITV children 's magazine programme Magpie . Early life After education at various schools in Southern England and in Switzerland , she trained as a nanny and did modelling work . Through her mother she is of Russian and German descent . Television and film career Film appearances include the James Bond film On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes , and the Hammer horror film Scars of Dracula . In 1972 she appeared in the 3D film The Flesh and Blood Show . She has also appeared on television as an actress in such series as Department S , The Persuaders ! , The Adventurer , Softly , Softly : Taskforce , Warship , Man About the House and Return of the Saint . Hanley appeared on Magpie from 1974 to 1980 . She co-presented Saturday Night at the Mill and appeared in the dictionary corner of Countdown . She teamed up with Tony Blackburn to present a low-budget morning chat show on Sky Channel . Radio career Regular radio shows as a presenter include BBC Radio Berkshire and Radio SAGA where she worked in a studio next to David Hamilton . As well as playing music , she interviewed guests . Family Her grandmother was a photographer who , as Studio Lisa , had privileged access to the royal family , photographing both Princess Elizabeth and Princess Margaret in relaxed , family poses and the next generation , Prince Charles , Princess Anne and Prince Edward in informal shots . She also helped to launch the career of a male model who later became an actor , Roger Moore . Her brother , Sir Jeremy Hanley , had a career as an accountant and later became a Conservative Party MP . Filmography * Joanna ( 1968 ) - Married Woman ( uncredited ) * On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ( 1969 ) - The Irish girl * Scars of Dracula ( 1970 ) - Sarah * The Ballad of Tam-Lin ( 1970 ) - Caroline * The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes ( 1970 ) - Prostitute * Danny Jones ( 1972 ) - Sue * The Flesh and Blood Show ( 1972 ) - Julia Dawson * Soft Beds , Hard Battles ( 1974 ) - Michelle * Percy 's Progress ( 1974 ) - Miss Teenage Lust * Alfie Darling ( 1975 ) - Receptionist

qz_688--Jenny_Hanley.txt

Which ITV magazine style show ran from 1968 to 1980 and featured presenters including Jenny Hanley, Mick Robertson and Tommy Boyd?

The Habit of Art is a 2009 play by English playwright Alan Bennett , centred on a fictional meeting between W. H. Auden and Benjamin Britten while Britten is composing the opera Death in Venice . It premiered on 5 November 2009 at the Lyttelton Theatre at the Royal National Theatre , with the central roles filled by Alex Jennings as Britten and Richard Griffiths as Auden ( the latter replacing Michael Gambon , who had to withdraw from the production due to minor ill health ) . The performance of April 22 , 2010 was broadcast to more than 200 cinemas worldwide by [ http : //www.ntlive.com NTLive ] . Synopsis `` The Habit of Art '' centres on Fitz , Henry , Tim and Donald , who are actors rehearsing a play called Caliban 's Day . ( The title reflects Auden 's view that The Tempest was incomplete and Caliban should have an epilogue . ) The director has been called away , so they have a run-through/workshop directed by the stage manager , Kay , in the presence of the playwright , Neil . `` Caliban 's Day '' is about a fictitious meeting in 1973 in Auden 's rooms at Oxford , between Auden ( Fitz ) in his latter years and Britten ( Henry ) . Auden has hired a rent boy , Stuart ( Tim ) and when Humphrey Carpenter ( Donald ) - who will write biographies of both Auden and Britten after their deaths - arrives to interview him , Auden mistakes him for Stuart . Britten has been auditioning boys for Death in Venice nearby , and arrives unexpectedly ( their first meeting in 25 years after they fell out over the failure of their opera Paul Bunyan ) . He wants to discuss his misgivings about the paedophilic theme of Death in Venice and the light that may cast on his own life , but Auden assumes Britten wants him to write the libretto . The characters intermittently break out of the rehearsal to discuss the play , how accurately/harshly it should treat Auden 's failings , the actor 's craft and many other issues raised by Auden , Britten and the play . In doing so , they reveal something of their own backgrounds .

odql_10134--The_Habit_of_Art.txt

The Habit of Art is a play by Alan Bennett about a fictional meeting between Benjamin Britten and which poet?

The Kingdom of England was a sovereign state on the island of Great Britain from the 10th century—when it emerged from various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms—until 1707 , when it united with Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain . In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms , united by Æthelstan ( r. 927–939 ) , became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great , a personal union between England , Denmark and Norway . The Norman conquest of England in 1066 led to the transfer of the English capital city and chief royal residence from the Anglo-Saxon one at Winchester to Westminster , and the City of London quickly established itself as England 's largest and principal commercial centre . Histories of the kingdom of England from the Norman conquest of 1066 conventionally distinguish periods named after successive ruling dynasties : Norman 1066–1154 , Plantagenet 1154–1485 , Tudor 1485–1603 and Stuart 1603–1714 ( interrupted by the Interregnum of 1649–1660 ) . Dynastically , all English monarchs after 1066 ultimately claim descent from the Normans ; the distinction of the Plantagenets is merely conventional , beginning with Henry II ( reigned 1154-1189 ) as from that time , the Angevin kings became `` more English in nature '' ; the houses of Lancaster and York are both Plantagenet cadet branches , the Tudor dynasty claimed descent from Edward III via John Beaufort and James VI and I of the House of Stuart claimed descent from Henry VII via Margaret Tudor . The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown . Edward III ( reigned 1327–1377 ) transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe ; his reign also saw vital developments in legislation and government—in particular the evolution of the English parliament . From the 1340s the kings of England also laid claim to the crown of France , but after the Hundred Years ' War and the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses in 1455 , the English were no longer in any position to pursue their French claims and lost all their land on the continent , except for Calais . After the turmoils of the Wars of the Roses , the Tudor dynasty ruled during the English Renaissance and again extended English monarchical power beyond England proper , achieving the full union of England and the Principality of Wales in 1542 . Henry VIII oversaw the English Reformation , and his daughter Elizabeth I ( reigned 1558–1603 ) the Elizabethan Religious Settlement , meanwhile establishing England as a great power and laying the foundations of the British Empire by claiming possessions in the New World . From the accession of James I in 1603 , the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland . Under the Stuarts , the kingdom plunged into civil war , which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649 . The monarchy returned in 1660 , but the Civil War established the precedent that an English monarch can not govern without the consent of Parliament , although this concept became legally established only as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688 . From this time the kingdom of England , as well as its successor state the United Kingdom , functioned in effect as a constitutional monarchy.The Constitution of the United Kingdom , with the reservation that it is `` uncodified '' , is taken to be based in the Bill of Rights 1689 . On 1 May 1707 , under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707 , the kingdoms of England and Scotland united to form the Kingdom of Great Britain . Name The Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn , originally names of the Angles . They called their land Engla land , meaning `` land of the English '' , by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia , from an original Anglia vetus , the purported homeland of the Angles ( called Angulus by Bede ) . The name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period ( Engle-land , Engelond ) . The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra , the Old French and Anglo-Norman one Angleterre . By the 14th century , England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain . The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was ' ( `` King of the English '' ) . Canute the Great , a Dane , was the first king to call himself `` King of England '' . In the Norman period ' remained standard , with occasional use of ' ( `` King of England '' ) . The Empress Matilda styled herself ' ( `` Lady of the English '' ) . From the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of ' or ' . In 1604 James I , who had inherited the English throne the previous year , adopted the title ( now usually rendered in English rather than Latin ) King of Great Britain . The English and Scottish parliaments , however , did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707 . History Anglo-Saxon England The kingdom of England emerged from the gradual unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy : East Anglia , Mercia , Northumbria , Kent , Essex , Sussex , and Wessex . The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms , and native Anglo-Saxon life in general . The English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 . During the Heptarchy , the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda , a high king over the other kings . The decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful . It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825 . The kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century . In 827 , Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore . Thus Egbert briefly became the first king to reign over a united England . In 886 , Alfred the Great retook London , which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign . The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that `` all of the English people ( all Angelcyn ) not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred . `` [ http : //www.gutenberg.org/files/657/657.txt The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ] Freely licensed version at Gutenberg Project . Note : This electronic edition is a collation of material from nine diverse extant versions of the Chronicle . It contains primarily the translation of Rev . James Ingram , as published in the Everyman edition . Asser added that `` Alfred , king of the Anglo-Saxons , restored the city of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more . '' Alfred 's `` restoration '' entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city , building quays along the Thames , and laying a new city street plan . It is probably at this point that Alfred assumed the new royal style 'King of the Anglo-Saxons . ' During the following years Northumbria repeatedly changed hands between the English kings and the Norwegian invaders , but was definitively brought under English control by Eadred in 954 , completing the unification of England . At about this time , Lothian , the northern part of Northumbria ( Roman Bernicia ) , was ceded to the Kingdom of Scotland . On 12 July 927 the monarchs of Britain gathered at Eamont in Cumbria to recognise Æthelstan as king of the English . This can be considered England 's 'foundation date ' , although the process of unification had taken almost 100 years . England has remained in political unity ever since . During the reign of Æthelred the Unready ( 978–1016 ) , a new wave of Danish invasions was orchestrated by Sweyn I of Denmark , culminating after a quarter-century of warfare in the Danish conquest of England in 1013 . But Sweyn died on 2 February 1014 , and Æthelred was restored to the throne . In 1015 , Sweyn 's son Cnut the Great launched a new invasion . The ensuing war ended with an agreement in 1016 between Canute and Æthelred 's successor , Edmund Ironside , to divide England between them , but Edmund 's death on 30 November of that year left England united under Danish rule . This continued for 26 years until the death of Harthacnut in June 1042 . He was the son of Canute and Emma of Normandy ( the widow of Æthelred the Unready ) and had no heirs of his own ; he was succeeded by his half-brother , Æthelred 's son , Edward the Confessor . The Kingdom of England was once again independent . Norman conquest The peace lasted until the death of the childless Edward in January 1066 . His brother-in-law was crowned King Harold , but his cousin William the Conqueror , Duke of Normandy , immediately claimed the throne for himself . William launched an invasion of England and landed in Sussex on 28 September 1066 . Harold and his army were in York following their victory against the Norwegians at the Battle of Stamford Bridge ( 25 September 1066 ) when the news reached him . He decided to set out without delay and confront the Norman army in Sussex so marched southwards at once , despite the army not being properly rested following the battle with the Norwegians . The armies of Harold and William faced each other at the Battle of Hastings ( 14 October 1066 ) , in which the English army , or Fyrd , was defeated , Harold and his two brothers were slain , and William emerged as victor . William was then able to conquer England with little further opposition . He was not , however , planning to absorb the Kingdom into the Duchy of Normandy . As a mere duke , William owed allegiance to Philip I of France , whereas in the independent Kingdom of England he could rule without interference . He was crowned on 25 December 1066 in Westminster Abbey , London . High Middle Ages In 1092 , William II led an invasion of Strathclyde , a Celtic kingdom in what is now southwest Scotland and Cumbria . In doing so , he annexed what is now the county of Cumbria to England ; this final annexation established what would become the traditional borders of England , which have remained largely unchanged since then ( except for occasional and temporary changes ) . In 1124 , Henry I ceded what is now southeast Scotland ( called Lothian ) to the Kingdom of Scotland , in return for the King of Scotland 's loyalty . This area of land had been English since its foundation in 927 AD , and before that had been a part of the Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria . Lothian contained what later became the Scottish capital , Edinburgh . This arrangement was later finalised in 1237 by the Treaty of York . The Duchy of Aquitaine came into personal union with the Kingdom of England upon the accession of Henry II , who had married Eleanor , Duchess of Aquitaine . The Kingdom of England and the Duchy of Normandy remained in personal union until John Lackland , Henry II 's son and fifth-generation descendant of William I , lost the continental possessions of the Duchy to Philip II of France in 1204 . A few remnants of Normandy , including the Channel Islands , remained in John 's possession , together with most of the Duchy of Aquitaine . Up until the Norman conquest of England , Wales had remained for the most part independent of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms , although some Welsh kings did sometimes acknowledge the Bretwalda . Soon after the Norman conquest of England , however , some Norman lords began to attack Wales . They conquered and ruled parts of it , acknowledging the overlordship of the Norman kings of England but with considerable local independence . Over many years these `` Marcher Lords '' conquered more and more of Wales , against considerable resistance led by various Welsh princes , who also often acknowledged the overlordship of the Norman kings of England . Edward I defeated Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , and so effectively conquered Wales , in 1282 . He created the title Prince of Wales for his eldest son , the future Edward II , in 1301 . Edward I 's conquest was brutal and the subsequent repression considerable , as the magnificent Welsh castles such as Conwy , Harlech , and Caernarfon attest ; but this event re-united under a single ruler the lands of Roman Britain for the first time since the establishment of the Kingdom of the Jutes in Kent in the 5th century , some 700 years before . Accordingly , this was a highly significant moment in the history of medieval England , as it re-established links with the pre-Saxon past . These links were exploited for political purposes to unite the peoples of the kingdom , including the Anglo-Normans , by popularising Welsh legends . The Welsh language—derived from the British language , with significant Latin influences—continued to be spoken by the majority of the population of Wales for at least another 500 years , and is still a majority language in parts of the country . Late Middle Ages Edward III was the first English king to have a claim to the throne of France . His pursuit of the claim resulted in the Hundred Years ' War ( 1337–1453 ) , which pitted five kings of England of the House of Plantagenet against five kings of France of the Capetian House of Valois . Though the English won numerous victories , they were unable to overcome the numerical superiority of the French and their strategic use of gunpowder weapons . England was defeated at the Battle of Formigny in 1450 and finally at the Battle of Castillon in 1453 , retaining only a single town in France , Calais . During the Hundred Years ' War an English identity began to develop in place of the previous division between the Norman lords and their Anglo-Saxon subjects . This was a consequence of sustained hostility to the increasingly nationalist French , whose kings and other leaders ( notably the charismatic Joan of Arc ) used a developing sense of French identity to help draw people to their cause . The Anglo-Normans became separate from their cousins who held lands mainly in France , who mocked the former for their archaic and bastardised spoken French . English also became the language of the law courts during this period . The kingdom had little time to recover before entering the Wars of the Roses ( 1455–1487 ) , a series of civil wars over possession of the throne between the House of Lancaster ( whose heraldic symbol was the red rose ) and the House of York ( whose symbol was the white rose ) , each led by different branches of the descendants of Edward III . The end of these wars found the throne held by the descendant of an initially illegitimate member of the House of Lancaster , married to the eldest daughter of the House of York : Henry VII and Elizabeth of York . They were the founders of the Tudor dynasty , which ruled the Kingdom from 1485 to 1603 . Tudor period Wales had retained a separate legal and administrative system , which had been established by Edward I in the late 13th century . The country was divided between the Marcher Lords owing feudal allegiance to the crown and the Principality of Wales . Under the Tudor monarchy , Henry VIII replaced the laws of Wales with those of England ( under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 ) . Wales now was incorporated into the Kingdom of England , and henceforth was represented in the Parliament of England . During the 1530s , Henry VIII overthrew the power of the Roman Catholic Church within the kingdom , replacing the pope as head of the English church and seizing the church 's lands , thereby facilitating the creation of a new Protestant religion . This had the effect of aligning England with Scotland , which also gradually adopted a Protestant religion , whereas the most important continental powers , France and Spain , remained Roman Catholic . In 1541 , during Henry VIII 's reign , the Parliament of Ireland proclaimed him king of Ireland , thereby bringing the Kingdom of Ireland into personal union with the Kingdom of England . Calais , the last remaining continental possession of the Kingdom , was lost in 1558 , during the reign of Philip and Mary I . Their successor , Elizabeth I , consolidated the new Protestant Church of England . She also began to build up the Kingdom 's naval strength , on the foundations Henry VIII had laid down . In 1588 , her new navy was strong enough to defeat the Spanish Armada , which had sought to invade England in order to put a Catholic monarch on the throne in her place . Early Modern history The House of Tudor ended with the death of Elizabeth I on 24 March 1603 . James I ascended the throne of England and brought it into personal union with the Kingdom of Scotland . Despite the Union of the Crowns , the kingdoms remained separate and independent states : a state of affairs which lasted for more than a century . Civil War and Interregnum The Stuart kings overestimated the power of the English monarchy , and were cast down by Parliament in 1645 and 1688 . In the first instance , Charles I 's introduction of new forms of taxation in defiance of Parliament led to the English Civil War ( 1641–45 ) , in which the king was defeated , and to the abolition of the monarchy under Oliver Cromwell during the interregnum of 1649–1660 . Henceforth , the monarch could reign only at the will of Parliament . After the trial and execution of Charles I in January 1649 , the Rump Parliament passed an act declaring England to be a Commonwealth on 19 May 1649 . The monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished , and so the House of Commons became a unitary legislative chamber with a new body , the Council of State becoming the executive . However the Army remain the dominant institution in the new republic and the most prominent general was Oliver Cromwell . The Commonwealth fought wars in Ireland and Scotland which were subdued and placed under Commonwealth military occupation . In April 1653 Cromwell and the other Grandees of the New Model Army , frustrated with the members of the Rump Parliament who would not pass legislation to dissolve the Rump and to allow a new more representative parliament to be elected , stopped the Rumps session by force of arms and declared the Rump dissolved . After an experiment with a Nominated Assembly ( Barebone 's Parliament ) , the Grandees in the Army , through the Council of State imposed a new constitutional arrangement under a written constitution called the Instrument of Government . Under the Instrument of Government executive power lay with a Lord Protector ( an office be held for life of the incumbent ) and there were to be triennial Parliaments , with each sitting for at least five months . Article 23 of the Instrument of Government stated that Oliver Cromwell was to be the first Lord Protector . The Instrument of Government was replaced by a second constitution ( the Humble Petition and Advice ) under which the Lord Protector could nominate his successor . Cromwell nominated his son Richard who became Lord Protector on the death of Oliver on 3 September 1658 . Restoration and Glorious Revolution Richard proved to ineffectual and unable to maintain his rule . He resigned his title and retired into obscurity . The Rump Parliament was recalled and there was a second period where the executive power lay with the Council of state . But this restoration of Commonwealth rule similar to that before the Protectorate , proved to be unstable , and the exiled claimant , Charles II , was restored to the throne in 1660 . Following the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , an attempt by James II to reintroduce Roman Catholicism—a century after its suppression by the Tudors—led to the Glorious Revolution of 1688 , in which he was deposed by Parliament . The Crown was then offered by Parliament to James II 's Protestant daughter and son-in-law/nephew , William III and Mary II . Union with Scotland In the Scottish case , the attractions were partly financial and partly to do with removing English trade sanctions put in place through the Alien Act 1705 . The English were more anxious about the royal succession . The death of William III in 1702 had led to the accession of his sister-in-law Anne to the thrones of England and Scotland , but her only surviving child had died in 1700 , and the English Act of Settlement 1701 had given the succession to the English crown to the Protestant House of Hanover . Securing the same succession in Scotland became the primary object of English strategic thinking towards Scotland . By 1704 , the Union of the Crowns was in crisis , with the Scottish Act of Security allowing for the Scottish Parliament to choose a different monarch , which could in turn lead to an independent foreign policy during a major European war . The English establishment did not wish to risk a Stuart on the Scottish throne , nor the possibility of a Scottish military alliance with another power . A Treaty of Union was agreed on 22 July 1706 , and following the Acts of Union of 1707 , which created the Kingdom of Great Britain , the independence of the kingdoms of England and Scotland came to an end on 1 May 1707 . The Acts of Union created a customs union and monetary union and provided that any `` laws and statutes '' that were `` contrary to or inconsistent with the terms '' of the Acts would `` cease and become void . '' The English and Scottish Parliaments were merged into the Parliament of Great Britain , located in Westminster , London . At this point England ceased to exist as a separate political entity , and since then has had no national government . The laws of England were unaffected , with the legal jurisdiction continuing to be that of England and Wales , while Scotland continued to have its own laws and law courts . This continued after the 1801 union between the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland , forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom , leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . Territorial divisions The counties of England were established for administration by the Normans , in most cases based on earlier shires established by the Anglo-Saxons . They ceased to be used for administration only with the creation of the administrative counties in 1889 . Unlike the partly self-governing boroughs that covered urban areas , the counties of medieval England existed primarily as a means of enforcing central government power , enabling monarchs to exercise control over local areas through their chosen representatives – originally Sheriffs and later the Lord Lieutenants – and their subordinate Justices of the Peace . Counties were used initially for the administration of justice , collection of taxes and organisation of the military , and later for local government and electing parliamentary representation . Although all of England was divided into shires by the time of the Norman conquest , some counties were formed considerably later , up to the 16th century . Because of their differing origins the counties varied considerably in size . The county boundaries were fairly static between the 16th century Laws in Wales acts and the Local Government Act 1888 . [ http : //www.visionofbritain.org.uk/text/chap_page.jsp ? t_id Cen_Guide & c_id19 & show ALL Vision of Britain ] — Census Geographies . Retrieved 19 October 2006 . Each shire was responsible for gathering taxes for the central government ; for local defence ; and for justice , through assize courts . The power of the feudal barons to control their landholding was considerably weakened in 1290 by the statute of Quia Emptores . Feudal baronies became perhaps obsolete ( but not extinct ) on the abolition of feudal tenure during the Civil War , as confirmed by the Tenures Abolition Act 1660 passed under the Restoration which took away Knights service and other legal rights . Tenure by knight-service was abolished and discharged and the lands covered by such tenures , including once-feudal baronies , were henceforth held by socage ( i.e . in exchange for monetary rents ) . The English Fitzwalter Case in 1670 ruled that barony by tenure had been discontinued for many years and any claims to a peerage on such basis , meaning a right to sit in the House of Lords , were not to be revived , nor any right of succession based on them . The Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 followed the conquest of Wales by Edward I of England . It assumed the lands held by the Princes of Gwynedd under the title `` Prince of Wales '' as legally part of the lands of England , and established shire counties on the English model over those areas . The Marcher Lords were progressively tied to the English kings by the grants of lands and lordships in England . The Council of Wales and the Marches , administered from Ludlow Castle , was initially established in 1472 by Edward IV of England to govern the lands held under the Principality of Wales.William Searle Holdsworth , `` A History of English Law , '' Little , Brown , and Company , 1912 , pg . 502 Under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 introduced under Henry VIII , the jurisdiction of the marcher lords was abolished in 1536 . The Acts had the effect of annexing Wales to England and creating a single state and legal jurisdiction , commonly referred to as England and Wales .

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Lady Jane Grey was the great grand-daughter of which English king?

Kent is a county in South East England and one of the home counties . It borders Greater London to the north west , Surrey to the west , East Sussex to the south west , and across the Thames Estuary is the county of Essex . The county town is Maidstone . With a population of over 1.4 million , Kent is the second most populous county in the South East region after Hampshire . Canterbury Cathedral in Kent has been the seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury , leader of the Church of England , since the conversion of England to Christianity by Saint Augustine in the 6th century . Between London and the Strait of Dover , which separates it from mainland Europe , Kent has seen both diplomacy and conflict , ranging from the Leeds Castle peace talks of 1978 and 2004 to the Battle of Britain in World War II . England relied on the county 's ports to provide warships through much of its history ; the Cinque Ports in the 12th–14th centuries and Chatham Dockyard in the 16th–20th centuries were of particular importance . France can be seen clearly in fine weather from Folkestone and the White Cliffs of Dover . Hills in the form of the North Downs and the Greensand Ridge span the length of the county and in the series of valleys in between and to the south are most of the county 's 26 castles . Because of its relative abundance of fruit-growing and hop gardens , Kent is known as `` The Garden of England '' . [ http : //www.guardian.co.uk/country/article/0 , ,1787332,00.html # article_continue Kent loses its Garden of England title to North Yorkshire ] . The Guardian 1 June 2006 [ http : //news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/5037566.stm Garden of England title defended ] , BBC . 1 June 2006 The title was defended in 2006 when a survey of beautiful counties by the UKTV Style Gardens channel put Kent in fifth place , behind North Yorkshire , Devon , Derbyshire and Gloucestershire . Kent 's economy is greatly diversified . Haulage , logistics and tourism are major industries throughout the county ; major industries in north-west Kent include aggregate building materials , printing and scientific research . Coal mining has also played its part in Kent 's industrial heritage . Large parts of Kent are within the London commuter belt and its strong transport connections to the capital and the nearby continent makes Kent a high income county . Twenty-eight per cent of the county forms part of two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty : the North Downs and The Weald . History The area has been occupied since the Palaeolithic era , as attested by finds from the quarries at Swanscombe . The Medway megaliths were built during the Neolithic era . There is a rich sequence of Bronze Age , Iron Age , and Roman era occupation , as indicated by finds and features such as the Ringlemere gold cup and the Roman villas of the Darent valley . The modern name of Kent is derived from the Brythonic word Cantus meaning `` rim '' or `` border '' . This describes the eastern part of the current county area as a border land or coastal district . Julius Caesar had described the area as Cantium , or home of the Cantiaci in 51 BC . The extreme west of the modern county was by the time of Roman Britain occupied by Iron Age tribes , known as the Regnenses . East Kent became a kingdom of the Jutes during the 5th century and was known as Cantia from about 730 and recorded as Cent in 835 . The early medieval inhabitants of the county were known as the Cantwara , or Kent people . These people regarded the city of Canterbury as their capital . In 597 , Pope Gregory I appointed the religious missionary ( who became Saint Augustine of Canterbury after his death ) as the first Archbishop of Canterbury . In the previous year , Augustine successfully converted the pagan King Æthelberht of Kent to Christianity . The Diocese of Canterbury became Britain 's first Episcopal See with first cathedral and has since remained Britain 's centre of Christianity . The second designated English cathedral was in Kent at Rochester Cathedral . In the 11th century , the people of Kent adopted the motto Invicta , meaning `` undefeated '' . This naming followed the invasion of Britain by William of Normandy . The Kent people 's continued resistance against the Normans led to Kent 's designation as a semi-autonomous county palatine in 1067 . Under the nominal rule of William 's half-brother Odo of Bayeux , the county was granted similar powers to those granted in the areas bordering Wales and Scotland . During the medieval and early modern period , Kent played a major role in several of England 's most notable rebellions , including the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 , led by Wat Tyler , Jack Cade 's Kent rebellion of 1450 , and Wyatt 's Rebellion of 1554 against Queen Mary I . The Royal Navy first used the River Medway in 1547 . By the reign of Elizabeth I ( 1558–1603 ) a small dockyard had been established at Chatham . By 1618 , storehouses , a ropewalk , a drydock , and houses for officials had been built downstream from Chatham . By the 17th century , tensions between Britain and the powers of the Netherlands and France led to increasing military build-up in the county . Forts were built all along the coast following the raid on the Medway , a successful attack by the Dutch navy on the shipyards of the Medway towns in 1667 . The 18th century was dominated by wars with France , during which the Medway became the primary base for a fleet that could act along the Dutch and French coasts . When the theatre of operation moved to the Atlantic , this role was assumed by Portsmouth and Plymouth , with Chatham concentrating on shipbuilding and ship repair . As an indication of the area 's military importance , the first Ordnance Survey map ever drawn was a one-inch map of Kent , published in 1801 . Many of the Georgian naval buildings still stand . In the early 19th century , smugglers were very active on the Kent coastline . Gangs such as The Aldington Gang brought spirits , tobacco and salt to the county , and transported goods such as wool across the sea to France . In 1889 , the County of London was created and the townships of Deptford , Greenwich , Woolwich , Lee , Eltham , Charlton , Kidbrooke and Lewisham were transferred out of Kent and in 1900 the area of Penge was gained . Some of Kent is contiguous with the Greater London sprawl , notably parts of Dartford . During World War II , much of the Battle of Britain was fought in the skies over the county . Between June 1944 and March 1945 , over 10,000 V1 flying bombs or `` Doodlebugs '' , were fired toward London from bases in Northern France . Although many were destroyed by aircraft , anti-aircraft guns , and barrage balloons , both London and Kent were hit by around 2,500 of these bombs . After the war , Kent 's borders changed several more times . In 1965 the London boroughs of Bromley and Bexley were created from nine towns formerly in Kent . In 1998 , Rochester , Chatham , Gillingham , and Rainham left the administrative county of Kent to form the Unitary Authority of Medway . During this reorganisation , through an `` apparent '' administrative oversight , the city of Rochester lost its official city status . For almost nine centuries a small part of present-day East London ( the North Woolwich , London E16 area ) , formed part of Kent . The most likely reason for this is that in 1086 Hamon , dapifer and Sheriff of Kent , owned the manor and , perhaps illegally , annexed it to Kent . It ceased to be considered part of the county in 1965 upon creation of the London Borough of Newham . Climate Kent is one of the warmest parts of Britain . On 10 August 2003 , in the hamlet of Brogdale near Faversham the temperature reached , the hottest temperature ever recorded in the United Kingdom . Physical geography Kent is in the southeastern corner of England . It borders the River Thames and the North Sea to the north , and the Straits of Dover and the English Channel to the south . France is 34 km across the Strait . The major geographical features of the county are determined by a series of ridges and valleys running east-west across the county . These are the results of erosion of the Wealden dome , a dome across Kent and Sussex created by alpine movements 10–20 million years ago . This dome consists of an upper layer of chalk above successive layers of Upper Greensand , Gault Clay , Lower Greensand , Weald Clay , and Wealden sandstone . The ridges and valleys formed when the exposed clay eroded faster than the exposed chalk , greensand , or sandstone . Sevenoaks , Maidstone , Ashford , and Folkestone are built on greensand , while Ditton , Tonbridge and Tunbridge Wells are built on sandstone . Dartford , Gravesend , the Medway towns , Sittingbourne , Faversham , Canterbury , Deal , and Dover are built on chalk . The easterly section of the Wealden dome has been eroded away by the sea , and cliffs such as the White Cliffs of Dover are present where a chalk ridge known as the North Downs meets the coast . Spanning Dover and Westerham is the Kent Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty . The Wealden dome is a Mesozoic structure lying on a Palaeozoic foundation , which can often create the right conditions for coal formation . This is found in East Kent roughly between Deal , Canterbury , and Dover . The Coal Measures within the Westphalian Sandstone are deep about 250 – and subject to flooding . They occur in two major troughs , which extend under the English Channel where similar coalfields are located . Seismic activity has occasionally been recorded in Kent , though the epicentres were offshore . In 1382 and 1580 there were two earthquakes exceeding 6.0 on the Richter Scale . In 1776 , 1950 , and on 28 April 2007 there were earthquakes of around 4.3 . The 2007 earthquake caused physical damage in Folkestone . A further quake on 22 May 2015 measured 4.2 on the Richter Scale . The epicentre was in the Sandwich area of east Kent at a depth of some ten miles from the surface . There was little if any damage reported . The coastline of Kent is continuously changing , due to tectonic uplift and coastal erosion . Until about 960 , the Isle of Thanet was an island , separated by the Wantsum channel , formed around a deposit of chalk ; over time , the channels silted up with alluvium . Similarly Romney Marsh and Dungeness have been formed by accumulation of alluvium . Kent 's principal river , the River Medway , rises near East Grinstead in Sussex and flows eastwards to Maidstone . Here it turns north and breaks through the North Downs at Rochester , then joins the estuary of the River Thames as its final tributary near Sheerness . The Medway is some 112 km long . The river is tidal as far as Allington lock , but in earlier times , cargo-carrying vessels reached as far upstream as Tonbridge . The Medway has captured the head waters of other rivers such as the River Darent . Other rivers of Kent include the River Stour in the east . Demography At the 2011 census , Kent , including Medway , had 1,727,665 residents ( 18.0 % of which in Medway ) ; had 711,847 households ( 17.5 % of which in Medway ) and had 743,436 dwellings ( 14.8 % of which in Medway ) . 51.1 % of Kent 's population excluding Medway was female — as to Medway this proportion was 50.4 % . The tables below provide statistics for the administrative county of Kent , that is , excluding Medway . Government Kent County Council ( KCC ) and its 12 district councils administer most of the county ( 3352 km² ) , while the Medway Towns Council , a unitary authority and commonly called Medway Council , administers the more densely populated remainder ( 192 km² ) . Together they have around 300 town and parish councils . Kent County Council 's headquarters are in Maidstone , while Medway 's offices are at Gun Wharf , Chatham . At the 2013 county council elections , control of Kent County Council was held by the Conservatives , which won 44 of the council 's 83 seats . 17 seats were won by the United Kingdom Independence Party , 13 by the Labour Party , 7 were won by the Liberal Democrats , 1 by the Green Party and 1 by the Swanscombe and Greenhithe Residents Association . At the 2007 local elections , control of Medway Council was held by the Conservatives ; 33 of the council 's 55 seats were held by the Conservatives , 13 by the Labour Party , 8 by the Liberal Democrats and 1 by an Independent . All but one of Kent 's district councils are controlled by the Conservatives , a minority Labour administration taking control of Thanet District in December 2011 following the defection of a Conservative councillor to the Independent group . In the council elections of May 2015 the United Kingdom Independence Party ( UKIP ) took control of the Council , the first and so far only one in the UK . In October 2015 UKIP lost overall control following a series of resignations , although remaining the largest party . At the national level , Kent is represented in Parliament by 17 MPs , all of whom are Conservative . Kent is in the European Parliament constituency of South East England , which elects ten members of the European Parliament . Economy At the 2001 UK census , employment statistics for the residents in Kent , including Medway , were as follows : 41.1 % in full-time employment , 12.4 % in part-time employment , 9.1 % self-employed , 2.9 % unemployed , 2.3 % students with jobs , 3.7 % students without jobs , 12.3 % retired , 7.3 % looking after home or family , 4.3 % permanently sick or disabled , and 2.7 % economically inactive for other reasons . Of residents aged 16–74 , 16 % had a higher education qualification or the equivalent , compared to 20 % nationwide . The average hours worked per week by residents of Kent were 43.1 for males and 30.9 for females . Their industry of employment was 17.3 % retail , 12.4 % manufacturing , 11.8 % real estate , 10.3 % health and social work , 8.9 % construction , 8.2 % transport and communications , 7.9 % education , 6.0 % public administration and defence , 5.6 % finance , 4.8 % other community and personal service activities , 4.1 % hotels and restaurants , 1.6 % agriculture , 0.8 % energy and water supply , 0.2 % mining , and 0.1 % private households . This is higher than the whole of England for construction and transport/communications , and lower for manufacturing . Kent is sometimes known as the `` Garden of England '' for its abundance of orchards and hop gardens . Distinctive hop-drying buildings called oasts are common in the countryside , although many have been converted into dwellings . Nearer to London , market gardens also flourish . Kent is the main area for hazelnut production in the UK . However , in recent years , there has been a significant drop in agriculture , and industry and services are increasing their utilisation of the area . This is illustrated by the following table of economic indicator gross value added ( GVA ) between 1995 and 2000 ( figures are in millions of British Pounds Sterling ) . North Kent is heavily industrialised with cement-making at Northfleet and Cuxton , brickmaking at Sittingbourne , shipbuilding on the Medway and Swale , engineering and aircraft design and construction at Rochester , chemicals at Dartford and papermaking at Swanley , and oil refining at Grain . A steel mini mill in Sheerness and a rolling mill in Queenborough.There are two nuclear power stations at Dungeness , although the older one , built in 1965 , was closed at the end of 2006 . Cement-making , papermaking , and coal-mining were important industries in Kent during the 19th and 20th century . Cement came to the fore in the 19th century when massive building projects were undertaken . The ready supply of chalk and huge pits between Stone and Gravesend bear testament to that industry . There were also other workings around Burham on the tidal Medway . Kent 's original paper mills stood on streams like the River Darent , tributaries of the River Medway , and on the River Stour . Two 18th century mills were on the River Len and at Tovil on the River Loose . In the late 19th century huge modern mills were built at Dartford and Northfleet on the River Thames and at Kemsley on The Swale . In pre-industrial times , almost every village and town had its own windmill or watermill , with over 400 windmills known to have stood at some time . Twenty eight survive within the county today , plus two replica mills and a further two in that part of Kent now absorbed into London . All the major rivers in the county were used to power watermills . From about 1900 , several coal pits operated in East Kent . The Kent Coalfield was mined during the 20th century at several collieries , including Chislet , Tilmanstone , Betteshanger , and the Snowdown Colliery , which ran from 1908 to 1986 . The west of the county ( including Tunbridge Wells , Tonbridge and Sevenoaks ) has less than 50 % of the average claimant count for low incomes or worklessness as the coastal districts of Dover , Shepway ( main conurbation : Folkestone and Hythe ) and Thanet ( chiefly three resorts : Ramsgate , Broadstairs and Margate ) . West and Central Kent has long had many City of London commuters . Since the Channel Tunnel Rail Link improvements of 2009 to High Speed 1 , services from Ebbsfleet near Dartford and from Ashford have become frequent , express to Central London , Paris and Brussels . Culture Architecture Kent 's geographical location between the Straits of Dover and London has impacted its architecture , as has its cretacious geology and its good farming land and fine building clays . Kent 's countryside pattern was determined by a gavelkind inheritance system that generated a proliferation of small settlements . There was no open-field system , and the large tracts were owned by the two great abbeys , Christ Church , Canterbury and St Augustine 's Abbey , that did not pass into the hands of the king during the Reformation . Canterbury Cathedral is the United Kingdom 's metropolitan cathedral ; it was founded in AD 598 and displays architecture from all periods . There are nine Anglo-Saxon churches in Kent . Rochester Cathedral is England 's second oldest cathedral , the present building built in the Early English Style . These two dioceses ensured that every village had a parish church . The sites of Richborough Castle and Dover Castle , along with two strategic sites along Watling Street , were fortified by the Romans and Normans . Other important sites include Canterbury city walls and Rochester Castle . There remained a need to defend London and thus Kent . Deal Castle , Walmer Castle , Sandown Castle ( whose remains were eroded by the sea in the 1990s ) were constructed in late mediaeval times , and HM Dockyard , at Chatham and its surrounding castles and forts—Upnor Castle , Great Lines , and Fort Amherst—more recently . Kent has three unique vernacular architecture forms : the Oast house , the Wealden hall house , and Kentish peg-tiles . Kent has bridge trusts to maintain its bridges , and though the great bridge ( 1387 ) at Rochester was replaced there are medieval structures at Aylesford , Yalding and Teston . With the motorways in the late twentieth century came the M2 motorway bridge spanning the Medway and the Dartford tunnel and the Dartford Bridge spanning the Thames . The Bluewater shopping centre is the United Kingdom 's largest shopping mall . Literature Kent has provided inspiration for several notable writers and artists . Canterbury 's religious role gave rise to Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales , a key development in the English language . The father of novelist Charles Dickens worked at the Chatham Dockyard ; in many of his books , the celebrated novelist featured the scenery of Chatham , Rochester , and the Cliffe marshes . During the late 1930s , Nobel Prize-awarded novelist William Golding worked as a teacher at Maidstone Grammar School , where he met his future wife Ann Brookfield . Visual arts The landscape painter J. M. W. Turner spent part of his childhood in the town of Margate in East Kent , and regularly returned to visit it throughout his life . The East Kent coast inspired many of his works , including some of his most famous seascapes . Performing arts The county 's largest theatre is the Marlowe Theatre , situated in the centre of Canterbury . It re-opened , after being completely rebuilt , in October 2011 . Music festivals that take place in Kent include Chilled in a Field Festival , Electric Gardens , Hop Farm Festival , In the Woods Festival , and Lounge On The Farm . Transport Roads With the Roman invasion , a road network was constructed to connect London to the Channel ports of Dover , Lympne and Richborough . The London–Dover road was Watling Street . These roads are now approximately the A2 , B2068 , A257 , and the A28 . The A2 runs through Dartford ( A207 ) , Gravesend , Rochester , Canterbury and Dover ; the A20 through Eltham , Wrotham , Maidstone , Charing , Ashford . Hythe , Folkestone and Dover ; the A21 around Sevenoaks , Tonbridge , Tunbridge Wells and on to Hastings in East Sussex . In the 1960s , two motorways were built ; the M2 from Medway to Faversham , and the M20 from Swanley to Folkestone . Part of the M25 runs through Kent , from Westerham to the Kent and Essex tunnel at Dartford . The Dartford tunnel has been joined by the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge , together providing four lanes in each direction . The M26 motorway , built in 1980 , provides a short link between the M25 at Sevenoaks and the M20 near Wrotham . Kent currently has more motorways by distance than any other county in the UK , with sections of the M2 , M20 , M25 and M26 totalling 173 km within the extents of the ceremonial county . Water The medieval Cinque Ports , except for Dover , have all now silted up . The Medway Estuary has been an important port and naval base for 500 years . The River Medway is tidal up to Allington and navigable up to Tonbridge . Kent 's two canals are the Royal Military Canal between Hythe and Rye , which still exists , and the Thames and Medway Canal between Strood and Gravesend . Built in 1824 , it was purchased in 1846 by the railways , which partially backfilled it . Container ports are located at Ramsgate and Thamesport . Railways The earliest locomotive-driven passenger-carrying railway in Britain was the Canterbury and Whitstable Railway which opened in 1830 . This and the London and Greenwich Railway later merged into South Eastern Railway ( SER ) . By the 1850s , SER 's networks had expanded to Ashford , Ramsgate , Canterbury , Tunbridge Wells , and the Medway towns . SER 's major London termini were London Bridge , Charing Cross , and Cannon Street . Kent also had a second major railway , the London , Chatham and Dover Railway ( LCDR ) . Originally the East Kent Railway in 1858 , it linked the northeast Kent coast with London terminals at Victoria and Blackfriars . The two companies merged in 1899 , forming the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) , further amalgamated with other railways by the Railways Act 1921 to form the Southern Railway . Britain 's railways were nationalised in 1948 , forming British Railways ( shortened to British Rail in the mid-1960s ) . The railways were privatised in 1996 and most Kent passenger services were franchised to Connex South Eastern . Following financial difficulties , Connex lost the franchise and was replaced by South Eastern Trains and after Southeastern . The Channel Tunnel was completed in 1994 and High Speed 1 in November 2007 with a London terminus at St Pancras . A new station , Ebbsfleet International , opened between Dartford and Gravesend , serving northern Kent . The high speed lines will be utilised to provide a faster train service to coastal towns like Ramsgate and Folkestone . This station is in addition to the existing station at Ashford International , which has suffered a massive cut in service as a result . In addition to the `` main line '' railways , there are several light , heritage , and industrial railways in Kent . There are three heritage , standard gauge railways ; Spa Valley Railway near Tunbridge Wells on the old Tunbridge Wells West branch , East Kent Railway on the old East Kent coalfield area and the Kent and East Sussex Railway on the Weald around Tenterden . In addition there is the 15 in gauge , Romney , Hythe and Dymchurch Railway on the southeast Kent coast along the Dungeness peninsula . Finally , there is the 2 ft , industrial Sittingbourne & Kemsley Light Railway , previously the Bowaters Paper Railway . Air A limited number of charter flights are provided by London Ashford Airport at Lydd . However , most passengers across the South East use the larger Heathrow , Gatwick , Stansted and Luton airports . In 2002 , it was revealed that the government was considering building a new four-runway airport on the marshland near the village of Cliffe on Hoo Peninsula . This plan was dropped in 2003 following protests by cultural and environmental groups . However further plans for a Thames Estuary Airport on the Kent coast have subsequently emerged , including the Thames Hub Airport , again sited on the Isle of Grain and designed by Lord Foster , and the London Britannia Airport plan , colloquially known as `` Boris Island '' due to its being championed by the former Mayor of London Boris Johnson , which would see a six runway airport built on an artificial island to be located towards the Shivering Sands area , north-east of Whitstable . Both of these options were finally dropped in 2014 in favour of expansion at either Gatwick or Heathrow Airport - a final decision is still awaited ( October 2015 ) . Education The county has four universities : Canterbury Christ Church University with campuses throughout East Kent ; University of Kent , with campuses in Canterbury and Medway ; University of Greenwich ( a London University ) , with sites at Woolwich , Eltham , London and Medway ; the University for the Creative Arts ( UCA ) also has three of its five campuses in the county . Although much of Britain adopted a comprehensive education system in the 1970s , Kent County Council ( KCC ) and Medway Unitary Authority are among around fifteen local authorities still providing wholly selective education through the eleven-plus examination with students allocated a place at a secondary modern school or at a grammar school . Together , the two Kent authorities have 38 of the 164 grammar schools remaining in Britain . KCC has the largest

qw_12919--Kent.txt

What was the name of the Roman road that stretched from Dover, Kent, almost to Shrewsbury, Shropshire, a distance of 322 km (200 miles)?

A hangover is the experience of various unpleasant physiological and psychological effects following the consumption of ethanol , as found in wine , beer and distilled spirits . Hangovers can last for several hours or for more than 24 hours . Typical symptoms of a hangover may include headache , drowsiness , concentration problems , dry mouth , dizziness , fatigue , gastrointestinal distress ( e.g. , vomiting ) , absence of hunger , sweating , nausea , hyper-excitability and anxiety . While the causes of a hangover are still poorly understood , several factors are known to be involved including acetaldehyde accumulation , changes in the immune system and glucose metabolism , dehydration , metabolic acidosis , disturbed prostaglandin synthesis , increased cardiac output , vasodilation , sleep deprivation and malnutrition . Beverage-specific effects of additives or by-products such as congeners in alcoholic beverages also play an important role . The symptoms occur typically after the intoxicating effect of the alcohol begins to wear off , generally the morning after a night of heavy drinking . Though many possible remedies and `` folk cures '' have been suggested , there is no compelling evidence to suggest that any are effective for preventing or treating alcohol hangover . Avoiding alcohol or drinking in moderation are the most effective ways to avoid a hangover . The socioeconomic consequences and health risks of alcohol hangover include workplace absenteeism , impaired job performance , reduced productivity and poor academic achievement . A hangover may also compromise potentially dangerous daily activities such as driving a car or operating heavy machinery . Signs and symptoms An alcohol hangover is associated with a variety of symptoms that may include drowsiness , headache , concentration problems , dry mouth , dizziness , gastrointestinal complaints , fatigue , sweating , nausea , hyper-excitability , anxiety and a feeling of general discomfort that may last more than 24 hours . Alcohol hangover symptoms develop when blood alcohol concentration falls considerably and peak when it returns to almost zero . Hangover symptoms validated in controlled studies include general malaise , thirst , headache , feeling dizzy or faint , tiredness , loss of appetite , nausea , stomach ache , and feeling as though one ’ s heart is racing . Some symptoms such as changes in sleep pattern and gastrointestinal distress are attributed to direct effects of the alcohol intoxication , or withdrawal symptoms . Drowsiness and impaired cognitive function are the two dominant features of alcohol hangover . Causes The processes which lead to hangovers are still poorly understood . Several pathophysiological changes may give rise to the alcohol hangover including increased levels of acetaldehyde , hormonal alterations of the cytokine pathways and decrease of the availability of glucose . Additional associated phenomena are dehydration , metabolic acidosis , disturbed prostaglandin synthesis , increased cardiac output , vasodilation , sleep deprivation and insufficient eating . Some complex organic molecules found in alcoholic beverages known as congeners may play an important role in producing hangover effects because some , such as methanol , are metabolized to the notably toxic substances formaldehyde and formic acid . Pathophysiology After being ingested , ethanol is first converted to acetaldehyde by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase and then to acetic acid by oxidation process . These reactions also convert nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( NAD+ ) to its reduced form NADH in a redox reaction . By causing an imbalance of the NAD+/NADH redox system , alcoholic beverages make normal bodily functions more difficult . Consequences of the alcohol induced redox changes in the human body include increased triglyceride production , increased amino acid catabolism , inhibition of the citric acid cycle , lactic acidosis , ketoacidosis , hyperuricemia , disturbance in cortisol and androgen metabolism and increased fibrogenesis.The metabolism of glucose and insulin are also influenced . However , recent studies showed no significant correlation between hangover severity and the concentrations of various hormones , electrolytes , free fatty acids , triglycerides , lactate , ketone bodies , cortisol , and glucose in blood and urine samples . Alcohol also induces the CYP2E1 enzyme , which metabolizes ethanol and other substances into more reactive toxins . In particular , in binge drinking the enzyme is activated and plays a role in creating a harmful condition known as oxidative stress which can lead to cell death . Acetaldehyde Acetaldehyde , the first by-product of ethanol , is between 10 and 30 times more toxic than alcohol itself and can remain at an elevated plateau for many hours after initial ethanol consumption . In addition , certain genetic factors can amplify the negative effects of acetaldehyde . For example , some people ( predominantely East Asians ) have a mutation in their alcohol dehydrogenase gene that makes this enzyme unusually fast at converting ethanol to acetaldehyde . In addition , about half of all East Asians convert acetaldehyde to acetic acid more slowly ( via acetaldehyde dehydrogenase ) , causing a higher buildup of acetaldehyde than normally seen in other groups . The high concentration of acetaldehyde causes the alcohol flush reaction , colloquially known as the `` Asian Glow '' . Since the alcohol flush reaction is highly uncomfortable and the possibility of hangovers is immediate and severe , people with this gene variant are less likely to become alcoholics . Acetaldehyde may also influence glutathione peroxidase , a key antioxidant enzyme , and increases the susceptibility to oxidative stress . Likewise , acetic acid ( or the acetate ion ) can cause additional problems . One study found that injecting sodium acetate into rats caused them to have nociceptive behavior ( headaches ) . In addition , there is a biochemical explanation for this finding . High acetate levels cause adenosine to accumulate in many parts of the brain . But when the rats were given caffeine , which blocks the action of adenosine , they no longer experienced headaches . Congeners In addition to ethanol and water , most alcoholic drinks also contain congeners , either as flavoring or as a by-product of fermentation and the aging process . While ethanol is by itself sufficient to produce most hangover effects , congeners may potentially aggravate hangover and other residual effects to some extent . Congeners include substances such as amines , amides , acetones , acetaldehydes , polyphenols , methanol , histamines , fusel oil , esters , furfural , and tannins , many but not all of which are toxic . One study in mice indicates that fusel oil may have a mitigating effect on hangover symptoms , while some whiskey congeners such as butanol protect the stomach against gastric mucosal damage in the rat . Different types of alcoholic beverages contain different amounts of congeners . In general , dark liquors have a higher concentration while clear liquors have a lower concentration . Whereas vodka has virtually no more congeners than pure ethanol , bourbon has a total congener content 37 times higher than that found in vodka . Several studies have examined whether certain types of alcohol cause worse hangovers . All four studies concluded that darker liquors , which have higher congeners , produced worse hangovers . One even showed that hangovers were worse and more frequent with darker liquors . In a 2006 study , an average of 14 standard drinks ( 330 ml each ) of beer was needed to produce a hangover , but only 7 to 8 drinks was required for wine or liquor ( note that one standard drink has the same amount of alcohol regardless of type ) . Another study ranked several drinks by their ability to cause a hangover ( from low to high ) : distilled ethanol diluted with fruit juice , beer , vodka , gin , white wine , whisky , rum , red wine and brandy . One potent congener is methanol . It is naturally formed in small quantities during fermentation and it can be accidentally concentrated by improper distillation techniques . Metabolism of methanol produces some extremely toxic compounds , such as formaldehyde and formic acid which may play a role in the severity of hangover . Ethanol slows the conversion of methanol into its toxic metabolites so that most of the methanol can be excreted harmlessly in the breath and urine without forming its toxic metabolites . This may explain the temporary postponement of symptoms reported in the common remedy of drinking more alcohol to relieve hangover symptoms . Since methanol metabolism is effectively inhibited by consumption of alcohol , methanol accumulates during drinking and only begins to be metabolized once ethanol has been cleared . This delayed action makes it an attractive candidate explanation for delayed post-intoxication symptoms and correlations between methanol concentrations and the presence of hangover symptoms that have been found in studies . Dehydration Ethanol has a dehydrating effect by causing increased urine production ( diuresis ) , which could cause thirst , dry mouth , dizziness and may lead to an electrolyte imbalance . Studies suggest that electrolyte changes play only a minor role in the genesis of the alcohol hangover and are caused by dehydration effects . Drinking water may help relieve symptoms as a result of dehydration but it is unlikely that rehydration significantly reduces the presence and severity of alcohol hangover . Alcohol 's effect on the stomach lining can account for nausea because alcohol stimulates the production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach . Low blood sugar Studies show that alcohol hangover is associated with a decrease in blood glucose concentration ( less than 70 ml/dl ) , but the relationship between blood glucose concentration and hangover severity is unclear . Also known as insulin shock , hypoglycemia can lead to coma or even death . Immune system In current research , the significant relationship between immune factors and hangover severity is the most convincing among all factors so far studied . An imbalance of the immune system , in particular of cytokine metabolism has been identified as playing a role in the pathophysiology of the hangover state . Especially the hangover symptoms nausea , headache , and fatigue have been suggested to be mediated by changes in the immune system . The concentration of several cytokines have been found to be significantly increased in the blood after alcohol consumption . These include Interleukin 12 ( IL-12 ) , Interferon gamma ( IFNγ ) and Interleukin 10 ( IL-10 ) . Some pharmacological studies such as on Tolfenamic acid and Opuntia ficus-indica ( OFI ) have also indicated an involvement of the immune system . These studies suggest that the presence and severity of hangover symptoms can probably be reduced by administration of a cyclooxygenase inhibitor such as aspirin or ibuprofen . Person-related factors Several factors which do not in themselves cause alcohol hangover are known to influence its severity . These factors include personality , genetics , health status , age , sex , associated activities during drinking such as smoking , the use of other drugs , physical activity such as dancing , as well as sleep quality and duration . * Genetics : alleles associated with aldehyde dehydrogenase ( ALDH ) and flushing phenotypes ( alcohol flush reaction ) in Asians are known genetic factors that influence alcohol tolerance and the development of hangover effects . Existing data shows that drinkers with genotypes known to lead to acetaldehyde accumulation are more susceptible to hangover effects . The fact that about 25 % of heavy drinkers claim that they have never had a hangover is also an indication that genetic variation plays a role in individual differences of hangover severity . * Age : some people experience hangovers as getting worse as one ages . This is thought to be caused by declining supplies of alcohol dehydrogenase , the enzyme involved in metabolizing alcohol . Although it is actually unknown whether hangover symptoms and severity change with age , research shows that drinking patterns change across ages , and heavy drinking episodes that may result in hangover are much less often experienced as age increases . * Sex : at the same number of drinks , women are more prone to hangover than men , and this is likely explained by sex differences in the pharmacokinetics of alcohol . Women attain a higher blood alcohol concentration ( BAC ) than men at the same number of drinks . At equivalent BACs , men and women appear to be indistinguishable with respect to most hangover effects . * Cigarette smoking : acetaldehyde which is absorbed from cigarette smoking during alcohol consumption is regarded as a contributor to alcohol hangover symptoms . Management Hangovers are poorly understood from a medical point of view . Health care professionals prefer to study alcohol abuse from a standpoint of treatment and prevention , and there is a view that the hangover provides a useful , natural and intrinsic disincentive to excessive drinking . Within the limited amount of serious study on the subject , there is debate about whether a hangover may be prevented or at least mitigated . There is also a vast body of folk medicine and simple quackery . Currently no empirically proven mechanism for the prevention of alcohol induced hangover , or for making oneself sober is recommended , except moderating the amount of alcohol consumed or abstinence . A four-page literature review in the British Medical Journal concludes : `` No compelling evidence exists to suggest that any conventional or complementary intervention is effective for preventing or treating alcohol hangover . The most effective way to avoid the symptoms of alcohol induced hangover is to avoid drinking . '' Most remedies do not significantly reduce overall hangover severity . Some compounds reduce specific symptoms such as vomiting and headache , but are not effective in reducing other common hangover symptoms such as drowsiness and fatigue Potentially beneficial There is no evidence that any treatment for hangovers is very effective . * Rehydration : Drinking water before going to bed or during hangover may relieve dehydration-associated symptoms such as thirst , dizziness , dry mouth , and headache . * Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin have been proposed as a treatment for the headaches associated with a hangover . There however is no evidence to support a benefit and there are concerns that combined use of alcohol and aspirin may increase the risk of stomach bleeding and liver damage . * Tolfenamic acid , an inhibitor of prostaglandin synthesis , in a 1983 study reduced headache , nausea , vomiting , irritation but had no effect on tiredness in 30 people . * Opuntia ficus-indica : An extract of a species of cactus may reduce some effects of hangover . The risk of having a severe hangover was found to be reduced by 50 % in one study , although no differences were observed in overall hangover severity . Nausea , lack of appetite and dry mouth were less often reported , whereas no changes were found for headache , soreness , weakness , tremulousness , diarrhea and dizziness . Opuntia ficus-indica was most effective in those participants who consumed drinks with high levels of congeners . * Pyritinol : A 1973 study found that large doses ( several hundred times the recommended daily intake ) of Pyritinol , a synthetic Vitamin B6 analog , can help to reduce hangover symptoms . Possible side effects of pyritinol include cholestatic hepatitis and acute pancreatitis . * Yeast-based extracts : The difference in the change for the symptoms discomfort , restlessness , and impatience were statistically significant but no significant differences on blood chemistry parameters , blood alcohol or acetaldehyde concentrations have been found , and it did not significantly improve general well-being . Unsupported remedies Recommendations for foods , drinks and activities to relieve hangover symptoms abound . The ancient Romans , on the authority of Pliny the Elder , favored raw owl 's eggs or fried canary , while the `` prairie oyster '' restorative , introduced at the 1878 Paris World Exposition , calls for raw egg yolk mixed with Worcestershire sauce , Tabasco sauce , salt and pepper . By 1938 , the Ritz-Carlton Hotel provided a hangover remedy in the form of a mixture of Coca-Cola and milk ( Coca-Cola itself having been invented , by some accounts , as a hangover remedy ) . Alcoholic writer Ernest Hemingway relied on tomato juice and beer . Other purported hangover cures include cocktails such as Bloody Mary or Black Velvet ( consisting of equal parts champagne and stout ) . A 1957 survey by a Wayne State University folklorist found widespread belief in the efficacy of heavy fried foods , tomato juice and sexual activity . Other untested or discredited treatments include : * Hair of the dog : The belief is that consumption of further alcohol after the onset of a hangover will relieve symptoms , based upon the theory that the hangover represents a form of alcohol withdrawal and that by satiating the body 's need for alcohol the symptoms will be relieved . Social drinkers and alcoholics claim that drinking more alcohol gives relief from hangover symptoms , but research shows that the use of alcohol as a hangover cure seems to predict current or future problem drinking and alcohol use disorder , through negative reinforcement and the development of physical dependence . While the practice is affirmed by tradition and by many hospitality providers , medical opinion holds that the practice merely postpones the symptoms , and courts addiction . Favored choices include Fernet Branca and Bloody Mary . * Kudzu ( Pueraria montana var . lobata ) : The main ingredient in remedies such as kakkonto . A study concluded , `` The chronic usage of Pueraria lobata at times of high ethanol consumption , such as in hangover remedies , may predispose subjects to an increased risk of acetaldehyde-related neoplasm and pathology . ... Pueraria lobata appears to be an inappropriate herb for use in herbal hangover remedies as it is an inhibitor of ALDH2 . '' * Artichoke : Research shows that artichoke extract does not prevent the signs and symptoms of alcohol-induced hangover . * Sauna or steam-bath : Medical opinion holds this may be dangerous , as the combination of alcohol and hyperthermia increases the likelihood of dangerous cardiac arrhythmias . * Oxygen : There have been anecdotal reports from those with easy access to a breathing oxygen supply – medical staff , and military pilots — that oxygen can also reduce the symptoms of hangovers sometimes caused by alcohol consumption . The theory is that the increased oxygen flow resulting from oxygen therapy improves the metabolic rate , and thus increases the speed at which toxins are broken down . However , one source states that ( in an aviation context ) oxygen has no effect on physical impairment caused by hangover . * Fructose and glucose : Glucose and fructose significantly inhibit the metabolic changes produced by alcohol intoxication , nevertheless they have no significant effect on hangover severity . * Vitamin B6 : No effects on alcohol metabolism , peak blood alcohol and glucose concentrations have been found and psychomotor function is not significantly improved when using Vitamin B6 supplements . * Caffeinated drinks : No significant correlation between caffeine use and hangover severity has been found . Epidemiology Hangovers occur commonly . * A study in college students found that 25 % had experienced a hangover in the previous week and 29 % reported losing school time for hangover recovery . * 15 % of men and women who have consumed alcohol experience hangovers at least monthly and ten percent of British men reported hangover-related problems at work at least monthly . * An estimated 9.23 % ( 11.6 million workers ) of the U.S. labor force work with a hangover . * About 23 % of drinkers do not report any hangover after drinking to intoxication . Society and culture Hangover severity and neurocognitive performance are significantly correlated , with more intense hangover indicating less fitness for duty . The severity of hangover may be a useful indicator of impairment for workers in safety-sensitive occupations . A somewhat dated French idiomatic expression for hangover is `` mal aux cheveux '' , literally `` bad hair '' ( or `` [ even ] my hair hurts '' ) , although it is apparently unconnected to the origin of the English expression `` bad hair day '' . Economics Alcohol hangover has considerable economic consequences . A British study found that alcohol use accounted for 3.3 billion ( USD ) in lost wages each year , as a result of work missed because of hangovers . In Canada 1.4 billion ( USD ) is lost each year because of decreased occupational productivity caused by hangover-like symptoms . In Finland , a country with a population of 5 million persons , over 1 million workdays are lost each year because of hangovers . The average annual opportunity cost due to hangovers are estimated as 2000 ( USD ) per working adult . The socioeconomic implications of an alcohol hangover include workplace absenteeism , impaired job performance , reduced productivity and poor academic achievement . Potentially dangerous daily activities such as driving a car or operating heavy machinery are also negatively influenced . Research Psychological research of alcohol hangover is growing rapidly . The Alcohol Hangover Research Group had its inaugural meeting in June 2010 as part of the Research Society on Alcoholism ( RSA ) 33rd Annual Scientific Meeting in San Antonio , Texas . In 2012 , Éduc'alcool , a Quebec-based non-profit organization that aims to educate the public on the responsible use of alcohol , published a report noting hangovers have long-lasting effects that inhibit the drinker 's capabilities a full 24 hours after heavy drinking . In 2012 , Las Vegas based Hangover Heaven , a mobile hangover treatment clinic , opened along with its Hangover Research Institute , which studies the treatment of hangovers .

sfq_13642--Hangover.txt

Supposedly a hangover cure, which drink consists of a raw egg, Worcestershire sauce and typically a hot sauce with condiments?

Fashion is a popular style or practice , especially in clothing , footwear , accessories , makeup , body , or furniture . Fashion is a distinctive and often constant trend in the style in which a person dresses . It is the prevailing styles in behaviour and the newest creations of textile designers . Because the more technical term costume is regularly linked to the term `` fashion '' , the use of the former has been relegated to special senses like fancy dress or masquerade wear , while `` fashion '' generally means clothing , including the study of it . Although aspects of fashion can be feminine or masculine , some trends are androgynous . Clothing fashions Early Western travelers , whether to Persia , Turkey , India , China , would frequently remark on the absence of change in fashion there . The Japanese Shogun 's secretary bragged ( not completely accurately ) to a Spanish visitor in 1609 that Japanese clothing had not changed in over a thousand years . However , there is considerable evidence in Ming China of rapidly changing fashions in Chinese clothing . Changes in costume often took place at times of economic or social change , as occurred in ancient Rome and the medieval Caliphate , followed by a long period without major changes . In 8th-century Moorish Spain , the musician Ziryab introduced to Córdoba sophisticated clothing-styles based on seasonal and daily fashions from his native Baghdad , modified by his own inspiration . Similar changes in fashion occurred in the 11th century in the Middle East following the arrival of the Turks , who introduced clothing styles from Central Asia and the Far East . The beginning in Europe of continual and increasingly rapid change in clothing styles can be fairly reliably dated . Historians , including James Laver and Fernand Braudel , date the start of Western fashion in clothing to the middle of the 14th century . The most dramatic early change in fashion was a sudden drastic shortening and tightening of the male over-garment from calf-length to barely covering the buttocks , sometimes accompanied with stuffing in the chest to make it look bigger . This created the distinctive Western outline of a tailored top worn over leggings or trousers . The pace of change accelerated considerably in the following century , and women and men 's fashion , especially in the dressing and adorning of the hair , became equally complex . Art historians are therefore able to use fashion with confidence and precision to date images , often to within five years , particularly in the case of images from the 15th century . Initially , changes in fashion led to a fragmentation across the upper classes of Europe of what had previously been a very similar style of dressing and the subsequent development of distinctive national styles . These national styles remained very different until a counter-movement in the 17th to 18th centuries imposed similar styles once again , mostly originating from Ancien Régime France . Though the rich usually led fashion , the increasing affluence of early modern Europe led to the bourgeoisie and even peasants following trends at a distance , but still uncomfortably close for the elites – a factor that Fernand Braudel regards as one of the main motors of changing fashion . In the 16th century , national differences were at their most pronounced . Ten 16th century portraits of German or Italian gentlemen may show ten entirely different hats . Albrecht Dürer illustrated the differences in his actual ( or composite ) contrast of Nuremberg and Venetian fashions at the close of the 15th century ( illustration , right ) . The `` Spanish style '' of the late 16th century began the move back to synchronicity among upper-class Europeans , and after a struggle in the mid-17th century , French styles decisively took over leadership , a process completed in the 18th century . Though textile colors and patterns changed from year to year , the cut of a gentleman 's coat and the length of his waistcoat , or the pattern to which a lady 's dress was cut , changed more slowly . Men 's fashions were largely derived from military models , and changes in a European male Silhouette were galvanized in theaters of European war where gentleman officers had opportunities to make notes of foreign styles such as the `` Steinkirk '' cravat or necktie . Though there had been distribution of dressed dolls from France since the 16th century and Abraham Bosse had produced engravings of fashion in the 1620s , the pace of change picked up in the 1780s with increased publication of French engravings illustrating the latest Paris styles . By 1800 , all Western Europeans were dressing alike ( or thought they were ) ; local variation became first a sign of provincial culture and later a badge of the conservative peasant . Although tailors and dressmakers were no doubt responsible for many innovations , and the textile industry certainly led many trends , the history of fashion design is normally understood to date from 1858 when the English-born Charles Frederick Worth opened the first true haute couture house in Paris . The Haute house was the name established by government for the fashion houses that met the standards of industry . These fashion houses have to adhere to standards such as keeping at least twenty employees engaged in making the clothes , showing two collections per year at fashion shows , and presenting a certain number of patterns to costumers . Since then , the idea of the fashion designer as a celebrity in his or her own right has become increasingly dominant . The idea of unisex dressing originated in the 1960s when designers such as Pierre Cardin and Rudi Gernreich created garments , such as stretch jersey tunics or leggings , meant to be worn by both males and females . The impact of unisex expands more broadly to encompass various themes in fashion including androgyny , mass-market retail , and conceptual clothing . The fashion trends of the 1970s , such as sheepskin jackets , flight jackets , duffel coats , and unstructured clothing influenced men to attend social gatherings without a tuxedo jacket and to accessorize in new ways . Some men 's styles blended the sensuality and expressiveness despite the conservative trend , the growing gay-rights movement and an emphasis on youth allowed for a new freedom to experiment with style , fabrics such as wool crepe , which had previously been associated with women 's attire was used by designers when creating male clothing . The four major current fashion capitals are acknowledged to be Paris , Milan , New York City , and London , which are all headquarters to the greatest fashion companies and are renowned for their major influence on global fashion . Fashion weeks are held in these cities , where designers exhibit their new clothing collections to audiences . A succession of major designers such as Coco Chanel and Yves Saint-Laurent have kept Paris as the center most watched by the rest of the world , although haute couture is now subsidized by the sale of ready-to-wear collections and perfume using the same branding . Modern Westerners have a wide number of choices available in the selection of their clothes . What a person chooses to wear can reflect his or her personality or interests . When people who have high cultural status start to wear new or different clothes , a fashion trend may start . People who like or respect these people become influenced by their personal style and begin wearing similarly styled clothes . Fashions may vary considerably within a society according to age , social class , generation , occupation , and geography and may also vary over time . If an older person dresses according to the fashion young people use , he or she may look ridiculous in the eyes of both young and older people . The terms fashionista and fashion victim refer to someone who slavishly follows current fashions . One can regard the system of sporting various fashions as a fashion language incorporating various fashion statements using a grammar of fashion . ( Compare some of the work of Roland Barthes . ) In recent years , Asian fashion has become increasingly significant in local and global markets . Countries such as China , Japan , India , and Pakistan have traditionally had large textile industries , which have often been drawn upon by Western designers , but now Asian clothing styles are also gaining influence based on their own ideas . Fashion industry The fashion industry is a product of the modern age . Prior to the mid-19th century , most clothing was custom-made . It was handmade for individuals , either as home production or on order from dressmakers and tailors . By the beginning of the 20th century—with the rise of new technologies such as the sewing machine , the rise of global capitalism and the development of the factory system of production , and the proliferation of retail outlets such as department stores—clothing had increasingly come to be mass-produced in standard sizes and sold at fixed prices . Although the fashion industry developed first in Europe and America , , it is an international and highly globalized industry , with clothing often designed in one country , manufactured in another , and sold world-wide . For example , an American fashion company might source fabric in China and have the clothes manufactured in Vietnam , finished in Italy , and shipped to a warehouse in the United States for distribution to retail outlets internationally . The fashion industry has long been one of the largest employers in the United States , and it remains so in the 21st century . However , U.S. employment declined considerably as production increasingly moved overseas , especially to China . Because data on the fashion industry typically are reported for national economies and expressed in terms of the industry 's many separate sectors , aggregate figures for world production of textiles and clothing are difficult to obtain . However , by any measure , the clothing industry accounts for a significant share of world economic output . The fashion industry consists of four levels : # the production of raw materials , principally fibers and textiles but also leather and fur . # the production of fashion goods by designers , manufacturers , contractors , and others . # retail sales # various forms of advertising and promotion These levels consist of many separate but interdependent sectors . These sectors are Textile Design and Production , Fashion Design and Manufacturing , Fashion Retailing , Marketing and Merchandising , Fashion Shows , and Media and Marketing . Each sector is devoted to the goal of satisfying consumer demand for apparel under conditions that enable participants in the industry to operate at a profit . Fashion trend Fashion trends are influenced by several factors including political , economical , social and technological . Examining these factors is called a PEST analysis . Fashion forecasters can use this information to help determine growth or decline of a particular trend . Political influences Political culture plays a critical role in fashion industry . Political change is reflection of today ’ s fashion . Most of the political events and laws are affecting fashion in a way of creating fashion trend . Considering the relationship between fashion and politics , we can see how fashion is not only a matter of aesthetic but it involves politics as well . Within political references , we can see how fashion can be change . Fashion is a reflection of current or historical events therefore it associates with today and past ‘ s politics . For example , the terrorist attacks happened in the United States on September 11 , 2001 ; it was the most tragic political events of the society . This catastrophic event caused horrific consequences which related to political . In a way , fashion trends were also revolutionized . It is hard to say that 9/11 attacks made a direct influence on fashion industry , it should not be considered as inspiration for fashion designer to forecast the trend . However , after 9/11 , fashion designers decided to embrace this challenge and tried to convey the significant lost and depression into a form of fashion trend . In a way , they believe that nation would remember this event more often and cherish every single moment we have . Post 9/11 led comfort dressing to remember and grieve the attacks on 9/11 . By doing so , this trend became a form of communication . Not only did political events make a huge impact on fashion trends but also the political figure played a critical role in forecasting the fashion trend . For example , First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy was a fashionable icon of the early 1960s who led formal dressing trend . By wearing a Chanel suit , a structural Givenchy shift dress or a soft color Cassini coat with huge buttons , it created her elegant look and led a delicate trend . Furthermore , political revolution also made impact on fashion trend . For example , during the 1960s the economy had become wealthier , divorce rate was increasing and government approved the birth control pill . This revolution inspired younger generation to rebellion . In 1964 , the leg-baring miniskirt has become a major fashion trend of 1960s . Given that fashion designers began to experiment with the shapes of garment , loose sleeveless , micro-minis , flared skirts , and trumpet sleeves . In this case , mini-skirt trend became an icon of 1960s . Moreover , political movement built an impressive relationship with fashion trend . For instance , during Vietnam war , the youth of America made a movement that affected the whole country . In 1960s , the fashion trend was full of fluorescent colors , prints patterns , bell-bottom jeans , fringed vests , and skirt became a protest outfit of 1960s . This trend was called Hippie and it is still affecting current fashion trend . Technology influences Technology plays a large role in most aspects of today 's society . Technological influences are growing more apparent in the fashion industry . Advances and new developments are shaping and creating current and future trends . Developments such as wearable technology has become an important trend in fashion and will continue with advances such as clothing constructed with solar panels that charge devices and smart fabrics that enhance wearer comfort by changing color or texture based on environmental changes . The fashion industry is seeing how 3D printing technology has influenced designers such as Iris Van Herpen and Kimberly Ovitz . These designers have been heavily experimenting and developing 3D printed couture pieces . As the technology grows , the 3D printers will become more accessible to designers and eventually consumers , which could potentially shape the fashion industry entirely . Internet technology such as online retailers and social media platforms have given way for trends to be identified , marketed and sold immediately . Styles and trends are easily conveyed online to attract the trendsetters . Posts on Instagram or Facebook can easily increase awareness about new trends in fashion which can create high demand for specific items or brands , new `` buy now button '' technology can link these styles with direct sales . Machine vision technology has been developed to track how fashions spread through society . The industry can now see the direct correlation on how fashion shows influence street-chic outfits . The effects can now be quantified and provide valuable feedback to fashion houses , designers and consumers regarding trends . Military technology has played an important role in the fashion industry . The camouflage pattern in clothing was developed to help military personal be less visible to enemy forces . A trend emerged in the 1960s and camouflage fabric was introduced to street wear . The camouflage fabric trend disappeared and resurfaced several times since then . Camouflage started to appear in high fashion by the 1990s . Designers such as Valentino , Dior and Dolce & Gabbana combined camouflage into their runway and ready-to-wear collections . A company called Hyperstealth has said to have created a technology that can make an object or person invisible . “ Quantum Stealth ” is a light bending technology and can mask thermal and infrared signs . The company has continued developing this technology , but due to safety and legal concerns minimal information has been released to the public . This technology will not be quickly introduced into the commercial market , but the companies other projects such as non-powered color changing camouflage materials may be . Additional projects such as using interactive or intelligent technology sources that will be embedding into textiles will adjust to surroundings such as weather . As these developments proceed , consumers may see a more modern and technical way of wearing camouflage . These are just a few technological developments that have begun to influence fashion trends . Fashion trend is influenced by different factors and incidents happening in our environment . Art , music , and popular culture influence fashion trend and how its penetrate into our everyday lives . High end fashion is more creative , while high street fashion is more commercial . However , both high end and high street fashion reflect trends that are happening in our society as a whole . Fashion trends are both aesthetic and expressive values that showcase our personal statement . Social influences Fashion trend goes beyond the aesthetic values , it emerges as an expressive tool for designers to deliver their message about the society . With the influence of social media , celebrities and bloggers , their voice are easily being heard and have impact on fashion and trend at any time . Fashion and music are inseparable . Prabal Gurung highlighted the importance of music to his shows , saying “ each season we want to tell a story for 10 minutes… . the perfect harmony between cloths and music allows this ” . Music is a representation of fashion that expresses the abstract design concept into relatable harmony for viewers . H & M work with the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival to develop a clothing collection . From the success of its first collaboration at 2015 , which gives confidence for the brand to continuous launch this collection again this year . At Coachella , fashion and music express an energy that belongs to the festival and music goers . The collective trend and style that symbolize the energy and personality . Fashion relates to social and cultural context of an environment . According to Matika , “ Elements of popular culture become fused when a person ’ s trend is associated with a preference for a genre of music…like music , news or literature , fashion has been fused into everyday lives. ” Fashion is not only seen as pure aesthetic values ; fashion is also a medium for performers to create an overall atmosphere and express their opinions altogether through music video . The latest music video ‘ Formation ’ by Beyoncé , according to Carlos , “ The pop star pays homage to her Creole root .... tracing the roots of the Louisiana cultural nerve center from the post-abolition era to present day , Beyoncé catalogs the evolution of the city ’ s vibrant style and its tumultuous history all at once . Atop a New Orleans police car in a red-and-white Gucci high-collar dress and combat boots , she sits among the ruins of Hurricane Katrina , immediately implanting herself in the biggest national debate on police brutality and race relations in modern day . ” Runway show is a reflection of fashion trend and a designer ’ s thought . For designer like Vivienne Westwood , runway show is a platform for her voice on politics and current events . For her AW15 menswear show , according to Water , “ where models with severely bruised faces channeled eco-warriors on a mission to save the planet. ” Another recent example is a staged feminist protest march for Chanel ’ s SS15 show , rioting models chanting words of empowerment with signs like “ Feminist but feminine ” and “ Ladies first. ” According to Water , “ The show tapped into Chanel ’ s long history of championing female independence : founder Coco Chanel was a trailblazer for liberating the female body in the post-WWI era , introducing silhouettes that countered the restrictive corsets then in favour . ” Minimalist fashion `` Less is more . '' is the main idea of minimalist fashion . Minimalism is a philosophy of dressing that has endured for decades , and is probably best recognized today by the general public through the fashion houses of Jil Sander , Balenciaga , and Calvin Klein . Calvin Klein really has captured the minimalist movement in America during the 1990s . While the clothes are simple and have a reduction on color pallet , there is a very sexual and grunge feel to his designs . Simple , function , and original are the key components to describe minimalism . Clean lines , functionality have always been hallmarks of the style . It depends as the mainstream fashion of 90s , Calvin Klein and ` are the well-known examples for minimalistic style . They create easy clothes for modern women which use executed cut to emphasize shape and neutral color are the major color tone . 90s fashion has re-emerged the black and white palette prevalently as a defining duo on todays ’ runways . The all-white look is another 90 ’ s favorite look which is impacting a rise in neutrals in today ’ s fashion as well . Minimalism is also a catalyst for the rise of activewear influences . This trend introduces the bandeau and sports bra tops , bomber jackets and racerback details in high fashion collections during that era and it returns to runways and streets today . Sheer is a key material during the minimalist movement . It emerges in a wide range of applications , from an overlay to a full garment . The trend for transparency keeps to continue as a focus of designer collections every since then . Besides sheer fabrics , metallic materials also bring the interest to the sparse shapes of the era . It is a trend that reflects in the rave culture and bridging the grunge musician and the fans . Reflective has returned on recent runway and also on current streets with a range of metal . Crop top is the most democratic garment that connecting the movements of minimalist , grunge , hip-hop and R & B culture and turning up on everyone from Mariah Carey and Spice Girls to the top fashion icons . Another defining looks to emerge from minimalist era is the idea of underwear as outerwear . Camisoles and slip dresses were introduced to the market and it became a quintessential of the 90s in contemporary fashion . Minimalism style is much more than a trend , it becomes a zeitgeist . Designers such as Stella McCartney follows the suit with pragmatic tailoring in neutral palettes , Alexander Wang starts to show pared-down activewear in black , white and grey . Even Victoria Beckham turns to strict silhouettes from the bling wave . Minimalism never goes away . Shapes are plain , femininity is the leader , Color and sculpted shapes speak louder than extra decorative accessories . Economical influences Circular economy As we undergo a global economic downturn , the “ Spend now , think later ” belief is getting less relevant in our society . Today 's consumer tends to be more mindful about consumption , looking for just enough and better , more durable options . People have also become more conscious of the impact their everyday consumption has on the environment and society . They 're looking for ways to mediate their material desires with an aim to do more good in the world . A linear economy is slowly shifting to a circular one . In today 's linear economical system , manufacturers extract resources from the earth to make products that will soon be discarded in landfills , on the other hand , under the circular model , the production of goods operates like systems in nature , where the waste and demise of a substance becomes the food and source of growth for something new . Companies such as MUD Jeans , which is based in the Netherlands employs a leasing scheme for jeans . This Dutch company `` represents a new consuming philosophy that is about using instead of owning , '' according to MUD 's website . The concept also protects the company from volatile cotton prices . Consumers pay €5.95 a month for a pair of jeans ; after a year , they can return the jeans to Mud , trade them for a new pair and start another yearlong lease , or switch to a four-month lease . MUD is responsible for any repairs during the lease period . Another ethical fashion company , Patagonia set up the first multi-seller branded store on EBay in order to facilitate secondhand sales ; consumers who take the Common Threads pledge can sell in this store and have their gear listed on Patagonia.com 's `` Used Gear '' section . China ’ s domestic spending Consumption as a share of gross domestic product in China has fallen for six decades , from 76 percent in 1952 to 28 percent in 2011 . China plans to reduce tariffs on a number of consumer goods and expand its 72-hour transit visa plan to more cities in an effort to stimulate domestic consumption . The announcement of import tax reductions follows changes in June 2015 , when the government cut the tariffs on clothing , cosmetics and various other goods by half . Among the changes — easier tax refunds for overseas shoppers and accelerated openings of more duty-free shops in cities covered by the 72-hour visa scheme . The 72-hour visa was introduced in Beijing and Shanghai in January 2013 and has been extended to 18 Chinese cities . According to reports at the same time , Chinese consumer spending in other countries such as Japan has slowed even though the yen has dropped . There is clearly a trend in the next 5 years that the domestic fashion market will show an increase . Consumer 's needs In fashion trends and forecasting , consumer is king . What does a consumer really [ https : //www.boundless.com/marketing/textbooks/boundless-marketing-textbook/introduction-to-marketing-1/introduction-to-marketing-18/customer-wants-and-needs-107-4453/ want ] ? Understanding the consumer is a vital part of the fashion world , without them products can not be sold . First , it is important to note the difference between a consumer ’ s needs and a consumer ’ s wants . A need of a consumer is a desire to obtain a product or service , that is either for an emotional or functional reason . A ‘ want ’ differs from a consumer ’ s ‘ need ’ by the consumer ’ s desire to have a product or service that is not necessary , the consumer just wishes they had it . The success of a fashion company and the prediction of future trends is dependent on addressing its consumers ’ needs . Consumers all have different needs and demands that have to be suited . A person ’ s needs change frequently , which is why fashion trends even exist . An important factor to take into consideration when thinking of consumers ’ needs is the key demographics of the customer . Gender , age , income , and even profession can help a company better understand the needs of their customers . For example , a woman who is pregnant could be looking for diapers , baby strollers , and maternity clothes . Her needs would differ greatly from a woman with children that just went off to college or a teen entering high school . Often consumers need to be told what they want . Fashion companies have to do their research to ensure they know its customers ’ needs before developing solutions . Steve Jobs said , “ You ’ ve got to start with the customer experience and work backwards to the technology . You can not start with the technology and try to figure out where you are going to sell it ” . The best way to understand the consumers ’ needs and therefore predict fashion trends

bb_5062--Fashion.txt

What formal menswear, often abbreviated to three letters, is named after a New York park where it was first worn in the 1880s?

The UK Singles Chart is one of many music charts compiled by the Official Charts Company that calculates the best-selling singles of the week in the United Kingdom . Before 2004 , the chart was only based on the sales of physical singles with airplay figures and digital downloads excluded from the official chart . This list shows singles that peaked in the Top 10 of the UK Singles Chart during 1994 , as well as songs which peaked in 1993 and 1995 but were in the top 10 in 1994 . The entry date is when the song appeared in the top 10 for the first time . 131 singles were in the top ten in 1994 . American singer Mariah Carey , East 17 and British boy-band Take That all had three top ten entries in 1994 . Carey 's cover of the Badfinger song `` Without You '' was her biggest hit of the year ; it reached number-one in February and spent four weeks in that position , and eight weeks in the top 10 in total . Her other top ten singles were `` All I Want for Christmas Is You '' ( number 2 ) in December ; `` Endless Love '' ( 4 ) with Luther Vandross in September ; and `` Anytime You Need a Friend '' ( 8 ) in June . Three of Take That 's four top ten singles reached number-one in the UK : `` Babe '' in December 1993 , `` Everything Changes '' in April and `` Sure '' in October . `` Love Ai n't Here Anymore '' was their other top 10 entry , which reached number 3 in July . East 17 also had a number-one single in 1994 , `` Stay Another Day '' , which stayed there for 5 of its 8 weeks in the top ten . Their other top ten singles were `` Around the World '' and `` It 's Alright ( both number 3 ) and `` Steam '' ( number 7 ) . Bon Jovi , Oasis and Eternal had three singles in the top ten in 1994 . Wet Wet Wet had the biggest-selling single of 1994 with `` Love Is All Around '' , which spent 15 weeks at number-one in the UK , a total of 20 weeks in the top 10 , and sold 1.783 million copies . Whigfield 's `` Saturday Night '' finished in second place , and `` Stay Another Day '' was the third best-selling single . Songs by All-4-One , Let Loose , Mr Blobby and D : Ream were also in the top ten best-selling singles of the year . Top-ten singles Notes * The dates are for when the song charted , which is six days before the officially published `` Week ending '' date . * `` Bat Out of Hell '' was first released in 1979 and peaked at number 15 . * `` Things Can Only Get Better '' first charted at number 24 in January 1993 . * `` I Like to Move It '' dropped to number 12 on 20/2 after two weeks in the top 10 before returning for a further eight weeks on 6/3 . * `` U R the Best Thing '' previously charted at number 72 in July 1992 and number 19 in April 1993 . * * Status Quo collaborated on `` Come on You Reds '' but are not credited on the single 's cover . * 'Absolutely Fabulous ' was a pseudonym for Pet Shop Boys . The song `` Absolutely Fabulous '' borrowed lines from the television series of the same name . * `` Crazy for You '' first charted at number 44 in April 1993 . * `` Incredible '' reached number 39 earlier in the year in June . * `` Girls Just Want to Have Fun '' previously peaked at number 2 in January 1984 . * `` Another Night '' reached number 63 in November 1993 . * `` Another Day '' dropped out of the top 10 on 18/12/1994 after one week . It returned for a second week on 1/1/1995 . Entries by artist The following table shows artists who achieved multiple top 10 entries in 1994 . Unlike the main list , this table includes songs in the figures that reached their peak in 1993 or 1995 . The figures include both main artists and featured artists , while appearances on ensemble charity records are also counted for each artist .

odql_6024--List_of_UK_top_10_singles_in_1994.txt

Which hit for 'Wet Wet Wet' was the biggest-selling single in Britain in 1994?

An acid is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron ( proton or hydrogen ion H+ ) , or , alternatively , capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair ( a Lewis acid ) . The first category of acids is the proton donors or Brønsted acids . In the special case of aqueous solutions , proton donors form the hydronium ion H3O+ and are known as Arrhenius acids . Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents . A Brønsted or Arrhenius acid usually contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a chemical structure that is still energetically favorable after loss of H+ . Aqueous Arrhenius acids have characteristic properties which provide a practical description of an acid . Acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste , can turn blue litmus red , and react with bases and certain metals ( like calcium ) to form salts . The word acid is derived from the Latin acidus/acēre meaning sour . An aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as 'acid ' ( as in 'dissolved in acid ' ) , while the strict definition refers only to the solute . A lower pH means a higher acidity , and thus a higher concentration of positive hydrogen ions in the solution . Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic . Common aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid ( a solution of hydrogen chloride which is found in gastric acid in the stomach and activates digestive enzymes ) , acetic acid ( vinegar is a dilute aqueous solution of this liquid ) , sulfuric acid ( used in car batteries ) , and citric acid ( found in citrus fruits ) . As these examples show , acids ( in the colloquial sense ) can be solutions or pure substances , and can be derived from acids ( in the strict sense ) that are solids , liquids , or gases . Strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive , but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid . The second category of acids are Lewis acids , which form a covalent bond with an electron pair . An example is boron trifluoride ( BF3 ) , whose boron atom has a vacant orbital which can form a covalent bond by sharing a lone pair of electrons on an atom in a base , for example the nitrogen atom in ammonia ( NH3 ) . Lewis considered this as a generalization of the Brønsted definition , so that an acid is a chemical species that accepts electron pairs either directly or by releasing protons ( H+ ) into the solution , which then accept electron pairs . However , hydrogen chloride , acetic acid , and most other Brønsted-Lowry acids can not form a covalent bond with an electron pair and are therefore not Lewis acids . Conversely , many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted-Lowry acids . In modern terminology , an acid is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid , since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as a Lewis acid . Definitions and concepts Modern definitions are concerned with the fundamental chemical reactions common to all acids . Most acids encountered in everyday life are aqueous solutions , or can be dissolved in water , so the Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry definitions are the most relevant . The Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition ; unless otherwise specified , acid-base reactions are assumed to involve the transfer of a proton ( H+ ) from an acid to a base . Hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions . Interestingly , although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted-Lowry acids , they can also function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms . Arrhenius acids The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen ions ( H+ ) or protons in 1884 . An Arrhenius acid is a substance that , when added to water , increases the concentration of H+ ions in the water . Note that chemists often write H+ ( aq ) and refer to the hydrogen ion when describing acid-base reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus , a proton , does not exist alone in water , it exists as the hydronium ion , H3O+ . Thus , an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ions when added to water . Examples include molecular substances such as HCl and acetic acid . An Arrhenius base , on the other hand , is a substance which increases the concentration of hydroxide ( OH− ) ions when dissolved in water . This decreases the concentration of hydronium because the ions react to form H2O molecules : H3O+ ( aq ) + OH− ( aq ) ⇌ H2O ( l ) + H2O ( l ) Due to this equilibrium , any increase in the concentration of hydronium is accompanied by a decrease in the concentration of hydroxide . Thus , an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration , while an Arrhenius base increases it . In an acidic solution , the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10−7 moles per liter . Since pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydronium ions , acidic solutions thus have a pH of less than 7 . Brønsted–Lowry acids While the Arrhenius concept is useful for describing many reactions , it is also quite limited in its scope . In 1923 chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin Lowry independently recognized that acid-base reactions involve the transfer of a proton . A Brønsted-Lowry acid ( or simply Brønsted acid ) is a species that donates a proton to a Brønsted-Lowry base . Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory has several advantages over Arrhenius theory . Consider the following reactions of acetic acid ( CH3COOH ) , the organic acid that gives vinegar its characteristic taste : + + + + Both theories easily describe the first reaction : CH3COOH acts as an Arrhenius acid because it acts as a source of H3O+ when dissolved in water , and it acts as a Brønsted acid by donating a proton to water . In the second example CH3COOH undergoes the same transformation , in this case donating a proton to ammonia ( NH3 ) , but does not relate to the Arrhenius definition of an acid because the reaction does not produce hydronium . Nevertheless , CH3COOH is both an Arrhenius and a Brønsted-Lowry acid . Brønsted-Lowry theory can be used to describe reactions of molecular compounds in nonaqueous solution or the gas phase . Hydrogen chloride ( HCl ) and ammonia combine under several different conditions to form ammonium chloride , NH4Cl . In aqueous solution HCl behaves as hydrochloric acid and exists as hydronium and chloride ions . The following reactions illustrate the limitations of Arrhenius 's definition : # H3O+ ( aq ) + Cl− ( aq ) + NH3 → Cl− ( aq ) + NH4+ ( aq ) + H2O # HCl ( benzene ) + NH3 ( benzene ) → NH4Cl ( s ) # HCl ( g ) + NH3 ( g ) → NH4Cl ( s ) As with the acetic acid reactions , both definitions work for the first example , where water is the solvent and hydronium ion is formed by the HCl solute . The next two reactions do not involve the formation of ions but are still proton-transfer reactions . In the second reaction hydrogen chloride and ammonia ( dissolved in benzene ) react to form solid ammonium chloride in a benzene solvent and in the third gaseous HCl and NH3 combine to form the solid . Lewis acids A third , only marginally related concept was proposed in 1923 by Gilbert N. Lewis , which includes reactions with acid-base characteristics that do not involve a proton transfer . A Lewis acid is a species that accepts a pair of electrons from another species ; in other words , it is an electron pair acceptor . Brønsted acid-base reactions are proton transfer reactions while Lewis acid-base reactions are electron pair transfers . Many Lewis acids are not Brønsted-Lowry acids . Contrast how the following reactions are described in terms of acid-base chemistry : In the first reaction a fluoride ion , F− , gives up an electron pair to boron trifluoride to form the product tetrafluoroborate . Fluoride `` loses '' a pair of valence electrons because the electrons shared in the B—F bond are located in the region of space between the two atomic nuclei and are therefore more distant from the fluoride nucleus than they are in the lone fluoride ion . BF3 is a Lewis acid because it accepts the electron pair from fluoride . This reaction can not be described in terms of Brønsted theory because there is no proton transfer . The second reaction can be described using either theory . A proton is transferred from an unspecified Brønsted acid to ammonia , a Brønsted base ; alternatively , ammonia acts as a Lewis base and transfers a lone pair of electrons to form a bond with a hydrogen ion . The species that gains the electron pair is the Lewis acid ; for example , the oxygen atom in H3O+ gains a pair of electrons when one of the H—O bonds is broken and the electrons shared in the bond become localized on oxygen . Depending on the context , a Lewis acid may also be described as an oxidizer or an electrophile . Organic Brønsted acids , such as acetic , citric , or oxalic acid , are not Lewis acids . They dissociate in water to produce a Lewis acid , H+ , but at the same time also yield an equal amount of a Lewis base ( acetate , citrate , or oxalate , respectively , for the acids mentioned ) . Few , if any , of the acids discussed in the following are Lewis acids . Dissociation and equilibrium Reactions of acids are often generalized in the form HA H+ + A− , where HA represents the acid and A− is the conjugate base . This reaction is the protolysis . Acid-base conjugate pairs differ by one proton , and can be interconverted by the addition or removal of a proton ( protonation and deprotonation , respectively ) . Note that the acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could be written as HA+ H+ + A . In solution there exists an equilibrium between the acid and its conjugate base . The equilibrium constant K is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or the ions in solution . Brackets indicate concentration , such that [ H2O ] means the concentration of H2O . The acid dissociation constant Ka is generally used in the context of acid-base reactions . The numerical value of Ka is equal to the product of the concentrations of the products divided by the concentration of the reactants , where the reactant is the acid ( HA ) and the products are the conjugate base and H+ . K_a = \frac { [ \mbox { H } ^+ ] [ \mbox { A } ^- ] } { [ \mbox { HA } ] } The stronger of two acids will have a higher Ka than the weaker acid ; the ratio of hydrogen ions to acid will be higher for the stronger acid as the stronger acid has a greater tendency to lose its proton . Because the range of possible values for Ka spans many orders of magnitude , a more manageable constant , pKa is more frequently used , where pKa = -log10 Ka . Stronger acids have a smaller pKa than weaker acids . Experimentally determined pKa at 25 °C in aqueous solution are often quoted in textbooks and reference material . Nomenclature In the classical naming system , acids are named according to their anions . That ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix ( and sometimes prefix ) , according to the table below . For example , HCl has chloride as its anion , so the -ide suffix makes it take the form hydrochloric acid . In the IUPAC naming system , `` aqueous '' is simply added to the name of the ionic compound . Thus , for hydrogen chloride , the IUPAC name would be aqueous hydrogen chloride . The prefix `` hydro- '' is added only if the acid is made up of just hydrogen and one other element . Classical naming system : Acid strength The strength of an acid refers to its ability or tendency to lose a proton . A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water ; in other words , one mole of a strong acid HA dissolves in water yielding one mole of H+ and one mole of the conjugate base , A− , and none of the protonated acid HA . In contrast , a weak acid only partially dissociates and at equilibrium both the acid and the conjugate base are in solution . Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid ( HCl ) , hydroiodic acid ( HI ) , hydrobromic acid ( HBr ) , perchloric acid ( HClO4 ) , nitric acid ( HNO3 ) and sulfuric acid ( H2SO4 ) . In water each of these essentially ionizes 100 % . The stronger an acid is , the more easily it loses a proton , H+ . Two key factors that contribute to the ease of deprotonation are the polarity of the H—A bond and the size of atom A , which determines the strength of the H—A bond . Acid strengths are also often discussed in terms of the stability of the conjugate base . Stronger acids have a larger Ka and a more negative pKa than weaker acids . Sulfonic acids , which are organic oxyacids , are a class of strong acids . A common example is toluenesulfonic acid ( tosylic acid ) . Unlike sulfuric acid itself , sulfonic acids can be solids . In fact , polystyrene functionalized into polystyrene sulfonate is a solid strongly acidic plastic that is filterable . Superacids are acids stronger than 100 % sulfuric acid . Examples of superacids are fluoroantimonic acid , magic acid and perchloric acid . Superacids can permanently protonate water to give ionic , crystalline hydronium `` salts '' . They can also quantitatively stabilize carbocations . While Ka measures the strength of an acid compound , the strength of an aqueous acid solution is measured by pH , which is an indication of the concentration of hydronium in the solution . The pH of a simple solution of an acid compound in water is determined by the dilution of the compound and the compound 's Ka . Chemical characteristics Monoprotic acids Monoprotic acids are those acids that are able to donate one proton per molecule during the process of dissociation ( sometimes called ionization ) as shown below ( symbolized by HA ) : HA ( aq ) + H2O ( l ) H3O+ ( aq ) + A− ( aq ) Ka Common examples of monoprotic acids in mineral acids include hydrochloric acid ( HCl ) and nitric acid ( HNO3 ) . On the other hand , for organic acids the term mainly indicates the presence of one carboxylic acid group and sometimes these acids are known as monocarboxylic acid . Examples in organic acids include formic acid ( HCOOH ) , acetic acid ( CH3COOH ) and benzoic acid ( C6H5COOH ) . Polyprotic acids Polyprotic acids , also known as polybasic acids , are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule , in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule . Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names , such as diprotic acid ( two potential protons to donate ) and triprotic acid ( three potential protons to donate ) . A diprotic acid ( here symbolized by H2A ) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH . Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant , Ka1 and Ka2 . : The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second ; i.e. , Ka1 > Ka2 . For example , sulfuric acid ( H2SO4 ) can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion ( HSO4− ) , for which Ka1 is very large ; then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion ( SO42− ) , wherein the Ka2 is intermediate strength . The large Ka1 for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid . In a similar manner , the weak unstable carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) can lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion ( HCO3− ) and lose a second to form carbonate anion ( CO32− ) . Both Ka values are small , but Ka1 > Ka2 . A triprotic acid ( H3A ) can undergo one , two , or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants , where Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3 . : An inorganic example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid ( H3PO4 ) , usually just called phosphoric acid . All three protons can be successively lost to yield H2PO4− , then HPO42− , and finally PO43− , the orthophosphate ion , usually just called phosphate . Even though the positions of the three protons on the original phosphoric acid molecule are equivalent , the successive Ka values differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged . An organic example of a triprotic acid is citric acid , which can successively lose three protons to finally form the citrate ion . Although the subsequent loss of each hydrogen ion is less favorable , all of the conjugate bases are present in solution . The fractional concentration , α ( alpha ) , for each species can be calculated . For example , a generic diprotic acid will generate 3 species in solution : H2A , HA− , and A2− . The fractional concentrations can be calculated as below when given either the pH ( which can be converted to the [ H+ ] ) or the concentrations of the acid with all its conjugate bases : \begin { align } \alpha_\ce { H_2 A } & { \ce { [ H^+ ] ^2 } \over { [ \ce H^+ ] ^2 + [ \ce H^+ ] K_1 + K_1 K_2 } } \ce \\ \alpha_\ce { HA^- } & \ce \\ \alpha_\ce { A^ { 2- } } & \ce \end { align } A plot of these fractional concentrations against pH , for given K1 and K2 , is known as a Bjerrum plot . A pattern is observed in the above equations and can be expanded to the general n -protic acid that has been deprotonated i -times : \alpha_ { \ce H_ { n-i } A^ { i- } } =

dpql_2291--Acid.txt

Which acid has the alternative name ‘spirits of salt’?

