Datasets:

Jingmei

/

Pandemic_Wiki

like 0

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Ramazan_Sarı/html

Ramazan Sarı

Ramazan İshak Sarı is a Turkish freestyle wrestler competing in the 79 kg division. He is a member of Ankara Aski. In 2021, he won the gold medal in the men's 79 kg event at the 2021 European U23 Wrestling Championship held in Skopje, North Macedonia. He won the silver medal in the 79 kg event at the 2021 U23 World Wrestling Championships held in Belgrade, Serbia. He lost his bronze medal match in the men's 79 kg event at the 2024 European Wrestling Championships held in Bucharest, Romania.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Walinong_Sari/html

Walinong Sari

In Pahang Malay folklore , Walinong Sari ( Jawi : ÙˆØ§Ù„ÙŠÙ†ÙˆÚ Ø³Ø§Ø±ÙŠ) was a legendary princess of Inderapura renowned for her beauty and fighting skills. The tale of the princess was immortalized in a folk song named after her.Princess Walinong Sari was said to have lived in Inderapura, in the Old Pahang Kingdom . She is described as an exceptionally beautiful princess with a strong character. Highly skilled with spears and swords, she was renowned for her mastery of silat , the Malay martial art. As the tales of her beauty and skills spread across the neighboring kingdoms, many came to ask for her hand in marriage, but the princess found none of them acceptable. Her father became worried about finding a suitable husband for his daughter. At the same time, the celestial king, Raja Mambang Segara, whose abode was also Mount Tahan , heard of the princess. He was intrigued by her stories and decided to find out the truth about her. Disguised as an ugly man, he came down from the mountain to look for her. When he finally got an audience with the princess, Raja Mambang Segara found that she kept her face covered with a veil all the time. He decided to test her silat skills by challenging her to a duel, claiming that he could defeat her. This was a challenge the princess could not resist for she had never lost a fight. At an agreed time and place, the duel started. As both of them were equally good warriors, the duel prolonged for three days and three nights. But at the end of the third day, the princess's veil fell off, exposing her extraordinary beauty to Raja Mambang Segara for the first time. The king was instantly stunned by her beauty, and immediately fainted. When they washed him, his true appearance emerged and Princess Walinong Sari fell in love with him. But when the celestial king's father, Raja Laksamana Petir, saw the events unfold from the peak of Mount Tahan, he became very angry, for no celestial being could faint or lose a fight with a mere mortal beauty. He threw bolts of thunder and lightning at Inderapura, and, when the storm was over, Raja Mambang Segara had disappeared into thin air. Later that night, Princess Walinong Sari had a dream, in which a wise man told her that Raja Mambang Segara was the celestial king of Mount Tahan. After she awoke the next day, she disappeared from the palace to look for her beloved, never to be seen again. The story is referenced in the folk song Walinong Sari . Among the earliest contemporary renditions of the song was by Rafeah Buang who included the song in her album Bingkisan dari Pahang which she dedicated solely to Pahang folk songs. Another famous rendition was by Siti Nurhaliza , who included the song in her duet album, Seri Balas (1999).

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari-inspired_dress/html

Sari-inspired dress

A sari-inspired dress incorporates attributes of the Indian sari into its design. This includes how it drapes, its embellishment and colours. In 1917, a sari-inspired dress appeared in the silent movie The Gown of Destiny . Following Jacqueline Kennedy's goodwill tour of India and Pakistan in 1962, when she had brought back several saris with the intention to make them into dresses, for a short while the sari-inspired dress gained enough interest to inspire several designers including Wesley Tann and Oleg Cassini to design dresses based on the sari. Other designers that have produced variations of the design include Dolce and Gabbana , Catherine Walker , Valentino , Marc Jacobs , Louis Vuitton and Alexander McQueen . Kennedy wore Cassini's light-pink chiffon, sari-inspired dress to the opening of the Mona Lisa exhibition in Washington in 1963, and later that year wore it again when hosting a state dinner for Indian President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan . When Princess Diana met the King of Thailand in 1988, she wore Walker's fuchsia and violet sari-inspired silk chiffon dress. In 1996 Elle supported their opinion of the sari-inspired dress by publishing an image of a woman looking down and stroking her embroidered black chiffon sari-inspired gown. In later years, other celebrities seen in sari-inspired dresses have included Jennifer Lopez , Freida Pinto , Sonam Kapoor , Jessica Chastain , and Archie Panjabi in a sari-gown embedded with colour changing LEDs .A sari-inspired dress incorporates attributes of the Indian sari into its design. This includes how it drapes, its embellishment and colours. Fashion designers that have produced variations of the design include Wesley Tann , Marc Jacobs , Alexander McQueen , Dolce and Gabbana , Valentino , Armani , Marchesa , Elsa Schiaparelli , Germana Marucelli , Madame Grès , Marcel Rochas , Gianni Versace , Jean Paul Gaultier and Carolina Herrera . A sari-inspired dress appeared in the silent movie The Gown of Destiny (1917). In the film, the fictional character Mr Reyton leaves his mistress after noticing how beautiful his wife looks wearing the sari-inspired dress. The late 1930s sari-inspired designs of Schiaparelli, inspired by Princess Karam , would later inspire the gilt leather decorated black crêpe dress by Christian Bérard and Nada Patcevitch . Following Jacqueline Kennedy's goodwill tour of India and Pakistan in 1962, when she had brought back several saris with the intention to make them into dresses, for a short while the sari-inspired dress gained enough interest to inspire several designers including Wesley Tann to design dresses based from the sari. Tann produced several dresses using saris including two which featured in The New York Times and became available at Henri Bendel ; a turquoise and gold silk Chanel -style suit and a two-piece red and gold dress. Joseph Horne Co. stocked several of Tann's sari-inspired dress. In 1963, Oleg Cassini made Kennedy a light-pink, sari-inspired dress to wear at the opening of the Mona Lisa exhibition in Washington 8 January 1963. It was based on a Howell Conant photograph of the yellow chiffon sari-inspired dress worn by Audrey Hepburn the previous year and was made using pink chiffon and decorated with porcelain beads and diamante . On 3 June 1963, she wore it again when hosting a state dinner for Indian President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan . In 1967 Kennedy wore a sari-inspired Valentino gown to a dinner at the Chamcar Mon Palace in Phnom Penh , Cambodia. When Princess Diana met the King of Thailand on 4 February 1988, she wore a fuchsia and violet sari-inspired silk chiffon dress, designed by Catherine Walker . According to Versace, Elizabeth Hurley's famous Versace black dress , which she wore in 1994, developed from the sari. The magazine Elle gave the sari coverage in 1996 when it featured outfits "with an Eastern influence". Elle called them "utterly delectable", "so exquisite" and "they come off best without any extra adornment". They supported their opinion by publishing an image of a woman looking down and stroking her embroidered black chiffon sari-inspired full-length dress with a gold lace border. In 2003 Jennifer Lopez wore a mint green Valentino dress to the Oscars. It left one shoulder bare, was sari-styled and was based on the dress worn by Kennedy on the Cambodia visit in 1967. In 2010 Marc Jacobs collaborated with Louis Vuitton to release a line of sari-inspired dresses made from vintage Indian saris. In 2012 Jessica Chastain wore an Alexander McQueen black sari-inspired dress to the Academy Awards. Mustafa Hassanali 's gowns are frequently sari-inspired. Other celebrities featured in sari-inspired dresses have included Freida Pinto in a black and gold gown. Sonam Kapoor walked the red carpet at Cannes in 2016 wearing a white sari-inspired figure-hugging large volume gown. The following year, in Paris, she modelled Gaultier's sari-inspired adaptation of the tuxedo . At the Vogue Women of the Year Awards in 2017, the host Archie Panjabi , wore a sari-gown embedded with colour changing LEDs , designed by Gaurav Gupta and IBM Watson .

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Halit_Özgür_Sarı/html

Halit Özgür Sarı

Actor model Halit Özgür Sarı (born 4 October 1993 [ unreliable source? ] ) is a Turkish actor and model. Halit Özgür Sarı was born in 1993 in Istanbul. He said in an interview that he has Arab blood from his mother side , his grandfather is of Arab descent who immigrated from Aleppo . He graduated from the Istanbul Bilgi University , Department of Economics after graduating from high school. Halit modelled in his high school and college years and became the face of many brands. He further learnt acting from the Turkish actress Esra Kızıldoğan at the Basic and Advanced Acting Craft Studio during these years in front of the camera with the help of Enginay Kanat. In 2018, Sarı began his career in the TV series, Diriliş: Ertuğrul , broadcast on TRT 1 created by Mehmet Bozdağ , with the role of 'Süleyman Alp', son of Selcan Hatun. He later gave life to the character of 'Arif' in the Netflix original series, The Protector in 2020, and later took part in Şampiyon [ tr ] ( transl. Champion ) as 'Kerem' which he is mostly known for also broadcast on TRT 1. He also played the role of 'Klinik Müdürü Murat' in the TV series Kırmızı Oda ( transl. The Red Room ) broadcast on TV8 . He is known for appearing in big projects in such a short period of time. Sarı is a strict fan of the football club, Fenerbahçe and he also expressed that he had a dream of being an astronaut when he was little. He also says that he sleeps too much and only wakes up when he is told too but is never late for anything. He is followed by 2 million people on Instagram .

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Bolagh/html

Sari Bolagh

Sari Bolagh ( Persian: ساري بلاغ ) may refer to:

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Laila_Sari/html

Laila Sari

Rock Children's Singer actress Hajjah Laila Sari (born Nur Laila Sari Jahrotuljannah ; 4 November 1935 [lower-alpha 1] – 20 November 2017) was an Indonesian comedian and singer of rock and children's songs. She has been nicknamed the "energetic old lady" ( nenek-nenek lincah ) for her on-stage persona. Sari was born Nurlaila Sari Jahrotuljannah in Padang Panjang , West Sumatra , on 4 November 1935. Her father died when she was two, and the following year her grandparents took her from her singer mother Amak to live on Java . There, she was raised in a devout Muslim environment. She went back to live her mother and new stepfather at the age of nine, then — after a period disapproving of her mother's singing career for religious reasons and studying ballet — began singing as an easy way to earn money. She made her debut by singing at a wedding party in Pontianak , West Kalimantan with her parents. Sari continued to perform in concerts, although she did not release any albums during her career. She performed for soldiers and President Sukarno often invited her to perform during Independence Day celebrations at the Presidential Palace. As she became more famous throughout the archipelago, she found herself increasingly sought after by men seeking romance; in a 2010 interview with The Jakarta Globe , Sari recalled that at times they fought over her. In 1955 she appeared in her first film. Three years later, she was banned from performing in Bekasi and Karawang (both in West Java ) when committees of women feared she would steal their husbands. In 1960, Sari married a Dutchman named Boertje (Indonesian: Murdadi Iskandar), who was five years her junior. As Sari was infertile, the two adopted a child. Sari continued to act, including playing Slamet Rahardjo 's love interest in Teguh Karya 's 1971 film Wadjah Seorang Laki-Laki ( The Face of a Boy ). In 1993, Boertje had a stroke and Sari cut back on her singing and acting to tend to him and her ailing mother; to fund the medical treatment, she sold her cars and second house in Cengkareng , West Jakarta . Bertje died in 2000, a week after Sari's mother. After several offers to go on the Hajj —- the pilgrimage to Mecca mandatory to able-bodied Muslims — she eventually accepted an offer by actress Desy Ratnasari and her family, who were going that year; Ratnasari covered all expenses incurred during the trip, while Sari managed to do some commercials to have extra money for her family. Since then, Sari played comedic roles on television; she also spends time entertaining the elderly at nursing homes. In May 2005 she won a lifetime achievement award from the Inspiring Women Awards in Jakarta. She lived with her family, including her great-granddaughter, in Tangkiwood, West Jakarta; they lived in poverty. Laila Sari died on 20 November 2017 from undisclosed causes, aged 82.Since her debut, Sari has worn mainly modest clothing. While singing, she used exaggerated movements and wore a kain (similar to a sarong ), long sleeved shirt, and headscarf. While performing on variety shows, she preferred brightly coloured wigs and children's dress. During her career, Sari has performed in more than 20 films. Dinamika ( Dynamics ; 1955) Peristiwa 10 November ( 10 November Incident ; 1956) Singa Betina dari Marunda ( The Lioness from Marunda ; 1971) Wadjah Seorang Laki-Laki ( The Face of a Boy ; 1971) Warung Pojok ( Corner Store ; 1977) Pulau Putri ( Woman Island ; 1977) Inem Nyonya Besar ( Inem the Big Mistress ; 1977) Tuan Besar ( Big Man ; 1977) Sinyo Adi (1977) Kembang Semusim ( A Season's Flower ; 1980) Juara Cilik ( Young Champion ; 1980) Ketika Cinta Harus Memilih ( When Love Must Choose ; 1981) Halimun (1982) Ke Ujung Dunia ( To the Ends of the Earth ; 1983) Tante Garang ( Fierce Aunt ; 1983) Kelainan Cinta ( Forgetful in Love ; 1983) Perempuan Kedua ( Second Woman ; 1990) Lupus IV (1990) Amrin Membolos ( Amrin Plays Hooky ; 1996) Anda Puas, Saya Loyo ( You're Satisfied, I'm Exhausted ; 2008) Cinlok ( Love on Location ; 2008) Anak Ajaib ( Magic Child ; 2008) Hantu Tanah Kusir ( Ghost of Tanah Kusir ; 2010)

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Baldauf/html

Sari Baldauf

Sari Maritta Baldauf (born 10 August 1955 in Kotka , Finland ) is a Finnish businesswoman who is chairwoman of the board of directors of Nokia . She joined the board in 2018 and became vice chair in 2019, before she succeeded Risto Siilasmaa as chairwoman in 2020. Until 2005, she was head of Nokia's Networks Business Group.Baldauf graduated as a Master of Business Administration from Helsinki School of Economics . She received honorary doctorates in Technology (from Helsinki University of Technology ) and Business Administration (from Turku School of Economics and Aalto University School of Business ) in 1979, and joined Nokia in 1983. She was selected into Nokia's Group Executive Board in 1994.Baldauf was selected as the most influential female executive in the year 1998 by Fortune . In 2002, the Wall Street Journal named her as Europe's most successful female executive. On December 3, 2004 Baldauf announced that she would resign from Nokia for personal reasons. She is or was a member of a number of executive boards of Finnish and international companies including Fortum , Capman , F-Secure , Hewlett-Packard and Daimler . In 2011, she replaced Matti Lehti as chairman of the board at the electrical utility company in Finland, Fortum , making her the first female chairman of a major Finnish company. She left the Fortum board in 2018. She is also a Member of the Board of Directors of Aalto University Foundation and the think tank Demos Helsinki.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Veysel_Sarı/html

Veysel Sarı

Veysel Sarı (born 25 July 1988) is a Turkish professional footballer who plays as a right back for Süper Lig club Antalyaspor .On 4 February 2014, Veysel joined Galatasaray signing a contract which will keep him at the club until 2018. He made his debut against Tokatspor on 5 February 2014, netting a goal, in a 3–0 win for the campaign 's Turkish Cup . Veysel made his league debut on 8 February 2014 against his former team Eskişehirspor , coming in as a substitute in a 3–0 win home. On 4 February 2014, Veysel joined Galatasaray signing a contract which will keep him at the club until 2018. He made his debut against Tokatspor on 5 February 2014, netting a goal, in a 3–0 win for the campaign 's Turkish Cup . Veysel made his league debut on 8 February 2014 against his former team Eskişehirspor , coming in as a substitute in a 3–0 win home. On 28 May 2013, Veysel was selected for the first time to full team by coach Abdullah Avci , for friendly games against Slovenia and Latvia .Scores and results table. Turkey's goal tally first:Galatasaray

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Qayah/html

Sari Qayah

Sari Qayah or Sari Qayeh or Sariqayeh ( Persian: ساري قيه ) may refer to:

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Kees/html

Sari Kees

Sari Kees (born 17 February 2001) is a Belgian footballer who plays as a defender for Belgian Women's Super League club Oud-Heverlee Leuven and the Belgium national team .Kees started her youth career as a goalkeeper at SP Budingen. At age 10, she joined OH Leuven , and further developed as a central defender throughout their youth teams for the next eight seasons. [ citation needed ] On 12 June 2019, it was announced that Kees joined Racing Genk for one season, becoming a team regular there. Kees returned to OH Leuven again in April 2020, scoring the winning goal in their 1–0 win against defending champions Anderlecht in March 2022. Leuven ended in second place behind Anderlecht for three straight seasons, from 2020-21 to 2022-23. [ citation needed ] Kees stated that her ambitions for the coming years are becoming a full-time member of the national team, and earning a transfer to a foreign club. [ citation needed ]Kees is a member of the national team since the under-15s . As a central defender, she played for the under-19s in the UEFA U19 Championship in 2019 in their group matches against Spain , Germany and England . Kees made her debut for the Belgium national team on 16 February 2022, in a 4–0 win against Slovakia in the Pinatar Cup in Spain.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Šariš_Brewery/html

Šariš Brewery

Šariš Brewery ( Slovak : Pivovar Šariš ) is the largest brewery in Slovakia , located in Veľký Šariš near Prešov . Since January 1, 2007, the company Pivovary Topvar has operated in Slovakia, which is the combination of the existing breweries Pivovar Šariš and Topvar. Šariš Brewery was sold to Asahi Breweries of Japan on December 13, 2016. Asahi Breweries owns 100% of the shares of Pivovary Topvar. Šariš Brewery was founded in 1964. The first litres of Šariš beer were brewed on May 26, 1967. Between 1997 and 2017 the brewery was part of global brewing giant SABMiller . This beer or brewery -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Hanafi/html

Sari Hanafi

Sari Hanafi is currently a professor of sociology at the American University of Beirut and chair of the Islamic Studies program. He is the president of the International Sociological Association and also the editor of Idafat: the Arab Journal of Sociology (Arabic). In 2018, Hanafi founded "Athar", the Portal for Social impact of scientific research in/on the Arab world.A Syrian - Palestinian , Hanafi studied engineering and got his BS in civil engineering from Damascus University (1984). Hanafi moved to social sciences later on and studied sociology from the same university where he got a BA in 1987. He then attended University of Strasbourg where he received a master's degree in 1989 under the supervision of Philippe Breton . In 1994, Hanafi finally got a PhD from the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales , Paris , where he wrote his thesis entitled Les ingénieurs en Syrie: Modernisation, technobureaucratie et identité . He was the vice president of the board of the Arab Council of Social Science (2015-2016). He holds a Ph.D. in sociology from the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales-Paris (School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences) (1994). He has also served as a visiting professor/fellow at the University of Poitiers and Migrintern and the Fondation Maison des Sciences de l'Homme (France), University of Bologna and Ravenna (Italy), Chr. Michelsen Institute (Bergen-Norway), Doha Institute for Graduate Studies. Hanafi was also a former senior researcher at the Cairo-based French research center, Centre d'études et de documentation économique juridique et sociale (1994-2000). He is the author of numerous journal articles and book chapters on the sociology of religion, sociology of (forced) migration; politics of scientific research; civil society, elite formation and transitional justice. Among his recent books are: Addressing the rupture between the religious and social sciences:He has served as a visiting professor at the University of Poitiers and Migrintern, France , University of Bologna and Ravenna, Italy , and a visiting fellow in CMI, Bergen , Norway . Hanafi is also the former director of the Palestinian Refugee and Diaspora Centre (Shaml) from 2000 to 2004, and a former senior research at the Cairo-based French research center, Centre d'études et de documentation économique juridique et sociale (CEDEJ) from 1994 to 2000. In addition to his academic work, Hanafi has served as a consultant to the UN , the World Bank , and other organizations.Hanafi has engaged in a wide range of research activities and conducted in-depth research on different topics, including knowledge production, religious discourse and curriculum, migration. Priorly, he focused largely on refugee camps in the Arab world. His current field of expertise encompasses the domains of political sociology, the sociology of knowledge and the sociology of religion. Predominantly ethnographic in nature, Hanafi's research methodology involves participant observation techniques, qualitative interviews, and focus groups, but also more quantitative such as survey and network analysis. His H-Index in Google Scholar is 29 which is considered very high for sociology and his citations are at 5193 (for all years) and 3357 (since 2014). In addition to these longer pieces above, he has published 21 book review (five of which were published in two languages) and 71 op-eds and interviews, mainly in local and regional newspapers, as well as policy reports in Arabic, English and French. Hanafi has co-authored book with Rigas Arvanitis, Knowledge Production in the Arab World: The Impossible Promise (2015). The book received six reviews and a published debate in al-Mustaqbal al-Arabi between three scholars in the field of knowledge production: Antoun Zahlan, Adnan al-Amin and Mustafa al-Teer. The book addresses the knowledge production crisis in the Arab world, as well as the problem in the translation of knowledge into public awareness and policy. As a result of the book, Hanafi has encouraged the translation of scholarly works into Arabic, in an attempt to revitalize local and regional deliberation on societal issues. Hanafi has observed that Arab Eastern scholars fall into the trap of publishing globally and perishing locally, or publishing locally and perishing globally, thus highlighting the need to bridge the gap between these two trends. Hanafi's other research interests encompass political philosophy, political sociology, and the sociology of migration, covering different issues related to the Palestinian refugees and diaspora, and beyond. In these fields, Julie Peteet of Louisville University acknowledged in her 2007 article that Hanafi is the first scholar to conceptualize the Palestinians abroad as a Palestinian diaspora. In the same vein, his conceptualization of the camp as a space of exception has been widely cited in academic and policy works. In addition, Hanafi is a research director of the program "Policy and Governance in Palestinian Refugee Camps" at the Issam Fares Institute for Public Policy and International Affairs (IFI), and has facilitated these public and policy aspects. His tasks have been to follow-up the first stage of the research on governance on the refugee camps in Lebanon. This research project aims to clarify the relationship between power, sovereignty and space in Palestinian refugee camps in the Arab East, during 2009–2010. This research project resulted in many publications in English, French and Arabic, including a working paper in Arabic and English. Hanafi also took part in a multi-disciplinary research team on "Poverty assessment and targeting projects for Palestinian refugees living in Lebanon." The research team is composed of AUB faculty (a sociologist, a nutritionist, a public health specialist, and an economist) and headed by economist Dr. Jad Shaaban. In his article "Explaining spacio-cide in the Palestinian territory", Hanafi declared that his lived experience felt like what he called "spacio-cide". He lived in the West Bank (part of the Occupied Palestinian territories) in the time of the second intifada where the Israeli colonial authorities have transformed the West Bank into very small Bantustans where people live within an area of few kilometers square. He felt claustrophobic. This leads him to dig into political philosophy (such as Foucault , Agamben ) to help him to understand everyday colonial Israeli practices in grape the Palestinian land and to makes the Palestinian territories almost unlivable place. From here he forged the concept of spacio-cide. Hanafi argues that the Israeli colonial project is 'spacio-cidal' (as opposed to genocidal) in that it targets land for the purpose of rendering inevitable the 'voluntary' transfer of the Palestinian population primarily by targeting the space upon which the Palestinian people live. The spacio-cide is a deliberate ideology with unified rational, albeit dynamic process because it is in constant interaction with the emerging context and the actions of the Palestinian resistance. By describing and questioning different aspects of the military-judicial-civil apparatuses, this article examines how the realization of the spacio-cidal project becomes possible through a regime that deploys three principles, namely: the principle of colonization, the principle of separation, and the state of exception that mediates between these two seemingly contradictory principles.Hanafi has co-authored book with Rigas Arvanitis, Knowledge Production in the Arab World: The Impossible Promise (2015). The book received six reviews and a published debate in al-Mustaqbal al-Arabi between three scholars in the field of knowledge production: Antoun Zahlan, Adnan al-Amin and Mustafa al-Teer. The book addresses the knowledge production crisis in the Arab world, as well as the problem in the translation of knowledge into public awareness and policy. As a result of the book, Hanafi has encouraged the translation of scholarly works into Arabic, in an attempt to revitalize local and regional deliberation on societal issues. Hanafi has observed that Arab Eastern scholars fall into the trap of publishing globally and perishing locally, or publishing locally and perishing globally, thus highlighting the need to bridge the gap between these two trends.Hanafi's other research interests encompass political philosophy, political sociology, and the sociology of migration, covering different issues related to the Palestinian refugees and diaspora, and beyond. In these fields, Julie Peteet of Louisville University acknowledged in her 2007 article that Hanafi is the first scholar to conceptualize the Palestinians abroad as a Palestinian diaspora. In the same vein, his conceptualization of the camp as a space of exception has been widely cited in academic and policy works. In addition, Hanafi is a research director of the program "Policy and Governance in Palestinian Refugee Camps" at the Issam Fares Institute for Public Policy and International Affairs (IFI), and has facilitated these public and policy aspects. His tasks have been to follow-up the first stage of the research on governance on the refugee camps in Lebanon. This research project aims to clarify the relationship between power, sovereignty and space in Palestinian refugee camps in the Arab East, during 2009–2010. This research project resulted in many publications in English, French and Arabic, including a working paper in Arabic and English. Hanafi also took part in a multi-disciplinary research team on "Poverty assessment and targeting projects for Palestinian refugees living in Lebanon." The research team is composed of AUB faculty (a sociologist, a nutritionist, a public health specialist, and an economist) and headed by economist Dr. Jad Shaaban. In his article "Explaining spacio-cide in the Palestinian territory", Hanafi declared that his lived experience felt like what he called "spacio-cide". He lived in the West Bank (part of the Occupied Palestinian territories) in the time of the second intifada where the Israeli colonial authorities have transformed the West Bank into very small Bantustans where people live within an area of few kilometers square. He felt claustrophobic. This leads him to dig into political philosophy (such as Foucault , Agamben ) to help him to understand everyday colonial Israeli practices in grape the Palestinian land and to makes the Palestinian territories almost unlivable place. From here he forged the concept of spacio-cide. Hanafi argues that the Israeli colonial project is 'spacio-cidal' (as opposed to genocidal) in that it targets land for the purpose of rendering inevitable the 'voluntary' transfer of the Palestinian population primarily by targeting the space upon which the Palestinian people live. The spacio-cide is a deliberate ideology with unified rational, albeit dynamic process because it is in constant interaction with the emerging context and the actions of the Palestinian resistance. By describing and questioning different aspects of the military-judicial-civil apparatuses, this article examines how the realization of the spacio-cidal project becomes possible through a regime that deploys three principles, namely: the principle of colonization, the principle of separation, and the state of exception that mediates between these two seemingly contradictory principles.Hanafi's approach to sociology has been greatly influenced by changes triggered by the Arab uprisings since 2011. These uprisings may have politically failed in many Arab countries, but nonetheless have succeed to produce a cognitive revolution. Being a member of the French, Lebanese, Syrian and Palestinian Sociological Associations, as well as different regional and international associations, and having spent several years researching the production of knowledge, Hanafi believes in the internationalization of sociology so long as it is also anchored in local contexts. And at the same time, in being wary of antagonistic binary categories such as tradition/modernity, East/West, universalism/contextualism, he organized a large international conference of 55 participants under the title Sociologies in Dialogue (Fourth ISA Conference of the Council of National Associations) and co-edited a (2020). For Hanafi, several sociological concepts claim universality, such in human rights, democracy and gender equality. Yet, he sets three conditions for a concept to be a universal: the first being that it must be the outcome of a quasi-cross-cultural consensus, and not a mere export of values embedded in the Euro-American context. Second, it is not a teleological concept, but a historical experience that gets its meaning and normativity as a result of a collective historical learning process (inherently open-ended). Third, its universality is impossible except as an imaginary; a general wide flexible concept, not a model to be exported. While he has found postcolonial theory useful in understanding our modernity, and especially knowledge production, his approach now is to criticize postcolonial studies as a discourse, specifically how it has been projected in the Arab region. The intersection between the social sciences and postcolonial studies has not been without its problems, and reflects a growing crisis within some sectors of the Arab left, namely those who espouse postcolonialism as a singular perspective. He highlights two features of such discourse being the excessive way anti-imperialists and anti-Western. He suggests this postcolonial approach should be complemented by what he calls an anti-authoritarian approach. While there are many possible paths for sociology to follow in addressing all the social, economic, political, and ecological challenges of our modernity, Hanafi sets in motion two directions for a global sociology: supplementing the postcolonial approach with an anti-authoritarian one, and theorizing post-secular society. Beyond discussing this in many keynote speeches, he published his vision in the ISA newsletter Global Dialog as a short article (2000 words) in 14 languages, and thus it was widely discussed internationally. A more in-depth version, taking into account all the comments he received, was published in Current Sociology. Current research He currently deals mainly with two topics: first, a continuation of his work on knowledge production and knowledge used in the region, through his work with the Issam Fares Institute on "social impact of scientific research." To this end, he launched the Portal for Social Impact of Scientific Research in/on the Arab World (Athar) in March 2018. Second, he investigates the rupture between social science and religious knowledge, and the spaces in which they coexist. His current analysis of religious discourse and curriculum in several Arab countries reveals an urgent need to work with diverse constituencies, including religious ones. Fieldworks were conducted in Morocco, Jordan and Lebanon. He will soon publish his book Addressing the rupture between the religious and social sciences: Is the morning coming soon? (Kuwait: Nohood, 2021). Hanafi's work on public sociology has been focused on a central question: How can sociology matter beyond the structures of the academic journal? Hanafi has stated that he believes that good scientists are not always popular, and yet he is an advocate of greater involvement of academics and universities in their local societies and the acknowledgement of different regimes of knowledge. In this context, he cites Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff's concept of the Triple Helix of university-industry-government relationships but states that it has ceded its place to the Quad Helix, as there is a missing link with civil society. Civil society, for him, is playing a major role in using knowledge produced within the university and in generating knowledge-based debates in public sphere, including religious spaces, where social science has historically been unable to penetrate, and at times openly hostile. These encounters are not only salient in helping civil society, but they bring faculty research into conversation with the public. He thus advocates for this dual conversation, and a reciprocal relationship where a meaningful dialogue would take place, fostering mutual learning that not only strengthens public knowledge but also enriches research work itself and help set relevant research agendas. Many of his research projects, and his involvement in the IFI program 'Policy and Governance in Palestinian Refugee Camps,' were a sort of action-research. There, he experienced what he called "Complex entanglements: Moving from professional to public sociology in the Arab world". Through these projects, he worked with various organizations of Palestinian and Lebanese civil societies, popular committees, and political factions to improve mainly the governance in the Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon and the Arab East at large. Another purpose was to raise many issues about different modes of knowledge production and public sociology. The Portal for Social Impact of Scientific Research in/on the Arab World (Athar) that he founded was an instrumental tool in this regard. Being a Palestinian refugee, he has been active in empowering the Palestinian refugee communities. He was one of the main organizers of a March for the Palestinian Civil and Socio-economic rights in Lebanon on June 27, 2010. Around 5,000 people participated in this march coming from all refugee camps but also from Lebanese localities such as al-Shuf Mountain towards the Lebanese Parliament in Beirut. He also frequently give lectures in the Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon, the Occupied Palestinian territories, and Syria, and participate in empowering these communities by providing them with free consultation, and attending some of their organizational meetings. Furthermore, Hanafi founded in 2005 the monthly Sociology Café, which aims at creating a forum for informal discussions between students, professors and the public on critical issues related to life in Lebanon and the region. Hanafi's research focused on four types of research activities (professional, critical, public and policy), however, he states that said work is challenged by the double delegitimization of social science by the authoritarian political elite and some religious authorities. To illustrate that, he carried out ethnographic research on the Palestinian refugees in Lebanon (governmentality in the refugee camps, reconstruction of Nahr el-Bared camp, civil and socio-economic rights). The outcome was not only published in international academic journals but also in Arabic and in local newspapers. This steered local debates that denounced in the same times and in varying degree the Lebanese authority and the Palestinian political factions. The research was followed by a large demonstration for the Palestinian refugee rights in different localities in Lebanon. Moreover, he participated in a Palestinian negotiation team to change the Lebanese discriminatory laws. This research also critiqued some scholars who overlook the socio-economic rights of the Palestinian refugees claiming that this would undermine the right of return. Those scholars, in the name of the political exception of the refugee camps, "theorized" keeping the camp in a misery as an urban exceptional space. Practicing public and policy sociology is indeed not an easy enterprise he started publishing exclusively in English and French as professional research before being evolved toward more complex forms of traditional and organic public sociology. Here he faced another problem how to conduct public research without losing its critical edge, even toward the deprived groups such as the Palestinian refugees, it seeks to protect. The moral of his story could be good scientists are not always popular.Hanafi's work on public sociology has been focused on a central question: How can sociology matter beyond the structures of the academic journal? Hanafi has stated that he believes that good scientists are not always popular, and yet he is an advocate of greater involvement of academics and universities in their local societies and the acknowledgement of different regimes of knowledge. In this context, he cites Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff's concept of the Triple Helix of university-industry-government relationships but states that it has ceded its place to the Quad Helix, as there is a missing link with civil society. Civil society, for him, is playing a major role in using knowledge produced within the university and in generating knowledge-based debates in public sphere, including religious spaces, where social science has historically been unable to penetrate, and at times openly hostile. These encounters are not only salient in helping civil society, but they bring faculty research into conversation with the public. He thus advocates for this dual conversation, and a reciprocal relationship where a meaningful dialogue would take place, fostering mutual learning that not only strengthens public knowledge but also enriches research work itself and help set relevant research agendas. Many of his research projects, and his involvement in the IFI program 'Policy and Governance in Palestinian Refugee Camps,' were a sort of action-research. There, he experienced what he called "Complex entanglements: Moving from professional to public sociology in the Arab world". Through these projects, he worked with various organizations of Palestinian and Lebanese civil societies, popular committees, and political factions to improve mainly the governance in the Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon and the Arab East at large. Another purpose was to raise many issues about different modes of knowledge production and public sociology. The Portal for Social Impact of Scientific Research in/on the Arab World (Athar) that he founded was an instrumental tool in this regard. Being a Palestinian refugee, he has been active in empowering the Palestinian refugee communities. He was one of the main organizers of a March for the Palestinian Civil and Socio-economic rights in Lebanon on June 27, 2010. Around 5,000 people participated in this march coming from all refugee camps but also from Lebanese localities such as al-Shuf Mountain towards the Lebanese Parliament in Beirut. He also frequently give lectures in the Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon, the Occupied Palestinian territories, and Syria, and participate in empowering these communities by providing them with free consultation, and attending some of their organizational meetings. Furthermore, Hanafi founded in 2005 the monthly Sociology Café, which aims at creating a forum for informal discussions between students, professors and the public on critical issues related to life in Lebanon and the region. Hanafi's research focused on four types of research activities (professional, critical, public and policy), however, he states that said work is challenged by the double delegitimization of social science by the authoritarian political elite and some religious authorities. To illustrate that, he carried out ethnographic research on the Palestinian refugees in Lebanon (governmentality in the refugee camps, reconstruction of Nahr el-Bared camp, civil and socio-economic rights). The outcome was not only published in international academic journals but also in Arabic and in local newspapers. This steered local debates that denounced in the same times and in varying degree the Lebanese authority and the Palestinian political factions. The research was followed by a large demonstration for the Palestinian refugee rights in different localities in Lebanon. Moreover, he participated in a Palestinian negotiation team to change the Lebanese discriminatory laws. This research also critiqued some scholars who overlook the socio-economic rights of the Palestinian refugees claiming that this would undermine the right of return. Those scholars, in the name of the political exception of the refugee camps, "theorized" keeping the camp in a misery as an urban exceptional space. Practicing public and policy sociology is indeed not an easy enterprise he started publishing exclusively in English and French as professional research before being evolved toward more complex forms of traditional and organic public sociology. Here he faced another problem how to conduct public research without losing its critical edge, even toward the deprived groups such as the Palestinian refugees, it seeks to protect. The moral of his story could be good scientists are not always popular.Hanafi is the author of numerous journal articles and book chapters on the political and economic sociology of the Palestinian diaspora and refugees; sociology of migration ; transnationalism; politics of scientific research; civil society and elite formation and transitional justice . Bayna 'alamayn. Rijal al-a'mal al falastiniyyin fi al-shatat wa bina al qayan al falastini (Between Two Worlds: Palestinian Businessmen in the Diaspora and the Construction of a Palestinian Entity) (1996) two editions: Cairo, Dar al-Mostaqbal al-arabi, & Ramallah: Muwatin (Palestinian Institute for the Study of Democracy), January (Arabic). La Syrie des ingénieurs. Perspective comparée avec l'Egypte (1997) Paris : Karthala. Entre Deux Mondes. Les hommes d'affaires palestiniens et la construction de l'entité palestinienne (1997) Cairo : CEDEJ. Business Directory of Palestinian in the Diaspora (1998) Jerusalem: Biladi (In English, French and Arabic). Hona wa honaq : nahwa tahlil lil 'alaqa bin al-shatat al-falastini wa al markaz (Here and There: Towards an Analysis of the Relationship between the Palestinian Diaspora and the Center) (2001) Ramallah : Muwatin, Jerusalem : Institute of Jerusalem Studies (distribution Beirut : Institute of Palestine Studies) (Ed.) Crossing borders, shifting boundaries: Palestinian Dilemmas (2008) American University in Cairo Press. Adi Ophir and Michal Giovanni and S. Hanafi (Ed.) The Power of Inclusive Exclusion: Anatomy of Israeli Rule in the Occupied Palestinian Territories (2009) New York: Zone Books. This book caused some troubles in AUB since he broke with it the red lines of boycotting-Israel policy adopted by the Lebanese state. Are Knudsen and S. Hanafi (Eds.) Palestinian Refugees: Identity, Space and Place in the Levant (2010) Routledge Is the morning coming soon? (Kuwait: Nohood Center) Knowledge Production in the Arab World: The Impossible Promise. (with R. Arvanitis) (in Arabic, Beirut:CAUS and in English, Routledge -2016) From Relief and Works to Human Development: UNRWA and Palestinian Refugees after 60 Years. (Edited with L Takkenberg and L Hilal) (Routledge- 2014). The Power of Inclusive Exclusion: Anatomy of Israeli Rule in The Occupied Palestinian Territories (Edited with A. Ophir & M. Givoni, 2009) (English and Arabic) (NY:Zone Book; Beirut:CAUS), The Emergence of A Palestinian Globalized Elite: Donors, International Organizations and Local NGOs (with L. Taber, 2005) (Arabic and English); Pouvoir et associations dans le monde arabe (Edited with S. Bennéfissa, 2002) (Paris:CNRS).Bayna 'alamayn. Rijal al-a'mal al falastiniyyin fi al-shatat wa bina al qayan al falastini (Between Two Worlds: Palestinian Businessmen in the Diaspora and the Construction of a Palestinian Entity) (1996) two editions: Cairo, Dar al-Mostaqbal al-arabi, & Ramallah: Muwatin (Palestinian Institute for the Study of Democracy), January (Arabic). La Syrie des ingénieurs. Perspective comparée avec l'Egypte (1997) Paris : Karthala. Entre Deux Mondes. Les hommes d'affaires palestiniens et la construction de l'entité palestinienne (1997) Cairo : CEDEJ. Business Directory of Palestinian in the Diaspora (1998) Jerusalem: Biladi (In English, French and Arabic). Hona wa honaq : nahwa tahlil lil 'alaqa bin al-shatat al-falastini wa al markaz (Here and There: Towards an Analysis of the Relationship between the Palestinian Diaspora and the Center) (2001) Ramallah : Muwatin, Jerusalem : Institute of Jerusalem Studies (distribution Beirut : Institute of Palestine Studies) (Ed.) Crossing borders, shifting boundaries: Palestinian Dilemmas (2008) American University in Cairo Press. Adi Ophir and Michal Giovanni and S. Hanafi (Ed.) The Power of Inclusive Exclusion: Anatomy of Israeli Rule in the Occupied Palestinian Territories (2009) New York: Zone Books. This book caused some troubles in AUB since he broke with it the red lines of boycotting-Israel policy adopted by the Lebanese state. Are Knudsen and S. Hanafi (Eds.) Palestinian Refugees: Identity, Space and Place in the Levant (2010) Routledge Is the morning coming soon? (Kuwait: Nohood Center) Knowledge Production in the Arab World: The Impossible Promise. (with R. Arvanitis) (in Arabic, Beirut:CAUS and in English, Routledge -2016) From Relief and Works to Human Development: UNRWA and Palestinian Refugees after 60 Years. (Edited with L Takkenberg and L Hilal) (Routledge- 2014). The Power of Inclusive Exclusion: Anatomy of Israeli Rule in The Occupied Palestinian Territories (Edited with A. Ophir & M. Givoni, 2009) (English and Arabic) (NY:Zone Book; Beirut:CAUS), The Emergence of A Palestinian Globalized Elite: Donors, International Organizations and Local NGOs (with L. Taber, 2005) (Arabic and English); Pouvoir et associations dans le monde arabe (Edited with S. Bennéfissa, 2002) (Paris:CNRS).2018— 2023: (President) International Sociological Association 2017— : (Member, International Advisory Council) World Congress for Middle Eastern Studies (WOCMES) 2017— : (Member) French Sociological Association 2016— : (Founding member and vice-president) Syrian Sociological Association. 2016— : (Board member) Palestinian Sociological and Anthropological Association. 2015—2017: (Vice president) Arab Council for the Social Sciences. 2014— (Vice president) International Sociological Association (ISA) 2013— (Advisory committee member) The Arab Social Science Monitor (ASSM), ACSS 2013— (Board member) Arab Council for the Social Sciences. 2011— (Member of the International Board of Consulting Editors) International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2010—2014: (Member of the executive committee) International Sociological Association (ISA) 2010—2012 : (Member of Comité de suivi) l' Institut français du Proche-Orient (IFPO) 2008—2016: (Member of the Executive Bureau) Arab Association of Sociology. 2005—: (Member) Lebanese Association of Sociology. 1994— : (Member) International Sociological Association.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Saris_(disambiguation)/html

Saris (disambiguation)

Saris can refer to:

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Bagh/html

Sari Bagh

Sari Bagh ( Persian : ساري باغ , also Romanized as Sārī Bāgh ; also known as Sārī Bākh ) is a village in Karaftu Rural District , in the Central District of Takab County , West Azerbaijan Province , Iran . At the 2006 census, its population was 150, in 30 families.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Bomkai_sari/html

Bomkai sari

Bomkai sari or Bomkai Saree is a handloom saree from Odisha , India . It is an origin of Bomkai village from Ganjam district, however later it is mainly produced by the Bhulia community of Subarnapur district . Bomkai is one of the identified Geographical Indications of India . Bomkai Sarees are popular items displayed at various fashion shows. Bomkai - Modern in Design with Traditional Tinge Bomkai cotton sarees are mostly accepted for habitual wear and the silk sari is put on ceremonies and sacred occasions. Most of the stylish saree are embodied with captivating color to give the gracious look to the woman wearing the saree . The ancient belief is depicted in its border Mostly the design of fish is seen in the sari as it is believed to be a sign of success and affluence. The most charming part is its threadwork in the designs of the border and the palloo. The appearance of the saree is related to simplicity and has a tribal tinge in it. The sari is normally dyed to attain the red, black and white background colours. However, today you will find the sari in several designs and multiple colours while retaining their originality. The warps are suitably woven to produce multicoloured end piece. Some of the designs especially include- Lotus, Temple(Mandir), Square type of patterns, Tortoise, etc.Bomkai sari originated in the village of Bomkai in Ganjam district of Odisha . During the time of Ramai Dev, the then ruler of Patna, it was introduced in Sonepur. Cotton yarns of 10s to 40s counts were used in earlier days. However, at present, fine cotton yarns (2/80, 2/100, 2/120s), mulberry silk, tussar silk, zari, etc. are being used extensively.Fly shuttle pit looms as well as frame looms are used. 3 shuttle technique is used to get solid border effect, locally called "Muhojorha saree". Extra warp design in border, and extra weft design in body and pallu, are woven with the help of a dobby/jacquard/jala.Aishwarya Rai wore a kind of bomkai called " Radhakunja " during her wedding with Abhishek Bachchan designed by Chaturbhuj Meher of Sonepur. The world-famous Bomkai got a GI(Geographical Indication)Tag in 2009, means it is original only if made in Bomkai(Ganjam) and Sonepur.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Ali_Sarı/html

Ali Sarı

Ali Sarı (born November 24, 1986) is a Turkish taekwondo practitioner competing in the heavyweight division. Ali Sarı is a student of civil engineering at Selçuk University .Ali Sarı was born on November 24, 1986, in Beyşehir town in Konya Province to a dentist father. He has two younger brothers Yunus and Talha , who are also successful taekwondo practitioners. After his primary and secondary education in his hometown, he enrolled in Selçuk University's Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, at Konya . Ali Sarı began with taekwondo practitioning already at the very young age. His family built a sports center with three floors, where he and his brothers exercised with young people in the town. Living currently in Konya for his university education with his two brothers, Ali Sarı is coached by Ekrem Boyalı . His first national success came in 1998 when he became Turkish boys' champion in the +36 kg division. In 2001, he placed third at the Turkish Youth Championships. Ali Sarı was admitted to the national team in 2006, and took the second place at the national championship the same year. In 2007, he placed third in the +84 kg division at the 2007 Summer Universiade in Bangkok , Thailand . He won the silver medal in the +87 kg division at the 2011 Summer Universiade held in Shenzhen , China . In 2012, Sarı took the bronze medal in the -87 kg division at the European Championships in Manchester , United Kingdom. He became champion in the +80 kg division at the 2013 Mediterranean Games in Mersin , Turkey.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Grönholm/html

Sari Grönholm

Sari Grönholm (born 4 June 1980) is a Finnish snowboarder . She was born in Uusimaa . She competed at the 2002 Winter Olympics , in women's halfpipe .

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_gan/html

Sari gan

Radio Television Internet Sari or Shari gan is a traditional form of folk music in Bangladesh are usually sung by boatmen and other workers groups. It is common for Sari gan to be sung during Nouka Baich competitions.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sarivar_Sari/html

Sarivar Sari

20 October 2005 ( 2005-10-20 ) Sarivar Sari is a 2005 Indian Marathi -language drama film directed by Gajendra Ahire . Madhura Velankar played the lead role of a free-spirited girl while Manasi Salvi , Mohan Joshi , and Neena Kulkarni played supporting roles. Manisha's independent spirit angers her father, who prefers her sister Vini, a medical student. When Manisha accepts a modeling contract, the tension in her family reaches the breaking point.The music is provided by Bhaskar Chandavarkar.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Squad/html

Sari Squad

The Sari Squad refers to a group of women of largely South Asian descent who fought against racist attacks and anti-immigration policies in London, England in the early 1980s. The name " sari " refers to the well-known South Asian female garment. British media used the appellation "Sari Squad" to denote the group of activists. Most members were South Asian women who would resist and confront racist attacks against immigrants and foreigners in Britain. British Jamaican writer, dub poet and Rastafarian Benjamin Zephaniah described the group of women as experts in various martial arts and ready and willing to take on any racists who would try to spoil our fun. They fought with style, and would usually burst into song after seeing off any attackers. In April 1984, the Sari Squad actively supported a young Bangladeshi widow, Afia Begum, and her child who were being deported by raising public awareness of the case and taking it to the European Commission of Human Rights . In the same year, and before the Commission could rule, the UK Government arrested Afia in a dawn raid and summarily deported her. Her deportation was described by the European Parliament as "callous and showing the racist and sexist nature of the United Kingdom immigration laws ." The Sari Squad was afterwards praised in the House of Commons by Harry Cohen MP , and criticised by Home Secretary David Waddington . In the 21st century, groups of activist women have been called by the media "Sari Squads," such as the Bangladeshi villagers who are protecting the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary . Sari Squad were featured during the "HerStory" video tribute to notable women on U2 's tour in 2017 for the 30th anniversary of The Joshua Tree during a performance of "Ultraviolet (Light My Way)" from the band's 1991 album Achtung Baby . [ third-party source needed ]

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Simorangkir/html

Sari Simorangkir

Sari Simorangkir (born March 31) is an Indonesian contemporary Christian music singer and songwriter. She is commonly called "Sari". She is best known as one of the True Worshippers vocalists. Gifted with enormous singing talent, Sari has released many solo albums and many other records with various artists. Her songs have become anthems of worship in churches nationwide. Sari has been influenced by Michael W. Smith , Crystal Lewis , Yolanda Adams , and secular singers such as Whitney Houston , Mariah Carey , Lydia Imaniar , and Sting . Even though she loves R&B , soul , and blues , Sari realizes that pop suits her best. Sari Simorangkir was born in Semarang to Batak parents D.N. Simorangkir and Tiur Ida Simanjuntak . As her father worked at Pertamina, Sari was raised in five different cities in Indonesia, including Semarang, Makassar, and finally Jakarta, where she finished her high school education. She has two siblings Fredrick and Sammy . She began to sing in 1990 when she was in senior high school. She was encouraged by her parents to take part in singing contests such as Cipta Pesona Bintang and Asia Bagus . Though she did not win, she became very motivated to sing. About two years later Sari and her colleagues created a music band named Ezra. In 1992 the name was changed to VOG , Voice of Galilea, before it changed again to Voice of Generation when they made their second album, Tutur kata . She was one of the band's vocalists, along with Viona Paays , Franky Sihombing (who also played bass guitar), and later Sydney Mohede , when he joined the group on the second album. In the late 1980s, when the world of Christian spiritual music had not evolved to the point it is today, VOG wanted to make more contemporary alternative music for the younger generation of Christians. They made songs that contained positive messages and were universal, and so were liked by all circles. Their first two albums were Kusadari and Tutur Kata . Their songs appeared on "The Song Chart" of the radio stations in Jakarta. [ non-primary source needed ] The VOG formation of the first album, Kusadari , was: The VOG formation of the second album, Tutur Kata]] , was: Franky Sihombing (bassist/vocalist) Ucok Radjaguguk (keyboardist) Amos Cahyadi (drummer) Thomas B Handoyo (guitarist) Viona Paays (vocalist) Sari Simorangkir (vocalist) Sidney Mohede (vocalist) Their second album was the last before they disbanded. In October 2009, VOG held a reunion concert . In her community named JPCC (Jakarta Praise Community Church) (kind of God's servant community), Sari met acquaintances who would later be part of True Worshippers , such as Sidney Mohede , Ucok Radjaguguk , and Daniel Sigarlaki . She learned many things about singing and songwriting from this community. In 1996, they officially established True Worshippers with Mohede (her partner in VOG) as the founder. Sari made a major contribution as lead vocalist, along with Ruth Sahanaya and Sidney Mohede, to this group. Sari Simorangkir was born in Semarang to Batak parents D.N. Simorangkir and Tiur Ida Simanjuntak . As her father worked at Pertamina, Sari was raised in five different cities in Indonesia, including Semarang, Makassar, and finally Jakarta, where she finished her high school education. She has two siblings Fredrick and Sammy . She began to sing in 1990 when she was in senior high school. She was encouraged by her parents to take part in singing contests such as Cipta Pesona Bintang and Asia Bagus . Though she did not win, she became very motivated to sing.About two years later Sari and her colleagues created a music band named Ezra. In 1992 the name was changed to VOG , Voice of Galilea, before it changed again to Voice of Generation when they made their second album, Tutur kata . She was one of the band's vocalists, along with Viona Paays , Franky Sihombing (who also played bass guitar), and later Sydney Mohede , when he joined the group on the second album. In the late 1980s, when the world of Christian spiritual music had not evolved to the point it is today, VOG wanted to make more contemporary alternative music for the younger generation of Christians. They made songs that contained positive messages and were universal, and so were liked by all circles. Their first two albums were Kusadari and Tutur Kata . Their songs appeared on "The Song Chart" of the radio stations in Jakarta. [ non-primary source needed ] The VOG formation of the first album, Kusadari , was: The VOG formation of the second album, Tutur Kata]] , was: Franky Sihombing (bassist/vocalist) Ucok Radjaguguk (keyboardist) Amos Cahyadi (drummer) Thomas B Handoyo (guitarist) Viona Paays (vocalist) Sari Simorangkir (vocalist) Sidney Mohede (vocalist) Their second album was the last before they disbanded. In October 2009, VOG held a reunion concert .In her community named JPCC (Jakarta Praise Community Church) (kind of God's servant community), Sari met acquaintances who would later be part of True Worshippers , such as Sidney Mohede , Ucok Radjaguguk , and Daniel Sigarlaki . She learned many things about singing and songwriting from this community. In 1996, they officially established True Worshippers with Mohede (her partner in VOG) as the founder. Sari made a major contribution as lead vocalist, along with Ruth Sahanaya and Sidney Mohede, to this group. Sari also has solo projects. The first and second albums weren't so successful due to their genre, R&B . Churches considered that R&B music was not suitable to be used as worship anthems in Indonesia . Sari decided to make the third album more in the pop style. The third and fourth albums successfully sold about 30.000 copies. Sari later knew that pop songs are the easiest to be sung by churches in Indonesia. She also knew that lyrics about human relationships are not considered anthems of worship in churches. Later, she tended to make songs about the relationship of God and people as His]servants. As of 2013, she has produced 12 albums. The title of her fifth album, 31:31 , was inspired by her birthday (March 31), her age when she completed this album, and the completion date of this album production (March 31). Her eighth album, Sari 8 , was named in accordance with the order of the album. Notable songs include "Yang Terbaik", "Kaulah Segalanya", "Bagi Tuhan Tak Ada Yang Mustahil", "Karya Terbesar", "Dengan SayapMu", "Hati Hamba", "Hanya Kau Tuhan", "Aku Percaya", "Tidak Dengan Tangan Hampa" ( medley Persembahanku), "Yesusku Dahsyat", and "Dengan Sayap-Mu".Notable songs include "Yang Terbaik", "Kaulah Segalanya", "Bagi Tuhan Tak Ada Yang Mustahil", "Karya Terbesar", "Dengan SayapMu", "Hati Hamba", "Hanya Kau Tuhan", "Aku Percaya", "Tidak Dengan Tangan Hampa" ( medley Persembahanku), "Yesusku Dahsyat", and "Dengan Sayap-Mu".In 2005, Sari received three awards from Indonesian Gospel Music Award of Excellence 2005 for her works:In 1997, Sari and Handy Iskandar Sinaga were married. They have two children named Sharon and Sandy Now Sari is busy with her ministry and taking care of her family. She looks forward to releasing more albums with her own style of music, bringing more flavors to Indonesian Christian music. She hopes to have a solo concert. "I hope to see myself in the next five years as a more mature and stronger person, continuing what I've been doing to bless people."

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Dewi_Sukarno/html

Dewi Sukarno

Ratna Sari Dewi Sukarno ( ラトナ サリ デヴィ スカルノ , Ratona Sari Devi Sukaruno , born Naoko Nemoto ( æ ¹æœ¬ 七保子 , Nemoto Naoko ) ; February 6, 1940) , widely known in Japan as Dewi Fujin ( デヴィ夫人 , Devi Fujin , literally Lady Dewi or Madame Dewi ) is a Japanese-born Indonesian businesswoman, socialite, television personality and philanthropist. She was one of the wives of the first President of Indonesia , Sukarno .Naoko Nemoto was born on February 6, 1940, in Tokyo, to Heishichiro Nemoto and Masako Nemoto. Nemoto had a younger brother, Yasoo Nemoto, and her mother was constantly sick. Her father was a carpenter, who passed away when she was 15. To make ends meet, Nemoto worked at a famous club named "Copacabana". In 1959, Nemoto, who was 19, met Sukarno, who was 38 years her senior, at the Ginza hostess bar in Tokyo , near the Imperial Hotel . Nemoto was an arts student and entertainer, while the latter was on a state visit to Japan. Naoko married Sukarno in Indonesia in 1962 and converted to Islam . Sukarno gave her the Indonesian name "Ratna Sari Dewi Sukarno"; derived from Javanese - Sanskrit which means "the jewel essence of a goddess". They had one daughter, Kartika (born March 11, 1967, and is now going by the name "Carina"), who was Sukarno's eighth child. Sukarno was eventually overthrown by General Suharto in 1967 and died three years later. The widowed Dewi Sukarno moved to Europe after Sukarno's ousting and has since lived in different countries, including three years in Switzerland, ten years in France, and another decade in the United States. By 2008, she had returned to Japan and lived in Shibuya , Tokyo , where she lived in her memorabilia-filled residence. As of 2012, Dewi Sukarno enjoys caring for her 16 dogs and her cosmetics business. She has her own charity business that is often scrutinized by the National Tax Agency . She makes a living doing part-time jobs, appearing on Japanese television and has served as a judge for a beauty contest, as in the Miss International 2005 pageant held in Tokyo. She is well known for her sculpted beauty and often claims to have not had the facelifts and plastic surgery that her doctor has rumored performing. In Japanese media, Sukarno has become known for her outspoken personality. In an interview with Desi Anwar of CNN Indonesia , she expressed reservations about being known solely as the late President Sukarno's widow 40 years after his death. In January 1992, Dewi Sukarno became involved in a much-publicised altercation at a party in Aspen , Colorado , United States with fellow international socialite and heiress , Minnie Osmeña . A granddaughter of former Philippine President Sergio Osmeña , she reportedly commented on Sukarno's past, and the spat culminated in Sukarno hitting Osmeña's face with a champagne flute . Osmeña needed 37 stitches to seal the gash, while Sukarno was later detained for 34 days in Aspen for disorderly conduct. Sukarno and Osmeña had already been hostile to each other after an exchange at an earlier party months before, where Sukarno was heard to laugh at Osmeña's political plans (among which was to run for Vice President of the Philippines ). The following year, Sukarno posed for Madame d'Syuga: Dewi with Love , a book of photography by Hideki Fujii that was published in her native Japan in 1993. Many of the images feature her semi-nude , with some showing what appeared to be tattoo -like body art . The photo-book , while not distributed in Indonesia, was immediately banned by the New Order government , and many Indonesians felt offended by what they perceived to be a disgrace of late President Sukarno's name and legacy. In 1997, the New York Daily News published anonymous rumors that Sukarno had been involved in a "hair-pulling tiff" at a Halloween party with Kaethe Schuchter, a companion of fraudulent money manager Martin Frankel . Sukarno denied the allegations and after failing to make Schuchter publicly retract the claim, launched a defamation lawsuit against her. Not long after, federal conspiracy and fraud charges were brought up against Frankel and Schuchter, who fled the United States in May 1999. This left Sukarno's lawsuit in limbo and it wasn't until 2009 that Schuchter was apprehended by Italian authorities. In the aftermath of the controversial launch of the Kwangmyŏngsŏng-2 satellite in April 2009, Sukarno was invited to comment by Japanese media, since her late husband had managed to maintain favorable relations with North Korea during his reign. In an interview, she commented that "Japan is making too much noise, it's only an artificial satellite", which outraged Japanese right-wing groups . On the evening of April 19, one of their sound trucks appeared at Sukarno's residence in affluent Minato, Tokyo and staged a loud protest. In response, she threw two plant pots from her second-floor balcony and allegedly hit the van's mirrors. Immediately afterward, Sukarno came out to confront the right-wingers, which resulted in a heated argument. A nearby police officer stationed outside the home of Tarō Asō prevented further escalation and the protesters left without seeking compensation for damages. The following day, Sukarno held a press conference in front of her home to voice her dissatisfaction with the police response. In July 2012, in response to a bullying incident at Otsu City Ojiyama Junior High School [ ja ] , which resulted in the suicide of a student, Sukarno published names and photos of a woman who was the supposed bully and people who appeared to be related to her in a blog post. It was soon revealed that the perpetrator had been misidentified, however, and Sukarno removed the entry from her blog. When a public apology from Sukarno was not forthcoming, the woman filed a lawsuit against her, demanding 11 million yen ( c. US$75,000) in damages. In February 2014, the Kobe District Court deemed Sukarno's actions "extremely thoughtless" and ordered her to pay 1.65 million yen ( c. US$11,000). Sukarno claimed that the judgment was unfair and that she would fight it all the way to the Supreme Court , but an undisclosed settlement was later reached at the Osaka High Court. Tokyo police investigated a complaint against Sukarno in January 2014, following her appearance on the TBS Television show Okusama wa Monster 2 where she had allegedly slapped a fellow guest. Speaking to reporters, Sukarno expressed regret for "having caused an uproar" and said that she and the victim had resolved the incident during a phone call. In January 2017, Sukarno attracted Chinese criticism when she spoke out in support of APA Group president Toshio Motoya , who had come under fire for distributing political propaganda in the group's hotels, referring to Japanese war crimes such as the Nanjing massacre and wartime sex slavery as "fabricated stories created to dishonor Japan". During a broadcast of TV Asahi 's Abema Prime , Sukarno opinioned that Motoya's beliefs and actions fell under his right to freedom of expression and redirected attention towards the issues of Tibetan sovereignty and the Senkaku Islands and South China Sea disputes . Several years later, her involvement in the controversy contributed to a domestic boycott of the Chinese entertainer Zhang Zhehan , who had posed for a photo with Sukarno at a friend's wedding at the Nogi Shrine in 2019, after he had also taken pictures at the controversial Yasukuni Shrine a year earlier. On October 28, 2020, Sukarno issued an apology for remarks she had made on the Kansai TV variety show Mune-ippai Summit! , where she linked female infertility to abortions . Expressing support for an abortion ban, she had claimed that "the biggest reason for infertility is abortions by pregnant women who don't want to have children", adding that "it's best not to let women in Japan undergo curettage ". Dewi Sukarno remains an Indonesian national , being registered on the Permanent Elector's Roll ( Daftar Pemilih Tetap ) of the Indonesian Embassy in Tokyo as of 2008. However, she has not exercised her right to vote. Sukarno has expressed the intention to keep her Indonesian nationality – stating that an Indonesian passport is the only way she can freely travel to and from e.g. Blitar (where her late husband's resting place is), i.e. as an Indonesian citizen. Since the ousting of her husband , Sukarno has had little involvement with Indonesian politics . When asked in 2004 to comment about the reign of her stepdaughter, Megawati , she replied; "I think Megawati is gradually doing whatever she can. It's not easy being a Muslim woman president." After the January 2008 death of her husband's successor, Suharto , Sukarno made appearances in the news media, blaming him for instituting a repressive regime and likening him to Cambodian despot Pol Pot . In 2011, Sukarno ran an online petition to disinherit then-crown prince Naruhito and make his younger brother Fumihito heir to the throne. Sukarno has worked with the Japanese Red Cross Society and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and has expressed the wish to help refugees as well as people living under regimes like North Korea .

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Kantha/html

Kantha

Kantha , also spelled kanta or qanta , is a type of embroidery craft in Bangladesh and eastern regions of India, particularly in the Indian states of West Bengal , Tripura and Odisha . In Odisha, old saris are stacked on each other and hand-stitched to make a thin piece of cushion . This is normally used above a bed cushion or instead of a cushion. "Kantha saris " are traditionally worn by women in Bengal region. In these days, embroidery is stitched, popularly known as 'kantha stitched", on sari, kurta (or panjabi) and churidar and many other garments and gaining popularity due to their aesthetic value and handmade characteristics. Kantha stitching is also used to make simple quilts, commonly known as nakshi kantha . Women in Bengal typically use old saris and cloth and layer them with kantha stitching to make a light blanket, throw, or bedspread, especially for children. Kantha is very popular with tourists visiting the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent.Kantha is a form of embroidery often practised by rural women . The traditional form of Kantha embroidery was done with soft dhotis and saris, with a simple running stitch along the edges. Depending on the use of the finished product they were known as Lepkantha or Sujni Kantha . The embroidered cloth has many uses including shawls, covers for mirrors, boxes, and pillows. In some cases, the entire cloth is covered with running stitches, employing beautiful motifs of flowers, animals birds and geometrical shapes, as well as themes from everyday activities. The stitching on the cloth gives it a slightly wrinkled, wavy effect. Contemporary kantha is applied to a wider range of garments such as sarees, dupatta, shirts for men and women, bedding and other furnishing fabrics, mostly using cotton and silk. Modern Kantha-stitch craft industry involves a very complex multi-staged production model .

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Tanus/html

Sari Tanus

Sari Marja Hannele Tanus (born 22 February 1964 in Kuopio, Finland) is a Finnish doctor and politician, representing the Christian Democrats in the Parliament of Finland since 2015. She was elected to the Parliament from the Pirkanmaa constituency in the 2015 elections with 2,592 votes.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Beygluy/html

Sari Beygluy

Sari Beygluy ( Persian: ساري بيگلوي ), also rendered as Sari Beyglar , may refer to:

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Aghol/html

Sari Aghol

Sari Aghol ( Persian: ساري اغل ) may refer to:

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Wet_sari_scene/html

Wet sari scene

Wet sari scenes are an on-screen cliché in Hindi cinema films, in which fully clothed actresses are depicted in wet saris that cling to their bodies. This functions as a proxy for nudity in mainstream Indian cinema, where nudity is taboo . According to Pooja Makhijani, in an interview with rediff.com : Bollywood is wonderfully escapist. And completely comforting, as nothing really changes. Every blockbuster has at least one of the following: a wet sari scene, an over-the-top dance number with hundreds of mustachioed extras, an overbearing patriarch, pehla pyar (first love), and a wonderfully choreographed fight sequence in which the police show up the second the bad guys are down and out. Films showing wet sari scenes include Mera Naam Joker (1970), Satyam Shivam Sundaram (1978), Ram Teri Ganga Maili (1985) and Kishen Kanhaiya (1990). [ citation needed ]

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Arani_Sari/html

Arani Sari

Arani Sari is a traditional sari made in Arani, Tamil Nadu , India. A sari is a strip of unstitched cloth, ranging from four yards to nine yards in length. Saris, derived from the Sanskrit word Saadi , have been described in Tamilian literature as early as the 5th or 6th centuries. Arani sari received Intellectual Property Rights Protection or Geographical Indication (GI) status.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sári_Déry/html

Sári Déry

Sári Déry (1911–1952) was a Hungarian stage and film actress . She was married three times, including to the actor Nándor Bihary . She was born in Bratislava , then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire but later part of Czechoslovakia . After first appearing on stage in Bratislava, she emigrated to Budapest where she appeared at a variety of theatres. In the early 1950s she was persecuted by the Communist regime and had to leave Budapest, something loosely portrayed in the 1984 film Oh, Bloody Life . She died of appendicitis in 1952 in rural Hungary.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Karjalainen/html

Sari Karjalainen

Sari Karjalainen (born 26 June 1968 in Ylitornio as Sari Räsänen ) is a Finnish wheelchair curler . She participated in the 2014 and 2018 Winter Paralympics where Finnish team finished on tenth and eleventh places respectively. Her husband Markku is also a member of the Finland national wheelchair curling team.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Nusseibeh/html

Sari Nusseibeh

Sari Nusseibeh ( Arabic : سري نسيبة ) (born in 1949) is a Palestinian professor of philosophy and former president of the Al-Quds University in Jerusalem. Until December 2002, he was the representative of the Palestinian National Authority in that city. In 2008, in an open online poll, Nusseibeh was voted the 24th most influential intellectual in the world on the list of Top 100 Public Intellectuals by Prospect Magazine ( UK ) and Foreign Policy ( United States ). The Nusseibeh boast of a 1,300 year presence in Jerusalem, being descended from Ubayda ibn as-Samit , the brother of Nusaybah bint Ka'ab , a female warrior from the Banu Khazraj of Arabia, and one of the four women leaders of the 14 tribes of early Islam . Ubadya, a companion of Umar ibn al-Khattab , was appointed the first Muslim high judge of Jerusalem after its conquest in 638 C.E., together with an obligation to keep the Holy Rock of Calvary clean. Despite the noble origins, family tradition, in keeping with the belief that all great families have roots in brigandage, transmits a legend that their descent can also be traced through a long line of thieves. According to family tradition, they retained an exclusive right to the keys of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre down to the Ottoman period , when the Joudeh family obtained a warrant to share possession. To this day, the Nusseibeh family are said to be trustees, and upon receiving the keys from a member of the Joudeh clan, the Nusseibeh are said to turn them over to the warden of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre around dawn every day. Moshe Amirav reports Nusseibeh as quipping, nonetheless, when replying in the negative to a query about his family's possession of the keys, that:'No, there is no longer any need for it. Jesus isn't there any more.' Nusseibeh's grandfather successively married into three different Palestinian families of notables, the Shihabi, noted for their scholarship; the Darwish of the powerful al-Husayni family; and to the Nashashibi , and thus, in Nusseibeh's words: 'in a matter of a few years [...] managed to stitch together four ancient Jerusalem families, two of which were bitter rivals'. Nusseibeh was born in Damascus, Syria, to the politician Anwar Nusseibeh who was a distinguished statesman, prominent in Palestinian and (after 1948) Palestinian-Jordanian politics and diplomacy. His mother, Nuzha Al-Ghussein , daughter of Palestinian political leader Yaqub al-Ghusayn was born in Ramle , into a family of wealthy landed aristocrats with land in Wadi Hnein (now the Israeli town of Nes Ziona ), His mother had left Palestine in 1948 to avoid the fighting, and his father lost a leg when wounded while participating in the 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine . They moved to Cairo some years later, where his father participated in the formation of the First Palestine Government in exile. On returning to Jerusalem, he lived just a few hundred yards over the other side of No man's land from Amos Oz , and in reading the latter's memoir of his upbringing, was struck by the profound differences between their respective experiences as children in the same city. Their family owned farmland in Karameh which he helped till by driving a tractor during summer vacations. It was to be the site of what in Palestinian memory became known as the bloodbath of their Palestinian Stalingrad . During Israel's conquest of the West Bank in the Six-Day War, Israel troops sacked the family home in Jerusalem, looting it of all of their heirlooms, though the family car was later returned. Some months later, the occupation authorities then expropriated the family's 200 acre country estate in the Jordan Valley . In the fall of 1967, Nusseibeh went to study philosophy at Christ Church, Oxford . There he became friends with Avishai Margalit , as well as Ahmad Walidi, the only other Palestinian undergraduate there at the time, and son of the distinguished scholar Walid Khalidi . It was a period marked by student revolutionary upheavals and it was at this time that Ahmad introduced him to the intricacies of Palestinian political factions, parodied in Monty Python 's The Life of Brian . The summers he spent back in Jerusalem, where, in 1968 he began studying Hebrew did a stint of work at the HaZore'a kibbutz , and, the following year, was on hand to help quench the flames caused by Australian Christian fundamentalist arsonist Michael Rohan when the latter tried to burn down the Al-Aqsa Mosque by setting alight Saladin 's 1,000 year old Aleppo pulpit. At Oxford, Nusseibeh met Lucy Austin, the daughter of British philosopher J.L. Austin , and future founder of the NGO MEND . They were married in late 1973 by the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Sheikh Saad al-Din Jalal al-Alami , and their marriage gave them four children: three sons, Jamal, Absal, Buraq, and one daughter, Nuzha. While at Oxford Sari was much drawn to the linguistic philosophy introduced by Ludwig Wittgenstein and developed by Austin. After completing his Oxford degree, he spent a year at the Warburg Institute in London, after hearing a lecture by Abdulhamid Sabra which attracted him to the study of the early Islamic school of Mu'tazilite logicians , the thought of Al-Ghazali and the subsequent discursive victory of the latter, as formulated by the Ash'ari school of theologians. After a brief period working in Abu Dhabi , Nusseibeh took up doctoral studies on the topic of Islamic Philosophy at from Harvard University , beginning in the fall of 1974, and gained his Ph.D. in (1978). He returned to the West Bank in 1978 to teach at Birzeit University (where he remained as professor of philosophy until the university was closed from 1988 to 1990 during the First Intifada ). At the same time, he taught classes in Islamic philosophy at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, Israel. Through the early 1980s, he helped to organize the teachers' union at Birzeit, and served three terms as president of the union of faculty and staff there. Nusseibeh is also co-founder of the Federation of Employees in the Education Sector for all of the West Bank.Sari Nusseibeh has long been viewed as a Palestinian moderate. In July 1987, Nusseibeh and Faisal Husseini met with Moshe Amirav, a member of Israel's Likud Party becoming the first prominent Palestinians to meet with a member of the Israeli right. Amirav was testing the waters for a group close to then prime minister Yitzhak Shamir on the possibility of making a historic pact with the PLO and Fatah . After years of working toward the establishment of a functioning Palestinian state alongside the state of Israel, Nusseibeh was by 2011 referring to the two-state solution as a "fantasy". In What's A Palestinian State Worth? (Harvard University Press, 2011) he called for a "thought experiment" of a single state in which Israel annexed all the territories, and Palestinians would be "second-class citizens" with "civil but not political rights" in which "Jews could run the country while the Arabs could live in it." This specific suggestion has been dismissed as "disingenuous". During this time, Nusseibeh has been speaking of steps toward one version or another of a single-state solution, such as a binational state. Nusseibeh was also an important leader during the First Intifada , authoring the Palestinian Declaration of Principles and working to strengthen the Fatah movement in the West Bank; Nusseibeh helped to author the "inside" Palestinians' declaration of independence issued in the First Intifada, and to create the 200 political committees and 28 technical committees that were intended to as an embryonic infrastructure for a future Palestinian administration. Following the firing of Scud missiles at Tel Aviv, Nusseibeh worked with Israeli Peace Now on a common approach to condemn the killing of civilians in the war. But he was arrested and placed under administrative detention on 29 January 1991, effectively accused of being an Iraqi agent. The arrest was then questioned by British and American officials, and the U.S. administration urged that he should either be charged or else the suspicion would be that the arrest was political. He was adopted as a prisoner of conscience by Amnesty International . and letters of protest were written to The Times by academics including Peter Strawson , Isaiah Berlin and H. L. A. Hart . Some Israelis said the move was designed to discredit Nusseibeh before international opinion. Palestinians saw the arrest as a political warning that Israel did not intend to negotiate with any Palestinian leader, no matter how moderate. For example, Saeb Erekat of An-Najah University said: "This is a message to us Palestinian moderates. The message is, 'You can forget about negotiations after the war because we are going to make sure there is no one to talk to'". He was released without charge shortly after the end of the war, after 90 days of imprisonment in Ramle Prison . Nusseibeh was not politically active during much of the Oslo Peace Process but was appointed as the PLO Representative in Jerusalem in 2001. During this period Nusseibeh began to strongly suggest that Palestinians give up their Right of Return in exchange for a Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza Strip . A number of Palestinian organizations have strongly condemned his views on this issue. Nusseibeh criticised the militarization of the intifada in January 2002 and called for the renunciation of suicide bombings and the establishment of Palestine as a demilitarized state: "A Palestinian state should be demilitarized—not because that's what Israel demands, but in our own interest." Some senior Israel figures, such as Uzi Landau rebuffed the proposal as a trick. In 2002 Sari Nusseibeh and former Shin Bet director, Ami Ayalon published The People's Voice , an Israeli-Palestinian civil initiative that aims to advance the process of achieving peace between Israel and the Palestinians, and a draft peace agreement that called for a Palestinian state based on Israel's 1967 borders and for a compromise on the Palestinian Right of Return. The People's Voice Initiative was officially launched on June 25, 2003. In 2002, Yasser Arafat appointed Nusseibeh as the PLO's representative in East Jerusalem, a position he assumed after the sudden death of Faisal Husseini. In 2008, Nusseibeh said that the quest for the two-state solution was floundering. He called on Palestinians to start a debate on the idea of a one-state solution . Nusseibeh was also an important leader during the First Intifada , authoring the Palestinian Declaration of Principles and working to strengthen the Fatah movement in the West Bank; Nusseibeh helped to author the "inside" Palestinians' declaration of independence issued in the First Intifada, and to create the 200 political committees and 28 technical committees that were intended to as an embryonic infrastructure for a future Palestinian administration.Following the firing of Scud missiles at Tel Aviv, Nusseibeh worked with Israeli Peace Now on a common approach to condemn the killing of civilians in the war. But he was arrested and placed under administrative detention on 29 January 1991, effectively accused of being an Iraqi agent. The arrest was then questioned by British and American officials, and the U.S. administration urged that he should either be charged or else the suspicion would be that the arrest was political. He was adopted as a prisoner of conscience by Amnesty International . and letters of protest were written to The Times by academics including Peter Strawson , Isaiah Berlin and H. L. A. Hart . Some Israelis said the move was designed to discredit Nusseibeh before international opinion. Palestinians saw the arrest as a political warning that Israel did not intend to negotiate with any Palestinian leader, no matter how moderate. For example, Saeb Erekat of An-Najah University said: "This is a message to us Palestinian moderates. The message is, 'You can forget about negotiations after the war because we are going to make sure there is no one to talk to'". He was released without charge shortly after the end of the war, after 90 days of imprisonment in Ramle Prison . Nusseibeh was not politically active during much of the Oslo Peace Process but was appointed as the PLO Representative in Jerusalem in 2001. During this period Nusseibeh began to strongly suggest that Palestinians give up their Right of Return in exchange for a Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza Strip . A number of Palestinian organizations have strongly condemned his views on this issue. Nusseibeh criticised the militarization of the intifada in January 2002 and called for the renunciation of suicide bombings and the establishment of Palestine as a demilitarized state: "A Palestinian state should be demilitarized—not because that's what Israel demands, but in our own interest." Some senior Israel figures, such as Uzi Landau rebuffed the proposal as a trick. In 2002 Sari Nusseibeh and former Shin Bet director, Ami Ayalon published The People's Voice , an Israeli-Palestinian civil initiative that aims to advance the process of achieving peace between Israel and the Palestinians, and a draft peace agreement that called for a Palestinian state based on Israel's 1967 borders and for a compromise on the Palestinian Right of Return. The People's Voice Initiative was officially launched on June 25, 2003. In 2002, Yasser Arafat appointed Nusseibeh as the PLO's representative in East Jerusalem, a position he assumed after the sudden death of Faisal Husseini. In 2008, Nusseibeh said that the quest for the two-state solution was floundering. He called on Palestinians to start a debate on the idea of a one-state solution . Nusseibeh is head and founder of the Palestinian Consultancy Group , co-founder and member of several Palestinian institutions including the Jerusalem Friends of the Sick Society , the Federation of Employees in the Education Sector in the West Bank , the Arab Council for Public Affairs , the Committee Confronting the Iron Fist , and the Jerusalem Arab Council . He is also on the advisory board of The International Center for Ethics, Justice and Public Life at Brandeis University . Internationally, Nusseibeh is a member of the McGill Middle East Program's Executive and Management Committees. In November 2007, following the publication of Once Upon a Country: A Palestinian Life , he traveled to Montreal, Canada, to lecture on the MMEP and his vision of peace.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Ruhi_Sarı/html

Ruhi Sarı

Ruhi Sarı (born 18 May 1972) is a Turkish actor. He is best known for hit series "Yeditepe İstanbul", "Yarım Elma", "Sultan Makamı". He has appeared in more than ninety films and series.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Qamish/html

Sari Qamish

Sari Qamish or Sari Qomish ( Persian: ساري ق٠يش ) may refer to:

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Adem_Sarı/html

Adem Sarı

Adem Sarı (born 9 May 1985) is a Turkish footballer who currently plays for TFF Second League club Sivas Belediye Spor . In December 2009 he scored 2 goals in his team Eskişehirspor 's 2–1 win over Fenerbahce , taking his tally to 10 goals in 23 games, in all competitions. People in Indonesia make jokes about his name as his name is similar with one of famous brand in Indonesia, Adem Sari, a drink to relieve sore throat. Indonesian people even asked him whether he has Indonesian descendant or not but he told that both of his parents are Turkish

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Bhagalpur_sari/html

Bhagalpur sari

Bhagalpur sari is an silk sari made in Bhagalpur , India . More than a century old, Tussar silk weaving industry in Bhagalpur has about 30,000 handloom weavers working on some 25,000 handlooms. The total value of annual trade is around Rs. 100 crores ( one billion ), about half of which comes from exports. The history of making Bhagalpuri silk sarees started 200 years by highly skilled craftsmen. The unique dyeing technique of these Bhagalpuri silk sarees sets them apart from the art silk sarees. Nowadays, instead of vegetable dyes , acid dyes are used because they are suitable for silk and easily available on the market.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Battle_of_Sari_Bair/html

Battle of Sari Bair

British Empire Ottoman Empire The Battle of Sari Bair ( Turkish : Sarı Bayır Harekâtı ), also known as the August Offensive ( Ağustos Taarruzları ), represented the final attempt made by the British in August 1915 to seize control of the Gallipoli peninsula from the Ottoman Empire during the First World War . At the time of the battle, the Gallipoli Campaign had raged on two fronts – Anzac and Helles – for three months since the Allied land invasion of 25 April 1915. With the Anzac front locked in a tense stalemate, the Allies had attempted to carry the offensive on the Helles battlefield – at enormous cost and for little gain . In August, the British command proposed a new operation to reinvigorate the campaign by capturing the Sari Bair ridge, the high ground that dominated the middle of the Gallipoli peninsula above the Anzac landing. The main operation started on 6 August with a fresh landing 5 miles (8.0 km) north of Anzac at Suvla Bay in conjunction with the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps . The Allies mounted an attack north into the rugged country alongside the Sari Bair range with the aim of capturing the high ground and linking with the Suvla landing. At Helles, the British and French were now to remain largely on the defensive.The battle took place primarily around the ridge of Kocaçimentepe " meaning "Great Grass Hill" in Turkish . The peak was known to the British as "Hill 971" and they mistakenly applied the name for a lesser ridge to the main range, Sarı Bayır , meaning "Yellow Slope", which ended at the imposing bluff above Anzac Cove known as "The Sphinx".The commander of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force , General Sir Ian Hamilton , was provided with three British New Army divisions for the planned offensive; the 10th (Irish) Division , the 11th (Northern) Division and the 13th (Western) Division — all previously untried in battle . He was later reinforced with two Territorial Army divisions; the 53rd (Welsh) Division and the 54th (East Anglian) Division and one division of dismounted yeomanry ; the 2nd Mounted Division . The Suvla landing was to be made by the British IX Corps , under the command of Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Stopford who had retired in 1909 and had never commanded men in battle. His appointment was made based solely on seniority but his hesitancy during the preparations for the landing should have warned Hamilton that he was not a fit choice for the command. [ citation needed ] The Ottomans were well aware that a renewal of the offensive was imminent. There had been some doubt about whether the British would abandon the campaign but this was dispelled when Winston Churchill made a careless speech in Dundee , stating that the battle would continue, whatever the sacrifices. Consequently, the Fifth Army underwent a reorganisation resulting in an expansion to 16 divisions . Ten of these defended the existing battlefields (six at Helles, which had seen the bulk of the early fighting, and four at Anzac). Three divisions defended the Asian shore of the Dardanelles and three divisions of the Ottoman XVI Corps defended the Gulf of Saros north of Bulair at the neck of the peninsula. The Ottomans anticipated that the offensive would involve a breakout from Anzac but were unsure whether it would be north (towards Suvla) or south (towards Gaba Tepe ). A new British landing was also considered likely but Suvla was not rated highly as a candidate, consequently, only a modest force of four battalions defended the area. The Ottoman commanders also dismissed the possibility of an assault against the Sari Bair range due to the rugged terrain. Only Mustafa Kemal , commander of the Ottoman 19th Division at Anzac, expected the attack against the heights but he was unable to convince his commanding officer, Esad Pasha to significantly strengthen the defenses there. Back in June he had made another attempt, through Captain Fahrettin Altay , then 3rd Army chief of staff, to persuade Esad Pasha to improve the defenses further north, but achieved no result other than raising the ire of his commanding officer. To placate him, only one regiment , the 14th was moved to the sector north of Anzac. The attack from the Anzac perimeter was directed against two peaks of the Sari Bair range; Chunuk Bair and Hill 971. Under the overall command of Major-General Alexander Godley , the attacking force included the New Zealand and Australian Division , the British 13th Division plus a couple of extra infantry brigades . The plan was for two assaulting columns to march out of Anzac on the night of 6 August. The right-hand column, comprising the New Zealand Infantry Brigade under Brigadier-General Francis Johnston, would head for Chunuk Bair. The left-hand column, commanded by Major-General Herbert Cox , heading for Hill 971 and neighbouring Hill Q, contained the Australian 4th Infantry Brigade of Brigadier-General John Monash and Cox's 29th Indian Brigade . Both objectives were expected to be captured by dawn. To distract the Ottomans from the impending offensive, on 6 August, at 5.30 p.m., an attack was made at Lone Pine by the infantry brigades of the Australian 1st Division . While the attack was ultimately successful in capturing the Ottoman trenches, it was counterproductive as a diversion as it attracted reinforcements to the north. Another costly diversion was carried out at Helles which resulted in a pointless struggle over a patch of ground known as Krithia Vineyard . As was the case at Lone Pine, the British action at Helles did not restrain the Ottomans from sending reinforcements north to the Sari Bair range. The right column heading for Chunuk Bair had a simpler navigation task as their route was to some degree visible from the old Anzac perimeter. In what became known as the Battle of Chunuk Bair , the New Zealanders failed to capture the peak by the morning of 7 August but managed the feat on the next morning. On the morning following the breakout, a number of other attacks were planned within the old Anzac perimeter. The most notorious was the attack of the Australian 3rd Light Horse Brigade at The Nek whose slim chance of success had depended on the New Zealanders having captured Chunuk Bair on schedule. The left column's journey through the tangled ravines was doomed to failure and, having become lost and confused, it never got close to the objective of Hill 971. By the morning of 8 August Cox's forces were sufficiently organised to attempt an attack on their original objectives of Hill 971 and Hill Q. However Monash's brigade was still mistaken about its position relative to Hill 971. In fact, by the end of the day's advance Monash's troops had actually reached the position they had believed they had been starting from. Meanwhile, Hill 971 was more unreachable than ever. The three Australian battalions that had made the assault suffered 765 casualties — the 15th Battalion was reduced to about 30 per cent of its normal strength. Of the force aiming for Hill Q, one battalion of the 6th Gurkhas commanded by Major Cecil Allanson and joined by disparate New Army men, moved to within 200 feet of Hill Q by 6 p.m. on 8 August where they sought shelter from the heavy Ottoman fire. After a naval artillery bombardment, the battalion attacked the summit shortly after 5 a.m. on 9 August. The plan of the attack, as concocted by General Godley, had involved numerous other battalions but all were lost or pinned down so the Gurkhas went on alone. They succeeded in driving the Ottomans off the hill but were then caught in further naval gunfire from friendly monitors or from an artillery battery at Anzac. Having suffered heavy casualties and with no reinforcements, Allanson's force was pushed back off the hill shortly afterwards. By the end of 9 August the Allies retained only a foothold on Chunuk Bair. On 10 August the Ottomans, led from the front by Colonel Mustafa Kemal, counter-attacked and regained control of the entire Sari Bair ridge. Stopford's IX Corps comprised the British 10th (Irish) and 11th Divisions . At the time of the landing on 6 August the British were confronted by three Ottoman battalions under the command of a Bavarian cavalry officer, Major Wilhelm Willmer whose task was to delay the British until reinforcements could arrive from Bulair, 30 miles (48 km) away. Stopford, who had decided to command the landings from HMS Jonquil that was anchored offshore, slept during the attack instead. The 11th Division landed on the night of 6 August and two brigades of the 10th Division landed the following morning. The landings, made in the dark without the aid of reliable reconnaissance , suffered from the same confusion that reigned at Anzac landing on 25 April. Lighters ran aground on sandbars so that the troops had to wade some distance to get ashore. Many units became intermingled and officers were unable to locate their objectives. Lala Baba was captured by the 6th Battalion of the Yorkshire Regiment in what was the first combat action by any unit of the New Army of Lord Kitchener . The original objectives were the capture of the ridge lines to the north (Kiretch Tepe) and east (Tekke Tepe) and the line of hills to the south on the Anafarta Spur. Stopford's 'caution' and Hamilton's failure to exert his will on his subordinate commanders, meant the objectives were diluted to little more than securing the beach. By evening on 7 August, with the chain of command breaking down, progress had become minimal. Mostly due to Stopford still "commanding" from offshore, however, a lack of supplies, especially drinking water, weren't helping matters. To the south east Chocolate Hill and Green Hill were taken in the evening with minimal resistance but constant harassment by shrapnel and sniper fire. The British suffered 1,700 casualties on the first day at Suvla. General Sanders was incensed at the commander of the 7th and 12th divisions, Colonel Fevzi Bey, for not taking advantage of the Allied disarray at Suvla to pounce on them before they got organised. Turks not expecting a major landing at Suvla had to rush in the two divisions and Fevzi Bey dreaded night attacks, which were rarely successful. Sanders relieved Fevzi Bey immediately and gave the responsibility to Mustafa Kemal who was the commander of the 19th division and was now responsible for the front from Anzac Cove to Saros . He immediately planned for an attack along the Anafarta Hills. Given his success at Ariburnu earlier in spring, Mustafa Kemal's arrival boosted the Ottoman morale. The first serious Allied attempt at the ridges of the Anafarta Hills to the east was made on the night of 8 August, following intervention from Hamilton but on the morning of 9 August, the Ottoman reinforcements had begun to arrive and the British were driven back. The fighting concentrated around Scimitar Hill which protruded northwards from the Anafarta Spur and dominated the southern approach to the Tekke Tepe ridge. Scimitar Hill had been captured then abandoned on 8 August; attempts to retake the hill on 9 and 10 August, were thwarted by the Ottomans. The gunfire was so intense it set the undergrowth ablaze and many of the wounded were incinerated where they lay. As the fighting developed, the landing was reinforced by the arrival of the British 53rd Division on 9 August, followed by the 54th Division on 10 August. Stopford now had four divisions under his corps command but was faced by a similar strength of Ottoman defenders. The 53rd Division was mauled in another attack on Scimitar Hill on 10 August. On 15 August Hamilton sacked Stopford and a number of division and brigade commanders. The command of IX Corps was given to Major-General Beauvoir De Lisle , commander of the 29th Division until Lieutenant-General Julian Byng could travel from France to assume command.The attack from the Anzac perimeter was directed against two peaks of the Sari Bair range; Chunuk Bair and Hill 971. Under the overall command of Major-General Alexander Godley , the attacking force included the New Zealand and Australian Division , the British 13th Division plus a couple of extra infantry brigades . The plan was for two assaulting columns to march out of Anzac on the night of 6 August. The right-hand column, comprising the New Zealand Infantry Brigade under Brigadier-General Francis Johnston, would head for Chunuk Bair. The left-hand column, commanded by Major-General Herbert Cox , heading for Hill 971 and neighbouring Hill Q, contained the Australian 4th Infantry Brigade of Brigadier-General John Monash and Cox's 29th Indian Brigade . Both objectives were expected to be captured by dawn. To distract the Ottomans from the impending offensive, on 6 August, at 5.30 p.m., an attack was made at Lone Pine by the infantry brigades of the Australian 1st Division . While the attack was ultimately successful in capturing the Ottoman trenches, it was counterproductive as a diversion as it attracted reinforcements to the north. Another costly diversion was carried out at Helles which resulted in a pointless struggle over a patch of ground known as Krithia Vineyard . As was the case at Lone Pine, the British action at Helles did not restrain the Ottomans from sending reinforcements north to the Sari Bair range. The right column heading for Chunuk Bair had a simpler navigation task as their route was to some degree visible from the old Anzac perimeter. In what became known as the Battle of Chunuk Bair , the New Zealanders failed to capture the peak by the morning of 7 August but managed the feat on the next morning. On the morning following the breakout, a number of other attacks were planned within the old Anzac perimeter. The most notorious was the attack of the Australian 3rd Light Horse Brigade at The Nek whose slim chance of success had depended on the New Zealanders having captured Chunuk Bair on schedule. The left column's journey through the tangled ravines was doomed to failure and, having become lost and confused, it never got close to the objective of Hill 971. By the morning of 8 August Cox's forces were sufficiently organised to attempt an attack on their original objectives of Hill 971 and Hill Q. However Monash's brigade was still mistaken about its position relative to Hill 971. In fact, by the end of the day's advance Monash's troops had actually reached the position they had believed they had been starting from. Meanwhile, Hill 971 was more unreachable than ever. The three Australian battalions that had made the assault suffered 765 casualties — the 15th Battalion was reduced to about 30 per cent of its normal strength. Of the force aiming for Hill Q, one battalion of the 6th Gurkhas commanded by Major Cecil Allanson and joined by disparate New Army men, moved to within 200 feet of Hill Q by 6 p.m. on 8 August where they sought shelter from the heavy Ottoman fire. After a naval artillery bombardment, the battalion attacked the summit shortly after 5 a.m. on 9 August. The plan of the attack, as concocted by General Godley, had involved numerous other battalions but all were lost or pinned down so the Gurkhas went on alone. They succeeded in driving the Ottomans off the hill but were then caught in further naval gunfire from friendly monitors or from an artillery battery at Anzac. Having suffered heavy casualties and with no reinforcements, Allanson's force was pushed back off the hill shortly afterwards. By the end of 9 August the Allies retained only a foothold on Chunuk Bair. On 10 August the Ottomans, led from the front by Colonel Mustafa Kemal, counter-attacked and regained control of the entire Sari Bair ridge.Stopford's IX Corps comprised the British 10th (Irish) and 11th Divisions . At the time of the landing on 6 August the British were confronted by three Ottoman battalions under the command of a Bavarian cavalry officer, Major Wilhelm Willmer whose task was to delay the British until reinforcements could arrive from Bulair, 30 miles (48 km) away. Stopford, who had decided to command the landings from HMS Jonquil that was anchored offshore, slept during the attack instead. The 11th Division landed on the night of 6 August and two brigades of the 10th Division landed the following morning. The landings, made in the dark without the aid of reliable reconnaissance , suffered from the same confusion that reigned at Anzac landing on 25 April. Lighters ran aground on sandbars so that the troops had to wade some distance to get ashore. Many units became intermingled and officers were unable to locate their objectives. Lala Baba was captured by the 6th Battalion of the Yorkshire Regiment in what was the first combat action by any unit of the New Army of Lord Kitchener . The original objectives were the capture of the ridge lines to the north (Kiretch Tepe) and east (Tekke Tepe) and the line of hills to the south on the Anafarta Spur. Stopford's 'caution' and Hamilton's failure to exert his will on his subordinate commanders, meant the objectives were diluted to little more than securing the beach. By evening on 7 August, with the chain of command breaking down, progress had become minimal. Mostly due to Stopford still "commanding" from offshore, however, a lack of supplies, especially drinking water, weren't helping matters. To the south east Chocolate Hill and Green Hill were taken in the evening with minimal resistance but constant harassment by shrapnel and sniper fire. The British suffered 1,700 casualties on the first day at Suvla. General Sanders was incensed at the commander of the 7th and 12th divisions, Colonel Fevzi Bey, for not taking advantage of the Allied disarray at Suvla to pounce on them before they got organised. Turks not expecting a major landing at Suvla had to rush in the two divisions and Fevzi Bey dreaded night attacks, which were rarely successful. Sanders relieved Fevzi Bey immediately and gave the responsibility to Mustafa Kemal who was the commander of the 19th division and was now responsible for the front from Anzac Cove to Saros . He immediately planned for an attack along the Anafarta Hills. Given his success at Ariburnu earlier in spring, Mustafa Kemal's arrival boosted the Ottoman morale. The first serious Allied attempt at the ridges of the Anafarta Hills to the east was made on the night of 8 August, following intervention from Hamilton but on the morning of 9 August, the Ottoman reinforcements had begun to arrive and the British were driven back. The fighting concentrated around Scimitar Hill which protruded northwards from the Anafarta Spur and dominated the southern approach to the Tekke Tepe ridge. Scimitar Hill had been captured then abandoned on 8 August; attempts to retake the hill on 9 and 10 August, were thwarted by the Ottomans. The gunfire was so intense it set the undergrowth ablaze and many of the wounded were incinerated where they lay. As the fighting developed, the landing was reinforced by the arrival of the British 53rd Division on 9 August, followed by the 54th Division on 10 August. Stopford now had four divisions under his corps command but was faced by a similar strength of Ottoman defenders. The 53rd Division was mauled in another attack on Scimitar Hill on 10 August. On 15 August Hamilton sacked Stopford and a number of division and brigade commanders. The command of IX Corps was given to Major-General Beauvoir De Lisle , commander of the 29th Division until Lieutenant-General Julian Byng could travel from France to assume command.Once the battles of 21 August had finished, the front lines at Suvla and Anzac remained static for the remainder of the campaign. Localised fighting continued but no more major advances were attempted. Many soldiers suffered or perished due to the hostile conditions they endured as a result of their poor preparation and training. Disease transmitted by mosquitoes and the lack of fresh water and shelter hampered the efforts of the division as the men were too weak to fight to their best ability. The insufficient knowledge had an impact of their advancement as their enemy were more familiar to the terrain and could ambush the division successfully. A combination of factors caused their success to be mixed. [ page needed ] As the shape of the new front line firmed, General Hamilton planned one further attack to try to link the Suvla landing to Anzac. This required the capture of a group of hills; Scimitar Hill and the 'W' Hills from Suvla and Hill 60 from the new Anzac sector. The attacks were to commence on 21 August. At Suvla, de Lisle had his 29th Division and the 2nd Mounted Division which had been moved to Suvla as additional reinforcements. The 29th Division was to attack Scimitar Hill while the 11th Division was to take the W Hills on the south of the Anafarta Spur. The 2nd Mounted Division was in reserve near Lala Baba on the far side of the salt lake. This attack was the largest mounted by the Allies at Gallipoli. Scimitar Hill was captured briefly but the attackers were driven off or killed by the defensive fire from the Ottomans higher up the spur. Once again the undergrowth ignited, burning many of the wounded. The 2nd Mounted Division were called to join the attack and advanced, marching in extended formation, straight across the salt lake, under fire the whole way. For a second time the hill was captured, briefly, before being lost for the final time. The attack of the 11th Division towards the W Hills was held up by strong Ottoman defences. In the Anzac sector, Hill 60 had been unoccupied on the morning of 7 August, when Australian scouts passed across but the Ottomans swiftly occupied and fortified the hill. The Battle of Hill 60 lasted for eight days and while the summit was eventually reached, the Allies were unable to completely dislodge the Ottoman defenders who fought hard to hold their positions.Once the battles of 21 August had finished, the front lines at Suvla and Anzac remained static for the remainder of the campaign. Localised fighting continued but no more major advances were attempted. Many soldiers suffered or perished due to the hostile conditions they endured as a result of their poor preparation and training. Disease transmitted by mosquitoes and the lack of fresh water and shelter hampered the efforts of the division as the men were too weak to fight to their best ability. The insufficient knowledge had an impact of their advancement as their enemy were more familiar to the terrain and could ambush the division successfully. A combination of factors caused their success to be mixed. [ page needed ]As the shape of the new front line firmed, General Hamilton planned one further attack to try to link the Suvla landing to Anzac. This required the capture of a group of hills; Scimitar Hill and the 'W' Hills from Suvla and Hill 60 from the new Anzac sector. The attacks were to commence on 21 August. At Suvla, de Lisle had his 29th Division and the 2nd Mounted Division which had been moved to Suvla as additional reinforcements. The 29th Division was to attack Scimitar Hill while the 11th Division was to take the W Hills on the south of the Anafarta Spur. The 2nd Mounted Division was in reserve near Lala Baba on the far side of the salt lake. This attack was the largest mounted by the Allies at Gallipoli. Scimitar Hill was captured briefly but the attackers were driven off or killed by the defensive fire from the Ottomans higher up the spur. Once again the undergrowth ignited, burning many of the wounded. The 2nd Mounted Division were called to join the attack and advanced, marching in extended formation, straight across the salt lake, under fire the whole way. For a second time the hill was captured, briefly, before being lost for the final time. The attack of the 11th Division towards the W Hills was held up by strong Ottoman defences. In the Anzac sector, Hill 60 had been unoccupied on the morning of 7 August, when Australian scouts passed across but the Ottomans swiftly occupied and fortified the hill. The Battle of Hill 60 lasted for eight days and while the summit was eventually reached, the Allies were unable to completely dislodge the Ottoman defenders who fought hard to hold their positions.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Reshmi_Sari/html

Reshmi Sari

Reshmi Sari is a Bollywood film . It was released in 1940 .