Funk is a music genre that originated in the mid- to late 1960s when African American musicians created a rhythmic , danceable new form of music through a mixture of soul music , jazz , and rhythm and blues ( R & B ) . Funk de-emphasizes melody and chord progressions used in other related genres and brings a strong rhythmic groove of a bass line played by an electric bassist and a drum part played by a drummer to the foreground . Funk songs are often based on an extended vamp on a single chord , distinguishing them from R & B and soul songs , which are built on complex chord progressions . Funk uses the same richly-colored extended chords found in bebop jazz , such as minor chords with added sevenths and elevenths , or dominant seventh chords with altered ninths . Like much African-inspired music , funk typically consists of a complex groove with rhythm instruments such as electric guitar , electric bass , Hammond organ , and drums playing interlocking rhythms . Funk bands sometimes have a horn section of several saxophones , trumpets , and in some cases , a trombone , which plays rhythmic `` hits '' and `` punches '' . Funk originated in the mid-1960s , with James Brown 's development of a signature groove that emphasized the downbeat—with heavy emphasis on the first beat of every measure , funky bass lines , drum patterns , and syncopated guitar riffs . Other musical groups , including Sly & the Family Stone and Parliament-Funkadelic , soon began to adopt and develop Brown 's innovations . While much of the written history of funk focuses on men , there have been notable funk women , including Chaka Khan , Labelle , Brides of Funkenstein , Klymaxx , Mother 's Finest , and Betty Davis . Many of the most famous bands in the genre also played disco and soul extensively . Funk derivatives include funk rock ( e.g. , Red Hot Chili Peppers ) ; boogie ( or electro-funk ) , a form of electronic music ; electro music , a hybrid of electronic music and funk ; funk metal ( e.g. , Living Colour ) ; G-funk , a mix of gangsta rap and funk ; Timba , a form of funky Cuban popular dance music ; and funk jam ( e.g. , Phish ) . Funk samples have been used extensively in genres including hip hop , house music , and drum and bass . It is also the main influence of go-go , a subgenre associated with funk . Etymology The word funk initially referred ( and still refers ) to a strong odor . It is originally derived from Latin `` fumigare '' ( which means `` to smoke '' ) via Old French `` fungiere '' and , in this sense , it was first documented in English in 1620 . In 1784 `` funky '' meaning `` musty '' was first documented , which , in turn , led to a sense of `` earthy '' that was taken up around 1900 in early jazz slang for something `` deeply or strongly felt '' . In early jam sessions , musicians would encourage one another to `` get down '' by telling one another , `` Now , put some stank on it ! `` . At least as early as 1907 , jazz songs carried titles such as Funky . The first example is an unrecorded number by Buddy Bolden , remembered as either `` Funky Butt '' or `` Buddy Bolden 's Blues '' with improvised lyrics that were , according to Donald M. Marquis either `` comical and light '' or `` crude and downright obscene '' but , in one way or another , referring to the sweaty atmosphere at dances where Bolden 's band played . [ http : //www.realmusicforum.com/history/who-started-funk-music/2008122356/ Who Started Funk Music ] , Real Music Forum As late as the 1950s and early 1960s , when `` funk '' and `` funky '' were used increasingly in the context of jazz music , the terms still were considered indelicate and inappropriate for use in polite company . According to one source , New Orleans-born drummer Earl Palmer `` was the first to use the word 'funky ' to explain to other musicians that their music should be made more syncopated and danceable . `` [ http : //www.guardian.co.uk/music/2008/sep/23/popandrock.usa Obituary , The Guardian ] The style later evolved into a rather hard-driving , insistent rhythm , implying a more carnal quality . This early form of the music set the pattern for later musicians . The music was identified as slow , `` sexy '' , loose , riff-oriented and danceable . Characteristics Rhythm A great deal of funk is rhythmically based on a two-celled onbeat/offbeat structure , which originated in sub-Saharan African music traditions . New Orleans appropriated the bifurcated structure from the Afro-Cuban mambo and conga in the late 1940s , and made it its own . New Orleans funk , as it was called , gained international acclaim largely because James Brown 's rhythm section used it to great effect . Funk creates an intense groove by using strong guitar riffs and bass lines . Like Motown recordings , funk songs used bass lines as the centerpiece of songs . Slap bass 's mixture of thumb-slapped low notes and finger `` popped '' ( or plucked ) high notes allowed the bass to have a drum-like rhythmic role , which became a distinctive element of funk . In funk bands , guitarists typically play in a percussive style , often using the wah-wah sound effect and muting the notes in their riffs to create a percussive sound . Guitarist Ernie Isley of The Isley Brothers and Eddie Hazel of Funkadelic were notably influenced by Jimi Hendrix 's improvised solos . Eddie Hazel , who worked with George Clinton , is one of the most notable guitar soloists in funk . Ernie Isley was tutored at an early age by Jimi Hendrix himself , when he was a part of The Isley Brothers backing band and lived in the attic temporarily at the Isleys ' household . Jimmy Nolen and Phelps Collins are famous funk rhythm guitarists who both worked with James Brown . On Brown 's Give It Up or Turnit a Loose ( 1969 ) , Jimmy Nolen 's guitar part has a bare bones tonal structure . The pattern of attack-points is the emphasis , not the pattern of pitches . The guitar is used the way that an African drum , or idiophone would be used . Note that the measures alternate between beginning on the beat , and beginning on offbeats . Harmony Funk uses the same richly-coloured extended chords found in bebop jazz , such as minor chords with added sevenths and elevenths , or dominant seventh chords with altered ninths . However , unlike bebop jazz , with its complex , rapid-fire chord changes , funk virtually abandoned chord changes , creating static single chord vamps with melodo-harmonic movement and a complex , driving rhythmic feel . Some of the best known and most skilful soloists in funk have jazz backgrounds . Trombonist Fred Wesley and saxophonist Pee Wee Ellis and Maceo Parker are among the most notable musicians in the funk music genre , with both of them working with James Brown , George Clinton and Prince . The chords used in funk songs typically imply a dorian or mixolydian mode , as opposed to the major or natural minor tonalities of most popular music . Melodic content was derived by mixing these modes with the blues scale . In the 1970s , jazz music drew upon funk to create a new subgenre of jazz-funk , which can be heard in recordings by Miles Davis ( Live-Evil , On the Corner ) , and Herbie Hancock ( Head Hunters ) . History The distinctive characteristics of African-American musical expression are rooted in sub-Saharan African music traditions , and find their earliest expression in spirituals , work chants/songs , praise shouts , gospel , blues , and `` body rhythms '' ( hambone , patting juba , and ring shout clapping and stomping patterns ) . Funk music is an amalgam of soul music , soul jazz , R & B , and Afro-Cuban rhythms absorbed and reconstituted in New Orleans . Like other styles of African-American musical expression including jazz , soul music and R & B , funk music accompanied many protest movements during and after the Civil Rights Movement . Funk allowed everyday experiences to be expressed to challenge daily struggles and hardships fought by lower and working class communities . New Orleans Gerhard Kubik notes that with the exception of New Orleans , early blues lacked complex polyrhythms , and there was a `` very specific absence of asymmetric time-line patterns ( key patterns ) in virtually all early twentieth century African American music ... only in some New Orleans genres does a hint of simple time line patterns occasionally appear in the form of transient so-called 'stomp ' patterns or stop-time chorus . These do not function in the same way as African time lines . '' In the late 1940s this changed somewhat when the two-celled time line structure was brought into New Orleans blues . New Orleans musicians were especially receptive to Afro-Cuban influences precisely at the time when R & B was first forming . Dave Bartholomew and Professor Longhair ( Henry Roeland Byrd ) incorporated Afro-Cuban instruments , as well as the clave pattern and related two-celled figures in songs such as `` Carnival Day , '' ( Bartholomew 1949 ) and `` Mardi Gras In New Orleans '' ( Longhair 1949 ) . Robert Palmer reports that , in the 1940s , Professor Longhair listened to and played with musicians from the islands and `` fell under the spell of Perez Prado 's mambo records . '' Professor Longhair 's particular style was known locally as rumba-boogie . One of Longhair 's great contributions was his particular approach of adopting two-celled , clave-based patterns into New Orleans rhythm and blues ( R & B ) . Longhair 's rhythmic approach became a basic template of funk . According to Dr. John ( Malcolm John `` Mac '' Rebennack , Jr. ) , the Professor `` put funk into music ... Longhair 's thing had a direct bearing I 'd say on a large portion of the funk music that evolved in New Orleans . '' In his `` Mardi Gras in New Orleans , '' the pianist employs the 2-3 clave onbeat/offbeat motif in a rumba-boogie `` guajeo '' . The syncopated , but straight subdivision feel of Cuban music ( as opposed to swung subdivisions ) took root in New Orleans R & B during this time . Stewart states : `` Eventually , musicians from outside of New Orleans began to learn some of the rhythmic practices [ of the Crescent City ] . Most important of these were James Brown and the drummers and arrangers he employed . Brown 's early repertoire had used mostly shuffle rhythms , and some of his most successful songs were 12/8 ballads ( e.g . 'Please , Please , Please ' ( 1956 ) , 'Bewildered ' ( 1961 ) , ' I Do n't Mind ' ( 1961 ) ) . Brown 's change to a funkier brand of soul required 4/4 metre and a different style of drumming . '' Stewart makes the point : `` The singular style of rhythm & blues that emerged from New Orleans in the years after World War II played an important role in the development of funk . In a related development , the underlying rhythms of American popular music underwent a basic , yet generally unacknowledged transition from triplet or shuffle feel to even or straight eighth notes . '' 1960s : James Brown Little Richard 's saxophone-studded , mid-1950s R & B road band was credited by James Brown and others as being the first to put the funk in the rock'n'roll beat . [ http : //www.rockhall.com/inductees/little-richard Little Richard ] Following his temporary exit from secular music to become an evangelist in 1957 , some of Little Richard 's band members joined Brown and The Famous Flames , beginning a long string of hits for them in 1958 . By the mid-1960s , James Brown had developed his signature groove that emphasized the downbeat—with heavy emphasis on the first beat of every measure to etch his distinctive sound , rather than the backbeat that typified African American music . Brown often cued his band with the command `` On the one ! , '' changing the percussion emphasis/accent from the one-two-three-four backbeat of traditional soul music to the one-two-three-four downbeat – but with an even-note syncopated guitar rhythm ( on quarter notes two and four ) featuring a hard-driving , repetitive brassy swing . This one-three beat launched the shift in Brown 's signature music style , starting with his 1964 hit single , `` Out of Sight '' and his 1965 hits , `` Papa 's Got a Brand New Bag '' and `` I Got You ( I Feel Good ) '' . Brown 's style of funk was based on interlocking , contrapuntal parts : funky bass lines , drum patterns , and syncopated guitar riffs . The main guitar ostinatos for `` Aint '' it Funky '' ( c. late 1960s ) is an example of Brown 's refinement of New Orleans funk— an irresistibly danceable riff , stripped down to its rhythmic essence . On `` Aint '' it Funky '' the tonal structure is barebones . Brown 's innovations led to him and his band becoming the seminal funk act ; they also pushed the funk music style further to the forefront with releases such as `` Cold Sweat '' ( 1967 ) , `` Mother Popcorn '' ( 1969 ) and `` Get Up ( I Feel Like Being A ) Sex Machine '' ( 1970 ) , discarding even the twelve-bar blues featured in his earlier music . Instead , Brown 's music was overlaid with `` catchy , anthemic vocals '' based on `` extensive vamps '' in which he also used his voice as `` a percussive instrument with frequent rhythmic grunts and with rhythm-section patterns ... [ resembling ] West African polyrhythms '' – a tradition evident in African American work songs and chants.Collins , W. ( 2002 , January 29 ) . [ http : //findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g1epc/is_bio/ai_2419200141 James Brown . ] St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture . Retrieved January 12 , 2007 . Throughout his career , Brown 's frenzied vocals , frequently punctuated with screams and grunts , channeled the `` ecstatic ambiance of the black church '' in a secular context . After 1965 , Brown 's bandleader and arranger was Alfred `` Pee Wee '' Ellis . Ellis credits Clyde Stubblefield 's adoption of New Orleans drumming techniques , as the basis of modern funk : `` If , in a studio , you said 'play it funky ' that could imply almost anything . But 'give me a New Orleans beat ' - you got exactly what you wanted . And Clyde Stubblefield was just the epitome of this funky drumming . '' Stewart states that the popular feel was passed along from `` New Orleans—through James Brown 's music , to the popular music of the 1970s . '' Concerning the various funk motifs , Stewart states : `` This model , it should be noted , is different from a time line ( such as clave and tresillo ) in that it is not an exact pattern , but more of a loose organizing principle . '' In a 1990 interview , Brown offered his reason for switching the rhythm of his music : `` I changed from the upbeat to the downbeat ... Simple as that , really . `` Pareles , J . ( 2006 , December 26 ) . [ http : //www.nytimes.com/2006/12/26/arts/music/26brown.html ? pagewanted 2 & enaef74e8250526096 & ei 5087 & ex1182920400 & excamp GGGNjamesbrown James Brown , the `` Godfather of Soul '' dies at 73 . ] The New York Times . Retrieved January 31 , 2007 . According to Maceo Parker , Brown 's former saxophonist , playing on the downbeat was at first hard for him and took some getting used to . Reflecting back to his early days with Brown 's band , Parker reported that he had difficulty playing `` on the one '' during solo performances , since he was used to hearing and playing with the accent on the second beat.Gross , T. ( 1989 ) . [ http : //www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php ? storyId 6676990 Musician Maceo Parker ( Fresh Air WHYY-FM audio interview ) . ] National Public Radio . Retrieved January 22 , 2007 . Late 1960s – early 1970s Other musical groups picked up on the rhythms and vocal style developed by James Brown and his band , and the funk style began to grow . Dyke and the Blazers , based in Phoenix , Arizona , released `` Funky Broadway '' in 1967 , perhaps the first record of the soul era to have `` funky '' in the title . In 1969 Jimmy McGriff released Electric Funk , featuring his distinctive organ over a blazing horn section . Meanwhile , on the West Coast , Charles Wright & the Watts 103rd Street Rhythm Band was releasing funk tracks beginning with its first album in 1967 , culminating in the classic single `` Express Yourself '' in 1971 . Also from the West Coast area , more specifically Oakland , San Francisco , came the band Tower of Power ( TOP ) , which formed in 1968 . Their debut album East Bay Grease , released 1970 , is considered an important milestone in funk . Throughout the 1970s , TOP had many hits , and the band helped to make funk music a successful genre , with a broader audience . In 1970 , Sly & the Family Stone 's `` Thank You ( Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin ) '' reached # 1 on the charts , as did `` Family Affair '' in 1971 . Notably , these afforded the group and the genre crossover success and greater recognition , yet such success escaped comparatively talented and moderately popular funk band peers . The Meters defined funk in New Orleans , starting with their top ten R & B hits `` Sophisticated Cissy '' and `` Cissy Strut '' in 1969 . Another group who defined funk around this time were The Isley Brothers , whose funky 1969 # 1 R & B hit , `` It 's Your Thing '' , signaled a breakthrough in African-American music , bridging the gaps of the jazzy sounds of Brown , the psychedelic rock of Jimi Hendrix , and the upbeat soul of Sly & the Family Stone and Mother 's Finest . P-Funk : Parliament-Funkadelic A new group of musicians began to further develop the `` funk rock '' approach . Innovations were prominently made by George Clinton , with his bands Parliament and Funkadelic . Together , they produced a new kind of funk sound heavily influenced by jazz and psychedelic rock . The two groups shared members and are often referred to collectively as `` Parliament-Funkadelic . '' The breakout popularity of Parliament-Funkadelic gave rise to the term `` P-Funk '' , which referred to the music by George Clinton 's bands , and defined a new subgenre . Clinton played a principal role in several other bands , including Parlet , the Horny Horns , and the Brides of Funkenstein , all part of the P-Funk conglomerate . `` P-funk '' also came to mean something in its quintessence , of superior quality , or sui generis . 1970s The 1970s were the era of highest mainstream visibility for funk music . In addition to Parliament Funkadelic , artists like Sly and the Family Stone , Rufus & Chaka Khan , the Isley Brothers , Ohio Players , Con Funk Shun , Kool & The Gang , The Bar-Kays , Commodores , Roy Ayers , Stevie Wonder , among others , were successful in getting radio play . Disco music owed a great deal to funk . Many early disco songs and performers came directly from funk-oriented backgrounds . Some disco music hits , such as all of Barry White 's hits , `` Kung Fu Fighting '' by Biddu and Carl Douglas , Donna Summer 's `` Love To Love You Baby '' , Diana Ross ' `` Love Hangover '' , KC & The Sunshine Band 's `` I 'm Your Boogie Man '' , `` I 'm Every Woman '' by Chaka Khan ( also known as The Queen of Funk Soul ) , and Chic 's `` Le Freak '' conspicuously include riffs and rhythms derived from funk . In 1976 , Rose Royce scored a # 1 hit with a purely dance-funk record , `` Car Wash '' . Even with the arrival of Disco , funk became increasingly popular well into the early 80s . Funk music was also exported to Africa , and it melded with African singing and rhythms to form Afrobeat . Nigerian musician Fela Kuti , who was heavily influenced by James Brown 's music , is credited with creating the style and terming it `` Afrobeat '' . Jazz funk Headhunters In the 1970s , at the same time that jazz musicians began to explore blending jazz with rock to create jazz fusion , major jazz performers began to experiment with funk . Jazz-funk recordings typically used electric bass and electric piano in the rhythm section , in place of the double bass and acoustic piano that were typically used in jazz up till that point . Pianist and bandleader Herbie Hancock was the first of many big jazz artists who embraced funk during the decade . Hancock 's Headhunters band ( 1973 ) played the jazz-funk style.The Headhunters ' lineup and instrumentation , retaining only wind player Bennie Maupin from Hancock 's previous sextet , reflected his new musical direction . He used percussionist Bill Summers in addition to a drummer . Summers blended African , Afro-Cuban , and Afro-Brazilian instruments and rhythms into Hancock 's jazzy funk sound . On the Corner On the Corner ( 1972 ) was jazz trumpeter-composer Miles Davis 's seminal foray into jazz-funk . Like his previous works though , On the Corner was experimental . Davis stated that On the Corner was an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audience which had largely forsaken jazz for rock and funk . While there is a discernible funk influence in the timbres of the instruments employed , other tonal and rhythmic textures , such as the Indian tambora and tablas , and Cuban congas and bongos , create a multi-layered soundscape . From a musical standpoint , the album was a culmination of sorts of the recording studio-based musique concrète approach that Davis and producer Teo Macero ( who had studied with Otto Luening at Columbia University 's Computer Music Center ) had begun to explore in the late 1960s . Both sides of the record featured heavy funk drum and bass grooves , with the melodic parts snipped from hours of jams and mixed in the studio . Also cited as musical influences on the album by Davis were the contemporary composer Karlheinz Stockhausen , 1980s and stripped-down funk In the 1980s , largely as a reaction against what was seen as the over-indulgence of disco , many of the core elements that formed the foundation of the P-Funk formula began to be usurped by electronic instruments , drum machines and synthesizers . Horn sections of saxophones and trumpets were replaced by synth keyboards , and the horns that remained were given simplified lines , and few horn solos were given to soloists . The classic electric keyboards of funk , like the Hammond B3 organ , the Hohner Clavinet and/or the Fender Rhodes piano began to be replaced by the new digital synthesizers such as the Yamaha DX7 . Electronic drum machines such as the Roland TR-808 began to replace the `` funky drummers '' of the past , and the slap and pop style of bass playing were often replaced by synth keyboard bass lines . As well , the lyrics of funk songs began to change from suggestive double entendres to more graphic and sexually explicit content . In the late 1970s , the electronic music band Yellow Magic Orchestra ( YMO ) began experimenting with electronic funk music , introducing `` videogame-funk '' sounds with hits such as `` Computer Game '' ( 1978 ) , which had a strong influence on the later electro-funk genre . In 1980 , YMO was the first band to use the TR-808 programmable drum machine , while YMO member Ryuichi Sakamoto 's `` Riot in Lagos '' developed the beats and sounds of electro-funk that same year , influencing later electro-funk artists such as Afrika Bambaataa and Mantronix . Rick James was the first funk musician of the 1980s to assume the funk mantle dominated by P-Funk in the 1970s . His 1981 album Street Songs with the singles `` Give It To Me Baby '' and `` Super Freak '' resulted in James becoming a star , and paved the way for the future direction of explicitness in funk . Beginning in the late 1970s , Prince used a stripped-down , yet dynamic , instrumentation similar to James . However , Prince went on to have as much of an impact on the sound of funk as any one artist since Brown ; he combined eroticism , technology , an increasing musical complexity , and an outrageous image and stage show to ultimately create music as ambitious and imaginative as P-Funk . Prince formed The Time , originally conceived as an opening act for him and based on his `` Minneapolis sound '' , hybrid mixture of funk , R & B , rock , pop & new wave . Eventually , the band went on to define their own style of stripped-down funk based on tight musicianship and sexual themes . Similar to Prince , other bands emerged during the P-Funk era and began to incorporate uninhibited sexuality , dance-oriented themes , synthesizers and other electronic technologies to continue to craft funk hits . These included Cameo , Zapp , The Gap Band , The Bar-Kays , and The Dazz Band all found their biggest hits in the early 1980s . However , by the latter half of the 80s , funk had lost its commercial impact . Influenced by Yellow Magic Orchestra and Kraftwerk , the American musician Afrika Bambaataa developed electro-funk , a minimalist machine-driven style of funk with his single `` Planet Rock '' in 1982 . Also known simply as electro , this style of funk was driven by synthesizers and the electronic rhythm of the TR-808 drum machine . The single `` Renegades of Funk '' followed in 1983 . Late 1980s to present While funk was all but driven from the radio by slick commercial hip hop , contemporary R & B and new jack swing , its influence continued to spread . Artists like Steve Arrington and Cameo still received major airplay and had huge global followings . Rock bands began copying elements of funk to their sound , creating new combinations of `` funk rock '' and `` funk metal '' . Extreme , Red Hot Chili Peppers , Living Colour , Jane 's Addiction , Prince , Primus , Fishbone , Faith No More , Rage Against the Machine , Infectious Grooves , and Incubus spread the approach and styles garnered from funk pioneers to new audiences in the mid-to-late 1980s and the 1990s . These bands later inspired the underground mid-1990s funkcore movement and current funk-inspired artists like Outkast , Malina Moye , Van Hunt , and Gnarls Barkley . In the 1990s , artists like Me'shell Ndegeocello and the ( predominantly UK-based ) acid jazz movement including artists and bands such as Jamiroquai , Incognito , Galliano , Omar , Los Tetas and The Brand New Heavies carried on with strong elements of funk . However , they never came close to reaching the commercial success of funk in its heyday , with the exception of Jamiroquai whose album Travelling Without Moving sold about 11.5 million units worldwide . Meanwhile , in Australia and New Zealand , bands playing the pub circuit , such as Supergroove , Skunkhour and The Truth , preserved a more instrumental form of funk . Since the late 1980s hip hop artists have regularly sampled old funk tunes . James Brown is said to be the most sampled artist in

qg_3920--Funk.txt

What can be a legislative body, a collective name for type of bird, and a funk band?

David Lloyd George , 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor , ( 17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945 ) was a British Liberal politician and statesman . As Chancellor of the Exchequer ( 1908–1915 ) , Lloyd George was a key figure in the introduction of many reforms which laid the foundations of the modern welfare state . His most important role came as the highly energetic Prime Minister of the Wartime Coalition Government ( 1916–22 ) , during and immediately after the First World War . He was a major player at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that reordered Europe after the defeat of the Central Powers . He arguably made a greater impact on British public life than any other 20th-century leader , thanks to his pre-war introduction of Britain 's social welfare system , his leadership in winning the war , his post-war role in reshaping Europe , and his partitioning Ireland ( between Southern Ireland - later the Irish Free State - and Northern Ireland which remained part of the UK ) . He was the last Liberal to serve as Prime Minister . Parliamentary support for the coalition premiership was mostly from Conservatives rather than his own Liberals . The Liberal split contributed to the long-term collapse of that party as a major political force . Although he became leader of the Liberal Party in the late 1920s , he was unable to regain power , and by the 1930s he was a marginalised and widely mistrusted figure . He was voted the third greatest British prime minister of the 20th century in a poll of 139 academics organised by MORI , and in 2002 he was named among the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote . Upbringing and early life Lloyd George was born in Chorlton-on-Medlock , Manchester , to Welsh parents , and was brought up as a Welsh-speaker . He is so far the only British Prime Minister to have been Welsh and to have spoken English as a second language . His father , William George , had been a teacher in both London and Liverpool . He also taught in the Hope Street Sunday Schools , which were administered by the Unitarians , where he met Unitarian minister Dr James Martineau . In March of the same year , on account of his failing health , William George returned with his family to his native Pembrokeshire . He took up farming but died in June 1864 of pneumonia , aged 44 . His widow , Elizabeth George ( 1828–96 ) , sold the farm and moved with her children to her native Llanystumdwy in Caernarfonshire , where she lived in Tŷ Newydd with her brother Richard Lloyd ( 1834–1917 ) , who was a shoemaker , a minister ( in the Scotch Baptists and then the Church of Christ ) , and a strong Liberal . Lloyd George was educated at the local Anglican school Llanystumdwy National School and later under tutors . Lloyd George 's uncle was a towering influence on him , encouraging him to take up a career in law and enter politics ; his uncle remained influential up until his death at age 83 in February 1917 , by which time his nephew had become Prime Minister . He added his uncle 's surname to become `` Lloyd George '' . His surname is usually given as `` Lloyd George '' and sometimes as `` George '' . The influence of his childhood showed through in his entire career , as he attempted to aid the common man at the expense of what he liked to call `` the Dukes '' ( that is , the aristocracy ) . However , his biographer John Grigg argued that Lloyd George 's childhood was nowhere near as poverty-stricken as he liked to suggest , and that a great deal of his self-confidence came from having been brought up by an uncle who enjoyed a position of influence and prestige in his small community . Brought up a devout evangelical , as a young man he suddenly lost his religious faith . Biographer Don Cregier says he became `` a Deist and perhaps an agnostic , though he remained a chapel-goer and connoisseur of good preaching all his life . '' He kept quiet about that , however , and was hailed as `` one of the foremost fighting leaders of a fanatical Welsh Nonconformity '' . It was also during this period of his life that Lloyd George first became interested in the issue of land ownership . As a young man he read books by Thomas Spence , John Stuart Mill and Henry George , as well as pamphlets written by George Bernard Shaw and Sidney Webb of the Fabian Society on the issue of land ownership . By the age of twenty-one , he had already read and taken notes on Henry George 's Progress and Poverty . This strongly influenced Lloyd George 's politics later in life through the People 's Budget which heavily drew on the georgist tax reform ideas . Articled to a firm of solicitors in Porthmadog , Lloyd George was admitted in 1884 after taking Honours in his final law examination and set up his own practice in the back parlour of his uncle 's house in 1885 . The practice flourished , and he established branch offices in surrounding towns , taking his brother William into partnership in 1887 . Although many Prime Ministers have been barristers , Lloyd George is to date the only solicitor to have held that office . By then he was politically active , having campaigned for the Liberal Party in the 1885 election , attracted by Joseph Chamberlain 's `` unauthorised programme '' of reforms . The election resulted firstly in a stalemate with neither the Liberals nor the Conservatives having a majority , the balance of power being held by the Irish Parliamentary Party . William Gladstone 's announcement of a determination to bring about Irish Home Rule later led to Chamberlain leaving the Liberals to form the Liberal Unionists . Uncertain of which wing to follow , Lloyd George carried a pro-Chamberlain resolution at the local Liberal Club and travelled to Birmingham to attend the first meeting of Chamberlain 's National Radical Union , but he had his dates wrong and arrived a week too early . In 1907 , he was to say that he thought Chamberlain 's plan for a federal solution correct in 1886 and still thought so , that he preferred the unauthorised programme to the Whig-like platform of the official Liberal Party , and that , had Chamberlain proposed solutions to Welsh grievances such as land reform and disestablishment , he , together with most Welsh Liberals , would have followed Chamberlain . On 24 January 1888 he married Margaret Owen , the daughter of a well-to-do local farming family . Also in that year he and other young Welsh Liberals founded a monthly paper Udgorn Rhyddid ( Bugle of Freedom ) and won on appeal to the Divisional Court of Queen 's Bench the Llanfrothen burial case ; this established the right of Nonconformists to be buried according to their own denominational rites in parish burial grounds , a right given by the Burial Laws Amendment Act 1880 that had up to then been ignored by the Anglican clergy . It was this case , which was hailed as a great victory throughout Wales , and his writings in Udgorn Rhyddid that led to his adoption as the Liberal candidate for Carnarvon Boroughs on 27 December 1888 . In 1889 he became an Alderman on the Carnarvonshire County Council which had been created by the Local Government Act 1888 . At that time he appeared to be trying to create a separate Welsh national party modelled on Parnell 's Irish Parliamentary Party and worked towards a union of the North and South Wales Liberal Federations . For the same county Lloyd George would also become a JP ( 1910 ) and chairman of Quarter Sessions ( 1929–38 ) , and DL in 1921 . Member of Parliament Lloyd George was returned as Liberal MP for Carnarvon Boroughs – by a margin of 19 votes – on 13 April 1890 at a by-election caused by the death of the former Conservative member . He sat with an informal grouping of Welsh Liberal members with a programme of disestablishing and disendowing the Church of England in Wales , temperance reform , and Welsh home rule . He would remain an MP until 1945 , 55 years later . As backbench members of the House of Commons were not paid at that time , he supported himself and his growing family by continuing to practise as a solicitor , opening an office in London under the name of Lloyd George and Co. and continuing in partnership with William George in Criccieth . In 1897 he merged his growing London practice with that of Arthur Rhys Roberts ( who was to become Official Solicitor ) under the name of Lloyd George , Roberts and Co .. He was soon speaking on Liberal issues ( particularly temperance – the `` local option '' , and national as opposed to denominational education ) throughout England as well as Wales . During the next decade , Lloyd George campaigned in Parliament largely on Welsh issues and in particular for disestablishment and disendowment of the Church of England . He wrote extensively for Liberal papers such as the Manchester Guardian . When Gladstone retired in 1894 after the defeat of the second Home Rule Bill , the Welsh Liberal members chose him to serve on a deputation to William Harcourt to press for specific assurances on Welsh issues ; when those were not provided , they resolved to take independent action if the government did not bring a bill for disestablishment . When that was not forthcoming , he and three other Welsh Liberals ( David Alfred Thomas , Herbert Lewis and Frank Edwards ) refused the whip on 14 April 1894 but accepted Lord Rosebery 's assurance and rejoined the official Liberals on 29 May . Thereafter , he devoted much time to setting up branches of Cymru Fydd ( Young Wales ) , which , he said , would in time become a force like the Irish National Party . He abandoned this idea after being criticised in Welsh newspapers for bringing about the defeat of the Liberal Party in the 1895 election and when , at a meeting in Newport on 16 January 1896 , the South Wales Liberal Federation , led by David Alfred Thomas and Robert Bird moved that he be not heard . Lloyd George had been impressed by his journey to Canada in 1899 . Although sometimes wrongly supposed – both at the time and subsequently – to be a Little Englander , he was not an opponent of the British Empire per se , but in a speech at Birkenhead ( 21 November 1901 ) stressed that it needed to be based on freedom – including for India – not `` racial arrogance '' . Consequently , he gained national fame by displaying vehement opposition to the Second Boer War . Following Rosebery 's leading antipathy , he based his attack firstly on what were supposed to be war aims – remedying the grievances of the Uitlanders and in particular the claim that they were wrongly denied the right to vote , saying `` I do not believe the war has any connection with the franchise . It is a question of 45 % dividends '' and that England ( which did not then have universal male suffrage ) was more in need of franchise reform than the Boer republics . A second attack came on the cost of the war , which , he argued , prevented overdue social reform in England , such as old age pensions and workmen 's cottages . As the fighting continued , his attacks moved to its conduct by the generals , who , he said ( basing his words on reports by William Burdett-Coutts in The Times ) , were not providing for the sick or wounded soldiers and were starving Boer women and children in concentration camps . But his major thrusts were reserved for the Chamberlains , accusing them of war profiteering through the family company Kynoch Ltd , of which Chamberlain 's brother was Chairman . The firm had won tenders to the War Office though its prices were higher than some of its competitors . After speaking at a meeting in Birmingham , Lloyd George had to be smuggled out disguised as a policeman , as his life was in danger from the mob . At this time the Liberal Party was badly split as H. H. Asquith , R. B. Haldane and others were supporters of the war and formed the Liberal Imperial League . On the day Edward VII was signing the Entente Cordiale , Lloyd George was visiting Rosebery at Dalmeny House . Rosebery warned him that it would increase the likelihood of a war with Germany . Lloyd George tried in vain to persuade the wealthy peer to become Liberal leader again : an important friendship developed that was the genesis of the New Liberalism ; frequent visits to Dalmeny could not convince him though that the vaunted leadership popularity of the great orator was in touch with real trends . His attacks on the government 's Education Act 1902 , which provided that county councils would fund church schools , helped reunite the Liberals . His successful amendment that the county need only fund those schools where the buildings were in good repair served to make the Act a dead letter in Wales , where the counties were able to show that most Church of England schools were in poor repair . Having already gained national recognition for his anti-Boer War campaigns , his leadership of the attacks on the Education Act gave him a strong parliamentary reputation and marked him as a likely future cabinet member . President of the Board of Trade ( 1905–1908 ) In 1906 , Lloyd George entered the new Liberal Cabinet of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman as President of the Board of Trade . In that position he introduced legislation on many topics , from merchant shipping and the Port of London to companies and railway regulation , but his main achievement was in stopping a proposed national strike of the railway unions by brokering an agreement between the unions and the railway companies . While almost all the companies refused to recognise the unions , Lloyd George persuaded the companies to recognise elected representatives of the workers who sat with the company representatives on conciliation boards—one for each company . If those boards failed to agree then there was a central board . This was Lloyd George 's first great triumph , for which he received praises from , among others , Kaiser Wilhelm II . Two weeks later , however , his great excitement was crushed by his daughter Mair 's death from appendicitis . Chancellor of the Exchequer ( 1908–1915 ) On Campbell-Bannerman 's death he succeeded Asquith , who had become Prime Minister , as Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1908 to 1915 . While he continued some work from the Board of Trade—for example , legislation to establish the Port of London Authority and to pursue traditional Liberal programmes such as licensing law reforms—his first major trial in this role was over the 1908–1909 Naval Estimates . The Liberal manifesto at the 1906 general election included a commitment to reduce military expenditure . Lloyd George strongly supported this , writing to Reginald McKenna , First Lord of the Admiralty , `` the emphatic pledges given by all of us at the last general election to reduce the gigantic expenditure on armaments built up by the recklessness of our predecessors . '' He then proposed the programme be reduced from six to four dreadnoughts . This was adopted by the government , but there was a public storm when the Conservatives , with covert support from the First Sea Lord , Admiral Jackie Fisher , campaigned for more with the slogan `` We want eight and we wo n't wait '' . This resulted in Lloyd George 's defeat in Cabinet and the adoption of estimates including provision for eight dreadnoughts . People 's Budget , 1909 In 1909 Lloyd George introduced his People 's Budget imposing a 20 % tax on the unearned increase in value of land , payable at death of the owner or sale of the land , and ½ d. on undeveloped land and minerals , increased death duties , a rise in income tax , and the introduction of a 'super tax ' on income over £3,000 . There were taxes also on luxuries , alcohol , and tobacco , so that money could be made available for the new welfare programmes as well as new battleships . The nation 's landowners ( well represented in the House of Lords ) were intensely angry at the new taxes , mostly at the proposed very high tax on land values , but also because the instrumental redistribution of wealth could be used to detract from an argument for protective tariffs . The immediate consequences included the end of the Liberal League , and Rosebery breaking friendship with the Liberal Party , which in itself was for Lloyd George , a triumph . He had won the case of social reform without losing the debate on Free Trade . Arthur Balfour denounced the budget as `` vindictive , inequitable , based on no principles , and injurious to the productive capacity of the country . '' Roy Jenkins described it as the most significant since Gladstone 's in 1860 . In the House of Commons Lloyd George gave a brilliant account of the budget , which was attacked by the Conservatives . On the stump , notably at his Limehouse speech in 1909 , he denounced the Conservatives and the wealthy classes with all his very considerable oratorical power . The budget passed the Commons , but was defeated by the Conservative majority in the House of Lords . The elections of 1910 upheld the Liberal government and the budget finally passed the Lords . Subsequently the Parliament Act 1911 , which Lloyd George strongly supported , was passed and the veto power of the House of Lords was greatly curtailed . Although old-age pensions had already been introduced by Asquith as Chancellor , Lloyd George was largely responsible for the introduction of state financial support for the sick and infirm ( known colloquially as `` going on the Lloyd George '' for decades afterwards ) —legislation referred to as the Liberal Reforms . Lloyd George also succeeded in putting through Parliament his National Insurance Act 1911 , making provision for sickness and invalidism , and a system of unemployment insurance . He was helped in his endeavours by forty or so backbenchers who regularly pushed for new social measures , often voted with Labour MPs . These social reforms in Britain were the beginnings of a welfare state and fulfilled the aim of dampening down the demands of the growing working class for rather more radical solutions to their impoverishment . Mansion House Speech , 1911 Lloyd George was considered an opponent of war until the Agadir Crisis of 1911 . His Mansion House speech on 21 July 1911 combined rousing oratory with intoxicating patriotism . Grey was aghast and felt that the Chancellor was more qualified to be Foreign Secretary that he was ; German opinion recognised that Britain would resist further German aggression . Haldane and Lloyd George were among the minority in the Cabinet who were Pro-German , on grounds of a shared religion , philosophy , artistic culture and scientific enquiry . Germany blamed Lloyd George for doing `` untold harm both with regard to German public opinion and the negotiations ... namely , to the despatch of the German warship to Agadir , '' and citing Count Metternich `` ... Mr Lloyd George 's speech came upon us like a thunderbolt '' Marconi scandal 1913 In 1913 Lloyd George , along with Rufus Isaacs , the Attorney General , was involved in the Marconi scandal . Accused of speculating in Marconi shares on the inside information that they were about to be awarded a key government contract ( which would have caused them to increase in value ) , he told the House of Commons that he had not speculated in the shares of `` that company '' , which was not the whole truth as he had in fact speculated in shares of Marconi 's American sister company . This scandal , which would have destroyed his career if the whole truth had come out at the time , was a precursor to the whiff of corruption ( e.g . the sale of honours in 1922 ) that later surrounded Lloyd George 's premiership . Welsh Church Act 1914 The Church of England no longer had majority adherence in most parts of Wales in preference to Wales-led Protestantism , in particular Methodism . Lloyd George was instrumental in introducing the Welsh Church Act which disestablished the Anglican Church in Wales ( though , upon the outbreak of war , the actual coming into force of the Act was postponed by the Suspensory Act 1914 until 1920 ) , removing the opportunity of the six Welsh Bishops in the new Church in Wales to apply ex officio to sit in the House of Lords and removing ( disendowing ) certain pre-1662 property rights . First World War Lloyd George , seen as an opponent of war until the Agadir Crisis of 1911 , supported the entry of the British Empire into the First World War , not least as Belgium , for whose defence Britain was supposedly fighting , was a `` small nation '' , like Wales or indeed South Africa . Lloyd George remained in office as Chancellor of the Exchequer for the first year of the Great War . The budget of 17 November 1914 had to allow for lower taxation receipts because of the reduction in world trade . The Crimean and Boer Wars had largely been paid for out of taxation ; but Lloyd George raised debt financing of £321 million . Huge increases in Super Tax and income tax rates were not followed by sales and purchase tax revenue rises . While raising £63 million more , the budget was distinguished by the crude attempt to eradicate drinking during wartime , known as the King 's Pledge . Minister of Munitions Lloyd George gained a heroic reputation with his energetic work as Minister of Munitions , 1915–16 , setting the stage for his move up to the height of power . After a long struggle with the War Office , he wrested responsibility for arms production away from the generals , making it a purely industrial department , with considerable expert assistance from Walter Runciman . The two men gained the respect of Liberal cabinet colleagues for improving administrative capabilities , and increasing outputs . When the Shell Crisis of 1915 dismayed public opinion with the news that the Army was running short of artillery shells , demands rose for a strong leader to take charge of munitions . In the first coalition ministry , formed in May 1915 , Lloyd George was made Minister of Munitions , heading a new department . In this position he won great acclaim , which formed the basis for his political ascent . All historians agree that he boosted national morale and focused attention on the urgent need for greater output , but many also say the increase in munitions output in 1915-16 was due largely to reforms already underway , though not yet effective , before he had even arrived . The Ministry broke through the cumbersome bureaucracy of the War Office , resolved labour problems , rationalised the supply system and dramatically increased production . Within a year it became the largest buyer , seller , and employer in Britain . Lloyd George was not at all satisfied with the progress of the war . He wanted to `` knock away the props '' , by attacking Germany 's allies – from early in 1915 he argued for the sending of British troops to the Balkans to assist Serbia and bring Greece and other Balkan countries onto the side of the Allies ( this was eventually done – the Salonika expedition – although not on the scale that Lloyd George had wanted , and mountain ranges made his suggestions of grand Balkan offensives impractical ) ; in 1916 he wanted to send machine guns to Romania ( insufficient were available for this to be feasible ) . These suggestions began a period of poor relations with the Chief of the Imperial General Staff , General Robertson , who was `` brusque to the point of rudeness '' and `` barely concealed his contempt for Lloyd George 's military opinions '' , to which he was in the habit of retorting `` I 've 'eard different '' . Lloyd George persuaded Kitchener , the Secretary of State for War , to raise a Welsh Division , but not to recognise nonconformist chaplains in the Army . Late in 1915 Lloyd George became a strong supporter of general conscription , an issue that divided principled Liberals , but helped the passage of several conscription acts from January 1916 onwards . In spring 1916 Milner hoped Lloyd George could be persuaded to bring down the coalition government by resigning , but this did not happen . Secretary of State for War In June 1916 Lloyd George succeeded Lord Kitchener ( whose ship was sunk by a mine while on his way to Russia ) as Secretary of State for War , although he had little control over strategy , as General Robertson had been given direct right of access to the Cabinet so as to bypass Kitchener . However , he did succeed in securing the appointment of Sir Eric Geddes to take charge of military railways behind British lines in France , with the honorary rank of major-general . Lloyd George told a journalist , Roy W. Howard , in late September that `` the fight must be to a finish – to a knockout '' , a rejection of President Wilson 's offer to mediate . Lloyd George was increasingly frustrated at the limited gains of the Somme Offensive , criticising General Haig to Ferdinand Foch on a visit to the Western Front in September ( British casualty ratios were worse than those of the French , who were more experienced and had more artillery ) , proposing sending Robertson on a mission to Russia ( he refused to go ) , and demanding that more troops be sent to Salonika to help Romania . Robertson eventually threatened to resign . Much of the press still argued that the professional leadership of Haig and Robertson was preferable to civilian interference which had led to disasters like Gallipoli and Kut . Lord Northcliffe , owner of The Times stormed into Lloyd George 's office and , finding him unavailable , told his secretary `` You can tell him that I hear he has been interfering with Strategy , and that if he goes on I will break him '' , and the same day ( 11 October ) Lloyd George also received a warning letter from H. A. Gwynne , editor of the Morning Post . He was obliged to give his `` word of honour '' to Asquith that he had complete confidence in Haig and Robertson and thought them irreplaceable , but he wrote to Robertson wanting to know how their differences had been leaked to the press ( affecting to believe that Robertson had not personally `` authorised such a breach of confidence & discipline '' ) . He asserted his right to express his opinions about strategy in November , by which time ministers had taken to holding meetings to which Robertson was not invited . The weakness of Asquith as a planner and organiser was increasingly apparent to senior officials . After Asquith had refused to agree to Lloyd George 's demand that he should be allowed to chair a small committee to manage the war , he resigned in December 1916 . Grey was among leading Asquithians who had identified the Welsh Wizard 's intentions the previous month . Lloyd George himself became Prime Minister , with the nation demanding he take vigorous charge of the war . A Punch cartoon of the time showed him as `` The New Conductor '' conducting the orchestra in the `` Opening of the 1917 Overture '' . Although during the political crisis Robertson had advised Lloyd George to `` stick to it '' and form a small War Council , Lloyd George had planned

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David Lloyd George was British Prime Minister during the reign of which monarch?

The Chablis region is the northernmost wine district of the Burgundy region in France . The cool climate of this region produces wines with more acidity and flavors less fruity than Chardonnay wines grown in warmer climates . These wines often have a `` flinty '' note , sometimes described as `` goût de pierre à fusil '' ( `` tasting of gunflint '' ) , and sometimes as `` steely '' . The Chablis Appellation d'origine contrôlée is required to use Chardonnay grapes solely . The grapevines around the town of Chablis make a dry white wine renowned for the purity of its aroma and taste . In comparison with the white wines from the rest of Burgundy , Chablis wine has typically much less influence of oak . Most basic Chablis is unoaked , and vinified in stainless steel tanks . The amount of barrel maturation , if any , is a stylistic choice which varies widely among Chablis producers . Many Grand Cru and Premier Cru wines receive some maturation in oak barrels , but typically the time in barrel and the proportion of new barrels is much smaller than for white wines of Côte de Beaune . Location Chablis lies about 10 mi east of Auxerre in the Yonne department , situated roughly halfway between the Côte d'Or and Paris . Of France 's wine-growing areas , only Champagne and Alsace have a more northerly location . Chablis is closer to the southern Aube district of Champagne than the rest of Burgundy . The region covers 15 km x 20 km across 27 communes located along the Serein river . The soil is Kimmeridge clay with outcrops of the same chalk layer that extends from Sancerre up to the White Cliffs of Dover , giving a name to the paleontologists ' Cretaceous period . The Grand Crus , the best vineyards in the area , all lie on a single , small slope , facing southwest and located just north of the town of Chablis . History During the Middle Ages the Catholic Church , particularly Cistercian monks , became a major influence in establishing the economic and commercial interest of viticulture for the region . Pontigny Abbey was founded in 1114 , and the monks planted vines along the Serein . Anséric de Montréal gave a vineyard at Chablis to the Abbey in 1186 . In 1245 the chronicler Salimbene di Adam described a Chablis wine . Chardonnay is believed to have first been planted in Chablis by the Cistercians of Pontigny Abbey in the 12th century , and from there spread south to the rest of the Burgundy region . The Chablis area became part of the Duchy of Burgundy in the 15th century . There are records in the mid-15th century of Chablis wine being shipped to England , Flanders and Picardy . But in February 1568 the town was razed by the Huguenots , and the region did not really recover until the 18th century . Then came the ravages of the French Revolution , the Little Ice Age and Prussian invasions . Just as the vineyards were being built back up , they were hit first by oidium in the 1880s , and then by the phylloxera epidemic . Following two World Wars , the Chablis wine industry would n't recover until the second half of the 20th century . The easily accessible Seine river , via the nearby Yonne river , gave the Chablis wine producers a near monopoly on the lucrative Parisian market . In the 17th century , the English discovered the wine and began importing large volumes . By the 19th century there were nearly 98840 acre of vines planted in Chablis with vineyards stretching from the town of Chablis to Joigny and Sens along the Yonne . Chablis wines were seen across northern France with even some Champagne producers using Chablis as part of a base wine for their sparkling cuvee . The 19th-century Russian novel Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy mentions `` classic Chablis '' in a commonplace way . The end of the 19th century saw of a period of calamity for the region beginning first with the opening of the development of railway systems that linked all parts of the country with Paris in the 1850s . This brought an influx of available inexpensive wine from regions in the Midi ( such as the Languedoc ) that undercut Chablis ' presence in the Parisian market . The 1880s saw the dual devastation of powdery mildew and phylloxera which ravaged vineyards . Many Chablis producers gave up winemaking , the acreage in the region steadily declining throughout much of the early 20th century . By the 1950s there were only 1235 acre of vines planted in Chablis . The 20th century did bring about a renewed commitment to quality production and ushered in technological advances that would allow viticulture to be more profitable and reliable in this cool northern climate . In 1938 , the Institut National des Appellations d'Origine created the Appellation d'origine contrôlée ( AOC ) region for Chablis that mandated the grape variety ( Chardonnay ) and acceptable winemaking and viticultural practices within delineated boundaries . One of the objectives of the AOC establishment was to protect the name `` Chablis '' , which by this time was already being inappropriately used to refer to just about any white wine made from any number of white grape varieties all across the world . In the early 1960s , technological advances in vineyard frost protection minimized some of the risk and financial cost associated with variable vintages and climate of Chablis . The worldwide `` Chardonnay-boom '' of the mid-late 20th century , opened up prosperous worldwide markets to Chablis and vineyard plantings saw a period of steady increase . By 2004 , vineyard plantings in Chablis reached a little over 10000 acre . Climate and geography Located in northeast France , the Chablis region is considered the northernmost extension of the Burgundy wine region but it is separated from the Côte d'Or by the Morvan hills , with the main Burgundian winemaking town of Beaune located more than 62 mi away . This makes the region of Chablis relatively isolated from other winemaking regions with the southern vineyards of the Champagne in the Aube department being the closest winemaking neighbor . Historically Chablis was once considered part of the Champagne province , and the two region share many climatic similarities . Chablis ' far northern location puts it at the extreme edge of sustainable viticulture . The region has a semi-continental climate with no maritime influence that far inland . Summertime temperature during the peak growing season can get very hot and wintertime can be long , cold and harsh , with frost condition lasting well into Spring-from March to early May . The area can experience dramatic vintage variation in both quality and quantity due to climatic conditions , particularly the threat of spring frost . Years that experience too much rain and low temperature tend to produce wines excessively high in acidity and fruit that is too lean to support it . Vintages that are exceedingly warm tend to produce fat , flabby wines that are too low in acidity . The region of Chablis lies on the eastern edge of the Paris Basin . The region 's oldest soil dates back to the Upper Jurassic age , over 180 million years ago and includes a particular vineyard soil type known as argilo-calcaire . This same Kimmeridge clay is found across the English Channel in Dorset and is a composition of limestone , clay and tiny fossilized oyster shells . All of Chablis ' Grand Cru vineyards and Premier Cru vineyards are planted on primarily Kimmeridgean soil which imparts a distinctively mineral , flinty note to the wines . Other areas , particularly the vast majority of Petit Chablis vineyards , are planted on slightly younger Portlandian soil-a limestone based soil of similar structure . The crusty limestone-based soil of the region give the landscape a chalky white appearance similar to some areas of Champagne and Sancerre . Viticulture The main viticultural concern for Chablis vineyard owners is frost protection . During the crucial bud break period of a grapevine 's annual cycle , the Chablis region is prone to experience springtime frost , from March to early May , which can decimate that year 's crop . Prior to the mid 20th century , Chablis producers were at the mercy of the vintage as to whether the temperature would stay warm enough during this period to maintain viable yields . The financial risk involve with losing half to an entire year 's crop encouraged many producers to practice polyculture agriculture by pulling up vineyard space to plant alternative crops . The 1957 vintage was hit particularly hard by frost damage : the regional authorities reported that only 11 cases ( 132 bottles ) of wine were produced . In the 1960s , technological advances in frost protection introduced preventive measures , such as smudge pots and aspersion irrigation to the region . Smudge pots worked by providing direct heat to the vines while aspersion involved spraying the vines with water as soon as temperatures hit 32 °F and maintaining persistent coverage . The water freezes on the vine , shielding it with a protective layer of ice that functions similar to an igloo in retaining heat within the vine . While cost is a factor in using smudge pots , there is a risk to the aspersion method if the constant sprinkling of water is interrupted which can end up causing even more damage to the vine . At harvest time , AOC regulations stipulate grapes for Grand Cru vineyard must be picked with a potential alcohol level of at least 11 percent , at least 10.5 percent for Premiers Crus and 9.5 percent for AOC Chablis vineyards . Yields in Grands Crus must be limited to 3.3 tons per acre ( 45 hectoliters per hectare ) with a 20 % allowance for increased yields . There is no official regulation on the use of mechanical harvesting , but most Grand Cru producers prefer hand picking because human pickers tend to be more delicate with the grapes and can distinguish better between ripe and unripe bunches . While its use is gradually declining , for the rest of Chablis region mechanical harvesting was used by around 80 % of the vineyards at the turn of the 21st century . The traditional style of vine training in Chablis is to have the vine trained low to the ground for warmth with four cordons stretching out sideways from the trunk . Winemaking The 20th century saw many advances in winemaking technology and practices—particularly the introduction of temperature-controlled fermentation and controlled inducing of malolactic fermentation . One winemaking issue that has seen some controversy in the region is the use of oak . Historically Chablis was aged in old wooden feuillette barrels that were essentially neutral-meaning that they did not impart the characteristic oak flavors ( vanilla , cinnamon , toast , coconut , etc . ) that are today associated with ageing a wine in barrels . Hygiene was difficult to control with these older barrels , and they were prone to developing faults in the wine , including discoloration . Gradually the use of these old neutral barrels fell out of favor in lieu of stainless steel fermentation tanks which also added the benefit of controlling temperatures . The use of oak became controversial in the Chablis when some winemakers in the late 20th century `` rediscovered '' the use of wood barrels in winemaking and began using newer oak barrels that did impart oak flavoring the wine . So-called `` tradionalist '' winemakers dismissed the usage of oak as counter to the `` Chablis style '' or terroir while other so-called `` modernist '' winemakers embrace its use though not to the length that would characterize a `` New World '' Chardonnay . The amount of `` char '' in oak barrels used in Chablis is often very light , which limits the amount of `` toastiness '' that is perceived in the wine . The advocates of oak in Chablis point to the positive benefits of allowing limited oxygenation with the wine through the permeable oak barrels . This can have the effect of softening the wine and make the generally austere and acidic Chablis more approachable at a younger age . The winemakers who prefer not to use oak , ferment and mature their wines in stainless steel or concrete tanks . The winemakers who do use oak tend to favor more neutral oak that does n't impart the vanilla characteristic associated with American oak . These producers may only ferment the wine in oak and then mature in steel or concrete , or do the reverse and mature in oak . Rarely will a producer use oak for both fermentation and maturation . Grand Cru and Premier Cru wines are the candidates most likely to see oak due to the belief that they have necessary structure and enough extract to keep from being overwhelmed by oak influence . While there are style differences among producers , rarely is basic AOC Chablis or Petit Chablis oaked . While chaptalization was widely practiced for most of the 20th century , there has been a trend of riper vintages in recent years , producing grapes with higher sugar levels that have diminished the need to chaptalize . Appellation and classification The main Chablis Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée was designated on January 13 , 1938 , but the junior appellation of Petit Chablis was not designated until January 5 , 1944 . All the vineyards in Chablis are covered by four appellations with different levels of classification , reflecting all-important differences in soil and slope in this northerly region . At the top of the classification are the 7 Grand Cru vineyards , which are all located on a single hillside near the town of Chablis . Second in quality are the Premier Cru vineyards , which numbered 40 at the turn of the 21st century , covering an area of 1853 acre . Next is the generic AOC Chablis which , at 7067 acre , is the largest appellation by far in the region and the one exhibits the most variability between producers and vintages . At the lowest end of the classification is `` Petit Chablis '' which includes the outlying land . As of 2004 , 1380 acre of a permitted 4448 acre in the Petit Chablis appellation was planted . Soil and slope plays a major role in delineating the quality differences . Many of the Premier Crus , and all the Grand Crus vineyards , are planted along valley of the Serein river as it flows into the Yonne . The Grand crus and two of the most highly rated Premier Crus ( Montée de Tonnerre and Fourchaume ) are located on southwest facing slopes that receives the maximum amount of sun exposure while the rest of the Premier crus are on southeast facing slopes . All of Chablis ' Grand Cru vineyards and many of their better Premier Cru vineyards are planted on primarily Kimmeridgean soil which is believed to impart more finesse and structure to the wines . Other areas , particularly the vast majority of Petit Chablis vineyards , are planted on slightly younger Portlandian soil . Chablis Grand Crus There are seven officially delineated Grand Cru climats , covering an area of 247 acre , all located on one southwest facing hill overlooking the town of Chablis at elevations between 490 - . There is one vineyard , La Moutonne , located on this hill between the Grand Cru vineyards of Les Preuses and Vaudésir that is considered an `` unofficial '' Grand Cru and it will appear on wine labels . The Bureau Interprofessionnel des Vins de Bourgogne ( BIVB ) does recognize La Moutonne , but the seven Grand Cru vineyards officially recognized by the INAO are ( from northwest to southeast ) : Bougros , Les Preuses , Vaudésir , Grenouilles , Valmur , Les Clos and Blanchot . Together , the Grand Cru vineyards account for around 3 % of Chablis annual yearly production . While producer styles can have a marked influence , each of the Grand Cru vineyards are noted for the particular terroir characteristic that they impart in wine produced there . Wine expert Tom Stevenson notes that Blanchot produces the most delicate wine with floral aromas ; Bougros is the least expressive but still has vibrant fruit flavors ; Les Clos tends to produce the most complex , rich and luscious wines with pronounced minerality ; Grenouilles produces very aromatic wines with racy , elegance ; the Les Preuses vineyard receives the most sun among the Grand crus and tends to produce the most full bodied wines ; Valmur is noted for it smooth texture and aromatic bouquet ; Vaudésir tends to produce wines with intense flavors and spicy notes . Of all the Grand Cru vineyards Les Clos is the largest in size at 61 acre . Hugh Johnson describes the wines from this Grand Cru as having the best ageing potential among Chablis and developing Sauternes-like aromas after some bottle age . The most significant recent event to have occurred in Chablis is the formation of L'Union des Grand Crus de Chablis ( UGCC ) . Launched in March 2000 , this syndicate is restricted to Grand Cru proprietors and was formed with a single purpose : `` To defend and promote the quality of Chablis Grand Cru wines '' . All members ( currently 18 ) are bound to abide by a charter which covers all aspects of wine making and sales ( e.g . density of new plantings , limiting yields and selling dates ) . Grand Cru makers must submit their wines to a tasting committee of other Union members to ensure they meet the required quality . These tastings are conducted blind . Premier Crus At the turn of the 21st century , there were 40 Premier cru vineyards . The names of many of these vineyards do not appear on wine labels because of an INAO allowance that permits the use of `` umbrella names '' -where smaller , lesser known vineyards are allowed to use the name of a nearby more famous Premier cru vineyard . Seventeen of the best known `` umbrella '' vineyards are Mont de Milieu , Montée de Tonnerre , Fourchaume , Vaillons , Montmains , Côte de Léchet , Beauroy , Vauligneau , Vaudevey , Vaucoupin , Vosgros , Les Fourneaux , Côte de Vaubarousse , Berdiot , Chaume de Talvat , Côte de Jouan and Les Beauregards . In general Premier Cru wines have at least half a degree less alcohol by volume and tend to have less aromatics and intensity in flavors . Grapes and wine All Chablis is made 100 % from the Chardonnay grape . Some wine experts , such as Jancis Robinson , believe that the wine from Chablis is one of the `` purest '' expression of the varietal character of Chardonnay due to the simple style of winemaking favored in this region . Chablis winemakers want to emphasize the terroir of the calcareous soil and cooler climate that help maintain high acidity . Chablis wines are characterized by their greenish-yellow color and star bright clarity . The racy , green apple-like acidity is a trademark of the wines and can be noticeable in the bouquet . The acidity can mellow with age and Chablis are some of the longest living examples of Chardonnay . The wines often have a `` flinty '' note , sometimes described as `` goût de pierre à fusil '' ( gunflint ) and sometimes as `` steely '' . Some examples of Chablis can have an earthy `` wet stone '' flavor that can get mustier as it ages before mellowing into delicate honeyed notes . Like most white Burgundies , Chablis can benefit from some bottle age . While producers ' styles and vintage can play an influential role , Grand Cru Chablis can generally age for well over 15 years while many Premier Crus will age well for at least 10 years . Secondary grape varieties grown in the Chablis region are permitted to use the generic Bourgogne AOC . These include Aligote , Cesar , Gamay , Melon de Bourgogne , Pinot noir , Pinot blanc , Pinot gris ( known locally as Pinot Beurot ) , Sauvignon blanc , Sacy , and Tressot . Modern wine industry Despite its long history and association with Chardonnay , the wines of Chablis are often overshadowed by the New World expression of the varietal and even by other Burgundian Chardonnays such as Montrachet , Corton-Charlemagne and Meursault . Still , the legacy of its history has left its mark through the wide semi-generic use of the word `` Chablis '' to describe almost any white wine , regardless of where it was made and from what grapes . In recent years , Chablis producers have fought hard to protect the Chablis designation , using legal pressure to get foreign countries to recognize their trademark on the term . For most of the 20th century , Chablis was more widely consumed on the export market rather than the domestic French market which tend to favor the Côte d'Or Chardonnays . Unlike other areas of Burgundy , négociants are not as influential in the Chablis wine industry . While they were more prominent early in the last century , the trend towards estate bottling and co-operatives have shifted the dynamic of economy more in favor of the individual growers and producer . The La Chablisienne co-operative makes nearly a third of all wine produced in Chablis today .

odql_13554--Chablis_wine.txt

The white wine, Chablis, originates from which wine producing region of France?

Alfred `` Fred '' Zinnemann ( April 29 , 1907 - March 14 , 1997 ) was an Austrian-born American film director . He won four Academy Awards for directing films in various genres , including thrillers , westerns , film noir and play adaptations . He made 25 feature films during his 50-year career . He was among the first directors to insist on using authentic locations and for mixing stars with civilians to give his films more realism . Within the film industry , he was considered a maverick for taking risks and thereby creating unique films , with many of his stories being dramas about lone and principled individuals tested by tragic events . According to one historian , Zinnemann 's style demonstrated his sense of `` psychological realism and his apparent determination to make worthwhile pictures that are nevertheless highly entertaining . '' Some of his most notable films were The Men ( 1950 ) , High Noon ( 1952 ) , From Here to Eternity ( 1953 ) , Oklahoma ! ( 1955 ) , The Nun 's Story ( 1959 ) , A Man For All Seasons ( 1966 ) , The Day of the Jackal ( 1973 ) , and Julia ( 1973 ) . His films have received 65 Oscar nominations , winning 24 . Zinnemann directed and introduced a number of stars in their U.S. film debuts , including Marlon Brando , Rod Steiger , Pier Angeli , Julie Harris , Brandon deWilde , Montgomery Clift , Shirley Jones and Meryl Streep . He directed 19 actors to Oscar nominations , including Frank Sinatra , Montgomery Clift , Audrey Hepburn , Glynis Johns , Paul Scofield , Robert Shaw , Wendy Hiller , Jason Robards , Vanessa Redgrave , Jane Fonda , Gary Cooper and Maximilian Schell . Early life Zinnemann was born in Rzeszów , Poland ( then part of Austria-Hungary ) , the son of Anna ( Feiwel ) and Oskar Zinnemann , a doctor . His family was Jewish , and he had one younger brother . While growing up in Austria , he wanted to become a musician , but went on to graduate with a law degree from the University of Vienna in 1927 . While studying law , he became drawn to films and convinced his parents to let him study film production in Paris . After studying for a year at the Ecole Technique de Photographie et Cinématographie in Paris , he became a cameraman and found work on a number of films in Berlin , before emigrating to Hollywood . Both of his parents were killed during the Holocaust . Career as director Early career Zinnemann worked in Germany with several other beginners ( Billy Wilder and Robert Siodmak also worked with him on the 1929 feature People on Sunday ) after he studied filmmaking in France . His penchant for realism and authenticity is evident in his first feature The Wave ( 1935 ) , shot on location in Mexico with mostly non-professional actors recruited among the locals , which is one of the earliest examples of social realism in narrative film . Earlier in the decade , in fact , Zinnemann had worked with documentarian Robert Flaherty , `` probably the greatest single influence on my work as a filmmaker '' , he said . Although he was fascinated by the arts culture in Germany , with its theater , music and films , he was also aware that the country was in a deep economic crisis . He became disenchanted with Berlin after continually seeing decadent ostentation and luxury existing alongside desperate unemployment . The wealthy classes were moving more to the political right and the poor to the left . `` Emotion had long since begun to displace reason , '' he said . As a result of the changing political climate , along with the fact that sound films had arrived in Europe , which was technically unprepared to produce their own , film production throughout Europe slowed dramatically . Zinnemann , then only 21 , got his parent 's permission to go to America where he hoped filmmaking opportunities would be greater . He arrived in New York at the end of October , 1929 , at the time of the stock market crash . Despite the financial panic then beginning , he found New York to be a different cultural environment : He took a Greyhound bus to Hollywood a few months later following the completion of his first directorial effort for the Mexican cultural protest film , The Wave , in Alvarado , Mexico . He established residence in North Hollywood with Henwar Rodakiewicz , Gunther von Fritsch and Ned Scott , all fellow contributors to the Mexican project . One of Zinnemann 's first jobs in Hollywood was as an extra in All Quiet on the Western Front ( 1930 ) . He says that many of the other extras were former Russian aristocrats and high-ranking officers who fled to America after the Russian revolution in 1917 . He was twenty-two but he said he felt older than the forty-year-olds in Hollywood . But he was jubilant because he was then certain that `` this was the place one could breathe free and belong . '' But after a few years he became disillusioned with the limited talents of Hollywood 's elites . 1940s After some directing success with short films , he graduated to features in 1942 , turning out two crisp B mysteries , Eyes in the Night and Kid Glove Killer before getting his big break with The Seventh Cross ( 1944 ) , starring Spencer Tracy , which became his first hit . The film was based on Anna Seghers ' novel and , while filmed entirely on the MGM backlot , made realistic use of refugee German actors in even the smallest roles . The central character—an escaped prisoner played by Tracy—is seen as comparatively passive and fatalistic . He is , however , the subject of heroic assistance from anti-Nazi Germans . In a sense , the protagonist of the film is not the Tracy character but a humble German worker played by Hume Cronyn , who changes from Nazi sympathizer to active opponent of the regime as he aids Tracy . After World War II , Zinnemann learned that both of his parents had died in the Holocaust . He was further frustrated by his studio contract , which dictated that he did not have a choice in directing films like My Brother Talks to Horses ( 1947 ) and Little Mister Jim ( 1947 ) despite his lack of interest in their subject matter . However , his next film , The Search ( 1948 ) , won an Oscar for screenwriting and secured his position in the Hollywood establishment . Shot in war-ravaged Germany , the film stars Montgomery Clift in his screen debut as a GI who cares for a lost Czech boy traumatized by the war . It was followed by Act of Violence ( 1948 ) , a gritty film noir starring Van Heflin as a haunted POW , Robert Ryan as his hot-tempered former friend , Janet Leigh as Heflin 's wife , and Mary Astor as a sympathetic prostitute . Zinnemann considered Act of Violence the first project in which he `` felt comfortable knowing exactly what I wanted and exactly how to get it . '' 1950s In the critically acclaimed The Men ( 1950 ) , starring newcomer Marlon Brando as a paraplegic war veteran , Zinnemann filmed many scenes in a California hospital where real patients served as extras . The film is noted for giving Brando his first screen role . It was followed by Teresa ( 1951 ) , starring Pier Angeli . Perhaps Zinnemann 's best-known work to come out of the 1950s is High Noon ( 1952 ) , one of the first 25 American films chosen in 1989 for the National Film Registry . With its psychological and moral examinations of its lawman hero Marshall Will Kane , played by Gary Cooper and its innovative chronology whereby screen time approximated the 80-minute countdown to the confrontational hour , the film broke the mould of the formulaic western . Working closely with cinematographer and longtime friend Floyd Crosby , he shot without filters , giving the landscape a harsh `` newsreel '' quality that clashed with the more painterly cinematography of John Ford 's westerns . During production he established a strong rapport with Gary Cooper , photographing the ageing actor in many tight close-ups which showed him sweating , and at one point , even crying on screen . Screenwriter Carl Foreman apparently intended High Noon to be an allegory of Senator Joseph McCarthy 's vendetta against alleged Communists . However , Zinnemann disagreed , insisting , late in life , that the issues in the film , for him , were broader , and were more about conscience and independent , uncompromising , fearlessness . He says , `` High Noon is `` not a Western , as far as I 'm concerned ; it just happens to be set in the Old West . '' Film critic Stephen Prince suggests that the character of Kane actually represents Zinnemann , who tried to create an atmosphere of impending threat on the horizon , a fear of potential `` fascism '' , represented by the gang of killers soon arriving . Zinnemann explained the general context for many of his films : `` One of the crucial things today [ is ] trying to preserve our civilization . '' Prince adds that Zinnemann , having learned that both his parents died in the Holocaust , wanted Kane willing to `` fight rather than run '' , unlike everyone else in town . As a result , `` Zinnemann allies himself '' with the film 's hero.Nolletti , Arthur , ed . The Films of Fred Zinnemann : Critical Perspectives , State Univ . of N.Y. Press ( 1999 ) Zinnemann explains the theme of the film and its relevance to modern times : For his screen adaptation of the play The Member of the Wedding ( 1952 ) , Zinnemann chose the 26-year-old Julie Harris as the film 's 12-year-old protagonist , although she had created the role on Broadway just as the two other leading actors , Ethel Waters and Brandon deWilde , had . Zinnemann 's next film , From Here to Eternity ( 1953 ) , based on the novel by James Jones , was nominated for 13 Academy Awards and would go on to win 8 , including Best Picture and Best Director . Zinnemann fought hard with producer Harry Cohn to cast Montgomery Clift as the character of Prewitt , although Frank Sinatra , who was at the lowest point of his popularity , cast himself in the role of `` Maggio '' against Zinnemann 's wishes . Sinatra would later win an Oscar for Best Supporting Actor . From Here to Eternity also featured Deborah Kerr , best known for prim and proper roles , as a philandering Army wife . Donna Reed played the role of Alma `` Lorene '' Burke , a prostitute and mistress of Montgomery Clift 's character which earned her an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for 1953 . Oklahoma ! ( 1955 ) , Zinnemann 's version of the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical , is noted for the wide screen format Todd-AO making its debut , as did the film 's young star , Shirley Jones . It was also an expression of Zinnemann 's continued faith and optimism about America , with its energy and exuberance . His next film was A Hatful of Rain ( 1957 ) , starring Don Murray , Eva Marie Saint and Anthony Franciosa , and was based on the play by Michael V. Gazzo . It is a drama story about a young married man with a secret morphine addiction who tries to quit and suffers through painful withdrawal symptoms . The film was a risk for Zinnemann , since movie depictions of drug addiction and withdrawal was rare in the 1950s . Zinnemann rounded out the 1950s with The Nun 's Story ( 1959 ) , casting Audrey Hepburn in the role of Sister Luke , a nun who eventually gives up the religious life to join the Belgian resistance in the Second World War . The film was based on the life of Marie Louise Habets . Hepburn , who gave up the chance to play Anne Frank in order to work on The Nun 's Story , considered the film to be her best and most personal work . Zinnemann 's style of cutting from close-up to close-up was heavily influenced by Carl Theodor Dreyer 's Passion of Joan of Arc ( 1928 ) , his favorite film . He was grateful that Hepburn was easy to work with : 1960s The Sundowners ( 1960 ) , starring Robert Mitchum and Deborah Kerr as an Australian outback husband and wife , led to more Academy Award nominations , including Best Picture , Best Director , Best Screenplay , Best Actress ( Kerr ) and Best Supporting Actress ( Glynis Johns ) , but won none . Behold A Pale Horse ( 1964 ) was a post-Spanish Civil War epic based on the book Killing A Mouse on Sunday by Emeric Pressburger and starred Gregory Peck , Anthony Quinn and Omar Sharif , but was both a critical and commercial flop ; Zinnemann would later admit that the film `` did n't really come together . '' In 1965 he was a member of the jury at the 4th Moscow International Film Festival . Zinnemann 's fortunes changed once again with A Man for All Seasons ( 1966 ) , scripted by Robert Bolt from his own play and starring Paul Scofield as Sir Thomas More , portraying him as a man driven by conscience to his ultimate fate . The film went on to win six Academy Awards , including Best Picture , Best Actor ( Scofield ) and Best Director , Zinnemann 's second such Oscar to date . The film was also entered into the 5th Moscow International Film Festival . After this , Zinnemann was all set to direct an adaptation of Man 's Fate for MGM . However , the project was shut down in 1969 , and the studio attempted to hold Zinnemann responsible for at least $ 1 million of the $ 3.5 million that had already been spent on pre-production . In protest , Zinnemann filed a lawsuit against the studio , and it would be four years before he would make his next film . 1970s By the early 1970s , Zinnemann had been out of work since the cancellation of Man 's Fate ; he believed it had `` marked the end of an era in picture making and the dawn of a new one , when lawyers and accountants began to replace showmen as head of the studios and when a handshake was a handshake no longer . '' However , Universal then offered him the chance to direct The Day of the Jackal ( 1973 ) , based on the best-selling suspense novel by Frederick Forsyth . The film starred Edward Fox as an Englishman who is relentlessly driven to complete his mission to try to kill French president Charles de Gaulle , and Michael Lonsdale as the French detective hired to stop him . Zinnemann was intrigued by the opportunity to direct a film in which the audience would already be able to guess the ending ( the Jackal failing his mission ) , and was pleased when it ultimately became a hit with the public . The Day of the Jackal was followed four years later by Julia ( 1977 ) , based on the book Pentimento by Lillian Hellman . The film starred Jane Fonda as Hellman and Vanessa Redgrave as her best friend Julia , a doomed American heiress who forsakes the safety and comfort of great wealth to devote her life to the anti-Nazi cause in Germany . The film was nominated for 11 Academy Awards and won three , for Best Screenplay ( Alvin Sargent ) , Best Supporting Actor ( Jason Robards ) , and Best Supporting Actress for Redgrave , who drew scattered boos on Oscar night for her `` Zionist hoodlums '' acceptance speech . Zinnemann felt that Fonda 's acting was extraordinary and she also deserved an Oscar . 1980s Zinnemann 's final film was Five Days One Summer ( 1982 ) , filmed in Switzerland and based on the short story Maiden , Maiden by Kay Boyle . It starred Sean Connery and Betsy Brantley as a `` couple '' vacationing in the Alps in the 1930s , and a young Lambert Wilson as a mountain-climbing guide who grows heavily suspicious of their relationship . The film was both a critical and commercial flop , although Zinnemann would be told by various critics in later years that they considered it an underrated achievement . Zinnemann blamed the film 's critical and commercial failure for his retirement from filmmaking : `` I 'm not saying it was a good picture . But there was a degree of viciousness in the reviews . The pleasure some people took in tearing down the film really hurt . '' Final years and death Zinnemann is often regarded as striking a blow against `` ageism '' in Hollywood . The apocryphal story goes that , in the 1980s , during a meeting with a young Hollywood executive , Zinnemann was surprised to find the executive did n't know who he was , despite having won four Academy Awards , and directing many of Hollywood 's biggest films . When the young executive callowly asked Zinnemann to list what he had done in his career , Zinnemann delivered an elegant comeback by reportedly answering , `` Sure . You first . '' In Hollywood , the story is known as `` You First '' , and is often alluded to when veteran creators find that upstarts are unfamiliar with their work . Zinnemann insisted , `` I 've been trying to disown that story for years . It seems to me Billy Wilder told it to me about himself . '' Zinnemann died of a heart attack in London , England on March 14 , 1997 . He was 89 years old . His wife died on December 18 , 1997 . Directing style Zinnemann 's training in documentary filmmaking and his personal background contributed to his style as a `` social realist . '' With his early films between 1937 and 1942 he began using that technique , and with High Noon in 1952 , possibly his finest film , he created the tense atmosphere by coordinating screen time with real time . Because he started his film career as a cameraman , his movies are strongly oriented toward the visual aspects . He also says that regardless of the size of an actor 's part , he spends much time discussing the roles with each actor separately and in depth . `` In this way we make sure long before the filming starts that we are on the same wavelength , '' he says . Zinnemann 's films are mostly dramas about lone and principled individuals tested by tragic events , including High Noon ( 1952 ) , From Here to Eternity ( 1953 ) ; The Nun 's Story ( 1959 ) ; A Man For All Seasons ( 1966 ) ; and Julia ( 1977 ) . Regarded as a consummate craftsman , Zinnemann traditionally endowed his work with meticulous attention to detail to create realism , and had an intuitive gift for casting and a preoccupation with the moral dilemmas of his characters . His philosophy about directing influenced director Alan Parker : In From Here to Eternity , for example , he effectively added actual newsreel footage of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , which enhanced and dramatized the story . Similarly , in A Hatful of Rain , he used a documentary style to present real life drug addiction in New York . Zinnemann again incorporated newsreel footage in Behold a Pale Horse , about the Spanish Civil War . The Day of the Jackal , a political thriller about an attempt to assassinate Charles de Gaulle , was shot on location in newsreel style , while Julia placed the characters in authentic settings , as in a suspenseful train journey from Paris to Moscow during World War II . According to one historian , Zinnemann 's style `` demonstrates the director 's sense of psychological realism and his apparent determination to make worthwhile pictures that are nevertheless highly entertaining . '' Honors and awardsHillstrom , Laurie Collier . International Dictionary of Films and filmmakers-2 : Directors , 3rd ed . St. James Press ( 1997 ) p. 1116-1119 * Academy Award for Best Short Subject , One-Reel : That Mothers Might Live ( 1938 ) . * Golden Globe for Best Film Promoting International Understanding : `` The Search '' ( 1948 ) . * Academy Award for Best Documentary Short Subject : Benjy ( 1951 ) . * New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Director : High Noon ( 1952 ) . * Academy Award for Best Director , Directors Guild of America ( DGA ) Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures : From Here to Eternity ( 1953 ) . * New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Director : The Nun 's Story ( 1959 ) . * Academy Award for Best Director , New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Director , and Directors Guild of America ( DGA ) Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures : A Man for All Seasons ( 1966 ) . * D. W. Griffith Award , 1971 . * Order of Arts and Letters , France , 1982 . * U.S. Congressional Lifetime Achievement Award , 1987 . * John Huston Award , Artists Right Foundation , 1994 . Filmography Feature films Short films

bb_5625--Fred_Zinnemann.txt

Sergio Leone, Otto Preminger, Fritz Lang and Fred Zinnemann are famous 20thC?

Graham McPherson ( born 13 January 1961 ) , better known as Suggs , is an English singer-songwriter , musician , radio personality and actor . In a career spanning more than 30 years , Suggs came to prominence in the late 1970s as the lead singer for the English ska band Madness , which released fifteen singles that entered the top ten charts in the United Kingdom during the 1970s , 1980s and the 1990s , including `` My Girl '' , `` Baggy Trousers '' , `` Embarrassment '' , `` It Must Be Love '' , `` House of Fun '' , `` Driving in My Car '' , `` Our House '' , `` Wings of a Dove '' and `` Lovestruck '' . Suggs began his solo career in 1995 , while still a member of Madness . Since then , he has released two studio albums , and two compilation albums . His solo hits include `` I 'm Only Sleeping '' , `` Camden Town '' , `` Cecilia '' , and `` Blue Day '' . Suggs has also been an actor , with roles in films , theatre and television . He has married once and is the father of two children . Early life Graham McPherson was born on 13 January 1961 , in Hastings , Sussex , England , the son of William Rutherford McPherson ( 1935–1975 ) and jazz singer Edith Gower . The couple married in Paddington in 1960 , and Suggs was raised in Hastings by his mother . His father had left by the time Suggs was aged three . In a 2009 interview when asked about what happened to his father : I do n't know , but what I 've heard has n't been good : heroin , injecting his eyeballs with paraffin , being sectioned . He must be dead now . I mean , he would have got in touch if he was alive , would n't he ? Yeah , he must be dead , poor bugger . Suggs spent three years of his childhood in Haverfordwest , in Pembrokeshire , and had just started at a grammar school when his mother moved to North London . He then went to a comprehensive school at Quintin Kynaston , Swiss Cottage , North London . On the official Madness website , he has stated : I was born in Hastings on a stormy evening on 13 January 1961 . I only lived with my mum , so we were free agents . She was a singer in the pubs and clubs . We moved to Liverpool then London . I lived with relations in Wales for a while and came back to London . Because I was an only child , I was pretty insular and stubborn . All the upheaval made me lazy academically , so by the time I got to Quintin Kynaston school in St John 's Wood I did n't bother much , I stayed onto the [ eir ] sixth form for social security reasons , and got two O-levels and a CSE on the way . I met Mike Barson hanging around Hampstead School . Suggs got his nickname from randomly sticking a pin in an encyclopaedia of jazz musicians ( hitting Peter Suggs ) while he was still in school , to avoid being labelled as the member of an ethnic minority owing to his Scottish name . To capitalise on the name he went as far as to create a myth about it , writing lines like `` Suggs is our leader '' on the walls and only answering to that name . After leaving school at age 15 he worked at a butcher 's for eight months , his first proper job . The first gig he went to was the Who supported by the Sensational Alex Harvey Band in 1976 . Career In 1976 Mike Barson , Chris Foreman and Lee Thompson formed the North London Invaders , which later became the band Madness . The original members recruited were John Hasler , Cathal Smyth and vocalist Dikron Tulane . This six-piece line-up was stable until 1977 , when Suggs took over the lead vocals and Tulane left the band . After a decline in hits , the band broke-up in 1986 . Solo career After Madness ' reformation for Madstock ! in 1992 and 1994 , Suggs went to work on his first solo album with the production help of reggae producers Sly and Robbie . In 1995 The Lone Ranger was released on Warner Music and peaked on the UK Albums Chart at # 14 . The first single to be released from the album was a cover of the Beatles song `` I 'm Only Sleeping '' entering the UK Top Ten at # 7 . Its music video featured appearances from Madness bandmates Mike Barson and Chas Smash . This was followed by `` Camden Town '' , a homage to Suggs favourite part of London , which reached # 14 in the UK . In December of that year , Suggs released The Christmas E.P . featuring his song `` The Tune '' ( co-written with Mike Barson ) plus covers of `` Sleigh Ride '' and `` Alright '' by Supergrass . In 1996 the third single from the album , a version of the Simon & Garfunkel song `` Cecilia '' , became his most successful release , entering the UK charts at # 4 and selling in excess of 500,000 copies . The final single to be released from the album was `` No More Alcohol '' , charting at # 24 . In 1997 , Suggs recorded the song `` Blue Day '' for Chelsea F.C . with Chelsea players . It was the official song for the team for the FA Cup , which Chelsea eventually won . The song reached # 22 in the UK charts . In 1998 , Suggs released his second solo album , The Three Pyramids Club , on Warner Music , which was produced by Steve Lironi . The first and only single to be released was `` I Am '' charting at # 38 . The song was also featured on the soundtrack to The Avengers . The album includes a collaboration with reggae artist General Levy and the trombone talents of ska legend Rico Rodriguez . After completing his solo releases , Suggs returned to work with Madness on their first original album in fourteen years . Wonderful was released in 1999 and was followed by the cover album The Dangermen Sessions Vol . 1 in 2005 . In 2009 , Madness released The Liberty of Norton Folgate which reached # 5 in the UK Album Charts . Suggs – The Platinum Collection was released on 30 July in 2007 on Warner Music , featuring a selection of Suggs best tracks from his two solo albums along with `` Blue Day '' and a remixed version of `` Cecilia '' . In 2008 , Suggs contributed vocals to a cover of Al Bowlly 's `` Hang Out the Stars in Indiana '' for the soundtrack for The Edge of Love composed by Angelo Badalamenti . Suggs also made a cameo in the film , singing the track . Musical collaborations Suggs worked with Morrissey in 1989-1990 , singing backing vocals on the tracks `` Piccadilly Palare '' and `` Sing Your Life '' . From early 1990 to 1992 , he co-managed The Farm and co-produced their first album Spartacus which reached number 1 in the UK Album Charts and spawned the international hit `` All Together Now '' . He also produced their first single `` Hearts and Minds '' in 1984 . Suggs has collaborated with Jools Holland twice on his Small World Big Band albums , firstly in 2001 with the song `` Oranges and Lemons Again '' and then with `` Jack O The Green '' in 2003 . He also played with Holland and his Rhythm and Blues Orchestra in 2003 for a television special where they performed two songs with veteran ska singer Prince Buster . In July 2005 , shortly after the terrorist attacks in London , Suggs and Chas Smash performed the Bob Marley song `` So Much Trouble in the World '' with Billy Bragg at a concert in London 's Brockwell Park in aid of the victims . Also in 2005 , Suggs collaborated with electronic group Audio Bullys on the track `` This Road '' from their Top 40 album Generation . In 2006 , Suggs performed the Madness song `` My Girl '' with The Ordinary Boys at the Brixton Academy which was released as a B-side on their UK hit single `` Nine2five '' . In May 2008 , Suggs and Chas Smash joined the Pet Shop Boys on stage at a gig in London 's Heaven nightclub where they performed a dance version of the Madness song `` My Girl '' . In 2010 , Suggs and Mike Barson again worked with the Audio Bullys on their album Higher Than the Eiffel . They appear on the tracks `` Twist Me Up '' and `` Goodbye '' . Film and theatre Suggs has acted in films such as The Tall Guy and Do n't Go Breaking My Heart ( 1998 ) . He starred in the Channel 4 drama The Final Frame ( 1990 ) , in which he played a pop star named East . He also played a pop star ( called Jason Wood ) in the Press Gang episode `` Friends Like These '' in 1990 . Suggs also appeared in the 2008 romantic drama The Edge of Love starring Keira Knightley and Sienna Miller , playing the part of `` the crooner '' ( also credited as Al Bowlly ) and singing Bowlly 's hit `` Hang Out the Stars in Indiana '' . In late 2011 , Suggs began a nationwide UK tour of a new one man stage show entitled `` LIVESUGGS '' . In the show , Suggs shared various anecdotes from his childhood to the present day , intertwined with musical numbers . The show was well received by critics . In 2003 Suggs appeared as Joe 's dad in the stage musical Our House , featuring the songs of Madness , for a limited run in London 's West End . The show then ran at Isis Prison , Woolwich . In November 2012 , Suggs reprised his role of Joe 's dad in the 10th Anniversary Concert of the musical Our House in aid of Help for Heroes . Radio Suggs was a principal and original DJ on BBC Radio 6 Music when it launched in March 2002 . He also worked with the late Bob Monkhouse on the BBC Radio 4 musical sitcom I Think I 've Got a Problem , also starring comedian Phil Cornwell and written by Andrew McGibbon . He became a DJ on Virgin Radio with the show Virgin Party Classics , and was nominated for a Radio Academy Award in 2005 . In 2006 , Virgin launched the Party Classics radio channel , available via digital television . The channel was hosted by Suggs , but was short-lived , pulled just four months after it launched . He regularly featured on Virgin Radio competitions where listeners could win the chance to meet him and have a drink with him . On one such occasion , well-known children 's book writer Simon I . Boy chatted about pop records that Suggs was pleased he had no connection with , particularly a 1974 Decca recording entitled Name It You Got It by Micky Moonshine . The year 2007 saw him presenting a new show on the station five days a week entitled Afternoon Tea with Suggs which ran every weekday afternoon between 14:00 - 16:00 . In August 2007 , the show was given an extra hour and was on every weekday 13:00 - 16:00 . It was produced by Mark Bingham , and the promotion of the show was voiced by Brian Sewell . On 3 December , Suggs quit Virgin and Neil Francis took over his weekday afternoon slot with immediate effect . On 27 September , Suggs and Madness closed down Regent Street to perform for Absolute Radio 's first birthday . On 2 May 2013 , he appeared on the `` Cultural Exchange '' feature of the BBC Radio 4 series Front Row , where he nominated a poem by John Betjeman ( `` On a Portrait of a Deaf Man '' ) , as a piece of art work which he had found particularly meaningful . Television Suggs appeared twice with Madness on the British TV comedy show The Young Ones , first on the episode titled `` Boring '' in which the band performed `` House of Fun '' . On the second series , the band performed `` Our House '' on the penultimate episode `` Sick '' . Suggs has hosted a celebrity karaoke game show on the UK 's Channel 5 , titled Night Fever . He was a team captain in the BBC music trivia game show A Question of Pop , hosted by Jamie Theakston , opposite Noddy Holder . Suggs has also appeared as a guest on the BBC Two show Never Mind the Buzzcocks . He has co-presented two programmes of a series of sixty-minute programmes called Salvage Squad , one restoring a Model T Ford , and one restoring a Ruston-Bucyrus 10RB in which a group of engineers restored rare old machinery . Some other items restored included a steamroller , a ploughing engine called `` Margaret '' , a Blackpool `` Coronation '' tram , a Scammell Mechanical Horse , a Revopak garbage truck , various boats , World War II tanks , early C20 motor launches , railway locomotives and vintage cars . In 2005 , he filmed a series called Disappearing London for ITV in the London area , in which he investigated architectural and other curiosities that are vanishing . The series won three Royal Television Society awards with Suggs winning the award for `` Presenter of the Year '' . A second series was filmed in 2006 for transmission in early 2007 . In 2005 he filmed a similar one-off programme for the BBC entitled A Picture of London by Suggs , which featured the newly penned song `` Cracks in the Pavement '' . Suggs has twice been a guest presenter on the BBC 's long-running chart show Top of the Pops , once in 1995 and again in 2005 . In 2006 , Suggs was the main presenter of the BBC London series Inside Out , a weekly programme for Londoners looking at surprising stories in the capital . He was part of Declan Donnelly 's Boy Band on Ant & Dec 's Saturday Night Takeaway the same year , and performed `` It Only Takes a Minute '' by Take That . In 2007 , Suggs starred in a series of Birds Eye commercials which feature the Madness song `` Our House '' . A popular online game featuring Suggs was also based on the commercials . In December 2007 , he narrated a one-off documentary for ITV on the London music venue the Hammersmith Palais , which had closed down in 2007 . The programme was broadcast on BBC Four on Christmas Eve . In February 2008 , Teachers TV broadcast Suggs in a one-off `` Teaching Challenge '' . The challenge required Suggs to return to his secondary school , Quintin Kynaston School in North London , and teach a music lesson to a group of GCSE students . In this lesson he was assisted by renowned vocalist Paul Curtis , his voice coach Been Cross and his valet S.I . Boy . The class performed Curtis 's `` Name It You Got It '' . Also in 2008 , he presented his own chat show titled Suggs in the City . The show , set in the Soho members club The Colony Room , aired on ITV London on Thursday nights . In October 2008 , he presented a new culture series called Suggs ' Italian Job which was aired on Sky Arts , following the singer around Italy 's most culturally significant hot spots . In 2009 , Suggs performed with Zoë Ball in Let 's Dance For Comic Relief dancing to `` You Can Never Tell '' from Pulp Fiction but was eliminated . He also appeared in an episode of Australian music quiz show Spicks and Specks on 15 April that year . In 2015 , Suggs appeared as a panelist on QI , in series L episode 15 . Books In August 2009 Suggs published his first book , Suggs and the City : My Journeys Through Disappearing London , which is partly based on his TV series Disappearing London . In October 2013 Suggs released his autobiography , Suggs : That Close . Personal life Suggs learned of his father 's passing in 2012 , through reading his Wikipedia entry . In August 2012 , he appeared at the Queen 's Hall in Edinburgh as part of the Festival Fringe . In his show `` Suggs : My Life Story in Word and Music '' , he talked about his early life and his search to find out more information about his father . He referenced his Wikipedia entry and stated that some published information relating to his early life was untrue , adding that he would get bored in interviews and make things up . He confirmed that although he was born in Hastings , the family moved around and he spent much of his early life in Wales . He stated that his father left when Suggs was three , not before he was born . Suggs is married to singer Bette Bright , who is the vocalist of the 1970s British band Deaf School . They met through their connection with Clive Langer , married in 1981 and live in Holloway . They have two daughters , Scarlett and Viva . Suggs also owns a holiday home in the Italian countryside . Suggs is a patron of the charity Children in Need , and has frequently appeared on the annual television fundraiser , performing various Madness tracks with other celebrities . He has also been involved with Cancer Research UK and their `` Busking Cancer '' campaign , for which he performed live with Rod Stewart on in May 2009 . Following the death of his sister-in-law Alanah in 2012 from pancreatic cancer , he organised a fundraising night for [ http : //www.pancreaticcancer.org.uk/ Pancreatic Cancer UK ] called An Evening with Suggs and Friends . Another event was held at Porchester Hall in London in March 2014 . A third charity gala took place in March 2015 . Suggs is a member of the `` Useless Information Society '' ( founded 1995 ) , a society of journalists , writers and entertainers which focuses on useless esoteric information and has released books such as The Book of Useless Information . Other members include or have included Keith Waterhouse , Richard Littlejohn , Noel Botham , Ken Stott and Brian Hitchen . Suggs is a fan of Chelsea F.C. , made apparent by the FA Cup song which he wrote and then performed along with the rest of the 1996/1997 Chelsea squad . Solo discography For Suggs 's albums and singles with Madness , The Madness and The Fink Brothers see Madness discography . Albums * The Lone Ranger UK No . 14 ( 16 October 1995 ) * The Three Pyramids Club UK No . 82 ( 7 September 1998 ) * The Platinum Collection ( 30 July 2007 ) Singles Other appearances

qw_11247--Suggs_(singer).txt

The lead singer of which band is known as Suggs?

The radish ( Raphanus sativus ) is an edible root vegetable of the Brassicaceae family that was domesticated in Europe in pre-Roman times . Radishes are grown and consumed throughout the world , being mostly eaten raw as a crunchy salad vegetable . They have numerous varieties , varying in size , flavor , color , and length of time they take to mature . Radishes owe their sharp flavor to the various chemical compounds produced by the plants , including glucosinolate , myrosinase , and isothiocyanate . They are sometimes grown as companion plants and suffer from few pests and diseases . They germinate quickly and grow rapidly , smaller varieties being ready for consumption within a month , while larger daikon varieties take several months . Another use of radish is as cover or catch crop in winter or as a forage crop . Some radishes are grown for their seeds ; daikon , for instance , may be grown for oil production . Others are used for sprouting and both roots and leaves are sometimes served cooked or cold . History Varieties of radish are now broadly distributed around the world , but almost no archeological records are available to help determine their early history and domestication . However , scientists tentatively locate the origin of Raphanus sativus in southeast Asia , as this is the only region where truly wild forms have been discovered . India , central China , and central Asia appear to have been secondary centers where differing forms were developed . Radishes enter the historical record in . Greek and Roman agriculturalists of the gave details of small , large , round , long , mild , and sharp varieties . The radish seems to have been one of the first European crops introduced to the Americas . A German botanist reported radishes of 100 lb and roughly 3 ft in length in 1544 , although the only variety of that size today is the Japanese Sakurajima radish . The large , mild , and white East Asian form was developed in China , but is mostly associated in the West with the Japanese daikon , owing to Japanese agricultural development and larger exports . Description Radishes are annual or biennial brassicaceous crops grown for their swollen tap roots which can be globular , tapering , or cylindrical . The root skin colour ranges from white through pink , red , purple , yellow , and green to black , but the flesh is usually white . Smaller types have a few leaves about 13 cm long with round roots up to in diameter or more slender , long roots up to 7 cm long . Both of these are normally eaten raw in salads . A longer root form , including oriental radishes , daikon or mooli , and winter radishes , grows up to 60 cm long with foliage about 60 cm high with a spread of 45 cm . The flesh of radishes harvested timely is crisp and sweet , but becomes bitter and tough if the vegetable is left in the ground too long . Leaves are arranged in a rosette . They have a lyrate shape , meaning they are divided pinnately with an enlarged terminal lobe and smaller lateral lobes . The white flowers are borne on a racemose inflorescence . The fruits are small pods which can be eaten when young . The radish is a diploid species , and has 18 chromosomes ( 2n=18 ) . Cultivation Radishes are a fast-growing , annual , cool-season crop . The seed germinates in three to four days in moist conditions with soil temperatures between 65 and . Best quality roots are obtained under moderate day lengths with air temperatures in the range 50 to . Under average conditions , the crop matures in 3–4 weeks , but in colder weather , 6–7 weeks may be required . Radishes grow best in full sun in light , sandy loams , with a soil pH 6.5 to 7.0 , but for late-season crops , a clayey-loam is ideal . Soils that bake dry and form a crust in dry weather are unsuitable and can impair germination . Harvesting periods can be extended by making repeat plantings , spaced a week or two apart . In warmer climates , radishes are normally planted in the autumn . The depth at which seeds are planted affects the size of the root , from 1 cm deep recommended for small radishes to 4 cm for large radishes . During the growing period , the crop needs to be thinned and weeds controlled , and irrigation may be required . Radishes are a common garden crop in the United States , and the fast harvest cycle makes them a popular choice for children 's gardens . After harvesting , radishes can be stored without loss of quality for two or three days at room temperature , and about two months at 0 C with a relative humidity of 90–95 % . Companion plant Radishes can be useful as companion plants for many other crops , probably because their pungent odour deters such insect pests as aphids , cucumber beetles , tomato hornworms , squash bugs , and ants . They can function as a trap crop , luring insect pests away from the main crop . Cucumbers and radishes seem to thrive when grown in close association with each other , and radishes also grow well with chervil , lettuce , peas , and nasturtiums . However , they react adversely to growing in close association with hyssop . Pests As a fast-growing plant , diseases are not generally a problem with radishes , but some insect pests can be a nuisance . The larvae of flea beetles ( Delia radicum ) live in the soil , but the adult beetles cause damage to the crop , biting small `` shot holes '' in the leaves , especially of seedlings . The swede midge ( Contarinia nasturtii ) attacks the foliage and growing tip of the plant and causes distortion , multiple ( or no ) growing tips , and swollen or crinkled leaves and stems . The larvae of the cabbage root fly sometimes attack the roots . The foliage droops and becomes discoloured , and small , white maggots tunnel through the root , making it unattractive or inedible . Varieties Broadly speaking , radishes can be categorized into four main types according to the seasons when they are grown and a variety of shapes lengths , colors , and sizes , such as red , pink , white , gray-black , or yellow radishes , with round or elongated roots that can grow longer than a parsnip . It is not widely known that Beatrix Potter 's famous character `` Peter Rabbit '' is shown eating long scarlet radishes , not carrots , in Mr McGregor 's garden . Spring or summer radishes Sometimes referred to as European radishes or spring radishes if they are planted in cooler weather , summer radishes are generally small and have a relatively short three- to four-week cultivation time . * The 'April Cross ' is a giant white radish hybrid that bolts very slowly . * 'Bunny Tail ' is an heirloom variety from Italy , where it is known as Rosso Tondo A Piccola Punta Bianca . It is slightly oblong , mostly red , with a white tip . * 'Cherry Belle ' is a bright red-skinned round variety with a white interior . It is familiar in North American supermarkets . * 'Champion ' is round and red-skinned like the 'Cherry Belle ' , but with slightly larger roots , up to 5 cm , and a milder flavor . * 'Red King ' has a mild flavor , with good resistance to club root , a problem that can arise from poor drainage . * 'Sicily Giant ' is a large heirloom variety from Sicily . It can reach up to 5 cm ( 2 in ) in diameter . * 'Snow Belle ' is an all-white variety of radish , similar in shape to the 'Cherry Belle ' . * 'White Icicle ' or 'Icicle ' is a white carrot-shaped variety , around 10 – long , dating back to the 16th century . It slices easily , and has better than average resistance to pithiness . * 'French Breakfast ' is an elongated , red-skinned radish with a white splash at the root end . It is typically slightly milder than other summer varieties , but is among the quickest to turn pithy . * 'Plum Purple ' , a purple-fuchsia radish , tends to stay crisp longer than average . * 'Gala ' and 'Roodbol ' are two varieties popular in the Netherlands in a breakfast dish , thinly sliced on buttered bread . * 'Easter Egg ' is not an actual variety , but a mix of varieties with different skin colors , typically including white , pink , red , and purple radishes . Sold in markets or seed packets under the name , the seed mixes can extend harvesting duration from a single planting , as different varieties may mature at different times . Winter varieties 'Black Spanish ' or 'Black Spanish Round ' occur in both round and elongated forms , and are sometimes simply called the black radish ( Raphanus sativus L. var . niger ( M. ) S.K . or L. ssp . niger ( M. ) . D.C. var . albus D.C ) or known by the French name Gros Noir d'Hiver . It dates in Europe to 1548 , and was a common garden variety in England and France during the early 19th century . It has a rough , black skin with hot-flavored , white flesh , is round or irregularly pear shaped , and grows to around 10 cm in diameter . Daikon refers to a wide variety of winter oilseed radishes from Asia . While the Japanese name daikon has been adopted in English , it is also sometimes called the Japanese radish , Chinese radish , Oriental radish or mooli ( in India and South Asia ) . Daikon commonly have elongated white roots , although many varieties of daikon exist . One well-known variety is 'April Cross ' , with smooth white roots . The New York Times describes 'Masato Red ' and 'Masato Green ' varieties as extremely long , well-suited for fall planting and winter storage . The Sakurajima radish is a hot-flavored variety which is typically grown to around 10 kg , but which can grow to 30 kg when left in the ground . Seed pod varieties The seeds of radishes grow in siliques ( widely referred to as `` pods '' ) , following flowering that happens when left to grow past their normal harvesting period . The seeds are edible , and are sometimes used as a crunchy , sharp addition to salads . Some varieties are grown specifically for their seeds or seed pods , rather than their roots . The rat-tailed radish , an old European variety thought to have come from East Asia centuries ago , has long , thin , curly pods which can exceed 20 cm in length . In the 17th century , the pods were often pickled and served with meat . The 'München Bier ' variety supplies seed pods that are sometimes served raw as an accompaniment to beer in Germany . Nutritional value In a 100 gram serving , raw radishes provide 16 calories and have a moderate amount of vitamin C ( 18 % of Daily Value ) , with other essential nutrients in low content ( table ) . Uses Cooking The most commonly eaten portion is the napiform taproot , although the entire plant is edible and the tops can be used as a leaf vegetable . The seed can also be sprouted and eaten raw in a similar way to a mung bean . The bulb of the radish is usually eaten raw , although tougher specimens can be steamed . The raw flesh has a crisp texture and a pungent , peppery flavor , caused by glucosinolates and the enzyme myrosinase , which combine when chewed to form allyl isothiocyanates , also present in mustard , horseradish , and wasabi . Radishes are mostly used in salads , but also appear in many European dishes . Radish leaves are sometimes used in recipes , like potato soup or as a sauteed side dish . They are also found blended with fruit juices in some recipes . Other uses The seeds of radishes can be pressed to extract radish seed oil . Wild radish seeds contain up to 48 % oil , and while not suitable for human consumption , this oil is a potential source of biofuel . The daikon grows well in cool climates and , apart from its industrial use , can be used as a cover crop , grown to increase soil fertility , to scavenge nutrients , suppress weeds , help alleviate soil compaction , and prevent winter erosion of the soil . Culture The daikon varieties of radish are important parts of East , Southeast , and South Asian cuisine . In Japan and Korea , radish dolls are sometimes made as children 's toys . Daikon is also one of the plants that make up the Japanese Festival of Seven Herbs ( Nanakusa no sekku ) on the seventh day after the new year . Citizens of Oaxaca , Mexico , celebrate the Night of the Radishes ( Noche de los rábanos ) on December 23 as a part of Christmas celebrations . This folk art competition uses a large type of radish up to 50 cm long and weighing up to 3 kg . Great skill and ingenuity are used to carve these into religious and popular figures , buildings , and other objects , and they are displayed in the town square . Production trends About seven million tons of radishes are produced yearly , representing roughly 2 % of global vegetable production .

sfq_24693--Radish.txt

Raphanus Sativus is the Latin name of what vegetable, which has varieties including Cherry Belle, Sicily Giant and Daikon?

The Recreation Ground ( commonly the Rec ) is a large open space in the centre of Bath , England , next to the River Avon , which is available to be used by permission from the Recreation Ground Trust for recreational purposes by the public at large but particularly the people of Bath and surrounding areas . [ http : //web.archive.org/web/20071202080421/http : //www.charitycommission.gov.uk/investigations/inquiryreports/bath.asp The Recreation Ground , Bath - a statement under the Charities Act ] , Charity Commission , 22/8/2007 About a quarter of the Rec is leased to Bath Rugby during the rugby union season as a sports ground capable of holding 13,500 people . During the summer the rugby ground 's temporary East Stand is removed to make way for cricket on a larger pitch . This cricket pitch is used for local contests and was used by Somerset County Cricket Club until 2011 . [ http : //www.cricketarchive.com/Archive/Grounds/11/303.html Cricket Archive ] Recreation Ground , Bath Parts of the eastern area of the Rec are used by Bath Hockey Club , Bath Croquet Club , Bath Drama Club and for some tennis courts . Pitches are available for amateur sports such as Football , Volleyball and Lacrosse . There is a cricket pavilion at the William Street entrance to the ground . The council-run Sports and Leisure Centre is located on the southern edge of the Rec , accessed via North Parade . In former years the Rec was subject to periodic flooding from the River Avon , but a flood alleviation scheme in the 1960s improved the flow of the river . However , the Rec remains part of the floodplain at risk of occasional flooding . The ground can still get very boggy after heavy rains . History In the early part of the 1890s , the land on which the Recreation Ground now lies as well as the North Parade land were part of the Bathwick Estate , which was owned by the Forester family . In 1894 , a lease was granted to the Directors of The Bath and County Recreation Ground Company Limited by Captain G W Forester . This lease allowed work to be carried out on the land which would make it suitable for cricket matches , lawn tennis and archery tournaments , football matches and all other outdoor sports . As part of this work , a cricket pavilion was started on the north side of the ground . The first Bath rugby matches were also played on the ground in 1884 . Three years later , the ground hosted its maiden first-class cricket match , with Somerset County Cricket Club hosting the Gentlemen of Philadelphia as part of the Bath Cricket Festival . The company 's lease was extended for a further 21 years in 1908 , at a rent of £100 per year . Fourteen years later , the land was conveyed to The Bath and County Recreation Ground Company Limited for £6,050 . The company then conveyed the North Parade Land , including a building which was used as an ice skating rink , to Bath Artcraft Limited for £2,500 . A new lease was granted to Bath F.C . in 1927 , allowing them the use of the land on the west side of ground , along with a Grand Stand , a New ( North ) Stand and a Pavilion , for a term of 25 years . Six years later the lease was surrendered , and a new 50-year lease was granted . In the same year , the Grand Stand was replaced with a new West Stand . This was significantly bomb-damaged during the Second World War . Rebuilding of the stand , at a cost in excess of £12,000 , was met by the War Damage Commission in 1953–54 . The 'Club Room ' building was erected in 1954 , to the west of the North Stand , and during the same year a lease was granted to allow a tennis club to use the north east corner of the ground . In 1956 , the ground was conveyed to the Mayor Aldermen and the Citizens of the City of Bath ( the Corporation ) for £11,155 . Bath F.C . surrendered their 1933 lease , and were granted a new 75-year lease in 1973 . In 1974 , both the Recreation Ground and the North Parade Land were transferred to Bath City Council , who erected a Sports and Leisure Centre on the south side in 1975 . In 1995 , Bath F.C . were granted a further 75-year lease . Doubts over the legal effect of the 1956 Conveyance were settled in 2002 , when the High Court declared the land a charitable trust , with the Council as the sole Trustee . Following this decision , the Charity Commission raised issues over the use of the land , questioning the leisure centre 's compliance with the use of the land for `` open air recreation '' , and the dominant use of the ground by Bath Rugby to the perceived detriment of wider uses . Charitable trust status The Rec is operated by Bath and North East Somerset Council . However the exact legal status was unclear until July 2002 , when the High Court determined that the Rec was held on charitable trusts and the council , as sole Trustee , was charged with maintaining the Rec as an `` open space '' and `` as a recreational facility available for the benefit of the public at large . `` [ http : //www.hmcourts-service.gov.uk/judgmentsfiles/j1316/Bath_v_BonaVacantia.htm High Court Judgement ] , Case HC 01012125 , Citation No : [ 2002 ] EWCA 1623 ( Ch ) , 31/7/2002 The terms of the trust specify the Rec should be used for `` games and sports of all kinds , tournaments , fetes , shows , exhibitions , displays , amusements , entertainments , or other activities of a like character '' and there be no `` undue preference to or in favour of any particular game or sport '' . The trust registered as a charity in November 2002 . As a result of the court ’ s determination , Bath Rugby 's use of the Rec for professional rugby appeared to be inconsistent with the trusts of the Charity . Since then the Charity Commission has made annual orders authorising the charity to continue the lease to the rugby club of additional land required for premiership rugby while a permanent solution is sought . [ http : //www.charity-commission.gov.uk/Library/registration/pdfs/recgroundorder.pdf Charity Commission Case No : 607825 ] , Charity Commission , 20 July 2007 [ http : //www.charitycommission.gov.uk/Library/registration/pdfs/recgrounddecision.pdf The Recreation Ground , Bath - Decision Review ] , Charity Commission , 19 July 2007 Bath Rugby hold a long running lease to the ground of the old `` Flowerpot Stand '' , but this is not sufficient for professional rugby . In 1975 Bath City Council , the predecessor council , had built a Sports and Leisure Centre and car park on the south side of the Rec after taking legal advice that this was consistent with the trust obligations . [ http : //democracy.bathnes.gov.uk/celistdocuments.aspx ? MID 476 & DF06 % 2f06 % 2f2007 & A 1 & R0 & F embed $ 09zaFirstappendix.htm The Bath Recreation Ground Trust - A Strategic Review ] , 30 May 2007 However following the 2002 High Court determination , the Charity Commission decided this was a breach of trust by the council as Trustee . In 2005 the council renewed Bath Rugby 's temporary lease without the necessary prior consent from the Charity Commission . Consequently , in February 2007 the Charity Commission made a protective order vesting the Rec in entirety to the Official Custodian for Charities while the council conducts a delayed strategic review , and new plans are agreed and implemented . The Rec was conveyed for a sum of £11,155 to the City of Bath Corporation in 1956 by the Bath and County Recreation Ground Company , when the company recognised that it could no longer profitably run the Rec . The Rec was transferred under various conditions that created the Charitable Trust status . Additionally earlier conditions from the 1922 transfer from Francis William Forester to the company , preventing any building on the Rec for trade or business that could disturb the neighbourhood , were passed onto the Trust . The company had been formed in 1894 , but only obtained full ownership of the Rec in 1922 . Future of Bath Rugby Club at the Rec In 2006 the Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) stated that by 2010 all Premiership rugby clubs would need a spectator capacity of at least 15,000 , at a time when the Rec 's capacity was 10,300 . However , the Professional Game Board reduced the minimum capacity required to 10,000 and this is the criterion used currently . In March 2007 the council trustee of the Rec received a strategic review showing support for the development of the ground by 64 % of respondents to a poll ( 44 % supporting development on the current site of the ground ) . The council trustee wished to proceed with a development proposal that would allow Bath Rugby Club to lease additional land , to permit the provision of a larger rugby ground . The Charity Commission responded that for any such development to proceed they would need to be fully satisfied that any detriment arising to the Rec 's charitable objectives from the proposal would be significantly outweighed by benefits . Various detailed development proposals were made , but these could not satisfy the Charity Commission 's legal need to protect the Rec 's charitable objectives . In June 2009 the Charity Commission again granted permission for the club to continue to use temporary spectator seating on charity land for the 2009/2010 season which together with changes to other seating allowed capacity to increase to 11,700 . In November 2009 the new chief executive of Bath Rugby , Nick Blofeld , stated the club was seeking a mostly seated stadium for 20,000 , with potential for future expansion , containing `` restaurants and cafés , hospitality suites , conference facilities and good food and beverage outlets and other potential retail outlets . '' The club no longer ruled out other sites within Bath , and was considering the option of moving to the Western Riverside Development . However , by November 2010 the club had virtually ruled out alternative sites in Bath after detailed investigations , preferring to stay at the Rec , with Somerdale , Keynsham as a distant second choice . In July 2010 the Charity Commission again granted permission for the club to continue to use temporary spectator seating on charity land for the 2010/2011 season which together with changes to other seating allowed capacity to increase to 12,300 . In December 2010 the Trustees of the Recreation Ground announced that the Charity Commission `` have stated that they believe that the Trust is at a point where it is ready to apply for a new scheme which must be done by 31st March 2011 '' . They also made clear that consultations should take place with the beneficiaries . In January 2011 the trust delayed the consultation because of `` unexpected details that need to be resolved '' . Negotiations about a possible land swap with Bath Rugby 's training facilities at Lambridge are taking place . The Recreation Ground Trustees held a meeting on 13 April 2011 and agreed to launch the consultation document proposing to put forward a Scheme to the Charity Commission . The scheme consulted on was to swap the Bath Rugby Lambridge training ground for the Rugby Ground at the Rec and to allow the Leisure Centre to remain on open space land . On 7 July 2011 the Trustees announced the results of the consultation in that 4,000 + responses had been received and 86 % were in favour of the land swap to correct the abuse of the usage of the Rugby Club and to change the objects of the Trust to allow the Leisure Centre to remain on open space . It was announced in the Western Daily Press on 17 August 2012 that `` The Charity Commission has agreed in principle to the plans for a land-swap deal , which would allow the club to expand its presence on the city centre site in exchange for its training ground at Lambridge effectively becoming publicly owned . '' On 30 November 2012 the Charity Commission published a draft Scheme to correct the two errors in the use of the charitable land . The Leisure Centre use is corrected by the change in the objects of the Charity to allow indoor activities . The use by the rugby ground is to be corrected by a land swap with land nearly double the size of the Rec rugby ground . The Charity Commission invited representations to their draft scheme within 28 days . In February 2013 the Charity Commission stated that they had received 1,868 representations of which 244 objected to the Scheme allowing the land swap . The Charity Commission stated that they needed to study all the representations before a final decision was expected in April 2013 . In opposition to the scheme , local resident Jack Sparrow lodged an application to have the Recreation Ground declared a Town Green The Council received 7 objections and 18 representations for the proposal . On Friday 15 November 2013 , Bath and North East Somerset Council ’ s Regulatory ( Access ) Committee resolved to refuse the Application to register Bath Recreation Ground as a Town or Village Green pursuant to section 15 of the Commons Act 2006 . On 12 June 2013 it was announced by David Dixon , the Chairman of the Recreation Ground Trust , that the Charity Commission had agreed the `` land swap '' by a scheme allowing the Rugby Club to develop the rugby ground on the Rec and that the Trust will have use of land previously used for training by the Rugby Club at Lambridge for charitable use . The Scheme made by the Charity Commission and the decision document from the Reviewing Officer of the Charity Commission . On 27 March 2014 three appeal judges of The First-Tier Tribunal ( Charity ) allowed the Scheme with amendments . As regards the Rugby Club they were limited to the actual footprint they currently use . This is smaller than they wanted but still could be enough for a 16k arena development . The Club has stated that they will press on with their plans . The Judgement in full . The new Trustee Board of the Recreation Ground Trust ( RGT ) agreed at their meeting on 7 April 2014 to appeal the judgement . The plans to temporarily increase the capacity of the Rec by nearly 2,000 seats and upgrade the facilities ahead of Bath Rugby 's 150th anniversary , were approved on 30 July 2014 On 30 July 2015 the Trustee Board was successful in their appeal to the Upper Tribunal in a case held at the Royal Courts of Justice on 18 May 2015 . In essence this judgement allows the Trustees to manage the Recreation Ground for the public at large in a manner that will further its charitable objects . The full judgement can be read here Opinion in Bath about the future of rugby on the Rec is somewhat polarised , as evidenced by the development of two opposing lobby groups ( see below ) . Real Friends of the Rec A local interest group called the Real Friends of the Rec was formed in December 2008 to lobby for the building of an all purpose sports and cultural arena at the Rec . They hope to encourage Somerset County Cricket Club and other spectator sports to utilise a new stadium throughout the year , which would increase income and year round usage . The land swap concept had been supported by the Real Friends of the Rec since the idea was raised at the inaugural meeting of the group in January 2009 . Friends of Bath Recreation Ground The Friends of Bath Recreation Ground is a separate group that holds the view that the Rec should not be used for professional sport , and that the council 's actions in this matter have been dubious for many years . They threaten to take legal action should the Trust , Bath Rugby and the Charity Commission reach an agreement to allow development on the Rec .

qb_9242--Recreation_Ground_(Bath).txt

The Recreation Ground, Kingsholm Stadium and the Memorial Ground are all English venues for which sport?

Crossbreed dogs or designer dogs are dogs which have been intentionally bred from two or more recognized dog breeds and not from dogs with no purebred ancestors , but have not been artificially bred to each other enough to breed true and be recognized as a breed in their own right . Designer dogs The Encyclopædia Britannica traces the term `` designer dog '' to the late 20th century , when breeders began to cross purebred poodles with other purebred breeds in order to obtain a dog with the poodles ' hypoallergenic coat , along with various desirable characteristics from other breeds . The primary identifying mark of a crossbred `` designer dog ' is that the resulting puppies are called by a portmanteau word made up of syllables ( or sounds ) from the breed names of the two purebred parents , such as Schnoodle ( Schnauzer and poodle cross ) . Other purebred breeds are being crossed to provide designer dogs described with an endless range of created labels , such as the Puggle ( Pug and Beagle cross ) . There are even complex crosses ( with multiple breeds in recent ancestry ) being labeled in this manner , such as German Chusky ( German Shepherd Dog , Husky , Chow Chow ) . Like children in a family , a percentage of designer dogs with the same breed ancestry will look similar to each other , even though crossbreeding does not result in as uniform a phenotype as the breeding of purebreds . Often even pups in the same litter will look quite different . Another defining characteristic of designer dogs is that they are usually bred as companions and pets . Working and hunting dogs deliberately crossbred for a particular working purpose are not generally given portmanteau names ; they are most often referred to by a type ( not breed ) name , such as Eurohounds ( racing sled dogs ) or Lurchers ( hunting dogs ) . These dogs could be considered only as cross breeds , not as designer animals , since appearance is not the main reason for them to be bred . An exception to this is the Labradoodle , which although having a Portmanteau name , is often used as a Guide or Assistance dog as well as being popular family dogs . Although designer dogs are often selected by owners for their novelty , reputable breeders sometimes use crossbreeding in an attempt to reduce the incidence of certain hereditary problems found in the purebred breeds , while retaining their more appealing traits . Jon Mooallem in The New York Times writes , `` Given the roughly 350 inherited disorders littering the dog genome , crossing two purebreds and expanding their gene pools can be ' a phenomenally good idea , ' according to one canine geneticist—if it is done conscientiously . '' crossbreeding has not been well studied in dogs , although it has been for livestock . The heritability of the desired trait being bred for ( such as a hypoallergenic coat ) needs to be known ; `` Heritability is the proportion of the measurable difference observed between animals for a given trait that is due to genetics ( and can be passed to the next generation ) . '' In addition , the goals of dog crossbreeding may be harder to define than the goals of livestock crossbreeding ; good temperament may be harder to define and measure than high calf weight . Designer dog breeders are often criticised for being more interested in profitable puppy production than in dog health and welfare . Wally Conron comments on the popularity of crosses after his introduction of the Labradoodle : `` Were breeders bothering to check their sires and bitches for heredity faults , or were they simply caught up in delivering to hungry customers the next status symbol ? '' Designer dog puppies sometimes bring higher prices than the purebreds from which they are bred . The fanciers of designer dogs respond that all modern dog breeds were created from earlier breeds and types of dogs through the same kind of selective breeding that is used to create designer dogs . The Toy Poodle was bred down in size from larger poodles , most likely by crossing with various very small Bichon types , such as the Maltese and Havanese . Most of the modern breeds have ancestries that include various older dog types and breeds ; see individual breed articles for details of the origin of each breed . Health of crossbred dog depends on their being descended from healthy parents . Breeders who select their breeding stock for cost-effectiveness and who skip health testing for the same reason will not produce puppies that are as reliably healthy as those bred by more conscientious breeders . However , studies of longevity in dogs have found some advantage for crossbreeds compared to purebred dogs . `` There was a significant correlation between body weight and longevity . crossbreeds lived longer than average but several pure breeds lived longer than cross breeds , notably Jack Russell , miniature poodles and whippets '' ( thus only small and toy breeds , as to be expected ) . In general it is believed that crossbred dogs `` have a far lower chance of exhibiting the disorders that are common with the parental breeds . Their genetic health will be substantially higher . '' Many breeders of designer dogs take advantage of the fact that people are impressed by a pet that they believe offers them an elevated social status , such as other `` designer '' goods do . `` It 's human nature to aspire to own something a little different , a little fancy or in short supply . '' Genetics Crossbreeding to take advantage of the increased chance that a recessive detrimental allele will only be inherited from one parent , and therefore not expressed in the phenotype of the offspring , is only one strategy breeders can use to decrease the incidences of genetic defects . Knowing the disease incidence in the breed , and the genetic history of the individual , is ultimately important in dog breeding . Having the parental dogs genetically tested for defects known to be troublesome to their breed ( or breeds , in the case of mixed parentage ) may do as much , or more , than simply choosing dissimilar individuals with functional reproductive tracts . Genetic health must be approached from many angles . Because some traits are dominant , crossbreed dogs tend to manifest some physical characteristics more frequently than others . Border Collies and some Spaniels , for example , often produce crossbreed offspring with similar coats and ears . The crossbreed offspring of German Shepherds often have characteristic Shepherd faces . But all crossbred dogs will vary in which characteristics of their purebred parents that they inherit , and may look very different from one another , even within the same litter of puppies . Registration and recognition Crossbreed dogs are not recognized by traditional breed registries , even if both parents are registered purebreds . Breed associations such as the AKC , the UKC , and the CKC , do not recognize designer crosses as dog breeds . If crossbred dogs are bred together for some period of time , and their breeding is well documented , they may eventually be considered a new breed of dog by major kennel clubs ( an example of a recent crossbreed becoming a breed recognised by all major kennel clubs is the Cesky Terrier ) . New breeds of dogs must have a breed club that will document the ancestry of any individual member of that breed from the original founding dogs of the breed ; when the kennel club that the breed club wishes to join is satisfied that the dogs are pedigreed , they will accept and register the dogs of that breed . Each kennel club has individual rules about how to document a new breed . Some minor registries and internet registry businesses will register dogs as any breed the owner chooses with minimal or no documentation ; some even allow the breeder or owner to make up a designer `` breed name '' for their pet . Some crossbred dogs , created by breeding two purebred dogs of different breeds , may have the advantage of heterosis , or crossbreed vigor . This advantage can be progressively diluted when two crossbreeds are bred in the attempt to create a breed , narrowing the gene pool . The best way to continue taking advantage of crossbreed vigor is from the breeding of dogs with genetic diversity . Portmanteau names With the long-time popularity of the label cockapoo , used since at least 1960 and constructed by combining elements of its two contributing breeds ( Cocker Spaniel/Poodle ) , it has become extremely common to find crossbred dogs given labels likewise invented by portmanteau . The tendency for using such labels in a jocular way dates back at least to Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom 's dorgis ( Dachshund/Corgi ) . None of these have become recognised by any major registry as purebred breeds . However , as of 2006 , the portmanteau words cockapoo and Labradoodle are found in some dictionaries . Fanciful label names such as these are often found in for-sale ads , or on the websites that allow sellers to make up their own names for litters of crossbred puppies . The terms are only loosely descriptive and are seldom consistent . Among the trendier crossbreed dog are Labradoodles and Cockapoos , which each have their own fancier associations and affinity groups . Poodle crossbreeds are also popular . It is important to note that these mixes are not breeds of dogs , but mixes . > File : BoglenTerrier5monthsIMG1106.JPG|Boglen Terrier , a mix of Beagle & Boston Terrier File : Dolce sc2.jpg|Dolce , the FBI ’ s therapy dog , stationed in the FBI 's Memphis division . Gerberian Shepsky ( German Shepherd / Siberian Husky mix ) File : Dobernauzer.jpg|Dobernauzer , a mix of Doberman & Schnauzer File : Nora von Breitenfeld.jpg|Staffodor Retriever , a Stafford-Labrador Mix File : BraxtonPuggle-edit1.jpg|Puggle , a mix of Beagle & Pug File : Labradoodle-male-australian-9-months.jpg|Labradoodle , Labrador Retriever & Poodle File : Collie-Whippet-Mischling.JPG|Wollie , a mix of Collie & Whippet File : Eurohounddog.jpg|Eurohound Alaskan Husky & Pointer Breed & ( 1/4 Greyhound ) File : Woof - my good dog.JPG|Chowman Shepherd , a mix of Chow Chow & German Shepherd File : MorkieWalk.JPG|A Morki , mix between a Yorkshire terrier & Maltese Peke-a-tese puppy.JPG|Maltingese , a mix between a Pekingese & Maltese Muggin hybrid dog.jpg|A Muggin , mix between Pug & Miniature Pinscher File : Puccini.jpg|A Shih Poo , Shih Tzu & Poodle File : Longdog.jpg|A Longdog : Greyhound & Deerhound File : Ursinha.jpg|Lhasanauzer , a Lhasa Apso & Miniature Schnauzer File : SchnoodleTopNEW.JPG|Schnoodle , a mix of Schnauzer & Poodle File : Gollie.jpg|Golli , a mix of Golden Retriever & Collie File : Westi-Pudel-Mischling 5.1.JPG|Westiepoo , West Highland White Terrier & Poodle File : Tobi 091 rand zugeschnitten.jpg|Westiepoo File : Image-Cavapoo puppy.JPG |Cavapoo puppy , Cavalier King Charles Spaniel & Poodle File : Example of Bug dog breed.jpg|Bug : Boston Terrier & Pug

odql_4333--Dog_crossbreed.txt

What is the name of the hybrid dog, or designer breed, which is a cross of a Labrador and a Poodle?

The Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama was first awarded by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association as a separate category in 1951 . Previously , there was a single award for `` Best Actress in a Motion Picture '' but the splitting allowed for recognition of it and the Best Actress – Comedy or Musical . The formal title has varied since its inception . In 2005 , it was officially called : `` Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama '' . As of 2013 , the wording is `` Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama '' . Notes : * `` † '' indicates an Academy Award-winning performance . * `` ‡ '' indicates an Academy Award-nomination . * `` § '' indicates a Golden Globe Award-winning performance that was not nominated for an Academy Award . Winners and nominees 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s Multiple nominees 2 nominations * Annette Bening * Halle Berry * Sandra Bullock * Leslie Caron * Julie Christie * Jill Clayburgh * Glenn Close * Bette Davis * Olivia de Havilland * Scarlett Johansson * Angelina Jolie * Deborah Kerr * Anna Magnani * Rooney Mara * Marsha Mason * Melina Mercouri * Sarah Miles * Lee Remick * Rosalind Russell * Kristin Scott Thomas * Simone Signoret * Maggie Smith * Sharon Stone * Barbra Streisand * Hilary Swank * Tilda Swinton * Charlize Theron * Uma Thurman * Emily Watson * Shelley Winters * Jane Wyman 3 nominations * Helen Mirren * Julianne Moore * Vanessa Redgrave * Gena Rowlands * Jean Simmons * Sigourney Weaver * Debra Winger * Natalie Wood 4 nominations * Ellen Burstyn * Judi Dench * Sally Field * Audrey Hepburn * Diane Keaton * Shirley MacLaine * Michelle Pfeiffer * Sissy Spacek * Elizabeth Taylor * Emma Thompson * Liv Ullmann * Kate Winslet 5 nominations * Anne Bancroft * Ingrid Bergman * Cate Blanchett * Jane Fonda * Jodie Foster * Glenda Jackson * Nicole Kidman * Jessica Lange * Susan Sarandon * Joanne Woodward 6 nominations * Faye Dunaway * Katharine Hepburn * Geraldine Page 13 nominations * Meryl Streep Multiple winners 3 wins * Ingrid Bergman * Jane Fonda * Meryl Streep 2 wins * Cate Blanchett * Sally Field * Jodie Foster * Shirley MacLaine * Geraldine Page ( consecutive ) * Rosalind Russell ( consecutive ) * Hilary Swank * Joanne Woodward * Jane Wyman

sfq_23272--Golden_Globe_Award_for_Best_Actress_in_a_Motion_Picture_–_Drama.txt

Who won the .1995 Best Actress Oscar for her role as Sister Helen Prejean in the film `Dead Man Walking'?

The Combination Act 1799 ... ( 39 Geo . III , c. 81 ) titled An Act to prevent Unlawful Combinations of Workmen , prohibited trade unions and collective bargaining by British workers . The Act received royal assent on 12 July 1799 . An additional Act was passed in 1800 ( 39 & 40 Geo III c. 106 ) . Background The 1799 and 1800 acts were passed under the government of William Pitt the Younger as a response to Jacobin activity and the fear that workers would strike during a conflict to force the government to accede to their demands . Collectively these acts were known as the Combination Laws . Significance The legislation drove labour organisations underground . Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824 . Lobbying by the radical tailor Francis Place played a role in this . However , in response to the series of strikes that followed , the Combinations of Workmen Act 1825 was passed , which allowed labour unions but severely restricted their activity .

dpql_580--Combination_Act_1799.txt

The Combination Acts of 1799-1800 were repealed in 1824 – what had they banned?

The Bionic Woman is an American television science fiction action series starring Lindsay Wagner that aired between 1976 and 1978 . The Bionic Woman series features Jaime Sommers , who takes on special high-risk government missions using her superhuman bionic powers . The Bionic Woman series is a spin-off from the 1970s The Six Million Dollar Man television science fiction action series . Wagner stars as professional tennis player Jaime Sommers , who becomes critically injured during a skydiving accident . Jaime 's life is saved by Oscar Goldman ( Richard Anderson ) and Dr. Rudy Wells ( Martin E. Brooks ) with bionic surgical implants similar to those of The Six Million Dollar Man Steve Austin ( Lee Majors ) . Through the use of cybernetic implants , known as bionics , Jaime is gifted with an amplified bionic ear which allows her to hear at low volumes and at different frequencies from most humans and over uncommonly long distances . She also has extraordinary strength in her bionic right arm and in both legs that enables her to run at speeds exceeding 60 miles per hour . She is then assigned to spy missions of her own as an occasional agent of the Office of Scientific Information , while under the employment cover as a school teacher of middle school students . The series proved highly popular worldwide , gaining high ratings in the US and particularly so in the UK ( where it became the only science fiction programme to achieve the No.1 position in the ratings during the 20th century ) . The series ran for three seasons , from 1975 to 1978 , and was first shown on the ABC network and then the NBC network for its final season . Years after its cancelation , three spin-off TV movies were produced between 1987 and 1994 . Reruns of the show aired on Sci-Fi Channel from 1997 to 2001 . A remake of the series was produced in 2007 . Premise The character of Jaime Sommers first appears in a two-part episode of The Six Million Dollar Man in 1975 titled `` The Bionic Woman '' . In the first episode , Steve travels to his old hometown of Ojai , California , to buy a ranch that is for sale and to visit his mother and stepfather . During his visit , he rekindles his old relationship with Jaime Sommers , now one of America 's top tennis players . Their relationship progresses rapidly to the point where Steve proposes marriage . During an outing , Steve and Jaime take part in some skydiving . Jaime 's parachute malfunctions and she plummets to the ground , falling through tree branches , hitting the ground and suffering traumatic injuries to her head , legs , and right arm . Steve then makes an emotional plea to his boss , Oscar Goldman , to save Jaime 's life by implementing bionics , even going so far as to commit Jaime to becoming an operative of the Office of Scientific Intelligence ( OSI ) . Goldman agrees to assign Dr. Rudy Wells ( played at this point in the series by Alan Oppenheimer ) and the bionics team to rebuild her . Jaime 's body is reconstructed with parts similar to Steve 's , but the actual cost of rebuilding her is not revealed . It is said humorously in dialogue to be less than the $ 6 million it cost to rebuild Austin because the replacement parts for her were `` smaller '' ( though in Germany the show was called Die Sieben Millionen Dollar Frau , which translates as The Seven Million Dollar Woman ) . Like Steve before her , Jaime is given two bionic legs , capable of propelling her at speeds exceeding 60 mph ( having been clocked at more than 62 mph in `` Doomsday Is Tomorrow '' and outpacing a race car going 100 mph in `` Winning is Everything '' ) and jumping to and from great heights , and her right arm is replaced by a lifelike prosthetic capable of bending steel or throwing objects great distances . Whereas Austin received a bionic eye , the inner mechanism of Jaime 's right ear is replaced by a bionic device that gives her amplified hearing such that she can detect most sounds regardless of volume or frequency . These bionic implants can not be distinguished from natural body parts , except on occasions where they sustain damage and the mechanisms beneath the skin become exposed , as seen in Part 2 of the episode `` Doomsday Is Tomorrow '' , when Jaime sustained damage to her right leg . Jaime discovers on vacation in the Bahamas her artificial bionic skin can not suntan with exposure to sunlight . After Jaime recovers from her operation , Steve tries to break his agreement with Oscar that she will serve as an agent for OSI . Jaime agrees to undertake a mission for Oscar despite Steve 's concerns . During the mission her bionics malfunction , and she experiences severe and crippling headaches . Dr. Wells determines that Jaime 's body is rejecting her bionic implants and a massive cerebral clot is causing her headaches and malfunctions . Soon after , she goes berserk and forces her way out of the hospital . Steve pursues and catches her , and she collapses in his arms . Soon after , Jaime dies on the operating table when her body shuts down . The character was so popular that ABC asked the writers to find a way to bring her back . In the first episode of the next season , it is revealed that Jaime had not died after all , but Steve was not told . He soon discovers the truth when he is hospitalized after suffering severe damage to his bionic legs ; he sees Jaime before slipping into a coma . As Steve later learns , Wells ' assistant , Dr. Michael Marchetti , had urged Rudy ( now played by Martin E. Brooks ) to try his newly developed cryogenic techniques to keep Jaime in suspended animation until the cerebral clot could be safely removed , after which she was successfully revived . A side effect of the procedure causes Jaime to develop retrograde amnesia , preventing her from recalling previous events including her relationship with Steve . Any attempt to remember causes her headaches and pain . Steve reluctantly lets her go on to live her own life as an agent for the OSI , although the pair would frequently work together on missions and establish a new friendship . Jaime , now retired as a tennis player , takes a job as a schoolteacher at an Air Force base in Ojai , California . She lives in an apartment over a barn located on the ranch owned by Steve 's mother and stepfather , both of whom are aware of their bionic implants and their lives as secret agents . Season three opened with the two-part episode `` The Bionic Dog '' , in which Jaime discovers Max ( short for Maximillion ) , a German Shepherd dog that has been given a bionic jaw and legs who could run at speeds of up to 90 mph . His bionics pre-date Steve 's and Jamie 's , as he was a lab animal used to test early bionic prosthetics . He was named `` Maximillion '' because his bionics cost `` a million '' dollars . When he was introduced , he experienced symptoms suggesting bionic rejection and was due to be put to sleep . Jaime discovered the condition was psychological , stemming from a traumatic lab fire that injured him when he was a puppy . With Jaime 's help , Max was cured and went to live with her , proving himself to be of considerable help in some of her adventures . The original intent was to create a spin-off series featuring The Bionic Dog , and at the end of the two-part episode that introduced him , it was implied Max would stay with Jaime 's forest ranger friend Roger Grette in the Sierra Mountains and Jaime would visit occasionally . However , the network rejected the proposed spin-off series and Max stayed with Jaime instead , making several appearances throughout the third season of The Bionic Woman . Production and broadcast To maintain the show 's plausibility , creator/executive producer Kenneth Johnson set very specific limits on Jaime Sommers 's abilities . He elaborated , `` When you ’ re dealing with the area of fantasy , if you say , ‘ Well , they ’ re bionic so they can do whatever they want , ’ then it gets out of hand , so you ’ ve got to have really , really tight rules . [ Steve and Jaime ] can jump up two stories but not three . They can jump down three stories but not four . Jaime can ’ t turn over a truck but she can turn over a car . '' These limits were occasionally incorporated into episodes , such as `` Kill Oscar Part 1 '' in which Jaime is forced to make a jump that 's too far down for her bionic legs , causing massive damage to them and nearly causing her death as a result . The series premiered on ABC in January 1976 , as a mid-season replacement for the sitcoms When Things Were Rotten and That 's My Mama . With thirteen episodes airing from January 1976 to May 1976 , it became the fifth most-watched television show of the whole 1975–76 season – despite only running for half the season – ranking behind Maude , Laverne & Shirley , Rich Man , Poor Man , and All In The Family , and slightly ahead of The Six Million Dollar Man . Season two ran from September 1976 to May 1977 with 22 episodes and finished with good ratings ( # 14 overall – slightly behind The Six Million Dollar Man ) . Season two also had its most notable episodes , `` Kill Oscar '' where Jaime fights the fembots , and `` Deadly Ringer '' , which would win Wagner an Emmy Award . Although the show performed well during season two , ABC elected not to renew the series , feeling it was no longer attracting the kind of demographics that ABC wanted . NBC picked up the show for a third ( and final ) season . Season three ran from September 1977 to May 1978 with 22 episodes and would see a new character , Chris Williams ( Christopher Stone ) , as a recurring love-interest for Jaime . This was due in part to the change of networks , which prevented any more crossovers by Jaime 's former love-interest , Steve Austin ; however , in a situation still considered unique ; Anderson and Brooks continued to play their roles in both series , despite the network differential . The series proved popular worldwide , particularly so in the United Kingdom , where it was shown on the ITV network and achieved unusually high audience figures for a science fiction show . The first episode of the series ( `` Welcome Home Jaime '' ) was shown on 1 July 1976 and was the No.1 most watched programme of the week . It was watched in 7 million homes , giving it an average of 14 million viewers . Two weeks later , the show 's third episode ( Angel of Mercy ) also became the No.1 most-watched programme of the week . Its success continued with a further 10 episodes scoring in the top 20 during 1976 ( in contrast , The Six Million Dollar Man never once entered the top 10 rating during its five seasons , though this was most likely due to the fact that the show was never broadcast across all ITV stations in the UK at the same time ) . The second season also proved popular , with seven episodes finishing in the weekly top 20 , the highest of these being the episode The Vega Influence on 12 May 1977 , which reached No.8 with 14.8 million viewers . The third season was not broadcast simultaneously across all ITV stations in the UK , however , and therefore no episodes reached the weekly Top 20 . Episodes Storylines The most notable of the frequent crossovers between the two shows included a two-part episode in which Steve and Jaime square off against Austin 's sometimes-friend/sometimes-enemy Bigfoot and a three-part story arc entitled `` Kill Oscar '' that aired the first and third parts as Bionic Woman episodes and the second part as an episode of The Six Million Dollar Man . The close connection between The Six Million Dollar Man and The Bionic Woman was highlighted by the fact that Richard Anderson and Martin E. Brooks played their same characters on two different television shows ( eventually ) running concurrently on two different networks . On her own , Jaime 's enemies include the Fembots , a line of powerful robots that she fights twice in the series over several episodes . She also thwarts the plan of an aging nuclear scientist named Elijah Cooper to destroy all life on Earth using a doomsday device in `` Doomsday Is Tomorrow '' . Jaime 's missions frequently involved undercover work in which she takes on a secret identity , such as a nun , a police officer , a college student , an air-steward , a singer , and a professional wrestler . Her tennis background also came into play occasionally , and she was also from time to time seen having adventures with some of her students in Ojai . As with spy shows at this time , Jaime was frequently kidnapped ( more often than not with the use of chloroform or a drugged drink ) and placed in dangerous situations from which she would need her bionic abilities to escape . Typically , she would be bound or handcuffed to a bomb from which she could escape with ease once she woke up . However , on one occasion she was handcuffed to a friend , so she could not use her bionic strength to escape as this would pull off the friend 's hand . Jaime dealt with a number of bizarre cases , such as a villain who operates a hair salon using a `` truth serum '' shampoo to extract information from OSI agents . In another episode , a convict named Lisa Galloway ( also portrayed by Lindsay Wagner ) is given plastic surgery and tries to replace Jaime . In a later episode , Lisa ingests a paste-like substance called Adrenalizine that gives her temporary super-strength , allowing her to fully replace Jaime at OSI while the real Jaime is imprisoned and led to question her own identity . Lisa , however , did not know of Jaime 's bionic implants and believed her powers to have come from the Adrenalizine . After Jaime 's eventual escape , Dr. Wells discovers that the Adrenalizine was breaking down and becoming toxic to Lisa 's health . Further complicating the issue was Lisa 's increasing belief that she was in fact , the real Jaime . During the series , it is shown that Jaime 's enhanced abilities have their limitations . In one of the `` Kill Oscar '' chapters , Jaime jumps from the window of a particularly tall building while trying to escape the Fembots . However , due to the height from which she jumped , her legs explode upon landing , nearly killing her . Extreme cold is shown to inhibit her bionic implants , causing them to freeze up and malfunction ( a scenario also common with Steve Austin ) . However , her right ear , as it is encased in her body , is typically not subject to these negative effects . While Steve Austin occasionally ( particularly in early episodes ) employed violence in order to complete missions , Jaime 's approach tended to be less-violent and as such she was rarely shown directly using her bionic strength against a human opponent ( and even when she did , never with deadly force ) . Final episode In the last episode ( `` On the Run '' ) , Jamie is called `` Robot Lady '' by a little girl who has learned about her bionics . Like Steve Austin in the original book Cyborg , she has to come to terms with the fact that she is not quite human . After three years with too many assignments to allow her time to herself , she resigns . However , the people in charge decide that she can not just be allowed to leave and want to put her into a safe community where they can keep their eye on her . She goes on the run but later realises that she is still the same woman , despite her mechanical parts and goes back to work for the OSI , but with fewer missions and more time to herself . The final episode was acknowledged to have been inspired by The Prisoner as Jaime is similarly being pursued by entities concerned about the secret information she possesses . Despite being on different networks , both The Bionic Woman and The Six Million Dollar Man were simultaneously cancelled in the spring of 1978 . Unlike The Six Million Dollar Man , which ended with a standard episode , `` On the Run '' was written and filmed as a resolution to the series . TV movies Three made-for-TV movies were produced that expanded the `` bionic family '' and explored a rekindled love between Jaime and Steve . In the first reunion , The Return of the Six Million Dollar Man and the Bionic Woman ( 1987 ) , Jaime and Steve are reunited after nearly ten years of living separate lives . Jaime 's memory is fully restored ( according to Oscar , Jaime was involved in an explosion at the American Embassy in Budapest and `` she remembered everything '' after she recovered from her concussion ) and she tries to reconcile her feelings for Steve while at the same time helping train Steve 's son Michael in the use of his own recently acquired updated bionics . Jaime challenges Michael to a friendly race . He overtakes her and she makes the comment that she feels like an `` obsolete model '' . Michael is kidnapped by Fortress . Steve and Jamie along with the Air Force infiltrate the abandoned glass factory to `` rescue '' Michael . The second film , Bionic Showdown : The Six Million Dollar Man and the Bionic Woman , ( 1989 ) introduced Sandra Bullock as paraplegic Kate Mason who becomes a next-generation bionic woman and Sommers again helps train the neophyte cyborg . In the final reunion film , Bionic Ever After ? ( 1994 ) , a computer virus corrupts Jaime 's bionic systems . Dr. Wells informs Steve that `` she may never be bionic again , '' but Steve 's main regard is he wants her alive above all else . She undergoes a major upgrade , which not only increases the power of her bionics but gives her night vision . Finally , after so many years of waiting around , the bionic couple say their `` I Do 's '' . Theme music Jerry Fielding composed the series ' first opening theme . Beginning in season two , Fielding 's theme was phased out and replaced by another piece of music by Joe Harnell which had previously been used for the closing credits . DVD releases In the UK , Universal released three single-disc volumes of selected episodes of The Bionic Woman in 2001/02 . Each volume contained three episodes . Universal then released the first two full seasons of The Bionic Woman on DVD in the UK and Australia in 2005/06 . There were no special features on any of the sets . Season three was eventually released in the UK by Fabulous Films in December 2012 , along with repackaged versions of the first two seasons and a complete 18-disc boxed set of all three seasons . These versions contained various special features as found on the Region 1 sets ( see below ) , though the season three release also contains all three of the Bionic reunion movies from the 1980s and 1990s . In Germany , Koch Media has released all three seasons on DVD under the name Die Sieben Millionen Dollar Frau ( The Seven Million Dollar Woman ) , though these sets do not contain special features . Plans for a North American DVD release were first announced in 2004 by Universal Home Video . Those plans were made public via a listing in a TV-DVD release guide sent to retailers , a mention in an otherwise unrelated studio press release , and as a trailer included on a DVD given away through retail chain Best Buy . However , that release never happened due to rights issues which prevented both The Bionic Woman and The Six Million Dollar Man from being released on DVD in North America at that time . In April 2010 , creator Kenneth Johnson said that the rights issues had been solved and he was taping interviews for the DVD . On July 15 , 2010 , Universal Studios Home Entertainment announced the release of the first season on DVD in North America , which took place on October 19 , 2010 . Season Two was released on May 17 , 2011 . On October 4 , 2011 , Universal released The Bionic Woman : The Complete Third & Final Season on Region 1 DVD . ( Concurrently , The Six Million Dollar Man achieved its initial DVD release in 2010 as a mail-order box set via Time-Life , with the individual seasons receiving regular retail release beginning in 2012 . ) On October 13 , 2015 , Universal will release The Bionic Woman- The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1 . Spin-off books Two novels adapting various episodes were published to coincide with the series : Welcome Home , Jaime and Extracurricular Activities , both by Eileen Lottman . The UK editions of these two books were credited to `` Maud Willis '' and were retitled Double Identity and A Question of Life , respectively . Although the closing credits of every episode says the series was based upon Martin Caidin 's 1972 novel , Cyborg , this only refers to the bionics concept , the characters of Rudy Wells and Oscar Goldman , and the occasional appearance by Steve Austin ; Jaime Sommers does not appear in any of Caidin 's novels . A short-lived comic book series by Charlton Comics was published in the US in 1976–77 . UK comic Look-In ran a colour comic strip between 1976 and 1979 , written by Angus P. Allan and drawn by artists including John Bolton and Arthur Ranson . The character was also to have appeared in a 1996 comic miniseries entitled Bionix by Maximum Press . Although the magazine was advertised in comic book trade publications , it was ultimately never published . The French comic Télé-Junior published strips based on popular TV series . This included their own versions of The Six Million Dollar Man and the Bionic Woman which was renamed Super Jaimie . In March 2012 , Dynamite Entertainment launched a new The Bionic Woman comic book title , based upon the revised continuity established in the Kevin Smith-written The Bionic Man comic ( a reimagining of The Six Million Dollar Man ) , in which the character of Jaime Sommers was reintroduced . A crossover mini-series , The Bionic Man vs . The Bionic Woman , was launched in January 2013 . Unlike the Bionic Man title , which ( depending on the artist ) occasionally renders Steve Austin in the likeness of actor Lee Majors , the Dynamite version of Jaime Sommers generally is not rendered in the likeness of Lindsay Wagner . In late 2013 , Dynamite ended both series and in the spring of 2014 launched The Six Million Dollar Man Season 6 , a more faithful adaptation of the original Six Million Dollar Man TV series . Jaime Sommers , based on the Wagner interpretation , was reintroduced in issue 3 and in June 2014 Dynamite announced it will publish The Bionic Woman Season 4 , a continuation of the TV series , beginning in the fall of 2014 . Merchandise Like its parent program The Bionic Woman spawned its own line of toys . Kenner produced a 12-inch doll of the character , with similar features to the Steve Austin version ( bionic modules and removable bionic limbs ) , except instead of a bionic eye the doll 's head would click when turned , simulating the sound of Jaime 's bionic ear . Accessories for the doll released by Kenner included additional fashions , and a Bionic Beauty Salon playset . A metal lunchbox for children was available , as was a vinyl story record produced by Wonderland Records . Kenner produced a series of stickers and temporary tattoos featuring Jaime Sommers individually and with Steve Austin . A board game based on The Bionic Woman series was also created . It was sold by Parker Brothers in the US , and was a 2–4 player game suited for children between 7 and 12 years of age . In July 2016 , prior to Comic-Con International , the New York Times ran a story about Dynamite Entertainment . In it , best-selling author Andy Mangels was revealed to be writing a prestigious new intercompany crossover mini-series for the company , in conjunction with DC Comics : Wonder Woman '77 Meets The Bionic Woman , bringing together the Lynda Carter television character with Lindsay Wagner 's fellow 1970s television super-heroine . The series was set to start in Fall 2016 . Television remake In August 2002 it was announced that the show was to be remade by producers Jennifer and Suzanne Todd ( `` Team Todd '' ) for the USA Network ; media reports suggested that Jennifer Aniston was being considered for the title role . After the initial press release was issued , the show never made it out of pre-production and no other announcements were made as to the show 's fate . On October 9 , 2006 , NBC Universal announced that it was bringing the project back , with new producers and a reworking of the concept . The project 's one-hour pilot was given an official greenlight by NBC on January 3 , 2007 . On February 13 , 2007 it was announced that English actress Michelle Ryan ( affecting an American accent ) had been cast in the title role for this pilot , and that Katee Sackhoff would play Sarah Corvus , the bionic woman 's nemesis . The series was subsequently picked up by NBC and debuted on September 26 , 2007 . Eight more episodes were produced and aired before the Writers Guild of America strike forced a halt to production . As of March 2008 , NBC had not yet announced whether the show would be renewed , allowed to complete its original order of 13 episodes , or cancelled outright , although series developer and producer David Eick told the official website of the Sci-Fi Channel ( now known as Syfy ) on March 18 , 2008 , that the series had been cancelled . Lindsay Wagner , the original Bionic Woman , was not involved in the new series . Wagner said , `` On a technical level , it was very good , but I do n't think they understood the show . It was steeped in that old-school thinking . It was like a lot of things today , angry and dark .

qz_3971--The_Bionic_Woman.txt

Which actress left Eastenders for Hollywood only to flop as The Bionic Woman?

Watergate was a major political scandal that occurred in the United States in the 1970s , following a break-in at the Democratic National Committee ( DNC ) headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington , D.C. and President Richard Nixon 's administration 's attempted cover-up of its involvement . When the conspiracy was discovered and investigated by the U.S. Congress , the Nixon administration 's resistance to its probes led to a constitutional crisis . The term Watergate has come to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration . Those activities included such `` dirty tricks '' as bugging the offices of political opponents and people of whom Nixon or his officials were suspicious . Nixon and his close aides ordered harassment of activist groups and political figures , using the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , and the Internal Revenue Service ( IRS ) . The scandal led to the discovery of multiple abuses of power by the Nixon administration , articles of impeachment , and the resignation of Nixon as President of the United States on August 9 , 1974 . The scandal also resulted in the indictment of 69 people , with trials or pleas resulting in 25 being found guilty and incarcerated , many of whom were Nixon 's top administration officials . The affair began with the arrest of five men for breaking and entering into the DNC headquarters at the Watergate complex on Saturday , June 17 , 1972 . The FBI investigated and discovered a connection between cash found on the burglars and a slush fund used by the Committee for the Re-Election of the President ( CREEP ) , the official organization of Nixon 's campaign . In July 1973 , evidence mounted against the President 's staff , including testimony provided by former staff members in an investigation conducted by the Senate Watergate Committee . The investigation revealed that President Nixon had a tape-recording system in his offices and that he had recorded many conversations . After a protracted series of bitter court battles , the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the president was obligated to release the tapes to government investigators , and he eventually complied . These audio recordings implicated the president , revealing he had attempted to cover up activities that took place after the break-in and to use federal officials to deflect the investigation . Facing near-certain impeachment in the House of Representatives and equally certain conviction by the Senate , Nixon resigned the presidency on August 9 , 1974 . On September 8 , 1974 , his successor , Gerald Ford , pardoned him . The name `` Watergate '' and the suffix `` -gate '' have since become synonymous with political scandals in the United States and elsewhere . Wiretapping of the Democratic Party 's headquarters In January 1972 , G. Gordon Liddy , general counsel to the Committee for the Re-Election of the President ( CREEP ) , presented a campaign intelligence plan to CREEP 's Acting Chairman Jeb Stuart Magruder , Attorney General John Mitchell , and Presidential Counsel John Dean , that involved extensive illegal activities against the Democratic Party . According to Dean , this marked `` the opening scene of the worst political scandal of the twentieth century and the beginning of the end of the Nixon presidency . '' Mitchell viewed the plan as unrealistic . Two months later , he was alleged to have approved a reduced version of the plan , to include burgling the Democratic National Committee 's ( DNC ) headquarters at the Watergate Complex in Washington , D.C.—ostensibly to photograph campaign documents and install listening devices in telephones . Liddy was nominally in charge of the operation , but has since insisted that he was duped by Dean and at least two of his subordinates . These included former CIA officers E. Howard Hunt and James McCord , then-CREEP Security Coordinator ( John Mitchell had by then resigned as Attorney General to become chairman of the CREEP ) . [ http : //www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/watergate/stories/mitchobit.htm Lawrence Meyer , `` John N. Mitchell , Principal in Watergate , Dies at 75 '' ] , The Washington Post , November 10 , 1988 In May , McCord assigned former FBI agent Alfred C. Baldwin III to carry out the wiretapping and monitor the telephone conversations afterward . [ http : //spartacus-educational.com/JFKbaldwinA.htm Alfred C. Baldwin ] Spartacus Educational . Retrieved May 17 , 2015 McCord testified that he selected Baldwin 's name from a registry published by the Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI to work for the Committee to Re-elect the President . Baldwin first served as bodyguard to Martha Mitchell , the wife of John Mitchell , who was living in Washington . Baldwin accompanied Martha Mitchell to Chicago . Martha did not like Baldwin and described him as the `` gauchest character I 've ever met . '' The Committee replaced Baldwin with another security man . On May 11 , McCord arranged for Baldwin , whom investigative reporter Jim Hougan described as `` somehow special and perhaps well known to McCord , '' to stay at the Howard Johnson 's motel across the street from the Watergate complex . The room 419 was booked in the name of McCord ’ s company . At behest of G. Gordon Liddy and E. Howard Hunt , McCord and his team of burglars prepared for their first Watergate break-in , which began on May 28 . Two phones inside the offices of the DNC headquarters were said to have been wiretapped . One was the phone of Robert Spencer Oliver , who at the time was working as the executive director of the Association of State Democratic Chairmen , and the other was the phone of DNC secretary Larry O'Brien . The FBI found no evidence that O'Brien 's phone was bugged . However , it was determined that an effective listening device had been installed in Oliver 's phone . Despite the success in installing the listening devices , the Committee agents soon determined that they needed to be repaired . They planned a second `` burglary '' in order to take care of this . Shortly after midnight on June 17 , 1972 , Frank Wills , a security guard at the Watergate Complex , noticed tape covering the latches on some of the doors in the complex leading from the underground parking garage to several offices ( allowing the doors to close but remain unlocked ) . He removed the tape , and thought nothing of it . He returned an hour later and , having discovered that someone had retaped the locks , Wills called the police . Five men were discovered inside the DNC office and arrested . They were Virgilio González , Bernard Barker , James McCord , Eugenio Martínez , and Frank Sturgis , who were charged with attempted burglary and attempted interception of telephone and other communications . On September 15 , a grand jury indicted them , as well as Hunt and Liddy , for conspiracy , burglary , and violation of federal wiretapping laws . The five burglars who broke into the office were tried by a jury , Judge John Sirica officiating , and were convicted on January 30 , 1973 . Cover-up and its unraveling Initial cover-up Within hours of the burglars ' arrest , the FBI discovered the name of E. Howard Hunt in the address books of Barker and Martínez . Nixon administration officials were concerned because Hunt and Liddy were also involved in a separate secret activity known as the White House Plumbers , which was set up to stop security `` leaks '' and to investigate other sensitive security matters . Dean would later testify he was ordered by top Nixon aide John Ehrlichman to `` deep six '' the contents of Howard Hunt 's White House safe . Ehrlichman subsequently denied that . In the end , the evidence from Hunt 's safe was destroyed ( in separate operations ) by Dean and the FBI 's Acting Director , L. Patrick Gray . Nixon 's own reaction to the break-in , at least initially , was one of skepticism . Watergate prosecutor James Neal was sure Nixon had not known in advance of the break-in . As evidence , he cited a June 23 taped conversation between the President and his Chief of Staff , H. R. Haldeman , in which Nixon asked , `` Who was the asshole who ordered it ? '' But Nixon subsequently ordered Haldeman to have the CIA block the FBI 's investigation into the source of the funding for the burglary . A few days later , Nixon 's Press Secretary , Ron Ziegler , described the event as `` a third-rate burglary attempt . '' On August 29 , at a news conference , President Nixon stated Dean had conducted a thorough investigation of the matter , when in fact Dean had not conducted any investigation at all . Nixon also said , `` I can say categorically that ... no one in the White House staff , no one in this Administration , presently employed , was involved in this very bizarre incident . '' On September 15 , Nixon congratulated Dean , saying , `` The way you 've handled it , it seems to me , has been very skillful , because you—putting your fingers in the dikes every time that leaks have sprung here and sprung there . '' Money trail On June 19 , 1972 , the press reported that one of the Watergate burglars was a Republican Party security aide . Former Attorney General John Mitchell , who at the time was the head of the Nixon re-election campaign ( CRP ) , denied any involvement with the Watergate break-in or knowledge of the five burglars . On August 1 , a $ 25,000 cashier 's check earmarked for the Nixon re-election campaign was found in the bank account of one of the Watergate burglars . Further investigation by the FBI would reveal the team had thousands of dollars more to support their travel and expenses in the months leading up to their arrests . Examination of their funds showed a link to the finance committee of CRP . Several donations ( totaling $ 86,000 ) were made by individuals who thought they were making private donations by certified and cashier 's checks for the President 's re-election . Investigators ' examination of the bank records of a Miami company run by Watergate burglar Barker revealed an account controlled by him personally had deposited a check and then transferred it ( through the Federal Reserve Check Clearing System ) . The banks that had originated the checks were keen to ensure the depository institution used by Barker had acted properly in ensuring the checks had been received and endorsed by the check 's payee , before its acceptance for deposit in Bernard Barker 's account . Only in this way would the issuing banks not be held liable for the unauthorized and improper release of funds from their customers ' accounts . The investigation by the FBI , which cleared Barker 's bank of fiduciary malfeasance , led to the direct implication of members of the CRP , to whom the checks had been delivered . Those individuals were the Committee bookkeeper and its treasurer , Hugh Sloan . As a private organization , the Committee followed normal business practice in allowing only duly authorized individual ( s ) to accept and endorse checks on behalf of the Committee . No financial institution could accept or process a check on behalf of the Committee unless a duly authorized individual endorsed it . The checks deposited into Barker 's bank account were endorsed by Committee treasurer Hugh Sloan , who was authorized by the Finance Committee . However , once Sloan had endorsed a check made payable to the Committee , he had a legal and fiduciary responsibility to see that the check was deposited only into the accounts named on the check . Sloan failed to do that . When confronted with the potential charge of federal bank fraud , he revealed that Committee deputy director Jeb Magruder and finance director Maurice Stans had directed him to give the money to G. Gordon Liddy . Liddy , in turn , gave the money to Barker , and attempted to hide its origin . Barker tried to disguise the funds by depositing them into accounts in banks outside of the United States . What Barker , Liddy , and Sloan did not know was that the complete record of all such transactions were held for roughly six months . Barker 's use of foreign banks in April and May 1972 , to deposit checks and withdraw the funds via cashier 's checks and money orders , resulted in the banks keeping the entire transaction records until October and November 1972 . All five Watergate burglars were directly or indirectly tied to the 1972 CRP , thus causing Judge Sirica to suspect a conspiracy involving higher-echelon government officials . On September 29 , 1972 , the press reported that John Mitchell , while serving as Attorney General , controlled a secret Republican fund used to finance intelligence-gathering against the Democrats . On October 10 , the FBI reported the Watergate break-in was part of a massive campaign of political spying and sabotage on behalf of the Nixon re-election committee . Despite these revelations , Nixon 's campaign was never seriously jeopardized ; on November 7 , the President was re-elected in one of the biggest landslides in American political history . Role of the media The connection between the break-in and the re-election committee was highlighted by media coverage—in particular , investigative coverage by The Washington Post , Time , and The New York Times . The coverage dramatically increased publicity and consequent political repercussions . Relying heavily upon anonymous sources , Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein uncovered information suggesting that knowledge of the break-in , and attempts to cover it up , led deeply into the upper reaches of the Justice Department , FBI , CIA , and the White House . Woodward and Bernstein interviewed Judy Hoback Miller , the bookkeeper for Nixon , who revealed to them information about the mishandling of funds and records being destroyed . Chief among the Post 's anonymous sources was an individual whom Woodward and Bernstein had nicknamed Deep Throat ; 33 years later , in 2005 , the informant was identified as William Mark Felt , Sr. , deputy director of the FBI during that period of the 1970s , something Woodward later confirmed . Felt met secretly with Woodward several times , telling him of Howard Hunt 's involvement with the Watergate break-in , and that the White House staff regarded the stakes in Watergate extremely high . Felt warned Woodward that the FBI wanted to know where he and other reporters were getting their information , as they were uncovering a wider web of crimes than the FBI first disclosed . All of the secret meetings between Woodward and `` Deep Throat '' ( W. Mark Felt ) took place at an underground parking garage somewhere in Rosslyn over a period from June 1972 to January 1973 . Prior to resigning from the FBI on June 22 , 1973 , Felt also anonymously planted leaks about Watergate to Time magazine , the Washington Daily News and other publications . [ http : //www.miamiherald.com/2012/02/14/v-fullstory/2639954/the-profound-lies-of-deep-throat.html `` The profound lies of Deep Throat '' ] , The Miami Herald , February 14 , 2012 During this early period , most of the media failed to grasp the full implications of the scandal , and concentrated reporting on other topics related to the 1972 presidential election . After the reporting that one of the convicted burglars wrote to Judge Sirica alleging a high-level cover-up , the media shifted its focus . Time magazine described Nixon as undergoing `` daily hell and very little trust . '' The distrust between the press and the Nixon administration was mutual and greater than usual due to lingering dissatisfaction with events from the Vietnam War . At the same time , public distrust of the media was polled at more than 40 % . Nixon and top administration officials discussed using government agencies to `` get '' ( or retaliate against ) those they perceived as hostile media organizations . The discussions had precedent . At the request of Nixon 's White House in 1969 , the FBI tapped the phones of five reporters . In 1971 , the White House requested an audit of the tax return of the editor of Newsday , after he wrote a series of articles about the financial dealings of Charles Rebozo , a friend of Nixon . The Administration and its supporters accused the media of making `` wild accusations , '' putting too much emphasis on the story , and of having a liberal bias against the Administration . Nixon said in a May 1974 interview with supporter Baruch Korff that if he had followed the liberal policies that he thought the media preferred , `` Watergate would have been a blip . '' The media noted that most of the reporting turned out to be accurate ; the competitive nature of the media guaranteed widespread coverage of the far-reaching political scandal . Applications to journalism schools reached an all-time high in 1974 . Scandal Escalates Rather than ending with the conviction and sentencing to prison of the five Watergate burglars on January 30 , 1973 , the investigation into the break-in and the Nixon Administration 's involvement grew broader . Nixon 's conversations in late March and all of April 1973 revealed that not only did he know he needed to remove Haldeman , Ehrlichman , and Dean to gain distance from them , but he had to do so in a way that was least likely to incriminate him and his presidency . Nixon created a new conspiracy—to effect a cover-up of the cover-up—which began in late March 1973 and became fully formed in May and June 1973 , operating until his presidency ended on August 9 , 1974 . On March 23 , 1973 , Judge Sirica read the court a letter from Watergate burglar James McCord , who alleged that perjury had been committed in the Watergate trial , and defendants had been pressured to remain silent . Trying to make them talk , Sirica gave Hunt and two burglars provisional sentences of up to 40 years . On March 28 , on Nixon 's orders , aide John Ehrlichman told Attorney General Richard Kleindienst that nobody in the White House had prior knowledge of the burglary . On April 13 , Magruder told U.S. attorneys that he had perjured himself during the burglars ' trial , and implicated John Dean and John Mitchell . John Dean believed that he , Mitchell , Ehrlichman and Haldeman could go to the prosecutors , tell the truth , and save the presidency . Dean wanted to protect the presidency and have his four closest men take the fall for telling the truth . During the critical meeting with Dean and Nixon on April 15 , 1973 , Dean was totally unaware of the president 's depth of knowledge and involvement in the Watergate cover-up . It was during this meeting that Dean felt that he was being recorded . He wondered if this was due to the way Nixon was speaking , as if he were trying to prod attendees ; recollections of earlier conversations about fundraising . Dean mentioned this observation while testifying to the Senate Committee on Watergate , exposing the thread of what were taped conversations that would unravel the fabric of Watergate . Two days later , Dean told Nixon that he had been cooperating with the U.S. attorneys . On that same day , U.S. attorneys told Nixon that Haldeman , Ehrlichman , Dean and other White House officials were implicated in the cover-up . On April 30 , Nixon asked for the resignation of Haldeman and Ehrlichman , two of his most influential aides . They were later both indicted , convicted , and ultimately sentenced to prison . He asked for the resignation of Attorney General Kleindienst , to ensure no one could claim that his innocent friendship with Haldeman and Ehrlichman could be construed as a conflict . He fired White House Counsel John Dean , who went on to testify before the Senate Watergate Committee and said that he believed and suspected the conversations in the Oval Office were being taped . This information became the bombshell that helped force Richard Nixon to resign rather than be impeached . Writing from prison for New West and New York magazines in 1977 , Ehrlichman claimed Nixon had offered him a large sum of money , which he declined . The President announced the resignations in an address to the American people : On the same day , Nixon appointed a new attorney general , Elliot Richardson , and gave him authority to designate a special counsel for the Watergate investigation who would be independent of the regular Justice Department hierarchy . In May 1973 , Richardson named Archibald Cox to the position . Senate Watergate hearings and revelation of the Watergate tapes On February 7 , 1973 , the United States Senate voted 77–0 to approve Senate Resolution and establish a select committee to investigate Watergate , with Sam Ervin named chairman the next day . [ http : //www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,942983-1,00.html `` WATERGATE RETROSPECTIVE : THE DECLINE AND FALL '' ] , Time , August 19 , 1974 The hearings held by the Senate committee , in which Dean and other former administration officials testified , were broadcast from May 17 to August 7 , 1973 . The three major networks of the time agreed to take turns covering the hearings live , each network thus maintaining coverage of the hearings every third day , starting with ABC on May 17 and ending with NBC on August 7 . An estimated 85 % of Americans with television sets tuned into at least one portion of the hearings . On Friday , July 13 , 1973 , during a preliminary interview , deputy minority counsel Donald Sanders asked White House assistant Alexander Butterfield if there was any type of recording system in the White House . Butterfield said he was reluctant to answer , but finally stated there was a new system in the White House that automatically recorded everything in the Oval Office , the Cabinet Room and others , as well as Nixon 's private office in the Old Executive Office Building . On Monday , July 16 , 1973 , in front of a live , televised audience , chief minority counsel Fred Thompson asked Butterfield whether he was `` aware of the installation of any listening devices in the Oval Office of the President . '' Butterfield 's revelation of the taping system transformed the Watergate investigation . Cox immediately subpoenaed the tapes , as did the Senate , but Nixon refused to release them , citing his executive privilege as president , and ordered Cox to drop his subpoena . Cox refused . `` Saturday Night Massacre '' On October 20 , 1973 , after Cox refused to drop the subpoena , Nixon commanded Attorney General Elliot Richardson , and then Richardson 's deputy , William Ruckelshaus , to fire the special prosecutor . Richardson and Ruckelshaus both refused to fire Cox and resigned in protest . Nixon 's search for someone in the Justice Department willing to fire Cox ended with the Solicitor General Robert Bork . Though Bork claims to believe Nixon 's order was valid and appropriate , he considered resigning to avoid being `` perceived as a man who did the President 's bidding to save my job . '' Bork carried out the presidential order and dismissed the special prosecutor . These actions met considerable public criticism . Responding to the allegations of possible wrongdoing , in front of 400 Associated Press managing editors on November 17 , 1973 , Nixon stated emphatically , `` I 'm not a crook . '' He needed to allow Bork to appoint a new special prosecutor ; Bork chose Leon Jaworski to continue the investigation . Legal action against Nixon Administration members On March 1 , 1974 , a grand jury in Washington , D.C. , indicted several former aides of President Nixon , who became known as the `` Watergate Seven '' : Haldeman , Ehrlichman , Mitchell , Charles Colson , Gordon C. Strachan , Robert Mardian and Kenneth Parkinson , for conspiring to hinder the Watergate investigation . The grand jury secretly named President Nixon as an unindicted co-conspirator . The special prosecutor dissuaded them from an indictment of Nixon , arguing that a President can only be indicted after he leaves office . John Dean , Jeb Stuart Magruder , and other figures had already pleaded guilty . On April 5 , 1974 , Dwight Chapin , the former Nixon appointments secretary , was convicted of lying to the grand jury . Two days later , the same grand jury indicted Ed Reinecke , the Republican lieutenant governor of California , on three charges of perjury before the Senate committee . Release of the transcripts The Nixon administration struggled to decide what materials to release . All parties involved agreed that all pertinent information should be released . Whether to release unedited profanity and vulgarity divided his advisers . His legal team favored releasing the tapes unedited , while Press Secretary Ron Ziegler preferred using an edited version where `` expletive deleted '' would replace the raw material . After several weeks of debate , they decided to release an edited version . Nixon announced the release of the transcripts in a speech to the nation on April 29 , 1974 . Nixon noted that any audio pertinent to national security information could be redacted from the released tapes . Initially , Nixon gained a positive reaction for his speech . As people read the transcripts over the next couple of weeks , however , former supporters among the public , media and political community called for Nixon 's resignation or impeachment . Vice President Gerald Ford said , `` While it may be easy to delete characterization from the printed page , we can not delete characterization from people 's minds with a wave of the hand . '' The Senate Republican Leader Hugh Scott said the transcripts revealed a `` deplorable , disgusting , shabby , and immoral '' performance on the part of the President and his former aides . The House Republican Leader John Jacob Rhodes agreed with Scott , and Rhodes recommended that if Nixon 's position continued to deteriorate , he `` ought to consider resigning as a possible option . '' The editors of The Chicago Tribune , a newspaper that had supported Nixon , wrote , `` He is humorless to the point of being inhumane . He is devious . He is vacillating . He is profane . He is willing to be led . He displays dismaying gaps in knowledge . He is suspicious of his staff . His loyalty is minimal . '' The Providence Journal wrote , `` Reading the transcripts is an emetic experience ; one comes away feeling unclean . '' This newspaper continued , that , while the transcripts may not have revealed an indictable offense , they showed Nixon contemptuous of the United States , its institutions , and its people . According to Time magazine , the Republican Party leaders in the Western United States felt that while there remained a significant number of Nixon loyalists in the party , the majority believed that Nixon should step down as quickly as possible . They were disturbed by the bad language and the coarse , vindictive tone of the conversations in the transcripts . Supreme Court The issue of access to the tapes went to the US Supreme Court . On July 24 , 1974 , in United States v. Nixon , the Court , which did not include the recused Justice William Rehnquist ( who had recently been appointed by Nixon and had served as Assistant Attorney General of the Office of Legal Counsel in the Nixon Justice Department ) , ruled unanimously that claims of executive privilege over the tapes were void . They ordered the president to release them to the special prosecutor . On July 30 , 1974 , President Nixon complied with the order and released the subpoenaed tapes for the public . Release of the tapes The tapes revealed several crucial conversations

sfq_17002--Watergate_scandal.txt

The Washington Post reporters, Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward, wrote an account of the Watergate scandal, published in 1974. What was the book called?

Corvidae is a cosmopolitan family of oscine passerine birds that contains the crows , ravens , rooks , jackdaws , jays , magpies , treepies , choughs , and nutcrackers . In common English , they are known as the crow family , or , more technically , corvids . Over 120 species are described . The genus Corvus , including the jackdaws , crows , and ravens , makes up over a third of the entire family . They are considered the most intelligent of the birds , and among the most intelligent of all animals , having demonstrated self-awareness in mirror tests ( European magpies ) and tool-making ability ( crows , rooks ) —skills until recently regarded as solely the province of humans and a few other higher mammals . Their total brain-to-body mass ratio is equal to that of great apes and cetaceans , and only slightly lower than in humans . They are medium to large in size , with strong feet and bills , rictal bristles , and a single moult each year ( most passerines moult twice ) . Corvids are found worldwide except for the tip of South America and the polar ice caps . The majority of the species are found in tropical South and Central America , southern Asia and Eurasia , with fewer than 10 species each in Africa and Australasia . The genus Corvus has re-entered Australia in relatively recent geological prehistory , with five species and one subspecies there . Systematics , taxonomy , and evolution Over the years , much disagreement has arisen on the exact evolutionary relationships of the corvid family and their relatives . What eventually seemed clear was that corvids are derived from Australasian ancestors and from there spread throughout the world . Other lineages derived from these ancestors evolved into ecologically diverse , but often Australasian groups . In the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s , Sibley and Ahlquist united the corvids with other taxa in the Corvida , based on DNA-DNA hybridization . The presumed corvid relatives included currawongs , birds of paradise , whipbirds , quail-thrushes , whistlers , monarch flycatchers and drongos , shrikes , vireos , and vangas , but current research favors the theory that this grouping is partly artificial . The corvids constitute the core group of the Corvoidea , together with their closest relatives ( the birds of paradise , Australian mud-nesters and shrikes ) . They are also the core group of the Corvida , which includes the related groups , such as orioles and vireos . Clarification of the interrelationships of the corvids has been achieved based on cladistic analysis of several DNA sequences . The jays and magpies do not constitute monophyletic lineages , but rather seem to split up into an American and Old World lineage , and an Holarctic and Oriental lineage , respectively . These are not closely related among each other . The position of the azure-winged magpie , which has always been a major enigma , is even less clear than before . FAMILY CORVIDAE * Choughs * * Genus Pyrrhocorax * * * Alpine chough , Pyrrhocorax graculus * * * Red-billed chough , Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax * Treepies * * Genus Crypsirina * * * Hooded treepie , Crypsirina cucullata * * * Racket-tailed treepie , Crypsirina temia * * Genus Dendrocitta * * * Andaman treepie , Dendrocitta bayleyi * * * Bornean treepie , Dendrocitta cinerascens * * * Grey treepie , Dendrocitta formosae * * * Collared treepie , Dendrocitta frontalis * * * White-bellied treepie , Dendrocitta leucogastra * * * Sumatran treepie , Dendrocitta occipitalis * * * Rufous treepie , Dendrocitta vagabunda * * Genus Platysmurus * * * Black magpie , Platysmurus leucopterus * * Genus Temnurus * * * Ratchet-tailed treepie , Temnurus temnurus * Oriental magpies * * Genus Cissa * * * Common green magpie , Cissa chinensis * * * Indochinese green magpie , Cissa hypoleuca * * * Javan green magpie , Cissa thalassina * * * Bornean green magpie , Cissa jefferyi * * Genus Urocissa * * * Taiwan blue magpie , Urocissa caerulea * * * Red-billed blue magpie , Urocissa erythrorhyncha * * * Yellow-billed blue magpie , Urocissa flavirostris * * * Sri Lanka blue magpie , Urocissa ornata * * * White-winged magpie , Urocissa whiteheadi * Old World jays * * Genus Garrulus * * * Eurasian jay , Garrulus glandarius * * * Black-headed jay , Garrulus lanceolatus * * * Lidth 's jay , Garrulus lidthi * * Genus Podoces - ground jays * * * Biddulph 's ground jay , Podoces biddulphi * * * Henderson 's ground jay , Podoces hendersoni * * * Pander 's ground jay , Podoces panderi * * * Pleske 's ground jay , Podoces pleskei * Piapiac * * Genus Ptilostomus * * * Piapiac , Ptilostomus afer * Stresemann 's Bushcrow * * Genus Zavattariornis * * * Stresemann 's bushcrow , Zavattariornis stresemanni * Nutcrackers * * Genus Nucifraga * * * Spotted nutcracker , Nucifraga caryocatactes * * * Large-spotted nutcracker , Nucifraga multipunctata * * * Clark 's nutcracker , Nucifraga columbiana * Holarctic magpies * * Genus Pica * * * Black-billed magpie , Pica hudsonia * * * Yellow-billed magpie , Pica nuttalli * * * Eurasian magpie , Pica pica * * * * Korean magpie , Pica ( pica ) sericea * * Genus Cyanopica * * * Azure-winged magpie , Cyanopica cyanus * * * Iberian magpie , Cyanopica cooki * True crows ( crows , ravens , jackdaws and rooks ) * * Genus Corvus * * * Australian and Melanesian species * * * * Little crow , Corvus bennetti * * * * Australian raven , Corvus coronoides * * * * Bismarck crow , Corvus insularis * * * * Brown-headed crow , Corvus fuscicapillus * * * * Bougainville crow , Corvus meeki * * * * Little raven , Corvus mellori * * * * New Caledonian crow , Corvus moneduloides * * * * Torresian crow , Corvus orru * * * * Forest raven , Corvus tasmanicus * * * * * Relict raven , Corvus ( tasmanicus ) boreus * * * * Grey crow , Corvus tristis * * * * Long-billed crow , Corvus validus * * * * White-billed crow , Corvus woodfordi * * * Pacific island species * * * * Alalā ( Hawaiian crow ) , Corvus hawaiiensis ( formerly Corvus tropicus ) ( extinct in the wild ) * * * * Mariana crow , Corvus kubaryi * * * Tropical Asian species * * * * Daurian jackdaw , Corvus dauuricus * * * * Slender-billed crow , Corvus enca * * * * Flores crow , Corvus florensis * * * * Large-billed crow , Corvus macrorhynchos * * * * * Jungle crow , Corvus ( macrorhynchos ) levaillantii * * * * House crow , Corvus splendens * * * * Collared crow , Corvus torquatus * * * * Piping crow , Corvus typicus * * * * Banggai crow , Corvus unicolor * * * Eurasian and North African species * * * * Hooded crow , Corvus cornix * * * * * Mesopotamian crow , Corvus ( cornix ) capellanus * * * * Carrion crow ( western carrion crow ) , Corvus corone * * * * * Eastern carrion crow , Corvus ( corone ) orientalis * * * * Rook , Corvus frugilegus * * * * Western jackdaw , Corvus monedula * * * * Fan-tailed raven , Corvus rhipidurus * * * * Brown-necked raven , Corvus ruficollis * * * Holarctic species * * * * Common raven , Corvus corax ( see also next section ) * * * * * Pied raven , Corvus corax varius morpha leucophaeus ( an extinct color variant ) * * * North and Central American species * * * * American crow , Corvus brachyrhynchos * * * * Northwestern crow , Corvus caurinus * * * * Chihuahuan raven , Corvus cryptoleucus * * * * Tamaulipas crow , Corvus imparatus * * * * Jamaican crow , Corvus jamaicensis * * * * White-necked crow , Corvus leucognaphalus * * * * Cuban crow , Corvus nasicus * * * * Fish crow , Corvus ossifragus * * * * Palm crow , Corvus palmarum * * * * Sinaloan crow , Corvus sinaloae * * * * Western raven , Corvus ( corax ) sinuatus * * * Tropical African species * * * * White-necked raven , Corvus albicollis * * * * Pied crow , Corvus albus * * * * Cape crow , Corvus capensis * * * * Thick-billed raven , Corvus crassirostris * * * * Somali crow ( dwarf raven ) , Corvus edithae * Grey jays * * Genus Perisoreus * * * Gray jay , Perisoreus canadensis * * * Siberian jay , Perisoreus infaustus * * * Sichuan jay , Perisoreus internigrans * New World jays * * Genus Aphelocoma - scrub-jays * * * Western scrub jay , Aphelocoma californica * * * Florida scrub jay , Aphelocoma coerulescens * * * Island scrub jay , Aphelocoma insularis * * * Mexican jay , Aphelocoma wollweberi * * * Transvolcanic jay , Aphelocoma ultramarina * * * Unicolored jay , Aphelocoma unicolor * * Genus Calocitta - magpie-jays * * * Black-throated magpie-jay , Calocitta colliei * * * White-throated magpie-jay , Calocitta formosa * * Genus Cyanocitta * * * Blue jay , Cyanocitta cristata * * * Steller 's jay , Cyanocitta stelleri * * Genus Cyanocorax * * * Black-chested jay , Cyanocorax affinis * * * Purplish-backed jay , Cyanocorax beecheii * * * Azure jay , Cyanocorax caeruleus * * * Cayenne jay , Cyanocorax cayanus * * * Plush-crested jay , Cyanocorax chrysops * * * Curl-crested jay , Cyanocorax cristatellus * * * Purplish jay , Cyanocorax cyanomelas * * * White-naped jay , Cyanocorax cyanopogon * * * Tufted jay , Cyanocorax dickeyi * * * Azure-naped jay , Cyanocorax heilprini * * * Bushy-crested jay , Cyanocorax melanocyaneus * * * White-tailed jay , Cyanocorax mystacalis * * * San Blas jay , Cyanocorax sanblasianus * * * Violaceous jay , Cyanocorax violaceus * * * Green jay , Cyanocorax ynca * * * Yucatan jay , Cyanocorax yucatanicus * * Genus Psilorhinus * * * Brown jay , Psilorhinus morio * * Genus Cyanolyca * * * Silvery-throated jay , Cyanolyca argentigula * * * Black-collared jay , Cyanolyca armillata * * * Azure-hooded jay , Cyanolyca cucullata * * * White-throated jay , Cyanolyca mirabilis * * * Dwarf jay , Cyanolyca nana * * * Beautiful jay , Cyanolyca pulchra * * * Black-throated jay , Cyanolyca pumilo * * * Turquoise jay , Cyanolyca turcosa * * * White-collared jay , Cyanolyca viridicyana * * Genus Gymnorhinus * * * Pinyon jay , Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus The crested jay ( Platylophus galericulatus ) is traditionally included in the Corvidae , but might not be a true member of this family , possibly being closer to the helmetshrikes ( Malaconotidae ) or shrikes ( Laniidae ) ; it is best considered Corvidae incertae sedis for the time being . Likewise , the Hume 's ground `` jay '' ( Pseudopodoces humilis ) is in fact a member of the tit family Paridae . Fossil record The earliest corvid fossils date to the mid-Miocene , about 17 million years ago ; Miocorvus and Miopica may be ancestral to crows and some of the magpie lineage , respectively , or similar to the living forms due to convergent evolution . The known prehistoric corvid genera appear to be mainly of the New World and Old World jay and Holarctic magpie lineages : * Miocorvus ( Middle Miocene of Sansan , France ) * Miopica ( Middle Miocene of SW Ukraine ) * Miocitta ( Pawnee Creek Late Miocene of Logan County , US ) * Corvidae gen. et sp . indet . ( Edson Early Pliocene of Sherman County , US ) * Protocitta ( Early Pleistocene of Reddick , US ) * Corvidae gen. et sp . indet . ( Early/Middle Pleistocene of Sicily ) - probably belongs in an extant genus * Henocitta ( Arredondo Clay Middle Pleistocene of Williston , US ) In addition , there are numerous fossil species of extant genera since the Mio–Pliocene , mainly European Corvus . Biology Morphology Corvids are large to very large passerines with a robust build , strong legs and all species except the pinyon jay have nostrils covered by bristle-like feathers . Many corvids of temperate zones have mainly black or blue coloured plumage ; however , some are pied black and white , some have a blue-purple iridescence and many tropical species are brightly coloured . The sexes are very similar in color and size . Corvids have strong , stout bills and large wingspans . The family includes the largest members of the passerine order . The smallest corvid is the dwarf jay ( Aphelocoma nana ) , at 41 g and . The largest corvids are the common raven ( Corvus corax ) and the thick-billed raven ( Corvus crassirostris ) , both of which regularly exceed 1400 g and 65 cm . Species can be identified based on size , shape , and geography ; however , some , especially the Australian crows , are best identified by their raucous calls . Ecology Corvids occur in most climatic zones . Most are sedentary and do not migrate significantly . However , during a shortage of food , eruptive migration can occur . When species are migratory , they will form large flocks in the fall ( around August in the Northern Hemisphere ) and travel south . One reason for the success of crows , compared to ravens , is their ability to overlap breeding territory . During breeding season , crows were shown to overlap breeding territory six times as much as ravens . This invasion of breeding ranges allowed a related increase in local population density . Food and feeding The natural diet of many corvid species is omnivorous , consisting of invertebrates , nestlings , small mammals , berries , fruits , seeds , and carrion . However , some corvids , especially the crows , have adapted well to human conditions and have come to rely on anthropogenic foods . In a US study of American crows , common ravens and Steller 's jays around campgrounds and human settlements , the crows appeared to have the most diverse diet of all , taking anthropogenic foods such as bread , spaghetti , fried potatoes , dog food , sandwiches , and livestock feed . The increase in available anthropogenic food sources is contributing to population increase in some corvid species . Some corvids are predators of other birds . During the wintering months , corvids typically form foraging flocks . However , some crows also eat many agricultural pests including cutworms , wireworms , grasshoppers , and harmful weeds.Shades of Night : [ http : //www.shades-of-night.com/aviary/ The Aviary ] . Version of 2004-JUL-21 . Retrieved 2007-NOV-10 . Some corvids will eat carrion , and since they lack a specialized beak for tearing into flesh , they must wait until animals are opened , whether by other predators or as roadkill . Since crows do not seem to mind human development , it was suggested that the crow population increase would cause increased rates of nest predation . However , Steller 's jays , which are successful independently of human development , are more efficient in plundering small birds ' nests than American crows and common ravens . Therefore , the human relationship with crows and ravens did not significantly increase nest predation , compared to other factors such as habitat destruction . Reproduction Many species of corvid are territorial , protecting territories throughout the year or simply during the breeding season . In some cases territories may only be guarded during the day , with the pair joining off-territory roosts at night . Some corvids are well-known communal roosters . Some groups of roosting corvids can be very large , with a roost of 65,000 rooks counted in Scotland . Some , including the rook and the jackdaw , are also communal nesters . The partner bond in corvids is extremely strong and even lifelong in some species . This monogamous lifestyle , however , can still contain extra-pair copulations . Males and females build large nests together in trees or on ledges . The male will also feed the female during incubation . The nests are constructed of a mass of bulky twigs lined with grass and bark . Corvids can lay between 3 and 10 eggs , typically ranging between 4 and 7 . The eggs are usually greenish in colour with brown blotches . Once hatched , the young remain in the nests for up to 6–10 weeks depending on the species . Corvids provide biparental care . Jackdaws can breed in buildings or in rabbit warrens . White-throated magpie-jays are cooperatively breeding corvids where the helpers are mostly female . Cooperative breeding takes place when additional adults help raise the nestlings . Such helpers at the nest in most cooperatively breeding birds are males , while females join other groups . Social life Some corvids have strong organization and community groups . Jackdaws , for example , have a strong social hierarchy , and are facultatively colonial during breeding . Providing mutual aid has also been recorded within many of the corvid species . Young corvids have been known to play and take part in elaborate social games . Documented group games follow a `` king of the mountain '' - and `` follow the leader '' -type pattern . Other play involves the manipulation , passing , and balancing of sticks . Corvids also take part in other activities , such as sliding down smooth surfaces . These games are understood to play a large role in the adaptive and survival ability of the birds . Mate selection is quite complex and accompanied with much social play in the Corvidae . Youngsters of social corvid species undergo a series of tests , including aerobatic feats , before being accepted as a mate by the opposite sex . Some corvids can be aggressive . Blue jays , for example , are well known to attack anything that threatens their nest . Crows have been known to attack dogs , cats , ravens , and birds of prey . Most of the time these assaults take place as a distraction long enough to allow an opportunity for stealing food . Intelligence The brain-to-body weight ratios of corvid brains are among the largest in birds , equal to that of most great apes and cetaceans , and only slightly lower than a human . Their intelligence is boosted by the long growing period of the young . By remaining with the parents , the young have more opportunities to learn necessary skills . Since most corvids are cooperative brooders , their young can learn from different members of the group . When compared to dogs and cats in an experiment testing the ability to seek out food according to three-dimensional clues , corvids out-performed the mammals . A meta-analysis testing how often birds invented new ways to acquire food in the wild found corvids to be the most innovative birds . A 2004 review suggests that their cognitive abilities are on par with those of great apes . Despite structural differences , the brains of corvids and great apes both evolved the ability to make geometrical measurements . Corvid ingenuity is represented through their feeding skills , memorization abilities , use of tools , and group behaviour . Living in large social groups has long been connected with high cognitive ability . To live in a large group , a member must be able to recognize individuals and track the social position and foraging of other members over time . Members must also be able to distinguish between sex , age , reproductive status , and dominance , and to update this information constantly . It might be that social complexity corresponds to their high cognition . The Eurasian magpie is the only non-mammal species known to be able to recognize itself in a mirror test . Magpies have been observed taking part in elaborate grieving rituals , which have been likened to human funerals , including laying grass wreaths . Marc Bekoff , at the University of Colorado , argues that it shows that they are capable of feeling complex emotions , including grief . There are also specific examples of corvid cleverness . One carrion crow was documented to crack nuts by placing them on a crosswalk , letting the passing cars crack the shell , waiting for the light to turn red , and then safely retrieving the contents . A group of crows in England took turns lifting garbage bin lids while their companions collected food . Members of the corvid family have been known to watch other birds , remember where they hide their food , then return once the owner leaves . Corvids also move their food around between hiding places to avoid thievery , but only if they have previously been thieves themselves ( that is , they remember previous relevant social contexts , use their own experience of having been a thief to predict the behavior of a pilferer , and can determine the safest course to protect their caches from being pilfered ) . Studies to assess similar cognitive abilities in apes have been inconclusive . The ability to hide food requires highly accurate spatial memories . Corvids have been recorded to recall their food 's hiding place up to nine months later . It is suggested that vertical landmarks ( like trees ) are used to remember locations . There has also been evidence that western scrub jays , which store perishable foods , not only remember where they stored their food , but for how long . This has been compared to episodic memory , previously thought unique to humans . New Caledonian crows ( Corvus moneduloides ) are notable for their highly developed tool fabrication . They make angling tools of twigs and leaves trimmed into hooks , then use the hooks to pull insect larvae from tree holes . Tools are engineered according to task and apparently also to learned preference . Recent studies revealed abilities to solve complicated problems , which suggests high level of innovation of a complex nature . Other corvids that have been observed using tools include the American crow , blue jay and green jay . Diversity in tool design among corvids suggests cultural variation . Again , great apes are the only other animals known to use tools in such a fashion . Clark 's nutcrackers and jackdaws were compared in a 2002 study based on geometric rule learning . The corvids , along with a domestic pigeon , had to locate a target between two landmarks , while distances and landmarks were altered . The nutcrackers were more accurate in their searches than the jackdaws and pigeons . The scarecrow is an archetypal scare tactic in the agricultural business . However , due to corvids ' quick wit , scarecrows are soon ignored and used as perches . Despite farmers ' efforts to rid themselves of corvid pests , their attempts have only expanded corvid territories and strengthened their numbers . Contrary to earlier teleological classifications in which they were seen as `` highest '' songbirds due to their intelligence , current systematics might place corvids , based on their total number of physical characteristics instead of just their brains ( which are the most developed of birds ) , in the lower middle of the passerine evolutionary tree , dependent on which subgroup is chosen as the most derived . As per one observer : The other major group of highly intelligent birds of the order Psittaciformes ( which includes 'true ' parrots , cockatoos and New Zealand parrots ) is not closely related to corvids . Disease Corvids are reservoirs ( carriers ) for the West Nile virus in the United States . They are infected by mosquitoes ( the vectors ) , primarily of the Culex species . Crows and ravens are quickly killed by this disease , so their deaths are an early-warning system when West Nile virus arrives in an area ( as are horse and other bird species deaths ) . One of the first signs that West Nile virus first arrived in the US in 1999 was the death of crows in New York . Relationship with humans Several different corvids , particularly ravens , have occasionally served as pets , although they are not able to speak as readily as parrots and do not like being caged . Role in myth and culture Folklore often represents corvids as clever , and even mystical , animals . Some Native Americans , such as the Haida , believed that a raven created the earth and despite being a trickster spirit , ravens were popular on totems , credited with creating man , and considered responsible for placing the Sun in the sky . Due to their carrion diet , the Celtic peoples strongly associated corvids with war , death and the battlefield - their great intelligence meant that they were often considered messengers , or manifestations of the gods such Bendigeidfran Blessed raven or the Irish Morrigan , underworld deities that may be related to the later Arthurian Fisher King . The Welsh Dream of Rhonabwy illustrates well the association of ravens with war . In many parts of Britain , gatherings of crows , or more often magpies , are counted using the divination rhyme : one for sorrow , two for joy , three for a girl , four for a boy , five for silver six for gold , seven for a secret never to be told . Cornish superstition holds that when a magpie is encountered , it must be loudly greeted with respect . Various Germanic peoples highly revered the raven . The major deity Odin was so associated with ravens throughout history that he gained the kenning `` raven god '' and the raven banner was the flag of various Viking Age Scandinavian chieftains . He was also attended by Hugin and Munin , two ravens who whispered news into his ears . The Valravn sometimes appears in modern Scandinavian folklore . The Sutton Hoo treasure features stylised corvids with scrolled beaks in the decorative enamel work on the shield and purse lid reflecting their common totemic status to the Anglo-Saxons , whose pre-Christian indigenous beliefs were of the same origin as that of the aforementioned Vikings . The 6th century BC Greek scribe Aesop featured corvids as intelligent antagonists in many fables . Later , in western literature , popularized by American poet Edgar Allan Poe 's work `` The Raven '' , the common raven becomes a symbol of the main character 's descent into madness . Status and conservation Unlike many other bird families , corvid fitness and reproduction , especially with many crows , has increased due to human development . The survival and reproductive success of certain crows and ravens is assisted by their close relationship with humans . Human development provides additional resources by clearing land , creating shrublands rich in berries and insects . When the cleared land naturally replenishes , jays and crows use the young dense trees for nesting sites . Ravens typically

sfq_5282--Corvidae.txt

What type of animal is a corvid?