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Mundum_neriyatum/html

Mundum neriyatum

Mundum neriyatum ( Malayalam : മുണ്ട് നേരിയത്; settu-mundu or mundu-set) is the traditional clothing of women in Kerala , a state in southwestern India . It is the oldest remnant of the ancient form of the sari which covered only the lower part of the body. In the mundum neriyatum, the most basic traditional piece is the mundu or lower garment which is the ancient form of the sari denoted in Malayalam as tuṇi (meaning cloth), while the nēriyatu forms the upper garment the mundu. The mundum neriyatum consists of two pieces of cloth, and could be worn in either the traditional style with the nēriyatu tucked inside the blouse, or in the modern style with the nēriyatu worn over the left shoulder. The mundum neriyatum is the extant form of the ancient sari referred to as "Sattika" in Hindu , Buddhist and Jain literature. The mundu is the surviving form of lower garment of the ancient clothing referred to as antariya worn in a special way (lower garment). The neriyatu is the modern adaptation of a thin scarf worn from the right shoulder to the left shoulder referred to in ancient Buddhist-Jain texts as the uttariya . This two-set garments eventually evolved into what is now known as Kerala sari . Surviving medieval Kerala mural paintings depict existence of three-styles of clothing worn by women, these include one-piece mundum, single-piece sari with over-lapping pleats resembling nivi-drape worn today by Mohiniyattam dancers and two-piece mundum neriyatum attire which evolved into Kerala sari . The mundum neriyatum is traditionally white or cream in colour and consists of two pieces of cloth, which have a coloured strip at the border known as kara . The piece of cloth that drapes the lower garment is called the mundu. It is worn below the navel and around the hips, similar to the mundu worn by men in Kerala . The piece of cloth that is worn as the upper garment is called the neriyatu. One end of the neriyatu is tucked inside the pavada or petticoat and the remaining long end is worn across the front torso. The neriyatu is worn over a blouse that reaches quite above the breast bone. It is worn diagonally from along the right hips to the left shoulder and across the midriff, partly baring it. The remaining loose end of the neriyatu is left hanging from the left shoulder, resembling the 'nivi sari'. Today the 'nivi drape', is the most common form of the sari. A mundum neriyatum is starched before being draped and is worn over a blouse that matches the colour of the border or kara.The mundum neriyatum is worn as everyday costume and also as distinct costume on festive occasions, in which case the Kara is ornamental in couture. During the Keralite festival of onam , women of all ages wear the mundum neriyatum and take part in folk dance meant only for women called kaikottikalli . The mundum neriyatum for festive occasion has golden coloured borders or a broad zari border known as Kasavu , lending the costume another name of "Kasavu Sari". The colour for the blouse of the mundum neriyatum for this occasion is determined by the age and marital status of the woman. Young unmarried girls wear green coloured blouse, while married middle aged mothers wear red blouses. The kasavu or the golden border is either pure golden layer, copper coated or artificial. The fabric of mundu-sari is cotton and is always woven by hand. Kara or simple line designs adorn the bottom of these saris, while at times small peacock or temple designs embellish the pallu. The mundum neriyatum is also known as Set mundu , Kasavu mundu, Mundu-sari, set-sari, or set veshti. The veshti is another version of the sari which consists of small upper clothing resembling a blouse-like garment worn without the pallu along with a mundu as lower garment.The Kerala sari is worn as a garment that consists of a single piece of cloth. Otherwise, the Kerala sari closely resembles the mundum neriyatum and is often worn by Malayali women as a quasi mundum neriyatum.The mundum neriyatum is the cultural costume of women of the Malayali community. The grace and appeal of the golden borders contrasting with the otherwise plain white mundum neriyatum of Keralite women has come to symbolize Malayali women. Both the traditional and modern styles of the mundum neriyatum are depicted in the paintings of the Indian painter Raja Ravi Varma . The mundum neriyatum was modified in several paintings depicting Shakuntala from the Mahabharata to a style of draping now popularly known as the 'nivi sari' or 'national drape'. In one of his paintings the Indian subcontinent was shown as a mother wearing a flowing nivi sari.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Tandjung_Sari/html

Tandjung Sari

Sanur Tandjung Sari (meaning: Cape of Flowers) is a boutique hotel located in the Sanur district of Denpasar , Bali . The hotel is considered amongst the first resorts to be built in both Sanur and Bali, and also amongst the first boutique hotels to be established in South East Asia . The hotel is founded and owned by the Waworuntu family. Tandjung Sari Hotel was founded in 1962 by Wija Wawo-Runtu and his wife Judith, proprietors of an antique and furniture store in Jakarta , Indonesia . The hotel was built on the site of a former Balinese shrine called the Pura Tandjung Sari (lit. Temple of the Cape of Flowers) initially as a lodging for the founders during their trips to Bali to procure antiques for their business. The Wawo-Runtu house was amongst the first houses and accommodations to be built on Sanur's stretch of Beach. At the time, living in close proximity to the sea had been considered dangerous and arguably taboo by the local inhabitants. The hotel is built on a coconut grove and features a garden. The initial house, and four more bungalows were built to accommodate friends of the Wawo-Runtus. Later in the decade, Wija Wawo-Runtu cooperated with then-resident Australian artist, Donald Friend , to expand the hotel's size, but keeping its style in mimicking a Balinese village. The popularity of Tandjung Sari later sprung the development of Sanur's Batujimbar Estate - a row of houses stretching throughout the beach designed by the Sri Lankan architect Geoffrey Bawa . The hotel and area's subsequent popularity in itself served as a precursor for the area's later development, where by 1970, Friend and Wawo-Runtu were inspired to build a much larger hotel with the help of Australian architect Peter Muller , which later became the Bali Hyatt. Throughout its history, the hotel had welcomed notable guests including Annie Lennox , David Bowie , Mick Jagger , Ringo Starr , and Yoko Ono , as well as political figures like Dewi Sukarno and Tien Suharto . and in 2024 Rodney Holloway. During its heyday in the 1970s to the 1980s, the hotel and its bar had also been considered a notable place of interest. Aman Resorts founder, Adrian Zecha stated the following about the hotel. "It was the social centre of the foreign community. You'd go there because everyone else was there." The hotel's logo depicts the amalgamation of a coral and a flower, and was designed by German artist, Hans Hoefer in 1971. The hotel remains owned and operated by the Waworuntu family, descendants of Wija Wawo-Runtu. The hotel was built in a traditional Balinese style, most notably featuring Balinese carved doors and coral walls - a style that later was adopted all over Sanur's Batujimbar area. Whilst the hotel's structures have been built locally by Balinese craftsmen, many of the hotel's ornamental and artistic features were designed under direct supervision of Donald Friend. In particular, the bungalow's thatched roofing and Friend's idea of leaf-pressed cement pathways were later mimicked in numerous other hotels and houses in Bali. When the hotel expanded significantly in 1972, 16 new bungalows, named 'village bungalows' were built to mimic the shape of the Hindu Swastika when viewed from above. Each Swastika-shaped cluster of four bungalows incorporated a Balinese traditional Kul-Kul tower in its centre courtyard, as a testament to Bali's cultural heritage. Furthermore, the hotel's reception building had once been a part of an Ubud palace. Tandjung Sari's style served as a precursor of what is now the predominantly used hotel architectural style in Bali. Wija Wawo-Runtu, Donald Friend, and later Peter Muller's vision to build a larger hotel (later opened as the Bali Hyatt in 1972) with Tandjung Sari's architectural style of traditional building forms, later became the design standard for all subsequent large-scale hotels now commonly referred as the typical Balinese hotel architecture. Peter Muller later continued to develop the Balinese hotel style with the subsequent building of Amandari in 1989. Muller's influence combined with Geoffrey Bawa's Batujimbar Estate project, served as inspiration for Australian architect Kerry Hill for his own set of hotels in the island.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sári_Petráss/html

Sári Petráss

Sári Petráss (born Sarolta Petráss; 5 November 1888 – 9 September 1930) was a Hungarian operetta actress and singer. In the 1910s and 1920s, she played leading soprano parts in Budapest , Vienna , London and on Broadway . According to Richard Traubner , Sári Petráss and Sári Fedák remain "the two best-remembered Hungarian female operetta stars of all time." Petráss was born in Verőce, Hungary in 1888 and was a niece to Bertha von Suttner , countess Kinsky . Petráss debuted in as a lead singer in November 1911 in Leányvásár along with Sári Fedák. The show produced at the Király Színház (King Theater), Budapest became an international hit as was instantly picked up by Carltheater in Vienna and by the English impresario George Edwardes . In 1912, Edwardes "imported" her and most of the original Budapest cast to London. Petráss quickly mastered singing in English and performed at the Daly's Theatre in Edwardes's English language version of Franz Lehár 's Gipsy Love (1912) at Daly's Theatre , which ran 299 performances. She then performed at Daly's in The Marriage Market (1913) and in a revival of A Waltz Dream (1913), all with Gertie Millar and Robert Michaelis . Petráss was an expert horse rider, and rode a donkey called Jenny in the opening scenes of The Marriage Market . In February 1916, the American media spread a rumour that Petráss had been executed in Budapest as a spy. Allegedly, after the outbreak of World War I she returned from England to Hungary to spy against the Central Powers for the British. The exact origin of the rumour is unknown; later it was confirmed that she indeed returned from England to Vienna and starred there in The Beautiful Unknown by Oscar Straus . William Boosey wrote that the London show of The Gipsy Princess with Petráss failed owing to cast selection, despite a "phenomenal run everywhere". In late 1916, she settled in New York City and starred at the New Amsterdam Theatre . The New York Times praised her performance in the September 1916 premiere of Miss Springtime . The show was originally billed as Little Miss Springtime but A.L. Erlanger of New Amsterdam decided against "anything Little" by Emmerich Kálmán and Jerome Kern : "a prima donna new to these shores and destined to be a reigning favorite... in addition to her other talents, she is a clever actress. Miss Petrass is pretty and graceful and her voice, while not large, has a lovely quality and is used with great discretion." A few days later Alexander Woollcott objected: "while Sári Petráss is an ingratiating and pretty vivacious prima donna, she can scarcely take first rank as a singer." In March 1917 Petráss married Felix Augustus Eugene Sommerhoff , a broker from Cedarhurst, New York . She soon withdrew from Miss Springtime and toured the United States with The Beautiful Unknown . In 1921, Petráss reprised her role in The Gipsy Princess at the Prince of Wales Theatre , London. Sari Petrass was buried at the "Old saint mary church churchyard in Deal, Kent UK ... thumb Petráss and a friend, Lady Horne, were killed in an accident [ clarification needed ] in Antwerp, Belgium on 9 September 1930. Their chauffeur, attempting to drive the car onto a ferry bound for Sainte Anne, was blinded by the beam of a lighthouse and crashed the car into the Scheldt . Both passengers drowned; Petráss was not identified until the next day.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sarı_yataq/html

Sarı yataq

Sarı yataq or Sarıyatag or Sariyatag or Sari Yatag may refer to:

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Ada_Sari/html

Ada Sari

Ada Sari (29 June 1886 – 12 July 1968) was a Polish opera singer, actress, and educator. One of the leading dramatic coloratura sopranos of her generation, she possessed a large, resonant voice with a clear timbre. Her career took her to the stages of the best opera houses and concert halls in Europe during the first half of the 20th century. Her signature roles included Gilda in Rigoletto , Mimi in La bohème , Rosina in The Barber of Seville , Violetta in La traviata , and the title roles in Lakmé and Lucia di Lammermoor . She also gave lauded concert tours in North and South America. Sari enjoyed a great deal of popularity among audiences and critics and she was dubbed "The Queen of Coloratura" and the "New Patti " by the Italian press. During her career she appeared opposite many famous singers, including Mattia Battistini , Beniamino Gigli , Aureliano Pertile , Titta Ruffo and Tito Schipa to name a just a few. She collaborated with many well known conductors like Sergei Koussevitzky , Tullio Serafin , and Arturo Toscanini . She also appeared in concert with many well-known performers, such as Fritz Kreisler , Wilhelm Backhaus , and Pablo Casals . Born with the name Jadwiga Szayer in Wadowice , Sari was the daughter of Edward Szayer, a well-known lawyer, and his wife Franciszka née Chybińska. When she was three years old she moved with her family to Stary SÄ cz where her father opened a law firm and eventually served as mayor for seventeen years. After completion of her primary education, she studied music theory and singing privately in Cieszyn and Kraków . In 1905 she was admitted to a private music school in Vienna operated by Countess Pizzamano. From 1907 to 1909 she studied in Milan with Antonio Rupnick. Sari made her professional opera debut in 1909 as Marguerite in Charles Gounod 's Faust at the Teatro Nazionale in Rome. She spent the next three years appearing at major opera houses in Italy like La Scala , the Teatro Comunale di Bologna , La Fenice and the Teatro della Pergola . Between 1912 and 1914 she had major successes at the Teatro Lirico Giuseppe Verdi , the Teatro Donizetti di Bergamo, the Teatro Dal Verme , the Teatro Regio di Parma , the Teatro del Giglio , the opera house in Brescia and the Teatro di San Carlo . At the later house she was a much admired Berthe in Giacomo Meyerbeer 's Le prophète and Arsena in The Gypsy Baron . She also sang Santuzza in Mascagni 's Cavalleria rusticana and Nedda in Leoncavallo 's Pagliacci under the batons of their respective composers in Alexandria . In early 1914 Sari gave a highly lauded portrayal of the title heroine in Jules Massenet 's Thaïs at the Great Theatre, Warsaw . She also appeared at that house as Tamara in Anton Rubinstein 's The Demon with Mattia Battistini in the title role. In the spring of 1914 Sari embarked on a lengthy concert tour of Russia with a group of Italian singers which included extended stays in Moscow and Saint Petersburg for opera performances at the Mariinsky and Bolshoi Theatres . The tour, which originated in Warsaw, also stopped for performances in Lemberg , Kiev , and Kraków. While Sari was on tour, World War I broke out and the soprano decided to accept a contract at the Vienna State Opera in the Fall of 1914 as that city was not facing any immediate military threat. She left there in the Fall of 1916 to join the roster of singers at the opera house in Lviv . After a year there she returned to the Great Theatre, Warsaw where her portrayals included Lucia, Marguerite de Valois in Les Huguenots , and Konstanze in Die Entführung aus dem Serail . After World War I ended, Sari performed a lot in South America, especially since 1918 at the Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires. In 1921 she undertook a concert tour throughout North America, which included appearances at Carnegie Hall in New York and the Auditorium Building of Roosevelt University in Chicago. Toscanini invited her to portray the Queen of the Night in The Magic Flute for the opening of La Scala's 1923–1924 season. During the next decade she gave a series of triumphant concert tours in Europe and North America and regularly visited Poland. In 1934 she moved back to Warsaw, where she sang frequently at the Wielki Theatre . During the Second World War she directed an underground opera studio in Warsaw, and after the war she sang with the opera companies in Wrocław and Kraków, as well as giving concerts and broadcasts. While still performing, she began to teach in 1936 and was very talented in this field, too. Many well-known singers such as Halina Mickiewiczówna de Larzac, Bogna Sokorska, Urszula Trawińska-Moroz, Maria Foltyn graduated from her class.She retired from the stage in 1947 then was entirely devoted to teaching for many years. She died of heart attack at the age of 82 during her stay in a sanatorium in Ciechocinek in 1968.Since 1985, the Ada Sari International Vocal Artistry Festival and Competition has been held annually in the town of Nowy SÄ cz , Lesser Poland Voivodeship , in honour of the musical legacy of Ada Sari. It is organized by the SOKÓŁ Lesser Poland Cultural Centre (Polish: Małopolskie Centrum Kultury SOKÓŁ ). The current director of the festival is Małgorzata Walewska , who assumed this position in 2014.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sirkka_Sari/html

Sirkka Sari

Sirkka Sari (born Sirkka Linnea Jahnsson , 1 May 1920 – 30 July 1939) was a Finnish actress . Sirkka died when she fell down a chimney . She was at a party with the rest of the cast and crew of Rikas tyttö , her third and last film, while shooting at the Aulanko Hotel in Hämeenlinna ; the party had been her idea. She and one of the men in the group went up to the roof of the hotel; on the flat roof, there was a chimney almost 30 metres high, with a ladder leading up to the top. Sari mistook this chimney for a scenery balcony , climbed up, and fell down inside it into a heating boiler 's furnace, where she died instantly of internal injuries and cardiac arrest. Because of Sari's death, the end of the film had to be altered; the crew shot further away, and so another woman had to replace Sari on these final shots. Sirkka Sari was buried in the churchyard at Perkjärvi in her native East Karelia. Both the church and the cemetery were destroyed in the Winter War the following year, and the area was thereafter annexed by the Soviet Union . Today the territory is part of Russia , and attempts to locate her grave since the end of the Cold War have so far been unsuccessful.Niskavuoren naiset (1938) Sysmäläinen (1938) Rikas tyttö (1939)

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Furuya/html

Sari Furuya

Sari Maeda (born Sari Furuya on 25 May 1990) is a Japanese biathlete . She competed in the 2018 Winter Olympics . 0 medals 0 medals0 medals0 medals

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Pochampally_sari/html

Pochampally sari

Pochampally sari or Pochampalli ikat is a saree made in Bhoodan Pochampally , Yadadri Bhuvanagiri district , Telangana State , India . They have traditional geometric patterns in " Paagadu Bandhu " ( Ikat ) style of dyeing . The intricate geometric designs find their way into sarees and dress materials. The Indian government 's official airplane company, Air India , has its cabin crew wear specially designed Pochampally silk sarees. Telangana is one of the ancient Ikat weaving centers in India, along with Gujarat and neighboring Odisha . The weaving centers during ancient period was in Chirala and Jentrpeta towns situated between Vijayawada and Chennai but was discontinued for various reasons. Locally, Pochampally Ikat is known as Paagadu Bandhu and Chitki in Telangana where it is produced, in other parts of India it is popularly known as Pochampally , named after one of the villages where it is produced. It has its own unique character of design, different from other Ikat producing areas in India. Today, most of weaving takes place in Pochampally village where there are over five thousand looms producing this textile. It has found place in UNESCO tentative list of world heritage sites as part of "iconic saree weaving clusters of India". The kerchiefs made of silk thread are known as "Teli Rumals"The weaving survives in a few villages like Pochampally, Koyalgudam, Choutuppala, Siripuram, Bhuvanagiri, Puttapaka and Gattuppala and few villages around them mostly in Nalgonda district. Pochampally Ikat uniqueness lies in the transfer of intricate design and colouring onto warp and weft threads first and then weave them together globally known as double ikat textiles. The fabric is cotton, silk and sico – a mix of silk and cotton. Increasingly, the colours themselves are from natural sources and their blends.Pochampally, a cluster of 80 villages, has traditional looms, whose pattern and designs are centuries-old. Today this Silk City, which is more of a cottage industry, is home to more than 10,000 weaving families in 100 villages. The fabric is marketed through the cooperative society, many other linked organizations, the master weavers and the business houses in Pochampally. Pochampally does more than Rs.10,00,000,00 annual business in terms of yarn sales, purchase of handloom products and sales. The government in 2010 divided the belt into two clusters Pochampally 1 and Pochampally 2, and is proving common weaving centres. Because of its unique design, efforts are on to revive the dying art.Pochampally saree received Intellectual Property Rights Protection or Geographical Indication (GI) status in 2005. Pochampally Ikat be the registered property of Pochampally Handloom Weavers Cooperative Society Ltd and the Pochampally Handloom Tie and Dye Silk Sarees Manufacturers Association. UN selects Telangana's Pochampally as one of the world's 'best tourism villages'. Being famous for its eponymous handloom weaved 'Ikat' sarees. The silk city of India is declared as the best villages on the planet by UN . Govt of India has issued a postal ticket of INR 5.00 in the year 2018 in its recognition.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sezen_Aksu/html

Sezen Aksu

Singer songwriter poet composer producer actress Hop Kent Kervan Sembol Fono Coşkun Foneks Karma Raks PolyGram Post DMC Seyhan Sezen Aksu ( Turkish pronunciation: [ seˈzen ˈaksu ] ; born Fatma Sezen Yıldırım ; 13 July 1954) is a Turkish singer, songwriter and producer. She is one of the most successful Turkish singers, having sold over 40 million albums worldwide. Her nicknames include the "Queen of Turkish Pop" and " Minik Serçe " ("Little Sparrow"). Aksu's influence on Turkish pop and world music has continued since her debut in 1975, and has been reinforced by her patronage of and collaboration with many other musicians, including Yonca Evcimik , Sertab Erener , Şebnem Ferah , Aşkın Nur Yengi , Hande Yener , Yıldız Tilbe , Işın Karaca , Seden Gürel , Harun Kolçak and Levent Yüksel . Sezen Aksu is widely known as a successful songwriter. Her work with Tarkan resulted in continental hits like " Şımarık " and " Şıkıdım " and her collaboration with Goran Bregović widened her international audience. In 2010, NPR named her as one of the "50 Great Voices" of the world. Sezen Aksu was born in Sarayköy , Denizli , Turkey. Her father was a mathematics teacher. Her family moved to Bergama when she was three years old and she spent her childhood and early youth there. Aksu's parents discouraged her singing because they wanted her to have a steady profession as a doctor or engineer. She used to wait until they left the house and sing on the family's balcony. After finishing high school, she began studying at the local agricultural institute, but left college to concentrate on music. Along with her close friend Ajda Pekkan , Aksu is credited with laying the foundations of Turkish pop music in the 1970s. Her sound has also spread across the Balkans and Greece. Aksu has also toured in Europe and the U.S to critical appraise. She has championed a variety of causes, including support for constitutional reform, minority rights, women's rights, the environment, and educational reform in Turkey. Aksu has been married and divorced four times, but kept the name from her second marriage to Ali Engin Aksu, a doctor of geology who currently resides in Canada. She has a son with Sinan Özer, named Mithat Can, who is also a lead vocalist of Pist'on band.Sezen Aksu released her first single, Haydi Şansım/Gel Bana in 1975 under the name of "Sezen Seley". However, she remained undiscovered until her 1976 single Olmaz Olsun/Vurdumduymaz reached number one in the Turkish charts . In 1976, Sezen Aksu won the "Promising Female Artist of the Year" award. Her first album was 1978's Serçe , which earned her a famous nickname, first penned by a Turkish journalist. Aksu finally decided to represent Turkey at the Eurovision Song Contest in the mid-70s. However, even though she competed in the national finals for the competition three times, with Küçük Bir Aşk Masalı (A Little Love Tale) as a duet with Özdemir Erdoğan, "Heyamola" which was performed as a trio with Coşkun Demir and Ali Kocatepe, and 1945 which was a solo performance, she did not get the chance to represent Turkey abroad. It was to be left to her pupil, Sertab Erener , to win the Eurovision and realise Aksu's dream to push her musical vision further into Europe. In the 80's, Aksu had a relationship with Turkish-Armenian producer Onno Tunç that was both romantic and professional. As a couple they put their signatures to works that broke new ground in Turkish pop music , such as Sen Ağlama , Git , Sezen Aksu'88 and Sezen Aksu Söylüyor . Her music matured in the 90's, when she co-produced her best selling album to-date Gülümse with Tunç. The A-1 track from the album called Hadi Bakalım was a hit in Turkey and Europe, and was published as a single in Germany. It was to be later rediscovered in Europop by singer Loona as Rhythm of the Night . She also began to produce albums for her vocalists, notably producing Aşkın Nur Yengi 's debut album Sevgiliye (To a Lover) again with Tunç. She was to repeat her success as a teacher with artists Sertab Erener and Levent Yüksel . Parting ways with Tunç, in 1995, Aksu branched out with the experimental album Işık Doğudan Yükselir , drawing both on western classical and regional Turkish musical traditions. This album made her name known outside Turkey and gave her a worldwide audience, especially in Europe. In 1996, she released Düş Bahçeleri as a tribute to Tunç, who died that same year tragically when his private plane crashed. In 1997, she released Düğün ve Cenaze , this time collaborating with Goran Bregović . She returned to her roots with Adı Bende Saklı , which was released in 1998. She began to use experimental sounds and was once again pushing Turkish pop into the future. Aksu continued with this trend with her subsequent albums Deliveren , Şarkı Söylemek Lazım (which also featured former Sparks bassist Martin Gordon as engineer/mixer, who also was bass player on her subsequent European tour), and Yaz Bitmeden between the years 2000–2003. After a two-year hiatus, she returned with Bahane in 2005. That same year she released Kardelen , where all proceeds went to charity, and before the end of 2005 released a Bahane/Remixes double-CD album, which contained the original Bahane album in disc one and the remixes of songs in disc two. In 2005, she was featured in Fatih Akın 's documentary film Crossing the Bridge: The Sound of Istanbul with a performance of the song "İstanbul Hatırası". In 2006, Aksu published a book called Eksik Şiir , a collection of 197 songs written by her between 1975-2006. The book was well-received and sold 17,000 copies in the first 4 days after its release. It was followed by Eksik Şiir İkinci Kitap in 2016. In 2008, Aksu released her album called Deniz Yıldızı through Starfish Records. In 2009 she released her album Yürüyorum Düş Bahçelerinde . The album contains new original songs as well as some older songs which were composed by Sezen Aksu for other singers, most notably "Çakkıdı", "Kibir", "Yok Ki". In 2010, Aksu was on the "50 Great Sounds" list set by the American NPR radio. Sezen Aksu's concert with Fahir Atakoğlu in Stockholm , Sweden in April 2010 was attended by many Turkish and Swedish music lovers. After a 10-year break, "TurkofAmerica" and "GNL Entertainment" organized a series of concerts by Aksu in the USA, with the corporate sponsorship of the Washington -based Turkish Cultural Foundation. The three concerts were held between 4–7 April at three different venues: Strathmore in Maryland, Carnegie Hall in New York, and Prudential Hall in New Jersey. Atakoğlu also accompanied Aksu during her concerts in the USA. After performing well over the time allocated for her New Jersey concert, Aksu told the audience: "We have exceeded the [time] limits, the Americans have also set a record of patience, New Jersey will be like this tonight, I will not leave this scene until I make all of you happy". In 2011, Aksu bean producing music again and released the studio album Öptüm . The album consists of songs written and composed by Aksu, including "Unuttun mu Beni", "Vay", "Aşka Şükrederim", "Ah Felek Yordun Beni", and also features a song written by Nazan Öncel titled "Ballı". Cemal Süreya 's poem "Sayım" was turned by Aksu into a song and included in the album as well. At her concert in Volkswagen Arena Istanbul in January 2016, Aksu announced that she would retire from performing live on stage: "Each ending is a new beginning. I will continue to produce [music], but I'm going to say goodbye to the stage after doing a few concerts I promised before. This is my last concert in Istanbul. I'm grateful for having you here with me today in memory of 40 years of my career." In September, she stated again that she would continue making music. In January 2022, Aksu was criticized by conservaties and religious figures for calling Adam and Eve ignorant in the song "Ne Şahane Bir Şey Yaşamak" (a cover of the 2012 song " C'est la vie "). The song was originally included in the 2017 tribute album Alakasız Şarkılar, Vol. 1 in memory of Yaşar Gaga, but resurfaced on the social media in early 2022 after its lyric video was published on Aksu's official YouTube channel on 30 December 2021. President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan , leader of the Nationalist Movement Party Devlet Bahçeli , and the Directorate of Religious Affairs , were among the political figures and government agencies that criticized Aksu and the song. After remaining silent for a month, Aksu eventually released a statement on her Facebook account on January 22. "As you know, the matter is not me; the matter is the country," she remarked, thanking everyone who have shown their support for her. Aksu also revealed the lyrics to a new song she wrote the previous day: "You won't be able to crush my tongue." Sezen Aksu released her first single, Haydi Şansım/Gel Bana in 1975 under the name of "Sezen Seley". However, she remained undiscovered until her 1976 single Olmaz Olsun/Vurdumduymaz reached number one in the Turkish charts . In 1976, Sezen Aksu won the "Promising Female Artist of the Year" award. Her first album was 1978's Serçe , which earned her a famous nickname, first penned by a Turkish journalist. Aksu finally decided to represent Turkey at the Eurovision Song Contest in the mid-70s. However, even though she competed in the national finals for the competition three times, with Küçük Bir Aşk Masalı (A Little Love Tale) as a duet with Özdemir Erdoğan, "Heyamola" which was performed as a trio with Coşkun Demir and Ali Kocatepe, and 1945 which was a solo performance, she did not get the chance to represent Turkey abroad. It was to be left to her pupil, Sertab Erener , to win the Eurovision and realise Aksu's dream to push her musical vision further into Europe.In the 80's, Aksu had a relationship with Turkish-Armenian producer Onno Tunç that was both romantic and professional. As a couple they put their signatures to works that broke new ground in Turkish pop music , such as Sen Ağlama , Git , Sezen Aksu'88 and Sezen Aksu Söylüyor . Her music matured in the 90's, when she co-produced her best selling album to-date Gülümse with Tunç. The A-1 track from the album called Hadi Bakalım was a hit in Turkey and Europe, and was published as a single in Germany. It was to be later rediscovered in Europop by singer Loona as Rhythm of the Night . She also began to produce albums for her vocalists, notably producing Aşkın Nur Yengi 's debut album Sevgiliye (To a Lover) again with Tunç. She was to repeat her success as a teacher with artists Sertab Erener and Levent Yüksel .Parting ways with Tunç, in 1995, Aksu branched out with the experimental album Işık Doğudan Yükselir , drawing both on western classical and regional Turkish musical traditions. This album made her name known outside Turkey and gave her a worldwide audience, especially in Europe. In 1996, she released Düş Bahçeleri as a tribute to Tunç, who died that same year tragically when his private plane crashed. In 1997, she released Düğün ve Cenaze , this time collaborating with Goran Bregović . She returned to her roots with Adı Bende Saklı , which was released in 1998. She began to use experimental sounds and was once again pushing Turkish pop into the future. Aksu continued with this trend with her subsequent albums Deliveren , Şarkı Söylemek Lazım (which also featured former Sparks bassist Martin Gordon as engineer/mixer, who also was bass player on her subsequent European tour), and Yaz Bitmeden between the years 2000–2003. After a two-year hiatus, she returned with Bahane in 2005. That same year she released Kardelen , where all proceeds went to charity, and before the end of 2005 released a Bahane/Remixes double-CD album, which contained the original Bahane album in disc one and the remixes of songs in disc two. In 2005, she was featured in Fatih Akın 's documentary film Crossing the Bridge: The Sound of Istanbul with a performance of the song "İstanbul Hatırası". In 2006, Aksu published a book called Eksik Şiir , a collection of 197 songs written by her between 1975-2006. The book was well-received and sold 17,000 copies in the first 4 days after its release. It was followed by Eksik Şiir İkinci Kitap in 2016. In 2008, Aksu released her album called Deniz Yıldızı through Starfish Records. In 2009 she released her album Yürüyorum Düş Bahçelerinde . The album contains new original songs as well as some older songs which were composed by Sezen Aksu for other singers, most notably "Çakkıdı", "Kibir", "Yok Ki". In 2010, Aksu was on the "50 Great Sounds" list set by the American NPR radio. Sezen Aksu's concert with Fahir Atakoğlu in Stockholm , Sweden in April 2010 was attended by many Turkish and Swedish music lovers. After a 10-year break, "TurkofAmerica" and "GNL Entertainment" organized a series of concerts by Aksu in the USA, with the corporate sponsorship of the Washington -based Turkish Cultural Foundation. The three concerts were held between 4–7 April at three different venues: Strathmore in Maryland, Carnegie Hall in New York, and Prudential Hall in New Jersey. Atakoğlu also accompanied Aksu during her concerts in the USA. After performing well over the time allocated for her New Jersey concert, Aksu told the audience: "We have exceeded the [time] limits, the Americans have also set a record of patience, New Jersey will be like this tonight, I will not leave this scene until I make all of you happy". In 2011, Aksu bean producing music again and released the studio album Öptüm . The album consists of songs written and composed by Aksu, including "Unuttun mu Beni", "Vay", "Aşka Şükrederim", "Ah Felek Yordun Beni", and also features a song written by Nazan Öncel titled "Ballı". Cemal Süreya 's poem "Sayım" was turned by Aksu into a song and included in the album as well. At her concert in Volkswagen Arena Istanbul in January 2016, Aksu announced that she would retire from performing live on stage: "Each ending is a new beginning. I will continue to produce [music], but I'm going to say goodbye to the stage after doing a few concerts I promised before. This is my last concert in Istanbul. I'm grateful for having you here with me today in memory of 40 years of my career." In September, she stated again that she would continue making music. In January 2022, Aksu was criticized by conservaties and religious figures for calling Adam and Eve ignorant in the song "Ne Şahane Bir Şey Yaşamak" (a cover of the 2012 song " C'est la vie "). The song was originally included in the 2017 tribute album Alakasız Şarkılar, Vol. 1 in memory of Yaşar Gaga, but resurfaced on the social media in early 2022 after its lyric video was published on Aksu's official YouTube channel on 30 December 2021. President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan , leader of the Nationalist Movement Party Devlet Bahçeli , and the Directorate of Religious Affairs , were among the political figures and government agencies that criticized Aksu and the song. After remaining silent for a month, Aksu eventually released a statement on her Facebook account on January 22. "As you know, the matter is not me; the matter is the country," she remarked, thanking everyone who have shown their support for her. Aksu also revealed the lyrics to a new song she wrote the previous day: "You won't be able to crush my tongue." Aksu is known for her sensitivity to social problems and events. In 2009 she supported Recep Tayyip Erdoğan 's democratic initiative and the settlement process in Turkey. As a result journalist Hikmet Çetinkaya claimed that Aksu's father was a supporter of the Nur movement . While some artists stood behind Aksu, some expressed that Aksu's behavior was unreasonable. In 2012, Aksu wrote the song "Tanrının Gözyaşları" (Tears of God) in memory of soldiers who had died during the Kurdish–Turkish conflict . About the young people who participated in the first days of the Gezi Park protests in 2013 she said: "This is the first youth revolution in the world. They have sent an extraordinary message and the people there and those who are coming to the streets are speaking their words with an extraordinary language." In 2014, she again paid tribute to the young people who took part in the protests with her new single "Yeni ve Yeni Kalanlar". Aksu is keen to fight against issues such as misogyny , illiteracy , discrimination , bullying and homophobia . According to the LGBT magazine, KAOS GL , she is a major gay icon , with the Turkish LGBT community embracing her as a pop culture representative. In 2002, alongside Ajda Pekkan and Seyyal Taner , Aksu was named as one of the gay icons admired by the Turkish LGBT people in the book Eşcinsel Erkekler by Murat Hocaoğlu. In a survey conducted by KAOS GL, she was chosen as one of the favorite gay icons by the participants. Aksu is praised by the LGBT community in Turkey and publicly assists and supports LGBT people through charity work. In 2008, she supported LGBT association Lambdaistanbul , which was closed by a court decision based on "the fact that it is contrary to general morality". In 2013, Aksu performed with transsexual actress Ayta Sözeri on stage, and later a huge rainbow flag symbolizing the LGBT movement was waved in the air, the first time that a Turkish artist had publicly shown support for LGBT on stage. Later in 2013, she published a statement on her official website in support of the SPOD (Social Policy Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation Studies Association) on its first anniversary. In her statement, she mentioned Mesut Şaban Okan, nicknamed "İrem", who was a victim of hate crime in Bursa in 2010. Referencing Melek Okan's words about her child's death, who had said "They could not find a place for my child anywhere in the whole world!", Aksu talked about violence against LGBT people and added that she would fight against violence and discrimination. "'They could not find a place for my child anywhere in the whole world...' Can any sentence be so concise, deep and painful? This sentence can only come from and fall out of a mother's or a father's mouth. As long as my breath is sufficient enough, I will take a stand against this discrimination, this speciesism, this cruelty that ignores and destroys those who are not like them; I'll take the side of those whose right to live was blocked. With all my heart and hope..." 266854 Sezenaksu, an asteroid discovered in 2009, is named after the artist. Sezen Aksu married Hasan Yüksektepe at a young age, and the two got divorced shortly afterwards. At the beginning of her professional life, she married Ali Engin Aksu, whose surname she adopted and later used. On 10 July 1981, Sezen Aksu married Sinan Özer while being pregnant with their child. The couple divorced in 1983. Her marriage to journalist Ahmet Utlu in 1993 was also short-lived and ended in divorce. Aside from her marriages, she was also romantically involved with composer Uzay Heparı . 1977: Allahaısmarladık 1978: Serçe 1980: Sevgilerimle 1981: Ağlamak Güzeldir 1982: Firuze 1984: Sen Ağlama 1986: Git 1988: Sezen Aksu'88 1989: Sezen Aksu Söylüyor 1991: Gülümse 1993: Deli Kızın Türküsü 1995: Işık Doğudan Yükselir (Ex Oriente Lux - Light Rises From the East) 1996: Düş Bahçeleri 1997: Düğün ve Cenaze 1998: Adı Bende Saklı 2000: Deliveren 2002: Şarkı Söylemek Lazım 2003: Yaz Bitmeden 2005: Bahane 2005: Kardelen 2008: Deniz Yıldızı 2009: Yürüyorum Düş Bahçeleri'nde... 2011: Öptüm 2017: Biraz Pop Biraz Sezen 2018: Demo 2022: Demo 21977: Allahaısmarladık 1978: Serçe 1980: Sevgilerimle 1981: Ağlamak Güzeldir 1982: Firuze 1984: Sen Ağlama 1986: Git 1988: Sezen Aksu'88 1989: Sezen Aksu Söylüyor 1991: Gülümse 1993: Deli Kızın Türküsü 1995: Işık Doğudan Yükselir (Ex Oriente Lux - Light Rises From the East) 1996: Düş Bahçeleri 1997: Düğün ve Cenaze 1998: Adı Bende Saklı 2000: Deliveren 2002: Şarkı Söylemek Lazım 2003: Yaz Bitmeden 2005: Bahane 2005: Kardelen 2008: Deniz Yıldızı 2009: Yürüyorum Düş Bahçeleri'nde... 2011: Öptüm 2017: Biraz Pop Biraz Sezen 2018: Demo 2022: Demo 2Minik Serçe (The Little Sparrow) – (1979) Büyük Yalnızlık (Great Solitude) – (1990) Crossing The Bridge: The Sound of Istanbul – (2005) The Ottoman Republic – (2008)Sezen Aksu Aile Gazinosu (Sezen Aksu Family Music Hall) – (1982) Bin Yıl Önce Bin Yıl Sonra (1000 Years Before, 1000 Years Later) – (1986)Eksik Şiir (The Missing Poem) (First issue: 9 September 2006 - Second issue: 11 May 2007) Eksik Şiir İkinci Kitap (The Missing Poem, Book Two) (November 2016)

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Dow_Sari/html

Dow Sari

Dow Sari ( Persian : دوساري , also Romanized as Dow Sārī , Do Sārī , and Dūsāri ; also known as Ḩaşārī ) is a city in the Central District of Anbarabad County , Kerman province, Iran , serving as the administrative center for Jahadabad Rural District . At the 2006 census, its population was 5,620 in 1,028 households, when it was a village in Jahadabad Rural District. The following census in 2011 counted 3,762 people in 965 households, by which time the village had been elevated to the status of a city. The latest census in 2016 showed a population of 4,130 people in 1,234 households.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sahih_al-Bukhari/html

Sahih al-Bukhari

Sahih al-Bukhari ( Arabic : صَحِيحُ الْبُخَارِي , romanized : Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī ) is the first hadith collection of the Six Books of Sunni Islam . It was compiled by Persian scholar al-Bukhari ( d. 870 ) around 846. The author was born in Bukhara in today's Uzbekistan. Alongside Sahih Muslim , it is one of the most valued books in Sunni Islam after the Quran . Both books are part of the six major Sunni collections of hadith of the Islamic prophet Muhammad . It consists of an estimated 7,563 hadith narrations across its 97 chapters. Sahih (صحيح) means "authentic". The original name of the work is Al-Jami Al-Musnad Al-Sahih Al-Mukhtasar Min Umur Rasul Allah Sallá Allah Alayhi Wa-Sallam Wa-Sunanihi Wa-Ayyamihi (الجا٠ع ال٠سند الصحيح ال٠ختصر ٠ن أُ٠ور رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلّ٠وسننه وأيا٠ه), which means "The shortened authentic (sahih) collection with isnads from the affairs of the Messenger, peace be upon Him, and His traditions and His days".Sources differ on the exact number of hadiths in Sahih al-Bukhari, with definitions of hadith varying from a prophetic tradition or sunnah , or a narration of that tradition. Experts have estimated the number of full- isnad narrations in the Sahih at 7,563, with the number reducing to around 2,600 without considerations to repetitions or different versions of the same hadith. Bukhari chose these narrations from a collection of 600,000 narrations he had collected over 16 years. The narrations are distributed across 97 chapters covering fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), among other subjects. Each chapter contains references to relevant verses from the Quran. It provides proper Islamic guidance in almost all aspects of Muslim life such as the method of performing prayers and other actions of worship directly from Muhammad .It is reported that Bukhari traveled widely throughout the Abbasid Caliphate from the age of 16. Bukhari found the earlier hadith collections including both ṣaḥīḥ (authentic, sound) and hasan narrations. He also found that many of them included daʻīf (weak) narrations. This aroused his interest in compiling hadith whose authenticity was beyond doubt. What further strengthened his resolve was something his teacher and contemporary hadith scholar Ishaq Ibn Rahwayh had told him. Bukhari narrates, "We were with Ishaq Ibn Rahwayh who said, "If only you would compile a book of only authentic narrations of the Prophet." This suggestion remained in my heart so I began compiling the Sahih ." Bukhari also said, "I saw the Prophet in a dream and it was as if I was standing in front of him. In my hand was a fan with which I was protecting him. I asked some dream interpreters, who said to me, 'You will protect him from lies'. This is what compelled me to produce the Sahih ." Bukhari imposed four conditions the narrators of a hadith must meet, in order for the narration to be included in his Sahih: being just, possessing strong memory and all the scholars who possess great knowledge of hadith must agree upon the narrators' ability to learn and memorize, along with their reporting techniques, complete isnad without any missing narrators, consecutive narrators in the chain must meet each other. Bukhari began organizing his book in the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca , before moving to the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina . Bukhari completed writing the book in Bukhara around 846 (232 AH), before showing it to his teachers for examination and verification. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani quoted Abu Jaʿfar al-'Uqaili as saying, "After Bukhari had written the Sahih , he showed it to Ali ibn al-Madini , Ahmad ibn Hanbal , Yahya ibn Ma'in as well as others. They examined it and testified to its authenticity with the exception of four hadith." Ibn Hajar then concluded with al-'Uqaili's saying, "And those four are as Bukhari said, they are authentic." Bukhari spent the last twenty-four years of his life visiting other cities and scholars, making minor revisions to his book and teaching the hadith he had collected. In every city that Bukhari visited, thousands of people would gather to listen to him recite traditions. Each version of the Sahih is named by its narrator. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani in his book Nukat asserts the number of narrations is the same in each version. There are many books that noted differences between the different versions, the best known being Fath al-Bari . The version transmitted by Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Firabri (died 932), a trusted student of Bukhari, is the most famous version of the Sahih al-Bukhari today. All modern printed version are derived from this version. Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi quoted al-Firabri in History of Baghdad : "About seventy thousand people heard Sahih Bukhari with me." al-Firabri is not the only transmitter of Sahih al-Bukhari. Many others narrated the book, including Ibrahim ibn Ma'qal (died 907), Hammad ibn Shakir (died 923), Mansur Burduzi (died 931) and Husain Mahamili (died 941). From later to earlier - Yemani sheikh Habib al-Jafri/Jifri Imam Ahmad bin Abd al-Rahman al-Saqqaf His sheikh Imam Ali bin Muhammad al-Habashi His sheikh Imam Aidaroos bin Omar al-Habashi Musnad of Hadhramaut Nahhat al-Fattah al-Fatir His sheikh Imam Abdullah bin Ahmad Basudan His sheikh Mr. Imam Omar bin Abdul Rahman al-Bar His sheikh Mr. Al-Baqiyya, Hamid bin Omar bin Hamid Al Abi Alawi His sheikh Abdul Rahman bin Abdullah Belfaqih His sheikh Al-Musnad Al-Hasan bin Ali Al-Ujaimi and Sheikh Ahmed bin Muhammad Al-Mathili His sheikh Muhammad bin Alaa Al-Din Al-Babli Abu Al-Najah Salem bin Muhammad Al-Samhouri Muhammad bin Ahmad al-Ghaiti Sheikh al-Islam Zakaria ibn Muhammad al-Ansari Hafiz Ahmad ibn Ali ibn Hajar al-Asqalani sheikh Ibrahim ibn Ahmad al-Tanukhi and Abd al-Rahim ibn Razin al-Hamwi Abu al-Fadl Ahmad ibn Abi Talib al-Hajjar Al-Hussein al-Mubarak al-Zubaidi Abu Al-Waqt Abdul Awal bin Issa Al-Harawi Abu Al-Hasan Abdul Rahman bin Al-Muzaffar Al-Daoudi Abu Muhammad Abdullah bin Ahmed Al-Sarkhasi Abu Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Yusuf bin Matar Al-Farbari Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismail Al-Bukhari The Orientalist Manjana said in Cambridge in 1936 that the oldest manuscript he had come across up to that point was written in 984 CE/370 AH, according to the narration of al-Mirwazi from al-Farbari. The oldest full manuscript which was printed by ISAM is from 1155/550 AH. As is the norm in hadith studies , Bukhari would have recited his Sahih to a large number of his students who would not only listen to it, but memorise it word for word from him and copy it in its entirety. Students would then check their own copies against Bukhari's personal copy and would only receive permission to transmit and teach once Bukhari himself was happy with their ability to do so. This way, the isnad (chain of narration) would be traceable and also have multiple routes back to the teacher.It is reported that Bukhari traveled widely throughout the Abbasid Caliphate from the age of 16. Bukhari found the earlier hadith collections including both ṣaḥīḥ (authentic, sound) and hasan narrations. He also found that many of them included daʻīf (weak) narrations. This aroused his interest in compiling hadith whose authenticity was beyond doubt. What further strengthened his resolve was something his teacher and contemporary hadith scholar Ishaq Ibn Rahwayh had told him. Bukhari narrates, "We were with Ishaq Ibn Rahwayh who said, "If only you would compile a book of only authentic narrations of the Prophet." This suggestion remained in my heart so I began compiling the Sahih ." Bukhari also said, "I saw the Prophet in a dream and it was as if I was standing in front of him. In my hand was a fan with which I was protecting him. I asked some dream interpreters, who said to me, 'You will protect him from lies'. This is what compelled me to produce the Sahih ." Bukhari imposed four conditions the narrators of a hadith must meet, in order for the narration to be included in his Sahih: being just, possessing strong memory and all the scholars who possess great knowledge of hadith must agree upon the narrators' ability to learn and memorize, along with their reporting techniques, complete isnad without any missing narrators, consecutive narrators in the chain must meet each other. Bukhari began organizing his book in the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca , before moving to the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina . Bukhari completed writing the book in Bukhara around 846 (232 AH), before showing it to his teachers for examination and verification. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani quoted Abu Jaʿfar al-'Uqaili as saying, "After Bukhari had written the Sahih , he showed it to Ali ibn al-Madini , Ahmad ibn Hanbal , Yahya ibn Ma'in as well as others. They examined it and testified to its authenticity with the exception of four hadith." Ibn Hajar then concluded with al-'Uqaili's saying, "And those four are as Bukhari said, they are authentic." Bukhari spent the last twenty-four years of his life visiting other cities and scholars, making minor revisions to his book and teaching the hadith he had collected. In every city that Bukhari visited, thousands of people would gather to listen to him recite traditions. Each version of the Sahih is named by its narrator. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani in his book Nukat asserts the number of narrations is the same in each version. There are many books that noted differences between the different versions, the best known being Fath al-Bari . The version transmitted by Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Firabri (died 932), a trusted student of Bukhari, is the most famous version of the Sahih al-Bukhari today. All modern printed version are derived from this version. Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi quoted al-Firabri in History of Baghdad : "About seventy thousand people heard Sahih Bukhari with me." al-Firabri is not the only transmitter of Sahih al-Bukhari. Many others narrated the book, including Ibrahim ibn Ma'qal (died 907), Hammad ibn Shakir (died 923), Mansur Burduzi (died 931) and Husain Mahamili (died 941). From later to earlier - Yemani sheikh Habib al-Jafri/Jifri Imam Ahmad bin Abd al-Rahman al-Saqqaf His sheikh Imam Ali bin Muhammad al-Habashi His sheikh Imam Aidaroos bin Omar al-Habashi Musnad of Hadhramaut Nahhat al-Fattah al-Fatir His sheikh Imam Abdullah bin Ahmad Basudan His sheikh Mr. Imam Omar bin Abdul Rahman al-Bar His sheikh Mr. Al-Baqiyya, Hamid bin Omar bin Hamid Al Abi Alawi His sheikh Abdul Rahman bin Abdullah Belfaqih His sheikh Al-Musnad Al-Hasan bin Ali Al-Ujaimi and Sheikh Ahmed bin Muhammad Al-Mathili His sheikh Muhammad bin Alaa Al-Din Al-Babli Abu Al-Najah Salem bin Muhammad Al-Samhouri Muhammad bin Ahmad al-Ghaiti Sheikh al-Islam Zakaria ibn Muhammad al-Ansari Hafiz Ahmad ibn Ali ibn Hajar al-Asqalani sheikh Ibrahim ibn Ahmad al-Tanukhi and Abd al-Rahim ibn Razin al-Hamwi Abu al-Fadl Ahmad ibn Abi Talib al-Hajjar Al-Hussein al-Mubarak al-Zubaidi Abu Al-Waqt Abdul Awal bin Issa Al-Harawi Abu Al-Hasan Abdul Rahman bin Al-Muzaffar Al-Daoudi Abu Muhammad Abdullah bin Ahmed Al-Sarkhasi Abu Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Yusuf bin Matar Al-Farbari Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismail Al-BukhariFrom later to earlier - Yemani sheikh Habib al-Jafri/Jifri Imam Ahmad bin Abd al-Rahman al-Saqqaf His sheikh Imam Ali bin Muhammad al-Habashi His sheikh Imam Aidaroos bin Omar al-Habashi Musnad of Hadhramaut Nahhat al-Fattah al-Fatir His sheikh Imam Abdullah bin Ahmad Basudan His sheikh Mr. Imam Omar bin Abdul Rahman al-Bar His sheikh Mr. Al-Baqiyya, Hamid bin Omar bin Hamid Al Abi Alawi His sheikh Abdul Rahman bin Abdullah Belfaqih His sheikh Al-Musnad Al-Hasan bin Ali Al-Ujaimi and Sheikh Ahmed bin Muhammad Al-Mathili His sheikh Muhammad bin Alaa Al-Din Al-Babli Abu Al-Najah Salem bin Muhammad Al-Samhouri Muhammad bin Ahmad al-Ghaiti Sheikh al-Islam Zakaria ibn Muhammad al-Ansari Hafiz Ahmad ibn Ali ibn Hajar al-Asqalani sheikh Ibrahim ibn Ahmad al-Tanukhi and Abd al-Rahim ibn Razin al-Hamwi Abu al-Fadl Ahmad ibn Abi Talib al-Hajjar Al-Hussein al-Mubarak al-Zubaidi Abu Al-Waqt Abdul Awal bin Issa Al-Harawi Abu Al-Hasan Abdul Rahman bin Al-Muzaffar Al-Daoudi Abu Muhammad Abdullah bin Ahmed Al-Sarkhasi Abu Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Yusuf bin Matar Al-Farbari Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismail Al-BukhariThe Orientalist Manjana said in Cambridge in 1936 that the oldest manuscript he had come across up to that point was written in 984 CE/370 AH, according to the narration of al-Mirwazi from al-Farbari. The oldest full manuscript which was printed by ISAM is from 1155/550 AH. As is the norm in hadith studies , Bukhari would have recited his Sahih to a large number of his students who would not only listen to it, but memorise it word for word from him and copy it in its entirety. Students would then check their own copies against Bukhari's personal copy and would only receive permission to transmit and teach once Bukhari himself was happy with their ability to do so. This way, the isnad (chain of narration) would be traceable and also have multiple routes back to the teacher.The oldest full manuscript is a version on the narration of Abu Dharr al-Heravi (died 1043) written in Maghrebi script , present in the Süleymaniye Library in Istanbul is from 1155 (550 AH). Another manuscript that is hand-transcribed by Shaykh Muhammad ibn Yazdan Bakhsh Bengali in Ekdala, Eastern Bengal is well preserved in Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Library . The manuscript was a gift to the Sultan of Bengal Alauddin Husain Shah . The number of detailed commentaries on the Sahih are numbered around 400, including Fayd al-Bari ala Sahih al-Bukhari and Anwar al-Bari sharh Sahih al-Bukhari by Anwar Shah Kashmiri , Lami al-Darari ala Jami al-Bukhari by Rashid Ahmad Gangohi , Tafsir al-Gharib ma fi al-Sahihayn by al-Humaydī (died 1095), Ibn Kathir 's (died 1373) Sharh , Fath al-Bari by Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani (died 852 AH), Al-Tawshih by al-Suyuti (died 1505), Irshad al-Sari by al-Qastallani (died 1517), Umdat al-Qari by Badr al-Din al-Ayni , and Al-Tanqih by al-Zarkashi (died 1392), Kashf al-Bari Amma fi Sahih al-Bukhari by Saleemullah Khan . Modern commentaries are also written by Saeed Ahmad Palanpuri , Kausar Yazdani , Muhammad Taqi Usmani , and Muhammad Zakariyya Kandhalawi . Few scholars have commented on Bukhari's reasons behind naming the chapters in his Sahih, known as tarjumat al-bab . Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani is noted to be one of them. Shah Waliullah Dehlawi had mentioned 14 reasons, later modified by Mahmud al-Hasan to make it 15 . Kandhlawi is noted to have found as many as 70, even writing a book on the topic, Al-Abwab wa al-Tarajim li Sahih al-Bukhari . Sahih al-Bukhari was originally translated into English by Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din al-Hilali and Muhammad Muhsin Khan , titled The Translation of the Meanings of Sahih al-Bukhari: Arabic-English (1971), derived from the Arabic text of Fath Al-Bari , published by the Egyptian Maktabat wa-Maṭba'at Muṣṭafá al-Bābī al-Ḥalabī in 1959. It is published by Al Saadawi Publications and Darussalam Publishers and is included in the USC - MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts. Large numbers of hadith narrations included in Hilali and Khan's work have been translated by Muhammad Ali and Thomas Cleary . The book is also available in numerous languages, including Urdu , Bengali , Bosnian , Tamil , Malayalam , Albanian , Malay , and Hindi , among others. In 2019, the Arabic Virtual Translation Center in New York translated and published the first complete English translation of Sahih al-Bukhari titled Encyclopedia of Sahih Al-Bukhari , including explanatory notes, a glossary of every term, and biographies of all narrators in the isnad . The number of detailed commentaries on the Sahih are numbered around 400, including Fayd al-Bari ala Sahih al-Bukhari and Anwar al-Bari sharh Sahih al-Bukhari by Anwar Shah Kashmiri , Lami al-Darari ala Jami al-Bukhari by Rashid Ahmad Gangohi , Tafsir al-Gharib ma fi al-Sahihayn by al-Humaydī (died 1095), Ibn Kathir 's (died 1373) Sharh , Fath al-Bari by Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani (died 852 AH), Al-Tawshih by al-Suyuti (died 1505), Irshad al-Sari by al-Qastallani (died 1517), Umdat al-Qari by Badr al-Din al-Ayni , and Al-Tanqih by al-Zarkashi (died 1392), Kashf al-Bari Amma fi Sahih al-Bukhari by Saleemullah Khan . Modern commentaries are also written by Saeed Ahmad Palanpuri , Kausar Yazdani , Muhammad Taqi Usmani , and Muhammad Zakariyya Kandhalawi . Few scholars have commented on Bukhari's reasons behind naming the chapters in his Sahih, known as tarjumat al-bab . Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani is noted to be one of them. Shah Waliullah Dehlawi had mentioned 14 reasons, later modified by Mahmud al-Hasan to make it 15 . Kandhlawi is noted to have found as many as 70, even writing a book on the topic, Al-Abwab wa al-Tarajim li Sahih al-Bukhari . Sahih al-Bukhari was originally translated into English by Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din al-Hilali and Muhammad Muhsin Khan , titled The Translation of the Meanings of Sahih al-Bukhari: Arabic-English (1971), derived from the Arabic text of Fath Al-Bari , published by the Egyptian Maktabat wa-Maṭba'at Muṣṭafá al-Bābī al-Ḥalabī in 1959. It is published by Al Saadawi Publications and Darussalam Publishers and is included in the USC - MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts. Large numbers of hadith narrations included in Hilali and Khan's work have been translated by Muhammad Ali and Thomas Cleary . The book is also available in numerous languages, including Urdu , Bengali , Bosnian , Tamil , Malayalam , Albanian , Malay , and Hindi , among others. In 2019, the Arabic Virtual Translation Center in New York translated and published the first complete English translation of Sahih al-Bukhari titled Encyclopedia of Sahih Al-Bukhari , including explanatory notes, a glossary of every term, and biographies of all narrators in the isnad . Sunni Muslims regard Sahih al-Bukhari as one of the two most important books among the Kutub al-Sittah alongside the Sahih Muslim , written by al-Bukhari's student Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj . The two books are known as the Sahihayn (The Two Sahihs ). Al-Nawawi wrote about Sahih al-Bukhari, "The scholars, may God have mercy on them, have agreed that the most authentic book after the dear Quran are the two Sahihs of Bukhari and Muslim ." Siddiq Hasan Khan (died 1890) wrote, "All of the Salaf and Khalaf assert that the most authentic book after the book of Allah is Sahih al-Bukhari and then Sahih Muslim." In the Introduction to the Science of Hadith , Ibn al-Salah wrote: "The first to author a Sahih was Bukhari [...], followed by Abū al-Ḥusayn Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj an-Naysābūrī al-Qushayrī , who was his student, sharing many of the same teachers. These two books are the most authentic books after the Quran . As for the statement of al-Shafi'i , who said, "I do not know of a book containing knowledge more correct than Malik 's book [ Muwatta Imam Malik ]", [...] he said this before the books of Bukhari and Muslim. "The book of Bukhari is the more authentic of the two and more useful." Ibn al-Salah also quoted Bukhari as having said, "I have not included in the book [Sahih al-Bukhari] other than what is authentic and I did not include other authentic hadith for the sake of brevity." In addition, al-Dhahabi quoted Bukhari as having said, "I have memorized one hundred thousand authentic hadith and two hundred thousand which are less than authentic." Criticism has also been directed at apparent contradictions within Bukhari regarding the ahruf of the Quran. Some narrations state the Quran was revealed only in the dialect of Muhammad 's tribe, the Quraysh , while others state it was revealed in seven ahruf. Certain prophetic medicine and remedies espoused in Bukhari, such as cupping , have been noted for being unscientific. Sunni scholar Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani , on the basis of contrary archaeological evidence, criticised the hadith which claimed that Adam's height was 60 cubits and human height has been decreasing ever since. Other hadiths contradict historical facts: e.g. hadith number 1221 implies Abu Sufyan ibn Harb died in Shām when he actually died in Medina; hadith number 5,560 says Muhammad died at 60 years old, instead of the actual 63 years old; there are also serious contradictions between hadiths regarding the timing of Qadr Night . In the 2003 book The Idea of Women in Fundamentalist Islam , Lamia Shehadeh used gender theory to critique an ahaad hadith about women's leadership. Another hadith reported by Abu Hurairah was criticized by Fatema Mernissi for being reported out of context and without any further clarification in the Sahih. The clarification is given in a hadith reported by Aisha in al-Zarkashi 's (1344–1392) hadith collection. According to Charles Kurzman , this case raises the question of whether other narrations in Bukhari have been reported incompletely or lack proper context. In 2017, Rachid Aylal, a Quranist , published a book criticizing the Sahih, titled Sahih Al-Bukhari: The End of a Legend . It was banned in Morocco for disturbing spiritual security, due to pressure from Islamists . On August 29, 2022, Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation has included Sahih al-Bukhari into the federal list of extremist materials (except containing surahs , ayahs and quotes from the Quran) after the Supreme Court of Tatarstan supported the Laishevo District Court's decision to recognize the Sahih as extremist with its appellate ruling of July 5, 2022. Criticism has also been directed at apparent contradictions within Bukhari regarding the ahruf of the Quran. Some narrations state the Quran was revealed only in the dialect of Muhammad 's tribe, the Quraysh , while others state it was revealed in seven ahruf. Certain prophetic medicine and remedies espoused in Bukhari, such as cupping , have been noted for being unscientific. Sunni scholar Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani , on the basis of contrary archaeological evidence, criticised the hadith which claimed that Adam's height was 60 cubits and human height has been decreasing ever since. Other hadiths contradict historical facts: e.g. hadith number 1221 implies Abu Sufyan ibn Harb died in Shām when he actually died in Medina; hadith number 5,560 says Muhammad died at 60 years old, instead of the actual 63 years old; there are also serious contradictions between hadiths regarding the timing of Qadr Night . In the 2003 book The Idea of Women in Fundamentalist Islam , Lamia Shehadeh used gender theory to critique an ahaad hadith about women's leadership. Another hadith reported by Abu Hurairah was criticized by Fatema Mernissi for being reported out of context and without any further clarification in the Sahih. The clarification is given in a hadith reported by Aisha in al-Zarkashi 's (1344–1392) hadith collection. According to Charles Kurzman , this case raises the question of whether other narrations in Bukhari have been reported incompletely or lack proper context. In 2017, Rachid Aylal, a Quranist , published a book criticizing the Sahih, titled Sahih Al-Bukhari: The End of a Legend . It was banned in Morocco for disturbing spiritual security, due to pressure from Islamists . On August 29, 2022, Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation has included Sahih al-Bukhari into the federal list of extremist materials (except containing surahs , ayahs and quotes from the Quran) after the Supreme Court of Tatarstan supported the Laishevo District Court's decision to recognize the Sahih as extremist with its appellate ruling of July 5, 2022.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Hızır_Sarı/html

Hızır Sarı

Hızır Sarı (born 19 February 1951) is a Turkish former wrestler who competed in the 1972 Summer Olympics .