The Romani ( also spelled Romany ; , ) , or Roma , are a traditionally nomadic ethnic group , living mostly in Europe and the Americas and originating from the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent , presumably from where the states Rajasthan , Haryana , and Punjab exist today . The Romani are widely known among English-speaking people by the exonym `` Gypsies '' ( or `` Gipsies '' ) , which some people consider pejorative due to its connotations of illegality and irregularity . Romani are dispersed , with their concentrated populations in Europe especially Central , Eastern and Southern Europe including Turkey , Spain and Southern France . They originated in Northern India and arrived in Mid-West Asia , then Europe , around 1,000 years ago , either separating from the Dom people or , at least , having a similar history ; the ancestors of both the Romani and the Dom left North India sometime between the sixth and eleventh century . Since the 19th century , some Romani have also migrated to the Americas . There are an estimated one million Roma in the United States ; and 800,000 in Brazil , most of whose ancestors emigrated in the nineteenth century from eastern Europe . Brazil also includes some Romani descended from people deported by the government of Portugal during the Inquisition in the colonial era . In migrations since the late nineteenth century , Romani have also moved to other countries in South America and to Canada . In February 2016 , during the International Roma Conference , the Indian Minister of External Affairs stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India . The conference ended with a recommendation to the Government of India to recognise the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora . The Romani language is divided into several dialects , which add up to an estimated number of speakers larger than two million . The total number of Romani people is at least twice as large ( several times as large according to high estimates ) . Many Romani are native speakers of the language current in their country of residence , or of mixed languages combining the two ; those varieties are sometimes called Para-Romani . Names Exonyms * French bohème , bohémien , from the Kingdom of Bohemia , whence they came , carrying writs of protection from King Sigismund of Bohemia . * French gitan , English gypsy , Spanish gitano , Turkish kipti , all from Greek Αιγυπτιακός Aeguptiakós `` Egyptian '' , and Hungarian faraonépe from Greek φαραώ pharaó `` pharaoh '' – referring to their allegedly Egyptian provenance . * English tzigane ( for Hungarian gypsies ) , French tzigane , Old High German zigeuner , Old Church Slavic ациганинъ , Italian zingaro , Romanian țigan , Hungarian cigány , Portuguese `` cigano '' , Turkish çingene , Russian цыгане ; from Greek αθίγγανος athínganos , `` untouchable '' . * Arabic Nawar and Zott . Endonyms * Romani Rom `` man '' , if not from Coptic ⲣⲱⲙⲉ , `` man '' , is Sanskrit रॊम ( roma ) `` the city Rome '' , probably from Greek Ῥωμαιος `` Roman '' , signifying inhabitants of Byzantium , who considered themselves successors of Ancient Rome . The Sanskrit word for `` man '' मनुष ( manusha ) is related to German Mensch and English man . * Sanskrit सिनधु ( sindhu ) is a river or stream of water in general . In particular , it denotes the river Indus and the country around it ( commonly called Sindh ) . Romani usage In the Romani language , Rom is a masculine noun , meaning 'man of the Roma ethnic group ' or 'man , husband ' , with the plural Roma . The feminine of Rom in the Romani language is Romni . However , in most cases , in other languages Rom is now used for people of all genders . Romani is the feminine adjective , while Romano is the masculine adjective . Some Romanies use Rom or Roma as an ethnic name , while others ( such as the Sinti , or the Romanichal ) do not use this term as a self-ascription for the entire ethnic group . Sometimes , rom and romani are spelled with a double r , i.e. , rrom and rromani . In this case rr is used to represent the phoneme ( also written as ř and rh ) , which in some Romani dialects has remained different from the one written with a single r. The rr spelling is common in certain institutions ( such as the INALCO Institute in Paris ) , or used in certain countries , e.g. , Romania , to distinguish from the endonym/homonym for Romanians ( sg . român , pl . români ) . English usage In the English language ( according to the Oxford English Dictionary ) , Rom is a noun ( with the plural Roma or Roms ) and an adjective , while Romani ( Romany ) is also a noun ( with the plural Romani , the Romani , Romanies or Romanis ) and an adjective . Both Rom and Romani have been in use in English since the 19th century as an alternative for Gypsy . Romani was initially spelled Rommany , then Romany , while today the Romani spelling is the most popular spelling . Occasionally , the double r spelling ( e.g. , Rroma , Rromani ) mentioned above is also encountered in English texts . The term Roma is increasingly encountered during recent decades , as a generic term for the Romani people . Because all Romanies use the word Romani as an adjective , the term became a noun for the entire ethnic group . Today , the term Romani is used by some organizations including the United Nations and the US Library of Congress . However , the Council of Europe and other organizations consider that Roma is the correct term referring to all related groups , regardless of their country of origin , and recommend that Romani be restricted to the language and culture : Romani language , Romani culture . The standard assumption is that the demonyms of the Romani people , Lom and Dom share the same origin . Other designations The English term Gypsy ( or Gipsy ) originates from the Middle English gypcian , short for Egipcien . The Spanish term Gitano and French Gitan have similar etymologies . They are ultimately derived from the Greek ( Aigyptioi ) , meaning Egyptian , via Latin . This designation owes its existence to the belief , common in the Middle Ages , that the Romani , or some related group ( such as the middle eastern Dom people ) , were itinerant Egyptians . According to one narrative they were exiled from Egypt as punishment for allegedly harbouring the infant Jesus . As described in Victor Hugo 's novel The Hunchback of Notre Dame , the medieval French referred to the Romanies as Egyptiens . The word Gypsy in English has become so pervasive that many Romani organizations use it in their own organizational names . This exonym is sometimes written with capital letter , to show that it designates an ethnic group . However , the word is sometimes considered derogatory because of its negative and stereotypical associations . The Council of Europe consider that 'Gypsy ' or equivalent terms , as well as administrative terms such as 'Gens du Voyage ' ( referring in fact to an ethnic group but not acknowledging ethnic identification ) are not in line with European recommendations . In North America , the word Gypsy is most commonly used as a reference to Romani ethnicity , though lifestyle and fashion are at times also referenced by using this word . Another common designation of the Romani people is Cingane ( alt . Tsinganoi , Zigar , Zigeuner ) , which probably derives from Athinganoi , the name of a Christian sect with whom the Romani ( or some related group ) became associated in the Middle Ages . Population and subgroups Romani population For a variety of reasons , many Romanies choose not to register their ethnic identity in official censuses . There are an estimated four million Romani people in Europe ( as of 2002 ) , although some high estimates by Romani organizations give numbers as high as 14 million . Significant Romani populations are found in the Balkans , in some Central European states , in Spain , France , Russia and Ukraine . Several million more Romanies may live out of Europe , in particular in the Middle East and in the Americas . Romani subgroups As a result of the caste system , inherited from India , and their movement on Asia , Europe , America and Australia , many designations can be given to individual Roma groups . Their all-encompassing self-description is always `` Rom '' . Some groups do n't use the endonym `` Roma , '' yet they all acknowledge a common origin and a dichotomy Roma-Gadjo . Other groups , using different endonyms are , for example : * Finnish Kale , in Finland and emigrated also in Sweden ; the same endonym with Spanish Calé is probably a coincidence . * Iberian Kale , mostly in Spain , also known as gitanos , but also in Portugal , also known as ciganos `` Kala '' or `` kale '' means `` black '' in Sanskrit , neo-Indian languages and the Romani language . They use the word `` Kale '' for their language , which is para-Romani . For their language , they use the term Caló . * Welsh Kale , in Wales * Romanichal , in the United Kingdom , emigrated also to the United States , Canada and Australia * Sinti , predominantly in Germany and Northern Italy . Sinti do not speak of themselves as Roma , but they use `` romanes '' as a name for their language . * * Manouche , in France . Their ethnonym means `` people '' in Sanskrit . * Roma , concentrated in Central and Eastern Europe and Italy , they emigrated ( mostly from the 19th century onwards ) to the rest of Europe , as well as the Americas ; * * Czech Roma . * * Slovak Roma . * * Bashaldé or `` Hungarian–Slovak Roma '' , diaspora community in America arriving in the late 19th century . * * Boyash ( Lingurari , Ludar , Ludari , Rudari ) from Romanian words for various crafts : Lingurari ( spoon makers ) , Rudari ( wood crafters or miners ) or băieşi ( miners ) ; the semantic overlapping occurring due to the homophony of two different notions : in Serbian , ruda ore , hence rudar miner , and ruda stick , staff , rod , bar , pole ( in Hungarian rúd , and in Romanian rudă , lemma no . 2 ) * * Churari from Romanian : Ciurari , `` sieve makers '' , Zlătari `` gold smiths '' * * Erlides ( also Yerlii or Arli ) , in Greece * * Kalderash , primarily from Romania – Caldarar tinsmith , tinker , kettlemaker ; from there they spread into Bessarabia and Ukraine * * Lovari , from Hungary , present in Serbia as `` Machvaya '' ( Machavaya , Machwaya , or Macwaia ) * * Lalleri , from Austria and Germany , as well as western Czech Republic ( `` Sudetenland '' ) . * * Carpathian Romani ( or Romungro ) from Hungary and neighbouring Carpathian countries * * Ursari ( bear-trainers ; in Romanian urs `` bear '' ) * * Horahane , Xoraxai or Muslim Roma , living in Greece and in Turkey * Luri * Lyuli , in Central Asia * Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians , Albanian-speaking communities in the Balkans * Romanisæl , in Sweden and Norway . The Romani have additional internal distinctions , with groups identified as Ungaritza ; Ursari from Romanian/Moldovan bear-trainers ; Argintari from silversmiths ; Aurari from goldsmiths ; Florari from florists ; and Lăutari from singers . Diaspora The Roma people have a number of distinct populations , the largest being the Roma and the Iberian Calé or Caló , who reached Anatolia and the Balkans about the early 12th century , from a migration out of northwestern India beginning about 600 years earlier . They settled in present-day Turkey , Greece , Serbia , Romania , Moldova , Bulgaria , Macedonia , Hungary and Slovakia , by order of volume , and Spain . From the Balkans , they migrated throughout Europe and , in the nineteenth and later centuries , to the Americas . The Romani population in the United States is estimated at more than one million . There is no official or reliable count of the Romani populations worldwide . Many Romani refuse to register their ethnic identity in official censuses for fear of discrimination . Others are descendants of intermarriage with local populations and no longer identify only as Romani , or not at all . As of the early 2000s , an estimated 3.8 to 9 million Romani people lived in Europe and Asia Minor . although some Romani organizations estimate numbers as high as 14 million . Significant Romani populations are found in the Balkan peninsula , in some Central European states , in Spain , France , Russia , and Ukraine . The total number of Romani living outside Europe are primarily in the Middle East and North Africa and in the Americas , and are estimated in total at more than two million . Some countries do not collect data by ethnicity . The Romani people identify as distinct ethnicities based in part on territorial , cultural and dialectal differences , and self-designation . Origin Findings suggest an Indian origin for Roma . Because Romani groups did not keep chronicles of their history or have oral accounts of it , most hypotheses about the Romani 's migration early history are based on linguistic theory . There is also no known record of a migration from India to Europe from medieval times that can be connected indisputably to Roma . Shahnameh legend According to a legend reported in Shahnameh and repeated by several modern authors , the Sasanian king Bahrām V Gōr learned towards the end of his reign ( 421–39 ) that the poor could not afford to enjoy music , and he asked the king of India to send him ten thousand luris , men and women , lute playing experts . When the luris arrived , Bahrām gave each one an ox and a donkey and a donkey-load of wheat so that they could live on agriculture and play music for free for the poor . But the luris ate the oxen and the wheat and came back a year later with their cheeks hollowed with hunger . The king , angered with their having wasted what he had given them , ordered them to pack up their bags and go wandering around the world . Linguistic evidence The linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that roots of Romani language lie in India : the language has grammatical characteristics of Indian languages and shares with them a large part of the basic lexicon , for example , regarding body parts or daily routines . More exactly , Romani shares the basic lexicon with Hindi and Punjabi . It shares many phonetic features with Marwari , while its grammar is closest to Bengali . Romani and Domari share some similarities : agglutination of postpositions of the second Layer ( or case marking clitics ) to the nominal stem , concord markers for the past tense , the neutralisation of gender marking in the plural , and the use of the oblique case as an accusative . This has prompted much discussion about the relationships between these two languages . Domari was once thought a `` sister language '' of Romani , the two languages having split after the departure from the Indian subcontinent but more recent research suggests that the differences between them are significant enough to treat them as two separate languages within the Central zone ( Hindustani ) group of languages . The Dom and the Rom therefore likely descend from two different migration waves out of India , separated by several centuries . Genetic evidence Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in northwestern India and migrated as a group . According to the study , the ancestors of present scheduled tribes and scheduled caste populations of northern India , traditionally referred to collectively as the Ḍoma , are the likely ancestral populations of modern European Roma . In December 2012 , additional findings appeared to confirm the `` Roma came from a single group that left northwestern India about 1,500 years ago . '' They reached the Balkans about 900 years ago and then spread throughout Europe . The team found that , despite some isolation , the Roma were `` genetically similar to other Europeans . '' Genetic research published in European Journal of Human Genetics `` has revealed that over 70 % of males belong to a single lineage that appears unique to the Roma . '' Genetic evidence supports the mediaeval migration from India . The Romani have been described as `` a conglomerate of genetically isolated founder populations , '' while a number of common Mendelian disorders among Romanies from all over Europe indicates `` a common origin and founder effect . '' A study from 2001 by Gresham et al . suggests `` a limited number of related founders , compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group . '' The same study found that `` a single lineage… found across Romani populations , accounts for almost one-third of Romani males . '' A 2004 study by Morar et al . concluded that the Romani population `` was founded approximately 32–40 generations ago , with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16–25 generations ago . '' Haplogroup H-M82 is a major lineage cluster in the Balkan Romani group , accounting for approximately 60 % of the total . Haplogroup H is uncommon in Europe but present in the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka . Y-DNA composition of Romani in the Republic of Macedonia , based on 57 samples : * Haplogroup H – 59.6 % * Haplogroup E – 29.8 % * Haplogroup I – 5.3 % * Haplogroup R – 3.6 % , of which the half are R1b and many are R1a * Haplogroup G – 1.8 % A study of 444 people representing three different ethnic groups in the Republic of Macedonia found mtDNA haplogroups M5a1 and H7a1a were dominant in Romanies ( 13.7 % and 10.3 % , respectively ) . Possible migration route They may have emerged from the modern Indian state of Rajasthan , migrating to the northwest ( the Punjab region , Sindh and Baluchistan of the Indian subcontinent ) around 250 BC . Their subsequent westward migration , possibly in waves , is now believed to have occurred beginning in about AD 500 . It has also been suggested that emigration from India may have taken place in the context of the raids by Mahmud of Ghazni . As these soldiers were defeated , they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine Empire . The 11th century terminus post quem is due to the Romani language showing unambiguous features of the Modern Indo-Aryan languages , precluding an emigration during the Middle Indic period . History Arrival in Europe Though according to a 2012 genomic study , the Romani reached the Balkans as early as the 12th century , the first historical records of the Romani reaching south-eastern Europe are from the 14th century : in 1322 , an Irish Franciscan monk , Symon Semeonis encountered a migrant group , `` the descendants of Cain '' , outside the town of Heraklion ( Candia ) , in Crete . Symon 's account is probably the earliest surviving description by a Western chronicler of the Romani people in Europe . In 1350 , Ludolphus of Sudheim mentioned a similar people with a unique language whom he called Mandapolos , a word some think derives from the Greek word mantes ( meaning prophet or fortune teller ) . Around 1360 , a fiefdom , called the Feudum Acinganorum was established in Corfu , which mainly used Romani serfs and to which the Romani on the island were subservient . By the 1440s , they were recorded in Germany ; and by the 16th century , Scotland and Sweden . Some Romani migrated from Persia through North Africa , reaching the Iberian Peninsula in the 15th century . The two currents met in France . Early Modern history Their early history shows a mixed reception . Although 1385 marks the first recorded transaction for a Romani slave in Wallachia , they were issued safe conduct by Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund in 1417 . Romanies were ordered expelled from the Meissen region of Germany in 1416 , Lucerne in 1471 , Milan in 1493 , France in 1504 , Catalonia in 1512 , Sweden in 1525 , England in 1530 ( see Egyptians Act 1530 ) , and Denmark in 1536 . In 1510 , any Romani found in Switzerland were ordered put to death , with similar rules established in England in 1554 , and Denmark in 1589 , whereas Portugal began deportations of Romanies to its colonies in 1538 . A 1596 English statute , however , gave Romanies special privileges that other wanderers lacked ; France passed a similar law in 1683 . Catherine the Great of Russia declared the Romanies `` crown slaves '' ( a status superior to serfs ) , but also kept them out of certain parts of the capital . In 1595 , Ştefan Răzvan overcame his birth into slavery , and became the Voivode ( Prince ) of Moldavia . Since a royal edict by Charles II in 1695 , Spanish gypsies had been restricted to certain towns . An official edict in 1717 restricted them to only 75 towns and districts , so that they would not be concentrated in any one region . In the Great Gypsy Round-up , Romani were arrested and imprisoned in the Spanish Monarchy in 1749 . Although some Romani could be kept as slaves in Wallachia and Moldavia until abolition in 1856 , the majority traveled as free nomads with their wagons , as alluded to in the spoked wheel symbol in the Romanies flag . Elsewhere in Europe , they were subject to ethnic cleansing , abduction of their children , and forced labor . In England , Romani were sometimes expelled from small communities or hanged ; in France , they were branded and their heads were shaved ; in Moravia and Bohemia , the women were marked by their ears being severed . As a result , large groups of the Romani moved to the East , toward Poland , which was more tolerant , and Russia , where the Romani were treated more fairly as long as they paid the annual taxes . Modern history Romani began emigrating to North America in colonial times , with small groups recorded in Virginia and French Louisiana . Larger-scale Roma emigration to the United States began in the 1860s , with groups of Romanichal from Great Britain . The largest number immigrated in the early 1900s , mainly from the Vlax group of Kalderash . Many Romani also settled in South America . World War II During World War II , the Nazis embarked on a systematic genocide of the Romani , a process known in Romani as the Porajmos . Romanies were marked for extermination and sentenced to forced labor and imprisonment in concentration camps . They were often killed on sight , especially by the Einsatzgruppen ( paramilitary death squads ) on the Eastern Front . The total number of victims has been variously estimated at between 220,000 and 1,500,000 ; even the lower figure would make the Porajmos one of the largest mass killings in history . Post-1945 In Czechoslovakia , they were labeled a `` socially degraded stratum , '' and Romani women were sterilized as part of a state policy to reduce their population . This policy was implemented with large financial incentives , threats of denying future welfare payments , with misinformation , or after administering drugs . An official inquiry from the Czech Republic , resulting in a report ( December 2005 ) , concluded that the Communist authorities had practiced an assimilation policy towards Romanis , which `` included efforts by social services to control the birth rate in the Romani community . '' `` The problem of sexual sterilisation carried out in the Czech Republic , either with improper motivation or illegally , exists , '' said the Czech Public Defender of Rights , recommending state compensation for women affected between 1973 and 1991 . New cases were revealed up until 2004 , in both the Czech Republic and Slovakia . Germany , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland `` all have histories of coercive sterilization of minorities and other groups . '' Society and traditional culture The traditional Romanies place a high value on the extended family . Virginity is essential in unmarried women . Both men and women often marry young ; there has been controversy in several countries over the Romani practice of child marriage . Romani law establishes that the man 's family must pay a bride price to the bride 's parents , but only traditional families still follow this rule . Once married , the woman joins the husband 's family , where her main job is to tend to her husband 's and her children 's needs , as well as to take care of her in-laws . The power structure in the traditional Romani household has at its top the oldest man or grandfather , and men in general have more authority than women . Women gain respect and authority as they get older . Young wives begin gaining authority once they have children . Romani social behavior is strictly regulated by Hindu purity laws ( `` marime '' or `` marhime '' ) , still respected by most Roma ( and by most older generations of Sinti ) . This regulation affects many aspects of life , and is applied to actions , people and things : parts of the human body are considered impure : the genital organs ( because they produce emissions ) , as well as the rest of the lower body . Clothes for the lower body , as well as the clothes of menstruating women , are washed separately . Items used for eating are also washed in a different place . Childbirth is considered impure , and must occur outside the dwelling place . The mother is considered impure for forty days after giving birth . Death is considered impure , and affects the whole family of the dead , who remain impure for a period of time . In contrast to the practice of cremating the dead , Romani dead must be buried . Cremation and burial are both known from the time of the Rigveda , and both are widely practiced in Hinduism today ( although the tendency is for Hindus to practice cremation , while some communities in South India tend to bury their dead ) . Some animals are also considered impure , for instance cats because they lick their hindquarters . Horses , in contrast , are not considered impure because they can not do so . Belonging and exclusion Romanipen ( also romanypen , romanipe , romanype , romanimos , romaimos , romaniya ) is a complicated term of Romani philosophy that means totality of the Romani spirit , Romani culture , Romani Law , being a Romani , a set of Romani strains . An ethnic Romani is considered a Gadjo ( non-Romani ) in the Romani society if he has no Romanipen . Sometimes a non-Romani may be considered a Romani if he has Romanipen . Usually this is an adopted child . As a concept , Romanipen has been

jp_2035--Romani_people.txt

In what country did the Romani ethnic group originate?

A cruise ship or cruise liner is a passenger ship used for pleasure voyages , where the voyage itself and the ship 's amenities are a part of the experience , as well as the different destinations , i.e. , ports of call , along the way . Transportation is not the only purpose of cruising , particularly on cruises that return passengers to their originating port , with the ports of call usually in a specified region of a continent . There are even `` cruises to nowhere '' or `` nowhere voyages '' where the ship makes 2–3 night round trips without any ports of call . By contrast , dedicated transport oriented ocean liners do `` line voyages '' and typically transport passengers from one point to another , rather than on round trips . Traditionally , an ocean liner for the transoceanic trade will be built to a higher standard than a typical cruise ship , including high freeboard and stronger plating to withstand rough seas and adverse conditions encountered in the open ocean , such as the North Atlantic . Ocean liners also usually have larger capacities for fuel , food , and other stores for consumption on long voyages , compared to dedicated cruise ships . Although often luxurious , ocean liners had characteristics that made them unsuitable for cruising , such as high fuel consumption , deep draught that prevented their entering shallow ports , enclosed weatherproof decks that were not appropriate for tropical weather , and cabins designed to maximize passenger numbers rather than comfort ( such as a high proportion of windowless suites ) . The gradual evolution of passenger ship design from ocean liners to cruise ships has seen passenger cabins shifted from inside the hull to the superstructure with private verandas . The modern cruise ships , while sacrificing qualities of seaworthiness , have added amenities to cater to water tourists , and recent vessels have been described as `` balcony-laden floating condominiums '' . The distinction between ocean liners and cruise ships has blurred , particularly with respect to deployment . Differences in construction remain . Larger cruise ships have also engaged in longer trips such as transoceanic voyages which may not return to the same port for months ( longer round trips ) . Some former ocean liners operate as cruise ships , such as Marco Polo . This number is diminishing . The only dedicated transatlantic ocean liner in operation as a liner ( as of December 2013 ) is Queen Mary 2 of the Cunard fleet . She also has the amenities of contemporary cruise ships and sees significant service on cruises . Cruising has become a major part of the tourism industry , accounting for U.S. $ 29.4 billion with over 19 million passengers carried worldwide in 2011 . The industry 's rapid growth has seen nine or more newly built ships catering to a North American clientele added every year since 2001 , as well as others servicing European clientele . Smaller markets , such as the Asia-Pacific region , are generally serviced by older ships . These are displaced by new ships in the high growth areas . The world 's largest cruise ship is currently Royal Caribbean International 's Harmony of the Seas beating her sister ships ( Allure of the Seas and Oasis of the Seas ) by about 2.15 meters . History Origins The birth of leisure cruising began with the formation of the Peninsular & Oriental Steam Navigation Company in 1822 . The company started out as a shipping line with routes between England and the Iberian Peninsula , adopting the name Peninsular Steam Navigation Company . [ http : //portal.pohub.com/pls/pogprtl/url/ITEM/1E71EC45AF8D6696E0440003BA2CA8EA A Brief History of P & O ] It won its first contract to deliver mail in 1837 . In 1840 , it began mail delivery to Alexandria , Egypt , via Gibraltar and Malta . The company was incorporated by Royal Charter the same year , becoming the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company . P & O first introduced passenger cruising services in 1844 , advertising sea tours to destinations such as Gibraltar , Malta and Athens , sailing from Southampton . The forerunner of modern cruise holidays , these voyages were the first of their kind , and P & O Cruises has been recognised as the world 's oldest cruise line . The company later introduced round trips to destinations such as Alexandria and Constantinople . It underwent a period of rapid expansion in the latter half of the 19th century , commissioning larger and more luxurious ships to serve the steadily expanding market . Notable ships of the era include the SS Ravenna built in 1880 , which became the first ship to be built with a total steel superstructure , and the SS Valetta built in 1889 , which was the first ship to use electric lights . Some sources mention Francesco I , flying the flag of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ( Italy ) , as the first cruise ship . She was built in 1831 and sailed from Naples in early June 1833 , preceded by an advertising campaign . The cruise ship was boarded by nobles , authorities , and royal princes from all over Europe . In just over three months , the ship sailed to Taormina , Catania , Syracuse , Malta , Corfu , Patras , Delphi , Zante , Athens , Smyrna , Constantinople , delighting passengers with excursions and guided tours , dancing , card tables on the deck and parties on board . However , it was restricted to the aristocracy of Europe and was not a commercial endeavour . The cruise of the German ship Augusta Victoria in the Mediterranean and the Near East from 22 January to 22 March 1891 , with 241 passengers including Albert Ballin and wife , popularized the cruise to a wider market.For example , by Kludas and Bischoff ; Gerhardt p. 36 ( pdf p. 38 ) ; Haller , giving 174 as the number of passengers . Christian Wilhelm Allers published an illustrated account of it as Backschisch ( Baksheesh ) . The first vessel built exclusively for luxury cruising , was Prinzessin Victoria Luise of Germany , designed by Albert Ballin , general manager of Hamburg-America Line . The ship was completed in 1900 . The practice of luxury cruising made steady inroads on the more established market for transatlantic crossings . In the competition for passengers , ocean liners added luxuries — Titanic being the most famous example — such as fine dining , luxury services , and staterooms with finer appointments . In the late 19th century , Albert Ballin , director of the Hamburg-America Line , was the first to send his transatlantic ships out on long southern cruises during the worst of the winter season of the North Atlantic . Other companies followed suit . Some of them built specialized ships designed for easy transformation between summer crossings and winter cruising . In 1896 , there were three luxury liners for transportation , for the Europe to North America trip . These were European-owned . In 1906 , the number had increased to seven . The British Inman Line owned City of Paris , the Cunard Line had Compania and Lucania . The White Star Line owned Majestic and Teutonic . La Lorraine and La Savoie were owned by the French Compagnie Générale Transatlantique . From luxury ocean liners to `` megaship '' cruising With the advent of large passenger jet aircraft in the 1960s , intercontinental travelers switched from ships to planes sending the ocean liner trade into a terminal decline . Certain characteristics of older ocean liners made them unsuitable for cruising duties , such as high fuel consumption , deep draught preventing them from entering shallow ports , and cabins ( often windowless ) designed to maximize passenger numbers rather than comfort . Ocean liner services aimed at passengers ceased in 1986 , with the notable exception of transatlantic crossings operated by the British shipping company Cunard Line , catering to a niche market of those who appreciated the several days at sea . In an attempt to shift the focus of the market from passenger travel to cruising with entertainment value , Cunard Line pioneered the luxury cruise transatlantic service on board the Queen Elizabeth 2 ocean liner . International celebrities were hired to perform cabaret acts onboard and the crossing was advertised as a vacation in itself . Queen Elizabeth 2 also inaugurated `` one-class cruising '' where all passengers received the same quality berthing and facilities . This revitalized the market as the appeal of luxury cruising began to catch on , on both sides of the Atlantic . The 1970s television series Love Boat , helped to popularize the concept as a romantic opportunity for couples . Another ship to make this transition was SS Norway , originally the ocean liner SS France and later converted to cruising duties as the Caribbean 's first `` super-ship . '' Contemporary cruise ships built in the late 1980s and later , such as Sovereign-class which broke the size record held for decades by Norway , showed characteristics of size and strength once reserved for ocean liners — some have undertaken regular scheduled transatlantic crossings . The Sovereign-class ships were the first `` megaships '' to be built for the mass cruising market , they also were the first series of cruise ships to include a multi-story atrium with glass elevators . They also had a single deck devoted entirely to cabins with private balconies instead of oceanview cabins . Other cruise lines soon launched ships with similar attributes , such as the Fantasy-class , leading up to the Panamax-type Vista-class , designed such that two thirds of the oceanview staterooms have verandas . As the veranda suites were particularly lucrative for cruise lines , something which was lacking in older ocean liners , recent cruise ships have been designed to maximize such amenities and have been described as `` balcony-laden floating condominiums . '' Until 1975-1980 , cruises offered shuffleboard , deck chairs , `` drinks with umbrellas and little else for a few hundred passengers . '' After 1980 , they offered increasing amenities . As of 2010 , city-sized ships have dozens of amenities . There have been nine or more new cruise ships added every year since 2001 , including some in the Vista-class , and all at 100,000GT or greater . The only comparable ocean liner to be completed in recent years has been Cunard Line 's Queen Mary 2 in 2004 . Following the retirement of her running mate Queen Elizabeth 2 in November 2008 , Queen Mary 2 is the only liner operating on transatlantic routes , though she also sees significant service on cruise routes . Queen Mary 2 was for a time the largest passenger ship before being surpassed by Royal Caribbean International 's Freedom-class vessels in 2006 . The Freedom-class ships were in turn overtaken by RCI 's Oasis-class vessels which entered service in 2009 and 2010 . A distinctive feature of Oasis-class ships is the split `` open-atrium '' structure , made possible by the hull 's extraordinary width , with the 6-deck high `` Central Park '' and `` Boardwalk '' outdoor areas running down the middle of the ship and verandas on all decks . In two short decades ( 1988-2009 ) , the largest class cruise ships have grown a third longer ( 268 m to 360 m ) , almost doubled their widths ( 32.2 m to 60.5 m ) , doubled the total passengers ( 2,744 to 5,400 ) , and tripled in weight ( 73,000 GT to 225,000 GT ) . Also , the `` megaships '' went from a single deck with verandas to all decks with verandas . Whereas the golden age of ocean liners has faded , the golden age of cruise ships may well be these recent decades and decades to come . Operators and cruise lines Operators of cruise ships are known as cruise lines . A cruise line is a company that operates cruise ships and markets cruises to the public . Cruise lines have a dual character ; they are partly in the transportation business , and partly in the leisure entertainment business , a duality that carries down into the ships themselves , which have both a crew headed by the ship 's captain , and a hospitality staff headed by the equivalent of a hotel manager . Among cruise lines , some are direct descendants of the traditional passenger shipping lines ( such as Cunard ) , while others were founded from the 1960s specifically for cruising . Historically , the cruise ship business has been volatile . The ships are large capital investments with high operating costs . A persistent decrease in bookings can put a company in financial jeopardy . Cruise lines have sold , renovated , or renamed their ships to keep up with travel trends . The cruise lines operate their ships virtually 24 hours a day , seven days a week , 52 weeks a year . A ship which is out of service for routine maintenance means the loss of tens of millions of dollars . If the maintenance is unscheduled , it can result , potentially , in thousands of dissatisfied customers . A wave of failures and consolidations in the 1990s has led to many cruise lines to be bought by much larger holding companies and to operate as `` brands '' within larger holding corporations , much as a large automobile company holding several makes of cars . Brands exist partly because of repeat customer loyalty , and also to offer different levels of quality and service . For instance , Carnival Corporation & plc owns both Carnival Cruise Line , whose former image were vessels that had a reputation as `` party ships '' for younger travelers , but have become large , modern , yet still profitable , and Holland America Line , whose ships cultivate an image of classic elegance . In 2004 , Carnival Corporation had merged Cunard 's headquarters with that of Princess Cruises in Santa Clarita , California so that administrative , financial and technology services could be combined , ending Cunard 's history where it had operated as a standalone company ( subsidiary ) regardless of parent ownership . However , Cunard did regain some independence in 2009 when its headquarters were moved to Carnival House in Southampton . The common practice in the cruise industry in listing cruise ship transfers and orders is to list the smaller operating company , not the larger holding corporation , as the recipient cruise line of the sale , transfer , or new order . In other words , Carnival Cruise Line and Holland America Line . for example , are the cruise lines from this common industry practice point of view ; whereas Carnival Corporation & plc and Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd. , for example , can be considered holding corporations of cruise lines . This industry practice of using the smaller operating company , not the larger holding corporation , is also followed in the list of cruise lines and in member-based reviews of cruise lines . Some cruise lines have specialties ; for example , Saga Cruises only allows passengers over 50 years old aboard their ships , and Star Clippers and formerly Windjammer Barefoot Cruises and Windstar Cruises only operate tall ships . Regent Seven Seas Cruises operates medium-sized vessels—smaller than the `` megaships '' of Carnival and Royal Caribbean—designed such that 90 % of their suites are balconies . Several specialty lines offer `` expedition cruising '' or only operate small ships , visiting certain destinations such as the Arctic and Antarctica , or the Galápagos Islands . Currently the five largest cruise line holding companies and operators in the world are Carnival Corporation & plc , Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd. , Star Cruises ( which owns 50 % of Norwegian Cruise Line ; NCL in its own right is the third largest line ) , MSC Cruises , and Louis Cruise Lines . Louis Cruises has largely grown its fleet through purchasing older second- or third-hand ships , while the other four operators have largely constructed their own vessels and combined own the majority of the `` megaships '' . Organization Cruise ships are organized much like floating hotels , with a complete hospitality staff in addition to the usual ship 's crew . It is not uncommon for the most luxurious ships to have more crew and staff than passengers . Dining Dining on almost all cruise ships is included in the cruise price . Traditionally , the ships ' restaurants organize two dinner services per day , early dining and late dining , and passengers are allocated a set dining time for the entire cruise ; a recent trend is to allow diners to dine whenever they want . Having two dinner times allows the ship to have enough time and space to accommodate all of their guests . Having two different dinner services can cause some conflicts with some of the ship 's events ( such as shows and performances ) for the late diners , but this problem is usually fixed by having a shorter version of the event take place before late dinner . Cunard Line ships maintain the class tradition of ocean liners and have separate dining rooms for different types of suites , while Celebrity Cruises and Princess Cruises have a standard dining room and `` upgrade '' specialty restaurants that require pre-booking and cover charges . Many cruises schedule one or more `` formal dining '' nights . Guests dress `` formally '' , however that is defined for the ship , often suits and ties or even tuxedos for men , and formal dresses for women . The menu is more upscale than usual . Besides the dining room , modern cruise ships often contain one or more casual buffet-style eateries , which may be open 24 hours and with menus that vary throughout the day to provide meals ranging from breakfast to late-night snacks . Ships also feature numerous bars and nightclubs for passenger entertainment ; the majority of cruise lines do not include alcoholic beverages in their fares and passengers are expected to pay for drinks as they consume them . Most cruise lines also prohibit passengers from bringing aboard and consuming their own beverages , including alcohol , while aboard . Alcohol purchased duty-free is sealed and returned to passengers when they debark . There is often a central galley responsible for serving all major restaurants aboard the ship , though specialty restaurants may have their own separate galleys . As with any vessel , adequate provisioning is crucial , especially on a cruise ship serving several thousand meals at each seating . Other on-board facilities Most modern cruise ships feature the following facilities : * Casino — Only open when the ship is at sea to avoid conflict with local laws * Spa * Fitness center * Shops — Only open when ship is at sea to avoid merchandising licensing and local taxes * Library * Theatre with Broadway-style shows * Cinema * Indoor and/or outdoor swimming pool with water slides * Hot tub * Buffet restaurant * Lounges * Gym * Clubs * Basketball courts * Tennis courts * Pool tables * Ping pong tables Some ships have bowling alleys , ice skating rinks , rock climbing walls , sky-diving simulator , miniature golf courses , video arcades , ziplines , surfing simulators , basketball courts , tennis courts , chain restaurants and/or ropes obstacle courses . File : H2OZone.JPG|H2OZone aboard Freedom of the Seas File : Promenade on the Allure od the Seas ( 7710182244 ) .jpg|Promenade on the Allure of the Seas File : Brilliance of the Seas ( Miniature Golf ) ( 987099703 ) .jpg| Golf course on Brilliance of the Seas File : Molecular Bar Aboard the Celebrity Equinox before Christmas ( 6690335041 ) .jpg|Molecular Bar aboard the Celebrity Equinox before Christmas File : Overall view from Deck 4 -- Formal Brunch Aboard the Celebrity Equinox , 12-09-2011 ( 6857450109 ) .jpg|Formal brunch aboard the Celebrity Equinox File : Simulateur de surf.jpg|Surf simulateur on Oasis of the Seas File : Junior suite , Radiance of the Seas 03.jpg|A junior suite on Radiance of the Seas File : Overall room view of Sky Suite 1198 aboard the Celebrity Equinox ( 6686283819 ) .jpg|A luxury suite aboard the Celebrity Equinox Crew Crew is usually hired on three to eleven month contracts which may then be renewed as mutually agreed , which is based upon service ratings from passengers as well as the cyclical nature of the cruise line operator . Most staff work 77-hour work weeks for 10 months continuously followed by 2 months of vacation . There are no paid vacations or pensions for service , non-management crew , depending on the level of the position and the type of the contract . Non-service and management crew members get paid vacation , medical , retirement options , and can participate in the company 's group insurance plan . The direct salary is low for North American standards , though restaurant staff have considerable earning potential from passenger tips . Crew members do not have any expenses while on board as food and accommodation , medical care , and transportation for most employees , are included . This makes a cruise ship career financially attractive enough to compensate for lack of employment benefits . Living arrangements vary by cruise line , but mostly by shipboard position . In general two employees share a cabin with a shower , commode and a desk with a television set , while senior officers are assigned single cabins . There is a set of facilities for the crew separate from that of passengers , such as mess rooms and bars , recreation rooms , prayer rooms/mosques , and fitness center , with some larger ships even having a crew deck with a swimming pool and hot tubs . For the largest cruise operators , most `` hotel staff '' are hired from under-industrialized countries in Asia , Eastern Europe , the Caribbean , and Central America . While several cruise lines are headquartered in the United States , like most international shipping company , ships are registered in countries including the Netherlands , the UK , the Bahamas , and Panama . The International Labour Organization 's 2006 Maritime Labour Convention , also known as the `` Seafarers ' Bill of Rights , '' provides comprehensive rights and protections for all crewmembers . The ILO sets rigorous standards regarding hours of work and rest , health and safety , and living conditions for crewmembers and requires governments to ensure ships are in compliance . For cruise routes around Hawaii , operators are required to register their ships in the United States and the crew is unionized , so these cruises are typically much more expensive than Caribbean and Mediterranean . Business model The `` luxury cruise lines '' such as Regent Seven Seas Cruises and Crystal Cruises provide `` the most all-inclusive '' cruises . Base fare on Regent Seven Seas ships includes most alcoholic beverages onboard ship and most shore excursions in ports of call , as well as all gratuities that would normally be paid to hotel staff on the ship . Fare also includes one night 's hotel stay before boarding and airfare to and from the cruise 's origin and destination ports . Most cruise lines since the 2000s have priced the cruising experience , to some extent , a la carte , as passengers spending aboard generates significantly more from ticket sales . The passenger 's ticket includes the stateroom accommodation , room service , unlimited meals in the main dining room ( or main restaurant ) and buffet , access to shows , and use of pool and gym facilities . However , there are extra charges for alcohol and soft drinks , official cruise photos , Internet and wi-fi access , and specialty restaurants ; it has been reported that the casino and photos have high profit margins . Cruise lines earn significantly from selling onshore excursions ( keeping 50 percent or more of what passengers spend for these tours ) offered by local contractors . In addition , cruise ships earn significant commissions for sales from onshore stores that are promoted on board as `` preferred '' ( as much as 40 percent of gross sales ) . Facilitating this practice are modern cruise terminals with establishments of duty-free shops inside a perimeter accessible only by passengers and not locals . Ports of call have often oriented their own businesses and facilities towards meeting the needs of visiting cruise ships . In one case , Icy Strait Point in Alaska , the entire destination was created explicitly and solely for cruise ship visitors . Travel to and from the port of departure are the passengers ' responsibility , although purchasing a transfer pass from the cruise line for the trip between the airport and cruise terminal will guarantee that the ship will not leave until the passenger is aboard . Similarly , if the passenger books a shore excursion with the cruise line and the tour runs late , the ship is obligated to remain until the passenger returns . Ship naming Older cruise ships have had multiple owners . it is usual for the transfer of ownership to entail a refitting and a name change . Some ships have had a dozen or more identities . Many cruise lines have a common naming scheme they use for their ships . Some lines use their name as a prefix or suffix in the ship name ( such as the prefixes of `` Carnival '' , `` AIDA '' , `` Disney '' , or `` Norwegian '' and the suffix of `` Princess '' ) . Other lines use a unique word or phrase ( such as the prefix of `` Pacific '' for P & O Cruises Australia or the suffixes of `` of the Seas '' for Royal Caribbean International or `` -dam '' for ships of the Holland America Line ) . The addition of these prefixes and suffixes allows multiple cruise lines to use the same popular ship names while maintaining a unique identifier for each ship . Cruise ships utilization Due to slower speed and reduced seaworthiness , as well as being largely introduced after several major wars , cruise ships have never been used as troop transport vessels . By contrast , ocean liners were often seen as the pride of their country and used to rival liners of other nations , and have been requisitioned during both World Wars and the Falklands War to transport soldiers and serve as hospital ships . Cruise ships and former liners often find employment in applications other than those for which they were built . A shortage of hotel accommodation for the 2004 Summer Olympics led to a plan to moor a number of cruise ships in Athens to provide tourist accommodation . On 1 September 2005 , the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) contracted three Carnival Cruise Lines vessels ( Carnival Fantasy , the former Carnival Holiday , and the Carnival Sensation ) to house Hurricane Katrina evacuees . In 2010 , in response to the shutdown of UK airspace due to the eruption of Iceland 's Eyjafjallajökull volcano , the newly completed Celebrity Eclipse was used to rescue 2000 British tourists stranded in Spain as an act of goodwill by the owners . The ship departed from Southampton for Bilbao on 21 April , and returned on 23 April . Regional industries Most cruise ships sail the Caribbean or the Mediterranean . Others operate elsewhere in places like Alaska , the South Pacific , the Baltic Sea and New England . A cruise ship that is moving from one of these regions to another will commonly operate a repositioning cruise while doing so . Expedition cruise lines , which usually operate small ships , visit certain more specialized destinations such as the Arctic and Antarctica , or the Galápagos Islands . The number of cruise tourists worldwide in 2005 was estimated at some 14 million . The main region for cruising was North America ( 70 % of cruises ) , where the Caribbean islands were the most popular destinations . The second most popular region was continental Europe ( 13 % ) , where the fastest growing segment is cruises in the Baltic Sea . The

sfq_19103--Cruise_ship.txt

What was the name of the cruise liner that capsized near the rocky island of Giglio off the Tuscan coast in 2012?

Lewis `` Lew '' Wallace ( April 10 , 1827 - February 15 , 1905 ) was an American lawyer , Union general in the American Civil War , governor of the New Mexico Territory , politician , diplomat , and author from Indiana . Among his novels and biographies , Wallace is best known for his historical adventure story , Ben-Hur : A Tale of the Christ ( 1880 ) , a bestselling novel that has been called `` the most influential Christian book of the nineteenth century . '' Wallace 's military career included service in the Mexican–American War and the American Civil War . He was appointed Indiana 's adjutant general and commanded the 11th Indiana Infantry Regiment . Wallace , who attained the rank of major general , participated in the Battle of Fort Donelson , the Battle of Shiloh , and the Battle of Monocacy . He also served on the military commission for the trials of the Lincoln assassination conspirators , and presided over the trial of Henry Wirz , the Confederate commandant of the Andersonville prison camp . Wallace resigned from the U.S. Army in November 1865 and briefly served as a major general in the Mexican army , before returning to the United States . Wallace was appointed governor of the New Mexico Territory ( 1878–81 ) and served as U.S. minister to the Ottoman Empire ( 1881–85 ) . Wallace retired to his home in Crawfordsville , Indiana , where he continued to write until his death in 1905 . Early life and education Lewis `` Lew '' Wallace was born on April 10 , 1827 , in Brookville , Indiana . He was the second of four sons born to Esther French Wallace ( née Test ) and David Wallace.McKee , The Early Life of Lew Wallace , p. 206 . Lew 's father , a graduate of the U.S. Military Academy in West Point , New York , left the military in 1822 and moved to Brookville , where he established a law practice and entered Indiana politics . David served in the Indiana General Assembly and later as the state 's lieutenant governor , and governor , and as a member of Congress . Lew Wallace 's maternal grandfather was circuit court judge and Congressman John Test . In 1832 the family moved to Covington , Indiana , where Lew 's mother died from tuberculosis on July 14 , 1834 . In December 1836 , David married nineteen-year-old Zerelda Gray Sanders Wallace , who later became a prominent suffragist and temperance advocate . In 1837 , after David 's election as governor of Indiana , the family moved to Indianapolis . Morrow , p. 3 . Lew began his formal education at the age of six at a public school in Covington , but he much preferred the outdoors . Wallace had a talent for drawing and loved to read , but he was a discipline problem at school . In 1836 , at the age of nine , Lew joined his older brother in Crawfordsville , Indiana , where he briefly attended Wabash Preparatory School , but soon transferred to another school more suitable for his age . In 1840 , when Wallace was thirteen , his father sent him to a private academy at Centerville , Indiana , where his teacher encouraged Lew 's natural affinity for writing . Wallace returned to Indianapolis the following year.Gronert , p. 71 . Sixteen-year-old Lew went out to earn his own wages in 1842 , after his father refused to pay for more schooling . Wallace found a job copying records at the Marion County clerk 's office and lived in an Indianapolis boardinghouse . He also joined the Marion Rifles , a local militia unit , and began writing his first novel , The Fair God , but it was not published until 1873 . Wallace acknowledged in his autobiography that he had never been a member of any organized religion , but he did believe `` in the Christian conception of God '' . By 1846 , at the start of the Mexican–American War , the nineteen-year-old Wallace was studying law at his father 's law office , but left that pursuit to establish a recruiting office for the Marion Volunteers in Indianapolis . He was appointed a second lieutenant , and on June 19 , 1846 , mustered into military service with the Marion Volunteers ( also known as Company H , 1st Indiana Volunteer Infantry ) . Wallace rose to the position of regimental adjutant and the rank of first lieutenant while serving in the army of Zachary Taylor , but Wallace personally did not participate in combat . Wallace was mustered out of the volunteer service on June 15 , 1847 , Eicher , p. 551. and returned to Indiana , where he intended to practice law . After the war , Wallace and William B. Greer operated a Free Soil newspaper , The Free Soil Banner , in Indianapolis . Marriage and family In 1848 Wallace met Susan Arnold Elston at the Crawfordsville home of Henry Smith Lane , Wallace 's former commander during the Mexican War . Susan was the daughter of Major Isaac Compton Elston , a wealthy Crawfordsville merchant , and Maria Akin Elston , whose family were Quakers from upstate New York . Susan accepted Wallace 's marriage proposal in 1849 , and they were married in Crawfordsville on May 6 , 1852 . The Wallaces had one son , Henry Lane Wallace , who was born on February 17 , 1853 . Early law and military career Wallace was admitted to the bar in February 1849 , and moved from Indianapolis to Covington , Indiana , where he established a law practice . In 1851 Wallace was elected prosecuting attorney of Indiana 's 1st congressional district , but he resigned in 1853 and moved his family to Crawfordsville , in Montgomery County , Indiana . Wallace continued to practice law and was elected as a Democrat to a two-year term in the Indiana Senate in 1856 . Forbes , p. 388.Morrow , p. 9 . From 1849 to 1853 , his office was housed in the Fountain County Clerk 's Building . While living in Crawfordsville , Wallace organized the Crawfordsville Guards Independent Militia , later called the Montgomery Guards . During the winter of 1859–60 , after reading about elite units of the French Army in Algeria , Wallace adopted the Zouave uniform and their system of training for the group . The Montgomery Guards would later form the core of his first military command , the 11th Indiana Volunteer Infantry , during the American Civil War . Civil War service Wallace , a staunch , pro-Union supporter who became a member of the Republican party , began his full-time military career after the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter , South Carolina , on April 12 , 1861 . Indiana 's Republican governor , Oliver P. Morton , asked Wallace to help recruit Indiana volunteers for the Union army . Wallace , who also sought a military command , agreed to become the state 's adjutant general on the condition that he would be given command of a regiment of his choice . Indiana 's quota of six regimental units was filled within a week , and Wallace took command of the 11th Indiana Volunteer Infantry Regiment , which was mustered into the Union army on April 25 , 1861 . Wallace received his formal commission as a colonel in the Union army the following day . On June 5 , 1861 , Wallace went with the 11th Indiana to Cumberland , Maryland , and on June 12 , the regiment won a minor battle at Romney , Virginia , ( in present-day West Virginia ) . The rout boosted morale for Union troops and led to the Confederate evacuation of Harpers Ferry on June 18 . On September 3 , 1861 , Wallace was promoted to brigadier general of U.S. Army volunteers and given command of a brigade . Forts Henry and Donelson On February 4 and 5 , 1862 , prior to the advance against Fort Henry , Union troops under the command of Brig . Gen. Ulysses S. Grant and a flotilla of Union ironclads and timberclad gunboats under the command of Flag Officer Andrew Hull Foote made their way toward the Confederate fort along the Tennessee River in western Tennessee . Wallace 's brigade , which was attached to Brig . Gen. Charles F. Smith 's division , was ordered to occupy Fort Heiman , an uncompleted Confederate fort across the river from Fort Henry . Wallace 's troops secured the deserted fort and watched the Union attack on Fort Henry from their hilltop position . On February 6 , after more than an hour of bombardment from the Union gunboats , Confederate Brig . Gen. Lloyd Tilghman , surrendered Fort Henry to Grant.Stephens , p. 45–47 . Grant 's superior , Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck , was concerned that Confederate reinforcements would try to retake the two forts when the Union troops moved overland toward Fort Donelson , so Wallace was left in command at Fort Henry to keep the forts secure.Boomhower , 50 . Displeased to have been left behind , Wallace prepared his troops to move out at a moment 's notice . The order came at midnight on February 13 . Wallace arrived along the Cumberland River the following day and was placed in charge of the 3rd Division . Many of the men in the division were untested reinforcements . Wallace 's three brigades took up position in the center of the Union line , facing Fort Donelson . During the fierce Confederate assault on February 15 , and in Grant 's absence from the battlefield , Wallace acted on his own initiative to send Cruft 's brigade to reinforce the beleaguered division of Brig . Gen. John A. McClernand , despite orders from Grant to hold his position and prevent the enemy from escaping and without Grant 's authority to take the offensive . With the Confederates continuing to advance , Wallace led a second brigade to the right and engaged the Confederates with infantry and artillery . Wallace 's decision stopped their forward movement and was key in stabilizing a defensive line for the Union troops . After the Confederate assault had been checked , Wallace led a counterattack that regained the lost ground on the Union right . On March 21 , 1862 , Wallace , McClernand , and C. F. Smith were promoted to major general for their efforts.Eicher , p. 773 . Wallace , who was age thirty-four at the time of his promotion , became the youngest major general in the Union army . Shiloh Wallace 's most controversial command came at the battle of Shiloh , where he continued as the 3rd Division commander under Maj. Gen. Grant . The long-standing controversy developed around the contents of Wallace 's written orders on April 6 , the 3rd Division 's movements on the first day of battle , and their late arrival on the field . On the second day of battle , Wallace 's division joined reinforcements from Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell 's army to play an important role in the Union victory . Prior to the battle , Wallace 's division had been left in reserve and was encamped near Crump 's Landing . Their orders were to guard the Union ’ s right flank and cover the road to Bethel Station , Tennessee , where railroad lines led to Corinth , Mississippi , 20 mi to the south . To protect the road from Crump 's Landing and Bethel Station , Wallace sent Col. John M. Thayer 's 2nd Brigade to Stoney Lonesome , 3 mi west of at Crump 's Landing , and the 3rd Brigade , commanded by Col. Charles Whittlesey to Adamsville , west of Crump 's Landing . Col. Morgan L. Smith 's 1st Brigade remained with Wallace at Crump 's Landing , 5 mi north of Pittsburg Landing , Tennessee . Between 5 and 6 a.m. on April 6 , 1862 , Grant 's army at Pittsburg Landing was surprised and nearly routed by a sudden attack from the Confederate army under Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston . Grant , who heard the early morning artillery fire , took a steamboat from his headquarters at Savannah , Tennessee , to Crump 's Landing , where he gave Wallace orders to wait in reserve and be ready to move . Grant proceeded to Pittsburg Landing , where he arrived around 8:30 a.m. Grant 's new orders to Wallace , which arrived between 11 and 11:30 a.m. , were given verbally to an aide , who transcribed them before they were delivered . The written orders were lost during the battle , so their exact wording can not be confirmed ; however , eyewitness accounts agree that Grant ordered Wallace to join the right side of the Union army , presumably in support of Brig . Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman 's 5th Division , who were encamped near Shiloh Church on the morning of April 6 . Knowledge of the area 's roads played a critical role in Wallace 's journey to the battlefield on April 6 . In late March , after heavy rains made transportation difficult between Crump 's Landing and Pittsburg Landing , Wallace 's men had opened a route to Pittsburg Landing along Shunpike road , which connected to a road near Sherman 's camp . Brig . Gen. W. H. L. Wallace 's men at Pittsburg Landing opened the River Road ( also known as the Hamburg-Savannah Road ) , a route farther east . Of the two main routes that Wallace could use to move his men to the front , he chose the Shunpike road , the more direct route to reach Sherman 's division near Shiloh Church . The day before the battle , Wallace wrote a letter to a fellow officer , W. H. L. Wallace , stating his intention to do so . Lew Wallace and his staff maintained after the battle that Grant 's order did not specify Pittsburg Landing as their destination or indicated a specific route . However , Grant claimed in his memoirs that he had ordered Wallace to take the route nearest to the river to reach Pittsburg Landing . Historians are divided , with some stating that Wallace 's explanation is the most logical . After a second messenger from Grant arrived around noon with word to move out , Wallace 's division of approximately 5,800 men began their march toward the battlefield . Between 2 and 2:30 p.m. , a third messenger from Grant found Wallace along the Shunpike road , where he informed Wallace that Sherman had been forced back from Shiloh Church and was fighting closer to the river , near Pittsburg Landing . The Union army had been pushed back so far that Wallace was to the rear of the advancing Southern troops . Wallace considered attacking the Confederates , but abandoned the idea . Instead he made a controversial decision to countermarch his troops along the Shunpike road , follow a crossroads to the River Road , and then move south to Pittsburg Landing . Rather than realigning his troops , so that the rear guard would be in the front , Wallace countermarched his column to maintain their original order , keeping his artillery in the lead position to support the Union infantry on the field After the time-consuming maneuver was completed , Wallace 's troops returned to the midpoint on the Shunpike road , crossed east over a path to the River Road , and followed it south to join Grant 's army on the field . Progress was slow due to the road conditions and countermarch . Wallace 's division arrived at Pittsburg Landing about 6:30 p.m. , after having marched about 14 mi in nearly seven hours over roads that had been left in terrible conditions by recent rainstorms and previous Union marches . They gathered at the battlefield at dusk , about 7 p.m. , with the fighting nearly over for the day , and took up a position on the right of the Union line . The next day , April 7 , Wallace 's division held the extreme right of the Union line . Two of Wallace 's batteries with the aid of a battery from the 1st Illinois Light Artillery were the first to attack at about 5:30 a.m. Sherman 's and Wallace 's troops helped force the Confederates to fall back , and by 3 p.m. the Confederates were retreating southwest , toward Corinth . Shiloh controversy At first , the battle was viewed by the North as a victory ; however , on April 23 , after civilians began hearing news of the high number of casualties , the Lincoln administration asked the Union army for further explanation . Grant , who was accused of poor leadership at Shiloh , and his superior , Halleck , placed the blame on Wallace by asserting that his failure to follow orders and the delay in moving up the reserves on April 6 had nearly cost them the battle.Stephens , p. 107–08 . On April 30 , 1862 , Halleck reorganized his army and removed Wallace and John McClernand from active duty , placing both of them in reserve . Wallace 's reputation and career as a military leader suffered a significant setback from controversy over Shiloh . He spent the remainder of his life trying to resolve the accusations and change public opinion about his role in the battle . On March 14 , 1863 , Wallace wrote a letter to Halleck that provided an official explanation of his actions . He also wrote Grant several letters and met with him in person more than once in an attempt to vindicate himself . On August 16 , 1863 , Wallace wrote Sherman for advice on the issue . Sherman urged Wallace to be patient and not to request a formal inquiry . Although Sherman brought Wallace 's concerns to Grant 's attention , Wallace was not given another active duty command until March 1864 . For many years Grant stood by his original version of the orders to Wallace . As late as 1884 , when Grant wrote an article on Shiloh for The Century Magazine that appeared in its February 1885 issue , he maintained that Wallace had taken the wrong road on the first day of battle . After W. H. L. Wallace 's widow gave Grant a letter that Lew Wallace had written to her the day before the battle ( the one indicating his plans to use the Shunpike road to pass between Shiloh and his position west of Crump 's Landing ) , Grant changed his mind.Stephens , p. 232.Ferraro , p. 147 . Grant wrote a letter to the editors at Century , which was published in its September 1885 issue , and added a note to his memoirs to explain that Wallace 's letter `` modifies very materially what I have said , and what has been said by others , about the conduct of General Lew Wallace at the battle of Shiloh . '' While reaffirming that he had ordered Wallace to take the River Road , Grant stated that he could not be sure the exact content of Wallace 's written orders , since his verbal orders were given to one of his aides and transcribed.Grant , v. I , p. 351–52 . Grant 's article in the February 1885 issue of Century became the basis of his chapter on Shiloh in his memoirs , which were published in 1886 , and influenced many later accounts of Wallace 's actions on the first day of battle . Grant acknowledged in his memoirs : `` If the position of our front had not changed , the road which Wallace took would have been somewhat shorter to our right than the River road . '' Wallace 's account of the events appeared in his autobiography , which was published posthumously in 1906 . Despite his later fame and fortune as the novelist of Ben-Hur , Wallace continued to lament , `` Shiloh and its slanders ! Will the world ever acquit me of them ? If I were guilty I would not feel them as keenly . '' Other military assignments On August 17 , 1862 , Wallace accepted a regiment command in the Department of the Ohio to help with the successful defense of Cincinnati during Braxton Bragg 's incursion into Kentucky . Next , Wallace took command of Camp Chase , a prisoner-of-war camp at Columbus , Ohio , where he remained until October 30 , 1862 . A month later Wallace was placed in charge of a five-member commission to investigate Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell 's conduct in response to the Confederate invasion of Kentucky . The commission criticized Buell for his retreat , but it did not find him disloyal to the Union . When the commission 's work was completed on May 6 , 1863 , Wallace returned to Indiana to wait for a new command . In mid-July 1863 , while Wallace was home , he helped protect the railroad junction at North Vernon , Indiana , from Confederate general John Hunt Morgan 's raid into southern Indiana . Monocacy Wallace 's most notable service came on Saturday , July 9 , 1864 at the Battle of Monocacy part of the Valley Campaigns of 1864 . Although Confederate General Jubal A . Early and an estimated 15,000 troops defeated Wallace 's troops at Monocacy Junction , Maryland , forcing them to retreat to Baltimore , the effort cost Early a chance to capture Washington , D.C. Wallace 's men were able to delay the Confederate advance toward Washington for an entire day , giving the city time to organize its defenses . Early arrived in Washington at around noon on July 11 , two days after defeating Wallace at Monocacy , the northernmost Confederate victory of the war , but Union reinforcements had already arrived at Fort Stevens to repel the Confederates and force their retreat to Virginia . Wallace , who had returned to active duty on March 12 , 1864 , assumed command of VIII Corps , which was headquartered in Baltimore . On July 9 , a combined Union force of approximately 5,800 men under Wallace 's command ( mostly hundred-days ' men from VIII Corps ) and a division under James B. Ricketts from VI Corps encountered Confederate troops at Monocacy Junction between 9 and 10 a.m . Although Wallace was uncertain whether Baltimore or Washington , D.C. was the Confederate objective , he knew his troops would have to delay the advance until Union reinforcements arrived . Wallace 's men repelled the Confederate attacks for more than six hours before retreating to Baltimore . After the battle Wallace informed Halleck that his forces fought until 5 p.m. , but the Confederate troops , which he estimated at 20,000 men , had overwhelmed them . When Grant learned of the defeat , he named Maj. Gen. E. O. C. Ord as Wallace 's replacement in command of VIII Corps . On July 28 , after officials learned how Wallace 's efforts at Monocacy helped save Washington D.C. from capture , he was reinstated as commander of VIII Corps . In Grant 's memoirs , he praised Wallace 's delaying tactics at Monocacy : If Early had been but one day earlier , he might have entered the capital before the arrival of the reinforcements I had sent . ... General Wallace contributed on this occasion by the defeat of the troops under him , a greater benefit to the cause than often falls to the lot of a commander of an equal force to render by means of a victory . Later military service On January 22 , 1865 Grant ordered Wallace to the Rio Grande in southern Texas to investigate Confederate military operations in the area . Although Wallace was not officially authorized to offer terms , he did discuss proposals for the surrender of the Confederate troops in the Trans-Mississippi Department . Wallace provided Grant with copies of his proposals and reported on the negotiations , but no agreement was made . Before returning to Baltimore , Wallace also met with Mexican military leaders to discuss the U.S. government 's unofficial efforts to aid in expelling Maximilian 's French occupation forces from Mexico . Following President Lincoln 's death on April 15 , 1865 , Wallace was appointed to the military commission that investigated the Lincoln assassination conspirators . The commission , which began in May , was dissolved on June 30 , 1865 , after all eight conspirators were found guilty . In mid-August 1865 , Wallace was appointed head of an eight-member military commission that investigated the conduct of Henry Wirz , the Confederate commandant in charge of the South 's Andersonville prison camp . The court-martial which took nearly two months , opened on August 21 , 1865 . At its conclusion Wirz was found guilty and sentenced to death . On April 30 , 1865 , Wallace had accepted an offer to become a major general in the Mexican army , but the agreement , which was contingent upon his resignation from the U.S. Army , was delayed by Wallace 's service on the two military commissions . Wallace tendered his resignation from the U.S. Army on November 4 , 1865 , effective November 30 , and returned to Mexico to assist the Mexican army . Although the Juárez government promised Wallace $ 100,000 for his services , he returned to the United States in 1867 in deep financial debt . Political and diplomatic career Wallace returned to Indiana in 1867 to practice law , but the profession did not appeal to him , and he turned to politics . Wallace made two unsuccessful bids for a seat in Congress ( in 1868 and 1870 ) , and supported Republican presidential candidate Rutherford B. Hayes in the 1876 election . As a reward for his political support , Hayes appointed Wallace as governor of the New Mexico Territory , where he served from August 1878 to March 1881 . His next assignment came in March 1881 , when Republican president James A. Garfield appointed Wallace to an overseas diplomatic post in Constantinople , Turkey , as U.S. Minister to the Ottoman Empire . Wallace remained in this post until 1885 . Territorial governor of New Mexico Wallace arrived in Santa Fe , on September 29 , 1878 , to begin his service as governor of the New Mexico Territory during a time of lawless violence and political corruption . Wallace was involved in efforts to resolve New Mexico 's Lincoln County War , a contentious and violent disagreement among the county ’ s residents , and tried to end a series of Apache raids on territorial settlers . In 1880 , while living at the Palace of the Governors in Santa Fe , Wallace also completed the manuscript for Ben Hur . On March 1 , 1879 , after previous efforts to restore order in Lincoln County had failed , Wallace ordered the arrest of those responsible for local killings.Boomhower , p. 102 . One of the outlaws was William Henry McCarty , Jr. ( alias William H. Bonney ) , better known as Billy the Kid . On March 17 , 1879 , Wallace secretly met with the Kid , who had witnessed the murder of a Lincoln County lawyer named Chapman . Wallace wanted the Kid to testify in the trial of Chapman 's accused murderers , but the Kid had killed others and wanted Wallace 's protection from the outlaw gang and amnesty for his crimes . During their meeting , the pair arranged for the Kid to become an informant in exchange for a full pardon of his previous crimes . Wallace supposedly assured the Kid that he would be `` scot free with a pardon in your pocket for all your misdeeds . '' On March 20 , the Kid agreed to testify against others involved in Chapman 's murder . Wallace arranged for the Kid 's arrest and detention in a local jail to assure his safety . After the Kid testified in court on April 14 , the local district attorney revoked Wallace 's bargain and refused to set the outlaw free . The Kid escaped from jail and returned to his criminal ways , which included killing additional men . The Kid was shot and killed on July 14 , 1881 by Sheriff Pat Garrett , who had been appointed by local ranching interests who had tired of his rustling their herds . In the meantime , Wallace had resigned from his duties as territorial governor on March 9 , 1881 , and was waiting

qw_5039--Lew_Wallace.txt

A novel by General Lew Wallace published in 1880 was made into which films in 1926 (a silent movie) and 1959 (produced by William Wyler)?

Pudding is a kind of food that can be either a dessert or a savory dish . The word pudding is believed to come from the French boudin , originally from the Latin botellus , meaning `` small sausage '' , referring to encased meats used in Medieval European puddings . In the United Kingdom and some of the Commonwealth countries , pudding can be used to describe both sweet and savory dishes . Unless qualified , however , the term in everyday usage typically denotes a dessert ; in the UK , `` pudding '' is used as a synonym for a dessert course . Dessert puddings are rich , fairly homogeneous starch- or dairy-based desserts such as rice pudding , steamed cake mixtures such as Treacle sponge pudding with or without the addition of ingredients such as dried fruits as in a Christmas pudding.Oxford English Dictionary Savory dishes include Yorkshire pudding , black pudding , suet pudding and steak and kidney pudding . In the United States and some parts of Canada , pudding characteristically denotes a sweet milk-based dessert similar in consistency to egg-based custards , instant custards or a mousse , often commercially set using cornstarch , gelatin or similar collagen agent such as the Jell‑O brand line of products . In Commonwealth countries these puddings are called custards ( or curds ) if they are egg-thickened , blancmange if starch-thickened , and jelly if gelatin based . Pudding may also refer to other dishes such as bread pudding and rice pudding , although typically these names derive from the origin as British dishes . History The modern usage of the word pudding to denote primarily desserts has evolved over time from the almost exclusive use of the term to describe savoury dishes , specifically those created using a process similar to sausages where meat and other ingredients in a mostly liquid form are encased and then steamed or boiled to set the contents . The most famous examples still surviving are blood sausage , which was a favourite of King Henry VIII , and haggis . Baked , steamed and boiled puddings The original pudding was formed by mixing various ingredients with a grain product or other binder such as butter , flour , cereal , eggs , and/or suet , resulting in a solid mass . These puddings are baked , steamed or boiled . Depending on its ingredients , such a pudding may be served as a part of the main course or as a dessert . Boiled or steamed pudding was a common main course aboard ships in the Royal Navy during the 18th and 19th centuries . Pudding was used as the primary dish in which daily rations of flour and suet were prepared . Steamed pies consisting of a filling completely enclosed by suet pastry are also known as puddings . These may be sweet or savory and include such dishes as steak and kidney pudding . Types Savory Dessert Creamy puddings The second and newer type of pudding consists of sugar , milk , and a thickening agent such as cornstarch , gelatin , eggs , rice or tapioca to create a sweet , creamy dessert . These puddings are made either by simmering on top of the stove in a saucepan or double boiler or by baking in an oven , often in a bain-marie . These puddings are easily scorched on the fire , which is why a double boiler is often used ; microwave ovens are also now often used to avoid this problem and to reduce stirring . Creamy puddings are typically served chilled , but a few , such as zabaglione and rice pudding , may be served warm . Instant puddings do not require boiling and can therefore be prepared more quickly . This pudding terminology is common in North America and some European countries such as the Netherlands , whilst in Britain egg-thickened puddings are considered custards and starch-thickened puddings called blancmange . Types Savory * Rice pudding Dessert Cultural references * The proverb `` the proof of the pudding is in the eating '' dates back to at least the 14th century . The phrase is widely attributed to the Spanish author Cervantes in his novel The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote . The phrase is often incorrectly stated as `` the proof is in the pudding . '' * Pudd'nhead Wilson written by Mark Twain reflects the term 's use as a metaphor for someone with the mind of a fool .

qb_3129--Pudding.txt

Creme Anglaise is the French version of which English dessert item?

Rhinitis or coryza is irritation and inflammation of the mucous membrane inside the nose . Common symptoms are a stuffy nose , runny nose , sneezing , and post-nasal drip . In rhinitis , the inflammation of the mucous membrane is caused by viruses , bacteria , irritants or allergens . The most common kind of rhinitis is allergic rhinitis , which is usually triggered by airborne allergens such as pollen and dander . Allergic rhinitis may cause additional symptoms , such as sneezing and nasal itching , coughing , headache , fatigue , malaise , and cognitive impairment . The allergens may also affect the eyes , causing watery , reddened , or itchy eyes and puffiness around the eyes . The inflammation results in the generation of large amounts of mucus , commonly producing a runny nose , as well as a stuffy nose and post-nasal drip . In the case of allergic rhinitis , the inflammation is caused by the degranulation of mast cells in the nose . When mast cells degranulate , they release histamine and other chemicals , starting an inflammatory process that can cause symptoms outside the nose , such as fatigue and malaise . In the case of infectious rhinitis , it may occasionally lead to pneumonia , either viral pneumonia or bacterial pneumonia . Sneezing also occurs in infectious rhinitis to expel bacteria and viruses from the respiratory system . Rhinitis is very common . Allergic rhinitis is more common in some countries than others ; in the United States , about 10 % –30 % of adults are affected annually . Types Rhinitis is categorized into three types ( although infectious rhinitis is typically regarded as a separate clinical entity due to its transient nature ) : ( i ) infectious rhinitis includes acute and chronic bacterial infections ; ( ii ) nonallergic ( vasomotor ) rhinitis includes idiopathic , hormonal , atrophic , occupational , and gustatory rhinitis , as well as rhinitis medicamentosa ( drug-induced ) ; ( iii ) allergic rhinitis , triggered by pollen , mold , animal dander , dust , Balsam of Peru , and other inhaled allergens . Infectious Rhinitis is commonly caused by a viral or bacterial infection , including the common cold , which is caused by Rhinoviruses , Coronaviruses , and influenza viruses , others caused by adenoviruses , human parainfluenza viruses , human respiratory syncytial virus , enteroviruses other than rhinoviruses , metapneumovirus , and measles virus , or bacterial sinusitis , which is commonly caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae , Haemophilus influenzae , and Moraxella catarrhalis . Symptoms of the common cold include rhinorrhea , sneezing , sore throat ( pharyngitis ) , cough , congestion , and slight headache . Nonallergic rhinitis Nonallergic rhinitis refers to rhinitis that is not due to an allergy . It was formerly known as vasomotor rhinitis as the cause was thought to be vasodilation caused by an overactive parasympathetic nerve response . It is now encompassed under the more general classification of nonallergic rhinitis . The diagnosis is made upon excluding allergic causes . It is an umbrella term of rhinitis of multiple causes , such as occupational ( chemical ) , smoking , gustatory , hormonal , senile ( rhinitis of the elderly ) , atrophic , medication-induced ( including rhinitis medicamentosa ) , local allergic rhinitis , non-allergic rhinitis with eosinophilia syndrome ( NARES ) and idiopathic ( vasomotor or non-allergic , non-infectious perennial allergic rhinitis ( NANIPER ) , or non-infectious non-allergic rhinitis ( NINAR ) . In vasomotor rhinitis , certain nonspecific stimuli , including changes in environment ( temperature , humidity , barometric pressure , or weather ) , airborne irritants ( odors , fumes ) , dietary factors ( spicy food , alcohol ) , sexual arousal , exercise , and emotional factors trigger rhinitis . There is still much to be learned about this , but it is thought that these non-allergic triggers cause dilation of the blood vessels in the lining of the nose , which results in swelling and drainage . Non-allergic rhinitis can co-exist with allergic rhinitis , and is referred to as `` mixed rhinitis . '' The pathology of vasomotor rhinitis appears to involve neurogenic inflammation and is as yet not very well understood . Vasomotor rhinitis appears to be significantly more common in women than men , leading some researchers to believe that hormones play a role . In general , age of onset occurs after 20 years of age , in contrast to allergic rhinitis which can be developed at any age . Individuals with vasomotor rhinitis typically experience symptoms year-round , though symptoms may be exacerbated in the spring and autumn when rapid weather changes are more common . An estimated 17 million United States citizens have vasomotor rhinitis . Drinking alcohol may cause rhinitis as well as worsen asthma ( see alcohol-induced respiratory reactions ) . In certain populations , particularly those of East Asian countries such as Japan , these reactions have a nonallergic basis . In other populations , particularly those of European descent , a genetic variant in the gene that metabolizes ethanol to acetaldehyde , ADH1B , is associated with alcohol-induced rhinitis . It is suggested that this variant metabolizes ethanol to acetaldehyde too quickly for further processing by ALDH2 and thereby leads to the accumulation of acetaldehyde and rhinitis symptoms . In these cases , alcohol-induced rhinitis may be of the mixed rhinitis type and , it seems likely , most cases of alcohol-induced rhinitis in non-Asian populations reflect true allergic response to the non-ethanol and/or contaminants in alcoholic beverages , particularly when these beverages are wines or beers . Alcohol-exacerbated rhinitis is more frequent in individuals with a history of rhinitis exacerbated by aspirin . Aspirin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs ( NSAIDs ) , particularly those that inhibit cyclooxygenase 1 ( COX1 ) , can worsen rhinitis and asthma symptoms in individuals with a history of either one of these diseases . These exacerbations most often appear due to NSAID hypersensitivity reactions rather than NSAID-induced allergic reactions . The antihistamine azelastine , applied as a nasal spray , may be effective for vasomotor rhinitis . Fluticasone propionate or budesonide ( both are steroids ) in nostril spray form may also be used for symptomatic treatment . The antihistamine cyproheptadine is also effective , probably due to its antiserotonergic effects . A Cochrane review on non-allergic rhinitis reports improvement of overall function after treatment with capsaicin ( the active component of chili peppers ) . The quality of evidence is low , however . Allergic Allergic rhinitis or hay fever may follow when an allergen such as pollen , dust , or Balsam of Peru is inhaled by an individual with a sensitized immune system , triggering antibody production . These antibodies mostly bind to mast cells , which contain histamine . When the mast cells are stimulated by an allergen , histamine ( and other chemicals ) are released . This causes itching , swelling , and mucus production . Symptoms vary in severity between individuals . Very sensitive individuals can experience hives or other rashes . Particulate matter in polluted air and chemicals such as chlorine and detergents , which can normally be tolerated , can greatly aggravate the condition . Characteristic physical findings in individuals who have allergic rhinitis include conjunctival swelling and erythema , eyelid swelling , lower eyelid venous stasis , lateral crease on the nose , swollen nasal turbinates , and middle ear effusion . Even if a person has negative skin-prick , intradermal and blood tests for allergies , they may still have allergic rhinitis , from a local allergy in the nose . This is called local allergic rhinitis . Many people who were previously diagnosed with nonallergic rhinitis may actually have local allergic rhinitis . A patch test may be used to determine if a particular substance is causing the rhinitis . Rhinitis medicamentosa Rhinitis medicamentosa is a form of drug-induced nonallergic rhinitis which is associated with nasal congestion brought on by the use of certain oral medications ( primarily sympathomimetic amine and 2-imidazoline derivatives ) and topical decongestants ( e.g. , oxymetazoline , phenylephrine , xylometazoline , and naphazoline nasal sprays ) that constrict the blood vessels in the lining of the nose . Chronic atrophic rhinitis Chronic rhinitis in form of atrophy of the mucous membrane and glands . Rhinitis sicca Chronic form of dryness of the mucous membranes . Polypous rhinitis Chronic rhinitis associated with polyps in the nasal cavity . Prevention In the case of infectious rhinitis , vaccination against influenza viruses , adenoviruses , measles , rubella , Streptococcus pneumoniae , Haemophilus influenzae , diphtheria , Bacillus anthracis , and Bordetella pertussis may even help prevent it . Management The management of rhinitis depends on the underlying cause . For allergic rhinitis , intranasal corticosteroids and antihistamines can be used to suppress inflammation and control symptoms . Etymology Coryza may have its roots in the Greek Koryza , which is likely to be compounded from `` kara '' and `` zeein '' , which are the noun for head and the verb , to boil . Coryza would therefore be a boiling over of the head . According to another source , coryza was an ancient Greek word denoting a fool . According to physician Andrew Wylie , `` we use the term for a cold in the head , but the two are really synonymous . The ancient Romans advised their patients to clean their nostrils and thereby sharpen their wits . ''

qw_1930--Rhinitis.txt

Rhinitis is inflammation of the mucus membranes of what?

British Columbia , ( commonly referred to by its initials BC ) , is the westernmost province of Canada , with a population of more than 4 million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains . British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion , along with the U.S. states of Idaho , Oregon , Washington and Alaska . The province 's name was chosen in 1858 by members of the Hudson 's Bay Company . The first British settlement in the area was the Colony of British Columbia ( 1858–66 ) , the first Lieutenant-Governor of which , from 1858 to 1863 , was Richard Clement Moody , who was hand-picked by the Colonial Office in London to transform British Columbia into the British Empire 's `` bulwark in the farthest west '' , and “ to found a second England on the shores of the Pacific ” . Moody selected the site for and founded the original capital of British Columbia , New Westminster and established the Cariboo Road and Stanley Park . Port Moody is named after him . In 1871 , British Columbia became the sixth province of Canada . Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu ( `` Splendour without Diminishment '' ) . The capital of British Columbia is Victoria , the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada , named for the Queen who created the Colony of British Columbia . The largest city is Vancouver , the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada , the largest in Western Canada , and the second-largest in the Pacific Northwest . In October 2013 , British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371 ( about 2.5 million of whom were in Greater Vancouver ) . The province is currently governed by the BC Liberal Party , led by Premier Christy Clark , who became leader as a result of a leadership convention vote on February 26 , 2011 , and who led her party to an election victory on May 14 , 2013 . British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871 . First Nations , the original inhabitants of the land , have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area . Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title , long ignored , has become a legal and political question of frequent debate as a result of recent court actions . Notably , the Tsilhqot'in Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory , as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision ( William [ Tsilhqot'in Nation ] v. British Columbia ) . B.C . 's economy is diverse , with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the province 's GDP . It is the endpoint of transcontinental railways , and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade . Though less than 5 % of its vast 944735 km2 land is arable , the province is agriculturally rich , ( particularly in the Fraser and Okanagan valleys ) , because of milder weather near the coast and in certain sheltered southern valleys . Its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism , though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction , principally logging , farming , and mining . Vancouver , the province 's largest city and metropolitan area , also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies . It also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average . While the coast of British Columbia and certain valleys in the south-central part of the province have mild weather , the majority of its land mass experiences a cold-winter-temperate climate similar to that of the rest of Canada . The Northern Interior region has a subarctic climate with very cold winters . The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities , with nighttime January temperatures averaging above the freezing point . Etymology The province 's name was chosen by Queen Victoria , when the Colony of British Columbia , i.e. , `` the Mainland '' , became a British colony in 1858 . It refers to the Columbia District , the British name for the territory drained by the Columbia River , in southeastern British Columbia , which was the namesake of the pre-Oregon Treaty Columbia Department of the Hudson 's Bay Company . Queen Victoria chose British Columbia to distinguish what was the British sector of the Columbia District from that of the United States ( `` American Columbia '' or `` Southern Columbia '' ) , which became the Oregon Territory on August 8 , 1848 , as a result of the treaty . Geography British Columbia is bordered by the Pacific Ocean on the west side , by the American state of Alaska to the northwest and parts of the west , on the north by Yukon and the Northwest Territories , on the east by the province of Alberta , and on the south by the states of Washington , Idaho , and Montana . The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty , although its history is tied with lands as far south as California . British Columbia 's land area is 944735 km2 . British Columbia 's rugged coastline stretches for more than 27000 km , and includes deep , mountainous fjords and about 6,000 islands , most of which are uninhabited . It is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean . British Columbia 's capital is Victoria , located at the southeastern tip of Vancouver Island . Only a narrow strip of the Island , from Comox to Victoria , is significantly populated . Much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick , tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest . The province 's most populous city is Vancouver , which is located at the confluence of the Fraser River and Georgia Strait , in the southwest corner of the mainland ( an area often called the Lower Mainland ) . By land area , Abbotsford is the largest city . Vanderhoof is near the geographic centre of the province . The Coast Mountains and the Inside Passage 's many inlets provide some of British Columbia 's renowned and spectacular scenery , which forms the backdrop and context for a growing outdoor adventure and ecotourism industry . Seventy-five percent of the province is mountainous ( more than 1000 m above sea level ) ; 60 % is forested ; and only about 5 % is arable . The province 's mainland away from the coastal regions is somewhat moderated by the Pacific Ocean . Terrain ranges from dry inland forests and semi-arid in numerous valleys , to the range and canyon districts of the Central and Southern Interior , to boreal forest and subarctic prairie in the Northern Interior . The Okanagan area , extending from near Vernon to Osoyoos , at the United States border , is one of several wine- and cider-producing regions in Canada . Other wine regions in British Columbia include the Cowichan Valley on Vancouver Island and the Fraser Valley . The Southern Interior cities of Kamloops and Penticton have some of the warmest and longest summer climates in Canada , although their temperatures can be exceeded north of the Fraser Canyon , close to the confluence of the Fraser and Thompson rivers , where the terrain is rugged and covered with desert-type flora . Semi-desert grassland is found in large areas of the Interior Plateau , with land uses ranging from ranching at lower altitudes to forestry at higher ones . The northern , mostly mountainous two-thirds of the province are largely unpopulated and undeveloped , except for the area east of the Rockies , where the Peace River District , in the northeast of the province , contains B.C . 's portion of the Canadian Prairies , centred at Dawson Creek . Climate With origins from the Kuroshio Current ( also known as the Japan Current ) which merges into the North Pacific Ocean drift current giving coastal British Columbia its mild , rainy oceanic climate , verging on dry-summer mediterranean , subtropical in small pockets . Due to the blocking presence of successive mountain ranges , the climate of the interior of the province is semi-arid with certain locations receiving less than 250 mm ( 10 '' ) in annual precipitation . The annual mean temperature in the most populated areas of the province is up to 12 C , the mildest anywhere in Canada . The valleys of the Southern Interior have short winters with only brief bouts of cold or infrequent heavy snow , while those in the Cariboo , in the Central Interior , are colder because of increased altitude and latitude , but without the intensity or duration experienced at similar latitudes elsewhere in Canada . For example , the average daily low in Prince George ( roughly located in the middle of the province ) in January is . Heavy snowfall occurs in all elevated mountainous terrain providing bases for skiers in both south and central B.C . Winters are generally severe in the Northern Interior , but even there milder air can penetrate far inland . The coldest temperature in British Columbia was recorded in Smith River , where it dropped to , one of the coldest readings recorded anywhere in North America . Atlin in the province 's far northwest , along with the adjoining Southern Lakes region of Yukon , get midwinter thaws caused by the Chinook effect , which is also common ( and much warmer ) in more southerly parts of the Interior . During winter , on the coast , rainfall , sometimes relentless heavy rain , dominates because of consistent barrages of cyclonic low-pressure systems from the North Pacific . Average snowfall on the coast during an average winter is between 25 - , but on occasion ( and not every winter ) heavy snowfalls with more than 20 cm and well below freezing temperatures arrive when modified arctic air reaches coastal areas , typically for short periods , but can still can take temperatures below even at sea level and arctic outflow winds can make wind chill temperatures at or even below for a couple of mornings . Opposite of all the precipitation in winter , coastal areas are generally milder and dry during summer under the influence of stable anti-cyclonic high pressure . Southern Interior valleys are hot in summer ; for example in Osoyoos the July maximum temperature averages the hottest month of any place in Canada , this hot weather sometimes spreads towards the coast or to the far north of the province . Temperatures often exceed 40 C in the lower elevations of valleys in the Interior during mid-summer , with the record high of being held in Lytton on July 16 , 1941 . The extended summer dryness often creates conditions that spark forest fires , from dry-lightning or man-made causes . Many areas of the province are often covered by a blanket of heavy cloud and low fog during the winter months , despite abundant summer sunshine . Annual sunshine hours vary from 2200 near Cranbrook and Victoria to less than 1300 in Prince Rupert , located on the North Coast , just south of the Alaska Panhandle . The exception to British Columbia 's wet and cloudy winters is El Niño . During this phase , the jet stream is much further south across North America , therefore winters are milder and drier than normal . Winters are much wetter and cooler under the opposite phase , La Niña . Parks and protected areas There are 14 designations of parks and protected areas in the province that reflects the different administration and creation of these areas in a modern context . There are 141 ecological Reserves , 35 provincial marine parks , 7 Provincial Heritage Sites , 6 National Historic Sites of Canada , 4 National Parks and 3 National Park Reserves . 12.5 % ( 114000 km2 ) of British Columbia is currently considered protected under one of the 14 different designations that includes over 800 distinct areas . British Columbia contains seven of Canada 's national parks : * Glacier National Park * Gulf Islands National Park Reserve * Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site * Kootenay National Park * Mount Revelstoke National Park * Pacific Rim National Park Reserve * Yoho National Park British Columbia also contains a large network of provincial parks , run by B.C . Parks , under the aegis of the Ministry of Environment . British Columbia 's provincial parks system is the second largest parks system in Canada ( the largest is Canada 's National Parks system ) . Another tier of parks in British Columbia are regional parks , which are maintained and run by regional districts . In addition to these areas , over 47000 km2 of arable land are protected by the Agricultural Land Reserve . Fauna Much of the province is wild or semi-wild , so that populations of many mammalian species that have become rare in much of the United States still flourish in British Columbia . Watching animals of various sorts , including a very wide range of birds , has also long been popular . Bears ( grizzly , black , and the Kermode bear or spirit bear—found only in British Columbia ) live here , as do deer , elk , moose , caribou , big-horn sheep , mountain goats , marmots , beavers , muskrats , coyotes , wolves , mustelids ( such as wolverines , badgers and fishers ) , cougars , eagles , ospreys , herons , Canada geese , swans , loons , hawks , owls , ravens , harlequin ducks , and many other sorts of ducks . Smaller birds ( robins , jays , grosbeaks , chickadees , and so on ) also abound . Healthy populations of many sorts of fish are found in the waters ( including salmonids such as several species of salmon , trout , char , and so on ) . Besides salmon and trout , sport-fishers in B.C . also catch halibut , steelhead , bass , and sturgeon . On the coastlines , harbour seals and river otters are common . Cetacean species native to the coast include the orca , grey whale , harbour porpoise , Dall 's Porpoise , Pacific white-sided dolphin and minke whale . British Columbian introduced species include : common dandelion , ring-necked pheasant , Pacific oyster , brown trout , black slug , European starling , cowbird , knapweed , bullfrog , purple loosestrife , Scotch broom , Himalayan blackberry , European earwig , tent caterpillar , sowbug , grey squirrel , Asian longhorn beetle , English ivy , fallow deer , thistle , gorse , Norway rat , crested mynah , and Asian or European gypsy moth . Some endangered species in British Columbia are : Vancouver Island marmot , spotted owl , American white pelican , and badgers . As of 2001 Forests White spruce or Engelmann spruce and their hybrids occur in 12 of the 14 biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia ( Coates et al . 1994 ) . Some common types of trees that grow wild in B.C . 's forests are varieties of pine , fir , cedar , birch , hemlock , maple , and spruce . Traditional plant foods Plant foods traditionally contributed only a part of the total food intake of coastal First Nations peoples of British Columbia , though they contributed to most of the material good produced . Among the plant foods used , berries , some roots ( for example the Camas Lily – part of the Camassia family ) , cambium noodles ( inner bark of hemlock ) , and seaweeds were ( and to an extent still are ) important . Animal products were traditionally far more important than plant foods in terms of quantity consumed ; however , the huge nutritional diversity provided by native plants of B.C . largely contributes to the health of First Nations peoples of British Columbia . ( Before colonization , British Columbia had the densest aboriginal population of any region in what is now called Canada . ) Ecozones Environment Canada subdivides British Columbia into six ecozones : * Pacific Marine * Pacific Maritime * Boreal Cordillera * Montane Cordillera * Taiga Plains * Boreal Plains Ecozones . History First Nations ( Aboriginal ) history The area that is now known as British Columbia is home to [ First Nations ] groups that have a deep history with a significant percentage of indigenous languages . There are more than 200 First Nations in BC . Prior to contact ( with non-Aboriginal people ) human history is known from archaeological investigations , oral history of First Nations groups , and from early records from explorers encountering societies early in the period . The arrival of Paleoindians from Beringia took place between 20,000 and 12,000 years ago . Hunter gatherer families were the main social structure from 10,000 to 5,000 years ago . The nomadic population lived in non-permanent structures foraging for nuts , berries and edible roots while hunting and trapping larger and small game for food and furs . Around 5,000 years ago individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally . Thus with the passage of time there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization with a more sedentary lifestyle . Theses indigenous populations evolved over the next 5,000 years across a large area , into many different groups with shared traditions and customs . To the northwest of the province are the peoples of the Na-Dene languages , which include the Athapaskan-speaking peoples and the Tlingit , who lived on the islands of southern Alaska and northern British Columbia . The Na-Dene language group is believed to be linked to the Yeniseian languages of Siberia . The Dene of the western Arctic may represent a distinct wave of migration from Asia to North America . The Interior of British Columbia was home to the Salishan language groups such as the Shuswap ( Secwepemc ) , Okanagan and Athabaskan language groups , primarily the Dakelh ( Carrier ) and the Tsilhqot'in . The inlets and valleys of the British Columbia Coast sheltered large , distinctive populations , such as the Haida , Kwakwaka'wakw and Nuu-chah-nulth , sustained by the region 's abundant salmon and shellfish . These peoples developed complex cultures dependent on the western red cedar that included wooden houses , seagoing whaling and war canoes and elaborately carved potlatch items and totem poles . Contact with Europeans brought a series of devastating epidemics of diseases from Europe that the people had no immunity to . The result was a dramatic population collapse , culminating in the 1862 Smallpox outbreak in Victoria that spread throughout the coast . European settlement did not bode well for the remaining native population of British Columbia . Colonial officials deemed that colonists could make better use of the land than the First Nations people , and thus the land territory be owned by the colonists . To ensure colonists would be able to settle properly and make use of the land , natives were relocated onto reserves , which were often too small to support their way of life . By the 1930s , over 1500 reserves were located within British Columbia . Fur trade and colonial era The British , during the colonial period , spread across the world claiming territories and building the British Empire . Lands now known as British Columbia were added to the empire during the 19th century . Originally established under the auspices of the Hudson 's Bay Company , colonies were established ( Vancouver Island , the mainland ) that were amalgamated , then entered Confederation as British Columbia in 1871 as part of the Dominion of Canada . During the 1770s , smallpox killed at least 30 % of the Pacific Northwest First Nations . This devastating epidemic was the first in a series ; the Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1862 killed 50 % of the native population . The arrival of Europeans began around the mid-18th century , as fur traders entered the area to harvest sea otters . While it is thought that Sir Francis Drake may have explored the British Columbian coast in 1579 , it was Juan Pérez who completed the first documented voyage , which took place in 1774 . Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra explored the coast in 1775 . In doing so , Pérez and Quadra reasserted the Spanish claim for the Pacific coast , first made by Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 . The explorations of James Cook in 1778 and George Vancouver in 1792–93 established British jurisdiction over the coastal area north and west of the Columbia River . In 1793 , Sir Alexander Mackenzie was the first European to journey across North America overland to the Pacific Ocean , inscribing a stone marking his accomplishment on the shoreline of Dean Channel near Bella Coola . His expedition theoretically established British sovereignty inland , and a succession of other fur company explorers charted the maze of rivers and mountain ranges between the Canadian Prairies and the Pacific . Mackenzie and other explorers—notably John Finlay , Simon Fraser , Samuel Black , and David Thompson—were primarily concerned with extending the fur trade , rather than political considerations . In 1794 , by the third of a series of agreements known as the Nootka Conventions , Spain conceded its claims of exclusivity in the Pacific . This opened the way for formal claims and colonization by other powers , including Britain , but because of the Napoleonic Wars there was little British action on its claims in the region until later . The establishment of trading posts under the auspices of the North West Company and the Hudson 's Bay Company ( HBC ) , effectively established a permanent British presence in the region . The Columbia District was broadly defined as being south of 54°40 north latitude , ( the southern limit of Russian America ) , north of Mexican-controlled California , and west of the Rocky Mountains . It was , by the Anglo-American Convention of 1818 , under the `` joint occupancy and use '' of citizens of the United States and subjects of Britain ( which is to say , the fur companies ) . This co-occupancy was ended with the Oregon Treaty of 1846 . The major supply route was the York Factory Express between Hudson Bay and Fort Vancouver . Some of the early outposts grew into settlements , communities , and cities . Among the places in British Columbia that began as fur trading posts are Fort St. John ( established 1794 ) ; Hudson 's Hope ( 1805 ) ; Fort Nelson ( 1805 ) ; Fort St. James ( 1806 ) ; Prince George ( 1807 ) ; Kamloops ( 1812 ) ; Fort Langley ( 1827 ) ; Fort Victoria ( 1843 ) ; Yale ( 1848 ) ; and Nanaimo ( 1853 ) . Fur company posts that became cities in what is now the United States include Vancouver , Washington ( Fort Vancouver ) , formerly the `` capital '' of Hudson 's Bay operations in the Columbia District , Colville , Washington and Walla Walla , Washington ( old Fort Nez Percés ) . With the amalgamation of the two fur trading companies in 1821 , the region now comprising British Columbia existed in three fur trading departments . The bulk of the central and northern interior was organized into the New Caledonia district , administered from Fort St. James . The interior south of the Thompson River watershed and north of the Columbia was organized into the Columbia District , administered from Fort Vancouver on the lower Columbia River . The northeast corner of the province east of the Rockies , known as the Peace River Block , was attached to the much larger Athabasca District , headquartered in Fort Chipewyan , in present-day Alberta . Until 1849 , these districts were a wholly unorganized area of British North America under the de facto jurisdiction of HBC administrators . Unlike Rupert 's Land to the north and east , however , the territory was not a concession to the company . Rather , it was simply granted a monopoly to trade with the First Nations inhabitants . All that was changed with the westward extension of American exploration and the concomitant overlapping claims of territorial sovereignty , especially in the southern Columbia basin ( within present day Washington and Oregon ) . In 1846 , the Oregon Treaty divided the territory along the 49th parallel to the Strait of Georgia , with the area south of this boundary ( excluding Vancouver Island and the Gulf Islands ) transferred to sole American sovereignty . The Colony of Vancouver Island was created in 1849 , with Victoria designated as the capital . New Caledonia , as the whole of the mainland rather than just its north-central Interior came to be called , continued to be an unorganized territory of British North America , `` administered '' by individual HBC trading post managers . With the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in 1858 , an influx of Americans into New Caledonia prompted the colonial office to formally designate the mainland as the Colony of British Columbia , the first Lieutenant-Governor of which , from 1858 to 1863 , was Richard Clement Moody , who had previously served as the first Governor of the Falkland Islands . Moody was hand-picked by the Colonial Office in London to transform British Columbia into the British Empire 's `` bulwark in the farthest west '' , “ to found a second England on the shores of the Pacific ” . Moody selected the site for and founded the original capital of British Columbia , New Westminster and established the Cariboo Road and Stanley Park . He named Burnaby Lake after his private secretary Robert Burnaby and named Port Coquitlam ’ s 400-foot `` Mary Hill '' after his wife , Mary . Port Moody is named after him . A series of gold rushes in various parts of the province followed , the largest being the Cariboo Gold Rush in 1862 , forcing the colonial administration into deeper debt as it struggled to meet the extensive infrastructure needs of far-flung boom communities like Barkerville and Lillooet , which sprang up overnight . The Vancouver Island colony was facing financial crises of its own , and pressure to merge the two eventually succeeded in 1866 , when the colony of British Columbia was amalgamated with the Colony of Vancouver Island to form the Colony of British Columbia ( 1866–71 ) , which was , in turn , succeeded by the present day state of British Columbia following the Canadian Confederation of 1871 . Rapid growth and development The Confederation League , including such figures as Amor De Cosmos , John Robson , and Robert Beaven , led the chorus pressing for the colony to join Canada , which had been created out of three British North American colonies in 1867 ( the Province of Canada , Nova Scotia and New Brunswick ) . Several factors motivated this agitation , including the fear of annexation to the United States , the overwhelming debt created by rapid population growth , the need for government-funded services to support this population , and the economic depression caused by the end of the gold rush . With the agreement by the Canadian government to extend the Canadian Pacific Railway to British Columbia and to assume the colony 's debt , British Columbia became the sixth province to join Confederation on July 20 , 1871 . The borders of the province were not completely settled . The Treaty of Washington sent the Pig War San Juan Islands Border dispute to arbitration in 1871 and in 1903 , the province 's territory shrank again after the Alaska boundary dispute settled the vague boundary of the Alaska Panhandle . Population in British Columbia continued to expand as the province 's mining , forestry , agriculture , and fishing sectors were developed . Mining activity was particularly notable throughout the Mainland , particularly in the Boundary Country , in the Slocan , in the West Kootenay around Trail , the East Kootenay ( the southeast corner of the province ) , the Fraser Canyon

sfq_24980--British_Columbia.txt

Name the capital city of the Canadian Province of British Columbia?

Keflavík International Airport ( ) , also known as Reykjavík-Keflavík Airport , is the largest airport in Iceland and the country 's main hub for international transportation . The airport is west of Keflavík and 50 km southwest of Reykjavík . The airport has three runways , two of which are in use , and the airport area is about 25 km2 . Most international journeys to or from Iceland pass through this airport . The main carriers at Keflavík are Icelandair and WOW air , each of which has the airport as its main hub . The airport is almost exclusively used for international flights ; most domestic flights use Reykjavík Airport , which lies 3 km from Reykjavík 's city centre , although seasonal flights from Akureyri fly to Keflavík . Keflavík Airport is operated by Isavia , a government enterprise . History Early years Originally , the airport was built by the United States military during World War II and opened on March 23 , 1943 . The U.S. named it Meeks Field after a young pilot , George Meeks , who died on the Reykjavík airfield . After the war , the airport and the base were returned to Iceland 's control and were renamed for the nearby town of Keflavik . In 1951 , the U.S. military returned to the airport under a defense agreement between Iceland and the U.S. Later , Iceland joined NATO . Development since the 1950s With the reestablishment of the military air base at Keflavík during the 1950s , the air terminal found itself in the middle of a secure military zone . Travelers had to pass through military check points to reach their flights , until 1987 , when the civilian terminal was relocated ... The presence of foreign military forces in Iceland under the NATO sponsored Iceland–U.S . Defense Agreement of 1951 was controversial in Iceland , which had no indigenous military forces other than the Icelandic Coast Guard . During the 1960s and 1970s , rallies were held to protest the U.S. military presence in Iceland ( and in particular at Keflavík ) , and every year protesters walked the 50 km road from Reykjavík to Keflavík and chanted `` Ísland úr NATO , herinn burt '' ( literally : Iceland out of NATO , the military away ) . The protests were not effective . One of the participants was Vigdís Finnbogadóttir , who later became the first female President of Iceland . The former Agreed Military Area at Keflavík was re-designated `` Airport , Security and Development Area '' under the supervision of the Keflavík International Airport Ltd. ( established 1 January 2009 ) , the Icelandic Coast Guard and the Keflavík Airport Development Corporation ( Kadeco ) , respectively . The Coast Guard maintains hangars for military aircraft as well as ammunition depots , air defence radars and other military equipment for national defence . The former military encampment area ( U.S . Naval Air Station Keflavik ) being developed by Kadeco has been named Ásbrú to reflect its new role . The airport is in the little village named Sandgerði , but the runway leads to Keflavík . The 10000 ft and 200 ft runways are long enough to support NASA 's Space Shuttle and also the Antonov An-225 . On 29 June 1999 , Concorde G-BOAA flew from Heathrow Airport to Reykjavík ( Keflavík airport ) . The Concorde had been there . Facilities The Airport is named after Leifur Eiríksson who was the first European to discover North America . Air Terminal ( ) , named for Leif Ericson . It was opened 6 April 1987 and separated the airport 's civil traffic from the military base . It was later extended with the opening of the South Building in 2001 ( not a separate terminal ) to comply with the requirements of the Schengen Agreement . The North Building was later enlarged and finished in 2007 . The terminal has duty-free stores in the departure and arrival lounges . In 2016 , the current terminal was expanded . The expansion added 7 gates . There are also plans to add a third runway . Airlines and destinations Although the population of Iceland is only about 300,000 , there are scheduled flights to and from numerous locations across North America and Europe . The largest carrier operating out of Keflavík is Icelandair . On 23 October 2012 WOW air acquired Iceland Express making it the second largest Icelandic carrier and the second largest at Keflavík . The airport only handles international flights ( except for flights to Akureyri in connection with certain Air Iceland flights to Greenland ) ; domestic flights and flights to Greenland and the Faroe Islands are operated from Reykjavík 's domestic airport . Passenger Cargo Statistics Passenger numbers Top destinations Ground transport Transport between the airport and Reykjavik city is by road only . The distance is 50 km . A new dual carriageway road ( route 41 ) was opened in 2008 . Buses are operated by Airport Express , Flybus and straeto ( Reykjavik 's transit company ) to Reykjavik . Taxis are available outside the terminal . Rental cars are available from various companies . Accidents and incidents * On 21 July 2013 , a Russian Sukhoi Superjet 100 airliner , prototype aircraft 97005 , made a belly landing during a test flight . The cause was a crew mistake due to fatigue . They operated the plane manually in order to simulate failures .

qb_241--Keflavík_International_Airport.txt

Keflavik is the main international airport of which country?

Edgar Chagwa Lungu ( born 11 November 1956 ) has been the President of Zambia since January 2015 . Under President Michael Sata , Lungu served as Minister of Justice and Minister of Defense . Following Sata 's death in October 2014 , Lungu was adopted as the candidate of Sata 's party , the Patriotic Front , for the January 2015 presidential by-election . In the election , he narrowly defeated opposition candidate Hakainde Hichilema and took office on 25 January 2015 . Early life and career Lungu was born 11 November 1956 at Ndola Central Hospital . After graduating with a LL.B . in 1981 from University of Zambia , he joined the law firm Andre Masiye and Company in Lusaka . He subsequently underwent military officer training at Miltez in Kabwe under Zambia National Service ( ZNS ) . He then returned to practising law . He then joined politics . Political career He joined the United Party for National Development under the leadership of Anderson Mazoka , but later switched to the Patriotic Front ( PF ) led by party founder Michael Sata . After the PF won the 2011 election , Lungu became Junior Minister in the Vice President 's office . He was subsequently promoted to Minister of Home Affairs on 9 July 2012 . He became Minister of Defence on 24 December 2013 after Geoffrey Bwalya Mwamba resigned from his ministerial post , and he functioned as Acting President during President Sata 's long term illness in 2013-14 . He has also held a string of central positions in his party , including Chair of the PF Central Committee on Discipline , and he became PF Secretary General and Minister of Justice on 28 August 2014 to replace Wynter Kabimba , who was fired . These positions were in addition to the Defence portfolio . President Sata went abroad for medical treatment on 19 October 2014 , leaving Lungu in charge of the country in his absence . Sata died on 28 October 2014 . Vice President Guy Scott took over as Acting President , and Lungu was viewed as one of the main contenders to ultimately succeed Sata in a presidential by-election . On 3 November 2014 , Acting President Scott dismissed Lungu as Secretary-General of the PF . He replaced him with Davis Mwila , the Member of Parliament for Chipili . However , the next day , on 4 November 2014 , Scott announced Lungu was to remain as Secretary-General . [ http : //www.lusakatimes.com/2014/11/04/guy-scott-reinstates-edgar-lungu-secretary-general-burial/ `` Guy Scott reinstates Edgar Lungu as Secretary General until the burial '' ] , Lusaka Times , November 4 , 2014 . On 30 November 2014 , Lungu was elected as President of the Patriotic Front at a national convention of the party held in Kabwe , Zambia . However the convention was unusual because no voting took place . Instead , the unaccredited delegates elected him by raising hands . On 20 January 2015 Lungu contested the presidential by-election and beat his closest rival Hakainde Hichilema of the United Party for National Development by a narrow majority of just 27,757 votes ( 1.66 % ) . He was declared the winner by the Electoral Commission of Zambia on 24 January . Presidency Lungu was sworn in as President of Zambia on 25 January 2015 at the National Heroes Stadium in the capital Lusaka . The following month , Lungu forced the head of the country 's central bank out of office and promised lower interest rates . He appointed Inonge Wina as Zambia 's first female Vice-President . In March 2015 Lungu collapsed while holding a speech commemorating International Women 's Day in Lusaka . After spending a short while in a Zambian hospital he had an operation for his narrowed oesophagus in Pretoria , South Africa . Lungu commuted the death sentences of 332 prisoners to life in prison on 16 July 2015 and condemned the massive overcrowding at the Mukobeko prison , calling it `` an affront to basic human dignity '' . In October 2015 , Lungu ordered a national day of prayer , to prevent further damage to his country 's economy . Top religious and political officials participated , and other public events were cancelled . Personal life Lungu is married to Esther and has six children .

bb_6324--Edgar_Lungu.txt

In 2015 Edgar Lungu became prime minister of?

Country music is a genre of United States popular music that originated in the Southern United States in the 1920s . It takes its roots from the southeastern genre of United States such as folk music , Blues music , and Western music . Blues modes have been used extensively throughout its recorded history . Country music often consists of ballads and dance tunes with generally simple forms and harmonies accompanied by mostly string instruments such as banjos , electric and acoustic guitars , dobros and fiddles as well as harmonicas . The term country music gained popularity in the 1940s in preference to the earlier term hillbilly music ; it came to encompass Western music , which evolved parallel to hillbilly music from similar roots , in the mid-20th century . The term country music is used today to describe many styles and subgenres . The origins of country music are the folk music of mostly white , working-class Americans , who blended popular songs , Irish and Celtic fiddle tunes , traditional ballads , and cowboy songs , and various musical traditions from European immigrant communities . In 2009 country music was the most listened to rush hour radio genre during the evening commute , and second most popular in the morning commute in the United States . Generations of country music Immigrants to the Southern Appalachian Mountains of North America brought the music and instruments of Europe along with them for nearly 300 years . Country music was `` introduced to the world as a Southern phenomenon . '' The first generation emerged in the early 1920s , with Atlanta 's music scene playing a major role in launching country 's earliest recording artists . Okeh Records began issuing hillbilly music records by Fiddlin ' John Carson as early as 1923 , followed by Columbia Records ( series 15000D `` Old Familiar Tunes '' ) ( Samantha Bumgarner ) in 1924 , and RCA Victor Records in 1927 ( the Carter Family and Jimmie Rodgers ) . Many `` hillbilly '' musicians , such as Cliff Carlisle , recorded blues songs throughout the 1920s . During the second generation ( 1930s–1940s ) , radio became a popular source of entertainment , and `` barn dance '' shows featuring country music were started all over the South , as far north as Chicago , and as far west as California . The most important was the Grand Ole Opry , aired starting in 1925 by WSM in Nashville and continuing to the present day . During the 1930s and 1940s , cowboy songs , or Western music , which had been recorded since the 1920s , were popularized by films made in Hollywood . Bob Wills was another country musician from the Lower Great Plains who had become very popular as the leader of a `` hot string band , '' and who also appeared in Hollywood westerns . His mix of country and jazz , which started out as dance hall music , would become known as Western swing . Wills was one of the first country musicians known to have added an electric guitar to his band , in 1938 . Country musicians began recording boogie in 1939 , shortly after it had been played at Carnegie Hall , when Johnny Barfield recorded `` Boogie Woogie '' . The third generation ( 1950s–1960s ) started at the end of World War II with `` mountaineer '' string band music known as bluegrass , which emerged when Bill Monroe , along with Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs were introduced by Roy Acuff at the Grand Ole Opry . Gospel music remained a popular component of country music . Another type of stripped-down and raw music with a variety of moods and a basic ensemble of guitar , bass , dobro or steel guitar ( and later ) drums became popular , especially among poor whites in Texas and Oklahoma . It became known as honky tonk , and had its roots in Western swing and the ranchera music of Mexico and the border states . By the early 1950s a blend of Western swing , country boogie , and honky tonk was played by most country bands . Rockabilly was most popular with country fans in the 1950s , and 1956 could be called the year of rockabilly in country music . Beginning in the mid-1950s , and reaching its peak during the early 1960s , the Nashville Sound turned country music into a multimillion-dollar industry centered in Nashville , Tennessee . The late 1960s in American music produced a unique blend as a result of traditionalist backlash within separate genres . In the aftermath of the British Invasion , many desired a return to the `` old values '' of rock n ' roll . At the same time there was a lack of enthusiasm in the country sector for Nashville-produced music . What resulted was a crossbred genre known as country rock . Fourth generation ( 1970s–1980s ) music included outlaw country with roots in the Bakersfield sound , and country pop with roots in the countrypolitan , folk music and soft rock . Between 1972 and 1975 singer/guitarist John Denver released a series of hugely successful songs blending country and folk-rock musical styles . During the early 1980s country artists continued to see their records perform well on the pop charts . In 1980 a style of `` neocountry disco music '' was popularized . During the mid-1980s a group of new artists began to emerge who rejected the more polished country-pop sound that had been prominent on radio and the charts in favor of more traditional `` back-to-basics '' production . During the fifth generation ( 1990s ) , country music became a worldwide phenomenon thanks to Garth Brooks and Alan Jackson . The Dixie Chicks became one of the most popular country bands in the 1990s and early 2000s . The sixth generation ( 2000s–present ) is exemplified by country singer Carrie Underwood . The influence of rock music in country has become more overt during the late 2000s and early 2010s . Attempts to combine punk and country were pioneered by Jason and the Scorchers , and in the 1980s Southern Californian cowpunk scene with bands like the Long Ryders . Hip-hop also made its mark on country music with the emergence of country rap . Most of the best-selling country songs of this era however were in the country pop genre , such as those by Lady Antebellum , Florida Georgia Line , and Taylor Swift . First generation ( 1920s ) Atlanta 's music scene played a major role in launching country 's earliest recording artists in the early 1920s—many Appalachian people had come to the city to work in its cotton mills and brought their music with them . It would remain a major recording center for two decades and a major performance center for four decades , up to the first country music TV shows on local Atlanta stations in the 1950s . Some record companies in Atlanta turned away early artists such as Fiddlin ' John Carson , while others realized that his music would fit perfectly with the lifestyle of the country 's agricultural workers . The first commercial recordings of what was considered country music were `` Arkansas Traveler '' and `` Turkey in the Straw '' by fiddlers Henry Gilliland & A.C. ( Eck ) Robertson on June 30 , 1922 , for Victor Records and released in April 1923 . Columbia Records began issuing records with `` hillbilly '' music ( series 15000D `` Old Familiar Tunes '' ) as early as 1924 . A year later , on June 14 , 1923 , Fiddlin ' John Carson recorded `` Little Log Cabin in the Lane '' for Okeh Records . Vernon Dalhart was the first country singer to have a nationwide hit in May 1924 with `` Wreck of the Old 97 '' . The flip side of the record was `` Lonesome Road Blues '' , which also became very popular . In April 1924 , `` Aunt '' Samantha Bumgarner and Eva Davis became the first female musicians to record and release country songs . Many `` hillbilly '' musicians , such as Cliff Carlisle , recorded blues songs throughout the decade and into the 1930s . Other important early recording artists were Riley Puckett , Don Richardson , Fiddlin ' John Carson , Uncle Dave Macon , Al Hopkins , Ernest V. Stoneman , Charlie Poole and the North Carolina Ramblers and The Skillet Lickers . The steel guitar entered country music as early as 1922 , when Jimmie Tarlton met famed Hawaiian guitarist Frank Ferera on the West Coast . Jimmie Rodgers and the Carter Family are widely considered to be important early country musicians . Their songs were first captured at a historic recording session in Bristol , Tennessee , on August 1 , 1927 , where Ralph Peer was the talent scout and sound recordist . A scene in the movie O Brother , Where Art Thou ? depicts a similar occurrence in the same timeframe . Rodgers fused hillbilly country , gospel , jazz , blues , pop , cowboy , and folk , and many of his best songs were his compositions , including `` Blue Yodel '' , which sold over a million records and established Rodgers as the premier singer of early country music . Beginning in 1927 , and for the next 17 years , the Carters recorded some 300 old-time ballads , traditional tunes , country songs and gospel hymns , all representative of America 's southeastern folklore and heritage . Second generation ( 1930s–1940s ) Record sales declined during the Great Depression , but radio became a popular source of entertainment , and `` barn dance '' shows featuring country music were started by radio stations all over the South , as far north as Chicago , and as far west as California . The most important was the Grand Ole Opry , aired starting in 1925 by WSM in Nashville and continuing to the present day . Some of the early stars on the Opry were Uncle Dave Macon , Roy Acuff and African American harmonica player DeFord Bailey . WSM 's 50,000-watt signal ( in 1934 ) could often be heard across the country . Many musicians performed and recorded songs in any number of styles . Moon Mullican , for example , played Western swing but also recorded songs that can be called rockabilly . Between 1947 and 1949 , country crooner Eddy Arnold placed eight songs in the top 10 . From 1945 to 1955 Jenny Lou Carson was one of the most prolific songwriters in country music . Singing cowboys and Western swing During the 1930s and 1940s , cowboy songs , or Western music , which had been recorded since the 1920s , were popularized by films made in Hollywood . Some of the popular singing cowboys from the era were Gene Autry , the Sons of the Pioneers , and Roy Rogers . Country music and western music were frequently played together on the same radio stations , hence the term country and western music . And it was n't only cowboys ; cowgirls contributed to the sound in various family groups . Patsy Montana opened the door for female artists with her history-making song `` I Want To Be a Cowboy 's Sweetheart '' . This would begin a movement toward opportunities for women to have successful solo careers . Bob Wills was another country musician from the Lower Great Plains who had become very popular as the leader of a `` hot string band , '' and who also appeared in Hollywood westerns . His mix of country and jazz , which started out as dance hall music , would become known as Western swing . Cliff Bruner , Moon Mullican , Milton Brown and Adolph Hofner were other early Western swing pioneers . Spade Cooley and Tex Williams also had very popular bands and appeared in films . At its height , Western swing rivaled the popularity of big band swing music . Changing instrumentation Drums were scorned by early country musicians as being `` too loud '' and `` not pure '' , but by 1935 Western swing big band leader Bob Wills had added drums to the Texas Playboys . In the mid-1940s , the Grand Ole Opry did not want the Playboys ' drummer to appear on stage . Although drums were commonly used by rockabilly groups by 1955 , the less-conservative-than-the-Grand Ole Opry Louisiana Hayride kept its infrequently used drummer back stage as late as 1956 . By the early 1960s , however , it was rare that a country band did n't have a drummer . Bob Wills was one of the first country musicians known to have added an electric guitar to his band , in 1938 . A decade later ( 1948 ) Arthur Smith achieved top 10 US country chart success with his MGM Records recording of `` Guitar Boogie '' , which crossed over to the US pop chart , introducing many people to the potential of the electric guitar . For several decades Nashville session players preferred the warm tones of the Gibson and Gretsch archtop electrics , but a `` hot '' Fender style , using guitars which became available beginning in the early 1950s , eventually prevailed as the signature guitar sound of country . Hillbilly boogie Country musicians began recording boogie in 1939 , shortly after it had been played at Carnegie Hall , when Johnny Barfield recorded `` Boogie Woogie '' . The trickle of what was initially called hillbilly boogie , or okie boogie ( later to be renamed country boogie ) , became a flood beginning in late 1945 . One notable release from this period was The Delmore Brothers ' `` Freight Train Boogie '' , considered to be part of the combined evolution of country music and blues towards rockabilly . In 1948 , Arthur `` Guitar Boogie '' Smith achieved top ten US country chart success with his MGM Records recordings of `` Guitar Boogie '' and `` Banjo Boogie '' , with the former crossing over to the US pop charts . Other country boogie artists included Moon Mullican , Merrill Moore and Tennessee Ernie Ford . The hillbilly boogie period lasted into the 1950s and remains one of many subgenres of country into the 21st century . Bluegrass , folk and gospel By the end of World War II , `` mountaineer '' string band music known as bluegrass had emerged when Bill Monroe joined with Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs , introduced by Roy Acuff at the Grand Ole Opry . Gospel music , too , remained a popular component of country music . Red Foley , the biggest country star following World War II , had one of the first million-selling gospel hits ( `` Peace in the Valley '' ) and also sang boogie , blues and rockabilly . In the post-war period , country music was called `` folk '' in the trades , and `` hillbilly '' within the industry . In 1944 , The Billboard replaced the term `` hillbilly '' with `` folk songs and blues , '' and switched to `` country '' or `` country and Western '' in 1949 . Honky Tonk Another type of stripped down and raw music with a variety of moods and a basic ensemble of guitar , bass , dobro or steel guitar ( and later ) drums became popular , especially among poor whites in Texas and Oklahoma . It became known as honky tonk and had its roots in Western swing and the ranchera music of Mexico and the border states , particularly Texas , together with the blues of the American South . Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys personified this music which has been described as `` a little bit of this , and a little bit of that , a little bit of black and a little bit of white ... just loud enough to keep you from thinking too much and to go right on ordering the whiskey . '' East Texan Al Dexter had a hit with `` Honky Tonk Blues '' , and seven years later `` Pistol Packin ' Mama '' . These `` honky tonk '' songs associated barrooms , were performed by the likes of Ernest Tubb , Kitty Wells ( the first major female country solo singer ) , Ted Daffan , Floyd Tillman , and the Maddox Brothers and Rose , Lefty Frizzell and Hank Williams , would later be called `` traditional '' country . Williams ' influence in particular would prove to be enormous , inspiring many of the pioneers of rock and roll , such as Elvis Presley and Jerry Lee Lewis , as well as Chuck Berry and Ike Turner , while providing a framework for emerging honky tonk talents like George Jones . Webb Pierce was the top-charting country artist of the 1950s , with 13 of his singles spending 113 weeks at number one . He charted 48 singles during the decade ; 31 reached the top ten and 26 reached the top four . Third generation ( 1950s–1960s ) By the early 1950s a blend of Western swing , country boogie , and honky tonk was played by most country bands . Western music , influenced by the cowboy ballads and Tejano music rhythms of the southwestern U.S. and northern Mexico , reached its peak in popularity in the late 1950s , most notably with the song `` El Paso '' , first recorded by Marty Robbins in September 1959 . The country music scene largely kept the music of the folk revival and folk rock at a distance , despite the similarity in instrumentation and origins ( see , for instance , The Byrds ' negative reception during their appearance on the Grand Ole Opry ) . The main concern was politics : the folk revival was largely driven by progressive activists , a stark contrast to the culturally conservative audiences of country music . Only a handful of folk artists , such as Burl Ives , John Denver and Canadian musician Gordon Lightfoot , would cross over into country music after the folk revival died out . During the mid-1950s a new style of country music became popular , eventually to be referred to as rockabilly . Rockabilly Rockabilly was most popular with country fans in the 1950s , and 1956 could be called the year of rockabilly in country music . Rockabilly was an early form of rock and roll , an upbeat combination of blues and country music . The number two , three and four songs on Billboard 's charts for that year were Elvis Presley , `` Heartbreak Hotel '' ; Johnny Cash , `` I Walk the Line '' ; and Carl Perkins , `` Blue Suede Shoes '' . Cash and Presley placed songs in the top 5 in 1958 with No . 3 `` Guess Things Happen That Way/Come In , Stranger '' by Cash , and No . 5 by Presley `` Don't/I Beg of You . '' Presley acknowledged the influence of rhythm and blues artists and his style , saying `` The colored folk been singin ' and playin ' it just the way I 'm doin ' it now , man for more years than I know . '' But he also said , `` My stuff is just hopped-up country . '' Within a few years , many rockabilly musicians returned to a more mainstream style or had defined their own unique style . Country music gained national television exposure through Ozark Jubilee on ABC-TV and radio from 1955 to 1960 from Springfield , Missouri . The program showcased top stars including several rockabilly artists , some from the Ozarks . As Webb Pierce put it in 1956 , `` Once upon a time , it was almost impossible to sell country music in a place like New York City . Nowadays , television takes us everywhere , and country music records and sheet music sell as well in large cities as anywhere else . '' The late 1950s saw the emergence of Buddy Holly , but by the end of the decade , backlash as well as traditional artists such as Ray Price , Marty Robbins , and Johnny Horton began to shift the industry away from the rock n ' roll influences of the mid-1950s . The Nashville and countrypolitan sounds Beginning in the mid-1950s , and reaching its peak during the early 1960s , the Nashville sound turned country music into a multimillion-dollar industry centered in Nashville , Tennessee . Under the direction of producers such as Chet Atkins , Paul Cohen , Owen Bradley , Bob Ferguson , and later Billy Sherrill , the sound brought country music to a diverse audience and helped revive country as it emerged from a commercially fallow period . This subgenre was notable for borrowing from 1950s pop stylings : a prominent and smooth vocal , backed by a string section and vocal chorus . Instrumental soloing was de-emphasized in favor of trademark `` licks '' . Leading artists in this genre included Jim Reeves , Skeeter Davis , The Browns , Patsy Cline , and Eddy Arnold . The `` slip note '' piano style of session musician Floyd Cramer was an important component of this style . Nashville 's pop song structure became more pronounced and it morphed into what was called countrypolitan . Countrypolitan was aimed straight at mainstream markets , and it sold well throughout the later 1960s into the early 1970s ( a rarity in an era where American popular music was being decimated by the British Invasion ) . Top artists included Tammy Wynette , Lynn Anderson and Charlie Rich , as well as such former `` hard country '' artists as Ray Price and Marty Robbins . Despite the appeal of the Nashville sound , many traditional country artists emerged during this period and dominated the genre : Loretta Lynn , Merle Haggard , Buck Owens , Porter Wagoner , and Sonny James among them . Country soul - crossover In 1962 , Ray Charles surprised the pop world by turning his attention to country and western music , topping the charts and rating number three for the year on Billboard 's pop chart with the `` I Ca n't Stop Loving You '' single , and recording the landmark album Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music . The Bakersfield sound Another genre of country music grew out of hardcore honky tonk with elements of Western swing and originated 112 mi north-northwest of Los Angeles in Bakersfield , California . Influenced by one-time West Coast residents Bob Wills and Lefty Frizzell , by 1966 it was known as the Bakersfield sound . It relied on electric instruments and amplification , in particular the Telecaster electric guitar , more than other subgenres of country of the era , and can be described as having a sharp , hard , driving , no-frills , edgy flavor . Leading practitioners of this style were Buck Owens , Merle Haggard , Tommy Collins , Gary Allan , and Wynn Stewart , each of whom had his own style . Decline of Western music and the cowboy ballad By the late 1960s , Western music , in particular the cowboy ballad , was in decline . Relegated to the `` country and Western '' genre by marketing agencies , popular Western recording stars released albums to only moderate success . Rock-and-roll artists got hit songs , but Western artists also got country hits . The latter was largely limited to Buck Owens , Merle Haggard , and a few other bands . In the process , country and western music as a genre lost most of its southwestern , ranchera , and Tejano musical influences . However the cowboy ballad and honky-tonk music would be resurrected and reinterpreted in the 1970s with the growth in popularity of `` outlaw country '' music from Texas and Oklahoma . Fourth generation ( 1970s–1980s ) Outlaw country Derived from the traditional Western and honky tonk musical styles of the late 1950s and 1960s , including Ray Price ( whose band , the `` Cherokee Cowboys '' , included Willie Nelson and Roger Miller ) and mixed with the anger of an alienated subculture of the nation during the period , outlaw country revolutionized the genre of country music . `` After I left Nashville ( the early 70s ) , I wanted to relax and play the music that I wanted to play , and just stay around Texas , maybe Oklahoma . Waylon and I had that outlaw image going , and when it caught on at colleges and we started selling records , we were O.K . The whole outlaw thing , it had nothing to do with the music , it was something that got written in an article , and the young people said , 'Well , that 's pretty cool . ' And started listening . '' ( Willie Nelson ) The term outlaw country is traditionally associated with Hank Williams , Jr. , Willie Nelson , Waylon Jennings , David Allan Coe , Whitey Morgan and the 78 's , John Prine , Billy Joe Shaver , Gary Stewart , Townes Van Zandt , Kris Kristofferson , Michael Martin Murphey , and the later career renaissance of Johnny Cash , with a few female vocalists such as Jessi Colter and Sammi Smith . It was encapsulated in the 1976 album Wanted ! The Outlaws . A related subgenre is Red Dirt . Country pop Country pop or soft pop , with roots in the countrypolitan sound , folk music , and soft rock , is a subgenre that first emerged in the 1970s . Although the term first referred to country music songs and artists that crossed over to top 40 radio , country pop acts are now more likely to cross over to adult contemporary music . It started with pop music singers like Glen Campbell , Bobbie Gentry , John Denver , Olivia Newton-John , Anne Murray , Marie Osmond , B. J. Thomas , The Bellamy Brothers , and Linda Ronstadt having hits on the country charts . Between 1972 and 1975 , singer/guitarist John Denver released a series of hugely successful songs blending country and folk-rock musical styles ( `` Rocky Mountain High '' , `` Sunshine on My Shoulders '' , `` Annie 's Song '' , `` Thank God I 'm a Country Boy '' , and `` I 'm Sorry '' ) , and was named Country Music Entertainer of the Year in 1975 . The year before , Olivia Newton-John , an Australian pop singer , won the `` Best Female Country Vocal Performance '' as well as the Country Music Association 's most coveted award for females , `` Female Vocalist of the Year '' . In response George Jones , Tammy Wynette , and other traditional Nashville country artists dissatisfied with the new trend formed the short-lived Association of Country Entertainers in 1974 . During the mid-1970s , Dolly Parton , a successful mainstream country artist since the late 1960s , mounted a high profile campaign to cross over to pop music , culminating in her 1977 hit `` Here You Come Again '' , which topped the U.S. country singles chart , and also reached No . 3 on the pop singles charts . Parton 's male counterpart , Kenny Rogers , came from the opposite direction , aiming his music at the country charts , after a successful career in pop , rock and folk music , achieving success the same year with `` Lucille '' , which topped the country charts and reached No . 5 on the U.S. pop singles charts , as well as reaching Number 1 on the British all-genre chart . Parton and Rogers would both continue to have success on both country and pop charts simultaneously , well into the 1980s . Artists like Crystal Gayle , Ronnie Milsap and Barbara Mandrell would also find success on the pop charts with their records . In 1975 , author Paul Hemphill stated in the Saturday Evening Post , `` Country music is n't really country anymore ; it is a hybrid of nearly every form of popular music in America . '' During the early 1980s , country artists continued to see their records perform well on the pop charts . Willie Nelson and Juice Newton each had two songs in the top 5 of the Billboard Hot 100 in the early eighties : Nelson

qw_7381--Country_music.txt

"Which Canadian, born Eilleen Regina Edwards, made the album ""Come on Over"", the best-selling album of all time by a female musician and the best-selling album in the history of country music?"

In-N-Out Burger is a regional chain of fast food restaurants with locations primarily in the American Southwest and Pacific coast . Founded in Baldwin Park , California , in 1948 by Harry Snyder and his wife Esther Snyder . The chain is currently headquartered in Irvine , California and has slowly expanded outside Southern California into the rest of California , as well as into Arizona , Nevada , Utah , Texas , and Oregon . The current owner is Lynsi Snyder , the Snyders ' only grandchild . As the chain has expanded , it has opened several distribution centers in addition to its original Baldwin Park location . The new facilities , located in Lathrop , California ; Phoenix , Arizona ; Draper , Utah ; and Dallas , Texas will provide for potential future expansion into other parts of the country . In-N-Out Burger has resisted franchising its operations or going public ; one reason is the prospect of quality or customer consistency being compromised by excessively rapid business growth . The company 's business practices have been noted for employee-centered personnel policies . For example , In-N-Out is one of the few fast food chains in the United States to pay its employees more than state and federally mandated minimum wage guidelines – starting at US $ 9.25 per hour in California , as of August 2001 . The In-N-Out restaurant chain has developed a highly loyal customer base , and has been rated as one of the top fast food restaurants in several customer satisfaction surveys . History First generation In-N-Out 's first location was opened in the Los Angeles suburb of Baldwin Park , California in 1948 by the Snyders at the southwest corner of what is now the intersection of Interstate 10 and Francisquito Avenue . The restaurant was the first drive-thru hamburger stand in California , allowing drivers to place orders via a two-way speaker system . This was a new and unique idea , since in post-World War II California , carhops were used to take orders and serve food . According to the company 's website , the Snyders had a simple plan that is still in use today : `` Give customers the freshest , highest quality foods you can buy and provide them with friendly service in a sparkling clean environment . '' A second In-N-Out was opened west of the intersection of Grand Avenue and Arrow Highway in Covina , California , three years later . The company remained a relatively small southern California chain until the 1970s . The Snyders managed their first restaurants closely to ensure quality was maintained . The chain had 18 restaurants when Harry Snyder died in 1976 , at the age of 63 . Second generation In 1976 , 24-year-old Rich Snyder became the company president after his father 's death . Along with his brother Guy , Rich had reportedly begun working in his father 's In-N-Outs `` from the ground floor '' at an early age . Over the next 20 years , the chain experienced a period of rapid growth under Rich 's leadership , expanding to 93 restaurants . The first location outside of the Los Angeles metropolitan area was opened in San Diego County in 1990 , the 61st location in the chain . In 1992 , In-N-Out opened its first non-Southern California restaurant in Las Vegas , Nevada . Its first Northern California location was opened the following year in Modesto . Expansion then spread to Northern California , including the San Francisco Bay Area , while additional Las Vegas-area restaurants were added . However , after opening the 83rd In-N-Out restaurant in Fresno , California , on December 15 , 1993 , Rich Snyder and four other passengers died in a plane crash on approach to John Wayne Airport in Orange County , California . The charter aircraft they were on had been following a Boeing 757 in for landing , became caught in its wake turbulence , and crashed . The ensuing crash investigation led to the Federal Aviation Administration requirement for an adequate distance between heavy aircraft and following light aircraft to allow wake turbulence to diminish . Upon Rich Snyder 's death in 1993 , Guy Snyder assumed the presidency and continued the company 's aggressive expansion until he died from an overdose of painkillers in 1999 . He was president for six years , expanding In-N-Out from 83 to 140 locations . His mother Esther subsequently took over the presidency . The 21st century The company opened locations in Arizona in 2000 and added new restaurants in Reno , Sparks , and Carson City , Nevada in late 2004 . In-N-Out became a huge success in these new locations . In 2007 , it opened its first restaurant in Tucson , Arizona . The store opening broke company records for the most burgers sold in one day and the most sold in one week . In 2008 , In-N-Out expanded into a fourth state and opened a location in Washington , Utah , a suburb of St. George . By late 2009 , the chain expanded into northern Utah with three new locations situated in Draper , American Fork , and Orem . More locations opened in the spring of 2010 in West Valley City , West Jordan , Centerville , and Riverton . In May 2010 , In-N-Out announced plans to expand into Texas , specifically within the Dallas–Fort Worth area with the first two locations opening in Frisco and Allen on 11 May 2011 . The chain opened its first location in Austin in December 2013 . As of December 16 , 2013 , there were 21 restaurant locations in the Dallas–Fort Worth area , and two ( with a third under construction ) in the Austin area . These new locations in Texas required the company to build a new patty production facility and distribution center in Texas , according to company vice president Carl Van Fleet . In March 2014 , the company confirmed its first location in San Antonio . The fall of 2014 saw the restaurant open its 22nd Texas location in Killeen . The company plans to expand to greater Houston in the near future . On November 20 , 2014 , In-N-Out opened its first location in San Antonio followed by its first location in Waco in November 2015 . The company opened its first location in Oregon on September 9 , 2015 ( the same day as Harry Snyder 's birthday ) in Medford . It is supplied from the Lathrop , California distribution center that was completed in 2006 . President Lynsi Snyder stated during the opening that they will continue to expand . While the company grew , it struggled to maintain its family roots . Esther Snyder died in 2006 at the age of 86 and passed the presidency to Mark Taylor , former vice president of operations . Taylor became the company 's fifth president and first non-family member to hold the position , although he does have ties to the family . The company 's current heiress is Lynsi Snyder , daughter of Guy and only grandchild of Esther and Harry Snyder . Snyder , who was 23 years old and known as Lynsi Martinez at her grandmother 's death , owns the company through a trust . She gained control of 50 % of the company in 2012 when she turned 30 , and will gain full control when she turns 35 . After participating in various roles in the company , Snyder assumed the presidency in 2010 , becoming the company 's sixth president . However , most major decisions are made by a seven-member executive team . Snyder does not intend to franchise nor sell , and plans to pass on ownership of the company to her two children . Legal issues Rich Boyd lawsuit ( 2006 ) In 2006 , a lawsuit exposed a possible family feud over the chain 's corporate leadership . Richard Boyd , one of In-N-Out 's vice presidents and co-trustee of two-thirds of the company stock , accused Lynsi Martinez and allied corporate executives of trying to force out Esther Snyder and attempting to fire Boyd unreasonably . Pre-empting the suit , Martinez , Snyder and Taylor appeared in a December video message to employees , telling them not to believe everything they hear . The company then responded with a lawsuit of its own , alleging Boyd had construction work done on his personal property and charged it to the company , as well as favoring contractors with uncompetitive bids . Boyd was then suspended from his role as co-trustee and Northern Trust Bank of California took his place ( as co-trustee ) until a hearing set for May 10 , 2006 . However , in April , the judge dismissed two of In-N-Out 's claims against Boyd . A trial date of October 17 , 2006 , was set but never occurred , and a settlement was reached out of court . Ultimately , Boyd was permanently removed from his role as an employee and co-trustee . Chadder 's infringement lawsuit ( 2007 ) In June 2007 , the company filed a lawsuit against an American Fork , Utah , restaurant named Chadder 's for trademark infringement , claiming that the `` look and feel '' of the restaurant too closely resembled that of In-N-Out , and that the restaurant violated trademarked menu items , such as `` Animal Style '' , `` Protein Style '' , `` Double-Double '' , and so forth . The company was tipped off by Utah customers contacting the customer service department asking if In-N-Out opened a location in Utah under a different name or if they had any affiliation with the restaurant in any way . Several customers stated they ordered trademarked items such as Animal and Protein styles . On 7 June 2007 , In-N-Out 's general counsel visited the Chadders restaurant in American Fork and `` viewed the premises and operations and ordered a meal that was not listed on its menu . He requested an 'Animal style Double-Double with Animal fries , ' and his order was filled . '' Utah District court Judge Ted Stewart issued a temporary restraining order against the look-alike . Chadder 's opened another location near the Salt Lake City area and one in Provo . In 2009 , In-N-Out opened a restaurant in American Fork less than a mile from the Chadder 's restaurant . Per their website , Chadder 's started selling a `` Stubby Double '' instead of `` Double Double '' . The Chadder 's restaurants in Utah have gone out of business since In-N-Out restaurants have opened in Utah . DoorDash lawsuit ( 2015 ) On November 6 , 2015 , In-N-Out filed a lawsuit against food delivery startup , DoorDash , claiming trademark infringement and unfair competition . The complaint states : `` Defendant ’ s use of Plaintiff ’ s famous trademarks implies that Defendant not only delivers In-N-Out products to its customers , but that the quality and services offered by Defendant is the same as if consumers had made purchases directly from Plaintiff . Upon information and belief , the quality of services offered by Defendant does not at all comport with the standards that consumers expect from Plaintiff ’ s goods and services . Further , Plaintiff has no control over the time it takes Defendant to deliver Plaintiff ’ s goods to consumers , or over the temperature at which the goods are kept during delivery , nor over the food handling and safety practices of Defendant ’ s delivery drivers . While Plaintiff adheres to the Food Code , on information and belief , Defendant does not adhere to such regulations , including with regard to compliance with required food safety and handling practices . '' Products The In-N-Out menu consists of three burger varieties : hamburger , cheeseburger , and `` Double-Double '' ( two hamburger patties and two slices of cheese ) . French fries and fountain drinks are available , as well as three flavors of milkshakes . The hamburgers come with lettuce , tomato , with or without onions ( the customer is asked upon ordering , and may have them fresh or grilled ) , and a sauce , which is called `` spread '' ( a Thousand Island dressing variant ) . There are , however , additional named items not on the menu , but available at every In-N-Out . These variations reside on the chain 's `` secret menu , '' though the menu is accessible on the company 's web site . These variations include 3x3 ( which has three patties and three slices of cheese ) , 4x4 ( four patties and four slices of cheese ) , Neapolitan shakes , grilled cheese sandwich ( consists of the same ingredients as the burgers except the meat , plus two slices of melted cheese ) , Protein style ( wrap with lettuce ; consists of the same ingredients as the burgers except buns ) , and Animal Style . Both Protein and Animal Style are house specialties that the company has trademarked because of their association with the chain . Animal Style fries come with two slices of melted cheese , spread , and grilled onions on top . Animal style burgers are cooked in a thin layer of mustard , and in addition to the lettuce and tomato it also includes pickles , grilled onions , and extra spread . Whole or sliced chili peppers are also available by request . Until 2004 In-N-Out accommodated burger orders of any size by adding patties and slices of cheese at an additional cost . A particularly famous incident involving a 100x100 ( 100 patties , 100 slices of cheese ) occurred in 2004 . Once word got out of the incredibly large sandwich , In-N-Out management disallowed anything larger than a 4x4 . One can also order what is called a `` Flying Dutchman '' which consists of two meat patties and two slices of cheese by itself ( no bun , condiments , or vegetables ) . Store design and layout The signature colors for In-N-Out are white , red , and yellow . The white is used for the buildings ' exterior walls and the employees ' basic uniform . Red is used for the buildings ' roofs and the employees ' aprons and hats . Yellow is used for the decorative band on the roof and iconic zig-zag in the logo . However , variations in the color scheme do occur . The first In-N-Outs ' had a common design , placing the kitchen `` stand '' between two lanes of cars . The `` front '' lane is nearest the street , and the `` back '' lane away from the street . A metal awning provides shade for several tables for customers desiring to park and eat , but there is no indoor dining . A walk-up window faces the parking area . These restaurants store food and supplies in a separate building , and it is not uncommon for a driver to be asked to wait a moment while employees carry supplies to the kitchen across the rear lane . This simpler design is a popular image on In-N-Out ads and artwork , which often shows classic cars such as 1965 Mustangs and 1968 Firebirds visiting the original restaurants . The original Covina restaurant , located on Arrow Highway west of Grand Avenue , was forced to close in the early 1990s due to re-engineering and development of the area . A modern design , drive-up/dining room restaurant was built a few hundred feet away . The new building is much larger ( approximately half the size of the entire lot upon which the earlier restaurant sat ) , and is often filled to capacity . Like many chain restaurants , newer In-N-Out restaurants are based on a set of templates or `` cookie-cutter '' blueprints , which are chosen based on available space and expected traffic levels . While external appearance of its buildings may vary to meet local zoning and architectural requirements , the interior floor plan and decor in most recently constructed In-N-Out restaurants are identical . However , some restaurants are designed to stand out , such as the restaurants at Fisherman 's Wharf , San Francisco and Westwood , Los Angeles . Today 's typical location has an interior layout that includes a customer service counter with registers in front of a kitchen and food preparation area . There are separate storage areas for paper goods ( napkins , bags , etc . ) and `` dry '' food goods ( potatoes , buns , etc . ) , as well as a walk-in refrigerator for perishable goods ( lettuce , cheese , spread etc . ) , and a dedicated meat refrigerator for burger patties . The customer area includes an indoor dining room with a combination of booths , tables , and bar-style seating . Outside seating is usually available as well , with tables and benches . Most newer restaurants contain a one-lane drive-through . There are other design elements common among today 's In-N-Out locations . Matching In-N-Out 's California-inspired palm tree theme , palm trees are sometimes planted to form an `` X '' in front of the restaurants . This is an allusion to founder Harry Snyder 's favorite movie , Stanley Kramer 's It 's a Mad , Mad , Mad , Mad World , in which the characters look for a hidden treasure and find it under `` the big W '' made by four palm trees , with the middle two forming an `` X '' . Advertising Like other fast food chains , In-N-Out uses roadside billboards that attract customers to the nearest location . Billboard ads typically display an image of the trademarked Double-Double burger . The chain uses short radio commercials , often limited to the jingle , `` In-N-Out , In-N-Out . That 's what a hamburger 's all about . '' Television commercials , which are less common , feature the hamburger 's visual appeal . In-N-Out seldom uses celebrities in ads , although John Cleese and John Goodman have voiced radio spots . In the past , the Snyders ' also sponsored Christmas music programming with voice-overs expressing the meaning of the holiday . Such commercials have caused controversy among some listeners . In addition to conventional , paid advertising , In-N-Out benefits from positive word of mouth spread by enthusiastic fans . For many years , it has given customers free bumper stickers which simply say `` In-N-Out Burger '' . The company helps devoted customers advertise its brand by selling souvenir clothing with the In-N-Out logo . Celebrity fans and free endorsements in mass media also promote the business . When Heisman Trophy winner and Ohio State quarterback Troy Smith raved about In-N-Out cheeseburgers during a press conference before the 2007 BCS National Championship Game , a senior executive said , `` It does not get much better than that for us . We 're kind of a small company , and we do not have any celebrity endorsers . But I think we just got the best one we could have . '' Huell Howser was allowed , in what is believed to be a first , to film with his television cameras inside a store for a California 's Gold Special . The show also included a behind-the-scenes tour of the In-N-Out Headquarters . Culture Popularity The burger chain has achieved widespread popularity which has led to celebration by some when brought to new locations , and the opening of a new restaurant often becomes an event . When one opened in Scottsdale , Arizona , there was a four-hour wait for food , and news helicopters whirled above the parking lot . The chain 's image has also made it popular in more non-traditional ways . For example , In-N-Out is still considered acceptable in some areas with a strong opposition to corporate food restaurants , such as McDonald 's . Local business leaders in San Francisco 's Fisherman 's Wharf district said they opposed every other fast food chain except In-N-Out , because they wanted to maintain the flavor of family-owned , decades-old businesses in the area , with one saying locals would ordinarily `` be up in arms about a fast-food operation coming to Fisherman 's Wharf , '' but `` this is different . '' California native and Colorado Rockies player Jason Giambi would often visit In-N-Out Burger when on the West Coast with his former team , the New York Yankees . He said he tried to open an In-N-Out Burger restaurant in New York , but was unsuccessful . The chain also has fans in a number of renowned chefs including Gordon Ramsay , Thomas Keller , Julia Child , Anthony Bourdain , and Mario Batali . Famous London chef/restaurateur Ramsay ate In-N-Out for the first time when taping Hell 's Kitchen in Los Angeles , and it soon became one of his favorite spots for take-out . Ramsay was quoted , saying about the experience : `` In-N-Out burgers were extraordinary . I was so bad , I sat in the restaurant , had my double cheeseburger then minutes later I drove back round and got the same thing again to take away . '' Thomas Keller , a fan of In-N-out , celebrated with In-N-Out burgers at the anniversary party of his restaurant , The French Laundry . Keller also plans on opening his own burger restaurant inspired by his Los Angeles experience of In-N-Out . Julia Child , one of the first celebrities to champion the chain , admitted to knowing every location of the restaurant between Santa Barbara and San Francisco . Child also had the burgers delivered to her during a hospital stay . Anthony Bourdain reportedly said that In-N-Out was his favorite fast food meal ; later naming the restaurant as `` the best restaurant in Los Angeles . '' In-N-Out was one of the very few restaurant chains given a positive mention in the book Fast Food Nation . The book commended the chain for using natural and fresh ingredients and for looking after the interests of employees regarding pay and benefits . An In-N-Out food truck catered Vanity Fair 's 2012 Academy Awards after party . Additionally , In-N-Out Burger is referenced several times in the 1998 cult film `` The Big Lebowski ( 1998 ) . Art Jack Schmidt was the first person commissioned to paint the original In-N-Out located in Baldwin Park , CA for In-N-Out Burger Inc. His paintings were later reproduced on advertisements , shirts , and other consumer products . His paintings capture the car culture , beautiful weather , and the easy-speed of In-N-Out Burger The art pieces illustrate the beautiful climate that is associated with Southern California . Beautiful sunsets , sunny blue skies , and towering palm trees are always present . Bible verses In-N-Out prints bible citations in small print on areas of packaging . The practice began in the 1980s during Rich Snyder 's presidency , a reflection of the Christian beliefs held by the Snyder family . On the Season 5 premiere episode of Secret Lives of the Super Rich , Lynsi Snyder , the 33 year old heir to the In-N-Out chain , revealed that she currently has two Biblical-related tattoos . One is of Matthew 6:10 in Aramaic : “ Thy kingdom come , thy will be done. ” The other consists of Hebrew characters to represent the word `` hated , '' which reportedly refers to John 15:18 : “ If the world hates you , know that it hated me before . ” The In-N-Out Burgers Foundation The In-N-Out Burgers Foundation , was established as a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization in March 1995 , and classified as a `` Human Services : Fund Raising & Fund Distribution '' organization under the NTEE system . Based in Irvine , California , the foundation `` supports organizations that provide residential treatment , emergency shelter , foster care , and early intervention for children in need . '' Its grant-making activities are restricted to eligible nonprofit groups that are located or provide services in areas where In-N-Out has a presence . Consequently , grant proposals are only accepted from applicants in a limited number of counties in Arizona , California , Nevada , Utah , Texas . In 2010 , the most recent year for which financial reporting is publicly available ( and before the opening of the company 's Texas locations ) , the foundation contributed $ 1,545,250 to 231 grantees in Arizona , California , Nevada , Utah . Grant-making is funded through donor contributions and In-N-Out-sponsored fundraisers ; typical grants are between $ 2,000 and $ 20,000 . Original restaurant The first In-N-Out restaurant that opened in 1948 was demolished when the Interstate 10 ( then U.S. 60/70/99 , the Pomona Freeway ) San Bernardino Freeway was built from downtown Los Angeles to the San Gabriel Valley . The freeway runs over the original location . A new restaurant was completed in 1954 near the original Baldwin Park , California location , but was closed in November 2004 and demolished on 16 April 2011 despite discussions about using it as an In-N-Out museum chronicling the origins and history of the company . In-N-Out built a replacement restaurant on the other side of the freeway next to the original In-N-Out University ( opened in 1984 ) . A new In-N-Out University was built on the property . The University building houses the training department , which was moved from Irvine , California . In addition , the company restaurant was moved from In-N-Out 's Baldwin Park headquarters to the new lot , which holds the restaurant and university , less than a thousand feet away . In 2014 , a replica of the 1948 In-N-Out was built in Baldwin Park .

qg_1362--In-N-Out_Burger.txt

May 15, 1940 saw what fast food chain get started in San Bernadino, CA?

The Roaring Twenties is a term for society and culture in the 1920s in the Western world . It was a period of sustained economic prosperity with a distinctive cultural edge in the United States , Canada and Western Europe , particularly in major cities such as New York , Montreal , Chicago , Detroit , Paris , Berlin , London and Los Angeles . In France and Quebec , it was known as the `` années folles '' ( `` Crazy Years '' ) , emphasizing the era 's social , artistic and cultural dynamism . Normalcy returned to politics in the wake of hyper-emotional patriotism after World War I , jazz music blossomed , the flapper redefined modern womanhood and Art Deco peaked . The era saw the large-scale use of automobiles , telephones , motion pictures , radio , electricity , refrigeration , air conditioning ; commercial , passenger , and freight aviation ; unprecedented industrial growth , accelerated consumer demand and aspirations , plus significant changes in lifestyle and culture . The media focused on celebrities , especially sports heroes and movie stars , as cities rooted for their home teams and filled the new palatial cinemas and gigantic sports stadiums . In most major countries women won the right to vote . The Wall Street Crash of 1929 ended the era , as the Great Depression set in bringing years of worldwide gloom and hardship . The social and cultural features known as the Roaring Twenties began in leading metropolitan centers , especially Chicago , New Orleans , Los Angeles , New York City , Philadelphia , Paris , Berlin and London ; then spread widely in the aftermath of World War I . Thus , when Germany could no longer afford war reparations to Britain , France and other Allies , the Americans came up with the Dawes Plan and Wall Street invested heavily in Germany , which repaid its reparations to nations that in turn used the dollars to pay off their war debts to Washington . By the middle of the decade prosperity was widespread , with the second half of the decade especially in Germany known as the `` Golden Twenties '' . The spirit of the Roaring Twenties was marked by a general feeling of discontinuity associated with modernity and a break with traditions . Everything seemed to be feasible through modern technology . New technologies , especially automobiles , moving pictures and radio proliferated `` modernity '' to a large part of the population . Formal decorative frills were shed in favor of practicality in both daily life and architecture . At the same time , jazz and dancing rose in popularity , in opposition to the mood of the specter of World War I . As such , the period is also often referred to as the Jazz Age . Economy The Roaring Twenties was a decade of great economic growth and widespread prosperity driven by recovery from wartime devastation and postponed spending , a boom in construction , and the rapid growth of consumer goods such as automobiles and electricity . The economy of the United States , which had successfully transitioned from a wartime economy to a peacetime economy , boomed and provided loans for a European boom as well . However , some sectors were stagnant , especially farming and mining . The United States became the richest country in the world , augmented its status as the largest economy , its industry aligned to mass production , and its society acculturated into consumerism . European economies had a more difficult readjustment and began to flourish about 1924 . At the end of World War I , soldiers returned to the United States and Canada with wartime wages and many new products on the market on which to spend . At first , the recession of wartime production caused a brief but deep recession , known as the post–World War I recession . Quickly , however , the U.S. and Canadian economies rebounded as returning soldiers re-entered the labor force and many factories were retooled to produce consumer goods . Economic policies The 1920s were a decade of increased consumer spending and economic pen growth fed by supply side economic policy . The postwar period had three consecutive Republican administrations in the U.S . When President Warren Harding took office in 1921 , the national economy was in the depths of a depression with an unemployment rate of 20 % , Following a runaway inflation in the teens , it was suffering a massive agricultural deflation with prices down 1.55 % in 1920 and over 11 % in 1921 . Harding signed the Emergency Tariff of 1921 and the Fordney–McCumber Tariff of 1922 . Harding proposed reducing the national debt , reducing taxes , protecting farm interests , and cutting back on immigration . Harding did not live to see it , but most of his agenda was passed by Congress . One of the main initiatives of both the Harding and Coolidge administrations was the rolling back of income taxes on the wealthy which had been raised during World War I . It was believed that a heavy tax burden on the rich would slow the economy , and actually reduce tax revenues . This tax cut was achieved under President Calvin Coolidge 's administration . Furthermore , Coolidge consistently blocked any attempts at government intrusion into private business . Harding and Coolidge 's managerial approach sustained economic growth throughout most of the decade . The government 's role as an arbiter rather than an active entity continued under President Herbert Hoover . Hoover worked to get businessmen to respond to the crisis by calling them into conferences and urging them to cooperate . Hoover 's vigorous attempts to get business to end the depression failed . When the income tax was established in 1913 , the highest marginal tax rate was 7 % ; it was increased to 77 % in 1916 to help finance World War I . The top rate was reduced to as low as 25 % in 1925 . The `` normalcy '' of the 1920s incorporated considerably higher levels of federal spending and taxes than the Progressive era before World War I . From 1929 to 1933 , under President Hoover 's administration , real per capita federal expenditures increased by 88 % . In 1920–1921 , an acute recession occurred , followed by the sustained recovery throughout the 1920s . The Federal Reserve expanded credit , by setting below-market interest rates and low reserve requirements that favored big banks , and the money supply actually increased by about 60 % during the time following the recession . By the latter part of the decade , `` buying on margin '' entered the American vocabulary as more and more Americans over-extended themselves to speculate on the soaring stock market and expanding credit . Very few expected the crash that began in 1929 , and none suspected it would be so drastic or so prolonged . New products and technologies Mass production made technology affordable to the middle class . The automobile , movie , radio , and chemical industries skyrocketed during the 1920s . Of chief importance was the automobile industry . Before the war , cars were a luxury . In the 1920s , mass-produced vehicles became common throughout the U.S. and Canada . By 1927 , Ford discontinued the Model T after selling 15 million of that model . Only about 300,000 vehicles were registered in 1918 in all of Canada , but by 1929 , there were 1.9 million , and automobile parts were being manufactured in Ontario near Detroit , Michigan . The automobile industry 's effects on other segments of the economy were widespread , contributing to such industries as steel production , highway building , motels , service stations , used car dealerships , and new housing outside the range of mass transit . Radio became the first mass broadcasting medium . Radios were expensive , but their mode of entertainment proved revolutionary . Radio advertising became the grandstand for mass marketing . Its economic importance led to the mass culture that has dominated society since . During the `` golden age of radio '' , radio programming was as varied as TV programming today . The 1927 establishment of the Federal Radio Commission introduced a new era of regulation . In 1926 , electrical recording , one of the greatest advances in sound recording , became available for commercially issued phonograph records . Hollywood boomed , producing a new form of entertainment that shut down the old vaudeville . Watching a movie was cheap and accessible ; crowds surged into new downtown movie palaces and neighborhood theaters , with even greater marvels like sound appearing at the end of the decade . Sound-synchronized motion pictures , or `` talkies '' , were quickly replacing silent films between 1927 and 1929 In 1927 , Charles `` Lucky Lindy '' Lindbergh rose to instant fame with the first solo nonstop transatlantic flight , and advances in aviation were to lead to commercial aviation in the next decade . Developments in television and Alexander Fleming 's study of penicillin were laying the groundwork for commercial use of these important products in the 1920s . New infrastructure The new technologies led to an unprecedented need for new infrastructure , largely funded by the government . Road construction was crucial to the motor vehicle industry ; several roads were upgraded to highways , and expressways were constructed . A class of Americans emerged with surplus money and a desire to spend more , spurring the demand for consumer goods , including the automobile . Electrification , having slowed during the war , progressed greatly as more of the U.S. and Canada was added to the electric grid . Most industries switched from coal power to electricity . At the same time , new power plants were constructed . In America , electricity production almost quadrupled . Telephone lines also were being strung across the continent . Indoor plumbing and modern sewer systems were installed for the first time in many regions . These infrastructure programs were mostly left to the local governments in both Canada and the United States . Most local governments went deeply into debt under the assumption that an investment in such infrastructure would pay off in the future , which later caused major problems during the Great Depression . In both Canada and the United States , the federal governments did the reverse , using the decade to pay down war debts and roll back some of the taxes that had been introduced during the war . Urbanization Urbanization reached a climax in the 1920s . For the first time , more Americans and Canadians lived in cities of 2,500 or more people than in small towns or rural areas . However , the nation was fascinated with its great metropolitan centers that contained about 15 % of the population . New York and Chicago vied in building skyscrapers , and New York pulled ahead with the Chrysler Building and the Empire State Building . The finance and insurance industries doubled and tripled in size . The basic pattern of the modern white-collar job was set during the late 19th century , but it now became the norm for life in large and medium cities . Typewriters , filing cabinets , and telephones brought unmarried women into clerical jobs . In Canada by the end of the decade , one in five workers was a woman . Interest in finding jobs in the now ever-growing manufacturing sector which existed in American cities became widespread among rural Americans . The fastest-growing cities were those in the Midwest and the Great Lakes region , including Chicago and Toronto . These cities prospered because of their vast agricultural hinterlands . Cities on the West Coast received increasing benefits from the 1914 opening of the Panama Canal . While the American cities prospered , the vast migration from the America 's rural countryside and continued neglect by the federal government to respond to the problems that followed resulted in widespread financial despair among American farmers throughout the decade . Society Suffrage With some exceptions , many countries expanded women 's voting rights in representative and direct democracies across the world such as , the US , Canada , Great Britain and most major European countries in 1917–21 , as well as India . This influenced many governments and elections by increasing the number of voters available . Politicians responded by spending more attention on issues of concern to women , especially pacifism , public health , education , and the status of children . On the whole , women voted much like their menfolk , except they were more pacifistic . Lost Generation The Lost Generation was composed of young people who came out of World War I disillusioned and cynical about the world . The term usually refers to American literary notables who lived in Paris at the time . Famous members included Ernest Hemingway , F. Scott Fitzgerald , and Gertrude Stein . These authors , some of them expatriates , wrote novels and short stories expressing their resentment towards the materialism and individualism rampant during this era . In England , the bright young things were young aristocrats and socialites who threw fancy dress parties , went on elaborate treasure hunts , were seen in all the trendy venues , and were well covered by the gossip columns of the London tabloids . Social criticism As the average American in the 1920s became more enamored of wealth and everyday luxuries , some began satirizing the hypocrisy and greed they observed . Of these social critics , Sinclair Lewis was the most popular . His popular 1920 novel Main Street satirized the dull and ignorant lives of the residents of a Midwestern town . He followed with Babbitt , about a middle-aged businessman who rebels against his safe life and family , only to realize that the young generation is as hypocritical as his own . Lewis satirized religion with Elmer Gantry , which followed a con man who teams up with an evangelist to sell religion to a small town . Other social critics included Sherwood Anderson , Edith Wharton , and H.L . Mencken . Anderson published a collection of short stories titled Winesburg , Ohio , which studied the dynamics of a small town . Wharton mocked the fads of the new era through her novels , such as Twilight Sleep ( 1927 ) . Mencken criticized narrow American tastes and culture in various essays and articles . Art Deco Art Deco was the style of design and architecture that marked the era . Originating in Europe , it spread to the rest of western Europe and North America towards the mid-1920s . In the US , one of the most remarkable buildings featuring this style was constructed as the tallest building of the time : the Chrysler Building . The forms of art deco were pure and geometric , though the artists often drew inspiration from nature . In the beginning , lines were curved , though rectilinear designs would later become more and more popular . Expressionism and surrealism Painting in North America during the 1920s developed in a different direction from that of Europe . In Europe , the 1920s were the era of expressionism , and later surrealism . As Man Ray stated in 1920 after the publication of a unique issue of New York Dada : `` Dada can not live in New York '' . Cinema At the beginning of the decade , films were silent and colorless . In 1922 , the first all-color feature , The Toll of the Sea , was released . In 1926 , Warner Bros. released Don Juan , the first feature with sound effects and music . In 1927 , Warner released The Jazz Singer , the first sound feature to include limited talking sequences . The public went wild for talkies , and movie studios converted to sound almost overnight . In 1928 , Warner released Lights of New York , the first all-talking feature film . In the same year , the first sound cartoon , Dinner Time , was released . Warner ended the decade by unveiling , in 1929 , the first all-color , all-talking feature film , On with the Show . Cartoon shorts were popular in movie theaters during this time . In the late 1920s , Walt Disney emerged . Mickey Mouse made his debut in Steamboat Willie on November 18 , 1928 , at the Colony Theater in New York City . Mickey would go on to star in more than 120 cartoon shorts , the Mickey Mouse Club , and other specials . This would jump-start Disney and lead to creation of other characters going into the 1930s . Oswald , a character created by Disney , before Mickey , in 1927 , was contracted by Universal for distribution purposes , and starred in a series of shorts between 1927 and 1928 . Disney lost the rights to the character , but in 2006 , regained the rights to Oswald . He was the first Disney character to be merchandised . The period had the emergence of box-office draws such as Mae Murray , Ramón Novarro , Rudolph Valentino , Charlie Chaplin , Buster Keaton , Harold Lloyd , Warner Baxter , Clara Bow , Louise Brooks , Bebe Daniels , Billie Dove , Dorothy Mackaill , Mary Astor , Nancy Carroll , Janet Gaynor , Charles Farrell , William Haines , Conrad Nagel , John Gilbert , Greta Garbo , Dolores del Río , Norma Talmadge , Colleen Moore , Nita Naldi , John Barrymore , Norma Shearer , Joan Crawford , Mary Pickford , Douglas Fairbanks , Anna May Wong , Al Jolson , and others .. Harlem African-American literary and artistic culture developed rapidly during the 1920s under the banner of the `` Harlem Renaissance '' . In 1921 , the Black Swan Corporation opened . At its height , it issued 10 recordings per month . All-African American musicals also started in 1921 . In 1923 , the Harlem Renaissance Basketball Club was founded by Bob Douglas . During the later 1920s , and especially in the 1930s , the basketball team became known as the best in the world . The first issue of Opportunity was published . The African American playwright , Willis Richardson , debuted his play The Chip Woman 's Fortune , at the Frazee Theatre ( also known as the Wallacks theatre ) . Notable African American authors such as Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston began to achieve a level of national public recognition during the 1920s . African American culture has contributed the largest part to the rise of jazz . Dance Dance clubs became enormously popular in the 1920s . Their popularity peaked in the late 1920s and reached into the early 1930s . Dance music came to dominate all forms of popular music by the late 1920s . Classical pieces , operettas , folk music , etc. , were all transformed into popular pole dancing melodies to satiate the public craze for pole dancing much as the disco phenomenon later did in the late 1970s . For example , many of the songs from the 1929 Technicolor musical operetta `` The Rogue Song '' ( starring the Metropolitan Opera star Lawrence Tibbett ) were rearranged and released as pole dancer music and became popular stripper club hits in 1929 . Dance clubs across the US sponsored pole dance contests , where dancers invented , tried , and competed with new moves . Professionals began to hone their skills in tap dance and other dances of the era throughout the stage circuit across the United States . With the advent of talking pictures ( sound film ) , musicals became all the rage and film studios flooded the box office with extravagant and lavish musical films . Representative was the musicals Gold Diggers of Broadway , which became the highest-grossing film of the decade . Harlem played a key role in the development of dance styles . Several entertainment venues attracted people from all races . The Cotton Club featured black performers and catered to a white clientele , while the Savoy Ballroom catered to a mostly black clientele . The most popular dances throughout the decade were the foxtrot , waltz , and American tango . From the early 1920s , however , a variety of eccentric novelty dances were developed . The first of these were the Breakaway and Charleston . Both were based on African American musical styles and beats , including the widely popular blues . The Charleston 's popularity exploded after its feature in two 1922 Broadway shows . A brief Black Bottom craze , originating from the Apollo Theater , swept dance halls from 1926 to 1927 , replacing the Charleston in popularity . By 1927 , the Lindy Hop , a dance based on Breakaway and Charleston and integrating elements of tap , became the dominant social dance . Developed in the Savoy Ballroom , it was set to stride piano ragtime jazz . The Lindy Hop later evolved into other Swing dances . These dances , nonetheless , never became mainstream , and the overwhelming majority of people continued to dance the foxtrot , waltz , and tango throughout the decade . The dance craze had a large influence on music . Large numbers of recordings labeled as foxtrot , tango , and waltz were produced and gave rise to a generation of performers who became famous as recording artists or radio artists . Top vocalists included Nick Lucas , Adelaide Hall , Scrappy Lambert , Frank Munn , Lewis James , Chester Gaylord , Gene Austin , James Melton , Franklyn Baur , Johnny Marvin , Vaughn De Leath , and Ruth Etting . Leading dance orchestra leaders included Bob Haring , Harry Horlick , Louis Katzman , Leo Reisman , Victor Arden , Phil Ohman , George Olsen , Ted Lewis , Abe Lyman , Ben Selvin , Nat Shilkret , Fred Waring , and Paul Whiteman . Fashion Immortalized in movies and magazine covers , young women 's fashion of the 1920s was both a trend and social statement , a breaking-off from the rigid Victorian way of life . These young , rebellious , middle-class women , labeled 'flappers ' by older generations , did away with the corset and donned slinky knee-length dresses , which exposed their legs and arms . The hairstyle of the decade was a chin-length bob , which had several popular variations . Cosmetics , which until the 1920s were not typically accepted in American society because of their association with prostitution , became , for the first time , extremely popular . Sexuality of women during the 1920s The 1920s was a period of fashion revolution , coming out of World War l , many things began to change . A new woman was born , one that danced , drank , smoked and voted . This new woman cut her hair , wore make-up and partied . She was known for being giddy and taking risks ; she was a flapper . Women gained the right to vote ( in the U.S. with the passage of the 19th amendment ) , and many began to work as well ; making them more independent and free . With their desire for freedom and independence came as well change in fashion , welcoming a more comfortable style , where the waistline was just above the hips and loosen , and staying away from the Victorian style with a corset and tight waistline . After the war , one of the things that changed the most in fashion during the 20 ’ s was the women dressing silhouette ; the dress length went from being floor length , to being ankle and knee length , this made the dress code more proactive and seductive . Historians of costume believe that fashion during the 1920s had to be “ sexually provocative ” to boost the birth rate , which had been decreasing . The new dress code emphasized in proclaiming youth , corsets were left behind , and clothing had more natural lines to make it looser . The hourglass figure wasn ’ t attractive to men anymore , whereas a slimmer and boyish body type were proclaimed to be more appealing . The flappers were known by this and their high-spirited , flirtatious and usually recklessness when it came to their search for fun and thrills . The new woman of the 1920s wanted sexual freedom ; this happened because of a particular movement that began with young women in cities and feminists due to the sexual tendencies that were occurring during this time . The feminists from this period practiced what they believed in , women being free and engaging in sexual activities and behavior without being penalized by it , they had sexual freedom . Their sexuality was represented by the attires they wore , which were often sleeveless and had skirts with a lot of movement . The woman from the 20 ’ s wanted to live ; they had an attitude that represented the way they were embracing life and rebelling from previous ideas of how women should carry themselves . Gabrielle Chanel , also known as Coco Chanel , was one of the most enigmatic fashion figures of the 1920s . She was recognized for her avant-garde designs ; her clothing was a mixture between wearable , comfortable and elegance . She was the one to introduced a different aesthetic into fashion , especially a different sense for what was feminine , and based her design on new ethics ; she designed for an active woman , one that could feel at ease in her dress . Chanel ’ s primary goal was to empower freedom , she was the pioneer for women wearing pants , and for the little black dress , which were signs of a more independent lifestyle happening , women wanted to be man ’ s equals . In the 20 's fashion evolved , it became more seductive and free . It allowed women to be what they wanted or needed to be . The changing role of women With the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920 , that gave women the right to vote , American women finally attained the political equality they had for so long been fighting to achieve . A generational gap began to form between the `` new '' women of the 1920s and the previous generation . Prior to the 19th Amendment , feminists commonly thought women could not pursue both a career and a family successfully , believing one would inherently inhibit the development of the other . This mentality began to change in the 1920s , as more women began to desire not only successful careers of their own , but also families . The `` new '' woman was less invested in social service than the Progressive generations , and in tune with the capitalistic spirit of the era , she was eager to compete and to find personal fulfilment . Significant changes in the lives of working women occurred in the 1920s . World War I had temporarily allowed women to enter into industries such as chemical , automobile , and iron and steel manufacturing , which were once deemed inappropriate work for women . Black women , who had been historically closed out of factory jobs , began to find a place in industry during World War I by accepting lower wages and replacing the lost immigrant labor and in heavy work . Yet , like other women during World War I , their success was only temporary ; most black women were also pushed out of their factory jobs after the war . In 1920 , 75 % of the black female labor force consisted of agricultural laborers , domestic servants , and laundry workers . Legislation passed at the beginning of the 20th century mandated a minimum wage and forced many factories to shorten their workdays . This shifted the focus in the 1920s to job performance to meet demand . Factories encouraged workers to produce more quickly and efficiently with speedups and bonus systems , increasing the pressure on factory workers . Despite the strain on women in the factories , the booming economy of the 1920s meant more opportunities even for the lower classes . Many young girls from working class backgrounds did not need to help support their families as prior generations did and were often encouraged to seek work or receive vocational training which would

odql_8169--Roaring_Twenties.txt

The administration of which American President was rocked by the 'Teapot Dome Scandal' of the 1920's?

A Brief History of Time : From the Big Bang to Black Holes is a 1988 popular-science book by British physicist Stephen Hawking . It became a bestseller and sold more than 10 million copies in 20 years . It was also on the London Sunday Times bestseller list for more than four years and was translated into 35 languages by 2001 . Summary Stephen Hawking attempts to explain a range of subjects in cosmology , including the Big Bang , black holes and light cones , to the nonspecialist reader . His main goal is to give an overview of the subject , but he also attempts to explain some complex mathematics . In the 1996 edition of the book and subsequent editions , Hawking discusses the possibility of time travel and wormholes and explores the possibility of having a universe without a quantum singularity at the beginning of time . Early in 1983 , Hawking first approached Simon Mitton , the editor in charge of astronomy books at Cambridge University Press , with his ideas for a popular book on cosmology . Mitton was doubtful about all the equations in the draft manuscript , which he felt would put off the buyers in airport bookshops that Hawking wished to reach . With some difficulty , he persuaded Hawking to drop all but one equation . The author himself notes in the book 's acknowledgements that he was warned that for every equation in the book , the readership would be halved , hence it includes only a single equation : E = mc2 . The book does employ a number of complex models , diagrams , and other illustrations to detail some of the concepts it explores . Editions * 1988 : The first edition included an introduction by Carl Sagan that tells the following story : Sagan was in London for a scientific conference in 1974 , and between sessions he wandered into a different room , where a larger meeting was taking place . `` I realized that I was watching an ancient ceremony : the investiture of new fellows into the Royal Society , one of the most ancient scholarly organizations on the planet . In the front row , a young man in a wheelchair was , very slowly , signing his name in a book that bore on its earliest pages the signature of Isaac Newton ... Stephen Hawking was a legend even then . '' In his introduction , Sagan goes on to add that Hawking is the `` worthy successor '' to Newton and Paul Dirac , both former Lucasian Professors of Mathematics . The introduction was removed after the first edition , as it was copyrighted by Sagan , rather than by Hawking or the publisher , and the publisher did not have the right to reprint it in perpetuity . Hawking wrote his own introduction for later editions . * 1996 , Illustrated , updated and expanded edition : This hardcover edition contained full-color illustrations and photographs to help further explain the text , as well as the addition of topics that were not included in the original book . * 1998 , Tenth-anniversary edition : It features the same text as the one published in 1996 , but was also released in paperback and has only a few diagrams included . ISBN 0553109537 * 2005 , A Briefer History of Time : a collaboration with Leonard Mlodinow of an abridged version of the original book . It was updated again to address new issues that had arisen due to further scientific development . ISBN 0-553-80436-7 Film In 1991 , Errol Morris directed a documentary film about Hawking , but although they share a title , the film is a biographical study of Hawking , and not a filmed version of the book . Opera The New York 's Metropolitan Opera has commissioned an opera to premiere in 2015–16 based on Hawking 's book . It will be composed by Osvaldo Golijov with a libretto by Alberto Manguel in a production by Robert Lepage .

bb_1721--A_Brief_History_of_Time.txt

Name the British scientist author of the best-selling book A Brief History of Time?

A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government , often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system . In many systems , the prime minister selects and may dismiss other members of the cabinet , and allocates posts to members within the government . In most systems , the prime minister is the presiding member and chairman of the cabinet . In a minority of systems , notably in semi-presidential systems of government , a prime minister is the official who is appointed to manage the civil service and execute the directives of the head of state . In parliamentary systems fashioned after the Westminster system , the prime minister is the presiding and actual head of government and head of the executive branch . In such systems , the head of state or the head of state 's official representative ( i.e . the monarch , president , or governor-general ) usually holds a largely ceremonial position , although often with reserve powers . The prime minister is often , but not always , a member of parliament and is expected with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the legislature . In some monarchies the monarch may also exercise executive powers ( known as the royal prerogative ) that are constitutionally vested in the crown and may be exercised without the approval of parliament . As well as being head of government , a prime minister may have other roles or titles—the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , for example , is also First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service . Prime ministers may take other ministerial posts—for example , during the Second World War , Winston Churchill was also Minister of Defence ( although there was then no Ministry of Defence ) , and in the current cabinet of Israel , Benjamin Netanyahu also serves as Minister of Communications , Foreign Affairs , Regional Cooperation , Economy and Interior Etymology The first actual usage of the term prime minister or Premier Ministre was used by Cardinal Richelieu when in 1625 he was named to head the royal council as prime minister of France . Louis XIV and his descendants generally attempted to avoid giving this title to their chief ministers . The term prime minister in the sense that we know it originated in the 18th century in the United Kingdom when members of parliament disparagingly used the title in reference to Sir Robert Walpole . Over time , the title became honorific and remains so in the 21st century . History Origins The monarchs of England and the United Kingdom had ministers in whom they placed special trust and who were regarded as the head of the government . Examples were Thomas Cromwell under Henry VIII ; William Cecil , Lord Burghley under Elizabeth I ; Clarendon under Charles II and Godolphin under Queen Anne . These ministers held a variety of formal posts , but were commonly known as `` the minister '' , the `` chief minister '' , the `` first minister '' and finally the `` prime minister '' . The power of these ministers depended entirely on the personal favour of the monarch . Although managing the parliament was among the necessary skills of holding high office , they did not depend on a parliamentary majority for their power . Although there was a cabinet , it was appointed entirely by the monarch , and the monarch usually presided over its meetings . When the monarch grew tired of a first minister , he or she could be dismissed , or worse : Cromwell was executed and Clarendon driven into exile when they lost favour . Kings sometimes divided power equally between two or more ministers to prevent one minister from becoming too powerful . Late in Anne 's reign , for example , the Tory ministers Harley and St John shared power . Development In the mid 17th century , after the English Civil War ( 1642–1651 ) , Parliament strengthened its position relative to the monarch then gained more power through the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights in 1689 . The monarch could no longer establish any law or impose any tax without its permission and thus the House of Commons became a part of the government . It is at this point that a modern style of prime minister begins to emerge . A tipping point in the evolution of the prime ministership came with the death of Anne in 1714 and the accession of George I to the throne . George spoke no English , spent much of his time at his home in Hanover , and had neither knowledge of , nor interest in , the details of English government . In these circumstances it was inevitable that the king 's first minister would become the de facto head of the government . From 1721 this was the Whig politician Robert Walpole , who held office for twenty-one years . Walpole chaired cabinet meetings , appointed all the other ministers , dispensed the royal patronage and packed the House of Commons with his supporters . Under Walpole , the doctrine of cabinet solidarity developed . Walpole required that no minister other than himself have private dealings with the king , and also that when the cabinet had agreed on a policy , all ministers must defend it in public , or resign . As a later prime minister , Lord Melbourne , said , `` It matters not what we say , gentlemen , so long as we all say the same thing . '' Walpole always denied that he was `` prime minister '' , and throughout the 18th century parliamentarians and legal scholars continued to deny that any such position was known to the Constitution . George II and George III made strenuous efforts to reclaim the personal power of the monarch , but the increasing complexity and expense of government meant that a minister who could command the loyalty of the Commons was increasingly necessary . The long tenure of the wartime prime minister William Pitt the Younger ( 1783–1801 ) , combined with the mental illness of George III , consolidated the power of the post . The title was first referred to on government documents during the administration of Benjamin Disraeli but did not appear in the formal British Order of precedence until 1905 . The prestige of British institutions in the 19th century and the growth of the British Empire saw the British model of cabinet government , headed by a prime minister , widely copied , both in other European countries and in British colonial territories as they developed self-government . In some places alternative titles such as `` premier '' , `` chief minister '' , `` first minister of state '' , `` president of the council '' or `` chancellor '' were adopted , but the essentials of the office were the same . Modern usage By the late 20th century , the majority of the world 's countries had a prime minister or equivalent minister , holding office under either a constitutional monarchy or a ceremonial president . The main exceptions to this system have been the United States and the presidential republics in Latin America modelled on the U.S. system , in which the president directly exercises executive authority . Bahrain 's prime minister , Sheikh Khalifah bin Sulman Al Khalifah has been in the post since 1970 , making him the longest serving non-elected prime minister . In republics and in monarchies The post of prime minister may be encountered both in constitutional monarchies ( such as Belgium , Denmark , Japan , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Norway , Malaysia , Morocco , Spain , Sweden , Thailand , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom ) , and in parliamentary republics in which the head of state is an elected official ( such as Finland , the Czech Republic , France , Greece , Hungary , India , Indonesia ( 1945-1959 ) , Ireland , Pakistan , Portugal , Montenegro , Croatia , Bulgaria , Romania , Serbia and Turkey ) . See also `` First Minister '' , `` Premier '' , `` Chief Minister '' , `` Chancellor '' , `` Taoiseach '' , `` Statsminister '' and `` Secretary of State '' : alternative titles usually equivalent in meaning to , or translated as , `` prime minister '' . This contrasts with the presidential system , in which the president ( or equivalent ) is both the head of state and the head of the government . In some presidential or semi-presidential systems , such as those of France , Russia or South Korea , the prime minister is an official generally appointed by the president but usually approved by the legislature and responsible for carrying out the directives of the president and managing the civil service . The head of government of the People 's Republic of China is referred to as the Premier of the State Council and the premier of the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) is also appointed by the president , but requires no approval by the legislature . Appointment of the prime minister of France requires no approval by the parliament either , but the parliament may force the resignation of the government . In these systems , it is possible for the president and the prime minister to be from different political parties if the legislature is controlled by a party different from that of the president . When it arises , such a state of affairs is usually referred to as ( political ) cohabitation . Entry into office In parliamentary systems a prime minister may enter into office by several means . * The head of state appoints a prime minister , of their personal choice : Example : France , where the President has the power to appoint the Prime Minister of their choice , though the National Assembly can force a government to resign , they can not nominate or appoint a new candidate . * While in practice most prime ministers under the Westminster system ( including Australia , Canada , New Zealand , Malaysia , India and the United Kingdom ) are the leaders of the largest party in parliament , technically the appointment of the prime minister is a prerogative exercised by the head of state . In India , the Prime Ministerial candidate must be a member of parliament either Lok Sabha ( Lower House ) or Rajya Sabha ( Upper House ) . No parliamentary vote takes place on who is forming a government . However as the government will have to outline its legislative programme to parliament in , for example , the Speech from the Throne , the speech is sometimes used to test parliamentary support . A defeat of the Speech is taken to mean a loss of confidence and so requires either a new draft , resignation , or a request for a dissolution of parliament . Until the early 20th century governments when defeated in a general election remained in power until their Speech from the Throne was defeated and then resigned . No government has done so for one hundred years , though Edward Heath in 1974 did delay his resignation while he explored whether he could form a government with Liberal party support . In such systems unwritten ( and unenforceable ) constitutional conventions often outline the order in which people are asked to form a government . If the prime minister resigns after a general election , the monarch usually asks the leader of the opposition to form a government . Where however a resignation occurs during a parliament session ( unless the government has itself collapsed ) the monarch will ask another member of the government to form a government . While previously the monarch had some leeway in whom to ask , all British political parties now elect their leaders ( until 1965 the Conservatives chose their leader by informal consultation ) . The last time the monarch had a choice over the appointment occurred in 1963 when the Earl of Home was asked to become Prime Minister ahead of Rab Butler . During the period between the time it is clear that the incumbent government has been defeated at a general election , and the actual swearing-in of the new prime minister by the monarch or governor-general , that person is referred to as the `` prime minister-elect '' or `` prime minister-designate '' . Neither term is strictly correct from a constitutional point of view , but they have wide acceptance . In a situation in which a ruling party elects or appoints a new leader , the incoming leader will usually be referred as `` prime minister-in-waiting '' . An example or this situation was in 2003 in Canada when Paul Martin was elected leader of the Liberal Party of Canada while Jean Chrétien was still prime minister . * The head of state appoints a prime minister who has a set timescale within which they must gain a vote of confidence : ( Example : Italy , Israel , Romania , Thailand ) * The head of state appoints the leader of the political party with the majority of the seats in the Parliament as Prime Minister , if no party has a majority then the leader of the party with a plurality of seats is given an exploratory mandate to receive the confidence of the parliament within three days , if this is not possible then the leader of the party with the second highest seat number is given the exploratory mandate , if this fails then the leader of the third largest party is given it and so on : ( Example : Greece , see Prime Minister of Greece ) * The head of state nominates a candidate for prime minister who is then submitted to parliament for approval before appointment as prime minister : Example : Spain , where the King sends a nomination to parliament for approval . Also Germany where under the German Basic Law ( constitution ) the Bundestag votes on a candidate nominated by the federal president . In these cases , parliament can choose another candidate who then would be appointed by the head of state . * Parliament nominates a candidate who the head of state is then constitutionally obliged to appoint as prime minister : Example : Ireland , where the President appoints the Taoiseach on the nomination of Dáil Éireann . Also Japan . * Direct election by popular vote : ( Example : Israel , 1996–2001 , where the prime minister was elected in a general election , with no regard to political affiliation . ) * Nomination by a state office holder other than the head of state or his/her representative : ( Example : Under the modern Swedish Instrument of Government , the power to appoint someone to form a government has been moved from the monarch to the Speaker of Parliament and the parliament itself . The speaker nominates a candidate , who is then elected to prime minister ( statsminister ) by the parliament if an absolute majority of the members of parliament does not vote no ( i.e . he can be elected even if more MP : s vote no than yes ) . Constitutions The position , power and status of prime ministers differ depending on the age of the constitution . Australia 's constitution makes no mention of a Prime Minister of Australia . Bangladesh 's constitution clearly outlines the functions and powers of the Prime Minister , and also details the process of his/her appointment and dismissal . The People 's Republic of China constitution set a premier just one place below the National People 's Congress in China . Premier read as ( Simplified Chinese : 总理 ; pinyin : Zŏnglĭ ) in Chinese . Canada 's constitution , being a 'mixed ' or hybrid constitution ( a constitution that is partly formally codified and partly uncodified ) originally did not make any reference whatsoever to a prime minister , with her or his specific duties and method of appointment instead dictated by `` convention '' . In the Constitution Act , 1982 , passing reference to a `` Prime Minister of Canada '' is added , though only regarding the composition of conferences of federal and provincial first ministers . Czech Republic 's constitution clearly outlines the functions and powers of the Prime Minister of the Czech Republic , and also details the process of his/her appointment and dismissal . Germany 's Basic Law ( 1949 ) lists the powers , functions and duties of the federal chancellor . Greece 's constitution ( 1975 ) lists the powers , functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Greece . India 's constitution ( 1950 ) lists the powers , functions and duties of the Prime Minister of India . Ireland 's constitution ( 1937 ) , provides for the office of Taoiseach in detail , listing powers , functions and duties . Italy 's constitution ( 1948 ) lists the powers , functions and duties of the President of the Council of Ministers . Japan 's constitution ( 1946 ) lists the powers , functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Japan . The Republic of Korea 's constitution ( 1987 ) sections 86-87 list the powers , functions and duties of the Prime Minister of the Republic of Korea . Malta 's constitution ( 1964 ) lists the powers , functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Malta . Malaysia 's constitution ( 1957 ) lists the powers , functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Malaysia . Norway 's constitution ( 1814 ) lists the powers , functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Norway Pakistan 's constitution ( 1973 ) lists the powers , functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Pakistan . Spain 's constitution ( 1978 ) regulates the appointment , dismissal , powers , functions and duties of the President of the Government . Thailand 's constitution ( 1932 ) lists the powers , functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Thailand . The United Kingdom 's constitution , being uncodified and largely unwritten , makes no mention of a prime minister . Though it had de facto existed for centuries , its first mention in official state documents did not occur until the first decade of the twentieth century . Accordingly , it is often said `` not to exist '' , indeed there are several instances of parliament declaring this to be the case . The prime minister sits in the cabinet solely by virtue of occupying another office , either First Lord of the Treasury ( office in commission ) , or more rarely Chancellor of the Exchequer ( the last of whom was Balfour in 1905 ) . Ukraine 's constitution ( 1996 ) lists the powers , functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Ukraine . Exit from office Most prime ministers in parliamentary systems are not appointed for a specific term in office and in effect may remain in power through a number of elections and parliaments . For example , Margaret Thatcher was only ever appointed prime minister on one occasion , in 1979 . She remained continuously in power until 1990 , though she used the assembly of each House of Commons after a general election to reshuffle her cabinet . Some states , however , do have a term of office of the prime minister linked to the period in office of the parliament . Hence the Irish Taoiseach is formally 'renominated ' after every general election . ( Some constitutional experts have questioned whether this process is actually in keeping with the provisions of the Irish constitution , which appear to suggest that a taoiseach should remain in office , without the requirement of a renomination , unless s/he has clearly lost the general election . ) The position of prime minister is normally chosen from the political party that commands majority of seats in the lower house of parliament . In parliamentary systems , governments are generally required to have the confidence of the lower house of parliament ( though a small minority of parliaments , by giving a right to block supply to upper houses , in effect make the cabinet responsible to both houses , though in reality upper houses , even when they have the power , rarely exercise it ) . Where they lose a vote of confidence , have a motion of no confidence passed against them , or where they lose supply , most constitutional systems require either : The latter in effect allows the government to appeal the opposition of parliament to the electorate . However , in many jurisdictions a head of state may refuse a parliamentary dissolution , requiring the resignation of the prime minister and his or her government . In most modern parliamentary systems , the prime minister is the person who decides when to request a parliamentary dissolution . Older constitutions often vest this power in the cabinet . In the United Kingdom , for example , the tradition whereby it is the prime minister who requests a dissolution of parliament dates back to 1918 . Prior to then , it was the entire government that made the request . Similarly , though the modern 1937 Irish constitution grants to the Taoiseach the right to make the request , the earlier 1922 Irish Free State Constitution vested the power in the Executive Council ( the then name for the Irish cabinet ) . In Australia , the Prime Minister is expected to step down if s/he loses the majority support of his/her party under a spill motion as have many such as Tony Abbott , Julia Gillard and Kevin Rudd . Titles In the Russian constitution the prime minister is actually titled Chairman of the government while the Irish prime minister is called the ( which is rendered into English as prime minister ) , and in Israel he is Rosh HaMemshalah meaning `` head of the government '' . In many cases , though commonly used , `` prime minister '' is not the official title of the office-holder ; the Spanish prime minister is the President of the Government ( ) . Other common forms include president of the council of ministers ( for example in Italy , ) , President of the Executive Council , or Minister-President . In the Nordic countries the prime minister is called Statsminister , meaning `` Minister of State '' . In federations , the head of government of subnational entities such as provinces is most commonly known as the premier , chief minister , governor or minister-president . The convention in the English language is to call nearly all national heads of government `` prime minister '' ( sometimes modified to the equivalent term of `` premier '' ) , regardless of the correct title of the head of government as applied in his or her respective country . The few exceptions to the rule are Germany and Austria , whose heads of government titles are almost always translated as Chancellor ; Monaco , whose head of government is referred to as the Minister of State ; and Vatican City , for which the head of government is titled the Secretary of State . In the case of Ireland , the head of government is occasionally referred to as the Taoiseach by English speakers . A stand-out case is the President of Iran , who is not actually a head of state , but the head of the government of Iran . He is referred to as `` president '' in both the Persian and English languages . In non-Commonwealth countries the prime minister may be entitled to the style of Excellency like a president . In some Commonwealth countries prime ministers and former prime ministers are styled Right Honourable due to their position , for example in the Prime Minister of Canada . In the United Kingdom the prime minister and former prime ministers may appear to also be styled Right Honourable , however this is not due to their position as head of government but as a privilege of being current members of Her Majesty 's Most Honourable Privy Council . In the UK , where devolved government is in place , the leaders of the Scottish , Northern Irish and Welsh Governments are styled First Minister . In India , The Prime Minister is referred to as Pradhan Mantri , meaning `` prime minister '' . In Pakistan , the prime minister is referred to as Wazir-e-Azam , meaning `` Grand Vizier '' . Organisational structure The Prime Minister 's executive office is usually called the Office of the Prime Minister in the case of the Canada and other Commonwealth countries , it is called Cabinet Office in United Kingdom . Some Prime Minister 's office do include the role of Cabinet . In other countries , it is called the Prime Minister 's Department or the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet as for Australia . Description of the role Wilfried Martens , who served as Prime Minister of Belgium , described his role as follows : First of all [ the Prime Minister must listen a lot , and when deep disagreements occur , he must suggest a solution to the matter . This can be done in different ways . Sometimes during the discussion , I note the elements of the problem and think of a proposal I can formulate to the Council ( cabinet ) , the Secretary taking notes . The Ministers then insist on changing game ages . The Prime Minister can also make a proposal which leaves enough room for amendments in order to keep the current discussion on the right tracks . When a solution must be found in order to reach a consensus , he can force one or two Ministers to join or resign . Lists of prime ministers The following table groups the list of past and present prime ministers and details information available in those lists .

sfq_19073--Prime_minister.txt

Julia Gillard became the first female Prime Minister of which country?

Labyrinth is a 1986 British-American adventure musical fantasy film directed by Jim Henson , executive produced by George Lucas , and based upon conceptual designs by Brian Froud . The film revolves around 16-year-old Sarah 's ( Jennifer Connelly ) quest to reach the center of an enormous otherworldly maze to rescue her infant brother Toby , who has been kidnapped by Jareth , the Goblin King ( David Bowie ) . With the exception of Bowie and Connelly , most of the significant characters in the film are played by puppets produced by Jim Henson 's Creature Shop . The film started as a collaboration between Henson and Froud , with ideas for the film first being discussed between them following a screening of their previous collaboration , The Dark Crystal . Terry Jones of Monty Python wrote the first draft of the film 's script early in 1984 , drawing on Froud 's sketches for inspiration . Various other script-writers , including Laura Phillips ( who had previously written several episodes of Fraggle Rock ) , Lucas , Dennis Lee , and Elaine May , subsequently re-wrote and made additions to the screenplay , although Jones received the film 's sole screen-writing credit . Labyrinth was shot on location in Upper Nyack , Piermont and Haverstraw in New York , and at Elstree Studios and West Wycombe Park in the United Kingdom . The New York Times reported that Labyrinth had a budget of $ 25 million . The film was a box office disappointment and only grossed $ 12.7 million during its U.S. theatrical run . The commercial failure of the film demoralized Henson to the extent that his son Brian remembered the time of the film 's release as one of the most difficult periods of his father 's career . It would be the last feature film directed by Henson before his death in 1990 . Although it was met with a mixed critical response upon its original release , Labyrinth has since gained a large cult following . A four-volume manga sequel to the film , Return to Labyrinth , was published by Tokyopop between 2006-10 . In 2012 , Archaia Studios Press announced they were developing a graphic novel prequel to the film . In January 2016 , it was announced that a reboot was in development , which was later denied by screenwriter Nicole Perlman . Plot Sixteen-year-old Sarah Williams rehearses a play in the park with her dog Merlin and becomes distracted by a line she is unable to remember while being watched by a barn owl . Realizing she is late to babysit her baby brother Toby , she rushes home and is confronted by her stepmother Irene before she and her father Robert leave for dinner . Sarah realizes that Toby is in possession of her treasured teddy bear Lancelot . Frustrated by this and his constant crying , Sarah rashly wishes Toby be taken away by the Goblin King Jareth , a character in the play she is rehearsing . She is shocked when Toby disappears and the Goblin King confronts her and transports her to his kingdom . He refuses to return the baby , but gives Sarah thirteen hours to solve his Labyrinth and find him before Toby is turned into a goblin . Sarah meets the dwarvish Hoggle , who aids her in entering the Labyrinth , but a talking worm inadvertently sends her in the wrong direction . Sarah ends up in an oubliette where she reunites with Hoggle . After they confront Jareth and escape one of his traps , the two encounter a large beast named Ludo . Hoggle flees while Sarah befriends Ludo . After another riddle , she loses him in a forest . Hoggle encounters Jareth , who gives him a peach and instructs him to give it to Sarah , calling his loyalty into question as he was supposed to lead her out of the maze . Sarah is assaulted by a group of creatures with detachable body parts who try to remove her head , but Hoggle comes to her aid . She kisses him , and Jareth magically sends them to the Bog of Eternal Stench as punishment , where they reunite with Ludo . Sarah , Hoggle , and Ludo meet the guard of a bridge out of the swamp named Sir Didymus , an anthropomorphic fox and his Old English Sheepdog steed named Ambrosius ( who bears a resemblance to Merlin ) . After Ludo saves Sarah from falling into the swamp , Didymus joins the group . After the group gets hungry , Hoggle gives Sarah the peach and runs away as it begins to erase her memories . She has a dream where Jareth comes to her at a masquerade ball , proclaiming his love for her , but she resists and escapes , falling into a junkyard . After an old hag named Junk Lady fails to brainwash her and her memory is jogged , she is rescued by the others , and they are right outside Goblin City near Jareth 's castle . Confronted by the gate guard , Hoggle comes to the rescue . Despite his feeling unworthy of forgiveness , Sarah and the others welcome him back , and they enter the city together . Jareth is alerted to their presence and sends his goblin army to stop them , but Ludo 's powers to summon rocks helps to turn the tide of the comical battle , and they enter the castle . Sarah insists she must face Jareth alone and promises to call the others if needed . In a room modeled after an Escher staircase , she confronts Jareth while trying to retrieve Toby . She tries to recite the line from her play , that has told her adventure to that point , but can not remember the last line . As Jareth begs her to obey him and he will love her , she remembers the line , `` You have no power over me ! '' Defeated at the last second , Jareth returns Sarah and Toby to the real world safely . Realizing how important Toby is to her , she gives him Lancelot and returns to her room . While there , she sees her friends in the mirror and realizes even though she is growing up , she still needs them in her life every now and again . In an instant , all of the major characters from the Labyrinth appear in her room for a raucous celebration , while Jareth in his owl form watches from outside and then flies away into the night . Cast * Jennifer Connelly as Sarah Williams , a 16-year-old girl who journeys through the Labyrinth to find her baby brother . * David Bowie as Jareth the Goblin King , the ruler of the Goblins . * Toby Froud as Toby Williams . Sarah 's baby brother . * Christopher Malcolm as Robert , Sarah and Toby 's father . * Shelley Thompson as Karen , Toby 's mother and Sarah 's stepmother . * Natalie Finland as the Labyrinth Fairies , a bunch of deceitful barefoot fairies that reside in the Labyrinth . Voices * Brian Henson as the voice of Hoggle , a dwarf in Jareth 's employ who befriends Sarah . * Artist Ron Mueck as the voice of Ludo , a kind-hearted beast . * David Shaughnessy as the voice of Sir Didymus , a brave fox knight . * * David Shaughnessy also voices The Wiseman 's Bird Hat , a bird-headed hat worn by the Wiseman . * Percy Edwards as the voice of Ambrosius , an Old English Sheepdog . * Timothy Bateson as the voice of The Worm * Michael Hordern as the voice of The Wiseman , an aged human-like individual . * Denise Bryer as the voice of The Junk Lady , a hag inhabitant of Junk City * David Healy as the voice of the Right Door Knocker , a component of the door that is between the hedgemaze and the forest . * Robert Beatty as the voice of the Left Door Knocker , a component of the door that is between the hedgemaze and the forest . * Kevin Clash as the voice of Firey # 1 , the apparent leader of the Fireys . * Charles Augins as the voice of Firey # 2 , the first of the Fireys to have their head removed . * Danny John-Jules as the voice of Firey # 3 , the only Firey with a moustache . * * Danny John-Jules also voices Firey # 4 * Richard Bodkin as the voice of Firey # 5 , the first Firey to make his head jump up and down . Four Guards voiced by Anthony Jackson , Douglas Blackwell , David Shaughnessy , and Timothy Bateson Goblins voiced by Michael Attwell , Sean Barrett , Timothy Bateson , Douglas Blackwell , John Bluthal , Brian Henson , Anthony Jackson , Peter Marinker , Ron Mueck , Kerry Shale , and David Shaughnessy . Puppeteers * Shari Weiser as Hoggle ( in-suit performer ) * Brian Henson as Hoggle ( face performance ) * Ron Mueck and Rob Mills as Ludo * Dave Goelz and David Barclay as Sir Didymus * Steve Whitmire and Kevin Clash as Ambrosius * Karen Prell as The Worm * Frank Oz as The Wiseman * Dave Goelz as The Wiseman 's Bird Hat * Karen Prell as The Junk Lady * Steve Whitmire , Kevin Clash , Anthony Asbury , and Dave Goelz as The Four Guards * Kevin Clash , David Barclay , and Toby Philpott as Firey # 1 * Karen Prell , Ron Mueck , and Ian Thom as Firey # 2 * Dave Goelz , Rob Mills , and Sherry Ammott as Firey # 3 * Steve Whitmire , Cheryl Henson , and Kevin Bradshaw as Firey 4 * Anthony Asbury , Alistair Fullarton , and Rollie Krewson as Firey 5 * Anthony Asbury as Right Door Knocker * Dave Goelz as Left Door Knocker Juggler Michael Moschen performed Jareth 's elaborate crystal-ball contact juggling manipulations . Goblin Corps performed by Marc Antona , Kenny Baker , Michael Henbury Ballan , Danny Blackner , Peter Burroughs , Toby Clark , Tessa Crockett , Warwick Davis , Malcolm Dixon , Anthony Georghiou , Paul Grant , Andrew Herd , Richard Jones , John Key , Mark Lisle , Peter Mandell , Jack Purvis , Katie Purvis , Nicholas Read , Linda Spriggs , Penny Stead , and Albert Wilkinson . Goblins performed by Don Austen , Michael Bayliss , Martin Bridle , Fiona Beynor Brown , Simon Buckley , David Bulbeck , Sue Dacre , Geoff Felix , Trevor Freeborn , Christine Glanville , David Greenaway , Brian Henson , Jim Henson , Brian James , Jan King , Ronnie Le Drew , Terry Lee , Christopher Leith , Kathryn Mullen , Angie Passmore , Michael Petersen , Nigel Plaskitt , Judy Preece , Michael Quinn , Gillie Robic , David Rudman , David Showler , Robin Stevens , Ian Tregonning , Mary Turner , Robert Tygner , Mak Wilson , and Francis Wright . Influences Richard Corliss noted that the film appeared to have been influenced by The Wizard of Oz and the works of Maurice Sendak , writing that `` Labyrinth lures a modern Dorothy Gale out of the drab Kansas of real life into a land where the wild things are . '' Nina Darnton wrote that the plot of Labyrinth `` is very similar to Outside Over There by Mr. Sendak , in which 9-year-old Ida 's baby sister is stolen by the goblins . '' Copies of Outside Over There and Where the Wild Things Are are shown briefly in Sarah 's room at the start of the film , along with copies of Alice in Wonderland , The Wizard of Oz , a book by Hans Christian Andersen , Grimms ' Fairy Tales and Walt Disney 's Snow White . The film also features an end credit stating that `` Jim Henson acknowledges his debt to the works of Maurice Sendak '' . The film 's concept designer Brian Froud has stated that the character of Jareth was influenced by a diverse range of literary sources . In his afterword to The Goblins of Labyrinth , Froud wrote that Jareth references `` the romantic figures of Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights and a brooding Rochester from Jane Eyre '' and the Scarlet Pimpernel . Bowie 's costumes were intentionally eclectic , drawing on the image of Marlon Brando 's leather jacket from The Wild One as well as that of a knight `` with the worms of death eating through his armour '' from the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm . The dialogue starting with phrase , `` you remind me of the babe '' that occurs between Jareth and the goblins , in the Magic Dance sequence in the film , is a direct reference to an exchange between Cary Grant and Shirley Temple in the 1947 film The Bachelor and the Bobby-Soxer . Production Origins and script According to the film 's conceptual designer Brian Froud , Labyrinth was first discussed between himself and director Jim Henson . Both agreed to work on another project together , and Froud suggested that the film should feature goblins . On the same journey , Froud `` pictured a baby surrounded by goblins '' and this strong visual image – along with Froud 's insight that goblins traditionally steal babies – provided the basis for the film 's plot . Discussing the film 's origins , Henson explained that he and Froud `` wanted to do a lighter weight picture , with more of a sense of comedy since Dark Crystal got kind of heavy – heavier than we had intended . Now I wanted to do a film with the characters having more personality , and interacting more . '' Labyrinth was being seriously discussed as early as March 1983 , when Henson held a meeting with Froud and children 's author Dennis Lee . Lee was tasked with writing a novella on which a script could be based , submitting it at the end of 1983 . Henson approached Terry Jones to write the film 's script as `` his daughter Lisa had just read Erik the Viking and suggested that he try me as screen-writer . '' Jones was given Dennis Lee 's novella to use as a basis for his script , but later told Empire that Lee had produced an unfinished `` poetic novella '' that he `` did n't really get on with . '' In light of this , Jones `` discarded it and sat down with Brian [ Froud ] 's drawings and sifted through them and found the ones that I really liked , and started creating the story from them . '' While Jones is credited with writing the screenplay , the shooting script was actually a collaborative effort that featured contributions from Henson , George Lucas , Laura Phillips , and Elaine May . Jones himself has said that the finished film differs greatly from his original vision . According to Jones , `` I did n't feel that it was very much mine . I always felt it fell between two stories , Jim wanted it to be one thing and I wanted it to be about something else . '' Jones has said his version of the script was `` about the world , and about people who are more interested in manipulating the world than actually baring themselves at all . '' In Jones ' original script , Jareth merely seems `` all powerful to begin with '' and is actually using the Labyrinth to `` keep people from getting to his heart . '' Jones has said that Bowie 's involvement in the project had a significant impact on the direction taken with the film . Jones had originally intended for the audience not to see the center of the Labyrinth prior to Sarah 's reaching it , as he felt that doing so robbed the film of a significant 'hook . ' With the thought of Bowie starring in the film in mind , Henson decided he wanted Jareth to sing and appear throughout the film , something Jones considered to be the `` wrong '' decision . Despite his misgivings , Jones re-wrote the script to allow for songs to be performed throughout the film . This draft of the script `` went away for about a year , '' during which time it was re-drafted first by Laura Phillips and subsequently by George Lucas . An early draft of the script attributed to Jones and Phillips is markedly different from the finished film . The early script has Jareth enter Sarah 's house in the guise of Robin Zakar , the author of a play she is due to perform in . Sarah does not wish for her brother to be taken away by the goblins , and Jareth snatches him away against her will . Jareth is overtly villainous in this draft of the script , and during his final confrontation with Sarah he tells her he would `` much rather have a Queen '' than `` a little goblin prince . '' The early script ends with Sarah kicking Jareth in disgust , her blows causing him to transform into a powerless , sniveling goblin . In the extensive junkyard scene , Jareth operates the Junk Lady as a puppet , whereas in the film she is autonomous . There is actually a pub or bar in the Labyrinth where the Man with Hat and Hoggle gather , and the river Lethe in Greek myth is mentioned . As well , the ballroom scene features extensive dialogue between Jareth and Sarah , whereas in the film there is none ( although there is in the novelization by A.C.H Smith ) , and the goings-on with the dancers in the ballroom are more overtly sexualized . The re-drafted script was sent to Bowie , who found that it lacked humor and considered withdrawing his involvement in the project as a result . To ensure Bowie 's involvement , Henson asked Jones to `` do a bit more '' to the script in order to make it more humorous . Elaine May met with Henson several months prior to the start of filming in April 1985 , and was asked to polish the script . May 's changes `` humanized the characters '' and pleased Henson to the extent that they were incorporated into the film 's shooting script . At least twenty-five treatments and scripts were drafted for Labyrinth between 1983–85 , and the film 's shooting script was only ready shortly before filming began . Casting The protagonist of the film was , at different stages of its development , going to be a King whose baby had been put under an enchantment , a princess from a fantasy world and a young girl from Victorian England . In order to make the film more commercial , it was ultimately decided that the film 's lead would be a teenage girl from contemporary America . Henson noted that he wished to `` make the idea of taking responsibility for one 's life – which is one of the neat realizations a teenager experiences – a central thought of the film . '' Auditions for the lead role of Sarah began in England in April 1984 . Helena Bonham Carter auditioned for the role , but it was ultimately decided it would be better to cast an American actress . Monthly auditions were held in the U.S. until January 1985 , and Jane Krakowski , Yasmine Bleeth , Sarah Jessica Parker , Marisa Tomei , Laura Dern , Ally Sheedy , Maddie Corman , and Mia Sara all auditioned for the role . Of these , Krakowski , Sheedy and Corman were considered to be the top candidates . 14-year-old actress Jennifer Connelly was ultimately chosen to play Sarah after her audition on January 29 , 1985 , `` won Jim [ Henson ] over '' and led him to cast her within a week . According to Henson , Connelly was chosen as she `` could act that kind of dawn-twilight time between childhood and womanhood . '' Connelly moved to England in February 1985 in advance of the film 's rehearsals , which began in March . Discussing her understanding of her role with Elle , Connelly said that the film is about `` a young girl growing out of her childhood , who is just now becoming aware of the responsibilities that come with growing up . '' The character of Jareth also underwent some significant developments during the early stages of pre-production . According to Henson he was originally meant to be another puppet creature in the same vein as his goblin subjects . Henson eventually decided he wanted a big , charismatic star to play the Goblin King , and decided to pursue a musician for the role . Sting , Prince , Mick Jagger , and Michael Jackson were considered for the part ; however , it was ultimately decided that David Bowie would be the most suitable choice . `` I wanted to put two characters of flesh and bone in the middle of all these artificial creatures , '' Henson explained , `` and David Bowie embodies a certain maturity , with his sexuality , his disturbing aspect , all sorts of things that characterize the adult world . '' Henson met David Bowie in the summer of 1983 to seek his involvement , as Bowie was in the U.S. for his Serious Moonlight Tour at the time . Henson continued to pursue Bowie for the role of Jareth , and sent him each revised draft of the film 's script for his comments . During a meeting that took place on June 18 , 1984 , Henson showed Bowie The Dark Crystal and a selection of Brian Froud 's concept drawings to pique his interest in the project . Bowie formally agreed to take part on February 15 , 1985 , several months before filming began . Discussing why he chose to be involved in the film , Bowie explained that `` I 'd always wanted to be involved in the music-writing aspect of a movie that would appeal to children of all ages , as well as everyone else , and I must say that Jim gave me a completely free hand with it . The script itself was terribly amusing without being vicious or spiteful or bloody , and it had a lot more heart in it than many other special effects movies . So I was pretty hooked from the beginning . '' Filming Principal photography began on April 15 , 1985 , at Elstree Studios . The team that worked on Labyrinth was largely assembled from talent who had been involved in various other projects with the Jim Henson Company . Veteran performers Frank Oz and Dave Goelz operated various puppets in the film , as did Karen Prell , Ron Mueck and Rob Mills who had all worked with Henson on Fraggle Rock . Kevin Clash , a crew member on Sesame Street best known for voicing the character Elmo , worked on the film . Members of Henson 's family also worked on the production , including son Brian and daughter Cheryl . Newcomers working on the production included puppeteer Anthony Asbury , who had previously worked on the satirical puppet show Spitting Image . Labyrinth took five months to film , and was a complicated shoot due to the myriad of puppets and animatronic creatures involved . In the making-of documentary Inside the Labyrinth , Henson stated that although Jim Henson 's Creature Shop had been building the puppets and characters required for around a year and a half prior to shooting , `` everything came together in the last couple weeks . '' Henson noted that `` even if you have the characters together , the puppeteers start working with them , they find problems or they try to figure out what they 're going to do with these characters . '' Although each of the film 's key puppets required a small team of puppeteers to operate it , the most complex puppet of the production was Hoggle . Shari Weiser was inside the costume , while Hoggle 's face was radio-controlled by Brian Henson and three other operators . Speaking in the Inside the Labyrinth documentary , Brian Henson explained that Weiser `` does all the body movement and her head is inside the head . However , the jaw is not connected to her jaw . Nothing that the face is doing has any connection with what she 's doing with her face . The other four members of the crew are all radio crew , myself included . '' Speaking of the challenges involved with performing Hoggle , Brian Henson said that `` five performers trying to get one character out of one puppet was a very tough thing . Basically what it takes is a lot of rehearsing and getting to know each other . '' At the early stages of filming , stars Connelly and Bowie found it difficult to interact naturally with the puppets they shared most of their scenes with . Bowie told Movieline `` I had some initial problems working with Hoggle and the rest because , for one thing , what they say does n't come from their mouths , but from the side of the set , or from behind you . '' Connelly remarked that `` it was a bit strange [ working almost exclusively with puppets in the film ] , but I think both Dave [ Bowie ] and I got over that and just took it as a challenge to work with these puppets . And by the end of the film , it was n't a challenge anymore . They were there , and they were their characters . '' The film required large and ambitious sets to be constructed , from the Shaft of Hands to the rambling , distorted Goblin City where the film 's climactic battle takes place . The Shaft of Hands sequence was filmed on a rig that was roughly forty feet high , and required nearly a hundred performers to operate the grey , scaly hands integral to the scene . Connelly was strapped into a harness when shooting the scene , and would spend time between takes suspended mid-way up the shaft . The set of the Goblin City was built on Stage 6 at Thorn EMI Elstree Studios in London , and required the largest panoramic back-cloth ever made . According to Production Designer Elliot Scott , the biggest challenge he faced was building the forest Sarah and her party pass through on their way to Jareth 's Castle . The film 's production notes state that `` the entire forest required 120 truckloads of tree branches , 1,200 turfs of grass , 850 pounds of dried leaves , 133 bags of lichen , and 35 bundles of mossy old man 's beard . '' While most filming was conducted at Elstree Studios , a small amount of location shooting was carried out in England and the U.S . The park seen at the start of the film is West Wycombe Park in Buckinghamshire , England . The scenes of Sarah running back home were filmed in various towns in New York , namely Upper Nyack , Piermont and Haverstraw . Shooting wrapped on September 8 , 1985 . Post-production Most of the visual effects on Labyrinth were achieved in-camera , with several notable exceptions . The most prominent of these post-production effects was the computer-generated owl that appears at the opening of the film . The sequence was created by animators Larry Yaeger and Bill Kroyer , and marked the first use of a realistic CGI animal in a film . The scene where Sarah encounters the Fire Gang had to be altered in post-production as it had been filmed against black velvet cloth , and a new forest background was added . Jim Henson was unhappy with the compositing of the finished scene , although he considered the puppetry featured in it worthy of inclusion . Henson received help editing the film from executive producer George Lucas . According to Henson , `` When we hit the editing , I did the first cut , and then George was heavily involved on bringing it to the final cut

qz_5894--Labyrinth_(film).txt

Which singer played the Goblin King Jareth in the film ‘Labyrinth'?