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Der_Zigeunerprimas/html

Der Zigeunerprimas

Der Zigeunerprimas ( The Gypsy Band Leader , known as Sari and The Gypsy Virtuoso in English speaking countries) is a three-act operetta , which was composed by Emmerich Kálmán . The libretto was written by Julius Wilhelm [ de ] and Fritz Grünbaum . It premiered at the Johann Strauß Theatre [ de ] in Vienna on 11 October 1912. In 1929 it was adapted into a German silent film The Gypsy Chief directed by Carl Wilhelm .Pali Rácz, a thrice-widowed gypsy violinist, is adored by women and hailed widely as a virtuoso. His daughter Sari cares for their large family. His young son Laczi is also a violinist, but has chosen to forsake his father's playing style and study classical violin at the Academy of Music. Pali wants to marry his niece, Juliska, as a companion in his old age, but she prefers his son, Laczi, and Laczi, in turn, loves her. Pali criticizes Laczi's musical talent so much, and Laczi yearns so for Juliska, that he leaves home. Reunited in Paris , father and son reconcile after Countess Irini, an old admirer, convinces Pali not to interfere with the course of Laczi and Juliska's relationship. Irini's grandson marries Sari.Sari was presented on The Railroad Hour on 17 March 1952. Baritone Gordon MacRae and soprano Margaret Truman starred in the episode, which also featured Carmen Dragon 's orchestra and Norman Luboff 's chorus.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Feldman/html

Sari Feldman

Sari Feldman is an American librarian . Sari was president of the American Library Association (ALA) from 2015 to 2016. During her presidency, she launched the Libraries Transform public awareness campaign that increased funding support for libraries and sought to advance information policy. Sari Feldman received a master's degree in Library Science from the University of Wisconsin in 1977 and a bachelor's in English from State University of New York at Binghamton . While in graduate school, Feldman became a jail librarian at Dane County, Wisconsin Correctional Facility. Since 1984, she has served as an adjunct faculty member at the School of Information Studies, Syracuse University , in New York, teaching graduate courses in library management , reference services, policy and grant writing. She made her way to Ohio in 1997 and became head of community services at the Cleveland Public Library and later became deputy director. She served as president of the Public Library Association from 2009 to 2010 and numerous other boards and committees as a long-lasting ALA member. Sari was executive director of Cuyahoga County Public Library from May, 2003 to August 2, 2019. Feldman has been a member of ALA since 1990 and has served on several boards and committees. Co-chair of the ALA Digital Content and Libraries Working Group – 2011 to 2014 President of the Public Library Association (PLA) – 2009 to 2010 Chair of the ALA Office of Literacy/Outreach Services Advisory Committee – 2000 to 2003 Chair of the Urban Libraries Council Urban Youth Strategy Group – 2005 to 2006 Member of the PLA Every Child Ready to Read Task Force – 2007 to 2008 Member of PLA Pre-School Literacy Task Force – 2001 to 2005 Founding Member and Trustee of OneCommunity – 2003 to Present Board Member of In Counsel with Women – 2003 to PresentPLA Charlie Robinson Award (2013) Crain's Cleveland Business Women of Note Award (2011) USA Toy Library Association Player of the Year (2008) YMCA Woman of Achievement (2005) Leadership Academy's Community Impact Award (2002) Syracuse University Vice President's Award for Teacher of the Year (1995) ALA Loleta D. Fyan Grant (1994)Feinberg, S., Kuchner, J. F., & Feldman, S. (1998). Learning environments for young children: Rethinking library spaces and services. Chicago: American Library Association. McClure, C. R., Feldman, S., & Ryan, J. (2007). Politics and advocacy: The role of networking in selling the library to your community. Public Library Quarterly, 25 (1), 137–154. doi:10.1300/J118v25n01_10 Feldman, S., & Gonick, L. (2005). The dream of One Cleveland. Library Journal, 130 (14), 34. Feldman, S. (2015, September 29). Celebrate the Freedom to Read. Huffington Post. Feinberg, S., Kuchner, J. F., & Feldman, S. (1998). Learning environments for young children: Rethinking library spaces and services. Chicago: American Library Association.McClure, C. R., Feldman, S., & Ryan, J. (2007). Politics and advocacy: The role of networking in selling the library to your community. Public Library Quarterly, 25 (1), 137–154. doi:10.1300/J118v25n01_10 Feldman, S., & Gonick, L. (2005). The dream of One Cleveland. Library Journal, 130 (14), 34. Feldman, S. (2015, September 29). Celebrate the Freedom to Read. Huffington Post.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Molag/html

Sari Molag

Sari Molag is a village of Himachal Pradesh , under Tehshil Jaisinghpur , Kangra district , India.

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Taman_Sari/html

Taman Sari

Taman Sari may refer to:

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Saarelainen/html

Sari Saarelainen

Rider (retired) Directeur sportif Sari Saarelainen (born 1 March 1981) is a Finnish former racing cyclist , who now works as a directeur sportif for UCI Women's WorldTeam Roland Cycling . She competed in the 2013 UCI women's road race in Florence . Saarelainen originally stopped competing in cycling at the end of 2004. However, she returned to competition in 2010 after becoming a mother.Outside of cycling she works as a cycling coach and physical training and she is an entrepreneur of a gym and a bike distribution, and she is also a singer and songwriter. Source:

Wiki

SARI

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Sari_Essayah/html

Sari Essayah

Sari Miriam Essayah (born 21 February 1967) is a Finnish retired racewalker and a politician, former Member of the European Parliament (MEP) and Member of Parliament since 2015. She is the president of the Finnish Christian Democrats party. She is serving as Minister of Agriculture and Forestry since 2023. Her father is from Morocco . During her sports career, Essayah competed mainly in 5 000 and 10 000 metres. In the latter, she won the World Championship in 1993 and the European Championship in 1994 . She made seven national records, all of which are still standing. In 2016, Essayah became a member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), and she has been a member of the Ethics Committee, Finnish Athletics Association since 2014. Essayah holds an M.Sc (Econ) in business administration and accounting from the University of Vaasa .After retiring from sports Essayah entered politics and represented the Christian Democrats in the Finnish parliament between 2003–2007 but failed to get reelected in the election of 2007. She served as the Christian Democrats' party secretary from 2007 to 2009. Essayah was elected to the European Parliament in 2009 but failed to be reelected in 2014 despite her 61 000 votes. This left the Finnish Christian Democrats without MEPs in the 2014 election. In November 2011 she undertook godparenthood for Mikola Dziadok , Belarusian activist and political prisoner . Essayah was candidate in the 2012 Finnish presidential election . She came last with 2.47 percent of the votes. In the 2015 parliamentary elections, Essayah was elected to represent a newly formed constituency of Savonia and Karelia with over 11 000 votes. She was later chosen to be the vice speaker of the Christian Democrats' Parliamentary group. In August, she was chosen as the new chair of her party after her predecessor, Päivi Räsänen , retired from the position after over ten years. Sari Essayah was re-elected in Finnish parliament in the 2019 elections and re-elected for a third term as the party chair in a party congress in August. In June 2023, she was appointed Minister of Agriculture and Forestry in the Orpo Cabinet . On 27 August 2023, Essayah was chosen as the presidential candidate of Christian Democrats in 2024 Finnish presidential election . In the election, she received 1.48% of the total vote count.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Yellow_fever/html

Yellow fever

Yellow fever is a viral disease of typically short duration . In most cases, symptoms include fever , chills , loss of appetite , nausea , muscle pains—particularly in the back—and headaches . Symptoms typically improve within five days. In about 15% of people, within a day of improving the fever comes back, abdominal pain occurs, and liver damage begins causing yellow skin . If this occurs, the risk of bleeding and kidney problems is increased. The disease is caused by the yellow fever virus and is spread by the bite of an infected mosquito . It infects humans, other primates , and several types of mosquitoes. In cities, it is spread primarily by Aedes aegypti , a type of mosquito found throughout the tropics and subtropics . The virus is an RNA virus of the genus Flavivirus . The disease may be difficult to tell apart from other illnesses, especially in the early stages. To confirm a suspected case, blood-sample testing with a polymerase chain reaction is required. A safe and effective vaccine against yellow fever exists, and some countries require vaccinations for travelers. Other efforts to prevent infection include reducing the population of the transmitting mosquitoes. In areas where yellow fever is common, early diagnosis of cases and immunization of large parts of the population are important to prevent outbreaks . Once a person is infected, management is symptomatic; no specific measures are effective against the virus. Death occurs in up to half of those who get severe disease. In 2013, yellow fever was estimated to have caused 130,000 severe infections and 78,000 deaths in Africa. Approximately 90 percent of an estimated 200,000 cases of yellow fever per year occur in Africa. Nearly a billion people live in an area of the world where the disease is common. It is common in tropical areas of the continents of South America and Africa, but not in Asia. Since the 1980s, the number of cases of yellow fever has been increasing. This is believed to be due to fewer people being immune, more people living in cities, people moving frequently, and changing climate increasing the habitat for mosquitoes. The disease originated in Africa and spread to the Americas starting in the 17th century with the European trafficking of enslaved Africans from sub-Saharan Africa. Since the 17th century, several major outbreaks of the disease have occurred in the Americas, Africa, and Europe. In the 18th and 19th centuries, yellow fever was considered one of the most dangerous infectious diseases ; numerous epidemics swept through major cities of the US and in other parts of the world. In 1927, yellow fever virus became the first human virus to be isolated. Yellow fever begins after an incubation period of three to six days. Most cases cause only mild infection with fever, headache, chills, back pain, fatigue, loss of appetite, muscle pain, nausea, and vomiting. In these cases, the infection lasts only three to six days. But in 15% of cases, people enter a second, toxic phase of the disease characterized by recurring fever, this time accompanied by jaundice due to liver damage , as well as abdominal pain . Bleeding in the mouth, nose, eyes, and the gastrointestinal tract cause vomit containing blood , hence one of the names in Spanish for yellow fever, vómito negro ("black vomit"). There may also be kidney failure, hiccups, and delirium. Among those who develop jaundice, the fatality rate is 20 to 50%, while the overall fatality rate is about 3 to 7.5%. Severe cases may have a mortality rate greater than 50%. Surviving the infection provides lifelong immunity , and normally results in no permanent organ damage. Yellow fever can lead to death for 20% to 50% of those who develop severe disease. Jaundice, fatigue, heart rhythm problems, seizures and internal bleeding may also appear as complications of yellow fever during recovery time. Yellow fever can lead to death for 20% to 50% of those who develop severe disease. Jaundice, fatigue, heart rhythm problems, seizures and internal bleeding may also appear as complications of yellow fever during recovery time. {| class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%" |- ! Yellow fever virus |- | |- | Flavivirus structure and genome |- |- |- |- ! Virus classification |- |(unranked): | Virus |- | Realm : | Riboviria |- |Kingdom: | Orthornavirae |- |Phylum: | Kitrinoviricota |- |Class: | Flasuviricetes |- |Order: | Amarillovirales |- |Family: | Flaviviridae |- |Genus: | Flavivirus |- | Species: | |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |} Yellow fever is caused by Yellow fever virus (YFV), an enveloped RNA virus 40–50 nm in width, the type species and namesake of the family Flaviviridae . It was the first illness shown to be transmissible by filtered human serum and transmitted by mosquitoes, by American doctor Walter Reed around 1900. The positive- sense , single-stranded RNA is around 10,862 nucleotides long and has a single open reading frame encoding a polyprotein . Host proteases cut this polyprotein into three structural (C, prM, E) and seven nonstructural proteins (NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, NS5); the enumeration corresponds to the arrangement of the protein coding genes in the genome . Minimal YFV 3 ′ UTR region is required for stalling of the host 5 ′ -3 ′ exonuclease XRN1. The UTR contains PKS3 pseudoknot structure, which serves as a molecular signal to stall the exonuclease and is the only viral requirement for subgenomic flavivirus RNA (sfRNA) production. The sfRNAs are a result of incomplete degradation of the viral genome by the exonuclease and are important for viral pathogenicity. Yellow fever belongs to the group of hemorrhagic fevers . The viruses infect, amongst others, monocytes , macrophages , Schwann cells , and dendritic cells . They attach to the cell surfaces via specific receptors and are taken up by an endosomal vesicle . Inside the endosome , the decreased pH induces the fusion of the endosomal membrane with the virus envelope . The capsid enters the cytosol , decays, and releases the genome. Receptor binding, as well as membrane fusion, are catalyzed by the protein E, which changes its conformation at low pH, causing a rearrangement of the 90 homo dimers to 60 homo trimers . After entering the host cell, the viral genome is replicated in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and in the so-called vesicle packets. At first, an immature form of the virus particle is produced inside the ER, whose M-protein is not yet cleaved to its mature form, so is denoted as precursor M (prM) and forms a complex with protein E. The immature particles are processed in the Golgi apparatus by the host protein furin , which cleaves prM to M. This releases E from the complex, which can now take its place in the mature, infectious virion . Yellow fever virus is mainly transmitted through the bite of the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti , but other mostly Aedes mosquitoes such as the tiger mosquito ( Aedes albopictus ) can also serve as a vector for this virus. Like other arboviruses , which are transmitted by mosquitoes, yellow fever virus is taken up by a female mosquito when it ingests the blood of an infected human or another primate. Viruses reach the stomach of the mosquito, and if the virus concentration is high enough, the virions can infect epithelial cells and replicate there. From there, they reach the haemocoel (the blood system of mosquitoes) and from there the salivary glands . When the mosquito next sucks blood, it injects its saliva into the wound, and the virus reaches the bloodstream of the bitten person. Transovarial transmissionial and transstadial transmission of yellow fever virus within A. aegypti , that is, the transmission from a female mosquito to its eggs and then larvae, are indicated. This infection of vectors without a previous blood meal seems to play a role in single, sudden breakouts of the disease. Three epidemiologically different infectious cycles occur in which the virus is transmitted from mosquitoes to humans or other primates. In the "urban cycle", only the yellow fever mosquito A. aegypti is involved. It is well adapted to urban areas, and can also transmit other diseases, including Zika fever , dengue fever , and chikungunya . The urban cycle is responsible for the major outbreaks of yellow fever that occur in Africa. Except for an outbreak in Bolivia in 1999, this urban cycle no longer exists in South America. Besides the urban cycle, both in Africa and South America, a sylvatic cycle (forest or jungle cycle) is present, where Aedes africanus (in Africa) or mosquitoes of the genus Haemagogus and Sabethes (in South America) serve as vectors. In the jungle, the mosquitoes infect mainly nonhuman primates; the disease is mostly asymptomatic in African primates. In South America, the sylvatic cycle is currently the only way unvaccinated humans can become infected, which explains the low incidence of yellow fever cases on the continent. People who become infected in the jungle can carry the virus to urban areas, where A. aegypti acts as a vector. Because of this sylvatic cycle, yellow fever cannot be eradicated except by eradicating the mosquitoes that serve as vectors. In Africa, a third infectious cycle known as "savannah cycle" or intermediate cycle, occurs between the jungle and urban cycles. Different mosquitoes of the genus Aedes are involved. In recent years, this has been the most common form of transmission of yellow fever in Africa. Concern exists about yellow fever spreading to southeast Asia, where its vector A. aegypti already occurs. Yellow fever virus is mainly transmitted through the bite of the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti , but other mostly Aedes mosquitoes such as the tiger mosquito ( Aedes albopictus ) can also serve as a vector for this virus. Like other arboviruses , which are transmitted by mosquitoes, yellow fever virus is taken up by a female mosquito when it ingests the blood of an infected human or another primate. Viruses reach the stomach of the mosquito, and if the virus concentration is high enough, the virions can infect epithelial cells and replicate there. From there, they reach the haemocoel (the blood system of mosquitoes) and from there the salivary glands . When the mosquito next sucks blood, it injects its saliva into the wound, and the virus reaches the bloodstream of the bitten person. Transovarial transmissionial and transstadial transmission of yellow fever virus within A. aegypti , that is, the transmission from a female mosquito to its eggs and then larvae, are indicated. This infection of vectors without a previous blood meal seems to play a role in single, sudden breakouts of the disease. Three epidemiologically different infectious cycles occur in which the virus is transmitted from mosquitoes to humans or other primates. In the "urban cycle", only the yellow fever mosquito A. aegypti is involved. It is well adapted to urban areas, and can also transmit other diseases, including Zika fever , dengue fever , and chikungunya . The urban cycle is responsible for the major outbreaks of yellow fever that occur in Africa. Except for an outbreak in Bolivia in 1999, this urban cycle no longer exists in South America. Besides the urban cycle, both in Africa and South America, a sylvatic cycle (forest or jungle cycle) is present, where Aedes africanus (in Africa) or mosquitoes of the genus Haemagogus and Sabethes (in South America) serve as vectors. In the jungle, the mosquitoes infect mainly nonhuman primates; the disease is mostly asymptomatic in African primates. In South America, the sylvatic cycle is currently the only way unvaccinated humans can become infected, which explains the low incidence of yellow fever cases on the continent. People who become infected in the jungle can carry the virus to urban areas, where A. aegypti acts as a vector. Because of this sylvatic cycle, yellow fever cannot be eradicated except by eradicating the mosquitoes that serve as vectors. In Africa, a third infectious cycle known as "savannah cycle" or intermediate cycle, occurs between the jungle and urban cycles. Different mosquitoes of the genus Aedes are involved. In recent years, this has been the most common form of transmission of yellow fever in Africa. Concern exists about yellow fever spreading to southeast Asia, where its vector A. aegypti already occurs. After transmission from a mosquito, the viruses replicate in the lymph nodes and infect dendritic cells in particular. From there, they reach the liver and infect hepatocytes (probably indirectly via Kupffer cells ), which leads to eosinophilic degradation of these cells and to the release of cytokines . Apoptotic masses known as Councilman bodies appear in the cytoplasm of hepatocytes. Fatality may occur when cytokine storm , shock , and multiple organ failure follow. Yellow fever is most frequently a clinical diagnosis , based on symptomatology and travel history. Mild cases of the disease can only be confirmed virologically. Since mild cases of yellow fever can also contribute significantly to regional outbreaks, every suspected case of yellow fever (involving symptoms of fever, pain, nausea, and vomiting 6–10 days after leaving the affected area) is treated seriously. If yellow fever is suspected, the virus cannot be confirmed until 6–10 days following the illness. A direct confirmation can be obtained by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction , where the genome of the virus is amplified. Another direct approach is the isolation of the virus and its growth in cell culture using blood plasma ; this can take 1–4 weeks. Serologically, an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay during the acute phase of the disease using specific IgM against yellow fever or an increase in specific IgG titer (compared to an earlier sample) can confirm yellow fever. Together with clinical symptoms, the detection of IgM or a four-fold increase in IgG titer is considered sufficient indication for yellow fever. As these tests can cross-react with other flaviviruses, such as dengue virus , these indirect methods cannot conclusively prove yellow fever infection. Liver biopsy can verify inflammation and necrosis of hepatocytes and detect viral antigens . Because of the bleeding tendency of yellow fever patients, a biopsy is only advisable post mortem to confirm the cause of death. In a differential diagnosis , infections with yellow fever must be distinguished from other feverish illnesses such as malaria . Other viral hemorrhagic fevers , such as Ebola virus , Lassa virus , Marburg virus , and Junin virus , must be excluded as the cause. Personal prevention of yellow fever includes vaccination and avoidance of mosquito bites in areas where yellow fever is endemic. Institutional measures for prevention of yellow fever include vaccination programmes and measures to control mosquitoes. Programmes for distribution of mosquito nets for use in homes produce reductions in cases of both malaria and yellow fever. Use of EPA-registered insect repellent is recommended when outdoors. Exposure for even a short time is enough for a potential mosquito bite. Long-sleeved clothing, long pants, and socks are useful for prevention. The application of larvicides to water-storage containers can help eliminate potential mosquito breeding sites. EPA-registered insecticide spray decreases the transmission of yellow fever. Vaccination is recommended for those traveling to affected areas, because non-native people tend to develop more severe illness when infected. Protection begins by the 10th day after vaccine administration in 95% of people, and had been reported to last for at least 10 years. The World Health Organization (WHO) now states that a single dose of vaccine is sufficient to confer lifelong immunity against yellow fever disease. The attenuated live vaccine stem 17D was developed in 1937 by Max Theiler . The WHO recommends routine vaccination for people living in affected areas between the 9th and 12th month after birth. Up to one in four people experience fever, aches, and local soreness and redness at the site of injection. In rare cases (less than one in 200,000 to 300,000), the vaccination can cause yellow fever vaccine-associated viscerotropic disease, which is fatal in 60% of cases. It is probably due to the genetic morphology of the immune system. Another possible side effect is an infection of the nervous system, which occurs in one in 200,000 to 300,000 cases, causing yellow fever vaccine-associated neurotropic disease, which can lead to meningoencephalitis and is fatal in less than 5% of cases. The Yellow Fever Initiative, launched by the WHO in 2006, vaccinated more than 105 million people in 14 countries in West Africa. No outbreaks were reported during 2015. The campaign was supported by the GAVI alliance and governmental organizations in Europe and Africa. According to the WHO, mass vaccination cannot eliminate yellow fever because of the vast number of infected mosquitoes in urban areas of the target countries, but it will significantly reduce the number of people infected. Demand for yellow fever vaccine has continued to increase due to the growing number of countries implementing yellow fever vaccination as part of their routine immunization programmes. Recent upsurges in yellow fever outbreaks in Angola (2015), the Democratic Republic of Congo (2016), Uganda (2016), and more recently in Nigeria and Brazil in 2017 have further increased demand, while straining global vaccine supply. Therefore, to vaccinate susceptible populations in preventive mass immunization campaigns during outbreaks, fractional dosing of the vaccine is being considered as a dose-sparing strategy to maximize limited vaccine supplies. Fractional dose yellow fever vaccination refers to administration of a reduced volume of vaccine dose, which has been reconstituted as per manufacturer recommendations. The first practical use of fractional dose yellow fever vaccination was in response to a large yellow fever outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in mid-2016. Available evidence shows that fractional dose yellow fever vaccination induces a level of immune response similar to that of the standard full dose. In March 2017, the WHO launched a vaccination campaign in Brazil with 3.5 million doses from an emergency stockpile. In March 2017 the WHO recommended vaccination for travellers to certain parts of Brazil. In March 2018, Brazil shifted its policy and announced it planned to vaccinate all 77.5 million currently unvaccinated citizens by April 2019. Some countries in Asia are considered to be potentially in danger of yellow fever epidemics, as both mosquitoes with the capability to transmit yellow fever as well as susceptible monkeys are present. The disease does not yet occur in Asia. To prevent introduction of the virus, some countries demand previous vaccination of foreign visitors who have passed through yellow fever areas. Vaccination has to be proved by a vaccination certificate, which is valid 10 days after the vaccination and lasts for 10 years. Although the WHO on 17 May 2013 advised that subsequent booster vaccinations are unnecessary, an older (than 10 years) certificate may not be acceptable at all border posts in all affected countries. A list of the countries that require yellow fever vaccination is published by the WHO. If the vaccination cannot be given for some reason, dispensation may be possible. In this case, an exemption certificate issued by a WHO-approved vaccination center is required. Although 32 of 44 countries where yellow fever occurs endemically do have vaccination programmes, in many of these countries, less than 50% of their population is vaccinated. Control of the yellow fever mosquito A. aegypti is of major importance, especially because the same mosquito can also transmit dengue fever and chikungunya disease. A. aegypti breeds preferentially in water, for example, in installations by inhabitants of areas with precarious drinking water supplies, or in domestic refuse, especially tires, cans, and plastic bottles. These conditions are common in urban areas in developing countries. Two main strategies are employed to reduce A. aegypti populations. One approach is to kill the developing larvae. Measures are taken to reduce the water accumulations in which the larvae develop. Larvicides are used, along with larvae-eating fish and copepods , which reduce the number of larvae. For many years, copepods of the genus Mesocyclops have been used in Vietnam for preventing dengue fever. This eradicated the mosquito vector in several areas. Similar efforts may prove effective against yellow fever. Pyriproxyfen is recommended as a chemical larvicide, mainly because it is safe for humans and effective in small doses. The second strategy is to reduce populations of the adult yellow fever mosquito. Lethal ovitraps can reduce Aedes populations, using lesser amounts of pesticide because it targets the pest directly. Curtains and lids of water tanks can be sprayed with insecticides, but application inside houses is not recommended by the WHO. Insecticide-treated mosquito nets are effective, just as they are against the Anopheles mosquito that carries malaria. Vaccination is recommended for those traveling to affected areas, because non-native people tend to develop more severe illness when infected. Protection begins by the 10th day after vaccine administration in 95% of people, and had been reported to last for at least 10 years. The World Health Organization (WHO) now states that a single dose of vaccine is sufficient to confer lifelong immunity against yellow fever disease. The attenuated live vaccine stem 17D was developed in 1937 by Max Theiler . The WHO recommends routine vaccination for people living in affected areas between the 9th and 12th month after birth. Up to one in four people experience fever, aches, and local soreness and redness at the site of injection. In rare cases (less than one in 200,000 to 300,000), the vaccination can cause yellow fever vaccine-associated viscerotropic disease, which is fatal in 60% of cases. It is probably due to the genetic morphology of the immune system. Another possible side effect is an infection of the nervous system, which occurs in one in 200,000 to 300,000 cases, causing yellow fever vaccine-associated neurotropic disease, which can lead to meningoencephalitis and is fatal in less than 5% of cases. The Yellow Fever Initiative, launched by the WHO in 2006, vaccinated more than 105 million people in 14 countries in West Africa. No outbreaks were reported during 2015. The campaign was supported by the GAVI alliance and governmental organizations in Europe and Africa. According to the WHO, mass vaccination cannot eliminate yellow fever because of the vast number of infected mosquitoes in urban areas of the target countries, but it will significantly reduce the number of people infected. Demand for yellow fever vaccine has continued to increase due to the growing number of countries implementing yellow fever vaccination as part of their routine immunization programmes. Recent upsurges in yellow fever outbreaks in Angola (2015), the Democratic Republic of Congo (2016), Uganda (2016), and more recently in Nigeria and Brazil in 2017 have further increased demand, while straining global vaccine supply. Therefore, to vaccinate susceptible populations in preventive mass immunization campaigns during outbreaks, fractional dosing of the vaccine is being considered as a dose-sparing strategy to maximize limited vaccine supplies. Fractional dose yellow fever vaccination refers to administration of a reduced volume of vaccine dose, which has been reconstituted as per manufacturer recommendations. The first practical use of fractional dose yellow fever vaccination was in response to a large yellow fever outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in mid-2016. Available evidence shows that fractional dose yellow fever vaccination induces a level of immune response similar to that of the standard full dose. In March 2017, the WHO launched a vaccination campaign in Brazil with 3.5 million doses from an emergency stockpile. In March 2017 the WHO recommended vaccination for travellers to certain parts of Brazil. In March 2018, Brazil shifted its policy and announced it planned to vaccinate all 77.5 million currently unvaccinated citizens by April 2019. Some countries in Asia are considered to be potentially in danger of yellow fever epidemics, as both mosquitoes with the capability to transmit yellow fever as well as susceptible monkeys are present. The disease does not yet occur in Asia. To prevent introduction of the virus, some countries demand previous vaccination of foreign visitors who have passed through yellow fever areas. Vaccination has to be proved by a vaccination certificate, which is valid 10 days after the vaccination and lasts for 10 years. Although the WHO on 17 May 2013 advised that subsequent booster vaccinations are unnecessary, an older (than 10 years) certificate may not be acceptable at all border posts in all affected countries. A list of the countries that require yellow fever vaccination is published by the WHO. If the vaccination cannot be given for some reason, dispensation may be possible. In this case, an exemption certificate issued by a WHO-approved vaccination center is required. Although 32 of 44 countries where yellow fever occurs endemically do have vaccination programmes, in many of these countries, less than 50% of their population is vaccinated. Some countries in Asia are considered to be potentially in danger of yellow fever epidemics, as both mosquitoes with the capability to transmit yellow fever as well as susceptible monkeys are present. The disease does not yet occur in Asia. To prevent introduction of the virus, some countries demand previous vaccination of foreign visitors who have passed through yellow fever areas. Vaccination has to be proved by a vaccination certificate, which is valid 10 days after the vaccination and lasts for 10 years. Although the WHO on 17 May 2013 advised that subsequent booster vaccinations are unnecessary, an older (than 10 years) certificate may not be acceptable at all border posts in all affected countries. A list of the countries that require yellow fever vaccination is published by the WHO. If the vaccination cannot be given for some reason, dispensation may be possible. In this case, an exemption certificate issued by a WHO-approved vaccination center is required. Although 32 of 44 countries where yellow fever occurs endemically do have vaccination programmes, in many of these countries, less than 50% of their population is vaccinated. Control of the yellow fever mosquito A. aegypti is of major importance, especially because the same mosquito can also transmit dengue fever and chikungunya disease. A. aegypti breeds preferentially in water, for example, in installations by inhabitants of areas with precarious drinking water supplies, or in domestic refuse, especially tires, cans, and plastic bottles. These conditions are common in urban areas in developing countries. Two main strategies are employed to reduce A. aegypti populations. One approach is to kill the developing larvae. Measures are taken to reduce the water accumulations in which the larvae develop. Larvicides are used, along with larvae-eating fish and copepods , which reduce the number of larvae. For many years, copepods of the genus Mesocyclops have been used in Vietnam for preventing dengue fever. This eradicated the mosquito vector in several areas. Similar efforts may prove effective against yellow fever. Pyriproxyfen is recommended as a chemical larvicide, mainly because it is safe for humans and effective in small doses. The second strategy is to reduce populations of the adult yellow fever mosquito. Lethal ovitraps can reduce Aedes populations, using lesser amounts of pesticide because it targets the pest directly. Curtains and lids of water tanks can be sprayed with insecticides, but application inside houses is not recommended by the WHO. Insecticide-treated mosquito nets are effective, just as they are against the Anopheles mosquito that carries malaria. As with other Flavivirus infections, no cure is known for yellow fever. Hospitalization is advisable and intensive care may be necessary because of rapid deterioration in some cases. Certain acute treatment methods lack efficacy: passive immunization after the emergence of symptoms is probably without effect; ribavirin and other antiviral drugs , as well as treatment with interferons , are ineffective in yellow fever patients. Symptomatic treatment includes rehydration and pain relief with drugs such as paracetamol (acetaminophen). However, aspirin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are often avoided because of an increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeding due to their anticoagulant effects. Yellow fever is common in tropical and subtropical areas of South America and Africa. Worldwide, about 600 million people live in endemic areas. The WHO estimates 200,000 cases of yellow fever worldwide each year. About 15% of people infected with yellow fever progress to a severe form of the illness, and up to half of those will die, as there is no cure for yellow fever. An estimated 90% of yellow fever infections occur on the African continent. In 2016, a large outbreak originated in Angola and spread to neighboring countries before being contained by a massive vaccination campaign. In March and April 2016, 11 imported cases of the Angola genotype in unvaccinated Chinese nationals were reported in China, the first appearance of the disease in Asia in recorded history. Phylogenetic analysis has identified seven genotypes of yellow fever viruses, and they are assumed to be differently adapted to humans and to the vector A. aegypti . Five genotypes (Angola, Central/East Africa, East Africa, West Africa I, and West Africa II) occur only in Africa. West Africa genotype I is found in Nigeria and the surrounding region. West Africa genotype I appears to be especially infectious, as it is often associated with major outbreaks. The three genotypes found outside of Nigeria and Angola occur in areas where outbreaks are rare. Two outbreaks, in Kenya (1992–1993) and Sudan (2003 and 2005), involved the East African genotype, which had remained undetected in the previous 40 years. In South America, two genotypes have been identified (South American genotypes I and II). Based on phylogenetic analysis these two genotypes appear to have originated in West Africa and were first introduced into Brazil. The date of introduction of the predecessor African genotype which gave rise to the South American genotypes appears to be 1822 (95% confidence interval 1701 to 1911). The historical record shows an outbreak of yellow fever occurred in Recife, Brazil, between 1685 and 1690. The disease seems to have disappeared, with the next outbreak occurring in 1849. It was likely introduced with the trafficking of slaves through the slave trade from Africa. Genotype I has been divided into five subclades, A through E. In late 2016, a large outbreak began in Minas Gerais state of Brazil that was characterized as a sylvatic or jungle epizootic . Real-time phylogenetic investigations at the epicentre of the outbreak revealed that the outbreak was caused by the introduction of a virus lineage from the Amazon region into the southeast region around July 2016, spreading rapidly across several neotropical monkey species, including brown howler monkeys, which serve as a sentinel species for yellow fever. No cases had been transmitted between humans by the A. aegypti mosquito, which can sustain urban outbreaks that can spread rapidly. In April 2017, the sylvatic outbreak continued moving toward the Brazilian coast, where most people were unvaccinated. By the end of May the outbreak appeared to be declining after more than 3,000 suspected cases, 758 confirmed and 264 deaths confirmed to be yellow fever. The Health Ministry launched a vaccination campaign and was concerned about spread during the Carnival season in February and March. The CDC issued a Level 2 alert (practice enhanced precautions.) A Bayesian analysis of genotypes I and II has shown that genotype I accounts for virtually all the current infections in Brazil , Colombia , Venezuela , and Trinidad and Tobago , while genotype II accounted for all cases in Peru . Genotype I originated in the northern Brazilian region around 1908 (95% highest posterior density interval [HPD]: 1870–1936). Genotype II originated in Peru in 1920 (95% HPD: 1867–1958). The estimated rate of mutation for both genotypes was about 5 × 10 −4 substitutions/site/year, similar to that of other RNA viruses. The main vector ( A. aegypti ) also occurs in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, the Pacific, and Australia, but yellow fever had never occurred there until jet travel introduced 11 cases from the 2016 Angola and DR Congo yellow fever outbreak in Africa. Proposed explanations include: But none is considered satisfactory. Another proposal is the absence of a slave trade to Asia on the scale of that to the Americas. The trans-Atlantic slave trade probably introduced yellow fever into the Western Hemisphere from Africa. An estimated 90% of yellow fever infections occur on the African continent. In 2016, a large outbreak originated in Angola and spread to neighboring countries before being contained by a massive vaccination campaign. In March and April 2016, 11 imported cases of the Angola genotype in unvaccinated Chinese nationals were reported in China, the first appearance of the disease in Asia in recorded history. Phylogenetic analysis has identified seven genotypes of yellow fever viruses, and they are assumed to be differently adapted to humans and to the vector A. aegypti . Five genotypes (Angola, Central/East Africa, East Africa, West Africa I, and West Africa II) occur only in Africa. West Africa genotype I is found in Nigeria and the surrounding region. West Africa genotype I appears to be especially infectious, as it is often associated with major outbreaks. The three genotypes found outside of Nigeria and Angola occur in areas where outbreaks are rare. Two outbreaks, in Kenya (1992–1993) and Sudan (2003 and 2005), involved the East African genotype, which had remained undetected in the previous 40 years. In South America, two genotypes have been identified (South American genotypes I and II). Based on phylogenetic analysis these two genotypes appear to have originated in West Africa and were first introduced into Brazil. The date of introduction of the predecessor African genotype which gave rise to the South American genotypes appears to be 1822 (95% confidence interval 1701 to 1911). The historical record shows an outbreak of yellow fever occurred in Recife, Brazil, between 1685 and 1690. The disease seems to have disappeared, with the next outbreak occurring in 1849. It was likely introduced with the trafficking of slaves through the slave trade from Africa. Genotype I has been divided into five subclades, A through E. In late 2016, a large outbreak began in Minas Gerais state of Brazil that was characterized as a sylvatic or jungle epizootic . Real-time phylogenetic investigations at the epicentre of the outbreak revealed that the outbreak was caused by the introduction of a virus lineage from the Amazon region into the southeast region around July 2016, spreading rapidly across several neotropical monkey species, including brown howler monkeys, which serve as a sentinel species for yellow fever. No cases had been transmitted between humans by the A. aegypti mosquito, which can sustain urban outbreaks that can spread rapidly. In April 2017, the sylvatic outbreak continued moving toward the Brazilian coast, where most people were unvaccinated. By the end of May the outbreak appeared to be declining after more than 3,000 suspected cases, 758 confirmed and 264 deaths confirmed to be yellow fever. The Health Ministry launched a vaccination campaign and was concerned about spread during the Carnival season in February and March. The CDC issued a Level 2 alert (practice enhanced precautions.) A Bayesian analysis of genotypes I and II has shown that genotype I accounts for virtually all the current infections in Brazil , Colombia , Venezuela , and Trinidad and Tobago , while genotype II accounted for all cases in Peru . Genotype I originated in the northern Brazilian region around 1908 (95% highest posterior density interval [HPD]: 1870–1936). Genotype II originated in Peru in 1920 (95% HPD: 1867–1958). The estimated rate of mutation for both genotypes was about 5 × 10 −4 substitutions/site/year, similar to that of other RNA viruses. The main vector ( A. aegypti ) also occurs in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, the Pacific, and Australia, but yellow fever had never occurred there until jet travel introduced 11 cases from the 2016 Angola and DR Congo yellow fever outbreak in Africa. Proposed explanations include: But none is considered satisfactory. Another proposal is the absence of a slave trade to Asia on the scale of that to the Americas. The trans-Atlantic slave trade probably introduced yellow fever into the Western Hemisphere from Africa. The evolutionary origins of yellow fever most likely lie in Africa, with transmission of the disease from nonhuman primates to humans. The virus is thought to have originated in East or Central Africa and spread from there to West Africa. As it was endemic in Africa, local populations had developed some immunity to it. When an outbreak of yellow fever would occur in an African community where colonists resided, most Europeans died, while the indigenous Africans usually developed nonlethal symptoms resembling influenza . This phenomenon, in which certain populations develop immunity to yellow fever due to prolonged exposure in their childhood, is known as acquired immunity . The virus, as well as the vector A. aegypti, were probably transferred to North and South America with the trafficking of slaves from Africa, part of the Columbian exchange following European exploration and colonization. However, some researchers have argued that yellow fever might have existed in the Americas during the pre-Columbian period as mosquitoes of the genus Haemagogus , which is indigenous to the Americas, have been known to carry the disease. The first definitive outbreak of yellow fever in the New World was in 1647 on the island of Barbados . An outbreak was recorded by Spanish colonists in 1648 in the Yucatán Peninsula , where the indigenous Mayan people called the illness xekik ("blood vomit"). In 1685, Brazil suffered its first epidemic in Recife . The first mention of the disease by the name "yellow fever" occurred in 1744. However, Dr. Mitchell misdiagnosed the disease that he observed and treated, and the disease was probably Weil's disease or hepatitis. McNeill argues that the environmental and ecological disruption caused by the introduction of sugar plantations created the conditions for mosquito and viral reproduction, and subsequent outbreaks of yellow fever. Deforestation reduced populations of insectivorous birds and other creatures that fed on mosquitoes and their eggs. In Colonial times and during the Napoleonic Wars , the West Indies were known as a particularly dangerous posting for soldiers due to yellow fever being endemic in the area. The mortality rate in British garrisons in Jamaica was seven times that of garrisons in Canada, mostly because of yellow fever and other tropical diseases. Both English and French forces posted there were seriously affected by the "yellow jack" . Wanting to regain control of the lucrative sugar trade in Saint-Domingue (Hispaniola), and with an eye on regaining France's New World empire, Napoleon sent an army under the command of his brother-in-law General Charles Leclerc to Saint-Domingue to seize control after a slave revolt. The historian J. R. McNeill asserts that yellow fever accounted for about 35,000 to 45,000 casualties of these forces during the fighting. Only one third of the French troops survived for withdrawal and return to France. Napoleon gave up on the island and his plans for North America, selling the Louisiana Purchase to the US in 1803. In 1804, Haiti proclaimed its independence as the second republic in the Western Hemisphere. Considerable debate exists over whether the number of deaths caused by disease in the Haitian Revolution was exaggerated. Although yellow fever is most prevalent in tropical-like climates, the northern United States were not exempted from the fever. The first outbreak in English-speaking North America occurred in New York City in 1668. English colonists in Philadelphia and the French in the Mississippi River Valley recorded major outbreaks in 1669, as well as additional yellow fever epidemics in Philadelphia, Baltimore , and New York City in the 18th and 19th centuries. The disease traveled along steamboat routes from New Orleans, causing some 100,000–150,000 deaths in total. The yellow fever epidemic of 1793 in Philadelphia, which was then the capital of the United States, resulted in the deaths of several thousand people, more than 9% of the population. One of these deaths was James Hutchinson , a physician helping to treat the population of the city. The national government fled the city to Trenton, New Jersey, including President George Washington . The southern city of New Orleans was plagued with major epidemics during the 19th century, most notably in 1833 and 1853. A major epidemic occurred in both New Orleans and Shreveport, Louisiana in 1873. Its residents called the disease "yellow jack". Urban epidemics continued in the United States until 1905, with the last outbreak affecting New Orleans. At least 25 major outbreaks took place in the Americas during the 18th and 19th centuries, including particularly serious ones in Cartagena, Chile , in 1741; Cuba in 1762 and 1900; Santo Domingo in 1803; and Memphis, Tennessee , in 1878. In the early 19th century, the prevalence of yellow fever in the Caribbean "led to serious health problems" and alarmed the United States Navy as numerous deaths and sickness curtailed naval operations and destroyed morale. One episode began in April 1822 when the frigate USS Macedonian left Boston and became part of Commodore James Biddle's West India Squadron. Unbeknownst to all, they were about to embark on a cruise to disaster and their assignment "would prove a cruise through hell". Secretary of the Navy Smith Thompson had assigned the squadron to guard United States merchant shipping and suppress piracy. During their time on deployment from 26 May to 3 August 1822, 76 of the Macedonian's officers and men died, including John Cadle, surgeon USN. Seventy-four of these deaths were attributed to yellow fever. Biddle reported that another 52 of his crew were on sick-list. In their report to the secretary of the Navy, Biddle and Surgeon's Mate Charles Chase stated the cause as "fever". As a consequence of this loss, Biddle noted that his squadron was forced to return to Norfolk Navy Yard early. Upon arrival, the Macedonian's crew were provided medical care and quarantined at Craney Island, Virginia. In 1853, Cloutierville, Louisiana , had a late-summer outbreak of yellow fever that quickly killed 68 of the 91 inhabitants. A local doctor concluded that some unspecified infectious agent had arrived in a package from New Orleans. In 1854, 650 residents of Savannah, Georgia , died from yellow fever. In 1858, St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church in Charleston, South Carolina , had 308 yellow fever deaths, reducing the congregation by half. A ship carrying persons infected with the virus arrived in Hampton Roads in southeastern Virginia in June 1855. The disease spread quickly through the community, eventually killing over 3,000 people, mostly residents of Norfolk and Portsmouth . In 1873, Shreveport, Louisiana , lost 759 citizens in an 80-day period to a yellow fever epidemic, with over 400 additional victims eventually succumbing. The total death toll from August through November was approximately 1,200. In 1878, about 20,000 people died in a widespread epidemic in the Mississippi River Valley. That year, Memphis had an unusually large amount of rain, which led to an increase in the mosquito population. The result was a huge epidemic of yellow fever. The steamship John D. Porter took people fleeing Memphis northward in hopes of escaping the disease, but passengers were not allowed to disembark due to concerns of spreading yellow fever. The ship roamed the Mississippi River for the next two months before unloading her passengers. Major outbreaks have also occurred in southern Europe. Gibraltar lost many lives to outbreaks in 1804, 1814, and 1828. Barcelona suffered the loss of several thousand citizens during an outbreak in 1821. The Duke de Richelieu deployed 30,000 French troops to the border between France and Spain in the Pyrenees Mountains , to establish a cordon sanitaire in order to prevent the epidemic from spreading from Spain into France. Ezekiel Stone Wiggins , known as the Ottawa Prophet, proposed that the cause of a yellow fever epidemic in Jacksonville, Florida , in 1888, was astrological. The planets were in the same line as the sun and earth and this produced, besides Cyclones, Earthquakes, etc., a denser atmosphere holding more carbon and creating microbes. Mars had an uncommonly dense atmosphere, but its inhabitants were probably protected from the fever by their newly discovered canals , which were perhaps made to absorb carbon and prevent the disease. In 1848, Josiah C. Nott suggested that yellow fever was spread by insects such as moths or mosquitoes, basing his ideas on the pattern of transmission of the disease. Carlos Finlay , a Cuban-Spanish doctor and scientist, proposed in 1881 that yellow fever might be transmitted by previously infected mosquitoes rather than by direct contact from person to person, as had long been believed. Since the losses from yellow fever in the Spanish–American War in the 1890s were extremely high, U.S. Army doctors began research experiments with a team led by Walter Reed , and composed of doctors James Carroll , Aristides Agramonte , and Jesse William Lazear . They successfully proved Finlay's "mosquito hypothesis". Yellow fever was the first virus shown to be transmitted by mosquitoes. The physician William Gorgas applied these insights and eradicated yellow fever from Havana . He also campaigned against yellow fever during the construction of the Panama Canal . A previous effort of canal building by the French had failed in part due to mortality from the high incidence of yellow fever and malaria, which killed many workers. Although Reed has received much of the credit in United States history books for "beating" yellow fever, he had fully credited Finlay with the discovery of the yellow fever vector, and how it might be controlled. Reed often cited Finlay's papers in his own articles, and also credited him for the discovery in his personal correspondence. The acceptance of Finlay's work was one of the most important and far-reaching effects of the U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission of 1900. Applying methods first suggested by Finlay, the United States government and Army eradicated yellow fever in Cuba and later in Panama, allowing completion of the Panama Canal. While Reed built on the research of Finlay, historian François Delaporte notes that yellow fever research was a contentious issue. Scientists, including Finlay and Reed, became successful by building on the work of less prominent scientists, without always giving them the credit they were due. Reed's research was essential in the fight against yellow fever. He is also credited for using the first type of medical consent form during his experiments in Cuba, an attempt to ensure that participants knew they were taking a risk by being part of testing. Like Cuba and Panama, Brazil also led a highly successful sanitation campaign against mosquitoes and yellow fever. Beginning in 1903, the campaign led by Oswaldo Cruz , then director general of public health, resulted not only in eradicating the disease but also in reshaping the physical landscape of Brazilian cities such as Rio de Janeiro. During rainy seasons, Rio de Janeiro had regularly suffered floods, as water from the bay surrounding the city overflowed into Rio's narrow streets. Coupled with the poor drainage systems found throughout Rio, this created swampy conditions in the city's neighborhoods. Pools of stagnant water stood year-long in city streets and proved to be a fertile ground for disease-carrying mosquitoes. Thus, under Cruz's direction, public health units known as "mosquito inspectors" fiercely worked to combat yellow fever throughout Rio by spraying, exterminating rats, improving drainage, and destroying unsanitary housing. Ultimately, the city's sanitation and renovation campaigns reshaped Rio de Janeiro's neighborhoods. Its poor residents were pushed from city centers to Rio's suburbs, or to towns found in the outskirts of the city. In later years, Rio's most impoverished inhabitants would come to reside in favelas . During 1920–1923, the Rockefeller Foundation 's International Health Board undertook an expensive and successful yellow fever eradication campaign in Mexico. The IHB gained the respect of Mexico's federal government because of the success. The eradication of yellow fever strengthened the relationship between the US and Mexico, which had not been very good in the years prior. The eradication of yellow fever was also a major step toward better global health. In 1927, scientists isolated the yellow fever virus in West Africa. Following this, two vaccines were developed in the 1930s. Max Theiler led the completion of the 17D yellow fever vaccine in 1937, for which he was subsequently awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . That vaccine, 17D, is still in use, although newer vaccines, based on vero cells , are in development (as of 2018). Using vector control and strict vaccination programs, the urban cycle of yellow fever was nearly eradicated from South America. Since 1943, only a single urban outbreak in Santa Cruz de la Sierra , Bolivia, has occurred. Since the 1980s, however, the number of yellow fever cases has been increasing again, and A. aegypti has returned to the urban centers of South America. This is partly due to limitations on available insecticides, as well as habitat dislocations caused by climate change. It is also because the vector control program was abandoned. Although no new urban cycle has yet been established, scientists believe this could happen again at any point. An outbreak in Paraguay in 2008 was thought to be urban in nature, but this ultimately proved not to be the case. In Africa, virus eradication programs have mostly relied upon vaccination. These programs have largely been unsuccessful because they were unable to break the sylvatic cycle involving wild primates. With few countries establishing regular vaccination programs, measures to fight yellow fever have been neglected, making the future spread of the virus more likely. The evolutionary origins of yellow fever most likely lie in Africa, with transmission of the disease from nonhuman primates to humans. The virus is thought to have originated in East or Central Africa and spread from there to West Africa. As it was endemic in Africa, local populations had developed some immunity to it. When an outbreak of yellow fever would occur in an African community where colonists resided, most Europeans died, while the indigenous Africans usually developed nonlethal symptoms resembling influenza . This phenomenon, in which certain populations develop immunity to yellow fever due to prolonged exposure in their childhood, is known as acquired immunity . The virus, as well as the vector A. aegypti, were probably transferred to North and South America with the trafficking of slaves from Africa, part of the Columbian exchange following European exploration and colonization. However, some researchers have argued that yellow fever might have existed in the Americas during the pre-Columbian period as mosquitoes of the genus Haemagogus , which is indigenous to the Americas, have been known to carry the disease. The first definitive outbreak of yellow fever in the New World was in 1647 on the island of Barbados . An outbreak was recorded by Spanish colonists in 1648 in the Yucatán Peninsula , where the indigenous Mayan people called the illness xekik ("blood vomit"). In 1685, Brazil suffered its first epidemic in Recife . The first mention of the disease by the name "yellow fever" occurred in 1744. However, Dr. Mitchell misdiagnosed the disease that he observed and treated, and the disease was probably Weil's disease or hepatitis. McNeill argues that the environmental and ecological disruption caused by the introduction of sugar plantations created the conditions for mosquito and viral reproduction, and subsequent outbreaks of yellow fever. Deforestation reduced populations of insectivorous birds and other creatures that fed on mosquitoes and their eggs. In Colonial times and during the Napoleonic Wars , the West Indies were known as a particularly dangerous posting for soldiers due to yellow fever being endemic in the area. The mortality rate in British garrisons in Jamaica was seven times that of garrisons in Canada, mostly because of yellow fever and other tropical diseases. Both English and French forces posted there were seriously affected by the "yellow jack" . Wanting to regain control of the lucrative sugar trade in Saint-Domingue (Hispaniola), and with an eye on regaining France's New World empire, Napoleon sent an army under the command of his brother-in-law General Charles Leclerc to Saint-Domingue to seize control after a slave revolt. The historian J. R. McNeill asserts that yellow fever accounted for about 35,000 to 45,000 casualties of these forces during the fighting. Only one third of the French troops survived for withdrawal and return to France. Napoleon gave up on the island and his plans for North America, selling the Louisiana Purchase to the US in 1803. In 1804, Haiti proclaimed its independence as the second republic in the Western Hemisphere. Considerable debate exists over whether the number of deaths caused by disease in the Haitian Revolution was exaggerated. Although yellow fever is most prevalent in tropical-like climates, the northern United States were not exempted from the fever. The first outbreak in English-speaking North America occurred in New York City in 1668. English colonists in Philadelphia and the French in the Mississippi River Valley recorded major outbreaks in 1669, as well as additional yellow fever epidemics in Philadelphia, Baltimore , and New York City in the 18th and 19th centuries. The disease traveled along steamboat routes from New Orleans, causing some 100,000–150,000 deaths in total. The yellow fever epidemic of 1793 in Philadelphia, which was then the capital of the United States, resulted in the deaths of several thousand people, more than 9% of the population. One of these deaths was James Hutchinson , a physician helping to treat the population of the city. The national government fled the city to Trenton, New Jersey, including President George Washington . The southern city of New Orleans was plagued with major epidemics during the 19th century, most notably in 1833 and 1853. A major epidemic occurred in both New Orleans and Shreveport, Louisiana in 1873. Its residents called the disease "yellow jack". Urban epidemics continued in the United States until 1905, with the last outbreak affecting New Orleans. At least 25 major outbreaks took place in the Americas during the 18th and 19th centuries, including particularly serious ones in Cartagena, Chile , in 1741; Cuba in 1762 and 1900; Santo Domingo in 1803; and Memphis, Tennessee , in 1878. In the early 19th century, the prevalence of yellow fever in the Caribbean "led to serious health problems" and alarmed the United States Navy as numerous deaths and sickness curtailed naval operations and destroyed morale. One episode began in April 1822 when the frigate USS Macedonian left Boston and became part of Commodore James Biddle's West India Squadron. Unbeknownst to all, they were about to embark on a cruise to disaster and their assignment "would prove a cruise through hell". Secretary of the Navy Smith Thompson had assigned the squadron to guard United States merchant shipping and suppress piracy. During their time on deployment from 26 May to 3 August 1822, 76 of the Macedonian's officers and men died, including John Cadle, surgeon USN. Seventy-four of these deaths were attributed to yellow fever. Biddle reported that another 52 of his crew were on sick-list. In their report to the secretary of the Navy, Biddle and Surgeon's Mate Charles Chase stated the cause as "fever". As a consequence of this loss, Biddle noted that his squadron was forced to return to Norfolk Navy Yard early. Upon arrival, the Macedonian's crew were provided medical care and quarantined at Craney Island, Virginia. In 1853, Cloutierville, Louisiana , had a late-summer outbreak of yellow fever that quickly killed 68 of the 91 inhabitants. A local doctor concluded that some unspecified infectious agent had arrived in a package from New Orleans. In 1854, 650 residents of Savannah, Georgia , died from yellow fever. In 1858, St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church in Charleston, South Carolina , had 308 yellow fever deaths, reducing the congregation by half. A ship carrying persons infected with the virus arrived in Hampton Roads in southeastern Virginia in June 1855. The disease spread quickly through the community, eventually killing over 3,000 people, mostly residents of Norfolk and Portsmouth . In 1873, Shreveport, Louisiana , lost 759 citizens in an 80-day period to a yellow fever epidemic, with over 400 additional victims eventually succumbing. The total death toll from August through November was approximately 1,200. In 1878, about 20,000 people died in a widespread epidemic in the Mississippi River Valley. That year, Memphis had an unusually large amount of rain, which led to an increase in the mosquito population. The result was a huge epidemic of yellow fever. The steamship John D. Porter took people fleeing Memphis northward in hopes of escaping the disease, but passengers were not allowed to disembark due to concerns of spreading yellow fever. The ship roamed the Mississippi River for the next two months before unloading her passengers. Major outbreaks have also occurred in southern Europe. Gibraltar lost many lives to outbreaks in 1804, 1814, and 1828. Barcelona suffered the loss of several thousand citizens during an outbreak in 1821. The Duke de Richelieu deployed 30,000 French troops to the border between France and Spain in the Pyrenees Mountains , to establish a cordon sanitaire in order to prevent the epidemic from spreading from Spain into France. Ezekiel Stone Wiggins , known as the Ottawa Prophet, proposed that the cause of a yellow fever epidemic in Jacksonville, Florida , in 1888, was astrological. The planets were in the same line as the sun and earth and this produced, besides Cyclones, Earthquakes, etc., a denser atmosphere holding more carbon and creating microbes. Mars had an uncommonly dense atmosphere, but its inhabitants were probably protected from the fever by their newly discovered canals , which were perhaps made to absorb carbon and prevent the disease. In 1848, Josiah C. Nott suggested that yellow fever was spread by insects such as moths or mosquitoes, basing his ideas on the pattern of transmission of the disease. Carlos Finlay , a Cuban-Spanish doctor and scientist, proposed in 1881 that yellow fever might be transmitted by previously infected mosquitoes rather than by direct contact from person to person, as had long been believed. Since the losses from yellow fever in the Spanish–American War in the 1890s were extremely high, U.S. Army doctors began research experiments with a team led by Walter Reed , and composed of doctors James Carroll , Aristides Agramonte , and Jesse William Lazear . They successfully proved Finlay's "mosquito hypothesis". Yellow fever was the first virus shown to be transmitted by mosquitoes. The physician William Gorgas applied these insights and eradicated yellow fever from Havana . He also campaigned against yellow fever during the construction of the Panama Canal . A previous effort of canal building by the French had failed in part due to mortality from the high incidence of yellow fever and malaria, which killed many workers. Although Reed has received much of the credit in United States history books for "beating" yellow fever, he had fully credited Finlay with the discovery of the yellow fever vector, and how it might be controlled. Reed often cited Finlay's papers in his own articles, and also credited him for the discovery in his personal correspondence. The acceptance of Finlay's work was one of the most important and far-reaching effects of the U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission of 1900. Applying methods first suggested by Finlay, the United States government and Army eradicated yellow fever in Cuba and later in Panama, allowing completion of the Panama Canal. While Reed built on the research of Finlay, historian François Delaporte notes that yellow fever research was a contentious issue. Scientists, including Finlay and Reed, became successful by building on the work of less prominent scientists, without always giving them the credit they were due. Reed's research was essential in the fight against yellow fever. He is also credited for using the first type of medical consent form during his experiments in Cuba, an attempt to ensure that participants knew they were taking a risk by being part of testing. Like Cuba and Panama, Brazil also led a highly successful sanitation campaign against mosquitoes and yellow fever. Beginning in 1903, the campaign led by Oswaldo Cruz , then director general of public health, resulted not only in eradicating the disease but also in reshaping the physical landscape of Brazilian cities such as Rio de Janeiro. During rainy seasons, Rio de Janeiro had regularly suffered floods, as water from the bay surrounding the city overflowed into Rio's narrow streets. Coupled with the poor drainage systems found throughout Rio, this created swampy conditions in the city's neighborhoods. Pools of stagnant water stood year-long in city streets and proved to be a fertile ground for disease-carrying mosquitoes. Thus, under Cruz's direction, public health units known as "mosquito inspectors" fiercely worked to combat yellow fever throughout Rio by spraying, exterminating rats, improving drainage, and destroying unsanitary housing. Ultimately, the city's sanitation and renovation campaigns reshaped Rio de Janeiro's neighborhoods. Its poor residents were pushed from city centers to Rio's suburbs, or to towns found in the outskirts of the city. In later years, Rio's most impoverished inhabitants would come to reside in favelas . During 1920–1923, the Rockefeller Foundation 's International Health Board undertook an expensive and successful yellow fever eradication campaign in Mexico. The IHB gained the respect of Mexico's federal government because of the success. The eradication of yellow fever strengthened the relationship between the US and Mexico, which had not been very good in the years prior. The eradication of yellow fever was also a major step toward better global health. In 1927, scientists isolated the yellow fever virus in West Africa. Following this, two vaccines were developed in the 1930s. Max Theiler led the completion of the 17D yellow fever vaccine in 1937, for which he was subsequently awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . That vaccine, 17D, is still in use, although newer vaccines, based on vero cells , are in development (as of 2018). Using vector control and strict vaccination programs, the urban cycle of yellow fever was nearly eradicated from South America. Since 1943, only a single urban outbreak in Santa Cruz de la Sierra , Bolivia, has occurred. Since the 1980s, however, the number of yellow fever cases has been increasing again, and A. aegypti has returned to the urban centers of South America. This is partly due to limitations on available insecticides, as well as habitat dislocations caused by climate change. It is also because the vector control program was abandoned. Although no new urban cycle has yet been established, scientists believe this could happen again at any point. An outbreak in Paraguay in 2008 was thought to be urban in nature, but this ultimately proved not to be the case. In Africa, virus eradication programs have mostly relied upon vaccination. These programs have largely been unsuccessful because they were unable to break the sylvatic cycle involving wild primates. With few countries establishing regular vaccination programs, measures to fight yellow fever have been neglected, making the future spread of the virus more likely. In the hamster model of yellow fever, early administration of the antiviral ribavirin is an effective treatment of many pathological features of the disease. Ribavirin treatment during the first five days after virus infection improved survival rates, reduced tissue damage in the liver and spleen , prevented hepatocellular steatosis , and normalised levels of alanine aminotransferase, a liver damage marker. The mechanism of action of ribavirin in reducing liver pathology in yellow fever virus infection may be similar to its activity in treatment of hepatitis C , a related virus. Because ribavirin had failed to improve survival in a virulent rhesus model of yellow fever infection, it had been previously discounted as a possible therapy. Infection was reduced in mosquitoes with the wMel strain of Wolbachia . Yellow fever has been researched by several countries as a potential biological weapon .

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Yellow_fever_vaccine/html

Yellow fever vaccine

none Yellow fever vaccine is a vaccine that protects against yellow fever . Yellow fever is a viral infection that occurs in Africa and South America . Most people begin to develop immunity within ten days of vaccination and 99% are protected within one month, and this appears to be lifelong. The vaccine can be used to control outbreaks of disease. It is given either by injection into a muscle or just under the skin . The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends routine immunization in all countries where the disease is common. This should typically occur between nine and twelve months of age. Those traveling to areas where the disease occurs should also be immunized. Additional doses after the first are generally not needed. The yellow fever vaccine is generally safe. This includes in those with HIV infection but without symptoms. Mild side effects may include headache , muscle pains, pain at the injection site, fever , and rash. Severe allergies occur in about eight per million doses, serious neurological problems occur in about four per million doses, and organ failure occurs in about three per million doses. It appears to be safe in pregnancy and is therefore recommended among those who will be potentially exposed. It should not be given to those with very poor immune function . Yellow fever vaccine came into use in 1938. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines . The vaccine is made from weakened yellow fever virus. Some countries require a yellow fever vaccination certificate before entry from a country where the disease is common. Medical experts recommend vaccinating people most at risk of contracting the virus, such as woodcutters working in tropical areas. Insecticides , protective clothing, and screening of houses are helpful, but not always sufficient for mosquito control; medical experts recommend using personal insecticide spray in endemic areas. In affected areas, mosquito control methods have proven effective in decreasing the number of cases. Travellers need to have the vaccine ten days prior to being in an endemic area in order to assure full immunity. : 45 For most people, the vaccine remains effective permanently. People who are HIV positive at vaccination can benefit from a booster after ten years. On 17 May 2013, the World Health Organization (WHO) Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on immunization (SAGE) announced that a booster dose of yellow fever (YF) vaccine, ten years after a primary dose, is not necessary. Since yellow fever vaccination began in the 1930s, only 12 known cases of yellow fever post-vaccination have been identified, after 600 million doses have been dispensed. Evidence showed that among this small number of "vaccine failures", all cases developed the disease within five years of vaccination. This demonstrates that immunity does not decrease with time. The World Health Organization recommends the vaccine between the ages of 9 and 12 months in areas where the disease is common. Anyone over the age of nine months who has not been previously immunized and either lives in or is traveling to an area where the disease occurs should also be immunized. Medical experts recommend vaccinating people most at risk of contracting the virus, such as woodcutters working in tropical areas. Insecticides , protective clothing, and screening of houses are helpful, but not always sufficient for mosquito control; medical experts recommend using personal insecticide spray in endemic areas. In affected areas, mosquito control methods have proven effective in decreasing the number of cases. Travellers need to have the vaccine ten days prior to being in an endemic area in order to assure full immunity. : 45For most people, the vaccine remains effective permanently. People who are HIV positive at vaccination can benefit from a booster after ten years. On 17 May 2013, the World Health Organization (WHO) Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on immunization (SAGE) announced that a booster dose of yellow fever (YF) vaccine, ten years after a primary dose, is not necessary. Since yellow fever vaccination began in the 1930s, only 12 known cases of yellow fever post-vaccination have been identified, after 600 million doses have been dispensed. Evidence showed that among this small number of "vaccine failures", all cases developed the disease within five years of vaccination. This demonstrates that immunity does not decrease with time. The World Health Organization recommends the vaccine between the ages of 9 and 12 months in areas where the disease is common. Anyone over the age of nine months who has not been previously immunized and either lives in or is traveling to an area where the disease occurs should also be immunized. The yellow fever 17D vaccine is considered safe, with over 500 million doses given and very few documented cases of vaccine associated illness (62 confirmed cases and 35 deaths as of January 2019). In no case of vaccine-related illness has there been evidence of the virus reverting to a virulent phenotype. [ medical citation needed ] The majority of adverse reactions to the 17D vaccine result from allergic reaction to the eggs in which the vaccine is grown. Persons with known egg allergy should discuss this with their physician prior to vaccination. In addition, there is a small risk of neurologic disease and encephalitis , particularly in individuals with compromised immune systems and very young children. The 17D vaccine is contraindicated in (among others) infants between zero and six months, people with thymus disorders associated with abnormal immune cell function, people with primary immunodeficiencies, and anyone with a diminished immune capacity including those taking immunosuppressant drugs . There is a small risk of more severe yellow fever-like disease associated with the vaccine. This reaction, known as yellow fever vaccine-associated acute viscerotropic disease (YEL-AVD), causes a fairly severe disease closely resembling yellow fever caused by virulent strains of the virus. The risk factors for YEL-AVD are not known, although it has been suggested that it may be genetic. The 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthase (OAS) component of the innate immune response has been shown to be particularly important in protection from Flavivirus infection. Another reaction to the yellow fever vaccine is known as yellow fever vaccine-associated acute neurotropic disease (YEL-AND). The Canadian Medical Association published a 2001 CMAJ article entitled "Yellow fever vaccination: be sure the patient needs it". The article begins by stating that of the seven people who developed system failure within two to five days of the vaccine in 1996–2001, six died "including 2 who were vaccinated even though they were planning to travel to countries where yellow fever has never been reported." The article cites that "3 demonstrated histopatholic changes consistent with wild yellow fever virus." The author recommends vaccination for only non-contraindicated travelers (see the articles list) and those travelers going where yellow fever activity is reported or in the endemic zone which can be found mapped at the CDC website cited below. In addition, the 2010 online edition of the Center for Disease Control Traveler's Health Yellow Book states that between 1970 and 2002 only "nine cases of yellow fever were reported in unvaccinated travelers from the United States and Europe who traveled" to West Africa and South America, and 8 of the 9 died. However, it goes on to cite "only 1 documented case of yellow fever in a vaccinated traveler. This nonfatal case occurred in a traveler from Spain who visited several West African countries in 1988". African tropical cultures had adopted burial traditions in which the deceased were buried near their habitation, including those who died of Yellow fever. This ensured that people within these cultures gained immunity through a childhood case of "endemic" yellow fever through acquired immunity . This led to a lasting misperception first by colonial authorities and foreign medical experts that Africans have a "natural immunity" to the illness. In the nineteenth century health provisioners forced abandonment of these traditional burial traditions, leading to local populations dying of yellow fever as frequently as those without such burial customs such as settler populations. The first modern attempts to develop a yellow fever vaccine followed the opening of the Panama Canal in 1912, which increased global exposure to the disease. The Japanese bacteriologist Hideyo Noguchi led investigations for the Rockefeller Foundation in Ecuador that resulted in a vaccine based on his theory that the disease was caused by a leptospiral bacterium . However, other investigators could not duplicate his results and the ineffective vaccine was eventually abandoned. [ citation needed ] Another vaccine was developed from the "French strain" of the virus, obtained by Pasteur Institute scientists from a man in Dakar, Senegal, who survived his bout with the disease. [ citation needed ] This vaccine could be administered by scarification , like the smallpox vaccine , and was given in combination to produce immunity to both diseases, but it also had severe systemic and neurologic complications in a few cases. Attempts to attenuate the virus used in the vaccine failed. Scientists at the Rockefeller Foundation developed another vaccine derived from the serum of an African named Asibi in 1927, the first isolation of the virus from a human. It was safer but involved the use of large amounts of human serum, which limited widespread use. Both vaccines were in use for several years, the Rockefeller vaccine in the Western hemisphere and England, and the Pasteur Institute vaccine in France and its African colonies. In 1937, Max Theiler , working with Hugh Smith and Eugen Haagen at the Rockefeller Foundation to improve the vaccine from the "Asibi" strain, discovered that a favorable chance mutation in the attenuated virus had produced a highly effective strain that was named 17D. Following the work of Ernest Goodpasture , Theiler used chicken eggs to culture the virus. After field trials in Brazil, over one million people were vaccinated by 1939, without severe complications. This vaccine was widely used by the U.S. Army during World War II. For his work on the yellow fever vaccine, Theiler received the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Only the 17D vaccine remains in use today. Theiler's vaccine was responsible for the largest outbreak of Hepatitis B in history: infecting 330,000 soldiers and giving 50,000 jaundice between 1941 and 1942. At the time, chronic infectious hepatitis was not known, so when human serum was used in vaccine preparation, serum drawn from a chronic Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) carrier would contaminate the Yellow Fever Vaccine. In 1941, researchers at Rocky Mountain Laboratories developed a safer alternative, an "aqueous-base" version of the 17D vaccine using distilled water combined with the virus grown in chicken eggs. Since 1971, screening technology for HBV has been available and is routinely used in situations where HBV contamination is possible including vaccine preparation. Also in the 1930s, a French team developed the French neurotropic vaccine (FNV), which was extracted from mouse brain tissue. Since this vaccine was associated with a higher incidence of encephalitis , FNV was not recommended after 1961. Vaccine 17D is still in use, and more than 400 million doses have been distributed. Little research has been done to develop new vaccines. Newer vaccines, based on vero cells , are in development (as of 2018). Increases in cases of yellow fever in endemic areas of Africa and South America in the 1980s were addressed by the WHO Yellow Fever Initiative launched in the mid-2000s. The initiative was supported by the Gavi Alliance , a collaboration of the WHO , UNICEF , vaccine manufacturers, and private philanthropists such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation . Gavi-supported vaccination campaigns since 2011 have covered 88 million people in 14 countries considered at "high-risk" of a yellow fever outbreak (Angola was considered "medium risk"). As of 2013, there were four WHO-qualified manufacturers: Bio-Manguinhos in Brazil (with the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation ), Institute Pasteur in Dakar, Senegal, the Federal State Unitary Enterprise of Chumakov Institute in Russia, and Sanofi Pasteur , the French pharmaceutical company. Two other manufacturers supply domestic markets: Wuhan Institute of Biological Products in China and Sanofi Pasteur in the United States. Demand for yellow fever vaccine for preventive campaigns has increased from about five million doses per year to a projected 62 million per year by 2014. UNICEF reported in 2013 that supplies were insufficient. Manufacturers are producing about 35 million of the 64 million doses needed per year. Demand for the yellow fever vaccine has continued to increase due to the growing number of countries implementing yellow fever vaccination as part of their routine immunization programmes. The outbreak of yellow fever in Angola and in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 2016 has raised concerns about whether the global supply of vaccine is adequate to meet the need during a large epidemic or pandemic of the disease. Routine childhood immunization was suspended in other African countries to ensure an adequate supply in the vaccination campaign against the outbreak in Angola. Emergency stockpiles of vaccine diverted to Angola, which consisted of about 10 million doses at the end of March 2016, had become exhausted, but were being replenished by May 2016. However, in August it was reported that about one million doses of six million shipped in February had been sent to the wrong place or not kept cold enough to ensure efficacy, resulting in shortages to fight the spreading epidemic in DR Congo. As an emergency measure, experts suggested fractional dose vaccination , using a fractional dose (1/5 or 1/10 of the usual dose) to extend existing supplies of vaccine. Others have noted that switching manufacturing processes to modern cell-culture technology might improve vaccine supply shortfalls, as the manufacture of the current vaccine in chicken eggs is slow and laborious. On 17 June 2016, the WHO agreed to the use of 1/5 the usual dose as an emergency measure during the ongoing outbreak in Angola and the DR Congo. The fractional dose would not qualify for a yellow fever certificate of vaccination for travelers. Later studies found that the fractional dose was just as protective as the full dose, even 10 years after vaccination. As of February 2021, UNICEF reported awarded contract prices of ranging from US$ 0.97 to US$ 1.444 per dose under multi-year contracts with various suppliers. Travellers who wish to enter certain countries or territories must be vaccinated against yellow fever 10 days before crossing the border, and be able to present a vaccination record/certificate at the border checks. : 45 In most cases, this travel requirement depends on whether the country they are travelling from has been designated by the World Health Organization as being a 'country with risk of yellow fever transmission'. In a few countries, it does not matter which country the traveller comes from: everyone who wants to enter these countries must be vaccinated against yellow fever. There are exemptions for newborn children; in most cases, any child who is at least 9 months or 1 year old needs to be vaccinated.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/1793_Philadelphia_yellow_fever_epidemic/html

1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic

During the 1793 Yellow Fever epidemic in Philadelphia , 5,000 or more people were listed in the register of deaths between August 1 and November 9. The vast majority of them died of yellow fever , making the epidemic in the city of 50,000 people one of the most severe in United States history. By the end of September, 20,000 people had fled the city, including congressional and executive officials of the federal government. Most did not return until after the epidemic had abated in late November. The mortality rate peaked in October before frost finally killed the mosquitoes and brought an end to the outbreak. Doctors tried a variety of treatments but knew neither the origin of the fever nor that the disease was transmitted by mosquitoes (this information was not verified until the late 19th century). The mayor and a committee of two dozen organized a fever hospital at Bush Hill and other crisis measures. The assistance of the Free African Society was requested by the city and readily agreed to by its members. Parties mistakenly assumed that people of African descent would have the same partial immunity to the new disease as many had to malaria , which was typically the most common source of fever epidemics during the summer months. Black nurses aided the sick, and the group's leaders hired additional men to take away corpses, which most people would not touch. But black people in the city died at the same rate as whites, about 240 altogether. Some neighboring towns refused to let refugees in from Philadelphia, fearing that they were carrying the fever. Major port cities, including those in Baltimore and New York City had quarantines against refugees and goods from Philadelphia, although New York City sent financial aid to Philadelphia.Back in the spring of 1793, French colonial refugees, some with slaves, arrived from Cap Français , Saint-Domingue in present-day Haiti . The 2,000 immigrants fled the slave revolution in the island's north. They crowded the port of Philadelphia, where the first yellow fever epidemic in the city in 30 years began. It is likely that the refugees and ships carried the yellow fever virus and mosquitoes. Mosquito bites transmit the virus. Mosquitoes easily breed in small amounts of standing water. The medical community and others in 1793 did not understand the role of mosquitoes in the transmission of yellow fever, malaria, and other diseases. In the ports and coastal areas of the United States, even in the northeast , the months of August and September were considered the "sickly season," when fevers were prevalent. In the South, planters and other wealthy people usually left the Low Country during this season. Natives thought that newcomers especially had to undergo a "seasoning" and were more likely to die of what were thought to be seasonal fevers in their early years in the region. In 1793 Philadelphia was the temporary capital of the United States, and the government was due to return in the fall. President George Washington left the city for his Mount Vernon estate. The first two people to die of yellow fever in early August in Philadelphia were both recent immigrants, one from Ireland and the other from Saint-Domingue . Letters describing their cases were published in a pamphlet about a month after they died. The young doctor sent by the Overseers of the Poor to treat the Irish woman was perplexed, and his treatment did not save her. A 2013 book by Billy G. Smith, professor of history at Montana State University, makes a case that the principal vector of the 1793 plague in Philadelphia (and other Atlantic ports) was the British merchant ship Hankey , which had fled the West African colony of Bolama (an island off West Africa, present-day Guinea-Bissau ) the previous November. It trailed yellow fever at every port of call in the Caribbean and eastern Atlantic seaboard. After two weeks and an increasing number of fever cases, Dr. Benjamin Rush , a doctor's apprentice during the city's 1762 Yellow Fever epidemic, saw the pattern; he recognized that yellow fever had returned. Rush alerted his colleagues and the government that the city faced an epidemic of "highly contagious, as well as mortal... bilious remitting yellow fever." Adding to the alarm was that, unlike with most fevers, the principal victims were not very young or very old. Many of the early deaths were teenagers and heads of families in the dockside areas. Believing that the refugees from Saint-Domingue were carrying the disease, the city imposed a quarantine of two to three weeks on immigrants and their goods but was unable to enforce it as the epidemic increased its reach. Then the largest city in the US, with around 50,000 residents, Philadelphia was relatively compact and most houses were within seven blocks of its major port on the Delaware River. Docking facilities extended from Southwark south of the city to Kensington to the north. Cases of fever clustered at first around the Arch Street wharf. Rush blamed "some damaged coffee which putrefied on the wharf near Arch Street" for causing the fevers. Soon cases appeared in Kensington. As the port was critical to the state's economy, the Pennsylvania governor, Thomas Mifflin , had responsibility for its health. He asked the port physician, Dr. James Hutchinson, to assess his conditions. The doctor found that 67 of about 400 residents near the Arch Street wharf were sick, but only 12 had "malignant fevers." Rush later described some early cases: On August 7, he treated a young man for headaches, fever, and vomiting, and on the 15th treated his brother. On the same day a woman he was treating turned yellow. On the 18th a man on the third day of fever had no pulse, was cold, clammy, and yellow, but he could sit up in his bed. He died a few hours later. On the 19th a woman Rush visited died within hours. Another physician said five persons within sight of her door died. None of those victims was a recent immigrant. The college published a letter in the city's newspapers, written by a committee headed by Rush, suggesting 11 measures to prevent the "progress" of the fever. They warned citizens to avoid fatigue, the hot sun, night air, too much liquor, and anything else that might lower their resistance. Vinegar and camphor in infected rooms "cannot be used too frequently upon handkerchiefs, or in smelling bottles, by persons whose duty calls to visit or attend the sick." They outlined measures for city officials: stopping the tolling of church bells and making burials private; cleaning streets and wharves; exploding gunpowder in the street to increase the amount of oxygen. Everyone should avoid unnecessary contact with the sick. Crews were sent to clean the wharves, streets, and the market, which cheered those remaining in the city. Many of those who could, left the city. Elizabeth Drinker, a married Quaker woman, kept a journal for years; her account from August 23 through August 30 tells the quickening story of the spread of the disease in the city and the rising toll of deaths. She also describes the many people leaving the city. Like all hospitals of that time, the Pennsylvania Hospital did not admit patients with infectious diseases . The Guardians of the Poor took over Bush Hill, a 150-acre estate farther outside the city, whose owner William Hamilton was in England for an extended stay. Vice President John Adams had recently rented the main house, so yellow fever patients were placed in the outbuildings. The end of August was not historically a busy time in the city. Many families who could afford to, or who had relatives in the countryside, lived elsewhere during that hot month. Beginning in September, shipments generally increased with the arrival of fall goods from Britain. In 1793, the Federal Congress was not scheduled to resume session until November, but the Pennsylvania Assembly met in the first week of September. Founded by the Quaker William Penn , the city was the center of Quaker life in the United States. [ citation needed ] Between the college's advisory on August 25 and the death of Dr. Hutchinson from yellow fever on September 7, panic spread throughout the city; more people fled. Between August 1 and September 7, 456 people died in the city; 42 deaths were reported on September 8. An estimated 20,000 people left the city through September, including national leaders. The daily death toll remained above 30 until October 26. The worst seven-day period was between October 7 and 13, when 711 deaths were reported. The publisher Mathew Carey published a short pamphlet later in the fall in which he described the changes that had occurred in the life of the city: "Those who ventured abroad, had handkerchiefs or sponges impregnated with vinegar of camphor at their noses, or smelling-bottles full of the thieves' vinegar. Others carried pieces of tarred rope in their hands or pockets, or camphor bags tied round their necks... People hastily shifted their course at the sight of a hearse coming towards them. Many never walked on the footpath, but went into the middle of the streets, to avoid being infected in passing by houses wherein people had died. Acquaintances and friends avoided each other in the streets, and only signified their regard by a cold nod. The old custom of shaking hands fell in such general disuse, that many shrunk back with affright at even the offer of a hand. A person with crape [mourning crepe], or any appearance of mourning, was shunned like a viper." Like all hospitals of that time, the Pennsylvania Hospital did not admit patients with infectious diseases . The Guardians of the Poor took over Bush Hill, a 150-acre estate farther outside the city, whose owner William Hamilton was in England for an extended stay. Vice President John Adams had recently rented the main house, so yellow fever patients were placed in the outbuildings. The end of August was not historically a busy time in the city. Many families who could afford to, or who had relatives in the countryside, lived elsewhere during that hot month. Beginning in September, shipments generally increased with the arrival of fall goods from Britain. In 1793, the Federal Congress was not scheduled to resume session until November, but the Pennsylvania Assembly met in the first week of September. Founded by the Quaker William Penn , the city was the center of Quaker life in the United States. [ citation needed ]Between the college's advisory on August 25 and the death of Dr. Hutchinson from yellow fever on September 7, panic spread throughout the city; more people fled. Between August 1 and September 7, 456 people died in the city; 42 deaths were reported on September 8. An estimated 20,000 people left the city through September, including national leaders. The daily death toll remained above 30 until October 26. The worst seven-day period was between October 7 and 13, when 711 deaths were reported. The publisher Mathew Carey published a short pamphlet later in the fall in which he described the changes that had occurred in the life of the city: "Those who ventured abroad, had handkerchiefs or sponges impregnated with vinegar of camphor at their noses, or smelling-bottles full of the thieves' vinegar. Others carried pieces of tarred rope in their hands or pockets, or camphor bags tied round their necks... People hastily shifted their course at the sight of a hearse coming towards them. Many never walked on the footpath, but went into the middle of the streets, to avoid being infected in passing by houses wherein people had died. Acquaintances and friends avoided each other in the streets, and only signified their regard by a cold nod. The old custom of shaking hands fell in such general disuse, that many shrunk back with affright at even the offer of a hand. A person with crape [mourning crepe], or any appearance of mourning, was shunned like a viper." The College of Physicians' advisory implied the fever was contagious and people should avoid contact with its victims although "duty" required that they be cared for. Yet in families, when the person with the fever was a mother or father, they could forbid their children from coming near them. Rush knew of Dr. John Lining's observation during the 1742 yellow fever epidemic in Charleston, South Carolina , that African slaves appeared to be affected at rates lower than whites; he thought they had a natural immunity. Writing a short letter to the newspapers under the pseudonym " Anthony Benezet ," a Quaker who had provided schooling for blacks, Rush suggested that the city's people of color had immunity and solicited them "to offer your services to attend the sick to help those known in distress." Richard Allen and Absalom Jones recalled their reaction to the letter in a memoir they published shortly after the epidemic: Early in September, a solicitation appeared in the public papers, to the people of colour to come forward and assist the distressed, perishing, and neglected sick; with a kind of assurance, that people of our colour were not liable to take the infection. Upon which we and a few others met and consulted how to act on so truly alarming and melancholy occasion. After some conversation, we found a freedom to go forth, confiding in Him who can preserve in the midst of a burning fiery furnace, sensible that it was our duty to do all the good we could to our suffering fellow mortals. We set out to see where we could be useful. The first we visited was a man in Emsley's alley, who was dying, and his wife lay dead at the time in the house, there were none to assist but two poor helpless children. We administered what relief we could, and applied to the overseers of the poor to have the woman buried. We visited upwards of twenty families that day—they were scenes of woe indeed! The Lord was plentiful to strengthen us, and removed all fear from us... In order the better to regulate our conduct, we called on the mayor the next day, to consult with him on how to proceed, so as to be the most useful. The first object he recommended was a strict attention to the sick, and the procuring of nurses. This was attended to by Absalom Jones and William Gray; and, in order that the distressed might know where to apply, the mayor advised that upon application to them they would be supplied. Soon after, the mortality increased, the difficulty of getting a corpse taken away, was such, that few were willing to do it, when offered great rewards. The black people were looked to. We then offered our services in the public papers, by advertising that we would remove the dead and procure nurses. Our services were the production of real sensibility—we sought not fee nor reward, until the increase of the disorder rendered our labour so arduous that we were not adequate to the service we had assumed. Allen noted in his account that because of the increase in mortality, he and Jones had to hire five men to assist them in removing corpses, as most people avoided the sick and the dead. In a September 6 letter to his wife, Rush said that the "African brethren ... furnish nurses to most of my patients." Despite Rush's theory, most of the city's people of color, who were born in North America, were not immune to the fever. Many of the slaves in Charleston in 1742 could have gained immunity before having been transported from Africa, by having been exposed to yellow fever in a mild case. People who survived one attack gained immunity. A total of 240 blacks died in Philadelphia, in proportion to their population at the same rate as whites. Given the limited resources and knowledge of the times, the city's response was credible. The medical community did not know the natural history of yellow fever, a viral infection spread by the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Efforts to clean the city did not defeat the spread of the fever, as the mosquitoes breed in clean water as well as in dirty water. Philadelphia's newspapers continued to publish during the epidemic, and the doctors and others tried to understand and combat the epidemic. On September 7, Dr. Adam Kuhn, who had studied medicine at the University of Uppsala in Sweden, advised patients to treat symptoms as they arose. Rush claimed that he had tried Kuhn's and Steven's stimulating remedies but that his patients still died. He recommended other treatments, including purging and bloodletting , and published his theories. The hope offered by any of these treatments was soon dashed when it became clear that they did not cure the disease, and the doctors' competing claims demoralized patients. In his 1794 account of the epidemic, Mathew Carey noted that other doctors claimed to have used calomel (a mercury compound) before Rush and that "its efficacy was great and rescued many from death." Carey added that the "efficacy of bleeding, in all cases not attended with putridity, was great." Rush taught the African-American nurses how to bleed and purge patients. Allen and Jones wrote that they were thankful that "we have been the instruments, in the hand of God, for saving the lives of hundreds of our suffering fellow mortals." Rush's brand of medicine became the standard American treatment for fevers in the 1790s and was widely used for the next 50 years. Dr. Mark Chesterfield also suggested training prisoners to perform the dangerous jobs of collecting the dead and transporting the sick, but the idea met with great controversy and was abandoned. Dr. Chesterfield later fell victim to the sickness and died as the result of excessive bloodletting at the hands of Dr. Benjamin Rush . [ citation needed ] Rush's claim that his remedies cured 99 out of 100 patients has led historians and modern doctors to ridicule his remedies and approach to medical science. Some contemporaries also attacked him. The newspaper editor William Cobbett attacked Rush's therapies and called him a Sangrado , after a character in Gil Blas , who bled patients to death. In 1799 Rush won a $5,000 libel judgment against Cobbett. The state legislature cut short its September session after a dead body was found on the steps of State House. Governor Mifflin became ill and was advised by his doctor to leave. The city's banks remained open. But, banking operations were so slowed by the inability of people to pay off notes because of disruptions from the epidemic that banks automatically renewed notes until the epidemic ended. The mayor Matthew Clarkson organized the city's response to the epidemic. Most of the Common Council members fled, along with 20,000 other residents. People who did not leave Philadelphia before the second week in September could leave the city only with great difficulty, and they faced road blocks, patrols, inspections and quarantines. On September 12, Clarkson summoned fellow citizens interested in helping the Guardians of the Poor. They formed a committee to take over from the Guardians and address the crisis. On the 14th, Clarkson was joined by 26 men, who formed committees to reorganize the fever hospital, arrange visits to the sick, feed those unable to care for themselves, and arrange for wagons to carry the sick to the hospital and the dead to Potter's Field. The Committee acted quickly: after a report of 15-month-old twins being orphaned, two days later the committee had identified a house for sheltering the growing number of orphans. As noted above, Richard Allen and Absalom Jones offered the services of members of the Free African Society to the committee. When the Mayor's Committee inspected the Bush Hill fever hospital, they found the nurses unqualified and arrangements chaotic. "The sick, the dying, and the dead were indiscriminately mingled together. The ordure and other evacuations of the sick, were allowed to remain in the most offensive state imaginable... It was, in fact, a great human slaughter-house." On September 15, Peter Helm, a barrel maker, and Stephen Girard , a merchant and shipowner born in France, volunteered to personally manage the hospital and represent the Mayor's Committee. They made rapid improvements in hospital operations: bedsteads were repaired and more brought from the prison so patients would not have to lie on the floor. A barn was adapted as a place for convalescing patients. On September 17, the managers hired 9 female nurses and 10 male attendants, as well as a female matron. They assigned the 14 rooms to separate male and female patients. With the discovery of a spring on the estate, workers were organized to have clean water pumped into the hospital. Helm and Girard informed the Committee that they could accommodate more than the 60 patients then under their care, and soon the hospital had 140 patients. Girard found that the intermittent visits by four young physicians from the city added to the confusion about patient treatment. He hired Jean Devèze , a French doctor with experience treating yellow fever in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti). Devèze cared only for the patients at the hospital, and he was assisted by French apothecaries. Devèze admired Girard's fearlessness in his devotion to the patients. In a memoir published in 1794, Devèze wrote of Girard: I even saw one of the diseased ... [discharge] the contents of his stomach upon [him]. What did Girard do? ... He wiped the patient's cloaths, comforted [him] ... arranged the bed, [and] inspired with courage, by renewing in him the hope that he should recover. —From him he went to another, that vomited offensive matter that would have disheartened any other than this wonderful man. News that patients treated at the hospital were recovering encouraged many people to believe that medicine was gaining control of the fever. But, it soon became clear that mortality at the hospital remained high; about 50% of those admitted died. As the death toll in the city rose, officials in neighboring communities and major port cities such as New York and Baltimore established quarantines for refugees and goods from Philadelphia. New York established a "Committee appointed to prevent the spreading and introduction of infectious diseases in this city", which set up citizen patrols to monitor entry to the city. Stage coaches from Philadelphia were not allowed in many cities. Havre de Grace, Maryland , for example, tried to prevent people from Philadelphia from crossing the Susquehanna River to Maryland. Neighboring cities did send food supplies and money; for example, New York City sent $5000 to the Mayor's Committee. Woodbury and Springfield, New Jersey ; Chester, Pennsylvania and Elkton, Maryland , were among towns that accepted refugees. In his 1793 account of the epidemic, Mathew Carey contrasted the sacrifices of men like Joseph Inskeep, a Quaker who served on the Mayor's Committee and also visited the sick, with the selfishness of others. When Inskeep contracted the fever, he asked for the assistance of a family whom he had attended when several of its members were sick. They refused. He died, which might well have happened even if they had aided him. Carey reported their refusal. He published rumors of greed, especially by landlords who threw convalescing tenants into the street to gain control of their flats. While he praised Richard Allen and Absalom Jones for their work, he suggested that blacks had caused the epidemic, and that some black nurses had charged high fees and even stolen from those for whom they cared. Allen and Jones quickly wrote a pamphlet to defend the people of color in the crisis. The historian Julie Winch believes they wanted to defend their community, knowing how powerful Carey was, and wanting to maintain the reputation of their people in the aftermath of the epidemic. The men noted that the first nurses from the Free African Society had worked without any pay. As the mortality rate increased, they had to hire men to get anyone to deal with the sick and dying. They recounted that the great prices paid did not escape the observation of that worthy and vigilant magistrate, Matthew Clarkson , mayor of the city, and president of the committee. He sent for us, and requested we would use our influence to lessen the wages of the nurses. But on informing him of the cause, i.e. that of the people over-bidding one another, it was concluded unnecessary to attempt any thing on that head; therefore it was left to the people concerned. Allen and Jones noted that white nurses also profited and stole from their patients. "We know that six pounds was demanded by and paid to a white woman, for putting a corpse into a coffin; and forty dollars was demanded and paid to four white men, for bringing it down the stairs." Many black nurses served without compensation: "A poor black man, named Sampson, went constantly from house to house where distress was, and no assistance, without fee or reward. He was smitten with the disorder, and died. After his death his family were neglected by those he had served. Sarah Bass, a poor black widow, gave all the assistance she could, in several families, for which she did not receive any thing; and when any thing was offered her, she left it to the option of those she served." Church clergy continued to hold services, which helped keep up residents' morale. Rev. J. Henry C. Helmuth, who led the city's German Lutheran congregation, wrote A Short Account of the Yellow Fever in Philadelphia for the Reflecting Christian. He also left a diary. On September 16 he reported that his church was "very full" the day before. In one week in October, 130 members of his congregation were buried. On October 13, he wrote in his diary: Preached to a large gathering about Jes.26,1. I showed that Philadelphia a very blessed city—the Lord is among us and especially in our congregation. I proved this with examples of dead and still living people. Baptized a child. Announced that I could not be with the corpses, that the sick should be reported to me in the morning so that I could visit them in the afternoon. The Yearly Meeting of the Society of Friends at the Arch Street Meeting House drew 100 attendees, most from outside the city. The meetinghouse is not far from the waterfront where the epidemic had started. In their Yearly Epistle following the meeting, the Friends wrote that to have changed the time or place of the meeting would have been a "haughty attempt" to escape "the rod" of God, from which there was no escape. The Quaker John Todd, who attended the meeting, contracted the fever and died of it. His young widow, Dolley Payne Todd , later married James Madison , a Virginia congressman whom she met in Philadelphia and who later was elected as US president. Philadelphia native Anne Parrish devoted herself to philanthropy after the epidemic, founding the Female Society for the Relief of the Distressed in 1795. Doctors, preachers, and laymen all looked to the coming of autumn to end the epidemic. At first they hoped a seasonal "equinoctial gale," or hurricane, common at that time of year, would blow away the fever. Instead, heavy rains in late September seemed to correlate with a higher rate of cases. Residents next anticipated freezing temperatures at night, which they knew were associated with ending fall fevers, but not why this was so. By the first two weeks of October, which was the peak of the crisis, gloom pervaded the city. Most churches had stopped holding services, and the post office moved out of the area of the highest number of cases. The market days continued, and bakers continued to make and distribute bread. Several members of the Mayor's Committee died. African-American nurses had also begun dying of the fever. Carts took ill victims to Bush Hill and the dead to burial grounds. Doctors also became ill and died, and fewer were available to care for patients. Three of Rush's apprentices and his sister died; he was too sick to leave his house. Such news cast doubts on Rush's methods, but none of those victims had submitted to his harsh treatment. Those refugees from Saint-Domingue who thought they had immunity used the streets freely, but few other residents did. Those who had not escaped the city tried to wait out the epidemic in their homes. When the Mayor's Committee took a quick census of the dead, they found that the majority of victims were poor people, who died in homes located in the alleys, behind the main streets where most of the business of city was conducted. On October 16, after temperatures cooled, a newspaper reported that "the malignant fever has very considerably abated." Stores began to reopen October 25, many families returned, and the wharves were "once more enlivened" as a London-based ship arrived with goods. The Mayor's Committee advised people outside the city to wait another week or 10 days before returning. In the belief that the epidemic was related to bad air, the Committee published directions for cleaning houses which had been closed up, recommending that they be aired for several days with all windows and doors open. "Burning of nitre will correct the corrupt air which they may contain. Quick lime should be thrown into the privies and the chambers whitewashed." On the 31st, a white flag was hoisted over Bush Hill with the legend, "No More Sick Persons Here." But, after some warm days, fever cases recurred. The white flag had to be struck. Finally on November 13, stagecoaches resumed service to the north and south. A merchant reported that the streets were "in an uproar and rendered the wharves impossible by reason of the vast quantities of wine, sugar, rum, coffee, cotton & c. The porters are quite savvy and demand extravagantly for anything they do." On November 14, the Mayor's Committee recommended purifying houses, clothing and bedding, but said that anyone could come to the city "without danger from the late prevailing disorder." An official register of deaths listed 4044 people as dying between August 1 and November 9, 1793, based on grave counts, so the total was probably higher. City officials, medical and religious leaders, and newspaper publishers reported the number and names of victims, based on the minutes of the Mayor's Committee. The Appendix of the on-line edition of Minutes lists the names of all the patients admitted to Bush Hill hospital, as well as the disposition of their cases. The publisher Mathew Carey released his history of the epidemic just weeks after its end. He listed the names of the dead at the back of the book, which is one reason it was a bestseller. Merchants worried more about Rush's theory that the fever arose from the filth of Philadelphia and was not imported from the West Indies. They did not want the port's reputation to suffer permanently. Doctors used his treatments while rejecting his etiology of the disease. Others deprecated his therapies, such as Dr. Devèze, but agreed that the fever had local origins. Devèze had arrived on the refugee ship from Saint-Domingue, which many accused of having carried the disease, but he thought it healthy. The doctors did not understand the origin or transmittal of the disease. Dr. Kuhn advised drinking wine, "at first weaker wines, such as claret and Rhenish; if these cannot be had, Lisbon or Madeira diluted with rich lemonade. The quantity is to be determined by the effects it produces and by the state of debility which prevails, guarding against its occasioning or encreasing the heat, restlessness or delirium." He placed "the greatest dependence for the cure to the disease, on throwing cool water twice a day over the naked body. The patient is to be placed in a large empty tub, and two buckets full of water, of the temperature 75 or 80 degrees Fahrenheit's thermometer, according to the state of the atmosphere, are to be thrown on him." The water treatment was also advocated by Dr. Edward Stevens, who in mid-September claimed it had cured Alexander Hamilton , Secretary of the Treasury, of the fever. Rush searched the medical literature for other approaches. Benjamin Franklin had given him letters sent by Dr. John Mitchell, related to treating patients during a 1741 yellow fever outbreak in Virginia. (Franklin never published the letters.) Mitchell noted that the stomach and intestines filled with blood and that these organs had to be emptied at all costs. "On this account," Mitchell argued, "an ill-timed scrupulousness about the weakness of the body is of bad consequences in these urging circumstances.... I can affirm that I have given a purge in this case, when the pulse has been so low that it can hardly be felt, and the debility extreme, yet both one and the other have been restored by it." After experimenting, Rush decided that a powder of ten grains of calomel (mercury) and ten grains of the cathartic drug jalap (the poisonous root of a Mexican plant, Ipomoea purga , related to the morning glory , which was dried and powdered before ingesting) would create the desired elimination he was seeking. Since the demand for his services was so great, he had his assistants make as many of his powders in pill form as they could. On September 10, he published a guide to treating the fever: "Dr. Rush's Directions for Curing and Treating the Yellow Fever", outlining a regimen of self-medication. At the first sign of symptoms, "more especially if those symptoms be accompanied by a redness, or faint yellowness in the eyes, and dull or shooting pains about the region of the liver, take one of the powders in a little sugar and water, every six hours, until they produce four or five large evacuations from the bowels..." He urged that the patient stay in bed and "drink plentifully" of barley or chicken water. Then after the "bowels are thoroughly cleaned," it was proper to take 8 to 10 ounces of blood from the arm if, after purging, the pulse was full or tense. To keep the body open he recommended more calomel or small doses of cream of tartar or other salts. If the pulse was weak and low, he recommended camomile or snakeroot as a stimulant, and blisters or blankets soaked in hot vinegar wrapped around the lower limbs. To restore the patient he recommended "gruel, sago, panada, tapioca, tea, coffee, weak chocolate, wine whey, chicken broth, and white meats, according to the weak or active state of the system; the fruits of the season may be eaten with advantage at all times." The sick room should be kept cool and vinegar should be sprinkled around the floor. Rush's therapy was generalized as "purge and bleed," and as long as the patient remained debilitated, Rush urged further purging and bleeding. Not a few of his patients became comatose. The calomel in his pills soon brought on a state of constant salivation, which Rush urged patients to attain to assure a cure. A characteristic sign of death was black vomit, which salivation seemed to ward off. [ page needed ] Since he urged purging at the first sign of fever, other doctors began seeing patients who were in severe abdominal distress. Autopsies after their death revealed stomachs destroyed by such purges. Unlike other doctors, Devèze did not offer advice in the newspapers during the epidemic. He later discussed treatment in his memoir, which included 18 case studies and descriptions of several autopsies. While he deprecated Rush's harsh purgatives and "heroic" bleeding, he moderately bled patients and also used medicines to evacuate the bowels. Like Rush, he thought poisons had to be "abstracted" in severely debilitated patients. Instead of purges, he used blisters to raise welts on the skin. Unlike Kuhn, he did not favor baths. He preferred to apply heat, using hot bricks on hands or feet. He strongly discounted the traditional treatment for severe fevers, which was to wrap patients in blankets, give them camomile tea or Madeira, and try to bring on sweats. He preferred "acidulated" water to the use of Peruvian bark as many patients found the bark distasteful. He thought the use of opium very helpful. [ page needed ]Merchants worried more about Rush's theory that the fever arose from the filth of Philadelphia and was not imported from the West Indies. They did not want the port's reputation to suffer permanently. Doctors used his treatments while rejecting his etiology of the disease. Others deprecated his therapies, such as Dr. Devèze, but agreed that the fever had local origins. Devèze had arrived on the refugee ship from Saint-Domingue, which many accused of having carried the disease, but he thought it healthy. The doctors did not understand the origin or transmittal of the disease. Dr. Kuhn advised drinking wine, "at first weaker wines, such as claret and Rhenish; if these cannot be had, Lisbon or Madeira diluted with rich lemonade. The quantity is to be determined by the effects it produces and by the state of debility which prevails, guarding against its occasioning or encreasing the heat, restlessness or delirium." He placed "the greatest dependence for the cure to the disease, on throwing cool water twice a day over the naked body. The patient is to be placed in a large empty tub, and two buckets full of water, of the temperature 75 or 80 degrees Fahrenheit's thermometer, according to the state of the atmosphere, are to be thrown on him." The water treatment was also advocated by Dr. Edward Stevens, who in mid-September claimed it had cured Alexander Hamilton , Secretary of the Treasury, of the fever. Rush searched the medical literature for other approaches. Benjamin Franklin had given him letters sent by Dr. John Mitchell, related to treating patients during a 1741 yellow fever outbreak in Virginia. (Franklin never published the letters.) Mitchell noted that the stomach and intestines filled with blood and that these organs had to be emptied at all costs. "On this account," Mitchell argued, "an ill-timed scrupulousness about the weakness of the body is of bad consequences in these urging circumstances.... I can affirm that I have given a purge in this case, when the pulse has been so low that it can hardly be felt, and the debility extreme, yet both one and the other have been restored by it." After experimenting, Rush decided that a powder of ten grains of calomel (mercury) and ten grains of the cathartic drug jalap (the poisonous root of a Mexican plant, Ipomoea purga , related to the morning glory , which was dried and powdered before ingesting) would create the desired elimination he was seeking. Since the demand for his services was so great, he had his assistants make as many of his powders in pill form as they could. On September 10, he published a guide to treating the fever: "Dr. Rush's Directions for Curing and Treating the Yellow Fever", outlining a regimen of self-medication. At the first sign of symptoms, "more especially if those symptoms be accompanied by a redness, or faint yellowness in the eyes, and dull or shooting pains about the region of the liver, take one of the powders in a little sugar and water, every six hours, until they produce four or five large evacuations from the bowels..." He urged that the patient stay in bed and "drink plentifully" of barley or chicken water. Then after the "bowels are thoroughly cleaned," it was proper to take 8 to 10 ounces of blood from the arm if, after purging, the pulse was full or tense. To keep the body open he recommended more calomel or small doses of cream of tartar or other salts. If the pulse was weak and low, he recommended camomile or snakeroot as a stimulant, and blisters or blankets soaked in hot vinegar wrapped around the lower limbs. To restore the patient he recommended "gruel, sago, panada, tapioca, tea, coffee, weak chocolate, wine whey, chicken broth, and white meats, according to the weak or active state of the system; the fruits of the season may be eaten with advantage at all times." The sick room should be kept cool and vinegar should be sprinkled around the floor. Rush's therapy was generalized as "purge and bleed," and as long as the patient remained debilitated, Rush urged further purging and bleeding. Not a few of his patients became comatose. The calomel in his pills soon brought on a state of constant salivation, which Rush urged patients to attain to assure a cure. A characteristic sign of death was black vomit, which salivation seemed to ward off. [ page needed ] Since he urged purging at the first sign of fever, other doctors began seeing patients who were in severe abdominal distress. Autopsies after their death revealed stomachs destroyed by such purges. Unlike other doctors, Devèze did not offer advice in the newspapers during the epidemic. He later discussed treatment in his memoir, which included 18 case studies and descriptions of several autopsies. While he deprecated Rush's harsh purgatives and "heroic" bleeding, he moderately bled patients and also used medicines to evacuate the bowels. Like Rush, he thought poisons had to be "abstracted" in severely debilitated patients. Instead of purges, he used blisters to raise welts on the skin. Unlike Kuhn, he did not favor baths. He preferred to apply heat, using hot bricks on hands or feet. He strongly discounted the traditional treatment for severe fevers, which was to wrap patients in blankets, give them camomile tea or Madeira, and try to bring on sweats. He preferred "acidulated" water to the use of Peruvian bark as many patients found the bark distasteful. He thought the use of opium very helpful. [ page needed ]The Governor created a middle path: he ordered the city to be kept clean and the port policed to prevent infected ships, or those from the Caribbean, from docking until they had gone through a period of quarantine. The city suffered additional yellow fever epidemics in 1797, 1798, and 1799, which kept the origin and treatment controversies alive. Some of the city's clergy suggested the epidemic was a judgment from God. Led by the Quakers, the religious community petitioned the state legislature to prohibit theatrical presentations in the state. Such entertainment had been banned during the Revolution and had only recently been authorized. After an extensive debate in the newspapers, the State Assembly denied the petition. The recurrences of yellow fever kept discussions about causes, treatment and prevention going until the end of decade. Other major ports also had epidemics, beginning with Baltimore in 1794, New York in 1795 and 1798, and Wilmington and Boston in 1798, making yellow fever a national crisis. New York doctors finally admitted that they had had an outbreak of yellow fever in 1791 that killed more than 100 people. All the cities that suffered epidemics continued to grow rapidly. During the epidemic of 1798, Benjamin Rush commuted daily from a house just outside the city, near what is now 15th and Columbia streets, to the new city fever hospital, where as chief doctor he treated fever victims. American doctors did not identify the vector of yellow fever until the late nineteenth century. In 1881 Carlos Finlay , a Cuban doctor, argued that mosquito bites caused yellow fever; he credited Rush's published account of the 1793 epidemic for giving him the idea. He said that Rush had written: "Mosquitoes (the usual attendants of a sickly autumn) were uncommonly numerous..." In the first week of September 1793, Dr. William Currie published a description of the epidemic and an account of its progress during August. The publisher Mathew Carey had an account of the epidemic for sale in the third week of October, before the epidemic had ended. The reverends Richard Allen and Absalom Jones of the Free African Society published their own account rebutting Carey's attacks; by that time Carey had already published the fourth edition of his popular pamphlet. Allen and Jones noted that some blacks had worked for free, that they had died at the same rate as whites from the epidemic, and that some whites had also overcharged for their services. Currie's work was the first of several medical accounts published within a year of the epidemic. Dr. Benjamin Rush published an account more than 300 pages long. Two French doctors, Jean Devèze and Nassy, published shorter accounts. Clergymen also published accounts; the most notable was by the Lutheran minister J. Henry C. Helmuth. In March 1794, the Mayor's Committee published its minutes. The rapid succession of other yellow fever epidemics in Philadelphia and elsewhere in the northeastern United States inspired many accounts of the efforts to contain, control and cope with the disease. Rush wrote accounts of the 1797, 1798, and 1799 epidemics in Philadelphia. He revised his account of the 1793 epidemic to eliminate reference to the disease being contagious. He varied his cures. In 1798 he was appointed as the chief doctor at the fever hospital. The mortality rate that year was roughly the same as it had been at Bush Hill in 1793, despite radical difference between the therapies used. Noah Webster , then a notable New York newspaper publisher, joined two doctors in publishing the Medical Repository, a magazine that collected accounts of fever epidemics throughout the nation. Webster used this data in his 1798 book, suggesting that the nation was being subjected to a widespread "epidemic constitution" in the atmosphere that might last 50 years and make deadly epidemics almost certain. Mortality was especially great in Philadelphia. This fact, along with the spread of the disease between Boston and Charleston between 1793 and 1802, made yellow fever a national crisis. As Thomas A. Apel has written "Yellow fever constituted the most pressing national problem of the early national problem. [...] Yellow fever eroded public virtue, the cornerstone of a health republic." General 20th-century US histories, such as the 10-volume Great Epochs in American History, published in 1912, used short excerpts from Carey's account. The first history of the epidemic to draw on more primary sources was J. H. Powell's Bring Out Your Dead (1949). While Powell did not write a scholarly history of the epidemic, his work reviewed its historical importance. Since the mid-twentieth century, scholars have studied aspects of the epidemic, first in papers. For example, Martin Pernick's "Politics, Parties, and Pestilence: Epidemic Yellow Fever in Philadelphia and the Rise of the First Party System," developed statistical evidence to show that Republican doctors generally used Rush's therapies and Federalist doctors used Kuhn's. Scholars celebrated the 200th anniversary of the epidemic with the publication of papers on various aspects of the epidemic. A 2004 paper in the Bulletin of the History of Medicine reexamined Rush's use of bleeding. Several novels and short stories have explored the Philadelphia epidemic, including the following: [ citation needed ]