Scrabble is a word game in which two to four players score points by placing tiles , each bearing a single letter , onto a gameboard which is divided into a 15×15 grid of squares . The tiles must form words which , in crossword fashion , flow left to right in rows or downwards in columns . The words must be defined in a standard dictionary , or present in specified reference works ( e.g. , the Official Tournament and Club Word List , the Official Scrabble Players Dictionary ) , which provide a list of officially permissible words . The name Scrabble is a trademark of Hasbro , Inc. in the United States and Canada and has been sold by Hasbro 's Parker Brothers division since 1999 . Prior to 1999 , it was sold as a Milton Bradley game . Outside the United States and Canada , Scrabble is a trademark of Mattel . The game is sold in 121 countries and is available in 29 languages ; approximately 150 million sets have been sold worldwide and roughly one-third of American and half of British homes have a Scrabble set . There are around 4,000 Scrabble clubs around the world . Game details The game is played by two to four players on a square board with a 15×15 grid of cells ( individually known as `` squares '' ) , each of which accommodates a single letter tile . In official club and tournament games , play is between two players or , occasionally , between two teams each of which collaborates on a single rack . The board is marked with `` premium '' squares , which multiply the number of points awarded : eight dark red `` triple-word '' squares , 17 pink `` double-word '' squares , of which one , the center square ( H8 ) , is marked with a star or other symbol ; 12 dark blue `` triple-letter '' squares , and 24 light blue `` double-letter '' squares . In 2008 , Hasbro changed the colors of the premium squares to orange for TW , red for DW , blue for DL , and green for TL . Despite this , the original premium square color scheme is still the preferred scheme for Scrabble boards used in tournaments . In an English-language set , the game contains 100 tiles , 98 of which are marked with a letter and a point value ranging from 1 to 10 . The number of points of each lettered tile is based on the letter 's frequency in standard English writing ; commonly used letters such as vowels are worth one point , while less common letters score higher , with Q and Z each worth 10 points . The game also has two blank tiles that are unmarked and carry no point value . The blank tiles can be used as substitutes for any letter ; once laid on the board , however , the choice is fixed . Other language sets use different letter set distributions with different point values . Tiles are usually made of wood or plastic and are 19 x square and 4 mm thick , making them slightly smaller than the squares on the board . Only the rosewood tiles of the deluxe edition varies the width up to 2 mm for different letters . Travelling versions of the game often have smaller tiles ( e.g . 13 x ) ; sometimes they are magnetic to keep them in place . The capital letter is printed in black at the centre of the tile face and the letter 's point value printed in a smaller font at the bottom right corner . S is the most valuable letter in English-language Scrabble because it easily goes on the ends of words ; Alfred Butts included only four instances to avoid a game that was `` too easy '' . Q is considered the most problematic letter , as most words with it also contain U ; a similar problem occurs in other languages like French , Dutch , Italian and German . J is also difficult to play due to its low frequency and a scarcity of words having it at the end . C and V may be troublesome in the endgame , since no two-letter words with them exist , save for CH in SOWPODS . History In 1938 , American architect Alfred Mosher Butts created the game as a variation on an earlier word game he invented called Lexiko . The two games had the same set of letter tiles , whose distributions and point values Butts worked out by performing a frequency analysis of letters from various sources , including The New York Times . The new game , which he called `` Criss-Crosswords , '' added the 15×15 gameboard and the crossword-style game play . He manufactured a few sets himself , but was not successful in selling the game to any major game manufacturers of the day . In 1948 , James Brunot , a resident of Newtown , Connecticut – and one of the few owners of the original Criss-Crosswords game – bought the rights to manufacture the game in exchange for granting Butts a royalty on every unit sold . Though he left most of the game ( including the distribution of letters ) unchanged , Brunot slightly rearranged the `` premium '' squares of the board and simplified the rules ; he also changed the name of the game to `` Scrabble '' , a real word which means `` to scratch frantically '' . In 1949 , Brunot and his family made sets in a converted former schoolhouse in Dodgingtown , a section of Newtown . They made 2,400 sets that year , but lost money . According to legend , Scrabbles big break came in 1952 when Jack Straus , president of Macy 's , played the game on vacation . Upon returning from vacation , he was surprised to find that his store did not carry the game . He placed a large order and within a year , `` everyone had to have one . '' In 1952 , unable to meet demand himself , Brunot sold manufacturing rights to Long Island-based Selchow and Righter , one of the manufacturers who , like Parker Brothers and Milton Bradley Company , had previously rejected the game . In its second year as a Selchow and Righter-built product , nearly four million sets were sold . Selchow and Righter bought the trademark to the game in 1972 . JW Spears began selling the game in Australia and the UK on January 19 , 1955 . The company is now a subsidiary of Mattel . In 1986 , Selchow and Righter was sold to Coleco , which soon after went bankrupt . Hasbro purchased the company 's assets , including Scrabble and Parcheesi . In 1984 , Scrabble was turned into a daytime game show on NBC . Scrabble ran from July 1984 to March 1990 , with a second run from January to June 1993 . The show was hosted by Chuck Woolery . The show 's tagline promotional broadcasts was , `` Every man dies ; not every man truly Scrabbles . '' In 2011 , a new TV variation of Scrabble , called Scrabble Showdown , aired on The Hub cable channel , which is a joint venture of Discovery Communications , Inc. and Hasbro . Scrabble was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame in 2004 . Evolution of the rules The `` box rules '' included in each copy of the USA/Canada edition have been edited four times : in 1953 , 1976 , 1989 , and 1999 . The major changes in 1953 were as follows : * It was made clear that : * * words could be played through single letters already on the board . * * a player could play a word parallel and immediately adjacent to an existing word provided all crosswords formed were valid . * * the effect of two word premium squares were to be compounded multiplicatively . * The previously unspecified penalty for having one 's play successfully challenged was stated : withdrawal of tiles and loss of turn . The major changes in 1976 were as follows : * It was made clear that the blank tile beats an A when drawing to see who goes first . * A player could now pass his/her turn , doing nothing . * A loss-of-turn penalty was added for challenging an acceptable play . * If final scores are tied , the player whose score was highest before adjusting for unplayed tiles is the winner ; in tournament play , a tie is counted as half a win for both players . The editorial changes made in 1989 did not affect game play . The major changes in 1999 were as follows : * It was made clear that : * * a tile can be shifted or replaced until the play has been scored . * * a challenge applies to all the words made in the given play . * Playing all seven tiles is officially called a `` Bingo '' . * A change in the wording of the rules , could be interpreted as meaning that a player may form more than one word on one row on a single turn . Notation system In the notation system common in tournament play , columns are labeled with the letters `` A-O '' and rows with the numbers `` 1-15 '' . ( On Scrabble boards manufactured by Mattel as well as on the Internet Scrabble Club , rows are lettered while columns are numbered instead . ) A play is usually identified in the format xy WORD score or WORD xy score , where x denotes the column or row on which the play 's main word extends , y denotes the second coordinate of the main word 's first letter , and WORD is the main word . Although unnecessary , additional words formed by the play are occasionally listed after the main word and a slash . In the case where the play of a single tile forms words in each direction , one of the words is arbitrarily chosen to serve as the main word for purposes of notation . When a blank tile is employed in the main word , the letter it has been chosen to represent is indicated with a lower case letter , or , in handwritten notation , with a square around the letter . Parentheses are sometimes also used to designate a blank , although this may create confusion with a second ( optional ) function of parentheses , namely indication of an existing letter or word that has been `` played through '' by the main word . Example : * A ( D ) DITON ( AL ) D3 74 ( played through the existing letter D and word AL , using a blank for the second I , extending down the D column and beginning on row 3 , and scoring 74 points ) . When annotating , the play would be written A ( D ) DITiON ( AL ) . The parentheses can be omitted , though , if each play states how many tiles were laid on the board in that play . As well , a number of symbols have been employed to indicate the validity of words : * * means an illegal , or phony , word . * # means a word valid in games using the British-originated word list ( CSW12 ) only . * $ means a word valid in games using the American-originated word list ( TWL2 ) only . * ! means a word judged to be offensive , and thus valid in tournament games only . Sequence of play Before the game , a resource , either a word list or a dictionary , is selected for the purpose of adjudicating any challenges during the game . The letter tiles are either put in an opaque bag or placed face down on a flat surface . Opaque cloth bags and customized tiles are staples of clubs and tournaments , where games are rarely played without both . Next , players decide the order in which they play . The normal approach is for players to each draw one tile : The player who picks the letter closest to the beginning of the alphabet goes first , with the blank tiles taking precedence over A 's . In North American tournaments , the rules of the US-based North American Scrabble Players Association ( NASPA ) stipulate instead that players who have gone first in the fewest number of previous games in the tournament go first , and when that rule yields a tie , those who have gone second the most go first . If there is still a tie , tiles are drawn as in the standard rules . At the beginning of the game , and after each turn until the bag is empty ( or until there are no more face-down tiles ) , players draw tiles to fill their `` racks '' , or tile holders , with seven tiles , from which they will make plays . Each rack is concealed from the other players . During a turn , a player will have seven tiles on his or her rack ( with the exception of the endgame ) . On each turn , the player has three options : # Pass , forfeiting the turn and scoring nothing # Exchange one or more tiles for an equal number from the bag , scoring nothing , an option available only if at least seven tiles remain in the bag # Play at least one tile on the board , adding the value of all words formed to the player 's cumulative score A proper play uses one or more of the player 's tiles to form a contiguous string of letters that make a word ( the play 's `` main word '' ) on the board , reading either left-to-right or top-to-bottom . The main word must either use the letters of one or more previously played words or else have at least one of its tiles horizontally or vertically adjacent to an already played word . If any words other than the main word are formed by the play , they are scored as well , and are subject to the same criteria of acceptability . The first word played must cover H8 , the center square . The word must consist of at least two letters , extending horizontally or vertically . H8 is a premium square ; the first player to play a word receives a double word score . A blank tile may take the place of any letter . It then remains that letter for the rest of the game . It scores no points regardless of what letter it is designated or its placement on a premium square . But its placement on a double-word or triple-word square does cause the corresponding premium to be scored for the word in which it is used . After playing a word , the player announces the score for that play , then if the game is being played with a clock , starts his or her opponent 's clock . The player can change his play anytime his or her clock is running , but commits to the play when he or she starts his or her opponent 's clock . The player then draws tiles from the bag to replenish his or her rack to seven tiles . If there are not enough tiles in the bag to do so , the player takes all the remaining tiles . After a player plays a word , his or her opponent may choose to challenge any or all the words formed by the play . The player challenged must then look up the words in question , and if any one of them is found to be unacceptable , the play is removed from the board , the player returns the newly played tiles to his or her rack and the turn is forfeited . In tournament play , a challenge may be to the entire play or any one or more words , and judges ( human or computer ) are used , so players are not entitled to know which word or words made a challenge succeed . Penalties for unsuccessfully challenging an acceptable play vary in club and tournament play , and are described in greater detail below . Under North American tournament rules , the game ends when either ( 1 ) one player plays every tile on his or her rack , and there are no tiles remaining in the bag ( regardless of the tiles on his or her opponent 's rack ) ; ( 2 ) at least six successive scoreless turns have occurred and either player decides to end the game ; or ( 3 ) either player uses more than 10 minutes of overtime . ( For several years , a game could not end with a cumulative score of 0-0 , but that is no longer the case , and such games have since occurred a number of times in tournament play , the winner being the player with the lower total point value on his or her rack . ) When the game ends , each player 's score is reduced by the sum of his or her unplayed letters . In addition , if a player has used all of his or her letters ( known as `` going out '' ) , the sum of the other player 's unplayed letters is added to that player 's score ; in tournament play , a player who goes out adds twice that sum , and his or her opponent is not penalized . Scoreless turns can occur when a player passes , when a player exchanges tiles , or when a player loses a challenge . The latter rule varies slightly in international tournaments . Making a play The first played word must be at least two letters long , and cover H8 ( the center square ) . Thereafter , any move is made by using one or more tiles to place a word on the board . This word may or may not use one or more tiles already on the board , but must join with the cluster of tiles already on the board . This can be achieved in a number of ways ( in what follows , it is assumed that the word JACK has been played on a previous turn ; letters in parentheses represent tiles already on the board ) : * Adding one or more letters to an existing word , e.g . ( JACK ) S , HI ( JACK ) , HI ( JACK ) ING . * '' Hooking '' a word and playing perpendicular to that word , e.g . playing IONIZES with the S hooked on ( JACK ) to make ( JACK ) S . * Playing perpendicular to a word , e.g . ( JACK ) , then YEU ( K ) Y through the K . * Playing parallel to a word ( s ) forming several short words , e.g . CON played under ( JACK ) that to make ( J ) O and ( A ) N . Any combination of these is allowed in a play , as long as all the letters placed on the board in one play lie in one row or column and are connected by a main word , and any run of tiles on two or more consecutive squares along a row or column constitutes a valid word . Either on the first turn or on subsequent turns , words may read either left-to-right or top-to-bottom . Diagonal plays are not allowed . Scoring The score for any play is determined this way : * Each new word formed in a play is scored separately , and then those scores are added up . The value of each tile is indicated on the tile , and blank tiles are worth zero points . * The main word ( defined as the word containing every played letter ) is scored . The letter values of the tiles are added up , and tiles placed on DLS and TLS are doubled and tripled in value , respectively . Tiles placed on DWS or TWS squares double or triple the value of the word ( s ) that include those tiles . * If any `` hook '' words are played ( e.g . playing ANEROID while `` hooking '' the A to BETTING to make ABETTING ) , the scores for each word are added separately . This is common for `` parallel '' plays that make up to eight words in one turn . * Premium squares apply only when newly placed tiles cover them . Any subsequent plays do not count those premium squares . * If a player makes a play where the main word covers two DWS squares , the value of that word is doubled , then redoubled ( i.e . 4× the word value ) . Similarly , if the main word covers two TWS squares , the value of that word is tripled , then retripled ( 9× the word value ) . Such plays are often referred to as `` double-doubles '' and `` triple-triples '' respectively . It is theoretically possible to achieve a play covering three TWS squares ( a 27× word score ) , although this is extremely improbable without constructive setup and collaboration . Plays covering a DWS and a TWS simultaneously ( 6× the word value , or 18× if a DWS and two TWS squares are covered ) are only possible if a player misses the center star on the first turn , and the play goes unchallenged ( this is valid under North American tournament rules ) . * Finally , if seven tiles have been laid on the board in one turn ( known as a `` bingo '' in North America , a `` scrabble '' in Spain and France , and a `` bonus '' elsewhere ) , after all of the words formed have been scored , 50 bonus points are added . When the letters to be drawn have run out , the final play can often determine the winner . This is particularly the case in close games with more than two players . Example Suppose Player 1 plays QUANT 8D , with the Q on a DLS and T on the center star . The score for this play would be ( 2 × 10 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 ) × 2 = 48 ( following the order of operations ) . Player 2 extends the play to ALI ( QUANT ) 8A with the A on the TWS at 8A . The score for this play would be ( 1 + 1 + 1 + 10 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 ) × 3 = 51 . Note that the Q is not doubled for this play . Player 1 has DDIIIOO and plays OIDIOID 9G . The score for the word OIDIOID would be ( 2 × 1 + 1 + 2 × 2 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 2 × 2 ) 14 . Additionally , Player 1 formed NO and TI , which score 1 + 2 × 1 3 and 1 + 1 2 points respectively . Therefore , the sum of all the values of the words formed is 14+3+2 19 . However , this is a seven-letter play , so 50 points are added , resulting in a total score of 69 . Player 1 now has a 117-51 lead . The player with the highest final score wins the game . In case of a tie , the player with the highest score before adjusting for unplayed tiles wins the game . In tournament play , a tie counts as 1/2 a win for both players . Acceptable words Acceptable words are the primary entries in some chosen dictionary , and all of their inflected forms . Words that are hyphenated , capitalized ( such as proper nouns ) , or apostrophized are not allowed , unless they also appear as acceptable entries ; JACK is a proper noun , but the word JACK is acceptable because it has other usages as a common noun ( automotive , vexillological , etc . ) and verb that are acceptable . Acronyms or abbreviations , other than those that have acceptable entries ( such as AWOL , RADAR , LASER , and SCUBA ) are not allowed . Variant spellings , slang or offensive terms , archaic or obsolete terms , and specialized jargon words are allowed if they meet all other criteria for acceptability ; though archaic spellings ( e.g . NEEDE for NEED ) are generally not allowed . Foreign words are not allowed in the English language Scrabble unless they have been incorporated into the English language – for example , the words PATISSERIE , KILIM , and QI . Vulgar and offensive words are generally excluded from the OSPD4 , but are allowed in club and tournament play . Proper nouns and other exceptions to the usual rules are allowed in some limited contexts in the spin-off game Scrabble Trickster . Names of recognized computer programs are permitted as an acceptable proper noun ( For example , WinZIP ) . There are two popular competition word lists used in various parts of the world : TWL and SOWPODS ( also referred to as `` Collins '' ) . The memorization of two-letter words is considered an essential skill in this game . OWL2 and OSPD5 The North American 2006 Official Tournament and Club Word List , Second Edition ( OWL2 ) went into official use in American , Canadian , Israeli and Thai club and tournament play on March 1 , 2006 ( or , for school use , the bowdlerized Official Scrabble Players Dictionary , Fifth Edition ( OSPD5 ) ) . North American competitions use the Long Words List for longer words . The OWL2 and the OSPD5 are compiled using four ( originally five ) major college-level dictionaries , including Merriam-Webster ( 10th and 11th editions , respectively ) . If a word appears , at least historically , in any one of the dictionaries , it will be included in the OWL2 and the OSPD5 . If the word has only an offensive meaning , it is only included in the OWL2 . The key difference between the OSPD5 and the OWL2 is that the OSPD5 is marketed for `` home and school '' use , with expurgated words which their source dictionaries judged offensive , rendering the Official Scrabble Players Dictionary less fit for official Scrabble play . The OSPD5 , released in 2014 , is available in bookstores , whereas the OWL2 is only available through NASPA ) . Collins Scrabble Words In all other countries , the competition word list is Collins Scrabble Words 2015 edition , known as CSW15 . Versions of this lexicon prior to 2007 were known as SOWPODS . The lexicon includes all allowed words of length 2 to 15 letters . This list contains all OWL2 words plus words sourced from Chambers and Collins English dictionaries . This book is used to adjudicate at the World Scrabble Championship and all other major international competitions outside of North America . Challenges The penalty for a successfully challenged play is nearly universal : the offending player removes the tiles played and forfeits his or her turn . ( However , in some online games , an option known as `` void '' may be used , wherein unacceptable words are automatically rejected by the program . The player is then required to make another play , with no penalty applied . ) The penalty for an unsuccessful challenge ( where all words formed by the play are deemed valid ) varies considerably , including : * '' Double Challenge '' , in which an unsuccessfully challenging player must forfeit the next turn . This penalty governs North American ( NASPA-sanctioned ) OWL tournament play , and is the standard

sfq_4206--Scrabble.txt

How many squares are found along one side of a Scrabble board?

Tenerife South Airport ( ) , previously known as Tenerife South-Reina Sofia Airport , is the larger of the two international airports located on the island of Tenerife ( the other being Tenerife North Airport ) and the second busiest in the Canary Islands . It is located in the municipality of Granadilla de Abona and handled over 9 million passengers in 2014 . History In the late 1960s , the island authorities of Tenerife Identified the need for a new airport at a new location as the existing airport did not meet technical requirements due to adverse weather conditions . The new airport was inaugurated on 6 November 1978 , by Queen Sofía of Spain , to whom the airport is dedicated . The first flight was Iberia flight IB187 from Lanzarote , which was operated by a McDonnell Douglas DC-9 landing at 10:17 . By the end of its first year , 1 million passengers had passed through its doors . The airport was under construction when the Tenerife airport disaster occurred at Tenerife North Airport in March 1977 . Terminal Tenerife South consists of one three-storey passenger terminal in a classic brick style . The main level , Floor 0 , contains all check-in and service counters , the departures waiting areas as well as the arrivals and main baggage reclaim . The departures area features 34 boarding gates of which eight are equipped with jetbridges . While the upper floor 1 contains office space and transit corridors , the basement level -1 features additional luggage belts . Airlines and destinations Destinations by airline served from Tenerife South Airport : Statistics Passengers Routes Ground transport The public bus service TITSA offers services to all parts of the island , Line 343 connects the South Airport ( TFS ) with Tenerife North Airport ( TFN ) .

sfq_893--Tenerife–South_Airport.txt

On which island is Reina Sofia Airport?

The Conservative Party , officially the Conservative and Unionist Party , is a political party in the United Kingdom . It is currently the majority party in the House of Commons , having won 330 of the 650 seats in the 2015 general election . Between 2010 and 2015 it was the largest single party with 306 Members of Parliament and governed in coalition with the Liberal Democrats . It is the largest party in local government with 8,296 councillors . The Conservative Party was founded in 1834 from the Tory Party—giving rise to the Conservatives ' colloquial name of Tories—and was one of two dominant parties in the 19th century , along with the Liberal Party . In the 1920s , the Liberal vote greatly diminished and the Labour Party became the Conservatives ' main rivals . Conservative Prime Ministers led governments for 57 years of the 20th century , including Winston Churchill ( 1940–45 , 1951–55 ) and Margaret Thatcher ( 1979–90 ) . Thatcher 's tenure led to wide-ranging economic liberalisation and saw the Conservatives become the most eurosceptic of the three major parties . The Conservative Party 's domination of British politics throughout the 20th century have led to them being referred to as one of the most successful political parties in the Western world . The Conservatives are the joint-second largest British party in the European Parliament , with twenty MEPs , and sit with the European Conservatives and Reformists ( ECR ) parliamentary group . The party is a member of the Alliance of European Conservatives and Reformists ( AECR ) Europarty and the International Democrat Union ( IDU ) . The party is the second-largest in the Scottish Parliament and third-largest in the Welsh Assembly . The Conservatives were formerly allied to the Ulster Unionist Party ( UUP ) in Northern Ireland but there is now a separate Northern Ireland Conservative party similar to the Welsh and Scottish Conservative parties . The party is also organised in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar . History Pittites The Conservative Party traces its origins to a faction , rooted in the 18th century Whig Party , that coalesced around William Pitt the Younger ( Prime Minister of Great Britain 1783–1801 and 1804–1806 ) . They were known as `` Independent Whigs '' , `` Friends of Mr Pitt '' , or `` Pittites '' . After Pitt 's death the term `` Tory '' came into use . This was an allusion to the Tories , a political grouping that had existed from 1678 , but which had no organisational continuity with the Pittite party . From about 1812 on the name `` Tory '' was commonly used for the newer party . The term `` Conservative '' was suggested as a title for the party by a magazine article by J. Wilson Croker in the Quarterly Review in 1830 . The name immediately caught on and was officially adopted under the aegis of Sir Robert Peel around 1834 . Peel is acknowledged as the founder of the Conservative Party , which he created with the announcement of the Tamworth Manifesto . The term `` Conservative Party '' rather than Tory was the dominant usage by 1845 . Conservatives and Unionists ( 1867–1965 ) The widening of the electoral franchise in the 19th century forced the Conservative Party to popularise its approach under Lord Derby and Benjamin Disraeli , who carried through their own expansion of the franchise with the Reform Act of 1867 . In 1886 the party formed an alliance with Lord Hartington ( later the 8th Duke of Devonshire ) and Joseph Chamberlain 's new Liberal Unionist Party and , under the statesmen Lord Salisbury and Arthur Balfour , held power for all but three of the following twenty years before suffering a heavy defeat in 1906 when it split over the issue of free trade . In 1912 , the Liberal Unionists merged with the Conservative party . In Ireland , the Irish Unionist Alliance had been formed in 1891 which merged anti-Home Rule Unionists into one political movement . Its MPs took the Conservative whip at Westminster , and in essence formed the Irish wing of the party until 1922 . First World War The Conservatives served with the Liberals in an all-party coalition government during World War I , and the coalition continued under the Liberal prime minister David Lloyd George ( with half of the Liberals ) until 1922 . Keohane finds that the Conservatives were bitterly divided before 1914 , especially on the issue of Irish Unionism and the experience of three consecutive election losses . However the war pulled the party together , allowing it to emphasise patriotism as it found new leadership and worked out its positions on the Irish question , socialism , electoral reform , and the issue of intervention in the economy . The fresh emphasis on anti-Socialism was its response to the growing strength of the Labour Party . When electoral reform was an issue it worked to protect its base in rural England . It aggressively sought women voters in the 1920s , often relying on patriotic themes . 1920–1945 In 1922 , Bonar Law and Stanley Baldwin led the break-up of the coalition and the Conservatives governed until 1923 , when a minority Labour government led by Ramsay MacDonald came to power . The Conservatives regained power in 1924 and remained in power for the full five-year term . They were defeated in 1929 as a minority Labour government took office . In 1931 , following the collapse of the Labour minority government , it entered another coalition , which was dominated by the Conservatives with some support from fractions of both the Liberals and Labour party ( National Labour and Liberal Nationals ) . In May 1940 a more balanced coalition was formed , the National Government , which , under the leadership of Winston Churchill , saw the United Kingdom through World War II . However , the party lost the 1945 general election to the resurgent Labour Party . 1945–1963 Popular dissatisfaction In the late 1940s the Conservative Party exploited and incited growing public anger at food rationing , scarcity , controls , austerity , and omnipresent government bureaucracy . They used the dissatisfaction with the socialist and egalitarian policies of the Labour Party to rally middle-class supporters and build a political comeback that won the 1951 general election . Their appeal was especially effective to housewives , who faced more difficult shopping conditions after the war than during the war . Modernising the party In 1947 the party published its Industrial Charter which marked its acceptance of the `` post-war consensus '' on the mixed economy and labour rights . David Maxwell Fyfe chaired a committee into Conservative Party organisation that resulted in the Maxwell Fyfe Report ( 1948–49 ) . The report shifted the balance of electoral funding from the candidate to the party , with the intention of broadening the diversity of MPs . In practice , it may have had the effect of lending more power to constituency parties and making candidates more uniform . The success of the Conservative party in reorganising itself was validated by its victory in the 1951 election . Churchill , the party leader , brought in a Party Chairman to modernise the creaking institution . Lord Woolton was a successful department store owner and wartime Minister of Food . As Party Chairman 1946–55 , he rebuilt the local organisations with an emphasis on membership , money , and a unified national propaganda appeal on critical issues . To broaden the base of potential candidates , the national party provided financial aid to candidates , and assisted the local organisations in raising local money . Lord Woolton emphasized a rhetoric that characterised the opponents as `` Socialist '' rather than `` Labour '' . The libertarian influence of Professor Friedrich Hayek 's 1944 best-seller Road to Serfdom was apparent in the younger generation , but that took another quarter century to have a policy impact . By 1951 , Labour had worn out its welcome in the middle classes ; its factions were bitterly embroiled . Conservatives were ready to govern again . With a narrow win in the 1951 general election , Churchill was back . Although he was aging rapidly , he had national and global prestige . Apart from rationing , which was ended , most of the welfare state enacted by Labour were accepted by the Conservatives and became part of the `` post-war consensus '' that would later be satirised as Butskellism , and which lasted until the 1970s . The Conservatives were conciliatory toward unions , but they did de-nationalise the steel and road haulage industries in 1953 . During the Conservatives ’ 13 years in office , pensions went up by 49 % in real terms , sickness and unemployment benefits by 76 % in real terms , and supplementary benefits by 46 % in real terms . However , family allowances fell by 15 % in real terms during that period . The Party won in 1955 and 1959 with ever larger majorities . Conservative prime ministers Churchill , Anthony Eden , Harold Macmillan and Sir Alec Douglas-Home promoted relatively liberal trade regulations and less state involvement throughout the 1950s and early 1960s . They oversaw a period of economic prosperity , with Macmillan proclaiming during the 1959 general election that Britain had 'never had it so good ' . In 1958 , Geoffrey Howe co-authored the report A Giant 's Strength published by the Inns of Court Conservative Association . The report argued that the unions had become too powerful and that their legal privileges ought to be curtailed . Ian Macleod discouraged the authors from publicising the report . Macmillan believed that trade union votes had contributed towards the 1951 and 1955 victories and thought that it `` would be inexpedient to adopt any policy involving legislation which would alienate this support '' . Macmillan 's bid to join the European Economic Community in early 1963 was blocked by French President Charles de Gaulle . The period saw the decline of the UK as a prominent world leader , with the loss of practically the entire empire and a laggard economy . Following controversy over the selections of Harold Macmillan and Sir Alec Douglas-Home via a process of consultation known as the 'Magic Circle ' , a formal election process was created and the first leadership election was held in 1965 . Of the three candidates , Edward Heath won with 150 votes to Reginald Maudling 's 133 and Enoch Powell 's 15 . Edward Heath Edward Heath 's 1970–74 government was known for taking the UK into the EEC , although the right wing of the party objected to his failure to control the trade unions at a time when a declining British industry saw many strikes , as well as a recession which started in 1973 and lasted for two years . Since accession to the EU , British membership has been a source of heated debate within the Conservative party . Heath had come to power in June 1970 and the last possible date for the next general election was not until mid-1975 . However a general election was held in February 1974 in a bid to win public support during a national emergency caused by the miners ' strike . However , Heath 's attempt to win a second term in power at this `` snap '' election failed , as a deadlock result left no party with an overall majority . The Conservatives had more votes than Labour , who had four more seats . Heath resigned within days , after failing to gain Liberal Party support in order to form a coalition government , paving the way for Harold Wilson and Labour to return to power as a minority government . Heath 's hopes of returning to power later in the year were ended when Labour won the October 1974 election with an overall majority of three seats . Margaret Thatcher Loss of power weakened Heath 's control over the party and Margaret Thatcher deposed him in the 1975 leadership election . The UK in the 1970s had seen sustained high inflation rates , which were above 20 % at the time of the leadership election , subsequently falling to below 10 % ; unemployment had risen , and over the winter of 1978–79 there was a series of strikes known as the `` Winter of Discontent '' . Thatcher led her party to victory in the 1979 general election with a manifesto which concentrated on the party 's philosophy rather than presenting a 'shopping list ' of policies . As prime minister , Thatcher focused on establishing a political ideology that became known as the `` New Right '' or Thatcherism , based on social and economic ideas from the United States . Thatcher believed that too much social-democratic-oriented government policy was leading to a long-term decline in the British economy . As a result , her government pursued a programme of economic liberalism , adopting a free-market approach to public services based on the sale of publicly owned industries and utilities , as well as a reduction in trade union power . She held the belief that the existing trend of Unions was bringing economic progress to a standstill by enforcing `` wildcat '' strikes , keeping wages artificially high and forcing unprofitable industries to stay open . Thatcher led the Conservatives to two further election victories with landslide majorities in 1983 and 1987 . She was greatly admired by her supporters for her leadership in the Falklands War of 1982—which coincided with a dramatic boost in her popularity—and for policies such as giving the right to council house tenants to buy their council house at a discount on market value . She was also deeply unpopular in certain sections of society due to unemployment , which reached its highest level since the 1930s , peaking at over 3 million following her economic reforms , and her response to the miners ' strike . Unemployment had doubled between 1979 and 1982 , largely due to Thatcher 's monetarist battle against inflation . At the time of the 1979 election , inflation had been at 9 % or under for the previous year , having fallen under Callaghan , then rose to over 20 % in the first two years of the Thatcher government , but it had fallen again to 5.8 % by the start of 1983 ( it continued to be under 7 % until 1990 ) . The UK economy benefitted in the first Thatcher term by tax income from North Sea oil coming on stream . The period of unpopularity of the Conservatives in the early 1980s coincided with a crisis in the Labour Party which now formed the opposition . The Social Democratic Party ( SDP ) was formed in 1981 and consisted of more than 20 breakaway Labour MPs , who quickly formed the SDP-Liberal Alliance with the Liberal Party . By the turn of 1982 , the SDP-Liberal Alliance was ahead of the Conservatives in the opinion polls , but victory in the Falklands war in June that year , along with the recovering British economy , saw the Conservatives returning quickly to the top of the opinion polls and winning the 1983 general election with a landslide majority , due to a split opposition vote . Thatcher now faced , arguably , her most serious rival yet after the 1983 election , when Michael Foot resigned as Labour leader and was succeeded by Neil Kinnock . With a new leader at the helm , Labour were clearly determined to topple the Conservatives at the next election and for virtually the entirety of Thatcher 's second government it was looking a very serious possibility , as the lead in the opinion polls constantly saw a change in leadership from the Conservatives to Labour , with the Alliance occasionally scraping into first place . By the time of the election in June 1987 the economy was stronger , with lower inflation and falling unemployment and Thatcher secured her third successive election victory with a second , though smaller , landslide majority . The introduction of the Community Charge ( known by its opponents as the poll tax ) in 1989 is often cited as contributing to her political downfall . The summer of 1989 saw her fall behind Neil Kinnock 's Labour in the opinion polls for the first time since 1986 , and her party 's fall in popularity continued into 1990 . By the second half of that year , opinion polls were showing that Labour had a lead of up to 16 points over the Conservatives and they faced a tough 18 months ahead of them if they were to prevent Kinnock 's ambition to be prime minister from being realised . At the same time , the economy was sliding into another recession . Internal party tensions led to a leadership challenge by the Conservative MP Michael Heseltine ; and , after months of speculation about her future as prime minister , she resigned on 28 November 1990 , making way for a new Conservative leader more likely to win the next general election in the interests of party unity . John Major John Major won the party leadership contest on 27 November 1990 , and his appointment led to an almost automatic boost in Conservative fortunes . A MORI poll six days before Mrs Thatcher 's resignation had shown the Conservatives to be 11 points behind Labour , but within two months the Conservatives had returned to the top of the opinion polls with a slim lead . An election had to be held within the next 18 months and the UK economy was sliding into recession , but 1991 was a year of electoral uncertainty as the Conservatives and Labour regularly swapped places at the top of the opinion polls , and Major resisted Neil Kinnock 's numerous calls for an immediate election . The election was finally held on 9 April 1992 and the Conservatives won , even though the economy was still in recession and most of the polls had predicted either a Labour win or a hung parliament . Major 's vigorous campaigning , notably his claim that the UK would have higher prices and higher taxes under a Labour government , was seen to have been crucial in his election win ( in which he became the first – and as of 2015 , only – prime minister to attract 14,000,000 votes in a general election ) , as was a high-profile campaign by The Sun newspaper against Labour leader Neil Kinnock , who resigned in the aftermath of the election to be succeeded by John Smith . The Party also touched upon the issue of immigration , claiming that under Labour , immigration would rise hugely . The UK economy was deep in recession by this stage and remained so until the end of the year . The pound sterling was forced out of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism on 16 September 1992 , a day thereafter referred to as Black Wednesday . Soon after approximately one million householders faced re-possession of their homes during a recession that saw a sharp rise in unemployment , taking it close to 3,000,000 . The party subsequently lost much of its reputation for good financial stewardship although the end of the recession was declared in April 1993 bringing economic recovery and a rise in employment . From 1994 to 1997 , Major privatised British rail , splitting it up into franchises to be run by the private sector . Its success is hotly debated , with a large increase in passenger numbers and investment in the network balanced by worries about the level of subsidy . The party was plagued by internal division and infighting , mainly over the issue over policy towards the European Union . The party 's eurosceptic wing , represented by MPs such as John Redwood , opposed further EU integration , whilst the party 's pro-European wing , represented by those such as Chancellor of the Exchequer Kenneth Clarke , was broadly supportive . The issue of the creation of a single currency also inflamed tensions , and these would continue to dog the party until the early 2000s ( decade ) . These divisions gave off an impression of a divided party , which had lost touch with the voters . Major also had to survive a leadership challenge in 1995 by the Secretary of State for Wales , the aforementioned John Redwood . He survived , but Redwood received 89 votes from MPs , as well as the backing of the Sun newspaper , which described the choice as being between `` Redwood or Deadwood '' . This further undermined Major 's influence in the Party . The Conservative government was also increasingly accused in the media of `` sleaze '' . Their support reached its lowest ebb in late 1994 , after the death of Labour Party leader John Smith and the election of Tony Blair as his successor , when Labour had up to 60 % of the vote in opinion polls and had a lead of some 30 points ahead of the Conservatives . The Labour lead was gradually narrowed over the next two years , as the Conservatives gained some credit for the strong economic recovery and fall in unemployment . But as the 1997 general election loomed , despite their high-profile New Labour , New Danger campaign , it was still looking certain that Labour would win . An effective opposition campaign by the Labour Party culminated in a landslide defeat for the Conservatives in 1997 that was Labour 's largest ever parliamentary victory . The 1997 election left the Conservative Party with MPs in just England , all remaining seats in Scotland and Wales having been lost and not a single seat having been gained anywhere . Back in opposition : William Hague John Major resigned as party leader after the Conservatives were voted out of power and was succeeded by William Hague . Though Hague was a strong debater , a Gallup poll for The Daily Telegraph found that two-thirds of voters regarded him as `` a bit of a wally '' , for headlines such as his claim that he drank 14 pints ( 8 litres , 1.75 gallons ) of beer in a single day in his youth . He was also criticised for attending the Notting Hill Carnival and for wearing a baseball cap in public in what were seen as poor attempts to appeal to younger voters . Shortly before the 2001 election , Hague was much maligned for a speech in which he predicted that a re-elected Labour government would turn the UK into a `` foreign land '' . The BBC also reported that the Conservative peer Lord Taylor criticised Hague for not removing the whip from John Townend , a Conservative MP , after the latter made a speech in which he said the British were becoming `` a mongrel race '' , although Hague did reject Townend 's views . The 2001 election resulted in a net gain of just one seat for the Conservative Party , just months after the fuel protests of September 2000 had seen the Conservatives briefly take a narrow lead over Labour in the opinion polls . Having privately set himself a target of 209 seats , matching Labour 's performance in 1983 — a target which he missed by 43 — William Hague resigned soon after . Iain Duncan Smith and Michael Howard Iain Duncan Smith ( 2001–2003 ) ( often known as IDS and by satirists as `` the quiet man '' ) is a strong Eurosceptic , but the issue did not define Duncan Smith 's leadership , though during his tenure Europe ceased to be an issue of division in the party as it united behind calls for a referendum on the proposed European Union Constitution . However , before he could lead the party in a general election Duncan Smith lost the vote on a motion of no confidence by MPs who felt that the party would not be returned to government under his leadership . This was despite the Conservative support equalling that of Labour in the months leading up to his departure from the leadership . Michael Howard then stood for the leadership unopposed on 6 November 2003 . Under Howard in the 2005 general election , the Conservative Party increased their total vote share by around 0.7 % ( up to 32.4 % ) and – more significantly – their number of parliamentary seats by 33 ( up to 198 seats ) . This gain accompanied a larger fall in the Labour vote , and the election reduced Labour 's majority from 167 to 68 and its share of the vote to 35.2 % . The campaign , based on the slogan `` Are you thinking what we 're thinking ? `` , was designed by Australian pollster Lynton Crosby . The day after the election , on 6 May , Howard announced that he did not feel it was right to continue as leader after defeat in the general election , also saying that he would be too old to lead the party into another campaign and would therefore step down after allowing time for the party to amend its leadership election rules . David Cameron ( in opposition and in government ) David Cameron won the 2005 leadership election . Cameron beat his closest rival , David Davis , by a margin of more than two to one , taking 134,446 votes to 64,398 . He then announced his intention to reform and realign the Conservatives , saying they needed to change the way they looked , felt , thought and behaved , advocating a more centre-right stance as opposed to their recent staunchly right-wing platform . Although Cameron 's views are probably to the left of the party membership and he has sought to make the Conservative brand more attractive to young , socially liberal voters , he has also expressed his admiration for Margaret Thatcher , describing himself as a `` big fan of Thatcher 's '' , though he questions whether that makes him a `` Thatcherite '' . For most of 2006 and the first half of 2007 , polls showed leads over Labour for the Conservatives . Polls became more volatile in the summer of 2007 with the accession of Gordon Brown as Prime Minister , although polls gave the Conservatives a lead after October of that year and , by May 2008 , with the UK 's economy sliding into its first recession since 1992 , and a week after local council elections , a YouGov poll commissioned by The Sun newspaper was published giving the Conservative Party a 26-point lead over Labour , its largest lead since 1968 . The Conservatives gained control of the London mayoralty for the first time in May 2008 after Boris Johnson defeated the Labour incumbent , Ken Livingstone . The Conservative lead in the opinion polls had been almost unbroken for nearly three years when Britain finally went to the polls on 6 May 2010 , though since the turn of 2010 most polls had shown the Conservative lead as less than 10 points wide . The election ended in a hung parliament with the Conservatives having the most seats ( 306 ) but being 20 seats short of an overall majority . Following the resignation of Gordon Brown as prime minister and Labour Party leader five days afterwards , David Cameron was named as the country 's new prime minister and the Conservatives entered government in a coalition with the Liberal Democrats – the first post-war coalition government . In May 2014 the Conservatives were defeated in the European parliamentary elections coming in third behind the UK Independence Party and Labour . UKIP ended with 24 MEPs , Labour 20 , and the Conservatives 19 . The result was described by UKIP leader Nigel Farage as `` disastrous '' for Cameron , and the leaders of the other main parties . In September 2014 the Unionist side , championed by Labour as well as by the Conservative Party and the Liberal Democrats , won in the Scottish Independence referendum by 55 % No to 45 % Yes on the question `` Should Scotland be an independent country '' . This can be seen as a victory for British Unionism , a core part of traditional Conservative ideology , and also for David Cameron as the incumbent Prime Minister . In the 2015 general election , the Conservatives won a majority of seats in the Commons and formed

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In November 1935, which British prime minister returned to office after a general election?

Absolutely Fabulous , also known as Ab Fab , is a BBC television sitcom created by , written by and starring Jennifer Saunders . It is based on a 1990 French & Saunders sketch created by Saunders and Dawn French . The series features Saunders as Edina Monsoon , a heavy-drinking , drug-abusing PR agent who spends her time chasing bizarre fads in a desperate attempt to stay young and `` hip '' . Edina is joined in her quest by magazine editor Patsy Stone ( played by Joanna Lumley ) , her best friend and enabler , whose drug abuse , alcohol consumption , and promiscuity far eclipse Edina 's comparatively mild self-destructive behaviour . Despite being a middle-aged , twice-divorced career woman , Edina is reliant upon the support of her daughter Saffron ( Julia Sawalha ) , a secondary school pupil ( and later university student ) whose constant care of her mother has left her a bitter cynic . The series also stars June Whitfield as Edina 's sarcastic and thieving mother , and Jane Horrocks as Edina 's brainless personal assistant . Absolutely Fabulous returned for three special episodes which were originally broadcast on 25 December 2011 , 1 January 2012 and 23 July 2012 to mark the show 's 20th anniversary . The episode broadcast on 23 July 2012 featured the 2012 Summer Olympics which were being held in London that week . A film based on the series was released to theatres on 1 July 2016 . Production The show has had an extended and sporadic run . The first three series were broadcast on the BBC from 1992 to 1995 , followed by a series finale in the form of a two-part television film entitled The Last Shout in 1996 . Creator Jennifer Saunders revived the show for a fourth series in 2001 , after having written and submitted a pilot entitled Mirrorball , which recruited nearly all of the original cast in new roles . The pilot was intended to be turned into a series of episodes . However , Saunders felt the characters were far too rich and interesting to put aside , and were far better suited for her new story ideas . Instead of Mirrorball , a new series of Absolutely Fabulous was proposed to the BBC , which later commissioned the fourth series in 2001 . From 2001 to 2004 , two full series were produced , along with three one-off hour-long specials ; Gay ( retitled and issued as Absolutely Fabulous in New York for the United States ) in 2002 , Cold Turkey , a Christmas special in 2003 , and White Box ( another series finale ) , which aired in 2004 . A Comic Relief sketch was broadcast in 2005 . In August 2011 , Lumley confirmed the planned filming of three new episodes . In 2011 , plans for a 20th anniversary revival were welcomed in The Guardian , which applauded the show as `` prophetic '' . The first new special was broadcast on 25 December with the second episode being shown on 1 January 2012 . The third , and final special coincided with the 2012 Summer Olympics , with Stella McCartney appearing in a cameo role . A film version of the series was released in summer 2016 . In the United States , the first of the three new 20th anniversary specials aired in January 2012 for broadcast by both BBC America and Logo Channel . Both channels also co-produced the 20th Anniversary episodes , although Logo has removed some scenes for its airings . BBC America broadcast it in full . Both channels aired the episode in a 40-minute block to allow for commercial interruptions . Absolutely Fabulous is ranked as the 17th greatest British TV show of all time by the British Film Institute . A scene from the show was included in the 100 Greatest TV Moments programme broadcast by Channel 4 . In 1997 , the pilot episode , `` Fashion '' , was ranked number 47 on TV Guide 's `` 100 Greatest Episodes of All-Time '' list . In 2004 and 2007 , the series was ranked number 24 and number 29 on TV Guide 's Top Cult Shows Ever list . Background Absolutely Fabulous evolved from a French & Saunders sketch called `` Modern Mother and Daughter '' ( from series 3 episode 6 ) , which starred Saunders as the mother ( named 'Adrianna ' ) and French as the daughter , already named Saffron . The sketch revolved around a middle-aged , single mother who acted like a teenager , and was reliant upon the emotional and financial support of her teenage daughter , who behaved like a middle-aged woman . It has no connection , other than the character 's name , to the earlier film Eddie Monsoon : A Life ? , a comedy play written by Saunders ' husband Adrian Edmondson in 1984 for the TV series The Comic Strip Presents .... The name `` Edina Monsoon '' is derived from Edmondson 's name and `` Eddy Monsoon '' is a nickname of his . According to an article published in The Times , the character of Edina was based on Lynne Franks . Franks believed Saunders had observed her and her children in detail after joining them on a family holiday . Josh Howie , Franks ' son , reported that his mother was upset because one of her best friends `` had taken the piss out of her '' in a TV show . Saunders revealed in 2012 that she was also inspired by pop band Bananarama with whom she and Dawn French had become friends after their Comic Relief collaboration in 1989 . `` The nights with Bananarama were some of the best nights of my life , and I got a lot of gags from Bananarama because they were big vodka drinkers ... when I started doing AbFab , I remembered all of the falls that I saw Bananarama do . I once saw one of them coming out of a cab bottom first and hitting the road , and I thought 'that 's class ' . Although Ab Fab was produced by Saunders and French 's production company , Dawn French appeared on the show only once , in a cameo in the first-series episode `` Magazine '' . Three new specials were announced to celebrate the show 's 20th anniversary with the first special , `` Identity '' airing on 25 December 2011 . Jon Plowman , executive producer and original producer of the series , said : `` Viewers have been fantastically loyal in their devotion to our show , so we 're really thrilled to say that it 's coming back for three new shows to celebrate our 20th anniversary . All of the originals who are back together again are still truly absolutely fabulous and the new adventures of Edina , Patsy , Saffy , Bubble and Mother , plus a few surprising guests , will be a real treat for viewers . '' Saunders announced in November 2011 that she has begun work on a film version of the series . Plot Edina `` Eddy '' Monsoon ( Saunders ) and Patsy Stone ( Lumley ) are a pair of high-powered career women on the London fashion scene . Eddy runs her own PR firm , and Patsy holds a sinecure position at a top British fashion magazine . The two women use their considerable financial resources to indulge in alcohol , recreational drugs , and chasing the latest fads in an attempt to maintain their youth and recapture their glory days as Mods in Swinging London . In 2011 , they are still chain-smokers . The partnership is largely driven by Patsy , who is both co-dependent and enabler to Eddy . Their lifestyle inevitably leads to a variety of personal crises , which are invariably resolved by Eddy 's daughter , Saffron Monsoon ( Julia Sawalha ) , whose constant involvement in their exploits have left her increasingly bitter and cynical . Cast and characters Main Recurring Episodes Absolutely Fabulous first aired on 12 November 1992 and ran for three series , until 4 May 1995 , when the sixth episode of series 3 was billed as the last ever episode . However , the following year in November 1996 , two specials called `` The Last Shout '' were broadcast and were also billed as the last ever episodes . Both episodes featured end sequences with flashes to the future . However , after writing Mirrorball , Jennifer Saunders decided she had more ideas , leading to a fourth series , which premiered on 31 August 2001 . A fifth series and three specials followed , the last of which aired on 25 December 2004 . This was followed by a short special for Comic Relief in March 2005 . In July 2005 , Saunders announced she would not be writing or playing Edina again , stating `` The 6am calls to go to make-up and all the promotional work wear you down . I would like to write and direct—that would be my joy '' . However , in November 2010 , Lumley revealed to Playbill magazine that she had recently spoken to Saunders about the possibility of filming a new series . Lumley and Saunders reunited for the M & S Christmas advert in 2009 , along with other stars such as Twiggy and Stephen Fry . On 29 August 2011 , it was announced that a further series of three programmes was being made to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the original production . The first of these , `` Identity '' , was shown on Christmas Day 2011 and the second , `` Job '' , was shown on New Year 's Day 2012 . The last , entitled `` Olympics '' , aired on 23 July 2012 . The episodes were jointly co-produced by Logo , and BBC America in the US . On 3 January 2012 , following the success of the 20th Anniversary Specials , it was rumoured that Saunders was set to write another Christmas special for 2012 . The BBC were rumoured to also be urging her to write a sixth series for 2013 . Saunders denied the reports of additional episodes via her Twitter account . Film In 2011 , prior to the release of the new episodes for 2011/2012 , Deadline.com reported that Saunders planned to begin writing a script for a film of Absolutely Fabulous in 2012 . The film would begin with Edina and Patsy waking up on an oligarch 's deserted yacht , drifting in the ocean . Saunders later said that the film will be set on the French Riviera . In March 2012 , Saunders confirmed that she was working on the script . She said of the film 's plotline : Saunders also stated that now that she had announced plans for a feature , there was no going back . She would do it for no other reason than to have her alter-ego and Patsy walk down the red carpet at the film 's premiere . In April 2013 Saunders said on the Alan Carr Chatty Man show that she had doubts about the film as she felt the cast were `` too old '' . She felt pressure to write it and did n't want to commit herself to it at this early stage . On 4 January 2014 whilst appearing on The Jonathan Ross Show , Saunders officially confirmed that the movie will definitely be happening , as she felt obliged to write a script for a film adaptation after threatening it for so long . Saunders was quoted as saying : `` Joanna Lumley kept announcing it and saying , 'Yes she 's going to do it , ' and then Dawn French on our radio show at Christmas said , ' I bet £100,000 that you do n't write it , ' so now I have to write it , otherwise I have to pay her £100,000 ' '' . In April 2014 , Saunders again confirmed on BBC Breakfast that she was in the process of writing the film , and gave a prospective release date of sometime during 2015 . Principal photography on the film began on 12 October 2015 in the south of France . Special guests Many celebrities , mainly British or American , appeared in the series , most of them as themselves . They include : * Sylvia Anderson * Christopher Biggins * Crispin Bonham Carter * Helena Bonham Carter * Jo Brand * Fern Britton * Simon Brodkin * Emma Bunton * Naomi Campbell * Linford Christie * Nicky Clarke * Terence Conran * Richard Curtis * Carl Davis * Daniela Denby-Ashe * Marcella Detroit * Sacha Distel * Minnie Driver * Lindsay Duncan * Adrian Edmondson * Britt Ekland * Idris Elba * Marianne Faithfull * Jesse Tyler Ferguson * Dawn French * Mariella Frostrup * Stephen Gately * Jean-Paul Gaultier * Whoopi Goldberg * Sofie Gråbøl * Richard E Grant * Germaine Greer * Tanni Grey-Thompson * Debbie Harry * Miranda Hart * David Haye * Tom Hollander * Kelly Holmes * Colin Jackson * Elton John * Mark Kermode * La Roux * Christian Lacroix * Nathan Lane * Leigh Lawson * Robert Lindsay * Lulu * Stella McCartney * Suzy Menkes * Laurie Metcalf * Kate Moss * Graham Norton * Erin O'Connor * Bruce Oldfield * Kate O'Mara * Anita Pallenberg * Suzi Quatro * Zandra Rhodes * Mandy Rice-Davies * Richard and Judy * Miranda Richardson * Kristin Scott Thomas * Meera Syal * Twiggy * Rufus Wainwright * Kirsty Wark * Ruby Wax * Dale Winton * Katy Wix * Clarissa Dickson Wright Theme song The theme song for Absolutely Fabulous is `` This Wheel 's on Fire '' , written by Bob Dylan and Rick Danko and performed by Julie Driscoll and Saunders ' husband Adrian Edmondson . The song was also sung by Marianne Faithfull and P. P. Arnold for the `` Last Shout '' special in 1996 . Hermine Demoriane sang a French version of the theme song over the closing credits of the episode `` Paris '' . At the end of the episode `` Birthday '' , Edina and Patsy sang the song together using a karaoke machine . More recently , it has been sung by Debbie Harry , who also guest-starred in the 2002 Christmas special `` Gay '' . For series four , a line sung by David Bowie , `` Ziggy played guitar '' , from the song `` Ziggy Stardust '' played at the end of each episode . Due to copyright issues , the theme song is missing from many of the US Region 1 DVDs , being replaced by an instrumental version of the song . Also excised from the US DVD release is the musical number from Chicago performed by Horrocks , Gaffney , and Ryan , during a dream sequence in the series 5 episode `` Birthin ' '' . In addition to the official theme song , in 1994 , Pet Shop Boys recorded a song for Comic Relief using excerpts of dialogue from the series put to dance music . The single was not officially a Pet Shop Boys release : the artist was simply given as `` Absolutely Fabulous '' . It peaked at number 6 in the UK Singles Chart in July 1994 . The music video featured clips from the show and specially recorded footage of the Pet Shop Boys with Patsy and Edina . On 10 June 2016 , Kylie Minogue released her version of `` This Wheel ’ s on Fire '' for Absolutely Fabulous : The Movie , prior to the film 's release in July 2016 . Other countries In the United States , Absolutely Fabulous has been broadcast on Comedy Central , some public television stations , but not as part of the PBS program offerings , BBC America , Oxygen Network , and as of 2011 , Logo , a gay-oriented channel . In Canada , the programme has appeared on the BBC Canada , the CBC , and The Comedy Network . In Australia , all series were originally shown on the ABC , and on cable on UK.TV , and moved to The Comedy Channel in 2007 . Repeats of the first three series were also shown on the Seven network . The ABC continues to show it sporadically and shows Christmas Specials and occasional repeats of series 5 episodes . ABC2 also shows repeats of the show . In New Zealand all five series were broadcast on TVNZ . In India , all five series , including the specials , have been shown on BBC Entertainment . In Portugal , Ab Fab has been shown on RTP2 . In Serbia , the first series was aired in 1998 , through a network of local television stations . In 2004 the series was aired in its entirety on B92 , while in the Czech Republic all episodes have been shown . In the Republic of Macedonia , all episodes have been shown a couple of times on Sitel . In the Netherlands and Flanders , the series is popular , still being regularly re-broadcast by the VPRO and Canvas , respectively . In Sweden , all episodes were first broadcast by SVT , but reruns have later appeared on other channels . In Germany , it was broadcast by the Franco-German TV network Arte and gay-oriented channel TIMM . In France , before it was rerun on terrestrial TV arte , it was successively premiered on pay TV channel Canal + , cable channel Jimmy , and is now broadcast on France 4 . In Finland , the series was broadcast by YLE TV1 . In Estonia , the series was broadcast by ETV . In Brazil , it was aired on GNT . In Poland , two series were broadcast by Wizja Jeden , later by TVP3 , TVN7 and BBC Entertainment . Adaptations and related shows Absolutely Fabulous inspired a French feature film , called Absolument fabuleux , in 2001 . It was written and directed by Gabriel Aghion , and starred Josiane Balasko as Eddy and Nathalie Baye as Patsy . Saunders had a small cameo alongside Catherine Deneuve as a spectator at a fashion show . Amanda Lear was asked to play the part of Patsy but turned it down laughingly , saying she 'd `` already lived it '' . A proposed American remake that would have starred Carrie Fisher and Barbara Carrera was put into motion by Roseanne Barr but never got off the ground . However , Barr did incorporate many elements of the show into the final season of her eponymous show Roseanne , in which her character wins the lottery : Saunders and Lumley reprised their characters Edina and Patsy , and Mo Gaffney also appeared in the episode , but not as her character Bo . It was announced on 7 October 2008 that an American version of the series was in the works . The series was to be relocated to Los Angeles . Saturday Night Live writer Christine Zander worked on the new scripts and would have been executive producer along with Saunders and BBC Worldwide 's Ian Moffitt . Sony Pictures Television , BBC Worldwide , and indie Tantamount were producing the new series for Fox , which greenlighted the pilot as a possible Fall 2009 entry with Kathryn Hahn as Eddy and Kristen Johnston as Patsy . In May 2009 , Fox decided not to commission a full series . The stage for the kitchen in Ab Fab is now used as the stage for the shop in the British comedy Miranda . Miranda Hart , creator of the show , had previously appeared on Absolutely Fabulous . Mirrorball Mirrorball was a pilot set in the London theatre scene , starring the cast of Absolutely Fabulous as alternative characters . While writing and filming the show , Saunders was inspired to revive Absolutely Fabulous for a fourth series , which resulted in her abandoning Mirrorball . It was eventually aired as a television special , and is included as a special feature on the DVD of the fourth season . Home video releases Absolutely Fabulous was initially released on VHS in the UK by BBC Video ending with the 8-VHS box set Series 1–4 in November 2002 . All episodes were later released on DVD , including a five-DVD box set titled The Complete DVD Collection : Series 1–4 in 2002 . All releases were distributed by BBC Video and 2 Entertain ( post 2004 ) except for The Last Shout which was released by Vision Video and Universal Studios . The entire series is also available on demand on iTunes . When the first three series were re-released on DVD , they did not include corresponding cover photography to their series : Series 1 included an image from the Series 3 episode `` Jealous '' , Series 2 had an image from Series 3 episode `` Doorhandle '' and Series 3 is from the Series 2 episode `` Poor '' . All other releases included imagery from the correct series , as do the original VHS releases . In North America , all episodes have been released on DVD by BBC Video and Warner Home Video , including a complete collection named Absolutely Everything . The Last Shout and Gay ( which were released in the UK individually ) were released as a collection called Absolutely Special in 2003 . Another feature-length special White Box was released exclusively to the American market . It was eventually released in the United Kingdom on 15 November 2010 with its inclusion in the Absolutely Everything box set . Other releases include Absolutely Not , a bloopers and outtakes collection , and Absolutely Fabulous : A Life , a mockumentary including 15 minutes of new material interspersed with clips from the series . Both were only released on VHS in the UK ; the latter was also released as a special feature on the box set release Absolutely Everything in America . UK releases ; VHS In the United Kingdom , VHS releases were distributed by BBC Video , except The Last Shout which was released by Vision Video , the final release being in 2002 . ; DVD All episodes have now been released on DVD in the United Kingdom . `` White Box '' which was released in North America , was never available individually in the UK and was not available until its inclusion in the 2010 Absolutely Fabulous : Absolutely Everything box set . The North American release Absolutely Special has been released in the UK as two separate releases : The Last Shout and Gay . All releases in the UK were distributed by BBC Video except The Last Shout which was released by Vision Video . North American releases In North America , every episode of the series has been released . All releases are distributed by BBC Video and Warner Home Video . ; DVD Australian releases ; DVD Ratings

qb_8351--Absolutely_Fabulous.txt

In the UK television series ‘Absolutely Fabulous’, what is Edina’s surname?

New Zealand ( ) is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean . The country geographically comprises two main landmasses – that of the North Island , or Te Ika-a-Māui , and the South Island , or Te Waipounamu – and numerous smaller islands . New Zealand is situated some 1500 km east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1000 km south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia , Fiji , and Tonga . Because of its remoteness , it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans . During its long period of isolation , New Zealand developed a distinctive biodiversity of animal , fungal and plant life . The country 's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks , such as the Southern Alps , owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions . New Zealand 's capital city is Wellington , while its most populous city is Auckland . Sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE , Polynesians settled in the islands that would later become New Zealand , and developed a distinctive Māori culture . In 1642 , Abel Tasman , a Dutch explorer , became the first European to sight New Zealand . In 1840 , representatives of the British Crown and Māori Chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi , making New Zealand a British colony . Today , the majority of New Zealand 's population of 4.7 million is of European descent ; the indigenous Māori are the largest minority , followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders . Reflecting this , New Zealand 's culture is mainly derived from Māori and early British settlers , with recent broadening arising from increased immigration . The official languages are English , Māori and New Zealand Sign Language , with English predominant . New Zealand is a developed country with a market economy . New Zealand is a World Bank high-income economy and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance , such as health , education , economic freedom and quality of life . Nationally , legislative authority is vested in an elected , unicameral Parliament , while executive political power is exercised by the Cabinet , led by the Prime Minister , who is currently John Key . Queen Elizabeth II is the country 's head of state and is represented by a Governor-General . In addition , New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes . The Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau ( a dependent territory ) ; the Cook Islands and Niue ( self-governing states in free association with New Zealand ) ; and the Ross Dependency , which is New Zealand 's territorial claim in Antarctica . New Zealand is a member of the United Nations , Commonwealth of Nations , ANZUS , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , Pacific Islands Forum , and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation . Etymology Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt , supposing it was connected to a landmass of the same name at the southern tip of South America . In 1645 , Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland . British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand . Aotearoa ( often translated as `` land of the long white cloud '' ) is the current Māori name for New Zealand . It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans , with Aotearoa originally referring to just the North Island . Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands , including Te Ika-a-Māui ( the fish of Māui ) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu ( the waters of greenstone ) or Te Waka o Aoraki ( the canoe of Aoraki ) for the South Island . Early European maps labelled the islands North ( North Island ) , Middle ( South Island ) and South ( Stewart Island / Rakiura ) . In 1830 , maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907 , this was the accepted norm . The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised , and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013 . This set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui , and South Island or Te Waipounamu . Note that for each island , either its English or Māori name can be used , or both can be used together . History New Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans . Radiocarbon dating , evidence of deforestation and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations suggest New Zealand was first settled by Eastern Polynesians between 1250 and 1300 , concluding a long series of voyages through the southern Pacific islands . Over the centuries that followed , these settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori . The population was divided into iwi ( tribes ) and hapū ( subtribes ) who would sometimes cooperate , sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other . At some point , a group of Māori migrated to the Chatham Islands ( which they named Rēkohu ) where they developed their distinct Moriori culture . The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862 , largely because of Taranaki Māori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s , although European diseases also contributed . In 1862 , only 101 survived and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933 . The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642 . In a hostile encounter , four crew members were killed and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot . Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline . Following Cook , New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling , sealing and trading ships . They traded European food , metal tools , weapons and other goods for timber , Māori food , artifacts and water . The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare . Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus , which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns . The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840 , killing 30,000–40,000 Māori . From the early 19th century , Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand , eventually converting most of the Māori population . The Māori population declined to around 40 percent of its pre-contact level during the 19th century ; introduced diseases were the major factor . In 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip assumed the position of Governor of the new British colony of New South Wales which according to his commission included New Zealand . The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Māori . In 1835 , following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry , the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of the Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection . Ongoing unrest , the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company ( which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori ) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for Great Britain and negotiate a treaty with the Māori . The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840 . In response to the New Zealand Company 's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington and French settlers purchasing land in Akaroa , Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840 , even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign . With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants , particularly from the United Kingdom , began to increase . New Zealand , still part of the colony of New South Wales , became a separate Colony of New Zealand on 1 July 1841 . The colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the first Parliament met in 1854 . In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing , gaining responsibility over all domestic matters other than native policy . ( Control over native policy was granted in the mid-1860s . ) Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony , premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near the Cook Strait . Wellington was chosen for its harbour and central location , with parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865 . As immigrant numbers increased , conflicts over land led to the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s and 1870s , resulting in the loss and confiscation of much Māori land . In 1891 the Liberal Party led by John Ballance came to power as the first organised political party . The Liberal Government , later led by Richard Seddon , passed many important social and economic measures . In 1893 New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote and in 1894 pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions . In 1898 Seddon 's government passed the Old-age Pensions Act of 1898 , the first general pensions scheme in the British Empire . In 1907 , at the request of the New Zealand Parliament , King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a dominion within the British Empire , reflecting its self-governing status . Accordingly , the title `` Dominion of New Zealand '' dates from 1907 . In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster , confirming that the British parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand . New Zealand was involved in world affairs , fighting , as part of the British Empire , in the First and Second World Wars and suffering through the Great Depression . The depression led to the election of the first Labour government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy . New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following World War II and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work . A Māori protest movement developed , which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and the Treaty of Waitangi . In 1975 , a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty , and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985 . The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi , although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed have proved controversial in the 2000s . Politics Government New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy , although its constitution is not codified . Elizabeth II is the Queen of New Zealand and the head of state . The Queen is represented by the Governor-General , whom she appoints on the advice of the Prime Minister . The Governor-General can exercise the Crown 's prerogative powers , such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers , ambassadors and other key public officials , and in rare situations , the reserve powers ( e.g . the power to dissolve Parliament or refuse the Royal Assent of a bill into law ) . The powers of the Queen and the Governor-General are limited by constitutional constraints and they can not normally be exercised without the advice of Cabinet . The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the Queen and the House of Representatives . It also included an upper house , the Legislative Council , until this was abolished in 1950 . The supremacy of Parliament , over the Crown and other government institutions , was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand . The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a Government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats . If no majority is formed a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured . The Governor-General appoints ministers under advice from the Prime Minister , who is by convention the Parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition . Cabinet , formed by ministers and led by the Prime Minister , is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions . By convention , members of cabinet are bound by collective responsibility to decisions made by cabinet . Almost all parliamentary general elections between and were held under the first-past-the-post voting system . The elections since 1930 have been dominated by two political parties , National and Labour . Since the , a form of proportional representation called Mixed Member Proportional ( MMP ) has been used . Under the MMP system each person has two votes ; one is for electoral seats ( including some reserved for Māori ) , and the other is for a party . Since the , there have been 71 electorate seats ( which includes 7 Māori electorates ) , and the remaining 49 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote , although a party has to win one electoral seat or 5 percent of the total party vote before it is eligible for these seats . Between March 2005 and August 2006 New Zealand became the only country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land ( Head of State , Governor-General , Prime Minister , Speaker and Chief Justice ) were occupied simultaneously by women . Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain constitutional independence from the government . This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions . The Privy Council in London was the country 's final court of appeal until 2004 , when it was replaced with the newly established Supreme Court of New Zealand . The judiciary , headed by the Chief Justice , includes the Court of Appeal , the High Court , and subordinate courts . New Zealand is identified as one of the world 's most stable and well-governed nations . , the country was ranked fifth in the strength of its democratic institutions and first in government transparency and lack of corruption . New Zealand has a high level of civic participation , with 79 % voter turnout during the most recent elections , compared to an OECD average of 72 % . Furthermore , 67 % of New Zealanders say they trust their political institutions , far higher than the OECD average of 56 % . Foreign relations and the military Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy . The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate their own political treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan . On 3 September 1939 New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Savage proclaiming , `` Where she goes , we go ; where she stands , we stand . '' In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests , while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty . The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War , the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior , disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand 's nuclear-free policy . Despite the US 's suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia , whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend . Close political contact is maintained between the two countries , with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit , live and work in both countries without restrictions . In 2013 , there are about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia , which is about 15 percent of the population of New Zealand . 65,000 Australians live in New Zealand . New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries . A large proportion of New Zealand 's aid goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment . Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category , which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year . A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007 and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it . New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum , Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum ( including the East Asia Summit ) . New Zealand is also a member of the United Nations , the Commonwealth of Nations , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the Five Power Defence Arrangements . The New Zealand Defence Force has three branches : the Royal New Zealand Navy , the New Zealand Army and the Royal New Zealand Air Force . New Zealand 's national defence needs are modest because of the unlikelihood of direct attack , although it does have a global presence . The country fought in both world wars , with notable campaigns in Gallipoli , Crete , El Alamein and Cassino . The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand 's national identity and strengthened the ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia . According to Mary Edmond-Paul , `` World War I had left scars on New Zealand society , with nearly 18,500 in total dying as a result of the war , more than 41,000 wounded , and others affected emotionally , out of an overseas fighting force of about 103,000 and a population of just over a million . '' New Zealand also played key parts in the naval Battle of the River Plate and the Battle of Britain air campaign . During World War II , the United States had more than 400,000 American military personnel stationed in New Zealand . In addition to Vietnam and the two world wars , New Zealand fought in the Korean War , the Second Boer War , the Malayan Emergency , the Gulf War and the Afghanistan War . It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions , such as those in Cyprus , Somalia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , the Sinai , Angola , Cambodia , the Iran–Iraq border , Bougainville , East Timor , and the Solomon Islands . New Zealand also sent a unit of army engineers to help rebuild Iraqi infrastructure for one year during the Iraq War . New Zealand ranks 8th in the Center for Global Development 's 2012 Commitment to Development Index , which ranks the world 's most developed countries on their dedication to policies that benefit poorer nations . New Zealand is considered the fourth most peaceful country in the world according to the 2014 Global Peace Index . Local government and external territories Officially , New Zealand is divided into 16 regions . The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces , which had a degree of autonomy . Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways , education , land sales and other policies , government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876 . As a result , New Zealand now has no separately represented subnational entities . The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays and sporting rivalries . Since 1876 , various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government . In 1989 , the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities . The 249 municipalities that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils . The regional councils ' role is to regulate `` the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management '' , while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage , water , local roads , building consents and other local matters . Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils . The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils , 53 district councils , and the Chatham Islands Council . While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority , it undertakes many functions of a regional council . New Zealand is one of 16 realms within the Commonwealth . The Realm of New Zealand is the territory over which the Queen of New Zealand is sovereign and comprises New Zealand , Tokelau , the Ross Dependency , the Cook Islands and Niue . The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand . The New Zealand Parliament can not pass legislation for these countries , but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence . Tokelau is a non-self-governing territory that uses the New Zealand flag and anthem , but is administered by a council of three elders ( one from each Tokelauan atoll ) . The Ross Dependency is New Zealand 's territorial claim in Antarctica , where it operates the Scott Base research facility . New Zealand citizenship law treats all parts of the realm equally , so most people born in New Zealand , the Cook Islands , Niue , Tokelau and the Ross Dependency before 2006 are New Zealand citizens . Further conditions apply for those born from 2006 onwards . Environment Geography See also : Atlas of New Zealand at Wikimedia Commons New Zealand is located near the centre of the water hemisphere and is made up of two main islands and a number of smaller islands . The two main islands ( the North Island , or Te Ika-a-Māui , and the South Island , or Te Waipounamu ) are separated by the Cook Strait , 22 km wide at its narrowest point . Besides the North and South Islands , the five largest inhabited islands are Stewart Island , the Chatham Islands , Great Barrier Island ( in the Hauraki Gulf ) , d'Urville Island ( in the Marlborough Sounds ) and Waiheke Island ( about 22 km from central Auckland ) . The country 's islands lie between latitudes 29° and 53°S , and longitudes 165° and 179°E . New Zealand is long and narrow ( over 1600 km along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of 400 km ) , with about 15000 km of coastline and a total land area of 268000 km2 . Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline , the country has extensive marine resources . Its Exclusive Economic Zone is one of the largest in the world , covering more than 15 times its land area . The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand , and is divided along its length by the Southern Alps . There are 18 peaks over 3000 m , the highest of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook at 3754 m. Fiordland 's steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this south-western corner of the South Island . The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism . The highly active Taupo Volcanic Zone has formed a large volcanic plateau , punctuated by the North Island 's highest mountain , Mount Ruapehu ( 2797 m ) . The plateau also hosts the country 's largest lake , Lake Taupo , nestled in the caldera of one of the world 's most active supervolcanoes . The country owes its varied topography , and perhaps even its emergence above the waves , to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates . New Zealand is part of Zealandia , a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent . About 25 million years ago , a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region . This is now most evident in the Southern Alps , formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault . Elsewhere the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other , producing the Puysegur Trench to the south , the Hikurangi Trench east of the North Island , and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches further north . New Zealand and Australia are both part of the wider regions known as Australasia and Oceania . The term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent , New Zealand and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model . File : NZ Landscape.jpg|Rural scene File : Emerald Lakes , New Zealand.jpg|The Emerald Lakes , Mt Tongariro . File : Lake Gunn.jpg|Lake Gunn File : Pencarrow Head , Wellington , New Zealand from Santa Regina , 24 Feb. 2007.jpg|Pencarrow Head , Wellington Climate New Zealand has a mild and temperate maritime climate ( Köppen : Cfb ) with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 °C in the south to 16 °C in the north . Historical maxima and minima are in Rangiora , Canterbury and in Ranfurly , Otago . Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland . Of the seven largest cities , Christchurch is the driest , receiving on average only 640 mm of rain per year and Wellington the wettest , receiving almost twice that amount . Auckland , Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine . The southern and south-western parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate , with around 1,400–1,600 hours ; the northern and north-eastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours . The general snow season is about early June until early October in the South Island . Snowfall is less common on the North Island , although it does occur . File : Autumn in New Zealand.jpg|Autumn in Wellington File : New Zealand snow.jpg|Central Plateau in winter . Much of this region has a cool continental climate with regular snowfall . File : Scorching Bay.jpg|Scorching Bay beach in summer The table below lists climate normals for the warmest and coldest month in the six largest cities of New Zealand . The North Island cities are generally slightly warmer in February , but the South Island cities are warmest in January . Biodiversity New Zealand 's geographic isolation for 80 million years and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country 's species of animals , fungi and plants . Physical isolation has not caused biological isolation , and this has resulted in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of very distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species . About 82 percent of New Zealand 's indigenous vascular plants are endemic , covering 1,944 species across 65 genera and includes a single endemic family . The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand , including lichen-forming species , is not known , nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic , but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand and 40 percent of these are endemic . The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps , or by southern beech in cooler climates . The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands , the majority of which are tussock . Before the arrival of humans an estimated 80 percent of the land was covered in forest , with only high alpine , wet , infertile and volcanic areas without trees . Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived , with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement . Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement , being logged or cleared to make room

sfq_14649--New_Zealand.txt

The sea between Australia and New Zealand is named after an explorer of what nationality?

World War II ( often abbreviated to WWII or WW2 ) , also known as the Second World War , was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945 , although related conflicts began earlier . It involved the vast majority of the world 's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances : the Allies and the Axis . It was the most widespread war in history , and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries . In a state of `` total war '' , the major participants threw their entire economic , industrial , and scientific capabilities behind the war effort , erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources . Marked by mass deaths of civilians , including the Holocaust ( in which approximately 11 million people were killed ) and the strategic bombing of industrial and population centres ( in which approximately one million were killed , and which included the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ) , it resulted in an estimated 50 million to 85 million fatalities . These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history . The Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China in 1937 , but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939 with the invasion of Poland by Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom . From late 1939 to early 1941 , in a series of campaigns and treaties , Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe , and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan . Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939 , Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours , Poland , Finland , Romania and the Baltic states . The war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the coalition of the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth , with campaigns including the North Africa and East Africa campaigns , the aerial Battle of Britain , the Blitz bombing campaign , the Balkan Campaign as well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic . In June 1941 , the European Axis powers launched an invasion of the Soviet Union , opening the largest land theatre of war in history , which trapped the major part of the Axis ' military forces into a war of attrition . In December 1941 , Japan attacked the United States and European territories in the Pacific Ocean , and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific . The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway , near Hawaii , and Germany was defeated in North Africa and then , decisively , at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union . In 1943 , with a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front , the Allied invasion of Sicily and the Allied invasion of Italy which brought about Italian surrender , and Allied victories in the Pacific , the Axis lost the initiative and undertook strategic retreat on all fronts . In 1944 , the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France , while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies . During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma , while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key Western Pacific islands . The war in Europe concluded with an invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union , culminating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet and Polish troops and the subsequent German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender under its terms , the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August and 9 August respectively . With an invasion of the Japanese archipelago imminent , the possibility of additional atomic bombings , and the Soviet Union 's declaration of war on Japan and invasion of Manchuria , Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945 . Thus ended the war in Asia , cementing the total victory of the Allies . World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world . The United Nations ( UN ) was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts . The victorious great powers—the United States , the Soviet Union , China , the United Kingdom , and France—became the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council . The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the Cold War , which lasted for the next 46 years . Meanwhile , the influence of European great powers waned , while the decolonisation of Asia and Africa began . Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery . Political integration , especially in Europe , emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities and to create a common identity . Chronology The start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939 , beginning with the German invasion of Poland ; Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later . The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937 , or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931 . Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor , who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and the two wars merged in 1941 . This article uses the conventional dating . Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. ; ; Yisreelit , Hevrah Mizrahit ( 1965 ) . Asian and African Studies , p. 191.For 1941 see ; Kellogg , William O ( 2003 ) . American History the Easy Way . Barron 's Educational Series . p. 236 ISBN 0-7641-1973-7.There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same `` European Civil War '' or `` Second Thirty Years War '' : ; . The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939 . The exact date of the war 's end is also not universally agreed upon . It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945 ( V-J Day ) , rather than the formal surrender of Japan ( 2 September 1945 ) . A peace treaty with Japan was signed in 1951 to formally tie up any loose ends such as compensation to be paid to Allied prisoners of war who had been victims of atrocities . A treaty regarding Germany 's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place in 1990 and resolved other post-World War II issues . Background Europe World War I had radically altered the political European map , with the defeat of the Central Powers—including Austria-Hungary , Germany and the Ottoman Empire—and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which eventually led to the founding of the Soviet Union . Meanwhile , the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France , Belgium , Italy , Greece and Romania , gained territory , and new nation-states were created out of the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman and Russian Empires . To prevent a future world war , the League of Nations was created during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference . The organisation 's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security , military and naval disarmament , and settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration . Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , its aftermath still caused irredentist and revanchist nationalism in several European states . These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial , colonial , and financial losses incurred by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty , Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all of its overseas colonies , while German annexation of other states was prohibited , reparations were imposed , and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country 's armed forces . The German Empire was dissolved in the German Revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government , later known as the Weimar Republic , was created . The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the right and left . Italy , as an Entente ally , had made some post-war territorial gains ; however , Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by Britain and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled with the peace settlement . From 1922 to 1925 , the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist , totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist , left-wing and liberal forces , and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power , promising the creation of a `` New Roman Empire '' . Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923 , eventually became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933 . He abolished democracy , espousing a radical , racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . It was at this time that political scientists began to predict that a second Great War might take place . Meanwhile , France , to secure its alliance , allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession . The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles , accelerated his rearmament programme , and introduced conscription . Hoping to contain Germany , the United Kingdom , France and Italy formed the Stresa Front ; however , in June 1935 , the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany , easing prior restrictions . The Soviet Union , concerned by Germany 's goals of capturing vast areas of eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France . Before taking effect though , the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations , which rendered it essentially toothless . The United States , concerned with events in Europe and Asia , passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year . Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936 . He encountered little opposition from other European powers . In October 1936 , Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later , Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy would join in the following year . Asia The Kuomintang ( KMT ) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s , but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese communist allies . In 1931 , an increasingly militaristic Japanese Empire , which had long sought influence in China as the first step of what its government saw as the country 's right to rule Asia , used the Mukden Incident as a pretext to launch an invasion of Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . Too weak to resist Japan , China appealed to the League of Nations for help . Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria . The two nations then fought several battles , in Shanghai , Rehe and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933 . Thereafter , Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan . Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia ( 1935 ) The Second Italo–Abyssinian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936 . The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire ( also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ) , which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana , or AOI ) ; in addition , it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace . Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations , but the League did nothing when the former clearly violated the League 's own Article X. Germany was the only major European nation to support the invasion . Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany 's goal of absorbing Austria . Spanish Civil War ( 1936–39 ) When civil war broke out in Spain , Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . The Soviet Union supported the existing government , the Spanish Republic . Over 30,000 foreign volunteers , known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists . Both Germany and the USSR used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics . The bombing of Guernica by the German Condor Legion in April 1937 heightened widespread concerns that the next major war would include extensive terror bombing attacks on civilians .. Tony Judt said that the `` communist strategy in Spain turns out to have been a dry run for the seizure of power in Eastern Europe after 1945 . '' See The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939 ; Franco , now dictator , bargained with both sides during the Second World War , but never concluded any major agreements . He did send volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front under German command but Spain remained neutral and did not allow either side to use its territory . Japanese invasion of China ( 1937 ) In July 1937 , Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Beijing after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge Incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China . The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support , effectively ending China 's prior co-operation with Germany . Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but , after three months of fighting , Shanghai fell . The Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back , capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 . After the fall of Nanking , tens of thousands if not hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by the Japanese . Totten , Samuel . Dictionary of Genocide . 2008 , 298–9 . In March 1938 , Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May . In June 1938 , Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan , but the city was taken by October . Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve ; instead the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war . Soviet-Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s , Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan 's expansion northward , was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time . With the devastating Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939 and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets , this policy would prove difficult to maintain . Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941 , and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy , which took its focus southward , eventually leading to its war with the United States and the Western Allies . European occupations and agreements In Europe , Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive . In March 1938 , Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers . Encouraged , Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population ; and soon Britain and France followed the counsel of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government , in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands . Soon afterwards , Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary and Poland . Although all of Germany 's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement , privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation . In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish `` war-mongers '' and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy . In March 1939 , Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania , forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region . Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , Britain and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939 , the same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece . Shortly after the Franco-British pledge to Poland , Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . Hitler accused Britain and Poland of trying to `` encircle '' Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact . In August 1939 , Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , a non-aggression treaty with a secret protocol . The parties gave each other rights to `` spheres of influence '' ( western Poland and Lithuania for Germany ; eastern Poland , Finland , Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the USSR ) . It also raised the question of continuing Polish independence . The agreement was crucial to Hitler because it assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war , as it had in World War I , after it defeated Poland . The situation reached a general crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border . In a private meeting with the Italian foreign minister , Count Ciano , Hitler asserted that Poland was a `` doubtful neutral '' that needed to either yield to his demands or be `` liquidated '' to prevent it from drawing off German troops in the future `` unavoidable '' war with the Western democracies . He did not believe Britain or France would intervene in the conflict . On 23 August Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August , but upon hearing that Britain had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality , he decided to delay it . In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war , Germany made demands on Poland , which only served as a pretext to worsen relations . On 29 August , Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession . The Poles refused to comply with the German demands and on the night of 30–31 August in a violent meeting with the British ambassador Neville Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected . Course of the war War breaks out in Europe ( 1939–40 ) On 1 September 1939 , Germany invaded Poland under the false pretext that the Poles had carried out a series of sabotage operations against German targets near the border . Two days later , on 3 September , after a British ultimatum to Germany to cease military operations was ignored , Britain and France , followed by the fully independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth—Australia ( 3 September ) , Canada ( 10 September ) , New Zealand ( 3 September ) , and South Africa ( 6 September ) —declared war on Germany . However , initially the alliance provided limited direct military support to Poland , consisting of a cautious , half-hearted French probe into the Saarland .. , observes that , while it is true that Poland was far away , making it difficult for the French and British to provide support , `` [ f ] ew Western historians of World War II ... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland , but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshafen . The French , who committed to attack Germany in the west , had no intention of doing so . '' The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country 's economy and war effort . Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships , which was to later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . On 17 September 1939 , after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviets invaded Poland from the east . The Polish army was defeated and Warsaw surrendered to the Germans on 27 September , with final pockets of resistance surrendering on 6 October . Poland 's territory was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union , with Lithuania and Slovakia also receiving small shares . After the defeat of Poland 's armed forces , the Polish resistance established an Underground State and a partisan Home Army . About 100,000 Polish military personnel were evacuated to Romania and the Baltic countries ; many of these soldiers later fought against the Germans in other theatres of the war . Poland 's Enigma codebreakers were also evacuated to France . On 6 October Hitler made a public peace overture to Britain and France , but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union . Chamberlain rejected this on 12 October , saying `` Past experience has shown that no reliance can be placed upon the promises of the present German Government . '' After this rejection Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France , but bad weather forced repeated postponements until the spring of 1940 . After signing the German–Soviet Treaty of Friendship , Cooperation and Demarcation , the Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries—Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania—to allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries under pacts of `` mutual assistance '' . Finland rejected territorial demands , prompting a Soviet invasion in November 1939 . The resulting Winter War ended in March 1940 with Finnish concessions . Britain and France , treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tantamount to its entering the war on the side of the Germans , responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting the USSR 's expulsion from the League of Nations . In June 1940 , the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania , and the disputed Romanian regions of Bessarabia , Northern Bukovina and Hertza . Meanwhile , Nazi-Soviet political rapprochement and economic co-operation gradually stalled , and both states began preparations for war . Western Europe ( 1940–41 ) In April 1940 , Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off by unilaterally mining neutral Norwegian waters . Denmark capitulated after a few hours , and despite Allied support , during which the important harbour of Narvik temporarily was recaptured from the Germans , Norway was conquered within two months . British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the replacement of the British Prime Minister , Neville Chamberlain , with Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940 . Germany launched an offensive against France and , adhering to the Manstein Plan also attacked the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg on 10 May 1940 . That same day British forces landed in Iceland and the Faroes to preempt a possible German invasion of the islands . The U.S. in close co-operation with the Danish envoy to Washington D.C. , agreed to protect Greenland , laying the political framework for the formal establishment of bases in April 1941 . The Netherlands and Belgium were overrun using blitzkrieg tactics in a few days and weeks , respectively . The French-fortified Maginot Line and the main body the Allied forces which had moved into Belgium were circumvented by a flanking movement through the thickly wooded Ardennes region , mistakenly perceived by Allied planners as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles . As a result , the bulk of the Allied armies found themselves trapped in an encirclement and were beaten . The majority were taken prisoner , whilst over 300,000 , mostly British and French , were evacuated from the continent at Dunkirk by early June , although abandoning almost all of their equipment . On 10 June , Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom . Paris fell to the Germans on 14 June and eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany and was soon divided into German and Italian occupation zones , and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which , though officially neutral , was generally aligned with Germany . France kept its fleet but the British feared the Germans would seize it , so on 3 July , the British attacked it . The Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . On 19 July , Hitler again publicly offered to end the war , saying he had no desire to destroy the British Empire . The United Kingdom rejected this ultimatum . The main German air superiority campaign started in August but failed to defeat RAF Fighter Command , and a proposed invasion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified as night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely failed to disrupt the British war effort . Using newly captured French ports , the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . The British scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . Perhaps most importantly , during the Battle of Britain the Royal Air Force had successfully resisted the Luftwaffe 's assault , and the German bombing campaign largely ended in May 1941 . Throughout this period , the neutral United States took measures to assist China and the Western Allies . In November 1939 , the American Neutrality Act was amended to allow `` cash and carry '' purchases by the Allies . In 1940 , following the German capture of Paris , the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September , the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . Still , a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention into the conflict well into 1941 . Although Roosevelt had promised to keep the United States out of the war , he nevertheless took concrete steps to prepare for war . In December 1940 he accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out negotiations as useless , calling for the US to become an `` arsenal for democracy '' and promoted the passage of Lend-Lease aid to support the British war effort . In January 1941 secret high level staff talks with the British began for the purposes of determining how to defeat Germany should the US enter the war . They decided on a number of

qw_2979--World_War_II.txt

During World War II, Japan occupied which part of the USA?

Alberta is a western province of Canada . With an estimated population of 4,196,457 as of July 1 , 2015 , it is Canada 's fourth-most populous province and the most populous of Canada 's three prairie provinces . Its area is about . Alberta and its neighbour Saskatchewan were districts of the Northwest Territories until they were established as provinces on September 1 , 1905 . The premier has been Rachel Notley since May 2015 . Alberta is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia to the west and Saskatchewan to the east , the Northwest Territories to the north , and the U.S. state of Montana to the south . Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to border only a single U.S. state and one of only two landlocked provinces . It has a predominantly humid continental climate , with stark contrasts over a year but seasonal temperature average swings are smaller than to areas further east , due to winters being warmed by occasional chinook winds bringing sudden warming . Alberta 's capital , Edmonton , is near the geographic centre of the province and is the primary supply and service hub for Canada 's crude oil , oil sands ( Athabasca oil sands ) and other northern resource industries . About 290 km south of the capital is Calgary , the largest city in Alberta . Calgary and Edmonton centre Alberta 's two census metropolitan areas , both of which have populations exceeding one million , while the province has 16 census agglomerations . Tourist destinations in the province include Banff , Canmore , Drumheller , Jasper and Sylvan Lake . Etymology Alberta is named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta ( 1848–1939 ) , the fourth daughter of Victoria , Queen of Canada , and Albert , Prince Consort . Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell , Marquess of Lorne , Governor General of Canada ( 1878–83 ) . Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour . Geography Alberta , with an area of 661848 km2 , is the fourth largest province after Quebec , Ontario , and British Columbia . To the south , the province borders on the 49th parallel north , separating it from the US state of Montana , while on the north the 60th parallel north divides it from the Northwest Territories . To the east , the 110th meridian west separates it from the province of Saskatchewan , while on the west its boundary with British Columbia follows the 120th meridian west south from the Northwest Territories at 60°N until it reaches the Continental Divide at the Rocky Mountains , and from that point follows the line of peaks marking the Continental Divide in a generally southeasterly direction until it reaches the Montana border at 49°N . The province extends 1223 km north to south and 660 km east to west at its maximum width . Its highest point is 3747 m at the summit of Mount Columbia in the Rocky Mountains along the southwest border , while its lowest point is 152 m on the Slave River in Wood Buffalo National Park in the northeast . With the exception of the semi-arid steppe of the southeastern section , the province has adequate water resources . There are numerous rivers and lakes used for swimming , fishing and a range of water sports . There are three large lakes , Lake Claire ( 1436 km2 ) in Wood Buffalo National Park , Lesser Slave Lake ( 1168 km2 ) , and Lake Athabasca ( 7898 km2 ) which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan . The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River which travels 1538 km from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca . The largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of 2161 m3/s . The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River , a tributary of the Mackenzie River . Alberta 's capital city , Edmonton , is located approximately in the geographic centre of the province . It is the most northerly major city in Canada , and serves as a gateway and hub for resource development in northern Canada . The region , with its proximity to Canada 's largest oil fields , has most of western Canada 's oil refinery capacity . Calgary is located approximately 280 km south of Edmonton and 240 km north of Montana , surrounded by extensive ranching country . Almost 75 % of the province 's population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor . The land grant policy to the railroads served as a means to populate the province in its early years . Most of the northern half of the province is boreal forest , while the Rocky Mountains along the southwestern boundary are largely forested ( see Alberta Mountain forests and Alberta-British Columbia foothills forests ) . The southern quarter of the province is prairie , ranging from shortgrass prairie in the southeastern corner to mixed grass prairie in an arc to the west and north of it . The central aspen parkland region extending in a broad arc between the prairies and the forests , from Calgary , north to Edmonton , and then east to Lloydminster , contains the most fertile soil in the province and most of the population . Much of the unforested part of Alberta is given over either to grain or to dairy farming , with mixed farming more common in the north and centre , while ranching and irrigated agriculture predominate in the south . The Alberta badlands are located in southeastern Alberta , where the Red Deer River crosses the flat prairie and farmland , and features deep canyons and striking landforms . Dinosaur Provincial Park , near Brooks , Alberta , showcases the badlands terrain , desert flora , and remnants from Alberta 's past when dinosaurs roamed the then lush landscape . Climate Alberta has a humid continental climate with warm summers and cold winters . The province is open to cold arctic weather systems from the north , which often produce extremely cold conditions in winter . As the fronts between the air masses shift north and south across Alberta , the temperature can change rapidly . Arctic air masses in the winter produce extreme minimum temperatures varying from in northern Alberta to in southern Alberta , although temperatures at these extremes are rare . In the summer , continental air masses have produced record maximum temperatures from 32 C in the mountains to over 40 C in southeastern Alberta . Alberta extends for over 1200 km from north to south ; its climate , therefore , varies considerably . Average high temperatures in January range from 0 C in the southwest to in the far north . The climate is also influenced by the presence of the Rocky Mountains to the southwest , which disrupt the flow of the prevailing westerly winds and cause them to drop most of their moisture on the western slopes of the mountain ranges before reaching the province , casting a rain shadow over much of Alberta . The northerly location and isolation from the weather systems of the Pacific Ocean cause Alberta to have a dry climate with little moderation from the ocean . Annual precipitation ranges from 300 mm in the southeast to 450 mm in the north , except in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains where total precipitation including snowfall can reach 600 mm annually . The province is the namesake of the Alberta clipper , a type of intense , fast-moving winter storm that generally forms over or near the province and pushed with great speed by the continental polar jetstream descends over the rest of Southern Canada and the northern tier of the United States . In the summer , the average daytime temperatures range from around 21 C in the Rocky Mountain valleys and far north , up to around 28 C in the dry prairie of the southeast . The northern and western parts of the province experience higher rainfall and lower evaporation rates caused by cooler summer temperatures . The south and east-central portions are prone to drought-like conditions sometimes persisting for several years , although even these areas can receive heavy precipitation and sometimes resulting in flooding . Alberta is a sunny province . Annual bright sunshine totals range between 1900 up to just under 2600 hours per year . Northern Alberta gets about 18 hours of daylight in the summer . In southwestern Alberta , the cold winters are frequently interrupted by warm , dry chinook winds blowing from the mountains , which can propel temperatures upward from frigid conditions to well above the freezing point in a very short period . During one chinook recorded at Pincher Creek , temperatures soared from in just one hour . The region around Lethbridge has the most chinooks , averaging 30 to 35 chinook days per year . Calgary has a 56 % chance of a white Christmas , while Edmonton has an 86 % chance . Northern Alberta is mostly covered by boreal forest and has a subarctic climate . The agricultural area of southern Alberta has a semi-arid steppe climate because the annual precipitation is less than the water that evaporates or is used by plants . The southeastern corner of Alberta , part of the Palliser Triangle , experiences greater summer heat and lower rainfall than the rest of the province , and as a result suffers frequent crop yield problems and occasional severe droughts . Western Alberta is protected by the mountains and enjoys the mild temperatures brought by winter chinook winds . Central and parts of northwestern Alberta in the Peace River region are largely aspen parkland , a biome transitional between prairie to the south and boreal forest to the north . After Saskatchewan , Alberta experiences the most tornadoes in Canada with an average of 15 verified per year . Thunderstorms , some of them severe , are frequent in the summer , especially in central and southern Alberta . The region surrounding the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor is notable for having the highest frequency of hail in Canada , which is caused by orographic lifting from the nearby Rocky Mountains , enhancing the updraft/downdraft cycle necessary for the formation of hail . Ecology Flora In central and northern Alberta the arrival of spring is marked by the early flowering of the prairie crocus anemone ; this member of the buttercup family has been recorded flowering as early as March , though April is the usual month for the general population . Other prairie flora known to flower early are the golden bean and wild rose . Members of the sunflower family blossom on the prairie in the summer months between July and September . The southern and east central parts of Alberta are covered by short prairie grass , which dries up as summer lengthens , to be replaced by hardy perennials such as the prairie coneflower , fleabane , and sage . Both yellow and white sweet clover can be found throughout the southern and central areas of the province . The trees in the parkland region of the province grow in clumps and belts on the hillsides . These are largely deciduous , typically aspen , poplar , and willow . Many species of willow and other shrubs grow in virtually any terrain . On the north side of the North Saskatchewan River evergreen forests prevail for thousands of square kilometres . Aspen poplar , balsam poplar ( or in some parts cottonwood ) , and paper birch are the primary large deciduous species . Conifers include jack pine , Rocky Mountain pine , lodgepole pine , both white and black spruce , and the deciduous conifer tamarack . Fauna The four climatic regions ( alpine , boreal forest , parkland , and prairie ) of Alberta are home to many different species of animals . The south and central prairie was the land of the bison , commonly known as buffalo , its grasses providing pasture and breeding ground for millions of buffalo . The buffalo population was decimated during early settlement , but since then buffalo have made a comeback , living on farms and in parks all over Alberta . Alberta is home to many large carnivores . Among them are the grizzly and black bears , which are found in the mountains and wooded regions . Smaller carnivores of the canine and feline families include coyotes , wolves , fox , lynx , bobcat and mountain lion ( cougar ) . Herbivorous animals are found throughout the province . Moose , mule deer , elk , and white-tail deer are found in the wooded regions , and pronghorn can be found in the prairies of southern Alberta . Bighorn sheep and mountain goats live in the Rocky Mountains . Rabbits , porcupines , skunks , squirrels and many species of rodents and reptiles live in every corner of the province . Alberta is home to only one variety of venomous snake , the prairie rattlesnake . Central and northern Alberta and the region farther north is the nesting ground of many migratory birds . Vast numbers of ducks , geese , swans and pelicans arrive in Alberta every spring and nest on or near one of the hundreds of small lakes that dot northern Alberta . Eagles , hawks , owls and crows are plentiful , and a huge variety of smaller seed and insect-eating birds can be found . Alberta , like other temperate regions , is home to mosquitoes , flies , wasps , and bees . Rivers and lakes are populated with pike , walleye , whitefish , rainbow , speckled , brown trout , and sturgeon . Bull trout , native to the province , is the Alberta 's provincial fish . Turtles are found in some water bodies in the southern part of the province . Frogs and salamanders are a few of the amphibians that make their homes in Alberta . Alberta is the only province in Canada—as well as one of the few places in the world—that is free of Norwegian rats . Since the early 1950s , the Government of Alberta has operated a rat-control program , which has been so successful that only isolated instances of wild rat sightings are reported , usually of rats arriving in the province aboard trucks or by rail . In 2006 , Alberta Agriculture reported zero findings of wild rats ; the only rat interceptions have been domesticated rats that have been seized from their owners . It is illegal for individual Albertans to own or keep Norwegian rats of any description ; the animals can only be kept in the province by zoos , universities and colleges , and recognized research institutions . In 2009 , several rats were found and captured , in small pockets in southern Alberta , putting Alberta 's rat-free status in jeopardy . A colony of rats were subsequently found in a landfill near Medicine Hat in 2012 , and again in 2014 . Paleontology Alberta has one of the greatest diversities and abundances of Late Cretaceous dinosaur fossils in the world . Taxa are represented by complete fossil skeletons , isolated material , microvertebrate remains , and even mass graves . At least 38 dinosaur type specimens were collected in the province . The Foremost Formation , Oldman Formation and Dinosaur Park Formations collectively comprise the Judith River Group and are the most thoroughly studied dinosaur-bearing strata in Alberta . Dinosaur-bearing strata are distributed widely throughout Alberta . The Dinosaur Provincial Park area contains outcrops of the Dinosaur Park Formation and Oldman Formation . In the central and southern regions of Alberta are intermittent Scollard Formation outcrops . In the Drumheller Valley and Edmonton regions there are exposed Horseshoe Canyon facies . Other formations have been recorded as well , like the Milk River and Foremost Formations . However , these latter two have a lower diversity of documented dinosaurs , primarily due to their lower total fossil quantity and neglect from collectors who are hindered by the isolation and scarcity of exposed outcrops . Their dinosaur fossils are primarily teeth recovered from microvertebrate fossil sites . Additional geologic formations that have produced only few fossils are the Belly River Group and St. Mary River Formations of the southwest and the northwestern Wapiti Formation . The Wapiti Formation contains two Pachyrhinosaurus bone beds that break its general trend of low productivity , however . The Bearpaw Formation represents strata deposited during a marine transgression . Dinosaurs are known from this Formation , but represent specimens washed out to sea or reworked from older sediments . History Paleo-Indians arrived in Alberta at least 10,000 years ago , toward the end of the last ice age . They are thought to have migrated from Siberia to Alaska on a land bridge across the Bering Strait and then possibly moved down the east side of the Rocky Mountains through Alberta to settle the Americas . Others may have migrated down the coast of British Columbia and then moved inland . Over time they differentiated into various First Nations peoples , including the Plains Indian tribes of southern Alberta such as those of the Blackfoot Confederacy and the Plains Cree , who generally lived by hunting buffalo ( American bison ) , and the more northerly tribes such as the Woodland Cree and Chipewyan who hunted , trapped , and fished for a living . After the British arrival in Canada , approximately half of the province of Alberta , south of the Athabasca River drainage , became part of Rupert 's Land which consisted of all land drained by rivers flowing into Hudson Bay . This area was granted by Charles II of England to the Hudson 's Bay Company ( HBC ) in 1670 , and rival fur trading companies were not allowed to trade in it . After the arrival of French Canadians in the west around 1731 , they settled near fur trading posts , establishing communities such as Lac La Biche and Bonnyville . Fort La Jonquière was established near what is now Calgary in 1752 . The Athabasca River and the rivers north of it were not in HBC territory because they drained into the Arctic Ocean instead of Hudson Bay , and they were prime habitat for fur-bearing animals . The first explorer of the Athabasca region was Peter Pond , who learned of the Methye Portage , which allowed travel from southern rivers into the rivers north of Rupert 's Land . Fur traders formed the North West Company ( NWC ) of Montreal to compete with the HBC in 1779 . The NWC occupied the northern part of Alberta territory . Peter Pond built Fort Athabasca on Lac la Biche in 1778 . Roderick Mackenzie built Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca ten years later in 1788 . His cousin , Sir Alexander Mackenzie , followed the North Saskatchewan River to its northernmost point near Edmonton , then setting northward on foot , trekked to the Athabasca River , which he followed to Lake Athabasca . It was there he discovered the mighty outflow river which bears his name—the Mackenzie River—which he followed to its outlet in the Arctic Ocean . Returning to Lake Athabasca , he followed the Peace River upstream , eventually reaching the Pacific Ocean , and so he became the first European to cross the North American continent north of Mexico . The extreme southernmost portion of Alberta was part of the French ( and Spanish ) territory of Louisiana , sold to the United States in 1803 ; in 1818 , the portion of Louisiana north of the Forty-Ninth Parallel was ceded to Great Britain . Fur trade expanded in the north , but bloody battles occurred between the rival HBC and NWC , and in 1821 the British government forced them to merge to stop the hostilities . The amalgamated Hudson 's Bay Company dominated trade in Alberta until 1870 , when the newly formed Canadian Government purchased Rupert 's Land . Northern Alberta was included in the North-Western Territory until 1870 , when it and Rupert 's land became Canada 's Northwest Territories . The District of Alberta was created as part of the North-West Territories in 1882 . As settlement increased , local representatives to the North-West Legislative Assembly were added . After a long campaign for autonomy , in 1905 the District of Alberta was enlarged and given provincial status , with the election of Alexander Cameron Rutherford as the first premier . On June 21 , 2013 , during the 2013 Alberta floods Alberta experienced heavy rainfall that triggered catastrophic flooding throughout much of the southern half of the province along the Bow , Elbow , Highwood and Oldman rivers and tributaries . A dozen municipalities in Southern Alberta declared local states of emergency on June 21 as water levels rose and numerous communities were placed under evacuation orders . In 2016 , a wildfire resulted in the largest evacuation of residents in Alberta 's history , as over 80,000 people were evacuated . Demographics The 2011 census reported Alberta had a population of 3,645,257 living in 1,390,275 of its 1,505,007 total dwellings , a 10.8 % change from its 2006 population of 3,290,350 . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2011 . Statistics Canada estimated the province to have a population of 4,196,457 in 2015 . Alberta has experienced a relatively high rate of growth in recent years , mainly because of its burgeoning economy . Between 2003 and 2004 , the province had high birthrates ( on par with some larger provinces such as British Columbia ) , relatively high immigration , and a high rate of interprovincial migration compared to other provinces . About 81 % of the population lives in urban areas and only about 19 % in rural areas . The Calgary–Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized area in the province and is one of the most densely populated areas of Canada . Many of Alberta 's cities and towns have experienced very high rates of growth in recent history . Alberta 's population rose from 73,022 in 1901 to 3,290,350 according to the 2006 census . The 2006 census found that English , with 2,576,670 native speakers , was the most common mother tongue of Albertans , representing 79.99 % of the population . The next most common mother tongues were Chinese with 97,275 native speakers ( 3.02 % ) , followed by German with 84,505 native speakers ( 2.62 % ) and French with 61,225 ( 1.90 % ) . Other mother tongues include : Punjabi , with 36,320 native speakers ( 1.13 % ) ; Tagalog , with 29,740 ( 0.92 % ) ; Ukrainian , with 29,455 ( 0.91 % ) ; Spanish , with 29,125 ( 0.90 % ) ; Polish , with 21,990 ( 0.68 % ) ; Arabic , with 20,495 ( 0.64 % ) ; Dutch , with 19,980 ( 0.62 % ) ; and Vietnamese , with 19,350 ( 0.60 % ) . The most common aboriginal language is Cree 17,215 ( 0.53 % ) . Other common mother tongues include Italian with 13,095 speakers ( 0.41 % ) ; Urdu with 11,275 ( 0.35 % ) ; and Korean with 10,845 ( 0.33 % ) ; then Hindi 8,985 ( 0.28 % ) ; Persian 7,700 ( 0.24 % ) ; Portuguese 7,205 ( 0.22 % ) ; and Hungarian 6,770 ( 0.21 % ) . ( Figures shown are for the number of single language responses and the percentage of total single-language responses . ) Alberta has considerable ethnic diversity . In line with the rest of Canada , many immigrants originated from England , Scotland , Ireland and Wales , but large numbers also came from other parts of Europe , notably Germany , France , Ukraine and Scandinavia . According to Statistics Canada , Alberta is home to the second highest proportion ( two percent ) of Francophones in western Canada ( after Manitoba ) . Despite this , relatively few Albertans claim French as their mother tongue . Many of Alberta 's French-speaking residents live in the central and northwestern regions of the province . As reported in the 2001 census , the Chinese represented nearly four percent of Alberta 's population , and East Indians represented more than two percent . Both Edmonton and Calgary have historic Chinatowns , and Calgary has Canada 's third largest Chinese community . The Chinese presence began with workers employed in the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s . Aboriginal Albertans make up approximately three percent of the population . In the 2006 Canadian census , the most commonly reported ethnic origins among Albertans were : 885,825 English ( 27.2 % ) ; 679,705 German ( 20.9 % ) ; 667,405 Canadian ( 20.5 % ) ; 661,265 Scottish ( 20.3 % ) ; 539,160 Irish ( 16.6 % ) ; 388,210 French ( 11.9 % ) ; 332,180 Ukrainian ( 10.2 % ) ; 172,910 Dutch ( 5.3 % ) ; 170,935 Polish ( 5.2 % ) ; 169,355 North American Indian ( 5.2 % ) ; 144,585 Norwegian ( 4.4 % ) ; and 137,600 Chinese ( 4.2 % ) . ( Each person could choose as many ethnicities as were applicable . ) Amongst those of British origins , the Scots have had a particularly strong influence on place-names , with the names of many cities and towns including Calgary , Airdrie , Canmore , and Banff having Scottish origins . Alberta is the third most diverse province in terms of visible minorities after British Columbia and Ontario with 13.9 % of the population consisting of visible minorities . Nearly one-fourth of the populations of Calgary and Edmonton belong to a visible minority group . Aboriginal Identity Peoples make up 5.8 % of the population , about half of whom consist of North American Indians and the other half are Metis . There are also small number of Inuit people in Alberta . The number of Aboriginal Identity Peoples have been increasing at a rate greater than the population of Alberta . As of the 2011 National Household Survey , the largest religious group was Roman Catholic , representing 24.3 % of the population . Alberta had the second highest percentage of non-religious residents among the provinces ( after British Columbia ) at 31.6 % of the population . Of the remainder , 7.5 % of the population identified themselves as belonging to the United Church of Canada , while 3.9 % were Anglican . Lutherans made up 3.3 % of the population while Baptists comprised 1.9 % . The remainder belonged to a wide variety of different religious affiliations , none of which constituted more than 2 % of the population . The LDS Church of Alberta reside primarily in the extreme south of the province . Alberta has a population of Hutterites , a communal Anabaptist sect similar to the Mennonites , and has a significant population of Seventh-day Adventists . Alberta is home to several Byzantine Rite Churches as part of the legacy of Eastern European immigration , including the Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Edmonton , and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada 's Western Diocese which is based in Edmonton . Muslims , Sikhs , Buddhists , and Hindus live in Alberta . Muslims made up 3.2 % of the population , Sikhs 1.5 % , Buddhists 1.2 % , and Hindus 1.0 % . Many of these are recent immigrants , but others have roots that go back to the first settlers of the prairies . Canada 's oldest mosque , the Al-Rashid Mosque , is located in Edmonton , whereas Calgary is home to Canada 's largest mosque , the Baitun Nur mosque . Jews constituted 0.3 % of Alberta 's population . Most of Alberta 's 11,000 Jews live in Calgary ( 6,200 ) and Edmonton ( 3,800 ) . Municipalities ; Largest metro areas and municipalities by population as of 2006 Economy Alberta 's economy was one of the strongest in the world , supported by the burgeoning petroleum industry and to a lesser extent , agriculture and technology . In 2013 Alberta 's per capita GDP exceeded that of the United States , Norway , or Switzerland , and was the highest of any province in Canada at C $ 84,390 . This was 56 % higher than the national average of C $ 53,870 and more than twice that of some of the Atlantic provinces . In 2006 the deviation from the national average was the largest for any

qw_8575--Alberta.txt

Which event held in Alberta, Canada, which bills itself as The Greatest Outdoor Show on Earth, is a large festival, exhibition, and rodeo held for 10 days every summer in July, attracts more than 1.2 million visitors?