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Yellow_fever_(disambiguation)/html

Yellow fever (disambiguation)

Yellow fever is an acute viral hemorrhagic disease. Yellow fever may also refer to:

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Asian_fetish/html

Asian fetish

An Asian fetish is a strong sexual or romantic preference for people of Asian descent or heritage. The term usually refers to women specifically of East or Southeast Asian descent, though this may also include those of South Asian descent. The origins of the Asian fetish are unclear. White male Dutch colonists fetishized Southeast Asian women in colonial Indonesia , on the basis of the darker skin and hair color of the local women. Similar accounts were reported in other colonised territories such as British India where it was common for English men to have Indian mistresses against a backdrop where Indian women were sexualised through, what scholars describe as, a typical colonial gaze and viewed as seductive, sensual and exotic. After World War 2, Japanese women gained prominence in American beauty pageants, at a time when large numbers of Japanese war brides were entering the United States. Studies of physical attractiveness have demonstrated that Asian women are ranked as the most physically attractive women in Western countries , and they are the most desired women in online dating . In addition to being over-represented in pornographic films, there is widespread hyper-sexualization of Asian women in popular culture, including hip-hop music videos. The psychological effects of the fetish are unclear. Some authors have suggested that the fetish may be flattering to Asian women, while others believe it is harmful to their self-esteem, as it can reduce their self-worth to their physical attributes. Further research has shown that the fetishization of Asian women may fuel resentment in white women, who feel that their status is downgraded by Asian women's popularity. The derogatory term yellow fever is sometimes used to describe the fetishization of East Asians and Southeast Asian women by non-Asians, as well as having a preference for dating or marrying women of East Asian and Southeast Asian origin. The usage of "yellow" stems from the color terminology for race that is sometimes applied to people of East Asian descent.It has been posited that modern Asian fetishism in the United States emerged in the aftermath of United States-led wars in Asia. In the 1800s, after the opening of Japan by Matthew Perry , word began to spread in the United States about the seductive femininity of Asian women. Nationalistic fears that Asian women would seduce White men and destroy White families led to the passage Page Act of 1875 , which prevented Chinese women from entering the United States. However, another purpose of the ban was to limit the reproduction of the Chinese working class in America. As early as the 1920s, it was noticed that White Dutch men preferred South East Asian women over White women. When Indonesia was a colony of the Netherlands , a new beauty ideal was established, which ranked local women with light brown skin and lustrous black hair at the top. The American consul general to Indonesia remarked that, to the average man, a mixed-race Indonesian woman was considered more attractive than a "pure" White woman, because White women's complexions were too pale. The legacy of this colonial fetishization continues to be reflected in local literature, where women with European features (such as blond hair) are pitied, and it is written that "a golden-colored skin is the greatest gift that Allah can bestow upon a woman". After World War II , the U.S. military took control of Japan, and U.S. soldiers began to interact with Japanese women. Although the American military initially forbid relations with Japanese women; the U.S. servicemen were "enamored" by the femininity of Japanese women, and formed relationships with them anyway. There was a perception that Japanese women were superior to American women, and there was a widespread sentiment "that a Japanese woman's heart was twice as big as those of her American sisters". In 1959, Akiko Kojima , a Japanese woman, became the first woman of color to win the Miss Universe beauty pageant. That same year, Miyoshi Umeki , also a Japanese woman, won an Academy Award . This period marked the beginning of the phenomenon known as the 'Oriental wave' – during which Asian women first gained prominence in Western media. The wave mainstreamed a certain type of Asian femininity: slender, shy, and intelligent; yet also sexual. It also marked the beginning of the end of White women's dominance as the mainstream beauty ideal in America. A common term used for Asian fetishization (particularly with East and Southeast Asians) is yellow fever . The term is used as a derogatory pun on the disease of the same name , comparing those with a fetish for East and Southeast Asians or "Orientals" to people who are infected with a disease. Yellow fever is used in Asian fetishization to refer to the color terminology of people of East Asian descent (and some Southeast Asians) because historically, persons of East Asian heritage have been described as "yellow people" based on the tone of their skin. Hwang argues that this phenomenon is caused by the stereotyping of Asians in Western society . The term yellow fever is analogous to the term jungle fever , a derogatory expression used for racial fetishism associated with dating between different races.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/History_of_yellow_fever/html

History of yellow fever

The evolutionary origins of yellow fever most likely came from Africa . Phylogenetic analyses indicate that the virus originated from East or Central Africa , with transmission between primates and humans, and spread from there to West Africa . The virus as well as the vector Aedes aegypti , a mosquito species, were probably brought to the western hemisphere and the Americas by slave trade ships from Africa after the first European exploration in 1492 . However, some researchers have argued that yellow fever might have existed in the Americas during the pre-Columbian period as mosquitoes of the genus Haemagogus , which is indigenous to the Americas, have been known to carry the disease. The first outbreaks of disease that were probably yellow fever occurred in the Windward Islands of the Caribbean , on Barbados in 1647 and Guadeloupe in 1648. Barbados had undergone an ecological transformation with the introduction of sugar cultivation by the Dutch. Plentiful forests present in the 1640s were completely gone by the 1660s. By the early 18th century, the same transformation related to sugar cultivation had occurred on the larger islands of Jamaica , Hispaniola , and Cuba . Spanish colonists recorded an outbreak in 1648 on the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico that may have been yellow fever. The illness was called xekik (black vomit) by the Maya . At least 25 major outbreaks followed in North America , such as in 1793 in Philadelphia , where several thousand people died, more than nine percent of the total population. The American government, including President George Washington , had to flee the city, which was the capital of the United States at the time. In 1878, about 20,000 people died in an epidemic which struck the towns of the Mississippi River Valley and its tributaries. The last major outbreak in the US occurred in 1905 in New Orleans . Major outbreaks also occurred in Europe in the 19th century in Atlantic ports following the arrival of sailing vessels from the Caribbean, most often from Havana. Outbreaks occurred in Barcelona , Spain, in 1803, 1821, and 1870. In the 1870 outbreak, 1,235 fatalities were recorded of an estimated 12,000 cases. Smaller outbreaks occurred in Saint-Nazaire in France, Swansea in Wales, and in other European port cities, following the arrival of vessels carrying the mosquito vector. The first mention of the disease by the name "yellow fever" occurred in 1744. Many famous people , mostly during the 18th through the 20th centuries, contracted and then recovered from, or died of, yellow fever.The yellow fever epidemic of 1793 struck during the summer in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania, where the highest fatalities in the United States were recorded. The disease probably was brought by refugees and mosquitoes on ships from Saint-Domingue . It rapidly spread in the port city, in the crowded blocks along the Delaware River . About 5,000 people died, ten percent of the population of 50,000. The city was then the national capital, and the national government left the city, including President George Washington . Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New York suffered repeated epidemics in the 18th and 19th centuries, as did other cities along the East and Gulf Coasts . At the time, the known solution to recovery was found to be long and tedious as it was expected that patients needed to consume bitters and country air away from the metropolitan area in order to recover. Yet the average citizen typically sought medical help from the Pennsylvania Hospital . Year after year starting in 1793, yellow fever returned to major cities along the east coast including Philadelphia leaving investigators stagnant in regard to progress made in the search for the cause of yellow fever. Yellow fever's prevalence during this era killed over 10,000 people starting in 1793 where nearly 5,000 people died, striking again in 1797 tallying about 1,500 people, and again the next year in 1798 killing 3,645 people. With the spread of yellow fever in 1793, physicians of the time used the increase number of patients to increase the knowledge in disease as the spread of yellow fever, helping differentiate between other prevalent diseases during the time period as cholera and typhus were current epidemics of the time as well. As doctors and people of interest investigated the cause of yellow fever, two main hypotheses derived from the confusing data they collected. The first was that the disease is contagious, as the disease is spread through the contact of people, as ships from the already infected Caribbean Islands had spread to major cities. The second hypothesis was that the disease derived from local sources; doctors proposed that contact with these sources caused the sickness rather than contact with people with the disease, as yellow fever seemed to be prevalent in major cities and less effective in rural areas. With the spread of yellow fever in 1793, physicians of the time used the increase number of patients to increase the knowledge in disease as the spread of yellow fever, helping differentiate between other prevalent diseases during the time period as cholera and typhus were current epidemics of the time as well. As doctors and people of interest investigated the cause of yellow fever, two main hypotheses derived from the confusing data they collected. The first was that the disease is contagious, as the disease is spread through the contact of people, as ships from the already infected Caribbean Islands had spread to major cities. The second hypothesis was that the disease derived from local sources; doctors proposed that contact with these sources caused the sickness rather than contact with people with the disease, as yellow fever seemed to be prevalent in major cities and less effective in rural areas. The majority of the British soldiers sent to Haiti in the 1790s died of disease, chiefly yellow fever. There has been considerable debate over whether the number of deaths caused by disease was exaggerated. In 1802–1803, an army of forty thousand sent by First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte of France to Saint-Domingue to suppress the Haitian Revolution mounted by slaves, was decimated by an epidemic of yellow fever (among the casualties was the expedition's commander and Bonaparte's brother-in-law, Charles Leclerc ). Some historians believe Napoleon intended to use the island as a staging point for an invasion of the United States through Louisiana (then newly regained by the French from the Spanish.). Others believe that he was most intent on regaining control of the lucrative sugar production and trade in Saint-Domingue. Only one-third of the French troops survived to return to France, and in 1804 the new republic of Haiti declared its independence.Nearly 700 people in Savannah, Georgia , died from yellow fever in 1820, including two local physicians who lost their lives caring for the stricken. An outbreak on an immigrant ship with Irish natives in 1819 led to a passage of an act to prevent the arrival of immigrant ships, which did not prevent the epidemic where 23% of the deaths were of Irish descent. Several other epidemics followed, including 1854 and 1876. The 1853 outbreak claimed 7,849 residents of New Orleans. The press and the medical profession did not alert citizens of the outbreak until the middle of July, after more than one thousand people had already died. The New Orleans business community feared that word of an epidemic would cause a quarantine to be placed on the city, and their trade would suffer. In such epidemics, steamboats frequently carried passengers and the disease upriver from New Orleans to other cities along the Mississippi River. The epidemic was dramatized and featured in the plot of the 1938 film Jezebel , starring Bette Davis . Yellow fever was a threat in New Orleans and south Louisiana virtually every year, during the warmest months. Among the more prominent victims were: Spanish colonial Governor Manuel Gayoso de Lemos (1799); the first and second wives (d. 1804 and 1809) and young daughter (1804) of territorial Governor William C. C. Claiborne ; one of New Orleans' most important early city planners Barthelemy Lafon (1820), architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe and one of his sons (1820, 1817, respectively), who were in New Orleans building the city's first waterworks; Jesse Burton Harrison (1841), a young lawyer and author; Confederate Brig. Gen. Young Marshall Moody (1866); architect James Gallier, Jr. (1868); and Confederate Lt. Gen. John Bell Hood and his wife and daughter (1879).A ship carrying persons infected with the virus arrived in Hampton Roads in southeastern Virginia in June 1855. The disease spread quickly through the community, eventually killing over 3,000 people, mostly residents of Norfolk and Portsmouth . The Howard Association , a benevolent organization, was formed to help coordinate assistance in the form of funds, supplies, and medical professionals and volunteers, who poured in from many other areas, particularly the Atlantic and Gulf Coast areas of the United States. Bermuda suffered four yellow fever epidemics in the 1800s, both mosquito-borne and via visiting ships, which in total claimed the lives of 13,356 people, including military and civilian population. During the 1864 epidemic, a Dr. Luke Pryor Blackburn , from Halifax, Nova Scotia, visited the island several times, to assist the local medical community on account of his knowledge of the disease. When he left in October 1864, he left behind some trunks of soiled clothing that were to have been sent to him in Canada. Fortunately, the trunks were located and the contents destroyed. It became evident that Dr. Blackburn's visits had been financed by the Confederacy and that a certain Union informer had been offered $60,000 to distribute Dr. Blackburn's trunks of soiled clothing to Union cities including Boston, Philadelphia, Washington, and Norfolk. One trunk also went to New Bern, which was identified as having brought yellow fever to that city, claiming the lives of 2,000 people. Blackburn was arrested and tried, but acquitted owing to lack of evidence, other than hearsay by witnesses, meaning that the culprit trunks could not be located. In 1878, he went on to fight yellow fever in Kentucky, where he had set up practice in Louisville and was eventually elected governor.The 1867 yellow fever epidemic claimed many casualties in the southern counties of Texas , as well as in New Orleans. The deaths in Texas included Union Maj. Gen. Charles Griffin , Margaret Lea Houston (Mrs. Sam Houston), and at least two young physicians and their family members.In 1878, a severe yellow fever epidemic swept through the lower Mississippi Valley.The French effort to build a Panama Canal was damaged by the prevalence of endemic tropical diseases in the Isthmus. Although malaria was also a serious problem for the French canal builders, the numerous yellow fever fatalities and the fear they engendered made it difficult for the French company to retain sufficient technical staff to sustain the effort. Since the mode of transmission of the disease was unknown, the French response to the disease was limited to care of the sick. The French hospitals contained many pools of stagnant water, such as basins underneath potted plants, in which mosquitoes could breed. The numerous deaths eventually led to the failure of the French company licensed to build the canal, resulting in a massive financial crisis in France.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics/html

List of epidemics and pandemics

This is a list of the largest known epidemics and pandemics caused by an infectious disease . Widespread non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer are not included. An epidemic is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of people in a given population within a short period of time; in meningococcal infections , an attack rate in excess of 15 cases per 100,000 people for two consecutive weeks is considered an epidemic. Due to the long time spans, the first plague pandemic (6th century – 8th century) and the second plague pandemic (14th century – early 19th century) are shown by individual outbreaks, such as the Plague of Justinian (first pandemic) and the Black Death (second pandemic). Infectious diseases with high prevalence are listed separately (sometimes in addition to their epidemics), such as malaria , which may have killed 50–60 billion people throughout history, or about half of all humans that have ever lived. Ongoing epidemics and pandemics are in boldface . For a given epidemic or pandemic, the average of its estimated death toll range is used for ranking. If the death toll averages of two or more epidemics or pandemics are equal, then the smaller the range, the higher the rank. For the historical records of major changes in the world population, see world population . Not included in the above table are many waves of deadly diseases brought by Europeans to the Americas and Caribbean. Western Hemisphere populations were ravaged mostly by smallpox , but also typhus , measles , influenza , bubonic plague , cholera , malaria , tuberculosis , mumps , yellow fever , and pertussis . The lack of written records in many places and the destruction of many native societies by disease, war, and colonization make estimates uncertain. Deaths probably numbered in the tens or perhaps over a hundred million, with perhaps 90% of the population dead in the worst-hit areas. Lack of scientific knowledge about microorganisms and lack of surviving medical records for many areas makes attribution of specific numbers to specific diseases uncertain. There have been various major infectious diseases with high prevalence worldwide, but they are currently not listed in the above table as epidemics/pandemics due to the lack of definite data, such as time span and death toll.Ongoing epidemics and pandemics are in boldface . For a given epidemic or pandemic, the average of its estimated death toll range is used for ranking. If the death toll averages of two or more epidemics or pandemics are equal, then the smaller the range, the higher the rank. For the historical records of major changes in the world population, see world population . Not included in the above table are many waves of deadly diseases brought by Europeans to the Americas and Caribbean. Western Hemisphere populations were ravaged mostly by smallpox , but also typhus , measles , influenza , bubonic plague , cholera , malaria , tuberculosis , mumps , yellow fever , and pertussis . The lack of written records in many places and the destruction of many native societies by disease, war, and colonization make estimates uncertain. Deaths probably numbered in the tens or perhaps over a hundred million, with perhaps 90% of the population dead in the worst-hit areas. Lack of scientific knowledge about microorganisms and lack of surviving medical records for many areas makes attribution of specific numbers to specific diseases uncertain.There have been various major infectious diseases with high prevalence worldwide, but they are currently not listed in the above table as epidemics/pandemics due to the lack of definite data, such as time span and death toll.Events in boldface are ongoing.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Dengue_fever/html

Dengue fever

Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne tropical disease caused by dengue virus . It is frequently asymptomatic ; if symptoms appear they typically begin 3 to 14 days after infection. These may include a high fever , headache , vomiting , muscle and joint pains , and a characteristic skin itching and skin rash . Recovery generally takes two to seven days. In a small proportion of cases, the disease develops into severe dengue (previously known as dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome) with bleeding , low levels of blood platelets , blood plasma leakage, and dangerously low blood pressure . Dengue virus has four confirmed serotypes ; infection with one type usually gives lifelong immunity to that type, but only short-term immunity to the others. Subsequent infection with a different type increases the risk of severe complications. The symptoms of dengue resemble many other diseases including malaria , influenza , and Zika . Blood tests are available to confirm the diagnosis including detecting viral RNA , or antibodies to the virus. There is no specific treatment for dengue fever. In mild cases, treatment is focused on treating pain symptoms. Severe cases of dengue require hospitalisation; treatment of acute dengue is supportive and includes giving fluid either by mouth or intravenously . Dengue is spread by several species of female mosquitoes of the Aedes genus , principally Aedes aegypti . Infection can be prevented by mosquito elimination and the prevention of bites. Two types of dengue vaccine have been approved and are commercially available. Dengvaxia became available in 2016 but it is only recommended to prevent re-infection in individuals who have been previously infected. The second vaccine, Qdenga, became available in 2022 and is suitable for adults, adolescents and children from four years of age. The earliest descriptions of a dengue outbreak date from 1779; its viral cause and spread were understood by the early 20th century. Already endemic in more than one hundred countries, dengue is spreading from tropical and subtropical regions to the Iberian Peninsula and the southern states of the US, partly attributed to climate change. It is classified as a neglected tropical disease . During 2023, more than 5 million infections were reported, with more than 5,000 dengue-related deaths. As most cases are asymptomatic or mild, the actual numbers of dengue cases and deaths are under-reported. Typically, people infected with dengue virus are asymptomatic (80%) or have only mild symptoms such as an uncomplicated fever. Others have more severe illness (5%), and in a small proportion it is life-threatening. The incubation period (time between exposure and onset of symptoms) ranges from 3 to 14 days, but most often it is 4 to 7 days. The characteristic symptoms of mild dengue are sudden-onset fever, headache (typically located behind the eyes), muscle and joint pains, nausea, vomiting, swollen glands and a rash. If this progresses to severe dengue the symptoms are severe abdominal pain, persistent vomiting, rapid breathing, bleeding gums or nose, fatigue, restlessness, blood in vomit or stool, extreme thirst, pale and cold skin, and feelings of weakness. The course of infection is divided into three phases: febrile, critical, and recovery. The febrile phase involves high fever (40 °C/104 °F), and is associated with generalized pain and a headache; this usually lasts two to seven days. There may also be nausea, vomiting, a rash, and pains in the muscle and joints. Most people recover within a week or so. In about 5% of cases, symptoms worsen and can become life-threatening. This is called severe dengue , (formerly called dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome ). Severe dengue can lead to shock, internal bleeding, organ failure and even death. Warning signs include severe stomach pain, vomiting, difficulty breathing, and blood in the nose, gums, vomit or stools. During this period, there is leakage of plasma from the blood vessels, together with a reduction in platelets . This may result in fluid accumulation in the chest and abdominal cavity as well as depletion of fluid from the circulation and decreased blood supply to vital organs . The recovery phase usually lasts two to three days. The improvement is often striking, and can be accompanied with severe itching and a slow heart rate . Complications following severe dengue include fatigue, somnolence, headache, concentration impairment and memory impairment. A pregnant woman who develops dengue is at higher risk of miscarriage , low birth weight birth, and premature birth . The course of infection is divided into three phases: febrile, critical, and recovery. The febrile phase involves high fever (40 °C/104 °F), and is associated with generalized pain and a headache; this usually lasts two to seven days. There may also be nausea, vomiting, a rash, and pains in the muscle and joints. Most people recover within a week or so. In about 5% of cases, symptoms worsen and can become life-threatening. This is called severe dengue , (formerly called dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome ). Severe dengue can lead to shock, internal bleeding, organ failure and even death. Warning signs include severe stomach pain, vomiting, difficulty breathing, and blood in the nose, gums, vomit or stools. During this period, there is leakage of plasma from the blood vessels, together with a reduction in platelets . This may result in fluid accumulation in the chest and abdominal cavity as well as depletion of fluid from the circulation and decreased blood supply to vital organs . The recovery phase usually lasts two to three days. The improvement is often striking, and can be accompanied with severe itching and a slow heart rate . Complications following severe dengue include fatigue, somnolence, headache, concentration impairment and memory impairment. A pregnant woman who develops dengue is at higher risk of miscarriage , low birth weight birth, and premature birth . Complications following severe dengue include fatigue, somnolence, headache, concentration impairment and memory impairment. A pregnant woman who develops dengue is at higher risk of miscarriage , low birth weight birth, and premature birth . Dengue virus (DENV) is an RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae ; genus Flavivirus . Other members of the same genus include yellow fever virus , West Nile virus , and Zika virus . Dengue virus genome (genetic material) contains about 11,000 nucleotide bases , which code for the three structural protein molecules (C, prM and E) that form the virus particle and seven other protein molecules that are required for replication of the virus. There are four confirmed strains of the virus, called serotypes , referred to as DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3 and DENV-4. The distinctions between the serotypes are based on their antigenicity . Dengue virus is most frequently transmitted by the bite of mosquitos in the Aedes genus, particularly A. aegypti . They prefer to feed at dusk and dawn, but they may bite and thus spread infection at any time of day. Other Aedes species that may transmit the disease include A. albopictus , A. polynesiensis and A. scutellaris . Humans are the primary host of the virus, but it also circulates in nonhuman primates , and can infect other mammals. An infection can be acquired via a single bite. For 2 to 10 days after becoming newly infected, a person's bloodstream will contain a high level of virus particles (the viremic period). A female mosquito that takes a blood meal from the infected host then propagates the virus in the cells lining its gut. Over the next few days, the virus spreads to other tissues including the mosquito's salivary glands and is released into its saliva. Next time the mosquito feeds, the infectious saliva will be injected into the bloodstream of its victim, thus spreading the disease. The virus seems to have no detrimental effect on the mosquito, which remains infected for life. Dengue can also be transmitted via infected blood products and through organ donation . Vertical transmission (from mother to child) during pregnancy or at birth has been reported. The principal risk for infection with dengue is the bite of an infected mosquito. This is more probable in areas where the disease is endemic, especially where there is high population density, poor sanitation, and standing water where mosquitoes can breed. It can be mitigated by taking steps to avoid bites such as by wearing clothing that fully covers the skin, using mosquito netting while resting, and/or the application of insect repellent ( DEET being the most effective). Chronic diseases – such as asthma, sickle cell anemia, and diabetes mellitus – increase the risk of developing a severe form of the disease. Other risk factors for severe disease include female sex, and high body mass index , Infection with one serotype is thought to produce lifelong immunity to that type, but only short-term protection against the other three. Subsequent re-infection with a different serotype increases the risk of severe complications due to phenomenon known as antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE). The exact mechanism of ADE is not fully understood. It appears that ADE occurs when the antibodies generated during an immune response recognize and bind to a pathogen, but they fail to neutralize it. Instead, the antibody-virus complex has an enhanced ability to bind to the Fcγ receptors of the target immune cells, enabling the virus to infect the cell and reproduce itself. When a mosquito carrying dengue virus bites a person, the virus enters the skin together with the mosquito's saliva. The virus infects nearby skin cells called keratinocytes , as well as specialized immune cell located in the skin, called a Langerhans cells . The Langerhans cells migrate to the lymph nodes , where the infection spreads to white blood cells , and reproduces inside the cells while they move throughout the body. The white blood cells respond by producing several signaling proteins, such as cytokines and interferons , which are responsible for many of the symptoms, such as the fever, the flu-like symptoms, and the severe pains. In severe infection, the virus production inside the body is greatly increased, and many more organs (such as the liver and the bone marrow ) can be affected. Fluid from the bloodstream leaks through the wall of small blood vessels into body cavities due to increased capillary permeability . As a result, blood volume decreases, and the blood pressure becomes so low that it cannot supply sufficient blood to vital organs. The spread of the virus to the bone marrow leads to reduced numbers of platelets, which are necessary for effective blood clotting; this increases the risk of bleeding, the other major complication of dengue fever. The principal risk for infection with dengue is the bite of an infected mosquito. This is more probable in areas where the disease is endemic, especially where there is high population density, poor sanitation, and standing water where mosquitoes can breed. It can be mitigated by taking steps to avoid bites such as by wearing clothing that fully covers the skin, using mosquito netting while resting, and/or the application of insect repellent (DEET being the most effective); it's also advisable to treat clothing, nets and tents with 0.5% permethrin . Protection of the home can be achieved with door and window screens, by using air conditioning, and by regularly emptying and cleaning all receptacles both indoors and outdoors which may accumulate water (such as buckets, planters, pools or trashcans). The primary method of controlling A. aegypti is by eliminating its habitats . This is done by eliminating open sources of water, or if this is not possible, by adding insecticides or biological control agents to these areas. Generalized spraying with organophosphate or pyrethroid insecticides, while sometimes done, is not thought to be effective. Reducing open collections of water through environmental modification is the preferred method of control, given the concerns of negative health effects from insecticides and greater logistical difficulties with control agents. Ideally, mosquito control would be a community activity, e.g. when all members of a community clear blocked gutters and street drains and keep their yards free of containers with standing water. If residences have direct water connections this eliminates the need for wells or street pumps and water-carrying containers. As of March 2024, there are two vaccines to protect against dengue infection; Dengvaxia and Qdenga . Dengvaxia (formerly CYD-TDV) became available in 2015, and is approved for use in the US, EU and in some Asian and Latin American countries. It is an attenuated virus, is suitable for individuals aged 6–45 years and protects against all four serotypes of dengue. Due to safety concerns about antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE), it should only be given to individuals who have previously been infected with dengue, in order to protect them from reinfection. It is given subcutaneously as three doses at six month intervals. Qdenga (formerly TAK-003) completed clinical trials in 2022 and was approved for use in the European Union in December 2022; it has been approved by a number of other countries including Indonesia and Brazil, and has been recommended by the SAGE committee of the World Health Organization. It is indicated for the prevention of dengue disease in individuals four years of age and older, and can be administered to people who have not been previously infected with dengue. It is a live attenuated vaccine containing the four serotypes of dengue virus, administered subcutaneously as two doses three months apart. Dengue virus (DENV) is an RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae ; genus Flavivirus . Other members of the same genus include yellow fever virus , West Nile virus , and Zika virus . Dengue virus genome (genetic material) contains about 11,000 nucleotide bases , which code for the three structural protein molecules (C, prM and E) that form the virus particle and seven other protein molecules that are required for replication of the virus. There are four confirmed strains of the virus, called serotypes , referred to as DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3 and DENV-4. The distinctions between the serotypes are based on their antigenicity . Dengue virus is most frequently transmitted by the bite of mosquitos in the Aedes genus, particularly A. aegypti . They prefer to feed at dusk and dawn, but they may bite and thus spread infection at any time of day. Other Aedes species that may transmit the disease include A. albopictus , A. polynesiensis and A. scutellaris . Humans are the primary host of the virus, but it also circulates in nonhuman primates , and can infect other mammals. An infection can be acquired via a single bite. For 2 to 10 days after becoming newly infected, a person's bloodstream will contain a high level of virus particles (the viremic period). A female mosquito that takes a blood meal from the infected host then propagates the virus in the cells lining its gut. Over the next few days, the virus spreads to other tissues including the mosquito's salivary glands and is released into its saliva. Next time the mosquito feeds, the infectious saliva will be injected into the bloodstream of its victim, thus spreading the disease. The virus seems to have no detrimental effect on the mosquito, which remains infected for life. Dengue can also be transmitted via infected blood products and through organ donation . Vertical transmission (from mother to child) during pregnancy or at birth has been reported. The principal risk for infection with dengue is the bite of an infected mosquito. This is more probable in areas where the disease is endemic, especially where there is high population density, poor sanitation, and standing water where mosquitoes can breed. It can be mitigated by taking steps to avoid bites such as by wearing clothing that fully covers the skin, using mosquito netting while resting, and/or the application of insect repellent ( DEET being the most effective). Chronic diseases – such as asthma, sickle cell anemia, and diabetes mellitus – increase the risk of developing a severe form of the disease. Other risk factors for severe disease include female sex, and high body mass index , Infection with one serotype is thought to produce lifelong immunity to that type, but only short-term protection against the other three. Subsequent re-infection with a different serotype increases the risk of severe complications due to phenomenon known as antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE). The exact mechanism of ADE is not fully understood. It appears that ADE occurs when the antibodies generated during an immune response recognize and bind to a pathogen, but they fail to neutralize it. Instead, the antibody-virus complex has an enhanced ability to bind to the Fcγ receptors of the target immune cells, enabling the virus to infect the cell and reproduce itself. When a mosquito carrying dengue virus bites a person, the virus enters the skin together with the mosquito's saliva. The virus infects nearby skin cells called keratinocytes , as well as specialized immune cell located in the skin, called a Langerhans cells . The Langerhans cells migrate to the lymph nodes , where the infection spreads to white blood cells , and reproduces inside the cells while they move throughout the body. The white blood cells respond by producing several signaling proteins, such as cytokines and interferons , which are responsible for many of the symptoms, such as the fever, the flu-like symptoms, and the severe pains. In severe infection, the virus production inside the body is greatly increased, and many more organs (such as the liver and the bone marrow ) can be affected. Fluid from the bloodstream leaks through the wall of small blood vessels into body cavities due to increased capillary permeability . As a result, blood volume decreases, and the blood pressure becomes so low that it cannot supply sufficient blood to vital organs. The spread of the virus to the bone marrow leads to reduced numbers of platelets, which are necessary for effective blood clotting; this increases the risk of bleeding, the other major complication of dengue fever. The principal risk for infection with dengue is the bite of an infected mosquito. This is more probable in areas where the disease is endemic, especially where there is high population density, poor sanitation, and standing water where mosquitoes can breed. It can be mitigated by taking steps to avoid bites such as by wearing clothing that fully covers the skin, using mosquito netting while resting, and/or the application of insect repellent (DEET being the most effective); it's also advisable to treat clothing, nets and tents with 0.5% permethrin . Protection of the home can be achieved with door and window screens, by using air conditioning, and by regularly emptying and cleaning all receptacles both indoors and outdoors which may accumulate water (such as buckets, planters, pools or trashcans). The primary method of controlling A. aegypti is by eliminating its habitats . This is done by eliminating open sources of water, or if this is not possible, by adding insecticides or biological control agents to these areas. Generalized spraying with organophosphate or pyrethroid insecticides, while sometimes done, is not thought to be effective. Reducing open collections of water through environmental modification is the preferred method of control, given the concerns of negative health effects from insecticides and greater logistical difficulties with control agents. Ideally, mosquito control would be a community activity, e.g. when all members of a community clear blocked gutters and street drains and keep their yards free of containers with standing water. If residences have direct water connections this eliminates the need for wells or street pumps and water-carrying containers. As of March 2024, there are two vaccines to protect against dengue infection; Dengvaxia and Qdenga . Dengvaxia (formerly CYD-TDV) became available in 2015, and is approved for use in the US, EU and in some Asian and Latin American countries. It is an attenuated virus, is suitable for individuals aged 6–45 years and protects against all four serotypes of dengue. Due to safety concerns about antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE), it should only be given to individuals who have previously been infected with dengue, in order to protect them from reinfection. It is given subcutaneously as three doses at six month intervals. Qdenga (formerly TAK-003) completed clinical trials in 2022 and was approved for use in the European Union in December 2022; it has been approved by a number of other countries including Indonesia and Brazil, and has been recommended by the SAGE committee of the World Health Organization. It is indicated for the prevention of dengue disease in individuals four years of age and older, and can be administered to people who have not been previously infected with dengue. It is a live attenuated vaccine containing the four serotypes of dengue virus, administered subcutaneously as two doses three months apart. The World Health Organization 's International Classification of Diseases divides dengue fever into two classes: uncomplicated and severe. Severe dengue is defined as that associated with severe bleeding, severe organ dysfunction, or severe plasma leakage. Severe dengue can develop suddenly, sometimes after a few days as the fever subsides. Leakage of plasma from the capillaries results in extreme low blood pressure and hypovolemic shock ; Patients with severe plasma leakage may have fluid accumulation in the lungs or abdomen , insufficient protein in the blood , or thickening of the blood . Severe dengue is a medical emergency which can cause damage to organs, leading to multiple organ failure and death. Mild cases of dengue fever can easily be confused with several common diseases including Influenza , measles , chikungunya , and zika . Dengue, chikungunya and zika share the same mode of transmission ( Aedes mosquitoes) and are often endemic in the same regions, so that it is possible to be infected simultaneously by more than one disease. For travellers, dengue fever diagnosis should be considered in anyone who develops a fever within two weeks of being in the tropics or subtropics . Warning symptoms of severe dengue include abdominal pain, persistent vomiting, odema, bleeding, lethargy, and liver enlargement. Once again, these symptoms can be confused with other diseases such as malaria, gastroenteritis, leptospirosis, and typhus. Blood tests can be used to confirm a diagnosis of dengue. During the first few days of infection, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay ( ELISA ) can be used to detect the NS1 antigen ; however this antigen is produced by all flaviviruses. Four or five days into the infection, it is possible to reliably detect anti-dengue IgM antibodies, but this does not determine the serotype. Nucleic acid amplification tests provide the most reliable method of diagnosis. As of March 2024, there is no specific antiviral treatment available for dengue fever. Most cases of dengue fever have mild symptoms, and recovery takes place in a few days. No treatment is required for these cases. Acetaminophen (Paracetamol, Tylenol ) may be used to relieve mild fever or pain. Other common pain relievers, including aspirin , ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB, others) and naproxen sodium (Aleve) should be avoided as they can increase the risk of bleeding complications. For moderate illness, those who can drink, are passing urine, have no warning signs and are otherwise reasonably healthy can be monitored carefully at home. Supportive care with analgesics, fluid replacement, and bed rest are recommended. Severe dengue is a life-threatening emergency, requiring hospitalization and potentially intensive care. Warning signs include dehydration , decreasing platelets and increasing hematocrit . Treatment modes include intravenous fluids, and transfusion with platelets or plasma. Most people with dengue recover without any ongoing problems. The risk of death among those with severe dengue is 0.8% to 2.5%, and with adequate treatment this is less than 1%. However, those who develop significantly low blood pressure may have a fatality rate of up to 26%. The risk of death among children less than five years old is four times greater than among those over the age of 10. Elderly people are also at higher risk of a poor outcome. As of March 2023, dengue is endemic in more than 100 countries with cases reported in every continent with the exception of Antarctica. The Americas, Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific regions are the most seriously affected. It is difficult to estimate the full extent of the disease, as many cases are mild and not correctly diagnosed. WHO currently estimates that 3.9 billion people are at risk of dengue infection. In 2013, it was estimated that 390 million dengue infections occur every year, with 500,000 of these developing severe symptoms and 25,000 deaths. Generally, areas where dengue is endemic have only one serotype of the virus in circulation. The disease is said to be hyperendemic in areas where more than one serotype is circulating; this increases the risk of severe disease on a second or subsequent infection. Infections are most commonly acquired in urban environments where the virus is primarily transmitted by the mosquito species Aedes aegypti . This species has adapted to the urban environment, is generally found close to human habitation, prefers humans as its host, and takes advantage of small bodies of standing water (such as tanks and buckets) in which to breed. In rural settings the virus is transmitted to humans by A. aegypti and other related mosquitoes such as Aedes albopictus . Both these species have expanding ranges. Dengue has increased in incidence in recent decades, with WHO recording a ten fold increase between 2010 and 2019 (from 500,000 to 5 million recorded cases). This increase is tied closely to the increasing range of Aedes mosquitoes, which is attributed to a combination of urbanization , population growth, and an increasingly warm climate . In endemic areas, dengue infections peak when rainfall is optimal for mosquito breeding. The disease infects all races, sexes, and ages equally. In endemic areas, the infection is most commonly seen in children who then acquire a lifelong partial immunity. The first historical record of a case of probable dengue fever is in a Chinese medical encyclopedia from the Jin Dynasty (266–420) which referred to a "water poison" associated with flying insects. The principal mosquito vector of dengue, Aedes aegypti , spread out of Africa in the 15th to 19th centuries due to the slave trade and consequent expansion of international trading. There have been descriptions of epidemics of dengue-like illness in the 17th century, and it is likely that epidemics in Jakarta , Cairo , and Philadelphia during the 18th century were caused by dengue. It is assumed that dengue was constantly present in many tropical urban centres throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, even though significant outbreaks were infrequent. The marked spread of dengue during and after the Second World War has been attributed partly to disruption caused by the war, and partly to subsequent urbanisation in south-east Asia. As novel serotypes were introduced to regions already endemic with dengue, outbreaks of severe disease followed. The severe hemorrhagic form of the disease was first reported in the Philippines in 1953; by the 1970s, it had become recognised as a major cause of child mortality in Southeast Asia. In Central and South America, the Aedes mosquito had been eradicated in the 1950s; however the eradication program was discontinued in the 1970s and the diesase re-established itself in the region during the 1980s, becoming hyperendemic and causing significant epidemics. Dengue has continued to increase in prevalence during the 21st century, as the mosquito vector continues to expand its range. This is attributed partly to continuing urbanisation, and partly to the impact of a warmer climate. The name came into English in the early 19th century from West Indian Spanish, which borrowed it from the Kiswahili term dinga (in full kidingapopo , "disease caused by an evil spirit"). The borrowed term changed to dengue in Spanish due to this word existing in Spanish with the meaning "fastidiousness" and this folk etymology referring to the dislike of movement by affected patients. Slaves in the West Indies having contracted dengue were said to have the posture and gait of a dandy , and the disease was known as "dandy fever". The term break-bone fever was applied by physician and United States Founding Father Benjamin Rush , in a 1789 report of the 1780 epidemic in Philadelphia , due to the associated muscle and joint pains. In the report title he uses the more formal term "bilious remitting fever". The term dengue fever came into general use only after 1828. Other historical terms include "breakheart fever" and "la dengue". Terms for severe disease include "infectious thrombocytopenic purpura" and "Philippine", "Thai", or "Singapore hemorrhagic fever". The name came into English in the early 19th century from West Indian Spanish, which borrowed it from the Kiswahili term dinga (in full kidingapopo , "disease caused by an evil spirit"). The borrowed term changed to dengue in Spanish due to this word existing in Spanish with the meaning "fastidiousness" and this folk etymology referring to the dislike of movement by affected patients. Slaves in the West Indies having contracted dengue were said to have the posture and gait of a dandy , and the disease was known as "dandy fever". The term break-bone fever was applied by physician and United States Founding Father Benjamin Rush , in a 1789 report of the 1780 epidemic in Philadelphia , due to the associated muscle and joint pains. In the report title he uses the more formal term "bilious remitting fever". The term dengue fever came into general use only after 1828. Other historical terms include "breakheart fever" and "la dengue". Terms for severe disease include "infectious thrombocytopenic purpura" and "Philippine", "Thai", or "Singapore hemorrhagic fever". Research directions include dengue pathogenesis (the process by which the disease develops in humans), as well as the biology, ecology and behaviour of the mosquito vector. Improved diagnostics would enable faster and more appropriate treatment. Attempts are ongoing to develop an antiviral medicine targeting the NS3 or NS5 proteins. In addition to the two vaccines which are already available, several vaccine candidates are in development. Outbreaks of dengue fever increase the need for blood products while decreasing the number of potential blood donors due to potential infection with the virus. Someone who has a dengue infection is typically not allowed to donate blood for at least the next six months. International Anti-Dengue Day is observed every year on 15 June in a number of countries. The idea was first agreed upon in 2010 with the first event held in Jakarta , Indonesia, in 2011. Further events were held in 2012 in Yangon , Myanmar, and in 2013 in Vietnam . Goals are to increase public awareness about dengue, mobilize resources for its prevention and control and, to demonstrate the Southeast Asian region's commitment in tackling the disease. Efforts are ongoing as of 2019 to make it a global event. The Philippines has an awareness month in June since 1998. A National Dengue Day is held in India annually on 16 May. A study estimate that the global burden of dengue in 2013 amounted to US$8·9 billion. Outbreaks of dengue fever increase the need for blood products while decreasing the number of potential blood donors due to potential infection with the virus. Someone who has a dengue infection is typically not allowed to donate blood for at least the next six months. International Anti-Dengue Day is observed every year on 15 June in a number of countries. The idea was first agreed upon in 2010 with the first event held in Jakarta , Indonesia, in 2011. Further events were held in 2012 in Yangon , Myanmar, and in 2013 in Vietnam . Goals are to increase public awareness about dengue, mobilize resources for its prevention and control and, to demonstrate the Southeast Asian region's commitment in tackling the disease. Efforts are ongoing as of 2019 to make it a global event. The Philippines has an awareness month in June since 1998. A National Dengue Day is held in India annually on 16 May. A study estimate that the global burden of dengue in 2013 amounted to US$8·9 billion.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Aedes_aegypti/html

Aedes aegypti

Aedes aegypti aegypti Aedes aegypti formosus Aedes aegypti ( /ˈiːdiːz/ from Greek αηδής : "hateful" and /aɪˈdʒɛpti/ from Latin , meaning "of Egypt"), the yellow fever mosquito , is a mosquito that can spread dengue fever , chikungunya , Zika fever , Mayaro and yellow fever viruses, and other disease agents. The mosquito can be recognized by black and white markings on its legs and a marking in the form of a lyre on the upper surface of its thorax . This mosquito originated in Africa, but is now found in tropical , subtropical and temperate regions throughout the world.Aedes aegypti is a 4–7 millimetres ( 5 ⁄ 32 – 35 ⁄ 128 in) long, dark mosquito which can be recognized by white markings on its legs and a marking in the form of a lyre on the upper surface of its thorax . Females are larger than males. Microscopically females possess small palps tipped with silver or white scales, and their antennae have sparse short hairs, whereas those of males are feathery. Aedes aegypti can be confused with Aedes albopictus without a magnifying glass: the latter have a white stripe on the top of the mid thorax. Males live off fruit and only the female bites for blood, which she needs to mature her eggs. To find a host, she is attracted to chemical compounds emitted by mammals, including ammonia , carbon dioxide , lactic acid , and octenol . Scientists at The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Research Service studied the specific chemical structure of octenol to better understand why this chemical attracts the mosquito to its host and found the mosquito has a preference for "right-handed" ( dextrorotatory ) octenol molecules. The preference for biting humans is dependent on expression of the odorant receptor AaegOr4 . The white eggs are laid separately into water and not together, unlike most other mosquitoes, and soon turn black. The larvae feed on bacteria, growing over a period of weeks until they reach the pupa stage. The lifespan of an adult Ae. aegypti is two to four weeks depending on conditions, but the eggs can be viable for over a year in a dry state, which allows the mosquito to re-emerge after a cold winter or dry spell. Mammalian hosts include domesticated horses , and feral and wild horses and equids more generally. As of 2009 birds were found to be the best food supply for Ae. aegypti among all taxa . Mammalian hosts include domesticated horses , and feral and wild horses and equids more generally. As of 2009 birds were found to be the best food supply for Ae. aegypti among all taxa . Aedes aegypti originated in Africa and was spread to the New World through slave trade, but is now found in tropical , subtropical and temperate regions throughout the world. Ae. aegypti ' s distribution has increased in the past two to three decades worldwide, and it is considered to be among the most widespread mosquito species. In 2016, Zika virus -capable mosquito populations have been found adapting for persistence in warm temperate climates. Such a population has been identified to exist in parts of Washington, DC , and genetic evidence suggests they survived at least the last four winters in the region. One of the study researchers noted, "...some mosquito species are finding ways to survive in normally restrictive environments by taking advantage of underground refugia". As the world's climate becomes warmer, the range of Aedes aegypti and a hardier species originating in Asia, the tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus , which can expand its range to relatively cooler climates, will inexorably spread north and south. Sadie Ryan of the University of Florida was the lead author in a 2019 study that estimated the vulnerability of naïve populations in geographic regions that currently do not harbor vectors i.e., for Zika in the Old World. Ryan's co-author, Georgetown University's Colin Carlson remarked,"Plain and simple, climate change is going to kill a lot of people." As of 2020, the Northern Territory Government Australia and the Darwin City Council have recommended tropical cities initiate rectification programs to rid their cities of potential mosquito breeding stormwater sumps. A 2019 study found that accelerating urbanization and human movement would also contribute to the spread of Aedes mosquitoes. In continental Europe, Aedes aegypti is not established but it has been found in localities close to Europe such as the Asian part of Turkey . However, a single adult female specimen was found in Marseille (Southern France) in 2018. On the basis of a genetic study and an analysis of the movements of commercial ships, the origin of the specimen could be traced as coming from Cameroon , in Central Africa. In 2007, the genome of Aedes aegypti was published, after it had been sequenced and analyzed by a consortium including scientists at The Institute for Genomic Research (now part of the J. Craig Venter Institute ), the European Bioinformatics Institute , the Broad Institute , and the University of Notre Dame . The effort in sequencing its DNA was intended to provide new avenues for research into insecticides and possible genetic modification to prevent the spread of virus. This was the second mosquito species to have its genome sequenced in full (the first was Anopheles gambiae ). The published data included the 1.38 billion base pairs containing the insect's estimated 15,419 protein -encoding genes. The sequence indicates the species diverged from Drosophila melanogaster (the common fruit fly) about 250 million years ago , and Anopheles gambiae and this species diverged about 150 million years ago . Matthews et al. , 2018 finds A. aegypti to carry a large and diverse number of transposable elements . Their analysis suggests this is common to all mosquitoes. Aedes aegypti is a vector for transmitting numerous pathogens . According to the Walter Reed Biosystematics Units as of 2022, it is associated with the following 54 viruses and 2 species of Plasmodium : Aino virus (AINOV), African horse sickness virus (AHSV), Bozo virus (BOZOV), Bussuquara virus (BSQV), Bunyamwera virus (BUNV), Catu virus (CATUV), Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), Chandipura vesiculovirus (CHPV), Cypovirus (unnamed), Cache Valley virus (CVV), Dengue virus (DENV), Eastern Equine Encephalitis virus (EEEV), Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV), Guaroa virus (GROV), Hart Park virus (HPV), Ilheus virus (ILHV), Irituia virus (IRIV), Israel Turkey Meningoencephalitis virus (ITV), Japanaut virus (JAPV), Joinjakaka (JOIV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JBEV), Ketapang virus (KETV), Kunjin virus (KUNV), La Crosse virus (LACV), Mayaro virus (MAYV), Marburg virus (MBGV), Marco virus (MCOV), Melao virus (MELV), Marituba virus (MTBV), Mount Elgon bat virus (MEBV), Mucambo virus (MUCV), Murray Valley Encephalitis virus (MVEV), Navarro virus (NAVV), Nepuyo virus (NEPV), Nola virus (NOLV), Ntaya virus (NTAV), Oriboca virus (ORIV), Orungo virus (ORUV), Restan virus (RESV), Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), Semliki Forest virus (SFV), Sindbis virus (SINV), Tahyna virus (TAHV), Tsuruse virus (TSUV), Tyuleniy virus (TYUV), Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), Vesicular stomatitis virus (Indiana serotype), Warrego virus (WARV), West Nile virus (WNV), Wesselsbron virus (WSLV), Yaounde virus (YAOV), Yellow fever virus (YFV), Zegla virus (ZEGV), Zika virus , as well as Plasmodium gallinaceum and Plasmodium lophurae . This mosquito also mechanically transmits some veterinary diseases . In 1952 Fenner et al. , found it transmitting the myxoma virus between rabbits and in 2001 Chihota et al. , the lumpy skin disease virus between cattle . The yellow fever mosquito can contribute to the spread of reticular cell sarcoma among Syrian hamsters . The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention traveler's page on preventing dengue fever suggests using mosquito repellents that contain DEET (N, N-diethylmetatoluamide, 20% to 30%). It also suggests: Insect repellents containing DEET (particularly concentrated products) or p -menthane-3,8-diol (from lemon eucalyptus ) were effective in repelling Ae. aegypti mosquitoes, while others were less effective or ineffective in a scientific study. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention article on "Protection against Mosquitoes, Ticks, & Other Arthropods" notes that "Studies suggest that concentrations of DEET above approximately 50% do not offer a marked increase in protection time against mosquitoes; DEET efficacy tends to plateau at a concentration of approximately 50%". Other insect repellents recommended by the CDC include Picaridin (KBR 3023/ icaridin ), IR3535 , and 2-undecanone . Pyrethroids are commonly used. This widespread use of pyrethroids and DDT has caused Knockdown resistance ( kdr ) mutations. Almost no research has been done on the fitness implications. studies by Kumar et al. , 2009 on deltamethrin in India, Plernsub et al. , 2013 on permethrin in Thailand, by Jaramillo-O et al. , 2014 on λ-cyhalothrin in Colombia, by Alvarez-Gonzalez et al. , 2017 on deltamethrin in Venezuela, are all substantially confounded . As of 2019, understanding of selective pressure under withdrawal of insecticide is hence limited. Ae. aegypti has been genetically modified to suppress its own species in an approach similar to the sterile insect technique , thereby reducing the risk of disease. The mosquitoes, known as OX513A , were developed by Oxitec , a spinout of Oxford University . Field trials in the Cayman Islands , in Juazeiro , Brazil, by Carvalho et al. , 2015, and in Panama by Neira et al. , 2014 have shown that the OX513A mosquitoes reduced the target mosquito populations by more than 90%. This mosquito suppression effect is achieved by a self-limiting gene that prevents the offspring from surviving. Male modified mosquitoes, which do not bite or spread disease, are released to mate with the pest females. Their offspring inherit the self-limiting gene and die before reaching adulthood—before they can reproduce or spread disease. The OX513A mosquitoes and their offspring also carry a fluorescent marker for simple monitoring. To produce more OX513A mosquitoes for control projects, the self-limiting gene is switched off (using the Tet-Off system ) in the mosquito production facility using an antidote (the antibiotic tetracycline ), allowing the mosquitoes to reproduce naturally. In the environment, the antidote is unavailable to rescue mosquito reproduction, so the pest population is suppressed. The mosquito control effect is nontoxic and species-specific, as the OX513A mosquitoes are Ae. aegypti and only breed with Ae. aegypti . The result of the self-limiting approach is that the released insects and their offspring die and do not persist in the environment. In Brazil, the modified mosquitoes were approved by the National Biosecurity Technical Commission for releases throughout the country. Insects were released into the wild populations of Brazil, Malaysia, and the Cayman Islands in 2012. In July 2015, the city of Piracicaba , São Paulo, started releasing the OX513A mosquitoes. In 2015, the UK House of Lords called on the government to support more work on genetically modified insects in the interest of global health. In 2016, the United States Food and Drug Administration granted preliminary approval for the use of modified mosquitoes to prevent the spread of the Zika virus. Another proposed method consists in using radiation to sterilize male larvae so that when they mate, they produce no progeny. Male mosquitoes do not bite or spread disease. Using CRISPR/Cas9 based genome editing to engineer the genome of Aedes aegypti genes like ECFP (enhanced cyan fluorescent protein), Nix (male-determining factor gene), Aaeg-wtrw (Ae. aegypti water witch locus), Kmo (kynurenine 3-monoxygenase), loqs (loquacious), r2d2 (r2d2 protein), ku70 (ku heterodimer protein gene) and lig4 (ligase4) were targeted to modify the genome of Aedes aegypti . The new mutant will become incapable of pathogen transmission or result in population control. In 2016 research into the use of a bacterium called Wolbachia as a method of biocontrol was published showing that invasion of Ae. aegypti by the endosymbiotic bacteria allows mosquitos to be resistant to certain arboviruses such as dengue fever and Zika virus strains currently circulating. In 2017 Alphabet, Inc. started the Debug Project to infect males of this species with Wolbachia bacteria, interrupting the reproductive cycle of these animals. Pyrethroids are commonly used. This widespread use of pyrethroids and DDT has caused Knockdown resistance ( kdr ) mutations. Almost no research has been done on the fitness implications. studies by Kumar et al. , 2009 on deltamethrin in India, Plernsub et al. , 2013 on permethrin in Thailand, by Jaramillo-O et al. , 2014 on λ-cyhalothrin in Colombia, by Alvarez-Gonzalez et al. , 2017 on deltamethrin in Venezuela, are all substantially confounded . As of 2019, understanding of selective pressure under withdrawal of insecticide is hence limited. Ae. aegypti has been genetically modified to suppress its own species in an approach similar to the sterile insect technique , thereby reducing the risk of disease. The mosquitoes, known as OX513A , were developed by Oxitec , a spinout of Oxford University . Field trials in the Cayman Islands , in Juazeiro , Brazil, by Carvalho et al. , 2015, and in Panama by Neira et al. , 2014 have shown that the OX513A mosquitoes reduced the target mosquito populations by more than 90%. This mosquito suppression effect is achieved by a self-limiting gene that prevents the offspring from surviving. Male modified mosquitoes, which do not bite or spread disease, are released to mate with the pest females. Their offspring inherit the self-limiting gene and die before reaching adulthood—before they can reproduce or spread disease. The OX513A mosquitoes and their offspring also carry a fluorescent marker for simple monitoring. To produce more OX513A mosquitoes for control projects, the self-limiting gene is switched off (using the Tet-Off system ) in the mosquito production facility using an antidote (the antibiotic tetracycline ), allowing the mosquitoes to reproduce naturally. In the environment, the antidote is unavailable to rescue mosquito reproduction, so the pest population is suppressed. The mosquito control effect is nontoxic and species-specific, as the OX513A mosquitoes are Ae. aegypti and only breed with Ae. aegypti . The result of the self-limiting approach is that the released insects and their offspring die and do not persist in the environment. In Brazil, the modified mosquitoes were approved by the National Biosecurity Technical Commission for releases throughout the country. Insects were released into the wild populations of Brazil, Malaysia, and the Cayman Islands in 2012. In July 2015, the city of Piracicaba , São Paulo, started releasing the OX513A mosquitoes. In 2015, the UK House of Lords called on the government to support more work on genetically modified insects in the interest of global health. In 2016, the United States Food and Drug Administration granted preliminary approval for the use of modified mosquitoes to prevent the spread of the Zika virus. Another proposed method consists in using radiation to sterilize male larvae so that when they mate, they produce no progeny. Male mosquitoes do not bite or spread disease. Using CRISPR/Cas9 based genome editing to engineer the genome of Aedes aegypti genes like ECFP (enhanced cyan fluorescent protein), Nix (male-determining factor gene), Aaeg-wtrw (Ae. aegypti water witch locus), Kmo (kynurenine 3-monoxygenase), loqs (loquacious), r2d2 (r2d2 protein), ku70 (ku heterodimer protein gene) and lig4 (ligase4) were targeted to modify the genome of Aedes aegypti . The new mutant will become incapable of pathogen transmission or result in population control. In 2016 research into the use of a bacterium called Wolbachia as a method of biocontrol was published showing that invasion of Ae. aegypti by the endosymbiotic bacteria allows mosquitos to be resistant to certain arboviruses such as dengue fever and Zika virus strains currently circulating. In 2017 Alphabet, Inc. started the Debug Project to infect males of this species with Wolbachia bacteria, interrupting the reproductive cycle of these animals. Fungal species Erynia conica (from the family Entomophthoraceae ) infects (and kills) two types of mosquitos: Aedes aegypti and Culex restuans . Studies on the fungus have been carried out on its potiential use as a biological control of the mosquitos. The species was first named (as Culex aegypti ) in 1757 by Fredric Hasselquist in his treatise Iter Palaestinum . Hasselquist was provided with the names and descriptions by his mentor, Carl Linnaeus . This work was later translated into German and published in 1762 as Reise nach Palästina . Since the latter is an uncritical reproduction of the former, they are both considered to antedate the starting point for zoological nomenclature in 1758. Nonetheless, the name Aedes aegypti was frequently used, starting with H. G. Dyar in 1920. [ citation needed ] To stabilise the nomenclature, a petition to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature was made by P. F. Mattingly, Alan Stone, and Kenneth L. Knight in 1962. It also transpired that, although the name Aedes aegypti was universally used for the yellow fever mosquito, Linnaeus had actually described a species now known as Aedes ( Ochlerotatus ) caspius . In 1964, the commission ruled in favour of the proposal, validating Linnaeus' name, and transferring it to the species for which it was in general use. The yellow fever mosquito belongs to the tribe Aedini of the dipteran family Culicidae and to the genus Aedes and subgenus Stegomyia . According to one recent analysis, the subgenus Stegomyia of the genus Aedes should be raised to the level of genus. The proposed name change has been ignored by most scientists; at least one scientific journal, the Journal of Medical Entomology , has officially encouraged authors dealing with aedile mosquitoes to continue to use the traditional names, unless they have particular reasons for not doing so. The generic name comes from the Ancient Greek ἀηδής , aēdēs , meaning "unpleasant" or "odious". Two subspecies are commonly recognized: This classification is complicated by the results of Gloria-Soria et al. , 2016. Although confirming the existence of these two major subspecies, Gloria-Sora et al. finds greater worldwide diversity than previously recognized and a large number of distinct populations separated by various geographic factors. Two subspecies are commonly recognized: This classification is complicated by the results of Gloria-Soria et al. , 2016. Although confirming the existence of these two major subspecies, Gloria-Sora et al. finds greater worldwide diversity than previously recognized and a large number of distinct populations separated by various geographic factors.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/International_Certificate_of_Vaccination_or_Prophylaxis/html

International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis

The International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis ( ICVP ), also known as the Carte Jaune or Yellow Card , is an official vaccination report created by the World Health Organization (WHO). As a travel document , it is a kind of medical passport that is recognised internationally and may be required for entry to certain countries where there are increased health risks for travellers. The ICVP is not an immunity passport ; the primary difference is that vaccination certificates such as the ICVP incentivise individuals to obtain vaccination against a disease, while immunity passports incentivise individuals to get infected with and recover from a disease. Various schemes for health passports or vaccination certificates have been proposed for people who have been vaccinated against COVID-19 .The ICVP's nickname Yellow Card or its French equivalent Carte Jaune derives from the yellow colour of the document. The fact that yellow fever is a commonly required vaccination for travel has contributed to the document's association with the colour yellow, even though the ICVP can cover a wide range of vaccinations and booster shots, not just yellow fever. The International Certificate of Inoculation and Vaccination was established by the International Sanitary Convention for Aerial Navigation (1933) in The Hague , which came into force on 1 August 1935 and was amended in 1944. After the 1944 amendment , in addition to Personal, Aircraft and Maritime Declarations of Health, the Convention covered five certificates: The World Health Organization (WHO) was formed by its constitution on 22 July 1946, effective on 7 April 1948. The WHO Constitution included stipulations to stimulate and advance work to eradicate epidemic, endemic and other diseases (Article 2.g) and that the World Health Assembly would have authority to adopt regulations concerning sanitary and quarantine requirements and other procedures designed to prevent the international spread of disease (Article 21.a). The Fourth World Health Assembly adopted the International Sanitary Regulations (alias WHO Regulations No. 2) on 25 May 1951, replacing and completing the earlier International Sanitary Conventions. It confirmed the validity and use of international certificates of vaccination (Article 115), and updated the old model with a new version (Appendices 2, 3, 4). The certificates mentioned were used for proof of vaccination against diseases such as cholera, yellow fever and smallpox; the term inoculation was no longer used. The old International Certificates of Inoculation and Vaccination remained valid until they expired, after which they were replaced by the new ICV. On 23 May 1956, the Ninth World Health Assembly amended the form of the International Certificate of Vaccination or Revaccination against Smallpox per 1 October 1956. The WHO's World Health Assembly adopted the International Health Regulations (IHR) in 1969, succeeding the previous International Sanitary Conventions/Regulations. IHR Article 79 introduced a model International Certificate of Vaccination, and Appendix 2 and Annex VI stipulated a number of conditions that had to be fulfilled in order for it to be considered valid, such as being printed and filled out in English and French (a third language, relevant to the territory in which it is issued, could be added). The 1969 IHR focused on four diseases: cholera, plague , smallpox, and yellow fever; however, Article 51 specified that vaccination against plague would not be required as a condition of admission of any person to a territory. The World Health Assembly determined in 1973 that vaccination against cholera was unable to prevent the introduction of cholera from one country to another, and removed this requirement from the 1973 revision of the IHR; it was also removed from the ICV. The ICV was most successful in the case of smallpox. The mandatory possession of vaccination certificates significantly increased the number of travellers who were vaccinated, and thus contributed to preventing the spread of smallpox, especially when the rapid expansion of air travel in the 1960s and 1970s reduced the travelling time from endemic countries to all other countries to just a few hours. After smallpox was successfully eradicated in 1980, the International Certificate of Vaccination against Smallpox was cancelled in 1981, and the new 1983 form lacked any provision for smallpox vaccination. Thus, only yellow fever remained as vaccination requirement for international travel for which the ICV was used. [ citation needed ] By 1994, Saudi Arabia legally required pilgrims going to Mecca for the annual Hajj to vaccinate against meningococcal meningitis , while the Center for Disease Control also advised Americans travelling to the African meningitis belt or Kenya , Tanzania and Burundi to take the vaccine, especially when visiting during the dry season (November–April). The 2002–2004 SARS outbreak was the driving force behind the 23 May 2005 revision of the International Health Regulations, which entered into force on 15 June 2007. : 1 On that day, the model International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis contained in Annex 6 of the International Health Regulations (as amended in 2005) replaced the International Certificate of Vaccination or Revaccination against Yellow Fever contained in appendix 2 of the International Health Regulations (1969). The International Certificate of Inoculation and Vaccination was established by the International Sanitary Convention for Aerial Navigation (1933) in The Hague , which came into force on 1 August 1935 and was amended in 1944. After the 1944 amendment , in addition to Personal, Aircraft and Maritime Declarations of Health, the Convention covered five certificates: The World Health Organization (WHO) was formed by its constitution on 22 July 1946, effective on 7 April 1948. The WHO Constitution included stipulations to stimulate and advance work to eradicate epidemic, endemic and other diseases (Article 2.g) and that the World Health Assembly would have authority to adopt regulations concerning sanitary and quarantine requirements and other procedures designed to prevent the international spread of disease (Article 21.a). The Fourth World Health Assembly adopted the International Sanitary Regulations (alias WHO Regulations No. 2) on 25 May 1951, replacing and completing the earlier International Sanitary Conventions. It confirmed the validity and use of international certificates of vaccination (Article 115), and updated the old model with a new version (Appendices 2, 3, 4). The certificates mentioned were used for proof of vaccination against diseases such as cholera, yellow fever and smallpox; the term inoculation was no longer used. The old International Certificates of Inoculation and Vaccination remained valid until they expired, after which they were replaced by the new ICV. On 23 May 1956, the Ninth World Health Assembly amended the form of the International Certificate of Vaccination or Revaccination against Smallpox per 1 October 1956. The WHO's World Health Assembly adopted the International Health Regulations (IHR) in 1969, succeeding the previous International Sanitary Conventions/Regulations. IHR Article 79 introduced a model International Certificate of Vaccination, and Appendix 2 and Annex VI stipulated a number of conditions that had to be fulfilled in order for it to be considered valid, such as being printed and filled out in English and French (a third language, relevant to the territory in which it is issued, could be added). The 1969 IHR focused on four diseases: cholera, plague , smallpox, and yellow fever; however, Article 51 specified that vaccination against plague would not be required as a condition of admission of any person to a territory. The World Health Assembly determined in 1973 that vaccination against cholera was unable to prevent the introduction of cholera from one country to another, and removed this requirement from the 1973 revision of the IHR; it was also removed from the ICV. The ICV was most successful in the case of smallpox. The mandatory possession of vaccination certificates significantly increased the number of travellers who were vaccinated, and thus contributed to preventing the spread of smallpox, especially when the rapid expansion of air travel in the 1960s and 1970s reduced the travelling time from endemic countries to all other countries to just a few hours. After smallpox was successfully eradicated in 1980, the International Certificate of Vaccination against Smallpox was cancelled in 1981, and the new 1983 form lacked any provision for smallpox vaccination. Thus, only yellow fever remained as vaccination requirement for international travel for which the ICV was used. [ citation needed ] By 1994, Saudi Arabia legally required pilgrims going to Mecca for the annual Hajj to vaccinate against meningococcal meningitis , while the Center for Disease Control also advised Americans travelling to the African meningitis belt or Kenya , Tanzania and Burundi to take the vaccine, especially when visiting during the dry season (November–April). The 2002–2004 SARS outbreak was the driving force behind the 23 May 2005 revision of the International Health Regulations, which entered into force on 15 June 2007. : 1 On that day, the model International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis contained in Annex 6 of the International Health Regulations (as amended in 2005) replaced the International Certificate of Vaccination or Revaccination against Yellow Fever contained in appendix 2 of the International Health Regulations (1969). The main portion of the ICVP is a form for physicians to fill out when administering a vaccine. This section is mandated by the WHO's 2005 International Health Regulations , in which they provide a model of the document. It includes places for the traveller's name, date of birth, sex, nationality, national identification document, and signature. Below that is a row for each vaccine administered, in which the physician must include the prophylaxis or vaccine administered, date, signature, manufacturer and batch number, dates valid, and an official stamp from the administering centre. Below this, the document outlines requirements for validity. The ICVP is only valid for vaccines approved by the WHO. [ citation needed ] The form must be fully completed in English or French by a medical practitioner or authorized health worker and must include the official stamp of the administering centre. The certificate is valid for as long as the vaccines included are valid. The form may include additional information. In 2007, the WHO prepared a booklet that included the following additional sections. The notes section includes information about yellow fever , since it is the only disease included in the International Health Regulations. It also specifies that the same certificate can be used if any future regulations require vaccination for another disease. The information for travellers section recommends that travellers consult their physicians to determine appropriate vaccinations before international travel and inform their physician of international travel if they fall ill after their trip. Malaria is a serious disease with no vaccine available. The ICVP recommends that travellers protect against mosquitos through mosquito nets or repellent, as mosquitos can transmit malaria. Travellers can also consult their physician for antimalarial medication , which must be taken regularly for the full duration of the prescription. The ICVP gives instructions for filling out the certificate. It also gives physicians guidelines for documenting contraindications in cases where a traveller has a medical reason that prevents them from getting a particular vaccine. This section also reminds physicians to consider travel-associated illnesses when treating a patient who has fallen ill after traveling. The main portion of the ICVP is a form for physicians to fill out when administering a vaccine. This section is mandated by the WHO's 2005 International Health Regulations , in which they provide a model of the document. It includes places for the traveller's name, date of birth, sex, nationality, national identification document, and signature. Below that is a row for each vaccine administered, in which the physician must include the prophylaxis or vaccine administered, date, signature, manufacturer and batch number, dates valid, and an official stamp from the administering centre. Below this, the document outlines requirements for validity. The ICVP is only valid for vaccines approved by the WHO. [ citation needed ] The form must be fully completed in English or French by a medical practitioner or authorized health worker and must include the official stamp of the administering centre. The certificate is valid for as long as the vaccines included are valid. The form may include additional information. In 2007, the WHO prepared a booklet that included the following additional sections. The notes section includes information about yellow fever , since it is the only disease included in the International Health Regulations. It also specifies that the same certificate can be used if any future regulations require vaccination for another disease. The information for travellers section recommends that travellers consult their physicians to determine appropriate vaccinations before international travel and inform their physician of international travel if they fall ill after their trip. Malaria is a serious disease with no vaccine available. The ICVP recommends that travellers protect against mosquitos through mosquito nets or repellent, as mosquitos can transmit malaria. Travellers can also consult their physician for antimalarial medication , which must be taken regularly for the full duration of the prescription. The ICVP gives instructions for filling out the certificate. It also gives physicians guidelines for documenting contraindications in cases where a traveller has a medical reason that prevents them from getting a particular vaccine. This section also reminds physicians to consider travel-associated illnesses when treating a patient who has fallen ill after traveling. The notes section includes information about yellow fever , since it is the only disease included in the International Health Regulations. It also specifies that the same certificate can be used if any future regulations require vaccination for another disease. The information for travellers section recommends that travellers consult their physicians to determine appropriate vaccinations before international travel and inform their physician of international travel if they fall ill after their trip. Malaria is a serious disease with no vaccine available. The ICVP recommends that travellers protect against mosquitos through mosquito nets or repellent, as mosquitos can transmit malaria. Travellers can also consult their physician for antimalarial medication , which must be taken regularly for the full duration of the prescription. The ICVP gives instructions for filling out the certificate. It also gives physicians guidelines for documenting contraindications in cases where a traveller has a medical reason that prevents them from getting a particular vaccine. This section also reminds physicians to consider travel-associated illnesses when treating a patient who has fallen ill after traveling. Yellow fever is the most common vaccine required for international travel. Many countries require the vaccine for all travellers or only for travellers coming from countries with risk of yellow fever transmission. Exceptions are typically made for newborns until 9 months or one year of age, depending on the country. The ICVP form is valid for yellow fever starting 10 days after vaccination. As of 2016, the vaccine is valid for the life of the traveller. No changes need to be made for those who received their vaccine or ICVP prior to 2016. In the event that a traveller cannot be vaccinated for a particular disease for medical reasons, their physician can provide them with documentation indicating their condition. They may be subject to additional requirements, such as isolation, quarantine, or observation. A traveller who refuses a vaccine or prophylaxis that is required may be subject to similar requirements or denied entry. In some cases, equivalent military-issued forms are accepted in place of the ICVP, provided the forms include the same information. Due to the prevalence of counterfeit certificates in some places, several countries, including Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Nigeria, are developing digital certificates that can authenticate an ICVP. As of July 2019, Nigeria requires its citizens to have its digital "e-Yellow Card" for travel outside the country. The card has a QR code that can be scanned to verify its validity. This requirement does not affect travellers from other countries with valid ICVPs, but those arriving in Nigeria who haven't been vaccinated for yellow fever may receive the vaccine and the e-Yellow Card upon arrival. Similar schemes have been proposed for travellers who have been vaccinated against COVID-19 . [ citation needed ] Multiple agencies and countries were creating different forms of documentation for people who have been vaccinated against COVID-19. Agencies attempting this include non-profit organisations such as World Economic Forum and the Commons Project Foundation , technology companies such as IBM , travel companies such as VeriFly , and the International Air Transport Association . As of March 2021 [ update ] , standards for digital documentation, such as an app on a smartphone, had not been established. On 12 March 2021, Ecma International announced its intention to create international standards which guard against counterfeiting and protects private data as much as possible in a "Call for Participation on Vaccine Passports International Standardization". With COVID-19 vaccines showing promising results, several industry organizations including global airline lobby IATA and the World Economic Forum have announced pilots. IATA's solution, "Travel Pass", is a mobile app that can display test results, proof of inoculation and will be integrated with the existing TIMATIC system. Israel employed a digital "green pass" to allow individuals fully vaccinated against COVID-19 to dine out, attend concerts, and travel to other nations. It has been the subject of several privacy and data security concerns. Shortly after the scheme was rolled out, the Knesset passed a law allowing local authorities to compile data on citizens who have refused to get vaccinated. Work has been started to established and standardize at Ecma International, allow for an open interoperability ecosystem so that multiple COVID-19 immunity verification systems can work together and effectively across borders. Yellow fever is the most common vaccine required for international travel. Many countries require the vaccine for all travellers or only for travellers coming from countries with risk of yellow fever transmission. Exceptions are typically made for newborns until 9 months or one year of age, depending on the country. The ICVP form is valid for yellow fever starting 10 days after vaccination. As of 2016, the vaccine is valid for the life of the traveller. No changes need to be made for those who received their vaccine or ICVP prior to 2016. In the event that a traveller cannot be vaccinated for a particular disease for medical reasons, their physician can provide them with documentation indicating their condition. They may be subject to additional requirements, such as isolation, quarantine, or observation. A traveller who refuses a vaccine or prophylaxis that is required may be subject to similar requirements or denied entry. In some cases, equivalent military-issued forms are accepted in place of the ICVP, provided the forms include the same information. Due to the prevalence of counterfeit certificates in some places, several countries, including Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Nigeria, are developing digital certificates that can authenticate an ICVP. As of July 2019, Nigeria requires its citizens to have its digital "e-Yellow Card" for travel outside the country. The card has a QR code that can be scanned to verify its validity. This requirement does not affect travellers from other countries with valid ICVPs, but those arriving in Nigeria who haven't been vaccinated for yellow fever may receive the vaccine and the e-Yellow Card upon arrival. Similar schemes have been proposed for travellers who have been vaccinated against COVID-19 . [ citation needed ] Multiple agencies and countries were creating different forms of documentation for people who have been vaccinated against COVID-19. Agencies attempting this include non-profit organisations such as World Economic Forum and the Commons Project Foundation , technology companies such as IBM , travel companies such as VeriFly , and the International Air Transport Association . As of March 2021 [ update ] , standards for digital documentation, such as an app on a smartphone, had not been established. On 12 March 2021, Ecma International announced its intention to create international standards which guard against counterfeiting and protects private data as much as possible in a "Call for Participation on Vaccine Passports International Standardization". With COVID-19 vaccines showing promising results, several industry organizations including global airline lobby IATA and the World Economic Forum have announced pilots. IATA's solution, "Travel Pass", is a mobile app that can display test results, proof of inoculation and will be integrated with the existing TIMATIC system. Israel employed a digital "green pass" to allow individuals fully vaccinated against COVID-19 to dine out, attend concerts, and travel to other nations. It has been the subject of several privacy and data security concerns. Shortly after the scheme was rolled out, the Knesset passed a law allowing local authorities to compile data on citizens who have refused to get vaccinated. Work has been started to established and standardize at Ecma International, allow for an open interoperability ecosystem so that multiple COVID-19 immunity verification systems can work together and effectively across borders.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever/html

Viral hemorrhagic fever

Viral hemorrhagic fevers ( VHFs ) are a diverse group of animal and human illnesses . VHFs may be caused by five distinct families of RNA viruses : the families Filoviridae , Flaviviridae , Rhabdoviridae , and several member families of the Bunyavirales order such as Arenaviridae , and Hantaviridae . All types of VHF are characterized by fever and bleeding disorders and all can progress to high fever, shock and death in many cases. Some of the VHF agents cause relatively mild illnesses, such as the Scandinavian nephropathia epidemica (a hantavirus ), while others, such as Ebola virus , can cause severe, life-threatening disease.Signs and symptoms of VHFs include (by definition) fever and bleeding: The severity of symptoms varies with the type of virus. The "VHF syndrome" (capillary leak, bleeding diathesis , and circulatory compromise leading to shock) appears in a majority of people with filoviral hemorrhagic fevers (e.g., Ebola and Marburg virus ), Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF), and the South American hemorrhagic fevers caused by arenaviruses , but only in a small minority of patients with dengue or Rift Valley fever .Five families of RNA viruses have been recognised as being able to cause hemorrhagic fevers. [ citation needed ] The pathogen that caused the cocoliztli epidemics in Mexico of 1545 and 1576 is still unknown, and the 1545 epidemic may have been bacterial rather than viral. Different hemorrhagic fever viruses act on the body in different ways, resulting in different symptoms. In most VHFs, it is likely that several mechanisms contribute to symptoms, including liver damage, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), and bone marrow dysfunction. In DIC, small blood clots form in blood vessels throughout the body, removing platelets necessary for clotting from the bloodstream and reducing clotting ability. DIC is thought to cause bleeding in Rift Valley, Marburg, and Ebola fevers. For filoviral hemorrhagic fevers, there are four general mechanisms of pathogenesis. The first mechanism is dissemination of virus due to suppressed responses by macrophages and dendritic cell (antigen presenting cells). The second mechanism is prevention of antigen specific immune response. The third mechanism is apoptosis of lymphocytes. The fourth mechanism is when infected macrophages interact with toxic cytokines , leading to diapedesis and coagulation deficiency. From the vascular perspective, the virus will infect vascular endothelial cells, leading to the reorganization of the VE-cadherin catenin complex (a protein important in cell adhesion). This reorganization creates intercellular gaps in endothelial cells. The gaps lead to increased endothelial permeability and allow blood to escape from the vascular circulatory system. [ citation needed ] The reasons for variation among patients infected with the same virus are unknown but stem from a complex system of virus-host interactions. Dengue fever becomes more virulent during a second infection by means of antibody-dependent enhancement . After the first infection, macrophages display antibodies on their cell membranes specific to the dengue virus. By attaching to these antibodies, dengue viruses from a second infection are better able to infect the macrophages, thus reducing the immune system's ability to fight off infection. [ citation needed ]Definitive diagnosis is usually made at a reference laboratory with advanced biocontainment capabilities. The findings of laboratory investigation vary somewhat between the viruses but in general, there is a decrease in the total white cell count (particularly the lymphocytes ), a decrease in the platelet count, an increase in the blood serum liver enzymes , and reduced blood clotting ability measured as an increase in both the prothrombin (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin times (PTT). The hematocrit may be elevated. The serum urea and creatine may be raised but this is dependent on the hydration status of the patient. The bleeding time tends to be prolonged. [ citation needed ]With the exception of yellow fever vaccine and Ebola vaccines , vaccines for VHF-associated viruses are generally not available. Post-exposure prophylactic (preventive) ribavirin may be effective for some bunyavirus and arenavirus infections. VHF isolation guidelines dictate that all VHF patients (with the exception of dengue patients) should be cared for using strict contact precautions, including hand hygiene, double gloves, gowns, shoe and leg coverings, and face shield or goggles. Lassa, CCHF, Ebola, and Marburg viruses may be particularly prone to nosocomial (hospital-based) spread. Airborne precautions should be utilized including, at a minimum, a fit-tested , HEPA filter-equipped respirator (such as an N95 mask ), a battery-powered, air-purifying respirator, or a positive pressure supplied air respirator to be worn by personnel coming within 1.8 meter (six feet) of a VHF patient. Groups of patients should be cohorted (sequestered) to a separate building or a ward with an isolated air-handling system. Environmental decontamination is typically accomplished with hypochlorite (e.g. bleach) or phenolic disinfectants . Medical management of VHF patients may require intensive supportive care. Antiviral therapy with intravenous ribavirin may be useful in Bunyaviridae and Arenaviridae infections (specifically Lassa fever, RVF, CCHF, and HFRS due to Old World Hantavirus infection) and can be used only under an experimental protocol as IND approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Interferon may be effective in Argentine or Bolivian hemorrhagic fevers (also available only as IND). [ citation needed ]The VHF viruses are spread in a variety of ways. Some may be transmitted to humans through a respiratory route. [ citation needed ] The virus is considered by military medical planners to have a potential for aerosol dissemination, weaponization, or likelihood for confusion with similar agents that might be weaponized.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Yellow_Fever_(album)/html

Yellow Fever (album)

Yellow Fever is the sixth album by the American blues rock band Hot Tuna , recorded and released in 1975 as Grunt BFL1-1238. The album was also released in Quadraphonic as Grunt BFD1-1238. The album rose to #97 on the Billboard charts.Hot Tuna – producer Mallory Earl – producer, engineer Pat Ieraci (Maurice) – production coordinator Steve Malcolm – assistant engineer Michael Casady – equipment Bill Thompson – manager Acy Lehman – art direction Gribbitt – design Mick Haggerty – illustration Recorded and Mixed at Wally Heider Studios, San Francisco Mastered by Rick Collins, Kendun Recorders, BurbankHot Tuna – producer Mallory Earl – producer, engineer Pat Ieraci (Maurice) – production coordinator Steve Malcolm – assistant engineer Michael Casady – equipment Bill Thompson – manager Acy Lehman – art direction Gribbitt – design Mick Haggerty – illustration Recorded and Mixed at Wally Heider Studios, San Francisco Mastered by Rick Collins, Kendun Recorders, Burbank

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Mosquito-borne_disease/html

Mosquito-borne disease

Mosquito-borne diseases or mosquito-borne illnesses are diseases caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites transmitted by mosquitoes . Nearly 700 million people get a mosquito-borne illness each year, resulting in over 725,000 deaths. Diseases transmitted by mosquitoes include malaria , dengue , West Nile virus , chikungunya , yellow fever , filariasis , tularemia , dirofilariasis , Japanese encephalitis , Saint Louis encephalitis , Western equine encephalitis , Eastern equine encephalitis , Venezuelan equine encephalitis , Ross River fever , Barmah Forest fever , La Crosse encephalitis , and Zika fever , as well as newly detected Keystone virus and Rift Valley fever . In January 2024, an Australian research group proved that Mycobacterium ulcerans , the causative pathogen of Buruli ulcer is transmitted by mosquitos. This is the first described mosquito-borne transmission of a bacterial disease. There is no evidence as of April 2020 that COVID-19 can be transmitted by mosquitoes, and it is extremely unlikely this could occur. The female mosquito of the genus Anopheles may carry the malaria parasite . Four different species of protozoa cause malaria: Plasmodium falciparum , Plasmodium malariae , Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium vivax (see Plasmodium ). Worldwide, malaria is a leading cause of premature mortality, particularly in children under the age of five, with an estimated 207 million cases and more than half a million deaths in 2012, according to the World Malaria Report 2013 published by the World Health Organization (WHO). The death toll increased to one million as of 2018 according to the American Mosquito Control Association. In January 2024, a publication by an Australian research group demonstrated significant genetic similarity between Mycobacterium ulcerans in humans and possums, compared to PCR screening of M. ulcerans from trapped Aedes notoscriptus mosquitoes, and concluded that Mycobacterium ulcerans , the causative pathogen of Buruli ulcer , is transmitted by mosquitos. Botflies are known to parasitize humans or other mammalians, causing myiasis , and to use mosquitoes as intermediate vector agents to deposit eggs on a host. The human botfly Dermatobia hominis attaches its eggs to the underside of a mosquito, and when the mosquito takes a blood meal from a human or an animal, the body heat of the mammalian host induces hatching of the larvae. [ citation needed ] Some species of mosquito can carry the filariasis worm, a parasite that causes a disfiguring condition (often referred to as elephantiasis ) characterized by a great swelling of several parts of the body; worldwide, around 40 million people are living with a filariasis disability. [ citation needed ] The viral diseases yellow fever , dengue fever , Zika fever and chikungunya are transmitted mostly by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. [ citation needed ] Other viral diseases like epidemic polyarthritis , Rift Valley fever , Ross River fever , St. Louis encephalitis , West Nile fever , Japanese encephalitis , La Crosse encephalitis and several other encephalitic diseases are carried by several different mosquitoes. Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) and Western equine encephalitis (WEE) occur in the United States where they cause disease in humans, horses, and some bird species. Because of the high mortality rate, EEE and WEE are regarded as two of the most serious mosquito-borne diseases in the United States. Symptoms range from mild flu-like illness to encephalitis, coma, and death. Viruses carried by arthropods such as mosquitoes or ticks are known collectively as arboviruses . West Nile virus was accidentally introduced into the US in 1999 and by 2003 had spread to almost every state with over 3,000 cases in 2006. Other species of Aedes as well as Culex and Culiseta are also involved in the transmission of disease. [ citation needed ] Myxomatosis is spread by biting insects, including mosquitoes. The female mosquito of the genus Anopheles may carry the malaria parasite . Four different species of protozoa cause malaria: Plasmodium falciparum , Plasmodium malariae , Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium vivax (see Plasmodium ). Worldwide, malaria is a leading cause of premature mortality, particularly in children under the age of five, with an estimated 207 million cases and more than half a million deaths in 2012, according to the World Malaria Report 2013 published by the World Health Organization (WHO). The death toll increased to one million as of 2018 according to the American Mosquito Control Association. In January 2024, a publication by an Australian research group demonstrated significant genetic similarity between Mycobacterium ulcerans in humans and possums, compared to PCR screening of M. ulcerans from trapped Aedes notoscriptus mosquitoes, and concluded that Mycobacterium ulcerans , the causative pathogen of Buruli ulcer , is transmitted by mosquitos. Botflies are known to parasitize humans or other mammalians, causing myiasis , and to use mosquitoes as intermediate vector agents to deposit eggs on a host. The human botfly Dermatobia hominis attaches its eggs to the underside of a mosquito, and when the mosquito takes a blood meal from a human or an animal, the body heat of the mammalian host induces hatching of the larvae. [ citation needed ]Some species of mosquito can carry the filariasis worm, a parasite that causes a disfiguring condition (often referred to as elephantiasis ) characterized by a great swelling of several parts of the body; worldwide, around 40 million people are living with a filariasis disability. [ citation needed ]The viral diseases yellow fever , dengue fever , Zika fever and chikungunya are transmitted mostly by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. [ citation needed ] Other viral diseases like epidemic polyarthritis , Rift Valley fever , Ross River fever , St. Louis encephalitis , West Nile fever , Japanese encephalitis , La Crosse encephalitis and several other encephalitic diseases are carried by several different mosquitoes. Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) and Western equine encephalitis (WEE) occur in the United States where they cause disease in humans, horses, and some bird species. Because of the high mortality rate, EEE and WEE are regarded as two of the most serious mosquito-borne diseases in the United States. Symptoms range from mild flu-like illness to encephalitis, coma, and death. Viruses carried by arthropods such as mosquitoes or ticks are known collectively as arboviruses . West Nile virus was accidentally introduced into the US in 1999 and by 2003 had spread to almost every state with over 3,000 cases in 2006. Other species of Aedes as well as Culex and Culiseta are also involved in the transmission of disease. [ citation needed ] Myxomatosis is spread by biting insects, including mosquitoes. A mosquito's period of feeding is often undetected; the bite only becomes apparent because of the immune reaction it provokes. When a mosquito bites a human, it injects saliva and anti-coagulants . With the initial bite to an individual, there is no reaction, but with subsequent bites, the body's immune system develops antibodies . The bites become inflamed and itchy within 24 hours. This is the usual reaction in young children. With more bites, the sensitivity of the human immune system increases, and an itchy red hive appears in minutes where the immune response has broken capillary blood vessels and fluid has collected under the skin. This type of reaction is common in older children and adults. Some adults can become desensitized to mosquitoes and have little or no reaction to their bites, while others can become hyper-sensitive with bites causing blistering, bruising, and large inflammatory reactions, a response known as skeeter syndrome . One study found Dengue virus and Zika virus altered the skin bacteria of rats in a way that caused their body odor to be more attractive to mosquitoes. Symptoms of illness are specific to the type of viral infection and vary in severity, based on the individuals infected. Symptoms vary in severity, from mild unnoticeable symptoms to more common symptoms like fever, rash, headache, achy muscle and joints, and conjunctivitis. Symptoms can last several days to weeks, but death resulting from this infection is rare. Most people infected with the West Nile virus usually do not develop symptoms. However, some individuals can develop cases of severe fatigue, weakness, headaches, body aches, joint and muscle pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and rash, which can last for weeks or months. More serious symptoms have a greater risk of appearing in people over 60 years of age, or those with cancer, diabetes, hypertension, and kidney disease. Dengue fever is mostly characterized by high fever, headaches, joint pain, and rash. However, more severe instances can lead to hemorrhagic fever, internal bleeding, and breathing difficulty, which can be fatal. People infected with this virus can develop sudden onset fever along with debilitating joint and muscle pain, rash, headache, nausea, and fatigue. Symptoms can last a few days or be prolonged to weeks and months. Although patients can recover completely, there have been cases in which joint pain has persisted for several months and can extend beyond that for years. Other people can develop heart complications, eye problems, and even neurological complications. Symptoms vary in severity, from mild unnoticeable symptoms to more common symptoms like fever, rash, headache, achy muscle and joints, and conjunctivitis. Symptoms can last several days to weeks, but death resulting from this infection is rare. Most people infected with the West Nile virus usually do not develop symptoms. However, some individuals can develop cases of severe fatigue, weakness, headaches, body aches, joint and muscle pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and rash, which can last for weeks or months. More serious symptoms have a greater risk of appearing in people over 60 years of age, or those with cancer, diabetes, hypertension, and kidney disease. Dengue fever is mostly characterized by high fever, headaches, joint pain, and rash. However, more severe instances can lead to hemorrhagic fever, internal bleeding, and breathing difficulty, which can be fatal. People infected with this virus can develop sudden onset fever along with debilitating joint and muscle pain, rash, headache, nausea, and fatigue. Symptoms can last a few days or be prolonged to weeks and months. Although patients can recover completely, there have been cases in which joint pain has persisted for several months and can extend beyond that for years. Other people can develop heart complications, eye problems, and even neurological complications. Mosquitoes carrying such arboviruses stay healthy because their immune systems recognizes the virions as foreign particles and "chop off" the virus' genetic coding, rendering it inert. Human infection with a mosquito-borne virus occurs when a female mosquito bites someone while its immune system is still in the process of destroying the virus's harmful coding. [ clarification needed ] It is not completely known how mosquitoes handle eukaryotic parasites to carry them without being harmed. Data has shown that the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum alters the mosquito vector's feeding behavior by increasing frequency of biting in infected mosquitoes, thus increasing the chance of transmitting the parasite. The mechanism of transmission of this disease starts with the injection of the parasite into the victim's blood when malaria-infected female Anopheles mosquitoes bite into a human being. The parasite uses human liver cells as hosts for maturation where it will continue to replicate and grow, moving into other areas of the body via the bloodstream. The spread of this infection cycle then continues when other mosquitoes bite the same individual. The result will cause that mosquito to ingest the parasite and allow it to transmit the Malaria disease into another person through the same mode of bite injection. Flaviviridae viruses transmissible via vectors like mosquitoes include West Nile virus and yellow fever virus, which are single stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses enveloped in a protein coat. Once inside the host's body, the virus will attach itself to a cell's surface through receptor-mediated endocytosis. This essentially means that the proteins and DNA material of the virus are ingested into the host cell. The viral RNA material will undergo several changes and processes inside the host's cell so that it can release more viral RNA that can then be replicated and assembled to infect neighboring host cells. Mosquito-borne flaviviruses also encode viral antagonists to the innate immune system in order to cause persistent infection in mosquitoes and a broad spectrum of diseases in humans. The data on transmissibility via insect vectors of hepatitis C virus, also belonging to family Flaviviridae (as well as for hepatitis B virus, belonging to family Hepadnaviridae ) are inconclusive. WHO states that "There is no insect vector or animal reservoir for HCV", while there are experimental data supporting at least the presence of [PCR]-detectable hepatitis C viral RNA in Culex mosquitoes for up to 13 days. Currently, there are no specific vaccine therapies for West Nile virus approved for humans; however, vaccines are available and some show promise for animals, as a means to intervene with the mechanism of spreading such pathogens. Doctors can typically identify a mosquito bite by sight. A doctor will perform a physical examination and ask about medical history as well as any travel history. Be ready to give details on any international trips, including the dates you were traveling, the countries you visited and any contact you had with mosquitoes. Diagnosing dengue fever can be difficult, as its symptoms often overlap with many other diseases such as malaria and typhoid fever . Laboratory tests can detect evidence of the dengue viruses, however the results often come back too late to assist in directing treatment. Medical testing can confirm the presence of West Nile fever or a West Nile-related illness, such as meningitis or encephalitis. If infected, a blood test may show a rising level of antibodies to the West Nile virus. A lumbar puncture (spinal tap) is the most common way to diagnose meningitis, by analyzing the cerebrospinal fluid surrounding your brain and spinal cord. The fluid sample may show an elevated white cell count and antibodies to the West Nile virus if you were exposed. In some cases, an electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan can help detect brain inflammation. A Zika virus infection might be suspected if symptoms are present and an individual has traveled to an area with known Zika virus transmission. Zika virus can only be confirmed by a laboratory test of body fluids, such as urine or saliva, or by blood test. Laboratory blood tests can identify evidence of chikungunya or other similar viruses such as dengue and Zika. Blood test may confirm the presence of IgM and IgG anti-chikungunya antibodies. IgM antibodies are highest 3 to 5 weeks after the beginning of symptoms and will continue be present for about 2 months. Diagnosing dengue fever can be difficult, as its symptoms often overlap with many other diseases such as malaria and typhoid fever . Laboratory tests can detect evidence of the dengue viruses, however the results often come back too late to assist in directing treatment. Medical testing can confirm the presence of West Nile fever or a West Nile-related illness, such as meningitis or encephalitis. If infected, a blood test may show a rising level of antibodies to the West Nile virus. A lumbar puncture (spinal tap) is the most common way to diagnose meningitis, by analyzing the cerebrospinal fluid surrounding your brain and spinal cord. The fluid sample may show an elevated white cell count and antibodies to the West Nile virus if you were exposed. In some cases, an electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan can help detect brain inflammation. A Zika virus infection might be suspected if symptoms are present and an individual has traveled to an area with known Zika virus transmission. Zika virus can only be confirmed by a laboratory test of body fluids, such as urine or saliva, or by blood test. Laboratory blood tests can identify evidence of chikungunya or other similar viruses such as dengue and Zika. Blood test may confirm the presence of IgM and IgG anti-chikungunya antibodies. IgM antibodies are highest 3 to 5 weeks after the beginning of symptoms and will continue be present for about 2 months. There is a re-emergence of mosquito vectored viruses (arthropod-borne viruses) called arboviruses carried by the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Examples are the Zika virus, chikungunya virus, yellow fever and dengue fever. The re-emergence of the viruses has been at a faster rate, and over a wider geographic area, than in the past. The rapid re-emergence is due to expanding global transportation networks, the mosquito's increasing ability to adapt to urban settings, the disruption of traditional land use and the inability to control expanding mosquito populations. Like malaria, arboviruses do not have a vaccine. (The only exception is yellow fever.) Prevention is focused on reducing the adult mosquito populations, controlling mosquito larvae and protecting individuals from mosquito bites. Depending on the mosquito vector, and the affected community, a variety of prevention methods may be deployed at one time. The use of insecticide treated mosquito nets (ITNs) are at the forefront of preventing mosquito bites that cause malaria. The prevalence of ITNs in sub-Saharan Africa has grown from 3% of households to 50% of households from 2000 to 2010 with over 254 million insecticide treated nets distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa for use against the mosquito vectors Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles funestus which carry malaria. Because the Anopheles gambiae feeds indoors (endophagic) and rests indoors after feeding (endophilic), insecticide treated nets (ITNs) interrupt the mosquito's feeding pattern. The ITNs continue to offer protection, even after there are holes in the nets, because of their excito-repellency properties which reduce the number of mosquitoes that enter the home. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends treating ITNs with the pyrethroid class of insecticides. There is an emerging concern of mosquito resistance to insecticides used in ITNs. Twenty-seven (27) sub-Saharan African countries have reported Anopheles vector resistance to pyrethroid insecticides. Indoor spraying of insecticides is another prevention method widely used to control mosquito vectors. To help control the Aedes aegypti mosquito, homes are sprayed indoors with residual insecticide applications. Indoor residual spraying (IRS) reduces the female mosquito population and mitigates the risk of dengue virus transmission. Indoor residual spraying is completed usually once or twice a year. Mosquitoes rest on walls and ceilings after feeding and are killed by the insecticide. Indoor spraying can be combined with spraying the exterior of the building to help reduce the number of mosquito larvae and subsequently, the number of adult mosquitoes. There are other methods that an individual can use to protect themselves from mosquito bites. Limiting exposure to mosquitoes from dusk to dawn when the majority of mosquitoes are active and wearing long sleeves and long pants during the period mosquitoes are most active. Placing screens on windows and doors is a simple and effective means of reducing the number of mosquitoes indoors. Anticipating mosquito contact and using a topical mosquito repellant with icaridin or DEET is also recommended. Draining or covering water receptacles, both indoor and outdoors, is also a simple but effective prevention method. Removing debris and tires, cleaning drains, and cleaning gutters help larval control and reduce the number of adult mosquitoes. There is a vaccine for yellow fever which was developed in the 1930s, the yellow 17D vaccine , and it is still in use today. The initial yellow fever vaccination provides lifelong protection for most people and provides immunity within 30 days of the vaccine. Reactions to the yellow fever vaccine have included mild headache and fever, and muscle aches. There are rare cases of individuals presenting with symptoms that mirror the disease itself. The risk of complications from the vaccine are greater for individuals over 60 years of age. In addition, the vaccine is not usually administered to babies under nine months of age, pregnant women, people with allergies to egg protein, and individuals living with AIDS/HIV . The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that 105 million people have been vaccinated for yellow fever in West Africa from 2000 to 2015. To date, there are relatively few vaccines against mosquito-borne diseases, this is due to the fact that most viruses and bacteria caused by mosquitos are highly mutatable. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease (NIAID) began Phase 1 clinical trials of a new vaccine that would be nearly universal in protecting against the majority of mosquito-borne diseases. The arboviruses have expanded their geographic range and infected populations that had no recent community knowledge of the diseases carried by the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Education and community awareness campaigns are necessary for prevention to be effective. Communities are educated on how the disease is spread, how they can protect themselves from infection and the symptoms of infection. Community health education programs can identify and address the social/economic and cultural issues that can hinder preventative measures. Community outreach and education programs can identify which preventative measures a community is most likely to employ. Leading to a targeted prevention method that has a higher chance of success in that particular community. Community outreach and education includes engaging community health workers and local healthcare providers, local schools and community organizations to educate the public on mosquito vector control and disease prevention. The use of insecticide treated mosquito nets (ITNs) are at the forefront of preventing mosquito bites that cause malaria. The prevalence of ITNs in sub-Saharan Africa has grown from 3% of households to 50% of households from 2000 to 2010 with over 254 million insecticide treated nets distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa for use against the mosquito vectors Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles funestus which carry malaria. Because the Anopheles gambiae feeds indoors (endophagic) and rests indoors after feeding (endophilic), insecticide treated nets (ITNs) interrupt the mosquito's feeding pattern. The ITNs continue to offer protection, even after there are holes in the nets, because of their excito-repellency properties which reduce the number of mosquitoes that enter the home. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends treating ITNs with the pyrethroid class of insecticides. There is an emerging concern of mosquito resistance to insecticides used in ITNs. Twenty-seven (27) sub-Saharan African countries have reported Anopheles vector resistance to pyrethroid insecticides. Indoor spraying of insecticides is another prevention method widely used to control mosquito vectors. To help control the Aedes aegypti mosquito, homes are sprayed indoors with residual insecticide applications. Indoor residual spraying (IRS) reduces the female mosquito population and mitigates the risk of dengue virus transmission. Indoor residual spraying is completed usually once or twice a year. Mosquitoes rest on walls and ceilings after feeding and are killed by the insecticide. Indoor spraying can be combined with spraying the exterior of the building to help reduce the number of mosquito larvae and subsequently, the number of adult mosquitoes. There are other methods that an individual can use to protect themselves from mosquito bites. Limiting exposure to mosquitoes from dusk to dawn when the majority of mosquitoes are active and wearing long sleeves and long pants during the period mosquitoes are most active. Placing screens on windows and doors is a simple and effective means of reducing the number of mosquitoes indoors. Anticipating mosquito contact and using a topical mosquito repellant with icaridin or DEET is also recommended. Draining or covering water receptacles, both indoor and outdoors, is also a simple but effective prevention method. Removing debris and tires, cleaning drains, and cleaning gutters help larval control and reduce the number of adult mosquitoes. There is a vaccine for yellow fever which was developed in the 1930s, the yellow 17D vaccine , and it is still in use today. The initial yellow fever vaccination provides lifelong protection for most people and provides immunity within 30 days of the vaccine. Reactions to the yellow fever vaccine have included mild headache and fever, and muscle aches. There are rare cases of individuals presenting with symptoms that mirror the disease itself. The risk of complications from the vaccine are greater for individuals over 60 years of age. In addition, the vaccine is not usually administered to babies under nine months of age, pregnant women, people with allergies to egg protein, and individuals living with AIDS/HIV . The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that 105 million people have been vaccinated for yellow fever in West Africa from 2000 to 2015. To date, there are relatively few vaccines against mosquito-borne diseases, this is due to the fact that most viruses and bacteria caused by mosquitos are highly mutatable. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease (NIAID) began Phase 1 clinical trials of a new vaccine that would be nearly universal in protecting against the majority of mosquito-borne diseases. The arboviruses have expanded their geographic range and infected populations that had no recent community knowledge of the diseases carried by the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Education and community awareness campaigns are necessary for prevention to be effective. Communities are educated on how the disease is spread, how they can protect themselves from infection and the symptoms of infection. Community health education programs can identify and address the social/economic and cultural issues that can hinder preventative measures. Community outreach and education programs can identify which preventative measures a community is most likely to employ. Leading to a targeted prevention method that has a higher chance of success in that particular community. Community outreach and education includes engaging community health workers and local healthcare providers, local schools and community organizations to educate the public on mosquito vector control and disease prevention. Numerous drugs have been used to treat yellow fever disease with minimal satisfaction to date. Patients with multisystem organ involvement will require critical care support such as possible hemodialysis or mechanical ventilation . Rest, fluids, and acetaminophen are also known to relieve milder symptoms of fever and muscle pain. Due to hemorrhagic complications, aspirin should be avoided. Infected individuals should avoid mosquito exposure by staying indoors or using a mosquito net . Dengue infection's therapeutic management is simple, cost effective and successful in saving lives by adequately performing timely institutionalized interventions. Treatment options are restricted, while no effective antiviral drugs for this infection have been accessible to date. Patients in the early phase of the dengue virus may recover without hospitalization. However, ongoing clinical research is in the works to find specific anti-dengue drugs. Dengue fever occurs via Aedes aegypti mosquito (it acts as a vector). Zika virus vaccine clinical trials are to be conducted and established. There are efforts being put toward advancing antiviral therapeutics against zika virus for swift control. Present day Zika virus treatment is symptomatic through antipyretics and analgesics . Currently there are no publications regarding viral drug screening. Nevertheless, therapeutics for this infection have been used. There are no treatment modalities for acute and chronic chikungunya that currently exist. Most treatment plans use supportive and symptomatic care like analgesics for pain and anti-inflammatories for inflammation caused by arthritis . In acute stages of this virus, rest, antipyretics and analgesics are used to subside symptoms. Most use non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). In some cases, joint pain may resolve from treatment but stiffness remains. The sterile insect technique (SIT) uses irradiation to sterilize insect pests before releasing them in large numbers to mate with wild females. Since they do not produce any offspring, the population, and consequently the disease incidence, is reduced over time. Used successfully for decades to combat fruit flies and livestock pests such as screwworm and tsetse flies , the technique can be adapted also for some disease-transmitting mosquito species. Pilot projects are being initiated or are under way in different parts of the world. Numerous drugs have been used to treat yellow fever disease with minimal satisfaction to date. Patients with multisystem organ involvement will require critical care support such as possible hemodialysis or mechanical ventilation . Rest, fluids, and acetaminophen are also known to relieve milder symptoms of fever and muscle pain. Due to hemorrhagic complications, aspirin should be avoided. Infected individuals should avoid mosquito exposure by staying indoors or using a mosquito net . Dengue infection's therapeutic management is simple, cost effective and successful in saving lives by adequately performing timely institutionalized interventions. Treatment options are restricted, while no effective antiviral drugs for this infection have been accessible to date. Patients in the early phase of the dengue virus may recover without hospitalization. However, ongoing clinical research is in the works to find specific anti-dengue drugs. Dengue fever occurs via Aedes aegypti mosquito (it acts as a vector).Zika virus vaccine clinical trials are to be conducted and established. There are efforts being put toward advancing antiviral therapeutics against zika virus for swift control. Present day Zika virus treatment is symptomatic through antipyretics and analgesics . Currently there are no publications regarding viral drug screening. Nevertheless, therapeutics for this infection have been used. There are no treatment modalities for acute and chronic chikungunya that currently exist. Most treatment plans use supportive and symptomatic care like analgesics for pain and anti-inflammatories for inflammation caused by arthritis . In acute stages of this virus, rest, antipyretics and analgesics are used to subside symptoms. Most use non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). In some cases, joint pain may resolve from treatment but stiffness remains. The sterile insect technique (SIT) uses irradiation to sterilize insect pests before releasing them in large numbers to mate with wild females. Since they do not produce any offspring, the population, and consequently the disease incidence, is reduced over time. Used successfully for decades to combat fruit flies and livestock pests such as screwworm and tsetse flies , the technique can be adapted also for some disease-transmitting mosquito species. Pilot projects are being initiated or are under way in different parts of the world. Mosquito-borne diseases, such as dengue fever and malaria , typically affect developing countries and areas with tropical climates. Mosquito vectors are sensitive to climate changes and tend to follow seasonal patterns. Between years there are often dramatic shifts in incidence rates. The occurrence of this phenomenon in endemic areas makes mosquito-borne viruses difficult to treat. Dengue fever is caused by infection through viruses of the family Flaviviridae. The illness is most commonly transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes in tropical and subtropical regions. Dengue virus has four different serotypes, each of which are antigenically related but have limited cross-immunity to reinfection. Although dengue fever has a global incidence of 50–100 million cases, only several hundreds of thousands of these cases are life-threatening. The geographic prevalence of the disease can be examined by the spread of Aedes aegypti . Over the last twenty years, there has been a geographic spread of the disease. Dengue incidence rates have risen sharply within urban areas which have recently become endemic hot spots for the disease. The recent spread of Dengue can also be attributed to rapid population growth, increased coagulation in urban areas, and global travel. Without sufficient vector control, the dengue virus has evolved rapidly over time, posing challenges to both government and public health officials. [ citation needed ] Malaria is caused by a protozoan called Plasmodium falciparum . P. falciparum parasites are transmitted mainly by the Anopheles gambiae complex in rural Africa. In just this area, P. falciparum infections comprise an estimated 200 million clinical cases and 1 million annual deaths. 75% of individuals affected in this region are children. As with dengue, changing environmental conditions have led to novel disease characteristics. Due to increased illness severity, treatment complications, and mortality rates, many public health officials concede that malaria patterns are rapidly transforming in Africa. Scarcity of health services, rising instances of drug resistance, and changing vector migration patterns are factors that public health officials believe contribute to malaria's dissemination. Climate heavily affects mosquito vectors of malaria and dengue. Climate patterns influence the lifespan of mosquitos as well as the rate and frequency of reproduction. Climate change impacts have been of great interest to those studying these diseases and their vectors. Additionally, climate impacts mosquito blood feeding patterns as well as extrinsic incubation periods. Climate consistency gives researchers an ability to accurately predict annual cycling of the disease but recent climate unpredictability has eroded researchers' ability to track the disease with such precision.In many insect species, such as Drosophila melanogaster , researchers found that a natural infection with the bacteria strain Wolbachia pipientis increases the fitness of the host by increasing resistance to RNA viral infections. Robert L. Glaser and Mark A. Meola investigated Wolbachia -induced resistance to West Nile virus (WNV) in Drosophila melanogaster (fruit flies). Two groups of fruit flies were naturally infected with Wolbachia . Glaser and Meola then cured one group of fruit flies of Wolbachia using tetracycline. Both the infected group and the cured groups were then infected with WNV. Flies infected with Wolbachia were found to have a changed phenotype that caused resistance to WNV. The phenotype was found to be caused by a "dominant, maternally transmitted, cytoplasmic factor". The WNV-resistance phenotype was then reversed by curing the fruit flies of Wolbachia . Since Wolbachia is also maternally transmitted, it was found that the WNV-resistant phenotype is directly related to the Wolbachia infection. West Nile virus is transmitted to humans and animals through the Southern house mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus . Glaser and Meola knew vector compatibility could be reduced through Wolbachia infection due to studies done with other species of mosquitoes, mainly, Aedes aegypti . Their goal was to transfer WNV resistance to Cx. quinquefasciatus by inoculating the embryos of the mosquito with the same strain of Wolbachia that naturally occurred in the fruit flies. Upon infection, Cx. quinquefasciatus showed an increased resistance to WNV that was transferable to offspring. The ability to genetically modify mosquitoes in the lab and then have the infected mosquitoes transmit it to their offspring showed that it was possible to transmit the bacteria to wild populations to decrease human infections. [ citation needed ] In 2011, Ary Hoffmann and associates produced the first case of Wolbachia -induced arbovirus resistance in wild populations of Aedes aegypti through a small project called Eliminate Dengue: Our Challenge. This was made possible by an engineered strain of Wolbachia termed w Mel that came from D. melanogaster . The transfer of w Mel from D. melanogaster into field-caged populations of the mosquito Aedes aegypti induced resistance to dengue, yellow fever, and chikungunya viruses. Although other strains of Wolbachia also reduced susceptibility to dengue infection, they also put a greater demand on the fitness of Ae. aegypti . w Mel was different in that it was thought to only cost the organism a small portion of its fitness. w Mel-infected Ae. aegypti were released into two residential areas in the city of Cairns, Australia over a 14-week period. Hoffmann and associates, released a total of 141,600 infected adult mosquitoes in Yorkeys Knob suburb and 157,300 in Gordonvale suburb. After release, the populations were monitored for three years to record the spread of w Mel. Population monitoring was gauged by measuring larvae laid in traps. At the beginning of the monitoring period but still within the release period, it was found that w Mel-infected Ae. aegypti had doubled in Yorkeys Knob and increased 1.5-fold in Gordonvale. Uninfected Ae. aegypti populations were in decline. By the end of the three years, w Mel-infected Ae. aegypti had stable populations of about 90%. However, these populations were isolated to the Yorkeys Knob and Gordonvale suburbs due to unsuitable habitat surrounding the neighborhoods. Although populations flourished in these areas with nearly 100% transmission, no signs of spread were noted, proving disappointing for some. Following this experiment, Tom L. Schmidt and his colleagues conducted an experiment releasing Wolbachia -infected Aedes aegypti using different site selection methods occurred in different areas of Cairns during 2013. The release sites were monitored over two years. This time the release was done in urban areas that were adjacent to adequate habitat to encourage mosquito dispersal. Over the two years, the population doubled, and spatial spread was also increased, unlike the first release, giving ample satisfactory results. By increasing the spread of the Wolbachia -infected mosquitoes, the researchers were able to establish that population of a large city was possible if the mosquitoes were given adequate habitat to spread into upon release in different local locations throughout the city. In both of these studies, no adverse effects on public health or the natural ecosystem occurred. This made it an extremely attractive alternative to traditional insecticide methods given the increased pesticide resistance occurring from heavy use. From the success seen in Australia, the researchers were able to begin operating in more threatened portions of the world. The Eliminate Dengue program spread to 10 countries throughout Asia, Latin America, and the Western Pacific blooming into the non-profit organization, World Mosquito Program, as of September 2017. They still use the same technique of infecting wild populations of Ae. aegypti as they did in Australia, but their target diseases now include Zika, chikungunya and yellow fever as well as dengue. Although not alone in their efforts to use Wolbachia- infected mosquitoes to reduce mosquito-borne disease, the World Mosquito Program method is praised for being self-sustaining in that it causes permanent phenotype change rather than reducing mosquito populations through cytoplasmic incompatibility through male-only dispersal.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Haitian_Revolution/html