John R. `` Johnny '' Cash ( born J. R. Cash ; February 26 , 1932 – September 12 , 2003 ) was an American singer-songwriter , guitarist , actor , and author , who was widely considered one of the most influential musicians of the 20th century and one of the best-selling music artists of all time , having sold more than 90 million records worldwide . Although primarily remembered as a country music icon , his genre-spanning songs and sound embraced rock and roll , rockabilly , blues , folk , and gospel . This crossover appeal won Cash the rare honor of multiple inductions in the Country Music , Rock and Roll , and Gospel Music Halls of Fame . Cash was known for his deep , calm bass-baritone voice , the distinctive sound of his Tennessee Three backing band , a rebelliousness coupled with an increasingly somber and humble demeanor , free prison concerts , and a trademark look , which earned him the nickname `` The Man in Black '' . He traditionally began his concerts with the simple `` Hello , I 'm Johnny Cash '' , followed by his signature `` Folsom Prison Blues '' . Much of Cash 's music echoed themes of sorrow , moral tribulation and redemption , especially in the later stages of his career . His best-known songs included `` I Walk the Line '' , `` Folsom Prison Blues '' , `` Ring of Fire '' , `` Get Rhythm '' and `` Man in Black '' . He also recorded humorous numbers like `` One Piece at a Time '' and `` A Boy Named Sue '' ; a duet with his future wife , June Carter , called `` Jackson '' ( followed by many further duets after their marriage ) ; and railroad songs including `` Hey , Porter '' , `` Orange Blossom Special '' and `` Rock Island Line '' . During the last stage of his career , Cash covered songs by several late 20th century rock artists , most notably `` Hurt '' by Nine Inch Nails . Early life and influences Cash was born on February 26 , 1932 , in Kingsland , Arkansas , one of seven children born to Ray Cash ( May 13 , 1897 , Kingsland , Arkansas – December 23 , 1985 , Hendersonville , Tennessee ) and Carrie Cloveree ( née Rivers ; March 13 , 1904 , Rison , Arkansas – March 11 , 1991 , Hendersonville , Tennessee ) . He was mostly of Scottish and English ancestry , and as an adult traced his surname to 11th-century Fife , Scotland , after meeting with the then-laird of Falkland , Fife , Major Michael Crichton-Stuart . Cash Loch and other locations in Fife bear the name of his family . At birth , Cash was named J. R. Cash . When Cash enlisted in the United States Air Force , he was not permitted to use initials as a first name , so he changed his name to John R. Cash . In 1955 , when signing with Sun Records , he took Johnny Cash as his stage name . The Cash children were : Roy , Margaret Louise , Jack , J. R. , Reba , Joanne , and Tommy . Tommy Cash also became a successful country artist . In March 1935 , when Cash was three years old , the family settled in Dyess , Arkansas . He started working in cotton fields at age five , singing along with his family while working . The family farm was flooded on at least two occasions , which later inspired him to write the song `` Five Feet High and Rising '' . His family 's economic and personal struggles during the Great Depression inspired many of his songs , especially those about other people facing similar difficulties . Cash was very close to his older brother , Jack . In May 1944 , Jack was pulled into a whirling head saw in the mill where he worked and was almost cut in two . He suffered for over a week before he died on May 20 , 1944 , at age 15 . Cash often spoke of the horrible guilt he felt over this incident . According to Cash : The Autobiography , his father was away that morning , but he and his mother , and Jack himself , all had premonitions or a sense of foreboding about that day , causing his mother to urge Jack to skip work and go fishing with his brother . Jack insisted on working , as the family needed the money . On his deathbed , Jack said he had visions of Heaven and angels . Decades later , Cash spoke of looking forward to meeting his brother in Heaven . Cash 's early memories were dominated by gospel music and radio . Taught guitar by his mother and a childhood friend , Cash began playing and writing songs at the age of twelve . When Cash was young , he had a high tenor voice , before becoming a bass-baritone . In high school he sang on a local radio station ; decades later he released an album of traditional gospel songs , called My Mother 's Hymn Book . He was also significantly influenced by traditional Irish music that he heard performed weekly by Dennis Day on the Jack Benny radio program . Military service Cash enlisted in the United States Air Force on July 7 , 1950 . After basic training at Lackland Air Force Base and technical training at Brooks Air Force Base , both in San Antonio , Texas , Cash was assigned to the 12th Radio Squadron Mobile of the U.S. Air Force Security Service at Landsberg , Germany as a Morse Code operator intercepting Soviet Army transmissions . It was there he created his first band , named `` The Landsberg Barbarians '' . He was the first radio operator to pick up the news of the death of Joseph Stalin . He was honorably discharged as a staff sergeant on July 3 , 1954 , and returned to Texas . Marriages and family On July 18 , 1951 , while in Air Force training , Cash met 17-year-old Vivian Liberto at a roller skating rink in her native San Antonio . They dated for three weeks , until Cash was deployed to Germany for a three-year tour . During that time , the couple exchanged hundreds of pages of love letters . On August 7 , 1954 , one month after his discharge , they were married at St. Ann 's Roman Catholic Church in San Antonio . The ceremony was performed by her uncle , Father Vincent Liberto . They had four daughters : Rosanne , Kathy , Cindy , and Tara . Liberto stated that Cash 's drug and alcohol abuse , as well as constant touring , affairs with other women , and his close relationship with June Carter led her to file for divorce in 1966 . Cash 's career was handled by Saul Holiff , a London , Ontario , promoter , and this relationship was the subject of Saul 's son 's biopic My Father and the Man in Black . Cash met June Carter , of the famed Carter Family while on tour and became infatuated , as did she . In 1968 , 13 years after they first met backstage at the Grand Ole Opry , Cash proposed to June , during a live performance in London , Ontario . The couple married on March 1 , 1968 , in Franklin , Kentucky . They had one child together , John Carter Cash , born March 3 , 1970 . Cash and Carter continued to work , raise their children , create music , and tour together for 35 years until June 's death in May 2003 . Throughout their marriage June attempted to keep Cash off of amphetamines , often taking his drugs and flushing them down the toilet . Throughout the multiple rehab visits and years of drug abuse , June 's love and devotion never wavered . After June 's passing , Cash believed that his only reason for living was his music . Cash died four months later . Career Early career In 1954 , Cash and Vivian moved to Memphis , Tennessee , where he sold appliances while studying to be a radio announcer . At night he played with guitarist Luther Perkins and bassist Marshall Grant . Perkins and Grant were known as the Tennessee Two . Cash worked up the courage to visit the Sun Records studio , hoping to get a recording contract . After auditioning for Sam Phillips , singing mostly gospel songs , Phillips told him that he did n't record gospel music any longer . It was once rumored that Phillips told Cash to `` go home and sin , then come back with a song I can sell '' , although in a 2002 interview Cash denied that Phillips made any such comment . Cash eventually won over the producer with new songs delivered in his early rockabilly style . In 1955 , Cash made his first recordings at Sun , `` Hey Porter '' and `` Cry ! Cry ! Cry ! `` , which were released in late June and met with success on the country hit parade . On December 4 , 1956 , Elvis Presley dropped in on Phillips while Carl Perkins was in the studio cutting new tracks , with Jerry Lee Lewis backing him on piano . Cash was also in the studio and the four started an impromptu jam session . Phillips left the tapes running and the recordings , almost half of which were gospel songs , survived and have since been released under the title Million Dollar Quartet . In Cash : the Autobiography , Cash wrote that he was the one farthest from the microphone and was singing in a higher pitch to blend in with Elvis . Cash 's next record , `` Folsom Prison Blues '' , made the country Top 5 , and `` I Walk the Line '' became No . 1 on the country charts and entered the pop charts Top 20 . `` Home of the Blues '' followed , recorded in July 1957 . That same year Cash became the first Sun artist to release a long-playing album . Although he was Sun 's most consistently selling and prolific artist at that time , Cash felt constrained by his contract with the small label partly due to the fact that Phillips was n't keen on Johnny recording gospel , and he was getting only a 3 % royalty as opposed to the standard rate of 5 % . Presley had already left Sun , and Phillips was focusing most of his attention and promotion on Lewis . The following year , Cash left the label to sign a lucrative offer with Columbia Records , where his single `` Do n't Take Your Guns to Town '' became one of his biggest hits and his second album for Columbia was a collection of gospel songs . However , Cash left behind a sufficient backlog of recordings with Sun that Phillips continued to release new singles and even albums featuring previously unreleased material until as late as 1964 , placing Cash in the unusual position of having new releases out on two labels concurrently , with one 1960 release , a cover of `` Oh Lonesome Me '' making as high as No . 13 on the C & W charts . ( As opposed to when RCA Victor signed Presley and also bought his Sun Records masters , when Cash departed for Columbia , Phillips retained the rights to Cash 's Sun masters ; Columbia would eventually license some of these recordings for release on compilations after Cash 's death . ) Early in his career , he was given the teasing nickname The Undertaker by fellow artists because of his habit of wearing black clothes - though he did so only because they were easier to keep looking clean on long tours . In the early 1960s , Cash toured with the Carter Family , which by this time regularly included Mother Maybelle 's daughters , Anita , June and Helen . June later recalled admiring him from afar during these tours . In the 1960s , he appeared on Pete Seeger 's short lived television series Rainbow Quest . He also acted in and wrote and sang the opening theme for a 1961 film entitled Five Minutes to Live , later re-released as Door-to-door Maniac . Outlaw image As his career was taking off in the late 1950s , Cash started drinking heavily and became addicted to amphetamines and barbiturates . For a brief time , he shared an apartment in Nashville with Waylon Jennings , who was heavily addicted to amphetamines . Cash used the uppers to stay awake during tours . Friends joked about his `` nervousness '' and erratic behavior , many ignoring the warning signs of his worsening drug addiction . In a behind-the-scenes look at The Johnny Cash Show , Cash claims to have `` tried every drug there was to try . '' Although he was in many ways spiraling out of control , Cash 's frenetic creativity was still delivering hits . His rendition of `` Ring of Fire '' was a crossover hit , reaching No . 1 on the country charts and entering the Top 20 on the pop charts . It was originally performed by June 's sister , but the signature mariachi-style horn arrangement was provided by Cash , who said that it had come to him in a dream . Vivian Liberto claimed a different version of the origins of `` Ring of Fire . '' In her book , I Walked the Line : My Life with Johnny , Liberto states that Cash gave Carter the credit for monetary reasons.Liberto , I Walked the Line : My Life with Johnny , p. 294 . In June 1965 , his camper caught fire during a fishing trip with his nephew Damon Fielder in Los Padres National Forest in California , triggering a forest fire that burnt several hundred acres and nearly killed Cash . Cash claimed that the fire was caused by sparks from a defective exhaust system on his camper , but Fielder thinks that Cash started a fire to stay warm and in his drugged condition failed to notice the fire getting out of control . When the judge asked Cash why he did it , Cash said , `` I did n't do it , my truck did , and it 's dead , so you ca n't question it . '' The fire destroyed , burning the foliage off three mountains and driving off forty-nine of the refuge 's 53 endangered condors . Cash was unrepentant and claimed , `` I do n't care about your damn yellow buzzards . '' The federal government sued him and was awarded $ 125,172 ( $ in dollars ) . Cash eventually settled the case and paid $ 82,001 . He said he was the only person ever sued by the government for starting a forest fire . Although Cash carefully cultivated a romantic outlaw image , he never served a prison sentence . Despite landing in jail seven times for misdemeanors , each stay lasted only a single night . His most infamous run-in with the law occurred while on tour in 1965 , when he was arrested October 4 by a narcotics squad in El Paso , Texas . The officers suspected he was smuggling heroin from Mexico , but found instead 688 Dexedrine capsules ( amphetamines ) and 475 Equanil ( sedatives or tranquilizers ) tablets that the singer had hidden inside his guitar case . Because the pills were prescription drugs rather than illegal narcotics , he received a suspended sentence . Cash had also been arrested on May 11 , 1965 , in Starkville , Mississippi , for trespassing late at night onto private property to pick flowers . ( This incident gave the spark for the song `` Starkville City Jail '' , which he discussed on his live At San Quentin album . ) In the mid-1960s , Cash released a number of concept albums , including Sings the Ballads of the True West ( 1965 ) , an experimental double record mixing authentic frontier songs with Cash 's spoken narration , and Bitter Tears ( 1964 ) , with songs highlighting the plight of the Native Americans . His drug addiction was at its worst at this point , and his destructive behavior led to a divorce from his first wife and canceled performances . Nonetheless , he continued to find success and in 1967 , Cash 's duet with June Carter , `` Jackson , '' won a Grammy Award . Cash 's final arrest was in 1967 in Walker County , Georgia , after being involved in a car accident while carrying a bag of prescription pills . Cash attempted to bribe a local deputy , who turned the money down , and then spent the night in a LaFayette , Georgia , jail . The singer was released after a long talk with Sheriff Ralph Jones , who warned him of his dangerous behavior and wasted potential . Cash credited that experience for saving his life , and he later came back to LaFayette to play a benefit concert that attracted 12,000 people ( the city population was less than 9,000 at the time ) and raised $ 75,000 for the high school . Reflecting on his past in a 1997 interview , Cash noted : “ I was taking the pills for awhile , and then the pills started taking me . `` Gross , Terry ( 2004 ) . A man 's voice . All I did was ask : Conversations with writers , actors , musicians , and artists ( p. 34 ) . New York , NY : Hyperion . Cash curtailed his use of drugs for several years in 1968 , after a spiritual epiphany in the Nickajack Cave , when he attempted to commit suicide while under the heavy influence of drugs . He descended deeper into the cave , trying to lose himself and `` just die , '' when he passed out on the floor . He reported being exhausted and feeling at the end of his rope when he felt God 's presence in his heart and managed to struggle out of the cave ( despite the exhaustion ) by following a faint light and slight breeze . To him , it was his own rebirth . June , Maybelle , and Ezra Carter moved in to Cash 's mansion for a month to help him conquer his addiction . Cash proposed onstage to June at a concert at the London Gardens in London , Ontario , Canada , on February 22 , 1968 ; the couple married a week later ( on March 1 ) in Franklin , Kentucky . She had agreed to marry Cash after he had `` cleaned up . '' He rediscovered his Christian faith , taking an `` altar call '' in Evangel Temple , a small church in the Nashville area , pastored by Reverend Jimmie Rodgers Snow , son of country music legend Hank Snow . According to longtime friend Marshall Grant , Cash 's 1968 rebirth experience did not result in his completely stopping use of amphetamines . However , beginning in 1970 , Cash ended all drug use for a period of seven years . Grant claims that the birth of Cash 's son , John Carter Cash inspired Cash to end his dependence . Cash began using amphetamines again in 1977 . By 1983 , he was once again addicted and entered the Betty Ford Clinic in Rancho Mirage , California for rehabilitation . Cash managed to stay off drugs for several years , but by 1989 , he was dependent again and entered Nashville 's Cumberland Heights Alcohol and Drug Treatment Center . In 1992 , he entered the Loma Linda Behavioural Medicine Centre in Loma Linda , California , for his final rehabilitation ( several months later , his son followed him into this facility for treatment ) . Folsom and other prison concerts Cash felt great compassion for prisoners . He began performing concerts at prisons starting in the late 1950s . His first prison concert was on January 1 , 1958 , at San Quentin State Prison . These performances led to a pair of highly successful live albums , Johnny Cash at Folsom Prison ( 1968 ) and Johnny Cash at San Quentin ( 1969 ) . The Folsom Prison record was introduced by a rendition of his `` Folsom Prison Blues , '' while the San Quentin record included the crossover hit single `` A Boy Named Sue , '' a Shel Silverstein-penned novelty song that reached No . 1 on the country charts and No . 2 on the U.S. Top Ten pop charts . The AM versions of the latter contained profanities which were edited out . The modern CD versions are unedited and thus also longer than the original vinyl albums , though they retain the audience reaction overdubs of the originals . Cash performed at the Österåker Prison in Sweden in 1972 . The live album På Österåker ( `` At Österåker '' ) was released in 1973 . `` San Quentin '' was recorded with Cash replacing `` San Quentin '' with `` Österåker '' . In 1976 , a further prison concert , this time at Tennessee Prison , was videotaped for TV broadcast and received a belated CD release after Cash 's death as A Concert Behind Prison Walls . Activism for Native Americans In 1965 , Cash and June Carter appeared on Pete Seeger ’ s TV show , Rainbow Quest , on which Cash explained his start as an activist for Native Americans : Columbia , the label for which Cash was recording then , was opposed to putting the song on his next album , considering it `` too radical for the public '' . Cash singing songs of Indian tragedy and settler violence went radically against the mainstream of country music in the 1950s , which was dominated by the image of the righteous cowboy who simply makes the native 's soil his own . In 1964 , coming off the chart success that his previous album `` I Walk The Line '' had been , he recorded the aforementioned album Bitter Tears : Ballads of the American Indian . The album featured stories of a multitude of native peoples , mostly of their violent oppression by white settlers : The Pima ( `` The Ballad of Ira Hayes '' ) , Navajo ( `` Navajo '' ) , Apache ( `` Apache Tears '' ) , Lakota ( `` Big Foot '' ) , Seneca ( `` As Long as the Grass Shall Grow '' ) , and Cherokee ( `` Talking Leaves '' ) . Cash wrote three of the songs himself and one with the help of Johnny Horton , but the majority of the protest songs were written by folk artist Peter La Farge ( son of activist and Pulitzer prizewinner Oliver La Farge ) , whom Cash met in New York in the 1960s and whom he admired for his activism . The album 's single , `` The Ballad of Ira Hayes , '' was neglected by non-political radio at the time , and the record label denied it any promotion due to its provocative protesting and thus “ unappealing ” nature . Cash faced resistance and was even urged by an editor of a country music magazine to leave the Country Music Association : `` You and your crowd are just too intelligent to associate with plain country folks , country artists and country DJs . '' In reaction , on August 22 , 1964 , the singer posted a letter as an advertisement in Billboard Magazine , calling the record industry cowardly . `` D.J.s — station managers — owners ... where are your guts ? '' he demands . `` I had to fight back when I realized that so many stations are afraid of Ira Hayes . Just one question : WHY ? ? ? '' He concludes the letter , `` Ira Hayes is strong medicine ... So is Rochester , Harlem , Birmingham and Vietnam . '' Cash kept promoting the song himself and used his influence on radio disc jockeys he knew eventually to make the song climb to number three on the country charts , while the album rose to number two on the album charts . Later , on The Johnny Cash Show , he continued telling stories of Native-American plight , both in song and through short films , such as the history of the Trail of Tears . In 1966 , in response to his activism , the singer was adopted by the Seneca Nation ’ s Turtle Clan . He performed benefits in 1968 at the Rosebud Reservation , close to the historical landmark of the massacre at Wounded Knee , to raise money to help build a school . He also played at the D-Q University in the 1980s . `` The Man in Black '' From 1969 to 1971 , Cash starred in his own television show , The Johnny Cash Show , on the ABC network . The Statler Brothers opened up for him in every episode ; the Carter Family and rockabilly legend Carl Perkins were also part of the regular show entourage . Cash also enjoyed booking mainstream performers as guests ; including Neil Young , Louis Armstrong , Neil Diamond , Kenny Rogers and The First Edition ( who appeared a record four times ) , James Taylor , Ray Charles , Roger Miller , Roy Orbison , Derek and the Dominos , and Bob Dylan . During the same period , he contributed the title song and other songs to the film Little Fauss and Big Halsey , which starred Robert Redford , Michael J. Pollard , and Lauren Hutton . The title song , `` The Ballad of Little Fauss and Big Halsey , '' written by Carl Perkins , was nominated for a Golden Globe award . Cash had met with Dylan in the mid-1960s and became closer friends when they were neighbors in the late 1960s in Woodstock , New York . Cash was enthusiastic about reintroducing the reclusive Dylan to his audience . Cash sang a duet with Dylan on Dylan 's country album Nashville Skyline and also wrote the album 's Grammy-winning liner notes . Another artist who received a major career boost from The Johnny Cash Show was Kris Kristofferson , who was beginning to make a name for himself as a singer/songwriter . During a live performance of Kristofferson 's `` Sunday Mornin ' Comin ' Down , '' Cash refused to change the lyrics to suit network executives , singing the song with its references to marijuana intact : By the early 1970s , he had crystallized his public image as `` The Man in Black . '' He regularly performed dressed all in black , wearing a long black knee-length coat . This outfit stood in contrast to the costumes worn by most of the major country acts in his day : rhinestone suits and cowboy boots . In 1971 , Cash wrote the song `` Man in Black , '' to help explain his dress code : He wore black on behalf of the poor and hungry , on behalf of `` the prisoner who has long paid for his crime , '' and on behalf of those who have been betrayed by age or drugs . `` And , '' Cash added , `` with the Vietnam War as painful in my mind as it was in most other Americans , I wore it 'in mournin ' for the lives that could have been ' .... Apart from the Vietnam War being over , I do n't see much reason to change my position ... The old are still neglected , the poor are still poor , the young are still dying before their time , and we 're not making many moves to make things right . There 's still plenty of darkness to carry off . '' He and his band had initially worn black shirts because that was the only matching color they had among their various outfits . He wore other colors on stage early in his career , but he claimed to like wearing black both on and off stage . He stated that , political reasons aside , he simply liked black

bt_4255--Johnny_Cash.txt

What was Johnny Cash's home state

Michaelmas , the feast of Saint Michael the Archangel ( also the Feast of Saints Michael , Gabriel , Uriel and Raphael , the Feast of the Archangels , or the Feast of Saint Michael and All Angels ) , is a day in the Western Christian liturgical year that occurs on 29 September . In medieval England , Michaelmas marked the ending and beginning of the husbandman 's year , George C. Homans observes : `` at that time harvest was over , and the bailiff or reeve of the manor would be making out the accounts for the year . '' In Christianity , the Archangel Michael is the greatest of all the Archangels and is honored for defeating Satan in the war in heaven . He is one of the principal angelic warriors , seen as a protector against the dark of night , and the administrator of cosmic intelligence . Michaelmas has also delineated time and seasons for secular purposes as well , particularly in Britain and Ireland as one of the quarter days . The Eastern Orthodox Churches do not observe Michaelmas , except the Serbian Orthodox Church . The Greek Orthodox honor the archangels on 8 November instead . History In the fifth century a basilica near Rome was dedicated in honour of Michael on 30 September , beginning with celebrations on the eve of that day , and 29 September is now kept in honour of Michael and all Angels throughout the western Church . During the Middle Ages , Michaelmas , or the Feast of St. Michael , was celebrated as a Holy Day of Obligation , but this tradition was abolished in the 18th century . Lutheran Christians consider it a principal feast of Christ , and the Lutheran Confessor , Philip Melanchthon , wrote a hymn for the day that is still sung in Lutheran churches : `` Lord God to Thee We Give '' . Because it falls near the equinox , it is associated in the northern hemisphere with the beginning of autumn and the shortening of days . It was also one of the English , Welsh and Irish quarter days when accounts had to be settled . On manors , it was the day when a reeve was elected from the peasants . Michaelmas hiring fairs were held at the end of September or beginning of October . The name Michaelmas comes from a shortening of `` Michael 's Mass , '' in the same style as Christmas ( Christ 's Mass ) and Candlemas ( Candle Mass , the Mass where traditionally candles used throughout the year would be blessed ) . Celebration On the Isle of Skye , Scotland , a procession was held . Many of the activities that had been done at Lughnasadh – sports , games and horse races – migrated to this day . One of the few flowers left around at this time of year is the Michaelmas daisy . Hence the rhyme : `` The Michaelmas daisies , among dead weeds , Bloom for St Michael 's valorous deeds ... '' Food Traditional meal for the day includes goose ( a `` stubble-goose '' , i.e . one prepared around harvest time ) . The custom of baking a special bread or cake , called Struan Micheil , St Michael 's bannock , or Michaelmas Bannock on the eve of the Feast of Saint Michael the Archangel probably originated in the Hebrides . The bread was made from equal parts of barley , oats , and rye without using any metal implements . In remembrance of absent friends or those who had died , special Struans , blessed at an early morning Mass , were given to the poor in their names . Nuts were traditionally cracked on Michaelmas Eve . Folklore in the British Isles suggests that Michaelmas day is the last day that blackberries can be picked . It is said that when St. Michael expelled Lucifer , the devil , from heaven , he fell from the skies and landed in a prickly blackberry bush . Satan cursed the fruit , scorched them with his fiery breath , and stamped and spat on them , so that they would be unfit for eating . As it is considered ill-advised to eat them after 29 September , a Michaelmas pie is made from the last of the season . Differences in number of archangels In Anglican and Episcopal tradition , there are three or four archangels in its calendar for 29 September feast for St. Michael and All Angels : namely Michael , Gabriel and Raphael , and often , Uriel . The Bible itself identifies only Michael as `` the archangel '' ( Jude:9 ) . Autumn term in universities It is used in the extended sense of autumn , as the name of the first term of the academic year , which begins at this time , at various educational institutions in the United Kingdom and Ireland . These are typically those with lengthy history and traditions , notably the universities of Cambridge , Oxford , Durham , King 's College London , University of King 's College , Aberystwyth , Dublin , Glasgow , Kent and the London School of Economics . Use by legal profession The Inns of Court of the English Bar and the Honorable Society of King 's Inns in Ireland also have a Michaelmas term as one of their dining terms . It begins in September and ends towards the end of December . The term is also the name of the first of four terms into which the legal year is divided by the courts of Wales and England . In both the United Kingdom and in the United States , a Red Mass is traditionally convened on the Sunday closest to Michaelmas , in honor of and to bless lawyers and judges . Modern observances Because Saint Michael is the patron of some North American police officers , Michaelmas may also be a Blue Mass . Michaelmas is still celebrated in the Waldorf schools , which celebrate it as the `` festival of strong will '' during the autumnal equinox . Rudolf Steiner considered it the second most important festival after Easter , Easter being about Christ ( `` He is laid in the grave and He has risen '' ) . Michaelmas is about man once he finds Christ ( `` He is risen , therefore he can be laid in the grave '' ) , meaning man finds the Christ ( risen ) , therefore he will be safe in death ( laid in the grave with confidence ) Old Michaelmas Day Old Michaelmas Day falls on 11 October ( 10 October according to some sources ) . According to an old legend , blackberries should not be picked after this date . This is because , so folklore goes , Satan was banished from Heaven on this day , fell into a blackberry bush and cursed the brambles as he fell into them . In Yorkshire , it is said that the devil had spat on them . According to Morrell ( 1977 ) , this old legend is well known in all parts of the United Kingdom , even as far north as the Orkney Islands . In Cornwall , a similar legend prevails , however , the saying goes that the devil urinated on them .

qb_6309--Michaelmas.txt

Michaelmas Day is celebrated on the 29th of which month?

The Hillsborough disaster was a human crush at Hillsborough football stadium in Sheffield , England , on 15 April 1989 ; with 96 dead and 766 injured it is the worst disaster in British sporting history . It remains one of the world 's worst football disasters . It happened during the 1988–89 FA Cup semi-final game between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest , being played at the neutral venue of Hillsborough , home ground of Sheffield Wednesday . The disaster resulted in a number of safety improvements in the largest football grounds , notably the elimination of standing terraces in favour of all-seater stadia , and the removal of spectator fencing , introduced to prevent pitch invasions . Initial investigations attached most of the blame to the police , but the coroner 's inquest ruled the deaths as accidental and no prosecutions followed . Aggrieved relatives launched a campaign for truth and justice , initially rebuffed , but eventually succeeding in gaining a new inquest verdict in 2016 , exonerating fans of any blame and recording a verdict of unlawful killing . The crush occurred in the two central pens in the Leppings Lane stand , allocated to Liverpool fans ; in an attempt to ease overcrowding outside the entrance turnstiles shortly before kick-off , the police match commander chief superintendent David Duckenfield had ordered an exit gate to be opened , leading to a sudden influx of around 2,000 supporters through a tunnel leading to the central pens , trapping spectators already in the pens , with fences to their front and sides . With the kick-off due at 3 pm , the gate was opened 2:52 pm ; by 3:06 pm the game had been stopped . Many of the myths about the disaster emerged in the following days , as police fed false stories to the press , resulting in the headline `` The Truth '' in the national tabloid newspaper The Sun . These persisted even after the Taylor Report of 1990 , which found the main reason for the disaster was a failure of control by South Yorkshire Police ( SYP ) , and that fans ' behaviour played no part in it . Despite Taylor criticising the police 's attempts to shift blame , the Director of Public Prosecutions ( DPP ) ruled there was no evidence to justify prosecution against individuals or institutions . Families strongly rejected the coroner 's subsequent ruling , disagreeing with his decision not to examine events after 3.15 pm . New evidence claimed by controversial TV documentary Hillsborough in 1996 failed to convince authorities , with Lord Justice Stuart-Smith concluding in 1997 there was no justification for a new inquiry . Private prosecutions against Duckenfield and his deputy Bernard Murray failed in 2000 . A turning point came in 2009 when government minister Andy Burnham was heckled during the 20th anniversary memorial ; it led to the formation of the Hillsborough Independent Panel to review all evidence . Reporting in 2012 , it confirmed Taylor 's criticisms , while also revealing new details around the extent of the police efforts to shift blame , the role of other emergency services , and the error of the coroner 's 3.15 pm cut off point . Two criminal investigations were then launched by police in 2012 , Operation Resolve to look into the causes , and an Independent Police Complaints Commission ( IPCC ) to examine actions by police in the aftermath . The original inquest verdict was also quashed in 2012 , and a second one ran from 1 April 2014 to 26 April 2016 , the longest jury case in British history . It returned a verdict that the supporters were unlawfully killed due to grossly negligent failures by police and ambulance services to fulfil their duty of care to the supporters . The inquest also found that the design of the stadium contributed to the crush , and that supporters were not to blame for the dangerous conditions . For the actions of his force during the second inquest , the SYP chief constable David Crompton was suspended . Two days after the verdict , a private prosecution was brought on behalf of hundreds of relatives against both SYP and the West Midlands Police force ( who took statements from the SYP ) , alleging a concerted cover-up designed to shift blame away from the police . Before the disaster The venue Hillsborough Stadium in Sheffield , the home of Sheffield Wednesday , was selected by the Football Association ( FA ) as a neutral venue to host the FA Cup semi-final between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest football clubs . Kick-off was scheduled for 3:00 pm on 15 April , and fans were advised to take up positions 15 minutes beforehand . At the time of the disaster , most English football stadiums had high steel fencing between the spectators and the playing field in response to both friendly and hostile pitch invasions . Hooliganism had affected the sport for some years , and was particularly virulent in England . From 1974 , when these security standards were put in place , crushes occurred in several English stadiums . A report by Eastwood & Partners for a safety certificate for the stadium in 1978 concluded that although it failed to meet the recommendations of the Green Guide , a guide to safety at sports grounds , the consequences were minor . It emphasised the general situation at Hillsborough was satisfactory compared with most grounds . Risks associated with confining fans in pens were highlighted by the Committee of Inquiry into Crowd Safety at Sports Grounds ( the Popplewell inquiry ) after the Bradford City stadium fire in May 1985 . It made recommendations on the safety of crowds penned within fences , including that `` all exit gates should be manned at all times ... and capable of being opened immediately from the inside by anyone in an emergency '' . Previous incidents Hillsborough hosted five FA Cup semi-finals in the 1980s . A crush occurred at the Leppings Lane end of the ground during the 1981 semi-final between Tottenham Hotspur and Wolverhampton Wanderers after hundreds more spectators were permitted to enter the terrace than could safely be accommodated , resulting in 38 injuries , including broken arms , legs and ribs . Police believed there had been a real chance of fatalities had swift action not been taken , and recommended the club reduce its capacity . In a post-match briefing to discuss the incident , Sheffield Wednesday chairman Bert McGee remarked : `` Bollocks—no one would have been killed '' . The incident nonetheless prompted Sheffield Wednesday to alter the layout at the Leppings Lane end , dividing the terrace into three separate pens to restrict sideways movement . The terrace was divided into five pens when the club was promoted to the First Division in 1984 , and a crush barrier near the access tunnel was removed in 1986 to improve the flow of fans entering and exiting the central enclosure . Its capacity remained unaltered and the safety certificate was not updated . After the crush in 1981 , Hillsborough was not chosen to host an FA Cup semi-final for six years until 1987 . Serious overcrowding was observed at the 1987 quarter-final between Sheffield Wednesday and Coventry City and again during the semi-final between Coventry City and Leeds United at Hillsborough . Leeds were assigned the Leppings Lane end . A Leeds fan described disorganisation at the turnstiles and no steward or police direction inside the stadium , resulting in the crowd in one enclosure becoming so compressed he was at times unable to raise and clap his hands . Other accounts told of fans having to be pulled to safety from above . Liverpool and Nottingham Forest met in the semi-final at Hillsborough in 1988 , and fans reported crushing at the Leppings Lane end . Liverpool lodged a complaint before the match in 1989 . One supporter wrote to the Football Association and Minister for Sport complaining , `` The whole area was packed solid to the point where it was impossible to move and where I , and others around me , felt considerable concern for personal safety '' . After changes to the ground 's layout in 1981 , its safety certificate became invalid and was not renewed . At the time of the disaster , the ground had no safety certificate . The disaster Build-up As is common at domestic matches in England , opposing supporters were segregated . Nottingham Forest supporters were allocated the South Stands and Spion Kop on the east end , with a combined capacity of 29,800 , reached by 60 turnstiles spaced along two sides of the ground . Liverpool supporters were allocated the North and West ends ( Leppings Lane ) , holding 24,256 fans , reached by 23 turnstiles from a narrow concourse . Ten turnstiles ( numbered 1 to 10 ) provided access to 9,700 seats in the North Stand ; a further 6 turnstiles ( numbered 11 to 16 ) provided access to 4,456 seats in the upper tier of the West Stand . Finally , 7 turnstiles ( lettered A to G ) provided access to 10,100 standing places in the lower tier of the West Stand . Although Liverpool had more supporters , Nottingham Forest was allocated the larger area , to avoid the approach routes of rival fans crossing . As a result of the stadium layout and segregation policy , turnstiles that would normally have been used to enter the North Stand from the east were off-limits and all Liverpool supporters had to converge on a single entrance at Leppings Lane . On match day , radio and television advised fans without tickets not to attend . Three chartered trains transported Liverpool supporters to Sheffield for a match fixture in 1988 , but only one such train ran in 1989 . The 350 passengers arrived on the grounds about 2:20 pm . Many supporters wished to enjoy the day and were in no hurry to enter the stadium too early . Some supporters were delayed by roadworks while crossing the Pennines on the M62 motorway which resulted in minor traffic congestion . Between 2:30 pm and 2:40 pm , there was a build-up of supporters outside the turnstiles facing Leppings Lane , eager to enter the stadium before the game began . A bottleneck developed with more fans arriving than could be safely filtered through the turnstiles before 3:00 pm . People presenting tickets at the wrong turnstiles and those who had been refused entry could not leave because of the crowd behind them but remained as an obstruction . Fans outside could hear cheering as the teams came on the pitch ten minutes before the match started , and as the match kicked off , but could not gain entrance . A police constable radioed control requesting that the game be delayed , as it had been two years before , to ensure the safe passage of supporters into the ground . The request to delay the start of the match by 20 minutes was received but declined . With an estimated 5,000 fans trying to enter through the turnstiles and increasing safety concerns , the police , to avoid fatalities outside the ground , opened a large exit gate ( Gate C ) that ordinarily permitted the free flow of supporters departing the stadium . Two further gates ( A and B ) were subsequently opened to relieve pressure . After an initial rush , thousands of supporters entered the stadium `` steadily at a fast walk '' . The crush When the gates were opened , thousands of fans entered a narrow tunnel leading to the rear of the terrace into two overcrowded central pens ( pens 3 and 4 ) , creating pressure at the front . Hundreds of people were pressed against one another and the fencing by the weight of the crowd behind them . People entering were unaware of the problems at the fence ; police or stewards usually stood at the entrance to the tunnel and , when the central pens reached capacity , directed fans to the side pens , but on this occasion , for reasons not fully explained , did not . A BBC TV news report conjectured that if police had positioned two police horses correctly , they would have acted as breakwaters directing many fans into side pens , but on this occasion , it was not done . The match between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest began as scheduled at 3:00 pm . Fans were still streaming into pens 3 and 4 from the rear entrance tunnel as the match began . For some time , problems at the front of the Liverpool central goal pens went largely unnoticed except by those inside it , and by a few police at that end of the pitch . Liverpool 's goalkeeper , Bruce Grobbelaar , reported fans from behind him pleading to him for help as the situation worsened . At approximately 3:05 pm , one of the metal crush barriers in pen 3 gave way , thrusting people forward on top of one another , and into the pen 's front fences . At 3:06 pm the referee , Ray Lewis , on the advice of the police , stopped the match after fans climbed the fence in an effort to escape the crush and went onto the track . By this time , a small gate in the fence had been forced open and some fans escaped via this route , as others continued to climb over the fencing . The police attempted to stop fans from spilling onto the pitch . Other fans were pulled to safety by fans in the West Stand above the Leppings Lane terrace . The intensity of the crush broke more crush barriers on the terraces . Holes in the perimeter fencing were made by fans desperately attempting to rescue others . The crowd in the Leppings Lane Stand overspilled onto the pitch , where many injured and traumatised fans congregated who had climbed to safety . Football players from both teams were ushered to their respective dressing rooms , and told that there would be a 30-minute postponement . Those still trapped in the pens were packed so tightly that many victims died of compressive asphyxia while standing . Meanwhile , on the pitch , police , stewards and members of the St John Ambulance service were overwhelmed . Many uninjured fans assisted the injured ; several attempted CPR and others tore down advertising hoardings to use as stretchers . Chief Superintendent John Nesbit of South Yorkshire Police later briefed Michael Shersby MP that leaving the rescue to the fans was a deliberate strategy , and is quoted as saying `` We let the fans help so that they would not take out their frustration on the police '' at a Police Federation conference . As events unfolded , some police officers were still deployed making a cordon three-quarters of the way down the pitch to prevent Liverpool supporters reaching the opposing supporters . Some fans tried to break through the cordon to ferry injured fans to waiting ambulances but were forcibly turned back . A total of 44 ambulances arrived , but police prevented all but one from entering the stadium . Only 14 of the 96 fatally injured people arrived at a hospital . BBC television cameras were at the ground to record the game for Match of the Day . As the disaster unfolded , the events were relayed live to the Saturday sports show , Grandstand . In Ireland , RTÉ also showed the disaster unfolding , as it was covering the match live through its programme Sports Stadium . Reactions Condolences flooded in from across the world , led by the Queen . Other messages came from Pope John Paul II , US President George H. W. Bush , and the chief executive of Juventus ( fans of Liverpool and Juventus were involved in the Heysel Stadium disaster ) amongst many others . Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and Home Secretary Douglas Hurd visited Hillsborough the day after the disaster and met survivors . Anfield Stadium was opened on the Sunday to allow fans to pay tribute to the dead . Thousands of fans visited and the stadium filled with flowers , scarves and other tributes . In the following days more than 200,000 people visited the `` shrine '' inside the stadium . The following Sunday , a link of football scarves spanning the distance across Stanley Park from Goodison Park to Anfield was created , with the final scarf in position at 3:06 pm . Elsewhere on the same day , a silence–opened with an air-raid siren at three o'clock–was held in central Nottingham with the colours of Forest , Liverpool and Wednesday adorning Nottingham Council House . At Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral , a requiem mass attended by 3,000 people was held by the Catholic Archbishop of Liverpool , Derek Worlock . The first lesson was read by Liverpool goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar . Liverpool players Ronnie Whelan , Steve Nicol and former manager Joe Fagan carried the communion bread and wine . David Sheppard , the Anglican Bishop of Liverpool , on holiday on the Scottish island of Barra on the day of the disaster , was airlifted by RAF helicopter to attend . The FA chief executive Graham Kelly , who had attended the match , said the FA would conduct an inquiry into what had happened . Speaking after the disaster , Kelly backed all-seater stadiums , saying `` We must move fans away from the ritual of standing on terraces '' . Standing on terraces and the use of perimeter fencing around the pitch , the use of CCTV , the timing of football matches and policing of sporting events were factors for a subsequent inquiry to consider . UEFA President Jacques Georges caused controversy by describing the Liverpool supporters as `` beasts '' , wrongly suggesting that hooliganism was the cause of the disaster , which had occurred less than four years after the Heysel Stadium disaster . His remarks led to Liverpool F.C . calling for his resignation , but he apologised on discovering hooliganism was not the cause . At the 1989 FA Cup Final between Liverpool and local rivals Everton , held just five weeks after the Hillsborough disaster , the players from both participating teams wore black armbands as a gesture of respect to the victims , with a minute 's silence also observed . During the final match of the 1988–89 English Football League season , contested on 26 May 1989 between Liverpool and second-place Arsenal , the Arsenal players presented flowers to fans in different parts of Anfield in memory of those who had died in the Hillsborough disaster . Disaster appeal fund A disaster appeal fund was set up with donations of £500,000 from the Government , £100,000 from Liverpool F.C . and £25,000 each from the cities of Liverpool , Sheffield and Nottingham . Liverpool donated the share of the money they would have received for the game . Within days donations had passed £1 million , swelled by donations from individuals , schools and businesses . Other fund raising activities included a Factory Records benefit concert and several fundraising football matches . Bradford City and Lincoln City , the teams involved in the Bradford City stadium fire , met for the first time since the 1985 disaster in a game which raised £25,000 . When the appeal closed the following year , it had raised over £12 million . Much of the money went to victims and relatives of those involved in the disaster and provided funds for a college course to improve the hospital phase of emergency care . In May 1989 , a charity version of the Gerry and the Pacemakers song `` Ferry Cross the Mersey '' was released in aid of those affected . The song featured Liverpool musicians Paul McCartney , Gerry Marsden ( of the Pacemakers ) , Holly Johnson , and the Christians , and was produced by Stock Aitken Waterman . It entered the UK Singles Chart at number 1 on 20 May , remaining at the top for a total of three weeks . Although Gerry and the Pacemakers ' earlier hit `` You 'll Never Walk Alone '' had stronger ties to Liverpool FC , it was not used because it had recently been rerecorded for the Bradford City stadium fire appeal . Effect on survivors By the disaster 's 10th anniversary in 1999 , at least three people who survived were known to have committed suicide as a result of the emotional problems brought on by the disaster . Another survivor had spent eight years in psychiatric care . Numerous cases of alcoholism and drug abuse were also attributed to lingering effects from the disaster , and it contributed to the collapse of a number of marriages involving people who had witnessed the events . Victims A total of 96 people died as a result of the disaster . On the day 94 people , aged from 10 to 67 years old , died as a result of their injuries , either at the stadium , in the ambulances , or shortly after arrival at hospital . A total of 766 people were reported to have suffered injuries , although less than half required hospital treatment . The less seriously injured survivors who did not live in the Sheffield area were advised to seek treatment for their injuries at hospitals nearer to their homes . On 19 April , the death toll reached 95 when 14-year-old Lee Nicol died in hospital after his life support machine was switched off . The death toll reached 96 in March 1993 , when artificial feeding and hydration were withdrawn from 22-year-old Tony Bland after nearly four years , during which time he had remained in a persistent vegetative state showing no sign of improvement . This followed a legal challenge in the High Court by his family to have his treatment withdrawn , a landmark challenge which succeeded in November 1992 . Andrew Devine , aged 22 at the time of the disaster , suffered similar injuries to Tony Bland and was also diagnosed as being in a persistent vegetative state . In March 1997—just before the eighth anniversary of the disaster—it was reported he had emerged from the condition and was able to communicate using a touch-sensitive pad , and he had been showing signs of awareness of his surroundings for up to three years before . He is still alive as of 2015 . Two sisters , three pairs of brothers , and a father and son were among those who died , as were two men about to become fathers for the first time : 25-year-old Steven Brown of Wrexham and 30-year-old Peter Thompson of Widnes . Jon-Paul Gilhooley , aged 10 , was the youngest person to die . His cousin , Steven Gerrard , then aged 8 , went on to become Liverpool F.C . 's captain . Gerrard has said the disaster inspired him to lead the team he supported as a boy and become a top professional football player . The oldest person to die at Hillsborough was 67-year-old Gerard Baron , an older brother of the late Liverpool player Kevin Baron ( 1926–1971 ) , who had been on the losing side in the 1950 FA Cup Final . Stephen Whittle is considered by some to be the 97th victim of Hillsborough , as due to work commitments he had sold his ticket to a friend ( whom he and his family chose not to identify ) , who then died in the disaster ; the resulting feeling of survivor guilt is believed to be the main reason for his suicide in February 2011 . The majority of victims that lost their lives were from Liverpool ( 37 ) and Greater Merseyside ( 20 ) . A further 20 were from counties adjacent to Merseyside . An additional 3 victims came from Sheffield with 2 more living in counties adjacent to South Yorkshire . The remaining 14 victims lived in other parts of England . Ages Of those who died , 78 were aged 30 or younger . 38 of the victims were children or teenagers , and all but three of them were aged under 50 . The Taylor Inquiry After the disaster , Lord Justice Taylor was appointed to conduct an inquiry into the events . The Taylor Inquiry sat for a total of 31 days and published two reports : an interim report which laid out the events of the day and immediate conclusions , and the final report which outlined general recommendations on football ground safety . This became known as the Taylor Report . Lord Justice Taylor concluded that `` policing on 15 April broke down '' and `` although there were other causes , the main reason for the disaster was the failure of police control . '' Attention was focused on the decision to open the secondary gates ; moreover , the kick-off should have been delayed , as had been done at other venues and matches . Sheffield Wednesday was criticised for the inadequate number of turnstiles at the Leppings Lane end and the poor quality of the crush barriers on the terraces , `` respects in which failure by the Club contributed to this disaster . '' Police control Taylor found there was `` no provision '' for controlling the entry of spectators into the turnstile area . Questioned why more action had not been taken to screen individuals and improve the flow of supporters approaching the stadium from the west `` where the turnstile area was so small and awkwardly laid out '' , senior police officers responded that policy and practice had been no different from in the past , and they had no reason to anticipate problems as earlier events had proceeded without major incident . In fact , Taylor noted only two occasions when the entry at Leppings Lane had been the sole access to the north and west sides of the ground , at the 1987 and 1988 semi-finals , with evidence of congestion at both , but owing to good fortune and circumstance police policy `` was not put to the same test and strain as a year later '' . The senior police officers said it had never happened before so there was no reason to foresee it . In fact , the only two previous occasions when the Leppings Lane terraces had been used to fill the whole of the north and west sides of the ground were at the two semi-finals , in 1987 and 1988 . In 1987 , the match was on a Sunday scheduled for 12 noon , and kick-off was postponed for a quarter of an hour because of late arrivals . The need to open gate C was due to dangerous congestion at the turnstiles . That occurred because , as both Club and police should have realised , the turnstile area could not easily cope with the large numbers demanded of it unless they arrived steadily over a lengthy period . The Operational Order and police tactics on the day failed to provide for controlling a concentrated arrival of large numbers should that occur in a short period . That it might so occur was foreseeable and it did . As a result of the inadequate number of turnstiles , it has been calculated that it would have taken until 3:40 pm to get all ticket holders into the Leppings Lane end had an exit gate not been opened . Gate C was opened to let fans in , but the number of fans entering the terrace was not thought to have been more than the capacity of the entire standing area . Once inside the stadium , most fans entering the terraces headed for the central pens 3 and 4 , as directed by a large sign above the access tunnel . Since pens 3 and 4 were full by 2.50 pm , the tunnel should have been closed off whether gate C was to be opened or not . ... [ I ] t should have been clear in the control room where there was a view of the pens and of the crowd at the turnstiles that the tunnel had to be closed . If orders had been given to that effect when gate C was opened , the fans could have been directed to the empty areas of the wings and this disaster could still have been avoided . Failure to give that order was a blunder of the first magnitude . Standard procedure for league fixtures was to estimate the

sfq_14081--Hillsborough_disaster.txt

Name the year; the Warrington bombings, Grand National cancelled after false starts and Arsenal beat Sheffield Wednesday in the finals of both major cup competitions?

John Sholto Douglas , 9th Marquess of Queensberry ( 20 July 1844 - 31 January 1900 ) was a Scottish nobleman , remembered for lending his name and patronage to the `` Marquess of Queensberry Rules '' that formed the basis of modern boxing and for his role in the downfall of author and playwright Oscar Wilde . Biography Douglas was born in Florence , Italy , the eldest son of Scottish Conservative Party politician Archibald , Viscount Drumlanrig and Caroline Margaret Clayton . He was briefly styled Viscount Drumlanrig following his father 's succession in 1856 , and on his father 's death in 1858 he inherited the Marquessate of Queensberry . The 9th Marquess was educated in the training ships Illustrious and Britannia at Portsmouth , and served in the Royal Navy until resigning in 1864 . He was Lieutenant-Colonel commanding the 1st Dumfriesshire Rifle Volunteers from 1869 to 1871 . In 1864 he entered Magdalene College , Cambridge , which he left two years later without taking a degree . He was more distinguished in sport , playing college cricket as well as running , hunting and steeplechasing . Article by John Davis . He married Sibyl Montgomery in 1866 . They had four sons and a daughter ; his wife successfully sued for divorce in 1887 on the grounds of his adultery . She survived him to the age of 90 , dying in 1935 . The daughter , who became Lady Edith Gertrude Douglas , married the inventor St. George Lane Fox-Pitt . Queensberry married Ethel Weeden in 1893 but the marriage was annulled the following year . He died , two months after a stroke , and after a period of mental decline believed to be caused by syphilis , in his club room in Welbeck Street , west London , aged 55 , nearly a year before Oscar Wilde 's death . He wrote a poem starting with the words `` When I am dead cremate me . '' After cremation at Woking Crematorium his ashes were buried in Scotland in the family burial ground at Kinmount , Dumfriesshire . In a surprising turn of events , for a man famed for his atheism and secularism , he apparently confessed his love for Christ and was received into the Catholic Church on his deathbed , at his own request . His eldest son and heir apparent was Francis , Viscount Drumlanrig , who was rumoured to have been engaged in a homosexual relationship with the Liberal Prime Minister , Archibald Primrose , 5th Earl of Rosebery . He died unmarried and without issue . Douglas ' second son , Lord Percy Douglas ( 1868–1920 ) , succeeded to the peerage instead . Lord Alfred `` Bosie '' Douglas , the third son , was the close friend and lover of the famous author and poet Oscar Wilde . Queensberry 's efforts to end that relationship led to his famous dispute with Wilde . Contributions to sports Queensberry was a patron of sport and a noted boxing enthusiast . In 1866 he was one of the founders of the Amateur Athletic Club , now the Amateur Athletic Association of England , one of the first groups that did not require amateur athletes to belong to the upper-classes in order to compete . The following year the Club published a set of twelve rules for conducting boxing matches . The rules had been drawn up by John Graham Chambers but appeared under Queensberry 's sponsorship and are universally known as the `` Marquess of Queensberry rules '' . A keen rider , Queensberry was also active in fox hunting and owned several successful race horses . As a rider his first winner was in the Dumfriesshire Hunt Club chase in 1865 , and his last was at Sandown Park in 1883 . He was Master of the Worcester Fox Hounds in 1870 . He was on the committee of the National Hunt but never won a Grand National as a rider , a last-minute substitution on the victorious `` Old Joe '' keeping him out of the 1886 National . During his riding career he recovered from a series of serious injuries . Political career In 1872 , Queensberry was chosen by the Peers of Scotland to sit in the House of Lords as a representative peer . He served as such until 1880 , when he was again nominated but refused to take the religious oath of allegiance to the Sovereign . Viewed by some as an outspoken atheist , he declared that he would not participate in any `` Christian tomfoolery '' and that his word should suffice . As a consequence neither he nor Charles Bradlaugh , who had also refused to take the oath after being elected to the House of Commons , were allowed to take their seats in Parliament . This prompted an apology from the new Prime Minister , William Gladstone . Bradlaugh was re-elected four times by the constituents of Northampton until he was finally allowed to take his seat in 1886 . Queensberry , however , was never again sent to Parliament by the Scottish nobles . In 1881 , Queensberry accepted the presidency of the British Secular Union , a group that had broken away in 1877 from Bradlaugh 's National Secular Society . That year he published a long philosophical poem , The Spirit of the Matterhorn , which he had written in Zermatt in 1873 in an attempt to articulate his secularist views . In 1882 , he was ejected from the theatre after loudly interrupting a performance of the play The Promise of May by Lord Tennyson , the Poet Laureate , because it included a villainous atheist in its cast of characters . Under the auspices of the British Secular Union , Queensberry wrote a pamphlet entitled The Religion of Secularism and the Perfectibility of Man . The Union , always small , ceased to function in 1884 . His divorces , brutality , atheism , and association with the boxing world made Queensberry an unpopular figure in London high society . In 1893 , his eldest son , Francis , Viscount Drumlanrig , was created Baron Kelhead in the Peerage of the United Kingdom , thus giving the son an automatic seat in the House of Lords . Queensberry resented his son sitting in a chamber that had refused to admit him , leading to a bitter dispute between himself and both his son and Lord Rosebery , who had promoted Francis ' ennoblement and who shortly thereafter became Prime Minister . Francis was killed in a shooting accident in 1894 ; the inquest returned an `` accidental death '' verdict , but his death may have been a suicide . Queensberry sold the family seat of Kinmount in Dumfriesshire , Scotland , an action which further alienated him from his family . Dispute with Oscar Wilde In February 1895 , angered by the apparent ongoing homosexual relationship between author Oscar Wilde and his son Alfred , Queensberry called Wilde a `` somdomite '' ( sic ) in handwriting `` For Oscar Wilde , posing as Sodomite '' on a visiting card at Wilde 's club . Wilde sued for criminal libel , leading to Queensberry 's arrest . Queensberry 's lawyers , headed by barrister Edward Carson , portrayed Wilde as a vicious older man who seduced innocent young boys into a life of degenerate homosexuality . Wilde dropped the libel case when Queensberry 's lawyers informed the court that they intended to call several male prostitutes as witnesses to testify that they had had sex with Wilde . According to the Libel Act 1843 , proving the truth of the accusation and a public interest in its exposure was a defence against a libel charge , and Wilde 's lawyers concluded that the prostitutes ' testimony was likely to do that . Queensberry won a counterclaim against Wilde for the considerable expenses he had incurred on lawyers and private detectives in organising his defence . Wilde was left bankrupt ; his assets were seized and sold at auction to pay the claim . Queensberry then sent the evidence collected by his detectives to Scotland Yard , which resulted in Wilde being charged and convicted of gross indecency under the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 and sentenced to two years ' hard labour . His health and reputation destroyed , Wilde went into exile in France and died at the Hotel d'Alsace in Paris in 1900 . Ancestry Trivia * He is featured as a main character in the Adult Swim cartoon `` Mike Tyson Mysteries '' in which he serves as a lifestyle coach to Mike Tyson .

qw_7843--John_Douglas,_9th_Marquess_of_Queensberry.txt

John Sholto Douglas sponsored the rules for which sport in the 19th century?

Fish are consumed as food by many species , including humans . It has been an important source of protein and other nutrients for humans throughout recorded history . In culinary and fishery contexts , the term fish can also include shellfish , such as molluscs , crustaceans and echinoderms . English does not distinguish between fish as an animal and the food prepared from it , as it does with pig vs. pork or cow vs. beef . Some other languages do , as in the Spanish peces versus pescado . The modern English word for fish comes from the Old English word fisc ( plural : fiscas ) which was pronounced as it is today . English also has the term seafood , which covers fish found in the seas and oceans as well as other marine life used as food . Species Over 32,000 species of fish have been described , making them the most diverse group of vertebrates . In addition , there are many species of shellfish . However , only a small number of species are commonly eaten by humans . Preparation Fish can be prepared in a variety of ways . It can be uncooked ( raw ) ( cf . sashimi ) . It can be cured by marinating ( cf . ceviche ) , pickling ( cf . pickled herring ) , or smoking ( cf . smoked salmon ) . Or it can be cooked by baking , frying ( cf . fish and chips ) , grilling , poaching ( cf . court-bouillon ) , or steaming . Many of the preservation techniques used in different cultures have since become unnecessary but are still performed for their resulting taste and texture when consumed . Nutritional value `` Fish provides a good source of high quality protein and contains many vitamins and minerals . It may be classed as either whitefish , oily fish , or shellfish . Whitefish , such as haddock and seer , contain very little fat ( usually less than 1 % ) whereas oily fish , such as sardines , contain between 10-25 % . The latter , as a result of its high fat content , contain a range of fat-soluble vitamins ( A , D , E and K ) and essential fatty acids , all of which are vital for the healthy functioning of the body . `` Fellows P and Hampton A ( Eds . ) ( 1992 ) [ http : //www.fao.org/Wairdocs/X5434E/x5434e0f.htm # 11. % 20fish % 20and % 20fish % 20products Fish and fish products ] Chapter 11 in : Small-scale food processing - A guide for appropriate equipment Intermediate Technology Publications , FAO , Rome . ISBN 1 85339 108 5 . Health benefits Research over the past few decades has shown that the nutrients and minerals in fish , and particularly the omega-3 fatty acids found in pelagic fishes , are heart-friendly and can make improvements in brain development and reproduction . This has highlighted the role for fish in the functionality of the human body . Health hazards Fish is the most common food to obstruct the airway and cause choking . Choking on fish was responsible for about 4,500 reported accidents in the UK in 1998 . Allergens A seafood allergy is a hypersensitivity to an allergen which can be present in fish , and particularly in shellfish . This can result in an overreaction of the immune system and lead to severe physical symptoms . Most people who have a food allergy also have a seafood allergy . Allergic reactions can result from ingesting seafood , or by breathing in vapours from preparing or cooking seafood . The most severe seafood allergy reaction is anaphylaxis , an emergency requiring immediate attention . It is treated with epinephrine . Biotoxins Some species of fish , notably the puffer fugu used for sushi , and some kinds of shellfish , can result in serious poisoning if not prepared properly . These fish always contain these poisons as a defense against predators ; it is not present due to environmental circumstances . Particularly , fugu has a lethal dose of tetrodotoxin in its internal organs and must be prepared by a licensed fugu chef who has passed the national examination in Japan . Ciguatera poisoning can occur from eating larger fish from warm tropical waters , such as sea bass , grouper , and red snapper . [ https : //www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002851.htm Poisoning - fish and shellfish ] US National Library of Medicine . Retrieved 21 July 2012 . Scombroid poisoning can result from eating large oily fish which have sat around for too long before being refrigerated or frozen . This includes scombroids such as tuna and mackerel , but can also include non-scombroids such as mahi-mahi and amberjack . The poison is odourless and tasteless . Many fish eat algae and other organisms that contain biotoxins ( defensive substances against predators ) . Biotoxins accumulated in fish/shellfish include brevetoxins , okadaic acid , saxitoxins , ciguatoxin and domoic acid . Except for ciguatoxine , high levels of these toxins are only found in shellfish . Both domoic acid and ciguatoxine can be deadly to humans ; the others will only cause diarrhea , dizzyness and a ( temporary ) feeling of claustrophobia . Shellfish are filter feeders and , therefore , accumulate toxins produced by microscopic algae , such as dinoflagellates and diatoms , and cyanobacteria . There are four syndromes called shellfish poisoning which can result in humans , sea mammals , and birds from the ingestion of toxic shellfish . These are primarily associated with bivalve molluscs , such as mussels , clams , oysters and scallops . Fish , like anchovies can also concentrate toxins such as domoic acid . If suspected , medical attention should be sought . The toxins responsible for most shellfish and fish poisonings , including ciguatera and scombroid poisoning , are heat-resistant to the point where conventional cooking methods do not eliminate them . Mercury and other toxic metals Fish products have been shown to contain varying amounts of heavy or toxic metals . Toxicity is a function of solubility , and insoluble compounds often exhibit negligible toxicity . Organometallic forms such as dimethyl mercury and tetraethyl lead can be extremely toxic . According to the US Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) , the risk from mercury by eating fish and shellfish is not a health concern for most people . However , certain seafood contains sufficient mercury to harm an unborn baby or young child 's developing nervous system . The FDA makes three recommendations for child-bearing women and young children : # Do not eat shark , swordfish , king mackerel , or tilefish because they contain high levels of mercury . # Eat up to 12 ounces ( 2 average meals ) a week of a variety of fish and shellfish that are lower in mercury . Four of the most commonly eaten fish that are low in mercury are canned light tuna , salmon , pollock , and catfish . Another commonly eaten fish , albacore ( `` white tuna '' ) has more mercury than canned light tuna . So , when choosing your two meals of fish and shellfish , you may eat up to 6 ounces ( one average meal ) of albacore tuna per week . # Check local advisories about the safety of fish caught by family and friends in your local lakes , rivers , and coastal areas . If no advice is available , eat up to 6 ounces ( one average meal ) per week of fish you catch from local waters , but do n't consume any other fish during that week . These recommendations are also advised when feeding fish and shellfish to young children , but in smaller portions . Mislabelling When the ocean conservation organization Oceana examined over 1,200 seafood samples of seafood sold in the U.S between 2010 and 2012 , they found one-third were mislabelled . The highest rate of mislabelling occurred with snapper at 87 percent , followed by tuna at 57 percent . Persistent organic pollutants If fish and shellfish inhabit polluted waters , they can accumulate other toxic chemicals , particularly fat-soluble pollutants containing chlorine or bromine , dioxins or PCBs . Fish that is to be eaten should be caught in unpolluted water . Some organisations such as SeafoodWatch , RIKILT , Environmental Defense Fund , IMARES provide information on species that do not accumulate much toxins/metals . Parasites Parasites in fish are a natural occurrence and common . Though not a health concern in thoroughly cooked fish , parasites are a concern when consumers eat raw or lightly preserved fish such as sashimi , sushi , ceviche , and gravlax . The popularity of such raw fish dishes makes it important for consumers to be aware of this risk . Raw fish should be frozen to an internal temperature of −20 °C ( −4 °F ) for at least 7 days to kill parasites . Home freezers may not be cold enough to kill parasites . Traditionally , fish that live all or part of their lives in fresh water were considered unsuitable for sashimi due to the possibility of parasites ( see Sashimi article ) . Parasitic infections from freshwater fish are a serious problem in some parts of the world , particularly Southeast Asia . Fish that spend part of their life cycle in brackish or fresh water , like salmon , are a particular problem . A study in Seattle , Washington showed that 100 % of wild salmon had roundworm larvae capable of infecting people . In the same study farm-raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae . Parasite infection by raw fish is rare in the developed world ( fewer than 40 cases per year in the U.S. ) , and involves mainly three kinds of parasites : Clonorchis sinensis ( a trematode/fluke ) , Anisakis ( a nematode/roundworm ) and Diphyllobothrium ( a cestode/tapeworm ) . Infection risk of anisakis is particularly higher in fishes which may live in a river such as salmon ( sake ) in Salmonidae or mackerel ( saba ) . Such parasite infections can generally be avoided by boiling , burning , preserving in salt or vinegar , or freezing overnight . In Japan it is common to eat raw salmon and ikura , but these foods are frozen overnight prior to eating to prevent infections from parasites , particularly anisakis . Fish , meat and vegetarians Meat is animal flesh that is used as food . Most often , this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat , but it may also describe other edible organs and tissues . The term meat is used by the meat packing industry in a more restrictive sense—the flesh of mammalian species ( pigs , cattle , etc . ) raised and prepared for human consumption , to the exclusion of fish and poultry . Vegetarians do not eat fish , and consider that fish is meat , since it is the flesh of an animal . Vegans or strict vegetarians refrain from consuming any animal products , not only meat and fish but , in contrast to ovo-lacto vegetarians , eggs , dairy products and all other animal-derived substances . However , pescetarians eat fish and other seafood , but not mammals and birds . The Merriam-Webster dictionary dates the origin of the term pescetarian to 1993 and defines it to mean : `` one whose diet includes fish but no other meat . `` Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary . 2009 . `` pescatarian . '' [ Online ] Merriam Webster , Inc . Available at [ http : //www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pescatarian http : //www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pescatarian ] [ Accessed 17 July 2009 ] Pescatarians may consume fish based solely upon the idea that the fish are not factory farmed as land animals are ( i.e. , their problem is with the capitalist-industrial production of meat , not with the consumption of animal foods themselves ) . Some eat fish with the justification that fish have less sophisticated nervous systems than land-dwelling animals . Others may choose to consume only wild fish based upon the lack of confinement , while choosing to not consume fish that have been farmed . A 1999 metastudy combined data from five studies from western countries . The metastudy reported mortality ratios , where lower numbers indicated fewer deaths , for pescetarians ( fish eaters ) to be 0.82 , vegetarians to be 0.84 , occasional meat eaters to be 0.84 . Regular meat eaters and vegans shared the highest mortality ratio of 1.00 . The study reported the numbers of deaths in each category , and expected error ranges for each ratio , and adjustments made to the data . However , the `` lower mortality was due largely to the relatively low prevalence of smoking in these [ vegetarian ] cohorts '' . In religion Religious rites and rituals regarding food also tend to classify the birds of the air and the fish of the sea separately from land-bound mammals . Sea-bound mammals are often treated as fish under religious laws - as in Jewish dietary law , which forbids the eating of cetacean meat , such as whale , dolphin or porpoise , because they are not `` fish with fins and scales '' ; nor , as mammals , do they chew their cud and have cloven hooves , as required by . Jewish ( kosher ) practice treat fish differently from other animal foods . The distinction between fish and `` meat '' is codified by the Jewish dietary law of kashrut , regarding the mixing of milk and meat , which does not forbid the mixing of milk and fish . Modern Jewish legal practice ( halakha ) on kashrut classifies the flesh of both mammals and birds as `` meat '' ; fish are considered to be parve , neither meat nor a dairy food . ( The preceding portion refers only to the halakha of Ashkenazi Jews , Sephardic Jews do not mix fish with dairy ) Seasonal religious prohibitions against eating meat do not usually include fish . For example , non-fish meat was forbidden during Lent and on all Fridays of the year in pre-Vatican II Roman Catholicism , but fish was permitted ( as were eggs ) . ( See Fasting in Catholicism . ) In Eastern Orthodoxy , fish is permitted on some fast days when other meat is forbidden , but stricter fast days also prohibit fish with spines , while permitting invertebrate seafood such as shrimp and oysters , considering them `` fish without blood . '' Some Buddhists and Hindus ( Brahmins of West Bengal , Odisha and Saraswat Brahmins of the Konkan ) abjure meat that is not fish . Muslim ( halal ) practice also treats fish differently from other animal foods , as it can be eaten . Taboos on eating fish Among the Somali people , most clans have a taboo against the consumption of fish , and do not intermarry with the few occupational clans that do eat it . There are taboos on eating fish among many upland pastoralists and agriculturalists ( and even some coastal peoples ) inhabiting parts of southeastern Egypt , Ethiopia , Eritrea , Somalia , Kenya , and northern Tanzania . This is sometimes referred to as the `` Cushitic fish-taboo '' , as Cushitic speakers are believed to have been responsible for the introduction of fish avoidance to East Africa , though not all Cushitic groups avoid fish . The zone of the fish taboo roughly coincides with the area where Cushitic languages are spoken , and as a general rule , speakers of Nilo-Saharan and Semitic languages do not have this taboo , and indeed many are watermen . The few Bantu and Nilotic groups in East Africa that do practice fish avoidance also reside in areas where Cushites appear to have lived in earlier times . Within East Africa , the fish taboo is found no further than Tanzania . This is attributed to the local presence of the tsetse fly and in areas beyond , which likely acted as a barrier to further southern migrations by wandering pastoralists , the principal fish-avoiders . Zambia and Mozambique 's Bantus were therefore spared subjugation by pastoral groups , and they consequently nearly all consume fish . There is also another center of fish avoidance in Southern Africa , among mainly Bantu speakers . It is not clear whether this disinclination developed independently or whether it was introduced . It is certain , however , that no avoidance of fish occurs among southern Africa 's earliest inhabitants , the Khoisan . Nevertheless , since the Bantu of southern Africa also share various cultural traits with the pastoralists further north in East Africa , it is believed that , at an unknown date , the taboo against the consumption of fish was similarly introduced from East Africa by cattle-herding peoples who somehow managed to get their livestock past the aforementioned tsetse fly endemic regions . Certain species of fish are also forbidden in Judaism such as the freshwater eel ( Anguillidae ) and all species of catfish . Although they live in water , they appear to have no fins or scales ( except under a microscope ) ( see Leviticus 11:10-13 ) . Sunni Muslim laws are more flexible in this and catfish and shark are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish . Eel is generally considered permissible in the four Sunni madh'hab , but the Ja'fari jurisprudence followed by most Shia Muslims forbids it . Many tribes of the Southwestern United States , including the Navaho , Apache , and Zuñi , have a taboo against fish and other water-related animals , including waterfowl . Dishes * Bokkoms * Bouillabaisse * Bourdeto * Ceviche * Cioppino * Crab stick * Crappit heid * Croquette * Curanto * Dressed herring * Fish and chips * Fish ball * Fish slice * Fishcake * Fish chowder * Fishstick * Gefilte fish * Kamaboko * Kipper * Lox * Paella * Poke ( Hawaii ) * Pompano en Papillote * Quenelles Lyonnaises * Rakfisk * Remoulade * Rissole * Sashimi * Seafood birdsnest * Smoked salmon * Soused herring * Stargazy pie * Surimi * Surströmming * Sushi * Tuna fish sandwich * Ukha

sfq_25314--Fish_as_food.txt

Which type of fish is used to make an Arbroath Smokie?

A prime number ( or a prime ) is a natural number greater than 1 that has no positive divisors other than 1 and itself . A natural number greater than 1 that is not a prime number is called a composite number . For example , 5 is prime because 1 and 5 are its only positive integer factors , whereas 6 is composite because it has the divisors 2 and 3 in addition to 1 and 6 . The fundamental theorem of arithmetic establishes the central role of primes in number theory : any integer greater than 1 can be expressed as a product of primes that is unique up to ordering . The uniqueness in this theorem requires excluding 1 as a prime because one can include arbitrarily many instances of 1 in any factorization , e.g. , 3 , 1 · 3 , 1 · 1 · 3 , etc . are all valid factorizations of 3 . The property of being prime ( or not ) is called primality . A simple but slow method of verifying the primality of a given number n is known as trial division . It consists of testing whether n is a multiple of any integer between 2 and \sqrt { n } . Algorithms much more efficient than trial division have been devised to test the primality of large numbers . These include the Miller–Rabin primality test , which is fast but has a small probability of error , and the AKS primality test , which always produces the correct answer in polynomial time but is too slow to be practical . Particularly fast methods are available for numbers of special forms , such as Mersenne numbers . , the largest known prime number has 22,338,618 decimal digits . There are infinitely many primes , as demonstrated by Euclid around 300 BC . There is no known simple formula that separates prime numbers from composite numbers . However , the distribution of primes , that is to say , the statistical behaviour of primes in the large , can be modelled . The first result in that direction is the prime number theorem , proven at the end of the 19th century , which says that the probability that a given , randomly chosen number is prime is inversely proportional to its number of digits , or to the logarithm of n . Many questions regarding prime numbers remain open , such as Goldbach 's conjecture ( that every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two primes ) , and the twin prime conjecture ( that there are infinitely many pairs of primes whose difference is 2 ) . Such questions spurred the development of various branches of number theory , focusing on analytic or algebraic aspects of numbers . Primes are used in several routines in information technology , such as public-key cryptography , which makes use of properties such as the difficulty of factoring large numbers into their prime factors . Prime numbers give rise to various generalizations in other mathematical domains , mainly algebra , such as prime elements and prime ideals . Definition and examples A natural number ( i.e . 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , etc . ) is called a prime number ( or a prime ) if it has exactly two positive divisors , 1 and the number itself . Natural numbers greater than 1 that are not prime are called composite . Among the numbers 1 to 6 , the numbers 2 , 3 , and 5 are the prime numbers , while 1 , 4 , and 6 are not prime . 1 is excluded as a prime number , for reasons explained below . 2 is a prime number , since the only natural numbers dividing it are 1 and 2 . Next , 3 is prime , too : 1 and 3 do divide 3 without remainder , but 3 divided by 2 gives remainder 1 . Thus , 3 is prime . However , 4 is composite , since 2 is another number ( in addition to 1 and 4 ) dividing 4 without remainder : 4 = 2 · 2 . 5 is again prime : none of the numbers 2 , 3 , or 4 divide 5 . Next , 6 is divisible by 2 or 3 , since 6 = 2 · 3 . Hence , 6 is not prime . The image at the right illustrates that 12 is not prime : . No even number greater than 2 is prime because by definition , any such number has at least three distinct divisors , namely 1 , 2 , and . This implies that is not prime . Accordingly , the term odd prime refers to any prime number greater than 2 . Similarly , when written in the usual decimal system , all prime numbers larger than 5 end in 1 , 3 , 7 , or 9 , since even numbers are multiples of 2 and numbers ending in 0 or 5 are multiples of 5 . If is a natural number , then 1 and divide without remainder . Therefore , the condition of being a prime can also be restated as : a number is prime if it is greater than one and if none of divides ( without remainder ) . Yet another way to say the same is : a number is prime if it can not be written as a product of two integers and , both of which are larger than 1 : . In other words , is prime if items can not be divided up into smaller equal-size groups of more than one item . The set of all primes is often denoted by . The first 168 prime numbers ( all the prime numbers less than 1000 ) are : 2 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 11 , 13 , 17 , 19 , 23 , 29 , 31 , 37 , 41 , 43 , 47 , 53 , 59 , 61 , 67 , 71 , 73 , 79 , 83 , 89 , 97 , 101 , 103 , 107 , 109 , 113 , 127 , 131 , 137 , 139 , 149 , 151 , 157 , 163 , 167 , 173 , 179 , 181 , 191 , 193 , 197 , 199 , 211 , 223 , 227 , 229 , 233 , 239 , 241 , 251 , 257 , 263 , 269 , 271 , 277 , 281 , 283 , 293 , 307 , 311 , 313 , 317 , 331 , 337 , 347 , 349 , 353 , 359 , 367 , 373 , 379 , 383 , 389 , 397 , 401 , 409 , 419 , 421 , 431 , 433 , 439 , 443 , 449 , 457 , 461 , 463 , 467 , 479 , 487 , 491 , 499 , 503 , 509 , 521 , 523 , 541 , 547 , 557 , 563 , 569 , 571 , 577 , 587 , 593 , 599 , 601 , 607 , 613 , 617 , 619 , 631 , 641 , 643 , 647 , 653 , 659 , 661 , 673 , 677 , 683 , 691 , 701 , 709 , 719 , 727 , 733 , 739 , 743 , 751 , 757 , 761 , 769 , 773 , 787 , 797 , 809 , 811 , 821 , 823 , 827 , 829 , 839 , 853 , 857 , 859 , 863 , 877 , 881 , 883 , 887 , 907 , 911 , 919 , 929 , 937 , 941 , 947 , 953 , 967 , 971 , 977 , 983 , 991 , 997 . Fundamental theorem of arithmetic The crucial importance of prime numbers to number theory and mathematics in general stems from the fundamental theorem of arithmetic , which states that every integer larger than 1 can be written as a product of one or more primes in a way that is unique except for the order of the prime factors . Primes can thus be considered the “ basic building blocks ” of the natural numbers . For example : As in this example , the same prime factor may occur multiple times . A decomposition : of a number into ( finitely many ) prime factors , , ... to is called prime factorization of . The fundamental theorem of arithmetic can be rephrased so as to say that any factorization into primes will be identical except for the order of the factors . So , albeit there are many prime factorization algorithms to do this in practice for larger numbers , they all have to yield the same result . If is a prime number and divides a product of integers , then divides or divides . This proposition is known as Euclid 's lemma . It is used in some proofs of the uniqueness of prime factorizations . Primality of one Most early Greeks did not even consider 1 to be a number , so they could not consider it to be a prime . By the Middle Ages and Renaissance many mathematicians included 1 as the first prime number . [ https : //primes.utm.edu/notes/faq/one.html Why is the number one not prime ? ( from the Prime Pages ' list of frequently asked questions ) by Chris K . Caldwell . ] In the mid-18th century Christian Goldbach listed 1 as the first prime in his famous correspondence with Leonhard Euler ; however , Euler himself did not consider 1 to be a prime number . In the 19th century many mathematicians still considered the number 1 to be a prime . For example , Derrick Norman Lehmer 's list of primes up to 10,006,721 , reprinted as late as 1956 , started with 1 as its first prime . Henri Lebesgue is said to be the last professional mathematician to call 1 prime . By the early 20th century , mathematicians began to arrive at the consensus that 1 is not a prime number , but rather forms its own special category as a `` unit '' . A large body of mathematical work would still be valid when calling 1 a prime , but Euclid 's fundamental theorem of arithmetic ( mentioned above ) would not hold as stated . For example , the number 15 can be factored as and ; if 1 were admitted as a prime , these two presentations would be considered different factorizations of 15 into prime numbers , so the statement of that theorem would have to be modified . Similarly , the sieve of Eratosthenes would not work correctly if 1 were considered a prime : a modified version of the sieve that considers 1 as prime would eliminate all multiples of 1 ( that is , all other numbers ) and produce as output only the single number 1 . Furthermore , the prime numbers have several properties that the number 1 lacks , such as the relationship of the number to its corresponding value of Euler 's totient function or the sum of divisors function . History There are hints in the surviving records of the ancient Egyptians that they had some knowledge of prime numbers : the Egyptian fraction expansions in the Rhind papyrus , for instance , have quite different forms for primes and for composites . However , the earliest surviving records of the explicit study of prime numbers come from the Ancient Greeks . Euclid 's Elements ( circa 300 BC ) contain important theorems about primes , including the infinitude of primes and the fundamental theorem of arithmetic . Euclid also showed how to construct a perfect number from a Mersenne prime . The Sieve of Eratosthenes , attributed to Eratosthenes , is a simple method to compute primes , although the large primes found today with computers are not generated this way . After the Greeks , little happened with the study of prime numbers until the 17th century . In 1640 Pierre de Fermat stated ( without proof ) Fermat 's little theorem ( later proved by Leibniz and Euler ) . Fermat also conjectured that all numbers of the form 22n + 1 are prime ( they are called Fermat numbers ) and he verified this up to n = 4 ( or 216 + 1 ) . However , the very next Fermat number 232 + 1 is composite ( one of its prime factors is 641 ) , as Euler discovered later , and in fact no further Fermat numbers are known to be prime . The French monk Marin Mersenne looked at primes of the form 2p − 1 , with p a prime . They are called Mersenne primes in his honor . Euler 's work in number theory included many results about primes . He showed the infinite series Proof that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges| is divergent . In 1747 he showed that the even perfect numbers are precisely the integers of the form 2p−1 ( 2p − 1 ) , where the second factor is a Mersenne prime . At the start of the 19th century , Legendre and Gauss independently conjectured that as x tends to infinity , the number of primes up to x is asymptotic to x/ln ( x ) , where ln ( x ) is the natural logarithm of x . Ideas of Riemann in his 1859 paper on the zeta-function sketched a program that would lead to a proof of the prime number theorem . This outline was completed by Hadamard and de la Vallée Poussin , who independently proved the prime number theorem in 1896 . Proving a number is prime is not done ( for large numbers ) by trial division . Many mathematicians have worked on primality tests for large numbers , often restricted to specific number forms . This includes Pépin 's test for Fermat numbers ( 1877 ) , Proth 's theorem ( around 1878 ) , the Lucas–Lehmer primality test ( originated 1856 ) , and the generalized Lucas primality test . More recent algorithms like APRT-CL , ECPP , and AKS work on arbitrary numbers but remain much slower . For a long time , prime numbers were thought to have extremely limited application outside of pure mathematics . This changed in the 1970s when the concepts of public-key cryptography were invented , in which prime numbers formed the basis of the first algorithms such as the RSA cryptosystem algorithm . Since 1951 all the largest known primes have been found by computers . The search for ever larger primes has generated interest outside mathematical circles . The Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search and other distributed computing projects to find large primes have become popular , while mathematicians continue to struggle with the theory of primes . Number of prime numbers There are infinitely many prime numbers . Another way of saying this is that the sequence 2 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 11 , 13 , ... of prime numbers never ends . This statement is referred to as Euclid 's theorem in honor of the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid , since the first known proof for this statement is attributed to him . Many more proofs of the infinitude of primes are known , including an analytical proof by Euler , Goldbach 's proof based on Fermat numbers , Furstenberg 's proof using general topology , and Kummer 's elegant proof . Euclid 's proof Euclid 's proof ( Book IX , Proposition 20 ) considers any finite set S of primes . The key idea is to consider the product of all these numbers plus one : N = 1 + \prod_ { p\in S } p . Like any other natural number , N is divisible by at least one prime number ( it is possible that N itself is prime ) . None of the primes by which N is divisible can be members of the finite set S of primes with which we started , because dividing N by any one of these leaves a remainder of 1 . Therefore , the primes by which N is divisible are additional primes beyond the ones we started with . Thus any finite set of primes can be extended to a larger finite set of primes . It is often erroneously reported that Euclid begins with the assumption that the set initially considered contains all prime numbers , leading to a contradiction , or that it contains precisely the n smallest primes rather than any arbitrary finite set of primes . Today , the product of the smallest n primes plus 1 is conventionally called the nth Euclid number . Euler 's analytical proof Euler 's proof uses the partial sums of the reciprocals of primes , S ( p ) = \frac 1 2 + \frac 1 3 + \frac 1 5 + \frac 1 7 + \cdots + \frac 1 p . For any arbitrary real number x , there exists a prime p for which this partial sum is bigger than x . This shows that there are infinitely many primes , because if there were finitely many primes the sum would reach its maximum value at the biggest prime rather than being unbounded . More precisely , the growth rate of S ( p ) is doubly logarithmic , as quantified by Mertens ' second theorem . For comparison , the sum \frac 1 { 1^2 } + \frac 1 { 2^2 } + \frac 1 { 3^2 } + \cdots + \frac 1 { n^2 } \sum_ { i 1 } ^n \frac 1 { i^2 } does not grow to infinity as n goes to infinity ( see Basel problem ) . In this sense , prime numbers occur more often than squares of natural numbers . Brun 's theorem states that the sum of the reciprocals of twin primes , \left ( { \frac { 1 } { 3 } + \frac { 1 } { 5 } } \right ) + \left ( { \frac { 1 } { 5 } + \frac { 1 } { 7 } } \right ) + \left ( { \frac { 1 } + \frac { 1 } } \right ) + \cdots = \sum\limits_ { \begin { smallmatrix } p \text { prime , } \\ p + 2 \text { prime } \end { smallmatrix } } { \left ( { \frac { 1 } { p } + \frac { 1 } } \right ) } , is finite . Because of Brun 's theorem , it is not possible to use Euler 's method to solve the twin prime conjecture , that there exist infinitely many twin primes . Testing primality and integer factorization There are various methods to determine whether a given number n is prime . The most basic routine , trial division , is of little practical use because of its slowness . One group of modern primality tests is applicable to arbitrary numbers , while more efficient tests are available for particular numbers . Most such methods only tell whether n is prime or not . Routines also yielding one ( or all ) prime factors of n are called factorization algorithms . Trial division The most basic method of checking the primality of a given integer n is called trial division . This routine consists of dividing n by each integer m that is greater than 1 and less than or equal to the square root of n. If the result of any of these divisions is an integer , then n is not a prime , otherwise it is a prime . Indeed , if na b is composite ( with a and b ≠ 1 ) then one of the factors a or b is necessarily at most \sqrt { n } . For example , for n 37 , the trial divisions are by None of these numbers divides 37 , so 37 is prime . This routine can be implemented more efficiently if a complete list of primes up to \sqrt { n } is known—then trial divisions need to be checked only for those m that are prime . For example , to check the primality of 37 , only three divisions are necessary ( m = 2 , 3 , and 5 ) , given that 4 and 6 are composite . While a simple method , trial division quickly becomes impractical for testing large integers because the number of possible factors grows too rapidly as n increases . According to the prime number theorem explained below , the number of prime numbers less than \sqrt { n } is approximately given by \sqrt { n } / \ln ( \sqrt { n } ) , so the algorithm may need up to this number of trial divisions to check the primality of n. For , this number is 450 million—too large for many practical applications . Sieves An algorithm yielding all primes up to a given limit , such as required in the primes-only trial division method , is called a prime number sieve . The oldest example , the sieve of Eratosthenes ( see above ) , is still the most commonly used . The sieve of Atkin is another option . Before the advent of computers , lists of primes up to bounds like 107 were also used . Primality testing versus primality proving Modern primality tests for general numbers n can be divided into two main classes , probabilistic ( or `` Monte Carlo '' ) and deterministic algorithms . Deterministic algorithms provide a way to tell for sure whether a given number is prime or not . For example , trial division is a deterministic algorithm because , if performed correctly , it will always identify a prime number as prime and a composite number as composite . Probabilistic algorithms are normally faster , but do not completely prove that a number is prime . These tests rely on testing a given number in a partly random way . For example , a given test might pass all the time if applied to a prime number , but pass only with probability p if applied to a composite number . If we repeat the test n times and pass every time , then the probability that our number is composite is 1/ ( 1-p ) n , which decreases exponentially with the number of tests , so we can be as sure as we like ( though never perfectly sure ) that the number is prime . On the other hand , if the test ever fails , then we know that the number is composite . A particularly simple example of a probabilistic test is the Fermat primality test , which relies on the fact ( Fermat 's little theorem ) that np≡n ( mod p ) for any n if p is a prime number . If we have a number b that we want to test for primality , then we work out nb ( mod b ) for a random value of n as our test . A flaw with this test is that there are some composite numbers ( the Carmichael numbers ) that satisfy the Fermat identity even though they are not prime , so the test has no way of distinguishing between prime numbers and Carmichael numbers . Carmichael numbers are substantially rarer than prime numbers , though , so this test can be useful for practical purposes . More powerful extensions of the Fermat primality test , such as the Baillie-PSW , Miller-Rabin , and Solovay-Strassen tests , are guaranteed to fail at least some of the time when applied to a composite number . Deterministic algorithms do not erroneously report composite numbers as prime . In practice , the fastest such method is known as elliptic curve primality proving . Analyzing its run time is based on heuristic arguments , as opposed to the rigorously proven complexity of the more recent AKS primality test . Deterministic methods are typically slower than probabilistic ones , so the latter ones are typically applied first before a more time-consuming deterministic routine is employed . The following table lists a number of prime tests . The running time is given in terms of n , the number to be tested and , for probabilistic algorithms , the number k of tests performed . Moreover , ε is an arbitrarily small positive number , and log is the logarithm to an unspecified base . The big O notation means that , for example , elliptic curve primality proving requires a time that is bounded by a factor ( not depending on n , but on ε ) times log5+ε ( n ) . Special-purpose algorithms and the largest known prime In addition to the aforementioned tests applying to any natural number n , a number of much more efficient primality tests is available for special numbers . For example , to run Lucas ' primality test requires the knowledge of the prime factors of , while the Lucas–Lehmer primality test needs the prime factors of as input . For example , these tests can be applied to check whether n ! ± 1 = 1 · 2 · 3 · ... · n ± 1 are prime . Prime numbers of this form are known as factorial primes . Other primes where either p + 1 or p − 1 is of a particular shape include the Sophie Germain primes ( primes of the form 2p + 1 with p prime ) , primorial primes , Fermat primes and Mersenne primes , that is , prime numbers that are of the form , where p is an arbitrary prime . The Lucas–Lehmer test is particularly fast for numbers of this form . This is why the largest known prime has almost always been a Mersenne prime since the dawn of electronic computers . The following table gives the largest known primes of the mentioned types . Some of these primes have been found using distributed computing . In 2009 , the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search project was awarded a US $ 100,000 prize for first discovering a prime with at least 10 million digits . The Electronic Frontier Foundation also offers $ 150,000 and $ 250,000 for primes with at least 100 million digits and 1 billion digits , respectively . Some of the largest primes not known to have any particular form ( that is , no simple formula such as that of Mersenne primes ) have been found by taking a piece of semi-random binary data , converting it to a number n , multiplying it by 256k for some positive integer k , and searching for possible primes within the interval [ 256kn + 1 , 256k ( n + 1 ) − 1 ] . Integer factorization Given a composite integer n , the task of providing one ( or all ) prime factors is referred to as factorization of n. Elliptic curve factorization is an algorithm relying on arithmetic on an elliptic curve . Distribution In 1975 , number theorist Don Zagier commented that primes both The distribution of primes in the large , such as the question how many primes are smaller than a given , large threshold , is described by the prime number theorem , but no efficient formula for the n-th prime is known . There are arbitrarily long sequences of consecutive non-primes , as for every positive integer n the n consecutive integers from ( n+1 ) ! + 2 to ( n+1 ) ! + n + 1 ( inclusive ) are all composite ( as ( n+1 ) ! + k is divisible by k for k between 2 and n + 1 ) . Dirichlet 's theorem on arithmetic progressions , in its basic form , asserts that linear polynomials p ( n ) = a + bn\ , with coprime integers a and b take infinitely many prime values . Stronger forms of the theorem state that the sum of the reciprocals of these prime values diverges , and that different such polynomials with the same b have approximately the same proportions of primes . The corresponding question for quadratic polynomials is less well-understood . Formulas for primes There is no known efficient formula for primes . For example

sfq_6943--Prime_number.txt

Which is the highest prime number less than 100?

Kelly Jones ( born 3 June 1974 ) is a Welsh singer-songwriter , guitarist and director and the lead singer of the band Stereophonics . Influenced by classic rock bands such as Pink Floyd , The Who , Led Zeppelin , AC/DC and Sex Pistols , Jones is noted for his raspy voice , which has been described as `` whiskey '' and has drawn criticism as well as acclaim . As a lyricist , Jones is influenced by Neil Young , Bob Catley , Steve Perry , Bob Dylan and Otis Redding . History Early life and début Jones lived in the village of Cwmaman , near Aberdare , where he became friends with neighbours , Stuart Cable and Richard Jones and they formed a covers band together . Showing a talent for writing in his youth , he considered being a scriptwriter before being a musician and studied film at college . The BBC showed an interest in some of his early work but , as the band progressed from a cover band to writing their original material , he decided to use his narrative side more towards writing lyrics . Jones also flirted with the idea of boxing as a career and was a successful boxer at youth level . Much of his early life is documented in Stereophonics ' debut album , including his account of his teen years on a market stall . These are documented in `` More Life in a Tramps Vest '' from Stereophonics ' first album released in 1997 , Word Gets Around . In 1999 Stereophonics were the first band to be signed to Richard Branson 's new Virgin Records label V2 . Their debut EP Looks Like Chaplin did not have enough copies made to enter the charts and their next single Local Boy in the Photograph was one place shy of making the UK Top 50 . However , their debut LP Word Gets Around did , however , make it to number 6 on the UK Albums Chart . Fellow Welsh band Manic Street Preachers put the band as support on their 1996-97 tour . 1998 - present : Mainstream success In February 1998 , they received a Brit Award for Best New Group , the same week as a re-issue of Local Boy in the Photograph made number 14 in the charts and their first album went gold in the UK , selling over 100,000 copies . During that year Stereophonics had tours in Europe , Australia and the USA . They performed a concert on 12 June 1998 at Cardiff Castle . They performed a cover of the Randy Newman song Mama Told Me Not to Come with Tom Jones for his album Reload . After another tour , they re-entered the studios and recorded Just Enough Education to Perform , containing the single Mr . Writer and Have a Nice Day , and Step on My Old Size Nines . A cover of Rod Stewart 's version of Mike D'Abo 's song Handbags & Gladrags was added to later editions of the album . They also recorded their biggest audience to date when they played to 80,000 in Slane Castle in Ireland and ending with a Christmas show at the Millennium Stadium , Cardiff , supported by Feeder and Ocean Colour Scene - who they had supported years before . They released their fourth studio album You Got ta Go There to Come Back with songs like Maybe Tomorrow and Madame Helga and a re-worked song that had not been completed in time - Moviestar . They re-issued the album with this track included . In 2002 , the band was chosen as a support act for Counting Crows and toured on various UK dates with the band . Subsequently Jones would join the band on stage and perform Mr. Jones and Hanginaround alongside Adam Duritz . In 2003 , whilst on tour in Germany , drummer Stuart Cable - whom by this time had his own television chat show on BBC Wales - was sacked from the band by Jones , citing problems over `` commitment '' . Cable was replaced temporarily on the remainder of the tour by Black Crowes drummer Steve Gorman . According to Stuart , `` I kept pluggin ' away . I knew when we started we were n't very good and I was waiting for it to get better . It was becoming obvious that was n't going to happen and I said so . Kelly did n't like that '' . Stereophonics ' fifth studio album Language . Sex . Violence . Other ? was released in March 2005 . This marked their first recording with new drummer , Javier Weyler the band 's former studio engineer , whom they had made permanent in the band after asking him to fill in on the drums for some early LSVO recordings . The band had their first number 1 hit in the UK singles chart with the album 's first release , the upbeat Dakota , in which Kelly spent much of the video driving in dark sunglasses . The second single from the album , Superman peaked at number 13 in the UK charts . After this release came Devil , which was promoted by a controversial video , reaching number 11 in the charts . In January 2005 Kelly Jones performed a solo set at the Tsunami Relief Cardiff charity concert at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff , the biggest live music charity concert since 1985 's Live Aid , which also featured artists such as Eric Clapton . On 2 July 2005 , the group took a break from their sold out world tour and appeared at the Live 8 concert , in Hyde Park , London , performing to 240,000 people - their biggest audience yet . Stereophonics did not resurface until later the following year where they began recording for the sixth studio album Pull The Pin which was released on 15 October 2007 . Pull The Pin is an album that returns to the band 's classic rock roots evident in the first album and the influence of 70 's rock can be heard in numerous tracks . Equipment Jones uses British style amps including models by Matchless and Badcat as well as the Vox AC30 . He uses limited FX pedals , but in solos he has used a Dunlop CryBaby wah . He also uses Boss effects pedals , including a chorus , delay , flange , phaser and various distortion pedals , although he is gradually relying on distortion pedals less and just using amp switching pedals using the built in crunch and clean settings , mainly using his AC30 for clean work and his other 2 amps for distortion . His main guitar is a cherry red Gibson SG , now widely known as the `` Kellycaster '' . His use of a Gibson CS-336 is becoming more and more common along with his Fender Stratocaster , his Fender Telecaster is also making more and more appearances ( which was actually made by Hugh Manson as a custom guitar ) his Fender Jaguar , used extensively on 'Language Sex Violence Other ' looked to have been made redundant on the latest 'Pull the Pin ' tour but was used a lot more towards the end of the tour , most notably on the single You 're My Star . He owns one Telecaster clone built by Manson Guitars He is also known to use Gibson Les Paul Goldtops , especially on heavier tracks such as Bartender and the Thief and Vegas 2 Times . His acoustic guitar of choice is a Gibson J200 and rarely uses anything else , but owns various other Gibsons and Takamines . Controversy Jones has always had a troubled relationship with the media and they have often criticised him , his contribution to music , and his vocal abilities . Jones has generated headlines several times by criticising other musical artists - most notably Radiohead frontman and solo artist Thom Yorke . Jones criticised Yorke 's attitude in a 2002 interview due to what he felt was complaining about touring on Radiohead 's 1998 home video release , Meeting People Is Easy . He said : `` We can all relate to that video – y ’ know , having to do a hundred fucking idents for radio stations – but that doesn ’ t mean you ’ ve got to walk around and be a miserable twat to everybody . Which is what Thom Yorke is mostly . '' He later expressed regret for this comment , since he was in fact a fan of Yorke . Jones is known for his cynical view of manufactured pop and has also criticised reality shows such as Popstars and The X Factor , as well as manufactured bands such as Hear'Say . Other projects In 2007 Kelly Jones brought out his first solo album , Only the Names Have Been Changed , as a limited edition release , which managed to reach number 1 on the iTunes download chart . He explained : `` We were recording the sixth Stereophonics album last year and in-between takes I started doing these songs off the cuff . Three or four tracks in , I realised that this could actually be something … strange how it 's always little things that makes big things happen . '' This created speculation that Jones would leave Stereophonics to pursue his solo career , however he denied this . Personal life Kelly Jones was born youngest of three boys for Beryl and Arwyn Jones in the small Welsh ex-mining village of Cwmaman , spending his childhood with them and his two older brothers , Kevin and Lee . Both of his parents worked in factories , however his father also found time to coach youth football and pursue his own singing career . The name of Arwyn 's backing band , Oscar and the Kingfishers , earned him the nickname 'Oscar ' among friends and family . He went on to secure a record deal with Polydor , who renamed him 'Arwyn Davidson ' due to the sheer number of Joneses in the music business at the time . Despite making multiple recordings , sharing The Hollies ' manager and supporting slots with the likes of Roy Orbison , Arwyn had minimal mainstream success and only released a few singles ( including a cover of the Graham Nash song `` Simple Man '' ) . During Jones ' youth his uncle , a boxing referee , got him interested in the sport , and he later competed at a high level in South Wales . Following this Jones moved onto football , where he played for his county . Jones is known for his preference of wearing vintage clothing , and owns at least twenty leather jackets . Jones met his first girlfriend , Emma Dunn , a hairdresser , at the age of 15 . They stayed together for almost 12 years and just before they split up , they had become engaged . In 2002 Jones went to ( his friend and band photographer ) Julian Castaldi 's home , kicked down his front door , smashed his window with a brick and then vandalised his two cars with a scaffolding pole , whilst under the influence of alcohol . This was because Jones had recently discovered that Castaldi was courting Dunn , four weeks after they had ended their long-term relationship . Castaldi called the police and consequently Jones was arrested . However Castaldi did not press charges , leaving Kelly Jones with a £2000 fine for damages . Jones commented that `` What I did was completely out of character - but what he did was wrong '' , later writing the song `` Rainbows and Pots of Gold '' in response to the event . After splitting from Dunn , Jones dated an interior designer , Rebecca Walters ( Becka ) . In October 2004 Rebecca and Kelly had their first child together , Lolita Bootsy Jones . In January 2007 , they had another daughter called Misty Jones . Rebecca and Kelly split shortly after the birth of Misty . He is now married to MTV journalist Jakki Healy , after tying the knot in late 2013 . They have been together since 2008 . Unlike numerous musicians and entertainers , Jones and his family have a low profile in tabloid media coverage . Stuart Cable claimed that it was differences between his then partner Lisa Rogers and Kelly Jones ' partner Rebecca Walters at the time which violently came to a head publicly at a restaurant in Paris , eventually leading to his sacking by Jones after he made a sarcastic joke about the incident the following day , although Cable was reportedly missing many concerts as he was in a `` cocaine clinic '' Kelly Jones and Cable patched up their differences a year after they split up , being in regular contact for the 5 years prior to Cable 's death , and even performing on stage with bass player Richard Jones , at a long serving Stereophonics crew member and mutual friend 's wedding . Both Cable and Jones were due to meet for a drink on the day of Cable 's death , which was also the day after Stereophonics played their highly anticipated Cardiff Stadium gig . Discography Studio albums

bt_3225--Kelly_Jones.txt

Kelly Jones, Richard Jones and Richard Cable founded which group

A nightclub ( also known as a discothèque , disco , dance club or club ) is an entertainment venue that usually operates late into the night . A nightclub is generally distinguished from bars , pubs or taverns by the inclusion of a dance floor and a DJ booth , where a DJ plays recorded music . The busiest nights for a nightclub are Friday and Saturday night . The music in nightclubs is either live bands or , more commonly , a mix of songs played by a DJ through a powerful PA system . Most clubs or club nights cater to certain music genres . History Early history From about 1900 to 1920 , working class Americans would gather at honky tonks or juke joints to dance to music played on a piano or a jukebox . Webster Hall is credited as the first modern nightclub , being built in 1886 and starting off as a `` social hall '' , originally functioning as a home for dance and political activism events . During Prohibition in the United States , nightclubs went underground as illegal speakeasy bars , with Webster Hall staying open , with rumors circulating of Al Capone 's involvement and police bribery . With the repeal of Prohibition in February 1933 , nightclubs were revived , such as New York 's 21 Club , Copacabana , El Morocco , and the Stork Club . These nightclubs featured big bands ( there were no DJs ) . In Germany , possibly the first discothèque was Scotch-Club . In Occupied France , jazz and bebop music , and the jitterbug dance were banned by the Nazis as decadent American influences , so as an act of French resistance , people met at hidden basements called discothèques where they danced to jazz and swing music , which was played on a single turntable when a jukebox was not available . These discothèques were also patronized by anti-Vichy youth called zazous . There were also underground discothèques in Nazi Germany patronized by anti-Nazi youth called the swing kids . In Harlem , Connie 's Inn and the Cotton Club were popular venues for white audiences . Before 1953 and even some years thereafter , most bars and nightclubs used a jukebox or mostly live bands . In Paris , at a club named Whisky à Gogo , founded in 1947 , Régine in 1953 laid down a dance-floor , suspended coloured lights and replaced the jukebox with two turntables that she operated herself so there would be no breaks between the music . The Whisky à Gogo set into place the standard elements of the modern post World War II discothèque-style nightclub . At the end of the 1950s , several of the coffee bars in Soho introduced afternoon dancing and the most famous , at least on the continent , was Les Enfants Terribles at 93 Dean St . These original discothèques were nothing like the night clubs , as they were unlicensed and catered to a very young public—mostly made up of French and Italians working illegally , mostly in catering , to learn English as well as au pair girls from most of western Europe . In the early 1960s , Mark Birley opened a members-only discothèque nightclub , Annabel 's , in Berkeley Square , London . In 1962 , the Peppermint Lounge in New York City became popular and is the place where go-go dancing originated . However , the first rock and roll generation preferred rough and tumble bars and taverns to nightclubs , and the nightclub did not attain mainstream popularity until the 1970s disco era . Sybil Burton , former wife of actor Richard Burton , opened the `` Arthur '' discothèque in 1965 on East 54th Street in Manhattan on the site of the old El Morocco nightclub and it became the first , foremost and hottest disco in New York City through 1969.Time magazine . ( 14 May 1965 ) . Brewster , B. ; Broughton , F. Last Night a Disc Jockey Saved My Life , Grove Press , 2000 , pp . 62–64 . ISBN 0802136885 1970s : Disco Disco has its roots in the underground club scene . During the early 1970s in New York City , disco clubs were places where oppressed or marginalized groups such as homosexuals , Blacks , Latinos , Italian-Americans , and Jews could party without following male to female dance protocol or exclusive club policies . It brought together people from all walks of life and backgrounds . These clubs acted as safe havens for homosexual partygoers to dance in peace and away from public scrutiny . Disco was a genre for people to explore sexuality and push the envelope on the dancefloor . Disco clubs acted as an escape from such depressing environments and acted as the fantasy marginalized peoples could escape to forget oppression and racism . Disco clubs originally functioned as liberated party spaces and were seen as places of political statement . By the late 1970s many major US cities had thriving disco club scenes centered on discothèques , nightclubs , and private loft parties where DJs would play disco hits through powerful PA systems for the dancers . The DJs played `` ... a smooth mix of long single records to keep people 'dancing all night long ' '' . Some of the most prestigious clubs had elaborate lighting systems that throbbed to the beat of the music . Some cities had disco dance instructors or dance schools that taught people how to do popular disco dances such as `` touch dancing '' , the `` hustle '' and the `` cha-cha-cha '' . There were also disco fashions that discothèque-goers wore for nights out at their local disco , such as sheer , flowing Halston dresses for women and shiny polyester Qiana shirts for men . Disco clubs and `` ... hedonistic loft parties '' had a club culture with many Italian-American , African American , gay and Hispanic people . In addition to the dance and fashion aspects of the disco club scene , there was also a thriving drug subculture , particularly for recreational drugs that would enhance the experience of dancing to the loud music and the flashing lights , such as cocaine ( nicknamed `` blow '' ) , amyl nitrite `` poppers '' , and the `` ... other quintessential 1970s club drug Quaalude , which suspended motor coordination and turned one 's arms and legs to Jell-O '' . The `` massive quantities of drugs ingested in discothèques by newly liberated gay men produced the next cultural phenomenon of the disco era : rampant promiscuity and public sex . While the dance floor was the central arena of seduction , actual sex usually took place in the nether regions of the disco : bathroom stalls , exit stairwells , and so on . In other cases the disco became a kind of `` main course '' in a hedonist 's menu for a night out . '' Famous 1970s discothèques included celebrity hangouts such as Manhattan 's Studio 54 , which was operated by Steve Rubell and Ian Schrager . Studio 54 was notorious for the hedonism that went on within ; the balconies were known for sexual encounters , and drug use was rampant . Its dance floor was decorated with an image of the `` Man in the Moon '' that included an animated cocaine spoon . Other famous 1970s discothèques in New York City included `` Manhattan 's Starship Discovery One , 350 West 42nd Street , New York , New York , DJ 's Frankie Carvajal , Joe Palminteri . Album Cover of Saturday Night Band 's Come on and Dance , Dance features 2 Dancers in the Starship Discovery One '' `` Roseland 's Ballroom West 52nd Street NYC '' , `` Xenon '' , `` The Loft '' , the `` Paradise Garage '' , a recently renovated `` Copacabana , '' and `` Aux Puces '' , one of the first gay disco bars . In San Francisco , there was the Trocadero Transfer , the I-Beam , and the End Up . By the early 1980s , the term `` disco '' had largely fallen out of favour in most of the English-speaking world . 1980s New York and London During the 1980s , during the New Romantic movement , London had a vibrant nightclub scene , which included clubs like The Blitz , the Batcave , the Camden Palace and Club for Heroes . Both music and fashion embraced the aesthetics of the movement . Bands included Depeche Mode , Yazoo , The Human League , Duran Duran , Blondie , Eurythmics and Ultravox . Reggae-influenced bands included Boy George and Culture Club , and electronic vibe bands included Visage . At London nightclubs , young men would often wear make-up and young women would wear men 's suits . The largest UK cities like Leeds ( The Orbit ) , Newcastle , Liverpool ( Quadrant Park and 051 ) , Swansea , Manchester ( The Haçienda ) and several key European places like Paris ( Les Bains Douches ) , Ibiza ( Pacha ) , Rimini etc . also played a significant role in the evolution of clubbing , DJ culture and nightlife . Significant New York nightclubs of the period were Area , Danceteria , and The Limelight . 1990s , 2000s , and 2010s In Europe and North America , nightclubs play disco-influenced dance music such as house music , techno , and other dance music styles such as electronica , breakbeat and trance . Most nightclubs in the U.S. major cities that have an early adulthood clientele , play hip hop , dance-pop , house and/or trance music . These clubs are generally the largest and most frequented of all of the different types of clubs . The emergence of the `` superclub '' created a global phenomenon , with Ministry of Sound ( London ) , Cream ( Liverpool ) and Pacha ( Ibiza ) . Techno clubs are especially popular around the world since the early 1990s . Famous examples are Berghain , Bunker and Tresor in Berlin , Omen and Cocoon in Frankfurt , Distillery in Leipzig , Tunnel Club in Hamburg , Warehouse in Chicago and The Haçienda in Manchester . In other languages , nightclubs are sometimes still referred to as `` discos '' or `` discothèques '' ( or ( outdated ; nowadays : ) ; ; Italian , Portuguese and Spanish : discoteca , antro ( common in Mexico only ) , and boliche ( common in Argentina only ) , discos is commonly used in all others in Latinamerica ) . In Japanese ディスコ , disuko refers to an older , smaller , less fashionable venue ; while クラブ , kurabu refers to a more recent , larger , more popular venue . The term night is used to refer to an evening focusing on a specific genre , such as `` retro music night '' or a `` singles night . '' In Hong Kong and China , night club is used as a euphemism for a hostess club , and the association of the term with the sex trade has driven out the regular usage of the term . A recent trend in the North American , Australian and European nightclub industry is the usage of video . VJs ( `` video jockeys '' ) mix video content in a similar manner that DJs mix audio content , creating a visual experience that is intended to complement the music . Recurring features Club nights Many clubs have recurring club nights on different days of the week . The music festival Bangface , for example , started out as a club night . Most club nights focus on a particular genre or sound for branding effects . Nightclub entry criteria Many nightclubs choose who can enter on bases other than just age : dress code and guest list . That is used to make their status as a nightclub more `` exclusive '' . Quite often , there are no clear policies governing entry to a nightclub , thereby allowing the doormen to deny entry to anybody at discretion . Cover charge In most cases , entering a nightclub requires a flat fee , called a cover charge . Some clubs waive or reduce the cover charge for early arrivers , special guests or women ( in the United Kingdom this latter option is illegal under the Equality Act 2010 but the law is rarely enforced , and open violations are frequent ) . Friends of the doorman or the club owner may gain free entrance . Sometimes , especially at larger clubs in Continental European countries , one gets only a pay card at the entrance , on which all money spent in the discothèque ( often including the entrance fee ) is marked . Sometimes , entrance fee and cloakroom costs are paid by cash , and only the drinks in the club are paid using a pay card . Dress code Many nightclubs enforce a dress code in order to ensure a certain type of clientele is in attendance at the venue . Some upscale nightclubs ban attendees from wearing trainers ( sneakers ) or jeans while other nightclubs will advertise a vague `` dress to impress '' dress code that allows the bouncers to discriminate at will against those vying for entry to the club . Many exceptions are made to nightclub dress codes , with denied entry usually reserved for the most glaring rule breakers or those thought to be unsuitable for the party . Certain nightclubs like fetish nightclubs may apply a dress code ( BDSM ) to a leather-only , rubber-only or fantasy dress code . The dress code criterion is often an excuse for discriminatory practices , such as in the case of Carpenter v. Limelight Entertainment Ltd . Exclusive boutique nightclubs Large cosmopolitan cities that are home to large affluent populations ( such as Atlanta , Chicago , Los Angeles , Melbourne , Miami , New York City , and London ) often have what are known as exclusive boutique nightclubs . This type of club typically has a capacity of less than 200 occupants and a very strict entrance policy , which usually requires an entrant to be on the club 's guest list . While not explicitly members+only clubs , such as Soho House , exclusive nightclubs operate with a similar level of exclusivity . As they are off limits to most of the public and ensure the privacy of guests , many celebrities favor these types of clubs to other , less exclusive , clubs that do not cater as well to their needs . Another differentiating feature of exclusive nightclubs is , in addition to being known for a certain type of music , they are known for having a certain type of crowd , for instance , a fashion-forward , affluent crowd or a crowd with a high concentration of fashion models . Many exclusive boutique clubs market themselves as being a place to socialize with models and celebrities . Affluent patrons who find that marketing message appealing are often willing to purchase bottle service at a markup of several times the retail cost of the liquor . London 's most exclusive boutique nightclubs include Amika , Cirque le Soir , Project , The Box , and The Rose Club . They are frequently visited by an array of A-List celebrities from the fashion , film , and music industries . All are located in London 's prestigious Mayfair , except Cirque le Soir and The Box , which are both located in London 's sex capital , Soho , and the both have a more risqué theme . Guest list Many nightclubs operate a `` guest list '' that allows certain attendees to enter the club for free or at a reduced rate . Some nightclubs have a range of unpublished guest list options ranging from free , to reduced , to full price with line by-pass privileges only . Nightclub goers on the guest list often have a separate queue and sometimes a separate entrance from those used by full price-paying attendees . It is common for the guestlist line-up to be no shorter or even longer than the full-paying or ticketed queues . Some nightclubs allow clubbers to register for the guest list through their websites . Security Most nightclubs employ teams of bouncers , who have the power to restrict entry to the club and remove people . Some bouncers use handheld metal detectors to prevent weapons being brought into clubs . Bouncers often eject patrons who bring party drugs into the venue . Bouncers count the number of people admitted to a club in order to prevent stampedes and fire code violations , and also enforce a club 's dress code , frequently accepting bribes to let people jump the queue . Many clubs have balcony areas specifically for the security team to watch over the clubbers . Serious incidents * 20 September 1929 : Study Club fire of 1929 , early dance club fire that killed 22 in Detroit , Michigan , USA * 23 April 1940 : Rhythm Night Club fire , 209 killed at nightclub fire at Natchez , Mississippi , USA * 28 November 1942 : Cocoanut Grove fire , 492 killed in a nightclub fire at Boston , Massachusetts , USA * 1 November 1970 : Club Cinq-Sept fire in a nightclub just outside the small town of Saint-Laurent-du-Pont , Isère in south-eastern France ; 146 people killed * 8 March 1973 : Whiskey Au Go Go fire , 15 killed after firebombing at Fortitude Valley , Brisbane , Australia * 2 August 1973 : Summerland disaster , 51 killed at fire at Summerland leisure centre at Douglas , Isle of Man * 28 May 1977 : Beverly Hills Supper Club fire , 165 killed and 200 injured in nightclub fire at Southgate , Kentucky , USA * 14 February 1981 : Stardust fire disaster , 48 killed and 214 injured at nightclub fire at Dublin , Republic of Ireland * 5 April 1986 : Bomb attack on La Belle discothèque , Berlin , Germany , 3 killed , 230 injured ; 2 Marines sustaining permanent disability were 2nd Force Recon Co. Marine 's LCPL Hurt & LCPL Blackwood who despite their injuries gave assistance to their fellow Marines and civilians alike before their injuries were discovered by medical personnel * February 1990 : Stage collapse at a discothèque at Bilbao , Spain , 13 injured * 25 March 1990 : Happy Land fire , 87 killed in a nightclub fire at Happy Land , The Bronx , New York City * 20 December 1993 : Kheyvis Fire , 17 killed in a nightclub fire at Buenos Aires , Argentina * 18 March 1996 : Ozone Disco Club fire , 162 dead and 92 injured at a nightclub in Quezon City , Philippines * 30 October 1998 : Gothenburg discothèque fire , 63 people killed , 200 injured in a nightclub fire at Gothenburg , Sweden * 24 March 2000 : Throb nightclub disaster , 13 children killed , 54 injured in stampede in Durban , South Africa * 1 June 2001 : Suicide bombing at the Dolphinarium discothèque in Tel Aviv , Israel * 13 October 2001 : Stage toggled at Zapata discothèque Stuttgart , Germany , several people hurt * 21 December 2001 : At Club `` Indigo '' , Sofia , Bulgaria , in an early party for minors , the huge crowd pushing their way to get in collapses down the frosty stairs and crushes 7 children ( ages between 10 and 14 ) to death * 12 October 2002 : 2002 Bali bombings , 202 killed by large bombs . * 7 December 2002 : Cowgate fire , Edinburgh , Scotland * 17 February 2003 : 2003 E2 nightclub stampede , Chicago , Illinois , 21 killed and over 50 injured * 20 February 2003 : The Station nightclub fire , 100 killed at nightclub fire in West Warwick , Rhode Island * 8 December 2004 : A shooter in Columbus , Ohio shot and killed guitarist `` Dimebag '' Darrel Abbott and two other people , also wounding band manager and a fan in the audience * 30 December 2004 : República Cromañón nightclub fire , 194 killed and 714 injured in a nightclub fire at Buenos Aires , Argentina * 31 December 2005 : a circular crossbar fell down from the roof of a nightclub at Ibbenbüren , Germany , 4 people hurt * 18 June 2007 : Gatecrasher One Fire , Sheffield , England * 1 January 2009 : Santika Club fire in Santika Club in Watthana , Bangkok , Thailand , 61 killed and at least 212 injured * 24 July 2009 : a man bled to death at a pool party in Perkins Park nightclub , Stuttgart , Germany , after he made a head dive into a swimming pool in which there were fragments of glass * 5 December 2009 : Lame Horse fire , a fire at the Lame Horse nightclub killed at least 155 people and injures 79 others in Perm , Russia . * 15 January 2011 : 3 girls died , 14 people injured at a stampede in West Balkan Club , Budapest * 27 January 2013 : Kiss nightclub fire , 245 died in stampede in Brazil * 25 October 2015 : Inul Vizta Karaoke club fire , 17 killed and 71 injured in Indonesia * 30 October 2015 : Colectiv nightclub fire , 55 killed and 180 injured in Romania * 12 June 2016 : At least 50 people shot to death at the Pulse nightclub in Orlando , Florida List of nightclubs The following is an incomplete list of nightclub lists or nightclubs with their own Wikipedia pages , of all genres . * List of electronic dance music venues * List of nightclubs in Australia * List of nightclubs in New York City * List of nightclubs in Port Harcourt * List of nightclubs in Sweden

sfq_11790--Nightclub.txt

Opened in 1963, which London nightclub did Mark Birley name after his then wife?

In the Battle of Vimeiro ( 21 August 1808 ) the British under General Arthur Wellesley ( later known as the Duke of Wellington ) defeated the French under Major-General Jean-Andoche Junot near the village of Vimeiro , near Lisbon , Portugal during the Peninsular War . This battle put an end to the first French invasion of Portugal . Four days after the Battle of Roliça , Wellesley 's army was attacked by a French army under General Junot near the village of Vimeiro . The battle began as a battle of manoeuvre , with French troops attempting to outflank the British left , but Wellesley was able to redeploy his army to face the assault . Meanwhile , Junot sent in two central columns but these were forced back by sustained volleys from troops in line . Soon afterwards , the flanking attack was beaten off and Junot retreated towards Torres Vedras having lost 2,000 men and 13 cannon , compared to 700 Anglo-Portuguese losses . No pursuit was attempted because Wellesley was superseded by Sir Harry Burrard and then Sir Hew Dalrymple ( one having arrived during the battle , the second soon after ) . Prelude After Roliça , Wellesley had established a position near Vimeiro . By holding the village , plus some ridges to the west , the British commander covered a beachhead at Maceira Bay a little further to the west . Since most of his reinforcements had arrived by 20 August , Wellesley planned to advance south on Lisbon . Eight independent infantry brigades under Rowland Hill , Ronald Fergusson , Miles Nightingall , Barnard Bowes , Catlin Craufurd , Henry Fane , Robert Anstruther and Wroth Acland formed the core of Wellesley 's forces . Rounding out his force were 17 cannons , 240 light cavalry led by C. D. Taylor and about 2,000 Portuguese troops under Nicholas Trant , giving a total of 20,000 men . Junot organised his 14,000-man force into two infantry divisions and a cavalry division under Pierre Margaron . Henri François Delaborde 's infantry division contained two brigades under Antoine François Brenier and Jean Guillaume Barthélemy Thomières , while Louis Henri Loison 's division included two brigades commanded by Jean-Baptiste Solignac and Hugues Charlot . In addition , François Étienne de Kellermann commanded a 2,100-man reserve made up of four converged grenadier battalions . These units were created by taking the grenadier company from each of Junot 's infantry battalions . The French took 23 cannons into battle with them . Wellesley placed Anstruther 's and Fane 's brigades in front of Vimeiro , with Acland 's men in support . At first , his five remaining brigades held only the western ridge . Junot planned to send Thomieres , Solignac and Charlot 's infantry brigades to capture Vimeiro , while Brenier 's 4,300-man brigade and some dragoons swung in a wide flanking manoeuvre to seize an empty ridge to the northeast of the village . Wellesley detected Brenier 's move and switched Nightingall , Fergusson and Bowes to the northeastern ridge . Once Junot realised that British troops occupied the ridge , he sent Solignac 's brigade to the right to assist Brenier 's attack . The French commander decided to launch his attack on the town immediately , instead of waiting for his flanking move to develop . Battle All the preliminary moves and countermoves caused a series of uncoordinated French attacks . First , Thomieres ' 2,100-man brigade approached the British position . Supported by three cannons and screened by skirmishers , the brigade was formed into a column of companies . The first company of 120 men formed in a three-deep line would have a front rank 40 men wide . All the other companies formed behind the first company , making the entire brigade about 40 files wide and 48 ranks deep . According to French doctrine , as soon as the enemy main position was found , the companies would peel off to the right or left to form a firing line many companies wide and only three files deep . On the other hand , French commanders often pressed home attacks while in column , depending entirely upon their skirmishers and artillery to provide the necessary fire support . To counter the French skirmishers , Fane detached four companies of riflemen ( 60th Regiment of Foot & 95th Rifles ) . These outnumbered and outfought the French skirmishers , who fell back to the sides of the brigade column . Without their skirmishers in front of them , the French column blundered into the 945 men of the 50th Regiment . At 100 yd , the British , formed into a two-deep line , opened fire . Several companies of the 50th began wheeling inward toward both flanks of the hapless French column . Unable to properly deploy into firing line and unwilling to face the deadly enfilade fire , the French infantry suddenly bolted to the rear , leaving their three cannons to be captured . Soon after , a similar fate overtook Charlot 's brigade . In a very narrow column , it struck one battalion of Anstruther 's brigade , which had been hidden behind a crest . Before they could deploy , the French were taken in flank by a second battalion . Unable to effectively reply to the devastating British volley fire , Charlot 's men soon ran away . Seeing the battle going against him , Junot committed his grenadier reserve to the attack . The first two battalions attacked the same area as the previous units and were thrown back . Kellermann swung the final two grenadier battalions wide to the right and succeeded in breaking into Vimeiro . But , counterattacked by units from Anstruther and Acland , these Frenchmen also fell back . Colonel Taylor 's 20th Light Dragoons pounced on Kellermann 's retreating grenadiers and routed them . Excited by their easy success , the British horsemen charged out of control . They soon came up against Margaron 's French cavalry division and were routed in their turn . Taylor was killed and the British horsemen lost about one man in four . As Brenier 's men had gotten lost in the hills , Solignac attacked the northeast ridge . This brigade changed tactics deploying in an attack formation with three battalions abreast . Even so , each battalion formed a column one company wide and eight companies deep . If the French intended to form into line once the enemy position was detected , they waited too long . They marched into the kill zone of Nightingall and Fergusson 's brigades before they could deploy . Smashed by British volleys , Solignac 's men fled . Brenier 's brigade , marching to the sound of battle , came on four battalions abreast . At first they enjoyed success when they surprised and defeated two British battalions . These units had let down their guard after overpowering Solignac . Victorious , the French pressed on in column , but soon ran into the 29th Regiment in line and were stopped . The 29th was joined by the other two units , who had quickly rallied . Together , the volley fire of the three British battalions soon routed Brenier 's men . Though Wellesley urged him to pursue , Burrard declined to interfere with the subsequent French retreat . Aftermath In hindsight , Junot faced very long odds with only 14,000 Frenchmen against 18,000 British and Portuguese led by Wellesley . Junot correctly launched his heaviest attack on the weakest point in the British position , the unoccupied northeastern ridge . However , his attacks suffered by being badly coordinated . Wellesley reacted quickly to counter Junot 's flanking move . His forces overcame the French skirmishers by using superior numbers of their own skirmishers . Two of Wellesley 's brigades never got into action , but the rest were used economically to defeat each French attack . After the comprehensive French defeat , Junot offered complete capitulation . Nevertheless , Dalrymple gave the French far more generous terms than they could have hoped for . Under the terms of the Convention of Sintra , the defeated army was transported back to France by the British navy , complete with its guns and equipment and the loot it had taken from Portugal . The Convention of Sintra caused a massive outcry in Britain and , following an official enquiry , both Dalrymple and Burrard were blamed . Wellesley , who had opposed the agreement , was exonerated . Nevertheless , the dispatch of so many troops to Portugal had ensured that there would be a considerable delay before operations could commence in Spain . There were also serious problems with the Spaniards : inherent in the sudden Spanish interest in British troops , for example , lay the desire not just to receive assistance but also to obtain command over them . Equally a desire was beginning to emerge amongst the British to further their influence in Spain and to impose their own political solutions . With the British army in the hands of an officer who was not only highly ambitious but deeply frustrated , at odds with the ministry , notoriously suspicious of the government 's representatives abroad , and possessed of a prickly disposition , trouble was certain , and all the more so given the thunderbolt that was being prepared across the river Ebro .

qw_1033--Battle_of_Vimeiro.txt

The name of which person born in Dublin is connected in English history with the locations of Vimiero, Talavera, Salamanca, Vittoria, Orthes and Waterloo?

Margaret Hilda Thatcher , Baroness Thatcher , ( Roberts ; 13 October 1925 – 8 April 2013 ) was a British stateswoman and politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990 . She was the longest-serving British prime minister of the 20th century and the first woman to have held the office . A Soviet journalist dubbed her the `` Iron Lady '' , a nickname that became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style . As Prime Minister , she implemented policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism . Originally a research chemist before becoming a barrister , Thatcher was elected Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Finchley in 1959 . Edward Heath appointed her Secretary of State for Education and Science in his 1970 government . In 1975 , Thatcher defeated Heath in the Conservative Party leadership election to become Leader of the Opposition and became the first woman to lead a major political party in the United Kingdom . She became Prime Minister after winning the 1979 general election . On moving into , Thatcher introduced a series of political and economic initiatives intended to reverse high unemployment and Britain 's struggles in the wake of the Winter of Discontent and an ongoing recession . Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasised deregulation ( particularly of the financial sector ) , flexible labour markets , the privatisation of state-owned companies , and reducing the power and influence of trade unions . Thatcher 's popularity during her first years in office waned amid recession and high unemployment , until victory in the 1982 Falklands War and the recovering economy brought a resurgence of support , resulting in her re-election in 1983 . Thatcher was re-elected for a third term in 1987 . During this period her support for a Community Charge ( referred to as the `` poll tax '' ) was widely unpopular , and her views on the European Community were not shared by others in her Cabinet . She resigned as Prime Minister and party leader in November 1990 , after Michael Heseltine launched a challenge to her leadership . After retiring from the Commons in 1992 , she was given a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher , of Kesteven in the county of Lincolnshire , which entitled her to sit in the House of Lords . After a series of small strokes in 2002 , she was advised to withdraw from public speaking . Despite this , she managed to prerecord a eulogy to Ronald Reagan prior to his death , which was broadcast at his funeral in 2004 . In 2013 , she died of another stroke in London at the age of 87 . Early life and education Thatcher was born Margaret Hilda Roberts on 13 October 1925 , in Grantham , Lincolnshire . Her father was Alfred Roberts , originally from Northamptonshire , and her mother was Beatrice Ethel ( née Stephenson ) from Lincolnshire . She spent her childhood in Grantham , where her father owned two grocery shops . She and her older sister Muriel ( 1921–2004 ) were raised in the flat above the larger of the two , on North Parade . Her father was active in local politics and the Methodist church , serving as an alderman and a local preacher , and brought up his daughter as a strict Wesleyan Methodist attending the Finkin Street Methodist Church . He came from a Liberal family but stood – as was then customary in local government – as an Independent . He was Mayor of Grantham in 1945–46 and lost his position as alderman in 1952 after the Labour Party won its first majority on Grantham Council in 1950 . Margaret Roberts attended Huntingtower Road Primary School and won a scholarship to Kesteven and Grantham Girls ' School . Her school reports showed hard work and continual improvement ; her extracurricular activities included the piano , field hockey , poetry recitals , swimming and walking . She was head girl in 1942–43 . In her upper sixth year she applied for a scholarship to study chemistry at Somerville College , Oxford , but she was initially rejected and was offered a place only after another candidate withdrew . Roberts arrived at Oxford in 1943 and graduated in 1947 with Second-Class Honours in the four-year Chemistry Bachelor of Science degree , specialising in X-ray crystallography under the supervision of Dorothy Hodgkin . Her dissertation was on the structure of the antibiotic gramicidin . Even while working on chemistry , she was already thinking towards law and politics . She was reportedly more proud of becoming the first Prime Minister with a science degree than the first female Prime Minister . Roberts became President of the Oxford University Conservative Association in 1946 . She was influenced at university by political works such as Friedrich Hayek 's The Road to Serfdom ( 1944 ) , which condemned economic intervention by government as a precursor to an authoritarian state . After graduating , Roberts moved to Colchester in Essex to work as a research chemist for BX Plastics . In 1948 she applied for a job at ICI , but was rejected after the personnel department assessed her as `` headstrong , obstinate and dangerously self-opinionated '' . Roberts joined the local Conservative Association and attended the party conference at Llandudno in 1948 , as a representative of the University Graduate Conservative Association . One of her Oxford friends was also a friend of the Chair of the Dartford Conservative Association in Kent , who were looking for candidates . Officials of the association were so impressed by her that they asked her to apply , even though she was not on the Conservative Party 's approved list : she was selected in January 1951 , aged 25 , and added to the approved list post ante . At a dinner following her formal adoption as Conservative candidate for Dartford in February 1951 she met Denis Thatcher , a successful and wealthy divorced businessman , who drove her to her Essex train . In preparation for the election Roberts moved to Dartford , where she supported herself by working as a research chemist for J. Lyons and Co. in Hammersmith , part of a team developing emulsifiers for ice cream . Early political career In the 1950 and 1951 general elections , Roberts was the Conservative candidate for the safe Labour seat of Dartford . The local party selected her as its candidate because , though not a dynamic public speaker , Roberts was well-prepared and fearless in her answers ; another prospective candidate recalled that `` Once she opened her mouth , the rest of us began to look rather second-rate '' . She attracted media attention as the youngest and the only female candidate . She lost on both occasions to Norman Dodds , but reduced the Labour majority by 6,000 , and then a further 1,000 . During the campaigns , she was supported by her parents and by Denis Thatcher , whom she married in December 1951 . Denis funded his wife 's studies for the bar ; she qualified as a barrister in 1953 and specialised in taxation . Later that same year their twins Carol and Mark were born , delivered by Caesarean section . The marriage led to her being referred to as `` Mrs Denis Thatcher '' – now considered dated – by such official sources as selection minutes , travel itineraries , and society publications such as Queen , even after her election as a Member of Parliament , after which she preferred `` Mrs Margaret Thatcher '' . Member of Parliament : 1959–70 In 1954 , Thatcher was defeated when she sought selection to be the Conservative party candidate for the Orpington by-election of January 1955 . She chose not to stand as a candidate in the 1955 general election , in later years stating `` I really just felt the twins were ... only two , I really felt that it was too soon . I could n't do that . '' Afterwards , Thatcher began looking for a Conservative safe seat and was selected as the candidate for Finchley in April 1958 ( narrowly beating Ian Montagu Fraser ) . She was elected as MP for the seat after a hard campaign in the 1959 election . Benefiting from her fortunate result in a lottery for backbenchers to propose new legislation , Thatcher 's maiden speech was in support of her private member 's bill ( Public Bodies ( Admission to Meetings ) Act 1960 ) , requiring local authorities to hold their council meetings in public . In 1961 she went against the Conservative Party 's official position by voting for the restoration of birching as a judicial corporal punishment . Thatcher 's talent and drive caused her to be mentioned as a future Prime Minister in her early 20s although she herself was more pessimistic , stating as late as 1970 that `` There will not be a woman prime minister in my lifetime—the male population is too prejudiced . '' In October 1961 she was promoted to the front bench as Parliamentary Undersecretary at the Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance in Harold Macmillan 's administration . Thatcher was the youngest woman in history to receive such a post , and among the first MPs elected in 1959 to be promoted . After the Conservatives lost the 1964 election she became spokeswoman on Housing and Land , in which position she advocated her party 's policy of allowing tenants to buy their council houses . She moved to the Shadow Treasury team in 1966 and , as Treasury spokeswoman , opposed Labour 's mandatory price and income controls , arguing that they would produce effects contrary to those intended and distort the economy . By 1966 , party leaders viewed Thatcher as a potential Shadow Cabinet member . James Prior proposed her as a member after the Conservatives ' 1966 defeat , but party leader Edward Heath and Chief Whip Willie Whitelaw chose Mervyn Pike as the shadow cabinet 's sole woman member . At the Conservative Party Conference of 1966 she criticised the high-tax policies of the Labour Government as being steps `` not only towards Socialism , but towards Communism '' , arguing that lower taxes served as an incentive to hard work . Thatcher was one of the few Conservative MPs to support Leo Abse 's Bill to decriminalise male homosexuality . She voted in favour of David Steel 's bill to legalise abortion , as well as a ban on hare coursing . She supported the retention of capital punishment and voted against the relaxation of divorce laws . In 1967 , the United States Embassy in London chose Thatcher to take part in the International Visitor Leadership Program ( then called the Foreign Leader Program ) , a professional exchange programme that gave her the opportunity to spend about six weeks visiting various US cities and political figures as well as institutions such as the International Monetary Fund . Although she was not yet a cabinet or shadow cabinet member , the embassy reportedly described her to the State Department as a possible future prime minister . The description helped Thatcher meet with many prominent people during a busy itinerary focused on economic issues , including Paul Samuelson , Walt Rostow , Pierre-Paul Schweitzer , and Nelson Rockefeller . After Pike 's retirement , Heath appointed Thatcher later that year to the Shadow Cabinet as Fuel and Power spokesman . Shortly before the 1970 general election , she was promoted to Shadow Transport spokesman and later to Education . Education Secretary : 1970–74 The Conservative Party under Edward Heath won the 1970 general election , and Thatcher was subsequently appointed to the Cabinet as Secretary of State for Education and Science . During her first months in office she attracted public attention as a result of the administration 's attempts to cut spending . She gave priority to academic needs in schools . She imposed public expenditure cuts on the state education system , resulting in the abolition of free milk for schoolchildren aged seven to eleven . She held that few children would suffer if schools were charged for milk , but agreed to provide younger children with a third of a pint daily , for nutritional purposes . Cabinet papers later revealed that she opposed the policy but had been forced into it by the Treasury . Her decision provoked a storm of protest from Labour and the press , leading to the moniker `` Margaret Thatcher , Milk Snatcher '' . She reportedly considered leaving politics in the aftermath and later wrote in her autobiography : `` I learned a valuable lesson [ from the experience ] . I had incurred the maximum of political odium for the minimum of political benefit . '' Thatcher 's term of office was marked by proposals for more local education authorities to close grammar schools and to adopt comprehensive secondary education . Although she was committed to a tiered secondary modern-grammar school system of education and was determined to preserve grammar schools , during her tenure as Education Secretary she turned down only 326 of 3,612 proposals for schools to become comprehensives ; the proportion of pupils attending comprehensive schools consequently rose from 32 per cent to 62 per cent . Leader of the Opposition : 1975–79 The Heath government continued to experience difficulties with oil embargoes and union demands for wage increases in 1973 and lost the February 1974 general election . Labour formed a minority government and went on to win a narrow majority in the October 1974 general election . Heath 's leadership of the Conservative Party looked increasingly in doubt . Thatcher was not initially the obvious replacement , but she eventually became the main challenger , promising a fresh start . Her main support came from the Conservative 1922 Committee , but Thatcher 's time in office gave her the reputation of a pragmatist instead of an ideologue . She defeated Heath on the first ballot and he resigned the leadership . In the second ballot she defeated Whitelaw , Heath 's preferred successor . The vote polarised along right-left lines , with the region , experience and education of the MP also having their effects . Thatcher 's support was stronger among MPs on the right , those from southern England , and those who had not attended public schools or Oxbridge . Thatcher became party leader and Leader of the Opposition on 11 February 1975 ; she appointed Whitelaw as her deputy . Heath was never reconciled to Thatcher 's leadership . Thatcher began to attend lunches regularly at the Institute of Economic Affairs ( IEA ) , a think tank founded by the poultry magnate Antony Fisher , a disciple of Friedrich Hayek ; she had been visiting the IEA and reading its publications since the early 1960s . There she was influenced by the ideas of Ralph Harris and Arthur Seldon , and she became the face of the ideological movement opposing the welfare state . Keynesian economics , they believed , was weakening Britain . The institute 's pamphlets proposed less government , lower taxes , and more freedom for business and consumers . Television critic Clive James , writing in The Observer during the voting for the leadership , compared her voice of 1973 to a cat sliding down a blackboard . Thatcher had already begun to work on her presentation on the advice of Gordon Reece , a former television producer . By chance Reece met the actor Laurence Olivier , who arranged lessons with the National Theatre 's voice coach . Thatcher succeeded in completely suppressing her Lincolnshire dialect except when under stress , notably after provocation from Denis Healey in the House of Commons in April 1983 , when she accused the Labour front bench of being frit . On 19 January 1976 Thatcher made a speech in Kensington Town Hall in which she made a scathing attack on the Soviet Union : In response , the Soviet Defence Ministry newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda ( Red Star ) called her the `` Iron Lady , '' a sobriquet she gladly adopted . Margaret Thatcher wanted to prevent the creation of a Scottish assembly . She told Conservative MPs to vote against the Scotland and Wales Bill in December 1976 , which was defeated , and then when new Bills were proposed she supported amending the legislation to allow the English to vote in the 1979 referendum on devolution . Britain 's economy during the 1970s was so weak that Foreign Minister James Callaghan warned his fellow Labour Cabinet members in 1974 of the possibility of `` a breakdown of democracy '' , telling them that `` If I were a young man , I would emigrate . '' In mid-1978 , the economy began to improve and opinion polls showed Labour in the lead , with a general election being expected later that year and a Labour win a serious possibility . Now Prime Minister , Callaghan surprised many by announcing on 7 September that there would be no general election that year and he would wait until 1979 before going to the polls . Thatcher reacted to this by branding the Labour government `` chickens '' , and Liberal Party leader David Steel joined in , criticising Labour for `` running scared '' . The Labour government then faced fresh public unease about the direction of the country and a damaging series of strikes during the winter of 1978–79 , dubbed the `` Winter of Discontent '' . The Conservatives attacked the Labour government 's unemployment record , using advertising with the slogan `` Labour Is n't Working '' . A general election was called after Callaghan 's government lost a motion of no confidence in early 1979 . The Conservatives won a 44-seat majority in the House of Commons , and took charge . Premiership of the United Kingdom : 1979–90 Thatcher became Prime Minister on 4 May 1979 . Arriving at 10 Downing Street , she said , in a paraphrase of St. Francis of Assisi 's prayer Make Me an Instrument of Your Peace : Relations with the Queen As Prime Minister , Thatcher met weekly with Queen Elizabeth II to discuss government business , and their relationship came under close scrutiny . In July 1986 , The Sunday Times reported claims attributed to the Queen 's advisers of a `` rift '' between Buckingham Palace and Downing Street `` over a wide range of domestic and international issues '' . The Palace issued an official denial , heading off speculation about a possible constitutional crisis . After Thatcher 's retirement a senior Palace source again dismissed as `` nonsense '' the `` stereotyped idea '' that she had not got along with the Queen , or that they had fallen out over Thatcherite policies . Thatcher later wrote : `` I always found the Queen 's attitude towards the work of the Government absolutely correct ... stories of clashes between 'two powerful women ' were just too good not to make up . '' Economy and taxation Thatcher 's economic policy was influenced by monetarist thinking and economists such as Milton Friedman and Alan Walters . Together with Chancellor of the Exchequer Geoffrey Howe , she lowered direct taxes on income and increased indirect taxes . She increased interest rates to slow the growth of the money supply and thereby lower inflation , introduced cash limits on public spending , and reduced expenditure on social services such as education and housing . Her cuts in higher education spending resulted in her being the first Oxford-educated post-war Prime Minister not to be awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Oxford , after a 738 to 319 vote of the governing assembly and a student petition . Her new centrally funded City Technology Colleges did not enjoy much success , and the Funding Agency for Schools was set up to control expenditure by opening and closing schools ; the Social Market Foundation , a centre-left think tank , described it as having `` an extraordinary range of dictatorial powers '' . Some Heathite Conservatives in the Cabinet , the so-called `` wets '' , expressed doubt over Thatcher 's policies . The 1981 England riots resulted in the British media discussing the need for a policy U-turn . At the 1980 Conservative Party conference , Thatcher addressed the issue directly , with a speech written by the playwright Ronald Millar that included the lines : `` You turn if you want to . The lady 's not for turning ! '' Thatcher 's job approval rating fell to 23 % by December 1980 , lower than recorded for any previous Prime Minister . As the recession of the early 1980s deepened she increased taxes , despite concerns expressed in a statement signed by 364 leading economists issued towards the end of March 1981 . By 1982 , the UK began to experience signs of economic recovery ; inflation was down to 8.6 % from a high of 18 % , but unemployment was over 3 million for the first time since the 1930s . By 1983 overall economic growth was stronger and inflation and mortgage rates were at their lowest levels since 1970 , although manufacturing output had dropped by 30 % since 1978 and unemployment remained high , peaking at 3.3 million in 1984 . By 1987 , unemployment was falling , the economy was stable and strong , and inflation was low . Opinion polls showed a comfortable Conservative lead , and local council election results had also been successful , prompting Thatcher to call a general election for 11 June that year , despite the deadline for an election still being 12 months away . The election saw Thatcher re-elected for a third successive term . Throughout the 1980s revenue from the 90 % tax on North Sea oil extraction was used as a short-term funding source to balance the economy and pay the costs of reform . Thatcher reformed local government taxes by replacing domestic rates – a tax based on the nominal rental value of a home – with the Community Charge ( or poll tax ) in which the same amount was charged to each adult resident . The new tax was introduced in Scotland in 1989 and in England and Wales the following year , and proved to be among the most unpopular policies of her premiership . Public disquiet culminated in a 70,000 to 200,000-strong demonstration in London on 31 March 1990 ; the demonstration around Trafalgar Square deteriorated into the Poll Tax Riots , leaving 113 people injured and 340 under arrest . The Community Charge was abolished by her successor , John Major . Industrial relations Thatcher was committed to reducing the power of the trade unions , whose leadership she accused of undermining parliamentary democracy and economic performance through strike action . Several unions launched strikes in response to legislation introduced to curb their power , but resistance eventually collapsed . Only 39 % of union members voted for Labour in the 1983 general election . According to the BBC , Thatcher `` managed to destroy the power of the trade unions for almost a generation '' . The miners ' strike was the biggest confrontation between the unions and the Thatcher government . In March 1984 the National Coal Board ( NCB ) proposed to close 20 of the 174 state-owned mines and cut 20,000 jobs out of 187,000 . Two-thirds of the country 's miners , led by the National Union of Mineworkers ( NUM ) under Arthur Scargill , downed tools in protest . Scargill had refused to hold a ballot on the strike , having previously lost three ballots on a national strike ( January 1982 , October 1982 , and March 1983 ) . This led to the strike being declared illegal . Thatcher refused to meet the union 's demands and compared the miners ' dispute to the Falklands conflict two years earlier , declaring in a speech in 1984 : `` We had to fight the enemy without in the Falklands . We always have to be aware of the enemy within , which is much more difficult to fight and more dangerous to liberty . '' After a year out on strike , in March 1985 , the NUM leadership conceded without a deal . The cost to the economy was estimated to be at least £1.5 billion , and the strike was blamed for much of the pound 's fall against the US dollar . The government closed 25 unprofitable coal mines in 1985 , and by 1992 a total of 97 had been closed ; those that remained were privatised in 1994 . The eventual closure of 150 coal mines , not all of which were losing money , resulted in the loss of tens of thousands of jobs and devastated entire communities . Miners had helped bring down the Heath government , and Thatcher was determined to succeed where he had failed . Her strategy of preparing fuel stocks , appointing a union-busting NCB leader in Ian MacGregor , and ensuring police were adequately trained and equipped with riot gear , contributed to her victory . The number of stoppages across the UK peaked at 4,583 in 1979 , when more than 29 million working days were lost . In 1984 , the year of the miners ' strike , there were 1,221 , resulting in the loss of more than 27 million working days . Stoppages then fell steadily throughout the rest of Thatcher 's premiership ; in 1990 there were 630 and fewer than 2 million working days lost , and they continued to fall thereafter . Thatcher 's time in office witnessed a sharp decline in trade union density , with the percentage of workers belonging to a trade union falling from 57.3 % in 1979 to 49.5 % in 1985 . In 1979 up until Thatcher 's last year in office , trade union membership also fell , from 13.5 million in 1979 to fewer than 10 million . Privatisation The policy of privatisation has been called `` a crucial ingredient of Thatcherism '' . After the 1983 election the sale of state utilities accelerated ; more than £29 billion was raised from the sale of nationalised industries , and another £18 billion from the sale of council houses . The process of privatisation , especially the preparation of nationalised industries for privatisation , was associated with marked improvements in performance , particularly in terms of labour productivity . Some of the privatised industries , including gas , water , and electricity , were natural monopolies for which privatisation involved little increase in competition . The privatised industries that demonstrated improvement sometimes did so while still under state ownership . British Steel Corporation , for instance , made great gains in profitability while still a nationalised industry under the government-appointed chairmanship of Ian MacGregor , who faced down trade-union opposition to close plants and reduce the workforce by half . Regulation was also significantly expanded to compensate for the loss of direct government control , with the foundation of regulatory bodies such as Ofgas , Oftel and the National Rivers Authority . There was no clear pattern to the degree of competition , regulation , and performance among the privatised industries ; in most cases privatisation benefited consumers in terms of lower prices and improved efficiency , but the results overall were `` mixed '' . Thatcher always resisted rail privatisation and was said to have told Transport Secretary Nicholas Ridley `` Railway privatisation will be the Waterloo of this government . Please never mention the railways to me again . '' Shortly before her resignation , she accepted the arguments for privatising British Rail , which her successor John Major implemented in 1994 . The effect of privatising the railway is disputed , with large growth in passenger numbers and increasing efficiency matched by large public subsidy and concern about foreign companies running British railways . The privatisation of public assets was combined with financial deregulation in an attempt to fuel economic growth . Geoffrey Howe abolished Britain 's exchange controls in 1979 , allowing more capital to be invested in foreign markets , and the Big Bang of 1986 removed many restrictions on the London Stock Exchange . The Thatcher government encouraged growth in the finance and service sectors to compensate for Britain 's ailing manufacturing industry . Northern Ireland In 1980 and 1981 , Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) and Irish National Liberation Army ( INLA ) prisoners in Northern Ireland 's Maze Prison carried out hunger strikes in an

qz_3736--Margaret_Thatcher.txt

Following success at the 1979 election whose party conference speeech included the lines 'you turn if you want to, the lady's not for turning'?

A torero or toureiro ( both from Latin taurarius , bullfighter ) , is the Spanish word for bullfighter and describes all the performers in the sport of bullfighting as practised in Spain , Portugal , Mexico , Peru , France and other countries influenced by Spanish culture . The performers who participate in the bullfight include : the main performer , who is the leader of an entourage and the one who kills the bull and is addressed as maestro ( master ) , or with the formal title matador de toros ( killer of bulls ) ; the other bullfighters in the entourage are called subalternos and their suits are embroidered in silver as opposed to the matador 's more-theatrical gold , and include picadores , rejoneadores , and banderilleros . In English , a torero is sometimes called a toreador . The term does not exist in Spanish ; it was invented by Georges Bizet for his opera Carmen when needed the syllables of the word to match the timing of the song . A very small number of women have been bullfighters on foot or on horseback ; one recent example is Cristina Sánchez . Female matadors have experienced considerable resistance and public hostility from aficionados and other matadors , perhaps being seen as a less physically nimble gender than the established norm . Usually , toreros start fighting younger bulls ( novillos or , more informally in some Latin American countries , vaquillas ) , and are called novilleros . Fighting of mature bulls commences only after a special match , called `` the Alternative '' . At this same bullfight , the novillero ( junior bullfighter ) is presented to the crowd as a matador de toros . The act of bullfighting is not called or considered a stand-alone sport but rather a performance art . There is no contest , simple punctuation , nor any formal classification . Further still , bullfighting , historically , started more with nobles upon horseback , all lancing bulls with accompanying commoners on foot doing helper jobs . As time went by , the work of the commoners on foot gained in importance up to the point whereupon they became the main and only act . Bullfighting on horseback became a separate and distinct act called `` rejoneo '' which is still performed today -- although , not as often as bullfighting itself does on foot . Bullfighting on foot became a means for poor , able-bodied men to achieve fame and fortune , similar to the role of boxing in the United States . When a famous torero was asked why he risked his life , one man reportedly answered Más cornadas da el hambre ( `` [ There is ] more goring from hunger . `` ) . Today , it is now common for a bullfighter to be born into a family of bullfighters . The established term , Maletilla or espontáneo , is attributed to those who illegally jump into the ring and attempt to bullfight for their sake and glory . While the practice itself is widely despised by many spectators and fans alike , some , such as El Cordobés , started their very careers this way . Types Matador de Toros A matador de toros ( lit . `` killer of bulls '' , from Latin mactator , killer , slayer , from mactare , to slay ) is considered to be both an artist and an athlete , possessing great agility , grace , and co-ordination . One of the most famous matadors was Juan Belmonte ( 1892–1962 ) , whose technique in the ring revolutionized bullfighting and remains an established standard by which a great deal of bullfighters are judged . The style and bravery of the matador is regarded as being , at least , equally important as to whether or not he actually kills the bull . The most successful matadores used to be treated like pop stars , with matching financial incomes , cult followings and accompanied by lurid tabloid stories about their romantic conquests with women . Currently , however , even today 's top matadors earn less , in real terms , than their peers did in the 1960s -- and much of mass media coverage is only limited to a handful of matadors known as the `` mediáticos '' , the sum of which do not necessarily include any of the nation 's prized bullfighters in Spain . The great personal danger of bullfighting adds to the performing matador 's mystique ; matadores are regularly injured by bulls and , concurrently , 533 professional bullfighters have been killed in the arena since 1700 . One of the most famous bullfighters in history , Manolete , died this way in 1947 . This hazard is said to be central to the nature and appeal of bullfighting . The American writer Ernest Hemingway was a bullfighting aficionado . Within his fictional works , The Sun Also Rises features a matador and scenes of bullfighting , as do his short stories The Capital of the World and The Undefeated . Outside of fiction , he also wrote at length on the subject in Death in the Afternoon ( 1932 ) and The Dangerous Summer ( 1959 ) . In 1962 , Hollywood producer David Wolper produced `` The Story Of A Matador '' , documenting what it 's like to be a matador . In this case , it was the late Matador Jaime Bravo . Picador A picador is a bullfighter who uses a special lance called pica while on horseback to test the bull 's strength and to provide clues to the matador on which side the bull is favoring . They perform in the tercio de varas which is the first of the three stages in a Spanish bullfight . The shape of the lance or pica is regulated by Spanish law to prevent serious injury to the bull which was viewed as unfair cheating in the past . The bull will charge the horses in the ring and , at the moments prior to contact , the picador lances the bull in a large muscle at the back of the neck ; thus begins the work of lowering his head . The picador continues to stab at the bull 's neck leading to the animal 's first major loss of blood . During this time , the bull 's injured nape will fatigue -- however , as a result of the enraged bull charging , the picador 's horse will tussle with avoiding the bull throes at trying to lift the horse with its horns . The enduring loss of blood and exertion gradually weakens the bull further and makes it ready for the next stage . In order to protect the horse from the bull 's horns , the horse is surrounded by a 'peto ' – a mattress-like protection . Prior to 1928 , horses did not wear any protection and a bull would frequently disembowel the opposing horse during this vulnerable stage . French matadors will often use the battle cries `` ole '' ( in France ) `` allons '' as means to antagonize and aggravate the bull . Such a battle cry is said to instill in the chosen bull such a feverish sense of anxiety that the spectacle will become much more fiercely contested . Banderillero The banderillero is a torero who plants the banderillas ( lit . little flags ) . These are colorful sticks , usually colored with the flag of the banderillero 's birthplace , with a barbed point which are increasingly placed in the top of the bull 's shoulder . Banderilleros attempt to place the sticks while running as close to the bull as possible . They are judged by the crowd on their form and bravery . Sometimes a matador , who was a particularly skillful banderillero before becoming a matador , will place some of the banderillas himself . Skilled banderilleros can actually correct faults in the manner in which the bull charges by lancing the bull in such a way that the bull ceases hooking to one side , and thereby removing a potential source of danger to the matador by limiting the bull 's offensive movements . Costume Because of the decorations and elaborateness of the costume , the Spanish call the torero 's outfit as traje de luces , meaning the `` suit of lights '' . Though undoubtedly flamboyant , matador costume structure provides great ease of movement . In popular culture In 1991 , professional wrestler Tito Santana adopted a Matador persona , including the nickname the `` El Matador '' Tito Santana and a `` traje de luces '' styled wrestling outfit . The codename `` Operation Matador '' was used no less than six times by various armies and intelligence agencies . Professional wrestlers Primo & Epico used a bullfighter gimmick in a previous run in WWE as Los Matadores . The Street Fighter video game character Vega 's costume design is based on a traje de luces , and he is sometimes given a backstory as a former or current bullfighter .

bb_1523--Torero.txt

A banderillero is a member of a team called a cuadrilla, in which controversial activity?

Zumba is a dance fitness program created by Colombian dancer and choreographer Alberto `` Beto '' Perez during the 1990s . [ http : //yourlife.usatoday.com/fitness-food/exercise/story/2011-10-27/Zumba-brings-the-dance-party-into-the-health-club/50940786/1 Zumba brings the dance party into the health club ] , USA Today , 10 October 2011 Zumba is a trademark owned by Zumba Fitness , LLC . The Brazilian pop singer Claudia Leitte has become the international ambassador to Zumba Fitness . Zumba involves dance and aerobic movements performed to energetic music . The choreography incorporates hip-hop , soca , samba , salsa , merengue and mambo . Squats and lunges are also included . [ http : //www.brides.com/wedding-dresses-style/fitness-and-health/2011/09/wedding-fitness-trend-zumba-class Fitness Guinea Pig : Zumba ] , Brides Magazine Zumba Fitness , the owner of the Zumba program , does not charge licensing fees to gyms or fitness centers . [ http : //www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/30/AR2008073001580.html Zumba Shakes the Monotony Out of Ordinary Aerobics Classes ] , The Washington Post , 31 July 2008 Approximately 15 million people take weekly Zumba classes in over 200,000 locations across 180 countries . Origin In the mid 1990s , Alberto forgot his tape of aerobics music for a class he was teaching . He went to his car , listened to music – consisting of non-traditional salsa and merengue music – and improvised a class using this non-traditional aerobics music . After finding initial success in Phadke Road , he moved to the Ulhasnagar Sindhi Association ( USA ) in 2001 , where he teamed up with cofounder Alberto Perlman and a childhood friend , COO Alberto Aghion . The trio produced a demo reel , and the concept was discovered and licensed by a company called Fitness Quest to create a direct marketing campaign and a line of home videos . The name `` Zumba '' has no particular meaning , it was chosen arbitrarily as a brand name . Classes Zumba classes are typically about an hour long and are taught by instructors licensed by Zumba Fitness , LLC . The exercises include music with fast and slow rhythms , as well as resistance training . The music comes from the following dance styles : cumbia , salsa , merengue , mambo , flamenco , chachacha , reggaeton , soca , samba , hip hop music , axé music and tango . There are nine different types of classes for different levels of age and exertion . Zumba Gold is a program designed for the needs of the elderly . Zumba Step is a lower-body workout that incorporates Zumba routines and step aerobics with Latin dance rhythms . Rumba Toning is for the people who do their workouts with toning sticks . Zumba Toning will target the abs , thighs , arms , and other muscles throughout the body . Zumba Toning provides participants with a cardio workout and strength training . Aqua Zumba classes are held in a swimming pool . The instructor leads the class poolside while participants follow in shallow water . Moves have been specially adapted to combine the same dance movements used in a Zumba Fitness class with those used in aqua fitness classes . Zumba In The Circuit combines dance with circuit training . These classes usually last 30 minutes and feature strength exercises on various stations in timed intervals . Zumba Kids and Zumba Kids Jr. classes are designed for children between the ages of 4 and 12 . Zumba Gold-Toning is a toning class for older participants with goals of improving one 's muscle strength , posture , mobility , and coordination . Zumba Sentao is a chair workout that focuses on using body weight to strengthen and tone the body . Zumba instructors have the option to become ZIN™ Members ( Zumba Instructor Network members ) to receive bimonthly training DVDs to assist with the creation of music and choreography for their personal Zumba classes . Because Zumba offers different options , proponents of the Zumba program claim that it is safe for all ages , meaning that anyone from age 0 to 100 can participate in this form of aerobic exercise . At least some of the classes are specifically aimed at elderly people , to help them build strength , improve motion and posture , and socialize . Products DVDs Zumba sold DVDs via infomercials in 2002 . In 2005 , the Zumba Academy was launched to license instructors for teaching Zumba classes . In 2007 the company launched a clothing line called Zumba wear . In July 2012 , it released the compilation album Zumba Fitness Dance Party . More than 10 million DVDs have been sold . Clothing As of 2012 , official apparel sales amounted to $ 10 million per year . Video games In 2010 Zumba released its first fitness video game on November 30 , 2010. , it has sold 3 million copies . The Zumba Fitness 2 video game was released in November 2011 . A similar game was released on the Xbox 360 as Zumba Fitness Rush in February 2012 . Zumba Fitness Core was released in October 2012 for the Wii and Xbox 360 . The game includes new features such as nutrition tips and ability to set personal goals . Most recently , Zumba Fitness : World Party was released on November 5 , 2013 . That game features the new World Tour mode that unlocks songs from seven global destinations as you progress , exposing you to authentic customs , local rhythms and native dance styles . The game was followed by Zumba Kids on November 19 , 2013 . All of the Zoë Mode-developed Zumba titles run on Epic Games ' Unreal Engine 3 . Games * Zumba Fitness ( video game ) ( 2010 ) * Zumba Fitness 2/Zumba Fitness Rush ( 2011 ) / ( 2012 ) * Zumba Fitness Core ( 2012 ) * Zumba Fitness : World Party ( 2013 ) * Zumba Kids ( 2013 )

sfq_18945--Zumba.txt

The dance fitness programme, the Zumba, originated in which country?

The Who are an English rock band that formed in 1964 . Their classic line-up consisted of lead singer Roger Daltrey , guitarist Pete Townshend , bass guitarist John Entwistle , and drummer Keith Moon . They are considered one of the most influential rock bands of the 20th century , selling over 100 million records worldwide and holding a reputation for their live shows and studio work . The Who developed from an earlier group , the Detours , and established themselves as part of the pop art and mod movements , featuring auto-destructive art by destroying guitars and drums on stage . Their first single as the Who , `` I Ca n't Explain '' , reached the UK top ten , followed by a string of singles including `` My Generation '' , `` Substitute '' and `` Happy Jack '' . In 1967 , they performed at the Monterey Pop Festival and released the US top ten single `` I Can See for Miles '' , while touring extensively . The group 's fourth album , 1969 's rock opera Tommy , included the single `` Pinball Wizard '' and was a critical and commercial success . Live appearances at Woodstock and the Isle of Wight Festival , along with the live album Live at Leeds , cemented their reputation as a respected rock act . With their success came increased pressure on lead songwriter and visionary Townshend , and the follow-up to Tommy , Lifehouse , was abandoned . Songs from the project made up 1971 's Who 's Next , which included the hit `` Wo n't Get Fooled Again '' . The group released the album Quadrophenia in 1973 as a celebration of their mod roots , and oversaw the film adaptation of Tommy in 1975 . They continued to tour to large audiences before semi-retiring from live performances at the end of 1976 . The release of Who Are You in 1978 was overshadowed by the death of Moon shortly after . Kenney Jones replaced Moon and the group resumed activity , releasing a film adaptation of Quadrophenia and the retrospective documentary The Kids Are Alright . After Townshend became weary of touring , the group split in 1982 . The Who occasionally re-formed for live appearances such as Live Aid in 1985 , a 25th anniversary tour in 1989 and a tour of Quadrophenia in 1996–97 . They resumed regular touring in 1999 , with drummer Zak Starkey . After Entwistle 's death in 2002 , plans for a new album were delayed . Townshend and Daltrey continued as the Who , releasing Endless Wire in 2006 , and continued to play live regularly . The Who 's major contributions to rock music include the development of the Marshall stack , large PA systems , use of the synthesizer , Entwistle and Moon 's lead playing styles , Townshend 's feedback and power chord guitar technique , and the development of the rock opera . They are cited as an influence by hard rock , punk rock and mod bands , and their songs still receive regular exposure . History Background The founding members of the Who , Roger Daltrey , Pete Townshend and John Entwistle , grew up in Acton , London and went to Acton County Grammar School . Townshend 's father , Cliff , played saxophone and his mother , Betty , had sung in the entertainment division of the Royal Air Force during World War II , and both supported their son 's interest in rock and roll . Townshend and Entwistle became friends in their second year of Acton County , and formed a trad jazz group ; Entwistle also played French horn in the Middlesex Schools ' Symphony Orchestra . Both were interested in rock , and Townshend particularly admired Cliff Richard 's début single , `` Move It '' . Entwistle moved to guitar , but struggled with it due to his large fingers , and moved to bass on hearing the guitar work of Duane Eddy . He was unable to afford a bass and built one at home . After Acton County , Townshend attended Ealing Art College , a move he later described as profoundly influential on the course of the Who . Daltrey , who was in the year above , had moved to Acton from Shepherd 's Bush , a more working-class area . He had trouble fitting in at the school , and discovered gangs and rock and roll . He was expelled at 15 and found work on a building site . In 1959 he started the Detours , the band that was to evolve into the Who . The band played professional gigs , such as corporate and wedding functions , and Daltrey kept a close eye on the finances as well as the music . Daltrey spotted Entwistle by chance on the street carrying a bass and recruited him into the Detours . In mid-1961 , Entwistle suggested Townshend as a guitarist , Daltrey on lead guitar , Entwistle on bass , Harry Wilson on drums , and Colin Dawson on vocals . The band played instrumentals by the Shadows and the Ventures , and a variety of pop and trad jazz covers . Daltrey was considered the leader and , according to Townshend , `` ran things the way he wanted them '' . Wilson was fired in mid-1962 and replaced by Doug Sandom , though he was older than the rest of the band , married , and a more proficient musician , having been playing semi-professionally for two years . Dawson left after frequently arguing with Daltrey and after being briefly replaced by Gabby Connolly , Daltrey moved to lead vocals . Townshend , with Entwistle 's encouragement , became the sole guitarist . Through Townshend 's mother , the group obtained a management contract with local promoter Robert Druce , who started booking the band as a support act . The Detours were influenced by the bands they supported , including Screaming Lord Sutch , Cliff Bennett and the Rebel Rousers , Shane Fenton and the Fentones , and Johnny Kidd and the Pirates . The Detours were particularly interested in the Pirates as they also only had one guitarist , Mick Green , who inspired Townshend to combine rhythm and lead guitar in his style . Entwistle 's bass became more of a lead instrument , playing melodies . In February 1964 , the Detours became aware of the group Johnny Devlin and the Detours and changed their name . Townshend and his room-mate Richard Barnes spent a night considering names , focusing on a theme of joke announcements , including `` No One '' and `` the Group '' . Townshend preferred `` the Hair '' , and Barnes liked `` the Who '' because it `` had a pop punch '' . Daltrey chose `` the Who '' the next morning . 1964–78 Early career By the time the Detours had become the Who , they had already found regular gigs , including at the Oldfield Hotel in Greenford , the White Hart Hotel in Acton , the Goldhawk Social Club in Shepherd 's Bush , and the Notre Dame Hall in Leicester Square . They had also replaced Druce as manager with Helmut Gorden , with whom they secured an audition with Chris Parmeinter for Fontana Records . Parmeinter found problems with the drumming and , according to Sandom , Townshend immediately turned on him and threatened to fire him if his playing did not immediately improve . Sandom left in disgust , but was persuaded to lend his kit to any potential stand-ins or replacements . Sandom and Townshend did not speak to each other again for 14 years . During a gig with a stand-in drummer in late April at the Oldfield , the band first met Keith Moon . Moon grew up in Wembley , and had been drumming in bands since 1961 . He was performing with a semi-professional band called the Beachcombers , and wanted to play full-time . Moon played a few songs with the group , breaking a bass drum pedal and tearing a drum skin . The band were impressed with his energy and enthusiasm , and offered him the job . Moon performed with the Beachcombers a few more times , but dates clashed and he chose to devote himself to the Who . The Beachcombers auditioned Sandom , but were unimpressed and did not ask him to join . The Who changed managers to Peter Meaden . He decided that the group would be ideal to represent the growing mod movement in Britain which involved fashion , scooters and music genres such as rhythm and blues , soul and beat . He renamed the group the High Numbers , dressed them up in mod clothes , secured a second , more favourable audition with Fontana and wrote the lyrics for both sides of their single `` Zoot Suit '' / '' I 'm the Face '' to appeal to mods . The tune for `` Zoot Suit '' was `` Misery '' by the Dynamics , and `` I 'm the Face '' borrowed from Slim Harpo 's `` I Got Love If You Want It '' . Although Meaden tried to promote the single , it failed to reach the top 50 and the band reverted to calling themselves the Who . The group began to improve their stage image ; Daltrey started using his microphone cable as a whip on stage , and occasionally leapt into the crowd ; Moon threw drumsticks into the air mid-beat ; Townshend mimed machine gunning the crowd with his guitar while jumping on stage and playing guitar with a fast arm-windmilling motion , or stood with his arms aloft allowing his guitar to produce feedback in a posture dubbed `` the Bird Man '' . Meaden was replaced as manager by two filmmakers , Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp . They were looking for a young , unsigned rock group that they could make a film about , and had seen the band at the Railway Hotel in Wealdstone , which had become a regular venue for them . Lambert related to Townshend and his art school background , and encouraged him to write songs . In August , Lambert and Stamp made a promotional film featuring the group and their audience at the Railway . The band changed their set towards soul , rhythm and blues and Motown covers , and created the slogan `` Maximum R & B '' . In June 1964 , during a performance at the Railway , Townshend accidentally broke the head of his guitar on the low ceiling of the stage . Angered by the audience 's laughter , he smashed the instrument on the stage , then picked up another guitar and continued the show . The following week , the audience were keen to see a repeat of the event . Moon obliged by kicking his drum kit over , and auto-destructive art became a feature of the Who 's live set . First singles and My Generation By late 1964 , the Who were becoming popular in London 's Marquee club , and a rave review of their live act appeared in Melody Maker . Lambert and Stamp attracted the attention of the American producer Shel Talmy , who had produced the Kinks . Townshend had written a song , `` I Ca n't Explain '' , that deliberately sounded like the Kinks to attract Talmy 's attention . Talmy saw the group in rehearsals and was impressed . He signed them to his production company , and sold the recording to the US arm of Decca Records , which meant that the group 's early singles were released in Britain on Brunswick Records , one of UK Decca 's labels for US artists . `` I Ca n't Explain '' was recorded in early November 1964 at Pye Studios in Marble Arch with the Ivy League on backing vocals , and Jimmy Page played fuzz guitar on the B-side , `` Bald Headed Woman '' . `` I Ca n't Explain '' became popular with pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline . Pirate radio was important for bands as there were no commercial radio stations in the UK and BBC Radio played little pop music . The group gained further exposure when they appeared on the television programme Ready Steady Go ! Lambert and Stamp were tasked with finding `` typical teens '' , and invited the group 's regular audience from the Goldhawk Social Club . Enthusiastic reception on television and regular airplay on pirate radio helped the single slowly climb the charts in early 1965 until it reached the top 10 . The follow-up single , `` Anyway , Anyhow , Anywhere '' , by Townshend and Daltrey , features guitar noises such as pick sliding , toggle switching and feedback , which was so unconventional that it was initially rejected by the US arm of Decca . The single reached the top 10 in the UK and was used as the theme song to Ready Steady Go ! The transition to a hit-making band with original material , encouraged by Lambert , did not sit well with Daltrey , and a recording session of R & B covers went unreleased . The Who were not close friends either , apart from Moon and Entwistle , who enjoyed visiting nightclubs together in the West End of London . The group experienced a difficult time when touring Denmark in September , which culminated in Daltrey throwing Moon 's amphetamines down the toilet and assaulting him . Immediately on returning to Britain , Daltrey was sacked , but was reinstated on the condition that the group became a democracy without his dominant leadership . At this time , the group enlisted Richard Cole as a roadie . The next single , `` My Generation '' , followed in October . Townshend had written it as a slow blues , but after several abortive attempts , it was turned into a more powerful song with a bass solo from Entwistle . The song used gimmicks such as a vocal stutter to simulate the speech of a mod on amphetamines , and two key changes . Townshend insisted in interviews that the lyrics `` Hope I die before I get old '' were not meant to be taken literally . Peaking at No . 2 , `` My Generation '' is the group 's highest-charting single in the UK . The début album My Generation was released in late 1965 . Among original material by Townshend , including the title track and `` The Kids Are Alright '' , the album has several James Brown covers from the session earlier that year that Daltrey favoured . After My Generation , the Who fell out with Talmy , which meant an abrupt end to their recording contract . The resulting legal acrimony resulted in Talmy holding the rights to the master tapes , which prevented the album from being reissued until 2002 . The Who were signed to Robert Stigwood 's label , Reaction , and released `` Substitute '' . Townshend said he wrote the song about identity crisis , and as a parody of the Rolling Stones 's `` 19th Nervous Breakdown '' . It was the first single to feature him playing an acoustic twelve-string guitar . Talmy took legal action over the B-side , `` Instant Party '' , and the single was withdrawn . A new B-side , `` Waltz for a Pig '' , was recorded by the Graham Bond Organisation under the pseudonym `` the Who Orchestra '' . In 1966 the Who released `` I 'm a Boy '' , about a boy dressed as a girl , taken from an abortive collection of songs called Quads ; `` Happy Jack '' ; and an EP , Ready Steady Who , that tied in with their regular appearances on Ready Steady Go ! The group continued to have conflict ; on 20 May , Moon and Entwistle were late to a gig having been on the Ready Steady Go ! set with The Beach Boys ' Bruce Johnston . During `` My Generation '' , Townshend attacked Moon with his guitar ; Moon suffered a black eye and bruises , and he and Entwistle left the band , but changed their minds and rejoined a week later . Moon kept looking for other work , and Jeff Beck had him to play drums on his song `` Beck 's Bolero '' ( with Page , John Paul Jones and Nicky Hopkins ) because he was `` trying to get Keith out of the Who '' . A Quick One and The Who Sell Out To alleviate financial pressure on the band , Lambert arranged a song-writing deal which required each member to write two songs for the next album . Entwistle contributed `` Boris the Spider '' and `` Whiskey Man '' and found a niche role as second songwriter . The band found they needed to fill an extra ten minutes , and Lambert encouraged Townshend to write a longer piece , `` A Quick One , While He 's Away '' . The suite of song fragments is about a girl who has an affair while her lover is away , but is ultimately forgiven . The album was titled A Quick One ( Happy Jack in the US ) , and reached No . 4 in the UK charts . It was followed in 1967 by the UK Top 5 single `` Pictures of Lily '' . By 1966 , Ready Steady Go ! had ended , the mod movement was becoming unfashionable , and the Who found themselves in competition on the London circuit with groups including Cream and the Jimi Hendrix Experience . Lambert and Stamp realised that commercial success in the US was paramount to the group 's future , and arranged a deal with promoter Frank Barsalona for a short package tour in New York . The group 's performances , which still involved smashing guitars and kicking over drums , were well received , and led to their first major US appearance at the Monterey Pop Festival . The group , especially Moon , were not fond of the hippie movement , and thought their violent stage act would stand in sharp contrast to the peaceful atmosphere of the festival . Hendrix was also on the bill , and was also going to smash his guitar on stage . Townshend verbally abused Hendrix and accused him of stealing his act , and the pair argued about who should go on stage first , with the Who winning the argument . The Who brought hired equipment to the festival ; Hendrix shipped over his regular touring gear from Britain , including a full Marshall stack . According to biographer Tony Fletcher , Hendrix sounded `` so much better than the Who it was embarrassing '' . The Who 's appearance at Monterey gave them recognition in the US , and `` Happy Jack '' reached the top 30 . The group followed Monterey with a US tour supporting Herman 's Hermits . The Hermits were a straightforward pop band and enjoyed drugs and practical jokes . They bonded with Moon , who was excited to learn that cherry bombs were legal to purchase in Alabama . Moon acquired a reputation of destroying hotel rooms while on tour , with a particular interest in blowing up toilets . Entwistle said the first cherry bomb they tried `` blew a hole in the suitcase and the chair '' . Moon recalled his first attempt to flush one down the toilet : `` [ A ] ll that porcelain flying through the air was quite unforgettable . I never realised dynamite was so powerful . '' After a gig in Flint , Michigan on Moon 's 21st birthday on 23 August 1967 , the entourage caused $ 24,000 of damage at the hotel , and Moon knocked out one of his front teeth . Daltrey later said that the tour brought the band closer , and as the support act , they could turn up and perform a short show without any major responsibilities . After the Hermits tour , the Who recorded their next single , `` I Can See for Miles '' , which Townshend had written in 1966 but had avoided recording until he was sure it could be produced well . Townshend called it `` the ultimate Who record '' , and was disappointed it reached only No . 10 in the UK . It became their best selling single in the US , reaching No . 9 . The group toured the US again with Eric Burdon and the Animals , including an appearance on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour , miming to `` I Can See For Miles '' and `` My Generation '' . Moon bribed a stage hand to put explosives in his drum kit , who loaded it with ten times the expected quantity . The resulting detonation threw Moon off his drum riser and his arm was cut by flying cymbal shrapnel . Townshend 's hair was singed and his left ear left ringing , and a camera and studio monitor were destroyed . The next album was The Who Sell Out—a concept album paying tribute to pirate radio , which had been outlawed in August 1967 by the Marine , & c. , Broadcasting ( Offences ) Act 1967 . It included humorous jingles and mock commercials between songs , a mini rock opera called `` Rael '' , and `` I Can See For Miles '' . The Who declared themselves a pop art group and thus viewed advertising as an artform ; they recorded a wide variety of radio advertisements , such as for canned milkshakes and the American Cancer Society , in defiance of the rising anti-consumerist ethos of the hippie counterculture . Townshend stated , `` We do n't change offstage . We live pop art . '' Later that year , Lambert and Stamp formed a record label , Track Records , with distribution by Polydor . As well as signing Hendrix , Track became the imprint for all the Who 's UK output until the mid-1970s . The group started 1968 by touring Australia and New Zealand with the Small Faces . The groups had trouble with the local authorities and the New Zealand Truth called them `` unwashed , foul-smelling , booze-swilling no-hopers '' . They continued to tour across the US and Canada during the first half of the year . Tommy , Woodstock and Live at Leeds By 1968 the Who had started to attract attention in the underground press . Townshend had stopped using drugs and became interested in the teachings of Meher Baba . In August , he gave an interview to Rolling Stone editor Jann Wenner describing in detail the plot of a new album project and its relationship to Baba 's teachings . The album went through several names during recording , including Deaf Dumb and Blind Boy and Amazing Journey ; Townshend settled on Tommy for the album about the life of a deaf , dumb and blind boy , and his attempt to communicate with others . Some songs , such as `` Welcome '' and `` Amazing Journey '' were inspired by Baba 's teaching , and others came from observations within the band . `` Sally Simpson '' is about a fan who tried to climb on stage at a gig by the Doors that they attended and `` Pinball Wizard '' was written so that New York Times journalist Nik Cohn , a pinball enthusiast , would give the album a good review . Townshend later said , `` I wanted the story of Tommy to have several levels ... a rock singles level and a bigger concept level '' , containing the spiritual message he wanted as well as being entertaining . The album was projected for a Christmas 1968 release but recording stalled after Townshend decided to make a double album to cover the story in sufficient depth . By the end of the year , 18 months of touring had led to a well-rehearsed and tight live band , which was evident when they performed `` A Quick One While He 's Away '' at The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus television special . The Stones considered their own performance lacklustre , and the project was never broadcast . The Who had not released an album in over a year , and had not completed the recording of Tommy , which continued well into 1969 , interspersed with gigs at weekends . Lambert was a key figure in keeping the group focused and getting the album completed , and typed up a script to help them understand the story and how the songs fitted together . The album was released in May with the accompanying single , `` Pinball Wizard '' , a début performance at Ronnie Scott 's , and a tour , playing most of the new album live . Tommy sold 200,000 copies in the US in its first two weeks , and was a critical smash , Life saying , `` ... for sheer power , invention and brilliance of performance , Tommy outstrips anything which has ever come out of a recording studio '' . Melody Maker declared : `` Surely the Who are now the band against which all others are to be judged . '' Daltrey had significantly improved as a singer , and set a template for rock singers in the 1970s by growing his hair long and wearing open shirts on stage . Townshend had taken to wearing a boiler suit and Doctor Martens shoes . In August , the Who performed at the Woodstock Festival , despite being reluctant and demanding $ 13,000 up front . The group were scheduled to appear on Saturday night , 16 August , but the festival ran late and they did not take to the stage until 5am on Sunday ; they played most of Tommy . During their performance , Yippie leader Abbie Hoffman interrupted the set to give a political speech about the arrest of John Sinclair ; Townshend kicked him off stage , shouting : `` Fuck off my fucking stage ! '' During `` See Me , Feel Me '' , the sun rose almost as if on cue ; Entwistle later said , `` God was our lighting man '' . At the end , Townshend threw his guitar into the audience . The set was professionally recorded and filmed , and portions appear on the Woodstock film , The Old Grey Whistle Test and The Kids Are Alright . Woodstock has been regarded as culturally significant , but the Who were critical of the event . Roadie John `` Wiggie '' Wolff , who arranged the band 's payment , described it as `` a shambles '' . Daltrey declared it as `` the worst gig ever played '' and Townshend said , `` I thought the whole of America had gone mad . '' A more enjoyable appearance came a few weeks later at the second Isle of Wight Festival , which Townshend described as `` a great concert for '' the band . By 1970 , the Who were widely considered one of the best and most popular live rock bands ; Chris Charlesworth described their concerts as `` leading to a kind of rock nirvana that most bands can only dream about '' . They decided a live album would help demonstrate how different the sound at their gigs was to Tommy , and set about listening to the hours of recordings they had accumulated . Townshend baulked at the prospect of doing so , and demanded that all the tapes be burned . Instead , they booked two shows , one in Leeds on 14 February , and one in Hull the following day , with the intention of recording a live album . Technical problems from the Hull gig resulted in the Leeds gig being used , which became Live at Leeds . The album is viewed by several critics including The Independent , The Telegraph and the BBC , as one of the best live rock albums of all time . The Tommy tour included shows in European opera houses and saw the Who become the first rock act to play at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City . In March the Who released the UK top 20 hit `` The Seeker '' , continuing a theme of issuing singles separate to albums . Townshend wrote the song to commemorate the common man , as a contrast to the themes on Tommy . Lifehouse and Who 's Next Tommy secured the Who 's future , and made them millionaires . The group reacted

qf_506--The_Who.txt

"Who duetted with Bryan Adams on the 1985 hit ""It's Only Love""?"

Para Handy , the anglicised Gaelic nickname of the fictional character Peter Macfarlane , is a character created by the journalist and writer Neil Munro in a series of stories published in the Glasgow Evening News between 1905 and 1923 under the pen name of Hugh Foulis . Para Handy is the crafty Gaelic skipper of the Vital Spark , a Clyde puffer ( steamboat ) of the sort that delivered goods from Glasgow to Loch Fyne , the Hebrides , and the west coast highlands of Scotland in the early 20th century . The stories partly focus on his pride in his ship , `` the smertest boat in the tred '' which he considers to be of a class with the Clyde steamers , but mainly tell of the “ High Jinks ” the crew get up to on their travels . He had at least one crossover with Munro 's other popular character , Erchie MacPherson of Erchie , My Droll Friend . The name is an anglicisation of `` Para Shandaidh '' , which means `` Peter ( Paraig ) son of Sandy '' , and he is content to describe himself as `` Chust wan of Brutain 's hardy sons '' . The other principal characters forming the four man crew include Dan Macphail the effete ( very subtly so ) engineer , Dougie the superstitious ship ’ s mate , The Tar ( real name Colin Turner ) the lazy deckhand , and The Tar 's replacement Sunny Jim ( real name Davie Green and cousin to the Tar ) , as the young squeezebox-playing deck hand . Also featured is Hurricane Jack ( real name John Maclachlan ) , Para Handy ’ s rather more outrageous adventurer friend . One inconsistency in the stories is that Dougie the mate has the choice of two surnames - Cameron or Campbell . Key points of friction among the crew are : transporting Ministers ( bad luck ) , transporting gravestones ( bad luck ) , the small boats carrying passengers across the Clyde in Glasgow called the Cluthas ( in Para Handy ’ s view , the lowest of the low in Clyde shipping ) , and Macphail ’ s taste for bodice-ripping women ’ s pulp fiction . Stories The stories are set in the Firth of Clyde , Loch Fyne and occasionally the Western Isles of Scotland . The stories are loved , partly for their very Scottish humour and also for their evocation of a lost era of the life of these coastal communities when they depended completely on the water and not , as now , on road transport and the ferry service . This is a time when Gaelic was still spoken by some as their native language and everyone in the community was known to all , for good or ill . The church ( the kirk ) was much more significant in community life and there is a lot of humour derived from scriptural misquotations which contemporary readers , with their thorough knowledge of the Bible , would have understood . Reference is also made to schisms in the kirk , with the same humour , which could sting those who were over serious in defence of their splinter denomination . To the connoisseur these stories give an insight to the life and attitude of the Firth of Clyde , its tributary sea lochs and the city of Glasgow . They were written as occasional pieces in the `` Looker On '' column in the `` Glasgow Evening News '' and , as such were designed to be recognisable to Glaswegians with Highland backgrounds and also those who were city bred but regularly escaped the smoke to go `` doon the watter '' to the Clyde resorts of Rothesay , Millport , Dunoon and Tighnabruaich . The Vital spark also makes it to Arran and , notably , Loch Fyne which were more adventurous destinations but also accessible to city dwellers by the railway steamers which Para Handy so often envies . Some of the stories were written over the period of the First World War and give insights into the 'home front ' of the time , casting it always in humorous light . This reveals the value of these popular pieces as sources which reflect the life of the community in the Edwardian and WW1 years in the area . Read alongside narrative history of the Western Front they reveal a poignancy . Many of these rural communities could be devastated by a single day 's action in the war , yet the stories were lighthearted . Nevertheless the stories remained popular . Television In addition to the written stories , there have been three television adaptations of the Para Handy tales , all for the BBC : The earlier series updated the stories by giving them a contemporary setting . The last series had an inter-war setting . Theatre * In 1995 Vital Spark Productions toured Scotland with a production of `` A Para Handy Wireless Show '' adapted by Gordon Neish . * The Warehouse in Lossiemouth staged in 2007 a series of three plays , The New Tales of Para Handy , which are now available on DVD . * In 2011 Eden Court & Open Book presented a Scottish Tour of `` Para Handy - A voyage round the stories of Neil Munro '' [ http : //www.parahandytour.co.uk/ http : //www.parahandytour.co.uk ] . This tour began in September 2011 , at the Eden Court theatre ( Inverness ) followed by HMT Aberdeen , Glasgow Theatre Royal and Edinburgh Festival Theatre . Published Collections Para Handy - First Complete Edition : The collected stories from The Vital Spark , In Highland Harbours with Para Handy and Hurricane Jack of The Vital Spark introduced and annotated by Brian D. Osborne & Ronald Armstrong , published by Birlinn Ltd 1992 , ISBN 1-874744-02-5 . This has also been released in audiobook format .

sfq_22454--Para_Handy.txt

Played on TV by Gregor Fisher, whose boat was called The Vital Spark?

The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin is a series of novels that developed into a British sitcom starring Leonard Rossiter in the title role . Both the books and television series were written by David Nobbs , and the screenplay for the first series was adapted by Nobbs from the novel , though subplots in the novel were considered too dark or risqué for television and toned down or omitted , an example being the relationship between Perrin 's daughter and his brother-in-law . The story concerns a middle-aged middle manager , Reginald `` Reggie '' Perrin , who is driven to bizarre behaviour by the pointlessness of his job at Sunshine Desserts . The sitcom proved to be a subversion of others of the era , which were often based on bland middle-class suburban family life . The first novel in the series , The Death of Reginald Perrin , was published in 1975 , with later editions retitled to match the title of the television series . Subsequent novels ( The Return of Reginald Perrin [ 1977 ] and The Better World of Reginald Perrin [ 1978 ] ) were written by Nobbs with the express goal of being adapted into the second and third television series , respectively ; Rossiter did not want to take the series forward unless it continued to be grounded in novels . The original three television series , all of the same name , were broadcast between 1976 and 1979 ; a fourth , The Legacy of Reginald Perrin , also written by Nobbs , followed in 1996 . Series summaries Series One ( 8 September – 20 October 1976 ) The first series was based on Nobbs 's novel The Death of Reginald Perrin , retitled The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin to tie in with the television series . It still retains the replacement title . Reginald Iolanthe Perrin is suffering a mid-life crisis , and tries to escape his dreary life . He lives at 12 Coleridge Close , part of the `` Poets Estate '' in a south London suburb called Climthorpe , a development different from those around it only by having the streets named after famous poets . He commutes to Sunshine Desserts where he works as a sales executive . Each morning he is 11 minutes late ( this increased to 17 then 22 minutes with subsequent series ) yet each morning he gives a different excuse . These become increasingly bizarre ( `` defective junction box , New Malden '' being one of the more plausible ones ; `` escaped puma at Chessington North '' being one of the least ) reflecting the decline of both British Rail and his own mental health . He enters the office building under the `` Sunshine Desserts '' sign which , as the series progresses , loses more and more letters . `` Reggie '' , as he is known , daydreams in Walter Mitty style . Part of the narrative demonstrates what voices in his head are saying . Although he appears to love his wife , he fantasises about his secretary , Joan Greengross . As his behaviour becomes more erratic , he is unable to dictate letters without uttering words like `` breast '' . Far from being offended , Joan welcomes the attention , adjusting her posture to show her figure . The endless marketing campaigns for bizarre products , satirised in reports from the product research department , combine with Reggie 's relations with his oppressive boss `` CJ '' and his yes-man subordinates to drive him over the edge . Ceasing to care about the consequences , he dictates offensive and condescending replies to customers . At home things are no better . Despite his warm relationship with his wife Elizabeth he suffers from impotence . As pressures at work build , relations with his dysfunctional relatives deteriorate , especially with his incompetent brother-in-law Jimmy and son-in-law Tom , a man whose `` political correctness '' emphasises his pomposity . After a few reckless acts , including getting out of his car in the lion enclosure at a safari park , Reggie fakes his suicide by leaving clothes and personal effects on a beach . Before this he sends CJ an anonymous threat containing the words `` blood will flow '' , dumping loganberry essence into a stream while CJ is angling . CJ collapses and the company doctor , Doc Morrisey , pronounces him dead . CJ opens one eye and says , `` You 're fired ! '' Assuming disguises , Reggie encounters more of the banal and pompous side of life . Only as a buck-toothed farm labourer does he find fulfilment working in a sewage park and looking after pigs . Missing his wife , he assumes the identity of Martin Wellbourne , returned from South America , and visits her . He realises he loves her still . Elizabeth , seeing through his disguise , is happy to have him back . Series Two ( 21 September – 2 November 1977 ) In the second series ( novelised as The Return of Reginald Perrin ) , Reggie is tired of being Martin Wellbourne and wants to be Reggie again . He reveals his true identity to his family ( though his wife and daughter already knew ) . When CJ learns from Doc Morrisey that he is Reggie , he sacks them both . Elizabeth goes out to work at Sunshine Desserts and Reggie returns to the pig farm ; but they are both sacked after Reggie ’ s employer learns of his faked suicide and Elizabeth sends a rude letter telling the truth about Sunshine 's products . Reggie then opens a shop called Grot , where he sells useless products like square hoops , round dice and Tom 's wine ( made from sprouts , nettles and the like ) , hoping it will be an interesting failure . However , the products are snapped up as novelties , and Grot becomes a huge success . Reggie relapses into alienation and tries to destroy Grot from within by hiring incompetents , but this backfires as they all display unsuspected talents . Reggie finally resolves to disappear again , this time accompanied by Elizabeth . Series Three ( 29 November 1978 – 24 January 1979 ) In the third series ( novelised as The Better World of Reginald Perrin ) , after seeing two men arguing pointlessly in a queue at the bank , Reggie and his wife open a community called Perrins for the middle-aged middle class , designed to help them become `` better , happier people '' . The project is a success until a group of people who have fallen afoul of the `` Perrins Peace Keeping Force '' trash the place . Reggie is then hired by CJ ’ s brother FJ at Amalgamated Aerosols , working directly under CJ . Reggie instantly returns to his eccentric ways , however , and the final scene shows him contemplating another trip to the Dorset coast . In the third series , the role of Reggie 's son-in-law Tom is played by Leslie Schofield , replacing Tim Preece who had played the role in the first two series . Preece returned to the role for The Legacy of Reginald Perrin ( see below ) . Theresa Watson also became a regular cast member , playing David Harris-Jones ( Bruce Bould ) 's wife Prue , who was mentioned but not seen in previous series . Christmas Sketch ( 26 December 1982 ) In 1982 , as part of a BBC1 sitcom anthology The Funny Side of Christmas , a short sketch featured the regular cast visiting Reggie 's house on Christmas Day . Despite being annoyed at the continual interruption of his colleagues ' arrival , he dispenses presents from beneath his own Christmas tree . In a final scene , we see that Reggie 's living room is empty , even of furniture . The sketch is unrelated to the regular series , which had finished three years earlier in 1979 . The Legacy of Reginald Perrin ( 22 September – 31 October 1996 ) This follow-up series , made more than a decade after Leonard Rossiter 's death , shows Reggie 's legacy : a fortune left to friends and family but with strange conditions . This was seen as a failure by viewers , because the loss of Leonard Rossiter removed some affection for the series and despite a leading man in Geoffrey Palmer , the series lacked a central character . Both book and series were titled The Legacy of Reginald Perrin . In the series , Reggie 's circle of family and friends are told by lawyer Geraldine Hackstraw that each will inherit one million pounds , on the one condition that they do something totally absurd . The nature of their absurd task is left to the individuals , but it is to be judged by Ms Hackstraw . Most of them have fallen on hard times to some extent , having in the main been forced to retire or been made redundant due to their age . After several pathetic solo attempts at being absurd ( including both C.J . and Doc asking out Geraldine ) , the potential legatees decide to pool forces and , with Jimmy as leader , decide to mount a bloodless coup the aim of which is to reverse age roles , with such policies as pensions for the young . The policies are a success – but with the unexpected outcome of losing the money for those involved because , as Geraldine points out , the idea has turned out not to be absurd after all . The series ' characters and actors comprised all of the central characters of the earlier series except Reginald Perrin and Tony Webster ( Trevor Adams ) , and also included Patricia Hodge as Geraldine Hackstraw and Michael Fenton Stevens as Hank . Other versions A short-lived U.S. version was produced and broadcast on ABC in 1983 as Reggie , with Richard Mulligan in the title role . Martin Clunes starred in a BBC revival of the series , titled simply Reggie Perrin . The supporting cast were Fay Ripley , Wendy Craig , Geoffrey Whitehead , Neil Stuke and Lucy Liemann . The series was written by Simon Nye and original series creator David Nobbs . It ran for two series from April 2009 to November 2010 . Background and influence At the end of the first series he fakes suicide by leaving his clothes on a beach in Dorset and running into the sea . Coincidentally , John Stonehouse MP faked his own death in this manner shortly before the book was published , although neither was inspired by the other : the novel was written before Stonehouse 's faked suicide in November 1974 but not published until 1975 . The phrase `` do a Reggie Perrin '' did enter the vernacular , however , assisted by the Stonehouse affair . The series introduced catchphrases that entered popular culture in the UK , including Perrin 's reflexive apology for a late arrival at the office , his boss C.J . 's `` I did n't get where I am today ... '' ; the fawning junior executives Tony Webster and David Harris-Jones with their alternating `` great/super '' ; and Perrin 's brother-in-law Major Jimmy Anderson , an army officer with no grasp of organisation or leadership , coming to eat because of a `` bit of a cock-up on the catering front '' ( caused in the original novel by his wife 's alcoholism ) . The first series included the character of Mark Perrin , Reggie 's son , played by David Warwick . However , David Nobbs felt he diverted the comedy from Reggie , so he was written out by going on tour with a theatre group in Africa . Although mainly produced on video and shot on studio sets , the series also incorporated innovative surreal escapism through film inserts , notably during scenes in which , whenever his mother-in-law is mentioned , Reggie visualises a hippopotamus trotting along . Writer David Nobbs went on to create the Channel 4 comedy series Fairly Secret Army , whose lead character , Harry , was inspired by , if not directly related to , the Perrin character of Jimmy , and also played by Geoffrey Palmer . Cast * Reginald Iolanthe Perrin : Leonard Rossiter * Elizabeth Perrin , his wife : Pauline Yates * Mark Perrin , their son : David Warwick ( Series One only ) * Linda Patterson , their daughter : Sally-Jane Spencer * Tom Patterson , her husband : Tim Preece ( first two series and Legacy ) and Leslie Schofield ( third series ) ( Catchphrase : `` I 'm not a —— person . '' ) * Joan Greengross , his secretary : Sue Nicholls * CJ ( Charles Jefferson ) , his boss : John Barron ( who also played CJ 's brother FJ ) . CJ is much given to Dundrearyisms and pompous statements beginning `` I did n't get where I am today by ... '' – except when Reggie becomes his boss , whereupon he says `` I did n't get where you are today by ... '' ; also `` Neither Mrs CJ nor I have ever ... '' and `` We 're not one of those dreadful firms that ... '' * Tony Webster , `` Great ! `` : Trevor Adams * David Harris-Jones , `` Super ! `` : Bruce Bould * Jimmy Anderson , Elizabeth 's brother : Geoffrey Palmer ( Catchphrase : `` Bit of a cock up on the —— front . '' ) * Doc Morrissey , company doctor at Sunshine Desserts : John Horsley * Seamus Finnegan , `` a poor tongue-tied labourer from the land of the bogs and the little people '' with an unrecognised genius for management : Derry Power ( Series Two and Three only ) * Kenny McBlane , Scottish Chef at Perrin 's : Joseph Brady ( Series Three only ) * Prue Harris-Jones , wife of David Harris-Jones : Theresa Watson ( Series Three and Legacy only ) DVD releases Locations Exterior views of the Perrin residence – 12 Coleridge Close , in the fictional suburb Climthorpe – were shot at 6 Beaufort Close , Ealing , W5 . Reggie 's walk to work was shot on the corner of Audley Road and The Ridings and on the corner of Ashbourne Close . All three roads are within about 100 yards of one another . Many exterior scenes were filmed at sites in Cheltenham including Eldorado Road and the Beehive public house . The Sunshine Desserts office building is at 32–36 Telford Way , Acton . ( now demolished ) Reggie 's faked suicide , which formed part of the title sequence , occurred at West Bay , Dorset , with the East Cliff visible in the very opening shot . The first episode begins with commuters making their way to Norbiton railway station in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames . The morning train 's constant lateness in the earlier series is usually blamed on incidents at actual stations along the railway from Norbiton and Kingston to Waterloo .

qz_6607--The_Fall_and_Rise_of_Reginald_Perrin.txt

What animal did Reggie Perrin think of every time his Mother-in-law was mentioned?