Haitian Revolution

Paul-Louis Dubuc Joaquín Moreno The Haitian Revolution ( French : révolution haïtienne or French : La guerre de l'indépendance French pronunciation: [ ʁevɔlysjɔ̃ a.i.sjɛn ] ; Haitian Creole : Lagè d Lendependans ) was a successful insurrection by self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue , now the sovereign state of Haiti . The revolt began on 22 August 1791, and ended in 1804 with the former colony's independence. It involved black, biracial, French, Spanish, British, and Polish participants—with the ex-slave Toussaint Louverture emerging as Haiti's most prominent general. The revolution was the only slave uprising that led to the founding of a state which was both free from slavery (though not from forced labour ) and ruled by non-whites and former captives. The successful revolution was a defining moment in the history of the Atlantic World and the revolution's effects on the institution of slavery were felt throughout the Americas. The end of French rule and the abolition of slavery in the former colony was followed by a successful defense of the freedoms the former slaves had won, and with the collaboration of already free people of color , of their independence from white Europeans. The revolution was the largest slave uprising since Spartacus ' unsuccessful revolt against the Roman Republic nearly 1,900 years earlier, and challenged long-held European beliefs about alleged black inferiority and about slaves' ability to achieve and maintain their own freedom. The rebels' organizational capacity and tenacity under pressure inspired stories that shocked and frightened slave owners in the hemisphere. Compared to other Atlantic revolutions , the events in Haiti have received comparatively little public attention in retrospect: historian Michel-Rolph Trouillot characterizes the historiography of the Haitian Revolution as being "silenced" by that of the French Revolution . Much of Caribbean economic development in the 18th century was contingent on Europeans' demand for sugar . Plantation owners produced sugar as a commodity crop from cultivation of sugarcane , which required extensive labor. The colony of Saint-Domingue also had extensive coffee , cocoa , and indigo plantations, but these were smaller and less profitable than the sugar plantations. The commodity crops were traded for European goods. Starting in the 1730s, French engineers constructed complex irrigation systems to increase sugarcane production. By the 1740s, Saint-Domingue, together with the British colony of Jamaica , had become the main suppliers of the world's sugar. Production of sugar depended on extensive manual labor provided by enslaved Africans . An average of 600 ships engaged every year in shipping products from Saint-Domingue to Bordeaux , and the value of the colony's crops and goods was almost equal in value to all of the products shipped from the Thirteen Colonies to Great Britain. The livelihood of 1 million of the approximately 25 million people who lived in France in 1789 depended directly upon the agricultural imports from Saint-Domingue, and several million indirectly depended upon trade from the colony to maintain their standard of living. Saint-Domingue was the most profitable French colony in the world, indeed one of the most profitable of all the European colonies in the 18th century. Slavery sustained sugar production under harsh conditions; diseases such as malaria (brought from Africa) and yellow fever caused high mortality, thriving in the tropical Caribbean climate. In 1787 alone, the French imported about 20,000 slaves from Africa into Saint-Domingue, while the British imported about 38,000 slaves total to all of their Caribbean colonies. The death rate from yellow fever was such that at least 50% of the slaves from Africa died within a year of arriving, so while the white planters preferred to work their slaves as hard as possible, providing them only the bare minimum of food and shelter, they calculated that it was better to get the most work out of their slaves with the lowest expense possible, since they were probably going to die of yellow fever anyway. The death rate was so high that polyandry —one woman being married to several men at the same time—developed as a common form of marriage among the slaves. As slaves had no legal rights, rape by planters, their unmarried sons, or overseers was a common occurrence on the plantations. The planters and their families, together with the petite bourgeoisie of merchants and shopkeepers, were outnumbered by slaves by a factor of more than ten on Saint-Domingue. The largest sugar plantations and concentrations of slaves were in the north of the islands, and whites lived in fear of slave rebellion . Even by the standards of the Caribbean, French slave masters were extremely cruel in their treatment of slaves. They used the threat and acts of physical violence to maintain control and suppress efforts at rebellion. When slaves left the plantations or disobeyed their masters, they were subject to whipping or to more extreme torture such as castration or burning, the punishment being both a personal lesson and a warning for other slaves. King Louis XIV of France passed the Code Noir in 1685 in an attempt to regulate such violence and the treatment of slaves in general in the colony, but masters openly and consistently broke the code. During the 18th century, local legislation reversed parts of it. [ page needed ] In 1758, the planters began passing legislation restricting the rights of other groups of people until a rigid caste system was defined. Most historians classify the people of the era into three groups: The first group were white colonists, or les blancs . This group was generally subdivided into the plantation owners and a lower class of whites who often served as overseers or day laborers, as well as artisans and shopkeepers. The second group were free people of color , or gens de couleur libres , who were usually mixed-race (sometimes referred to as mulattoes ), being of both African and French descent. These gens de couleur tended to be educated and literate, and the men often served in the army or as administrators on plantations. Many were children of white planters and enslaved mothers, or free women of color. Others had purchased their freedom from their owners through the sale of their own produce or artistic works. They often received education or artisan training, and sometimes inherited freedom or property from their fathers. Some gens de couleur owned and operated their own plantations and became slave owners. The third group, outnumbering the others by a ratio of ten to one, was made up of mostly African-born slaves. A high rate of mortality among them meant that planters continually had to import new slaves. This kept their culture more African and separate from other people on the island. Many plantations had large concentrations of slaves from a particular region of Africa, and it was therefore somewhat easier for these groups to maintain elements of their culture, religion, and language. This also separated new slaves from Africa from creoles (slaves born in the colony), who already had kin networks and often had more prestigious roles on plantations and more opportunities for emancipation. Most slaves spoke a patois of the French language known as Haitian Creole , which was also used by island-born mulattoes and whites for communication with the workers. The majority of the slaves were Yoruba from what is now modern Nigeria , Fon from what is now Benin , and Kongo from the Kingdom of Kongo in what is now modern northern Angola and the western Congo . The Kongolese at 40% were the largest of the African ethnic groups represented amongst the slaves. The slaves developed their own religion, a syncretic mixture of Catholicism and West African religions known as Vodou , usually called "voodoo" in English. This belief system implicitly rejected the Africans' status as slaves. Saint-Domingue was a society seething with hatred, with white colonists and black slaves frequently coming into violent conflict. The French historian Paul Fregosi wrote: "Whites, mulattos and blacks loathed each other. The poor whites couldn't stand the rich whites, the rich whites despised the poor whites, the middle-class whites were jealous of the aristocratic whites, the whites born in France looked down upon the locally born whites, mulattoes envied the whites, despised the blacks and were despised by the whites; free Negroes brutalized those who were still slaves, Haitian born blacks regarded those from Africa as savages. Everyone—quite rightly—lived in terror of everyone else. Haiti was hell, but Haiti was rich." Many of these conflicts involved slaves who had escaped the plantations. Many runaway slaves—called maroons—hid on the margins of large plantations, living off the land and what they could steal from their former masters. Others fled to towns, to blend in with urban slaves and freed blacks who often migrated to those areas for work. If caught, these runaway slaves would be severely and violently punished. However, some masters tolerated petit marronages, or short-term absences from plantations, knowing these allowed release of tensions. The larger groups of runaway slaves who lived in the hillside woods away from white control often conducted violent raids on the island's sugar and coffee plantations. Although the numbers in these bands grew large (sometimes into the thousands), they generally lacked the leadership and strategy to accomplish large-scale objectives. The first effective maroon leader to emerge was the charismatic Haitian Vodou priest François Mackandal , who inspired his people by drawing on African traditions and religions. He united the maroon bands and established a network of secret organizations among plantation slaves, leading a rebellion from 1751 through 1757. Although Mackandal was captured by the French and burned at the stake in 1758, large armed maroon bands persisted in raids and harassment after his death. French writer Guillaume Raynal attacked slavery in his history of European colonization. He warned, "the Africans only want a chief, sufficiently courageous, to lead them on to vengeance and slaughter." Raynal's Enlightenment philosophy went deeper than a prediction and reflected many similar philosophies, including those of Rousseau and Diderot . Raynal's admonition was written thirteen years before the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , which highlighted freedom and liberty but did not abolish slavery. In addition to Raynal's influence, Toussaint Louverture , a free black who was familiar with Enlightenment ideas within the context of European colonialism, would become a key "enlightened actor" in the Haitian Revolution. Enlightened thought divided the world into "enlightened leaders" and "ignorant masses." Louverture sought to bridge this divide between the popular masses and the enlightened few by striking a balance between Western Enlightened thought as a necessary means of winning liberation, and not propagating the notion that it was morally superior to the experiences and knowledge of people of color on Saint-Domingue. [ page needed ] Louverture wrote a constitution for a new society in Saint-Domingue that abolished slavery . The existence of slavery in Enlightened society was an incongruity that had been left unaddressed by European scholars prior to the French Revolution . Louverture took on this inconsistency directly in his constitution. In addition, he exhibited a connection to Enlightenment scholars through the style, language, and accent of this text. [ clarification needed ] [ page needed ] Like Louverture, Jean-Baptiste Belley was an active participant in the insurrection. The portrait of Belley by Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson depicts a man who encompasses the French view of its colonies, creating a stark dichotomy between the refinement of Enlightenment thought and the reality of the situation in Saint-Domingue, through the bust of Raynal and the figure of Belley, respectively. While distinguished, the portrait still portrays a man trapped by the confines of race. Girodet's portrayal of the former National Convention deputy is telling of the French opinion of colonial citizens by emphasizing the subject's sexuality and including an earring. Both of these racially charged symbols reveal the desire to undermine the colony's attempts at independent legitimacy, as citizens of the colonies were not able to access the elite class of French Revolutionaries because of their race. Much of Caribbean economic development in the 18th century was contingent on Europeans' demand for sugar . Plantation owners produced sugar as a commodity crop from cultivation of sugarcane , which required extensive labor. The colony of Saint-Domingue also had extensive coffee , cocoa , and indigo plantations, but these were smaller and less profitable than the sugar plantations. The commodity crops were traded for European goods. Starting in the 1730s, French engineers constructed complex irrigation systems to increase sugarcane production. By the 1740s, Saint-Domingue, together with the British colony of Jamaica , had become the main suppliers of the world's sugar. Production of sugar depended on extensive manual labor provided by enslaved Africans . An average of 600 ships engaged every year in shipping products from Saint-Domingue to Bordeaux , and the value of the colony's crops and goods was almost equal in value to all of the products shipped from the Thirteen Colonies to Great Britain. The livelihood of 1 million of the approximately 25 million people who lived in France in 1789 depended directly upon the agricultural imports from Saint-Domingue, and several million indirectly depended upon trade from the colony to maintain their standard of living. Saint-Domingue was the most profitable French colony in the world, indeed one of the most profitable of all the European colonies in the 18th century. Slavery sustained sugar production under harsh conditions; diseases such as malaria (brought from Africa) and yellow fever caused high mortality, thriving in the tropical Caribbean climate. In 1787 alone, the French imported about 20,000 slaves from Africa into Saint-Domingue, while the British imported about 38,000 slaves total to all of their Caribbean colonies. The death rate from yellow fever was such that at least 50% of the slaves from Africa died within a year of arriving, so while the white planters preferred to work their slaves as hard as possible, providing them only the bare minimum of food and shelter, they calculated that it was better to get the most work out of their slaves with the lowest expense possible, since they were probably going to die of yellow fever anyway. The death rate was so high that polyandry —one woman being married to several men at the same time—developed as a common form of marriage among the slaves. As slaves had no legal rights, rape by planters, their unmarried sons, or overseers was a common occurrence on the plantations. The planters and their families, together with the petite bourgeoisie of merchants and shopkeepers, were outnumbered by slaves by a factor of more than ten on Saint-Domingue. The largest sugar plantations and concentrations of slaves were in the north of the islands, and whites lived in fear of slave rebellion . Even by the standards of the Caribbean, French slave masters were extremely cruel in their treatment of slaves. They used the threat and acts of physical violence to maintain control and suppress efforts at rebellion. When slaves left the plantations or disobeyed their masters, they were subject to whipping or to more extreme torture such as castration or burning, the punishment being both a personal lesson and a warning for other slaves. King Louis XIV of France passed the Code Noir in 1685 in an attempt to regulate such violence and the treatment of slaves in general in the colony, but masters openly and consistently broke the code. During the 18th century, local legislation reversed parts of it. [ page needed ] In 1758, the planters began passing legislation restricting the rights of other groups of people until a rigid caste system was defined. Most historians classify the people of the era into three groups: The first group were white colonists, or les blancs . This group was generally subdivided into the plantation owners and a lower class of whites who often served as overseers or day laborers, as well as artisans and shopkeepers. The second group were free people of color , or gens de couleur libres , who were usually mixed-race (sometimes referred to as mulattoes ), being of both African and French descent. These gens de couleur tended to be educated and literate, and the men often served in the army or as administrators on plantations. Many were children of white planters and enslaved mothers, or free women of color. Others had purchased their freedom from their owners through the sale of their own produce or artistic works. They often received education or artisan training, and sometimes inherited freedom or property from their fathers. Some gens de couleur owned and operated their own plantations and became slave owners. The third group, outnumbering the others by a ratio of ten to one, was made up of mostly African-born slaves. A high rate of mortality among them meant that planters continually had to import new slaves. This kept their culture more African and separate from other people on the island. Many plantations had large concentrations of slaves from a particular region of Africa, and it was therefore somewhat easier for these groups to maintain elements of their culture, religion, and language. This also separated new slaves from Africa from creoles (slaves born in the colony), who already had kin networks and often had more prestigious roles on plantations and more opportunities for emancipation. Most slaves spoke a patois of the French language known as Haitian Creole , which was also used by island-born mulattoes and whites for communication with the workers. The majority of the slaves were Yoruba from what is now modern Nigeria , Fon from what is now Benin , and Kongo from the Kingdom of Kongo in what is now modern northern Angola and the western Congo . The Kongolese at 40% were the largest of the African ethnic groups represented amongst the slaves. The slaves developed their own religion, a syncretic mixture of Catholicism and West African religions known as Vodou , usually called "voodoo" in English. This belief system implicitly rejected the Africans' status as slaves. Saint-Domingue was a society seething with hatred, with white colonists and black slaves frequently coming into violent conflict. The French historian Paul Fregosi wrote: "Whites, mulattos and blacks loathed each other. The poor whites couldn't stand the rich whites, the rich whites despised the poor whites, the middle-class whites were jealous of the aristocratic whites, the whites born in France looked down upon the locally born whites, mulattoes envied the whites, despised the blacks and were despised by the whites; free Negroes brutalized those who were still slaves, Haitian born blacks regarded those from Africa as savages. Everyone—quite rightly—lived in terror of everyone else. Haiti was hell, but Haiti was rich." Many of these conflicts involved slaves who had escaped the plantations. Many runaway slaves—called maroons—hid on the margins of large plantations, living off the land and what they could steal from their former masters. Others fled to towns, to blend in with urban slaves and freed blacks who often migrated to those areas for work. If caught, these runaway slaves would be severely and violently punished. However, some masters tolerated petit marronages, or short-term absences from plantations, knowing these allowed release of tensions. The larger groups of runaway slaves who lived in the hillside woods away from white control often conducted violent raids on the island's sugar and coffee plantations. Although the numbers in these bands grew large (sometimes into the thousands), they generally lacked the leadership and strategy to accomplish large-scale objectives. The first effective maroon leader to emerge was the charismatic Haitian Vodou priest François Mackandal , who inspired his people by drawing on African traditions and religions. He united the maroon bands and established a network of secret organizations among plantation slaves, leading a rebellion from 1751 through 1757. Although Mackandal was captured by the French and burned at the stake in 1758, large armed maroon bands persisted in raids and harassment after his death. French writer Guillaume Raynal attacked slavery in his history of European colonization. He warned, "the Africans only want a chief, sufficiently courageous, to lead them on to vengeance and slaughter." Raynal's Enlightenment philosophy went deeper than a prediction and reflected many similar philosophies, including those of Rousseau and Diderot . Raynal's admonition was written thirteen years before the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , which highlighted freedom and liberty but did not abolish slavery. In addition to Raynal's influence, Toussaint Louverture , a free black who was familiar with Enlightenment ideas within the context of European colonialism, would become a key "enlightened actor" in the Haitian Revolution. Enlightened thought divided the world into "enlightened leaders" and "ignorant masses." Louverture sought to bridge this divide between the popular masses and the enlightened few by striking a balance between Western Enlightened thought as a necessary means of winning liberation, and not propagating the notion that it was morally superior to the experiences and knowledge of people of color on Saint-Domingue. [ page needed ] Louverture wrote a constitution for a new society in Saint-Domingue that abolished slavery . The existence of slavery in Enlightened society was an incongruity that had been left unaddressed by European scholars prior to the French Revolution . Louverture took on this inconsistency directly in his constitution. In addition, he exhibited a connection to Enlightenment scholars through the style, language, and accent of this text. [ clarification needed ] [ page needed ] Like Louverture, Jean-Baptiste Belley was an active participant in the insurrection. The portrait of Belley by Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson depicts a man who encompasses the French view of its colonies, creating a stark dichotomy between the refinement of Enlightenment thought and the reality of the situation in Saint-Domingue, through the bust of Raynal and the figure of Belley, respectively. While distinguished, the portrait still portrays a man trapped by the confines of race. Girodet's portrayal of the former National Convention deputy is telling of the French opinion of colonial citizens by emphasizing the subject's sexuality and including an earring. Both of these racially charged symbols reveal the desire to undermine the colony's attempts at independent legitimacy, as citizens of the colonies were not able to access the elite class of French Revolutionaries because of their race. In 1789, Saint-Domingue produced 60% of the world's coffee and 40% of the sugar imported by France and Britain. The colony was not only the most profitable possession of the French colonial empire , but it was the wealthiest and most prosperous colony in the Caribbean. The colony's white population numbered 40,000; mulattoes and free blacks, 28,000; and black slaves, an estimated 452,000. This was almost half the total slave population in the Caribbean, estimated at one million that year. Enslaved blacks, regarded as the lowest class of colonial society, outnumbered whites and free people of color by a margin of almost eight to one. Two-thirds of the slaves were African born, and they tended to be less submissive than those born in the Americas and raised in slave societies. The death rate in the Caribbean exceeded the birth rate, so imports of enslaved Africans were necessary to maintain the numbers required to work the plantations. The slave population declined at an annual rate of two to five percent, due to overwork, inadequate food and shelter, insufficient clothing and medical care, and an imbalance between the sexes, with more men than women. Some slaves were of a creole elite class of urban slaves and domestics, who worked as cooks, personal servants and artisans around the plantation house. This relatively privileged class was chiefly born in the Americas, while the under-class born in Africa labored hard, and often under abusive and brutal conditions. Among Saint-Domingue's 40,000 white colonists, European-born Frenchmen monopolized administrative posts. The sugar planters, or grands blancs (literally, "big whites"), were chiefly minor aristocrats. Most returned to France as soon as possible, hoping to avoid the dreaded yellow fever, which regularly swept the colony. The lower-class whites, petits blancs (literally "small whites"), included artisans, shopkeepers, slave dealers, overseers, and day laborers. Saint-Domingue's free people of color, or gens de couleur libres , numbered more than 28,000. Around that time, colonial legislations, concerned with this growing and strengthening population, passed discriminatory laws that required these freedmen to wear distinctive clothing and limited where they could live. These laws also barred them from occupying many public offices. Many freedmen were also artisans and overseers, or domestic servants in the plantation houses. Le Cap Français (Le Cap), a northern port, had a large population of free people of color, including freed slaves. These men would become important leaders in the slave rebellion and later revolution. Saint-Domingue's Northern province was the center of shipping and trading, and had the largest population of grands blancs . The Plaine-du-Nord on the northern shore of Saint-Domingue was the most fertile area, having the largest sugar plantations and therefore the most slaves. It was the area of greatest economic importance, especially as most of the colony's trade went through these ports. The largest and busiest port was Le Cap, the former capital of Saint-Domingue. Enslaved Africans in this region lived in large groups of workers in relative isolation, separated from the rest of the colony by the high mountain range known as the Massif du Nord . The Western province, however, grew significantly after the colonial capital was moved to Port-au-Prince in 1751, becoming increasingly wealthy in the second half of the 18th century. The Southern province lagged in population and wealth because it was geographically separated from the rest of the colony. However, this isolation allowed freed slaves to find profit in trade with Jamaica, and they gained power and wealth here. In addition to these interregional tensions, there were conflicts between proponents of independence, those loyal to France, and allies of Britain and Spain —who coveted control of the valuable colony.In 1789, Saint-Domingue produced 60% of the world's coffee and 40% of the sugar imported by France and Britain. The colony was not only the most profitable possession of the French colonial empire , but it was the wealthiest and most prosperous colony in the Caribbean. The colony's white population numbered 40,000; mulattoes and free blacks, 28,000; and black slaves, an estimated 452,000. This was almost half the total slave population in the Caribbean, estimated at one million that year. Enslaved blacks, regarded as the lowest class of colonial society, outnumbered whites and free people of color by a margin of almost eight to one. Two-thirds of the slaves were African born, and they tended to be less submissive than those born in the Americas and raised in slave societies. The death rate in the Caribbean exceeded the birth rate, so imports of enslaved Africans were necessary to maintain the numbers required to work the plantations. The slave population declined at an annual rate of two to five percent, due to overwork, inadequate food and shelter, insufficient clothing and medical care, and an imbalance between the sexes, with more men than women. Some slaves were of a creole elite class of urban slaves and domestics, who worked as cooks, personal servants and artisans around the plantation house. This relatively privileged class was chiefly born in the Americas, while the under-class born in Africa labored hard, and often under abusive and brutal conditions. Among Saint-Domingue's 40,000 white colonists, European-born Frenchmen monopolized administrative posts. The sugar planters, or grands blancs (literally, "big whites"), were chiefly minor aristocrats. Most returned to France as soon as possible, hoping to avoid the dreaded yellow fever, which regularly swept the colony. The lower-class whites, petits blancs (literally "small whites"), included artisans, shopkeepers, slave dealers, overseers, and day laborers. Saint-Domingue's free people of color, or gens de couleur libres , numbered more than 28,000. Around that time, colonial legislations, concerned with this growing and strengthening population, passed discriminatory laws that required these freedmen to wear distinctive clothing and limited where they could live. These laws also barred them from occupying many public offices. Many freedmen were also artisans and overseers, or domestic servants in the plantation houses. Le Cap Français (Le Cap), a northern port, had a large population of free people of color, including freed slaves. These men would become important leaders in the slave rebellion and later revolution. Saint-Domingue's Northern province was the center of shipping and trading, and had the largest population of grands blancs . The Plaine-du-Nord on the northern shore of Saint-Domingue was the most fertile area, having the largest sugar plantations and therefore the most slaves. It was the area of greatest economic importance, especially as most of the colony's trade went through these ports. The largest and busiest port was Le Cap, the former capital of Saint-Domingue. Enslaved Africans in this region lived in large groups of workers in relative isolation, separated from the rest of the colony by the high mountain range known as the Massif du Nord . The Western province, however, grew significantly after the colonial capital was moved to Port-au-Prince in 1751, becoming increasingly wealthy in the second half of the 18th century. The Southern province lagged in population and wealth because it was geographically separated from the rest of the colony. However, this isolation allowed freed slaves to find profit in trade with Jamaica, and they gained power and wealth here. In addition to these interregional tensions, there were conflicts between proponents of independence, those loyal to France, and allies of Britain and Spain —who coveted control of the valuable colony.After the establishment of the French First Republic , the National Assembly made radical changes to French laws and, on 26 August 1789, published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , declaring all men free and equal. The Declaration was ambiguous as to whether this equality applied to women, slaves, or citizens of the colonies, and thus influenced the desire for freedom and equality in Saint-Domingue. White planters saw it as an opportunity to gain independence from France, which would allow them to take control of the island and create trade regulations that would further their own wealth and power. However, the Haitian Revolution quickly became a test of the new French republic, as it radicalized the slavery question and forced French leaders to recognize the full meaning of their stated ideology. The African population on the island began to hear of the agitation for independence by the planters, who had resented France's limitations on the island's foreign trade. The Africans mostly allied with the royalists and the British, as they understood that if Saint-Domingue's independence were to be led by white slave masters, it would probably mean even harsher treatment and increased injustice for the African population. The planters would be free to operate slavery as they pleased without the existing minimal accountability to their French peers. Saint-Domingue's free people of color, most notably Julien Raimond , had been actively appealing to France for full civil equality with whites since the 1780s. Raimond used the French Revolution to make this the major colonial issue before the National Assembly. In October 1790, another wealthy free man of color, Vincent Ogé , demanded the right to vote under the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. When the colonial governor refused, Ogé led a brief 300-man insurgency in the area around Le Cap, fighting to end racial discrimination in the area. He was captured in early 1791, and brutally executed by being "broken on the wheel " before being beheaded. While Ogé was not fighting against slavery, his treatment was cited by later slave rebels as one of the factors in their decision to rise up in August 1791 and resist treaties with the colonists. The conflict up to this point was between factions of whites, and between whites and free blacks. Enslaved blacks watched from the sidelines. Leading 18th-century French writer Count Mirabeau had once said the Saint-Domingue whites "slept at the foot of Vesuvius ", suggesting the grave threat they faced should the majority of slaves launch a sustained major uprising.( Santo Domingo ) ( Spanish Florida , victorious) ( Real Audiencia of Panama , New Spain , suppressed) ( Veracruz , New Spain , victorious) ( New Spain , suppressed) ( New Spain , suppressed) ( British Province of New York , suppressed) (British Jamaica , victorious) (British Chesapeake Colonies , suppressed) ( Louisiana , New France , suppressed) ( Danish Saint John , suppressed) (British Province of South Carolina , suppressed) (British Province of New York , suppressed) (British Jamaica , suppressed) (British Montserrat , suppressed) (British Bahamas , suppressed) ( Louisiana , New Spain , suppressed) ( Louisiana , New Spain , suppressed) (Dutch Curaçao , suppressed) ( Virginia , suppressed) ( St. Simons Island , Georgia , victorious) ( Virginia , suppressed) ( Territory of Orleans , suppressed) (Spanish Cuba , suppressed) (Virginia, suppressed) (British Barbados , suppressed) ( South Carolina , suppressed) ( Cuba , suppressed) (Virginia, suppressed) ( British Jamaica , suppressed) (off the Cuban coast, victorious) (off the Southern U.S. coast, victorious) ( Indian Territory , suppressed) (Spanish Cuba , suppressed) Guillaume Raynal attacked slavery in the 1780 edition of his history of European colonization. He also predicted a general slave revolt in the colonies, saying that there were signs of "the impending storm". One such sign was the action of the French revolutionary government to grant citizenship to wealthy free people of color in May 1791. Since white planters refused to comply with this decision, within two months isolated fighting broke out between the former slaves and the whites. This added to the tense climate between slaves and grands blancs . Raynal's prediction came true on the night of 21 August 1791, when the slaves of Saint-Domingue rose in revolt; thousands of slaves attended a secret vodou ceremony as a tropical storm came in—the lighting and the thunder were taken as auspicious omens —and later that night, the slaves began to kill their masters and plunged the colony into civil war . The signal to begin the revolt had been given by Dutty Boukman , a high priest of vodou and leader of the Maroon slaves , and Cecile Fatiman during a religious ceremony at Bois Caïman on the night of 14 August. Within the next ten days, slaves had taken control of the entire Northern Province in an unprecedented slave revolt. Whites kept control of only a few isolated, fortified camps. The slaves sought revenge on their masters through "pillage, rape, torture, mutilation, and death". The long years of oppression by the planters had left many blacks with a hatred of all whites, and the revolt was marked by extreme violence from the very start. The masters and mistresses were dragged from their beds to be killed, and the heads of French children were placed on pikes that were carried at the front of the rebel columns. In the south, beginning in September , thirteen thousand slaves and rebels led by Romaine-la-Prophétesse , based in Trou Coffy, took supplies from and burned plantations, freed slaves, and occupied (and burned) the area's two major cities, Léogâne and Jacmel . The planters had long feared such a revolt, and were well armed with some defensive preparations. But within weeks, the number of slaves who joined the revolt in the north reached 100,000. Within the next two months, as the violence escalated, the slaves killed 4,000 whites and burned or destroyed 180 sugar plantations and hundreds of coffee and indigo plantations. At least 900 coffee plantations were destroyed, and the total damage inflicted over the next two weeks amounted to 2 million francs . In September 1791, the surviving whites organized into militias and struck back, killing about 15,000 blacks. Though demanding freedom from slavery, the rebels did not demand independence from France at this point. Most of the rebel leaders professed to be fighting for the king of France, who they believed had issued a decree freeing the slaves, which had been suppressed by the colonial governor. As such, they were demanding their rights as Frenchmen which had been granted by the king. By 1792, slave rebels controlled a third of Saint-Domingue . The success of the rebellion caused the National Assembly to realize it was facing an ominous situation. The Assembly granted civil and political rights to free men of color in the colonies in March 1792. Countries throughout Europe , as well as the United States , were shocked by the decision, but the Assembly was determined to stop the revolt. Apart from granting rights to free People of Color, the Assembly dispatched 6,000 French soldiers to the island. A new governor sent by Paris, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax , abolished slavery in the Northern Province and had hostile relations with the planters, whom he saw as royalists. The same month , a coalition of whites and conservative free blacks and forces under French commissaire nationale Edmond de Saint-Léger put down the Trou Coffy uprising in the south, after André Rigaud , then based near Port-au-Prince , declined to ally with them. Meanwhile, in 1793, France declared war on Great Britain . The grands blancs in Saint-Domingue, unhappy with Sonthonax , arranged with Britain to declare British sovereignty over the colony, believing that the British would maintain slavery. The British prime minister, William Pitt the Younger , believed that the success of the slave revolt in Saint-Domingue would inspire insurrections in the British Caribbean colonies. He further thought that taking Saint-Domingue, the richest of the French colonies, would be a useful bargaining chip in eventual peace negotiations with France, and in the interim, occupying Saint-Domingue would mean diverting its great wealth into the British treasury. Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville , who was Pitt's Secretary of State for War , instructed Sir Adam Williamson, the lieutenant-governor of the Colony of Jamaica , to sign an agreement with representatives of the French colonists that promised to restore the Ancien Régime , slavery and discrimination against mixed-race colonists, a move that drew criticism from abolitionists William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson . The troops who came to Saint-Domingue from Britain had an extremely low survival rate, often dying to diseases such as yellow fever . The British government would send less trained adolescents to maintain strong regiments. The incompetence of the new soldiers, combined with the ravaging of disease upon the army, led to a very unsuccessful campaign in Saint-Domingue. The American journalist James Perry notes that the great irony of the British campaign in Saint-Domingue was that it ended as a complete debacle, costing the British treasury millions of pounds and the British military thousands upon thousands of dead, all for nothing. Spain, which controlled the rest of the island of Hispaniola ( Santo Domingo ), also joined the conflict and fought with Britain against France. The proportion of slaves was not as high in the Spanish portion of the island. Spanish forces invaded Saint-Domingue and were joined by the rebels. For most of the conflict, the British and Spanish supplied the rebels with food, ammunition, arms, medicine, naval support, and military advisors. By August 1793, there were only 3,500 French soldiers on the island. On 20 September 1793, about 600 British soldiers from Jamaica landed at Jérémie to be greeted with shouts of, "Vivent les Anglais!" from the French population. On 22 September 1793, Mole St. Nicolas, the main French naval base in Saint-Domingue, surrendered to the Royal Navy peacefully. However, everywhere the British went, they restored slavery, which made them hated by the mass of common people. To prevent military disaster, and secure the colony for republican France as opposed to Britain, Spain, and French royalists, separately or in combination, the French commissioners Sonthonax and Étienne Polverel offered freedom to the slaves who would agree to fight alongside them. Then, under pressure, they gradually emancipated all the slaves of the colony. On 29 August 1793, Sonthonax proclaimed the abolition of slavery in the northern province. On 31 October, Étienne Polverel did the same in the other two western and southern provinces. Sonthonax sent three of his deputies, namely the colonist Louis Duffay, the free black army officer Jean-Baptiste Belley and a free man of color, Jean-Baptiste Mills , to seek the National Convention's endorsement for the emancipation of slaves near the end of January 1794. On 4 February, Dufay gave a speech to the convention arguing that abolishing slavery was the only way to keep the colony in control of the French, and that former slaves would willingly work to restore the colony. The convention deputies agreed and made the dramatic decree that "slavery of the blacks is abolished in all the colonies; consequently, it decrees that all men living in the colonies, without distinction of color, are French citizens and enjoy all the rights guaranteed by the constitution". The National Convention abolished slavery by law in France and all its colonies, and granted civil and political rights to all black men in the colonies. The French constitutions of 1793 and 1795 both included the abolition of slavery. The constitution of 1793 never went into effect, but that of 1795 did; it lasted until it was replaced by the consular and imperial constitutions under Napoleon Bonaparte . Despite racial tensions in Saint-Domingue, the French revolutionary government at the time welcomed abolition with a show of idealism and optimism. The emancipation of slaves was viewed as an example of liberty for other countries, much as the American Revolution was meant to serve as the first of many liberation movements. Georges Danton , one of the Frenchmen present at the meeting of the National Convention, expressed this sentiment: Representatives of the French people, until now our decrees of liberty have been selfish, and only for ourselves. But today we proclaim it to the universe, and generations to come will glory in this decree; we are proclaiming universal liberty ... We are working for future generations; let us launch liberty into the colonies; the English are dead, today. In nationalistic terms, the abolition of slavery also served as a moral triumph of France over England, as seen in the latter half of the above quote. Yet Toussaint Louverture did not stop working with the Spanish Army until sometime later, as he was suspicious of the French. The British force that landed in Saint-Domingue in 1793 was too small to conquer the colony, being capable only of holding only few coastal enclaves. The French planters were disappointed as they had hoped to regain power; Sonthonax was relieved, as he had twice refused ultimatums from Commodore John Ford to surrender Port-au-Prince. In the meantime, a Spanish force under Captain-General Joaquín García y Moreno had marched into the Northern Province. Louverture, the ablest of the Haitian generals, had joined the Spanish, accepting an officer's commission in the Spanish Army and being made a knight in the Order of St. Isabella. The main British force for the conquest of Saint-Domingue under General Charles Grey , nicknamed "No-flint Grey", and Admiral Sir John Jervis set sail from Portsmouth on 26 November 1793, which was in defiance of the well-known rule that the only time that one could campaign in the West Indies was from September to November, when the mosquitoes that carried malaria and yellow fever were scarce. After arriving in the West Indies in February 1794, Grey chose to conquer Martinique , Saint Lucia , and Guadeloupe . Troops under the command of John Whyte did not arrive in Saint-Domingue until 19 May 1794. Rather than attacking the main French bases at Le Cap and Port-de-Paix, Whyte chose to march towards Port-au-Prince, whose harbour was reported to have forty-five ships loaded with sugar. Whyte took Port-au-Prince, but Sonthonax and the French forces were allowed to leave in exchange for not burning the sugar-loaded ships. By May 1794, the French forces were severed in two by Toussaint, with Sonthonax commanding in the north and André Rigaud leading in the south. In May 1794, Toussaint suddenly joined the French and turned against the Spanish, ambushing his allies as they emerged from attending mass in a church at San Raphael on 6 May 1794. The Haitians soon expelled the Spanish from Saint-Domingue. Toussaint proved to be forgiving of the whites, insisting that he was fighting to assert the rights of the slaves as black French people to be free. He said he did not seek independence from France, and urged the surviving whites, including the former slave masters, to stay and work with him in rebuilding Saint-Domingue. Rigaud had checked the British in the south, taking the town of Léogâne by storm and driving the British back to Port-au-Prince. During the course of 1794, most of the British forces were killed by yellow fever, the dreaded "black vomit" as the British called it. Within two months of arriving in Saint-Domingue, the British lost 40 officers and 600 men to yellow fever. Of Grey's 7,000 men, about 5,000 died of yellow fever while the Royal Navy reported losing "forty-six masters and eleven hundred men dead, chiefly of yellow fever". The British historian Sir John Fortescue wrote, "It is probably beneath the mark to say that twelve thousand Englishmen were buried in the West Indies in 1794". Rigaud failed in attempt to retake Port-au-Prince, but on Christmas Day 1794, he stormed and retook Tiburon in a surprise attack. The British lost about 300 soldiers, and Rigaud's forces took no prisoners, executing any British soldier or sailor who surrendered. At this point, Pitt decided to launch what he called "the great push" to conquer Saint-Domingue and the rest of the French West Indies, sending out the largest expedition Britain had yet mounted in its history, a force of about 30,000 men to be carried in 200 ships. Fortescue wrote that the aim of the British in the first expedition had been to destroy "the power of France in these pestilent islands ... only to discover when it was too late, that they practically destroyed the British army". By this point, it was well known that service in the West Indies was virtually a death sentence. In Dublin and Cork , soldiers from the 104th , 105th , 111th , and 112th regiments rioted when they learned that they were being sent to Saint-Domingue. The fleet for the "great push" left Portsmouth on 16 November 1795 and was wrecked by a storm, before sending out again on 9 December. The overall forces in St Domingue was at that time under the command of the lieutenant-governor of Jamaica, Sir Adam Williamson. He was optimistically given the title "Governor of St Domingue", and among his British forces were Jamaican "Black Shot" militias. General Ralph Abercromby , the commander of the forces committed to the "great push", hesitated over which island to attack when he arrived in Barbados on 17 March 1796. He dispatched a force under Major General Gordon Forbes to Port-au-Prince. Forbes's attempt to take the French-held city of Léogâne ended in disaster. The French had built a deep defensive ditch with palisades and Forbes had neglected to bring along heavy artillery. The French commander, the mulatto General Alexandre Pétion , proved to be an excellent artilleryman, who used the guns of his fort to sink two of the three ships-of-the-line under Admiral Hyde Parker in the harbour, before turning his guns to the British forces; a French sortie led to a rout of the British, and Forbes retreated back to Port-au-Prince. As more ships arrived with British troops, more soldiers died of yellow fever. By 1 June 1796, of the 1,000 from the 66th Regiment , only 198 had not been infected with yellow fever; and of the 1,000 men of the 69th Regiment , only 515 were not infected with yellow fever. Abercromby predicted that at the current rate of yellow fever infection, all of the men from the two regiments were dead by November. Ultimately, 10,000 British soldiers arrived in Saint Domingue by June, but aside from some skirmishing near Bombarde, the British remained in Port-au-Prince and other coastal enclaves, while yellow fever continued to kill them all off. The government attracted criticism in the House of Commons about the mounting costs of the expedition to Saint-Domingue. In February 1797, General John Graves Simcoe arrived to replace Forbes with orders to pull back the British forces to Port-au-Prince. As the human and financial costs of the expedition mounted, people in Britain demanded a withdrawal from Saint-Domingue, which was devouring money and soldiers, while failing to produce the expected profits. On 11 April 1797, Colonel Thomas Maitland of the 62nd Regiment of Foot landed in Port-au-Prince, and wrote in a letter to his brother that British forces in Saint-Domingue had been "annihilated" by the yellow fever. Service in Saint-Domingue was extremely unpopular in the British Army owing to the terrible death toll caused by yellow fever. One British officer wrote of his horror of seeing his friends "drowned in their own blood" while "some died raving Mad". Simcoe used the new British troops to push back the Haitians under Toussaint, but in a counter-offensive, Toussaint and Rigaud stopped the offensive. Toussaint retook the fortress at Mirebalais. On 7 June 1797, Toussaint attacked Fort Churchill in an assault that was as noted for its professionalism as for its ferocity. Under a storm of artillery, the Haitians placed ladders on the walls and were driven back four times, with heavy losses. Even though Toussaint had been repulsed, the British were astonished that he had turned a group of former slaves with no military experience into troops whose skills were the equal of a European army. In July 1797, Simcoe and Maitland sailed to London to advise a total withdrawal from Saint-Domingue. In March 1798 Maitland returned with a mandate to withdraw, at least from Port-au-Prince. On 10 May 1798, Maitland met with Toussaint to agree to an armistice , and on 18 May the British left Port-au-Prince. The British forces were reduced to only holding the western peninsular towns of Mole St Nicholas in the north and Jeremie in the south. The new governor of Jamaica, Alexander Lindsay, 6th Earl of Balcarres , urged Maitland not to withdraw from Mole St Nicholas. However, Toussaint sent a message to Balcarres, warning him that if he persisted, to remember that Jamaica was not far from St Domingue, and could be invaded. Maitland knew that his forces could not defeat Toussaint, and that he had to take action to protect Jamaica from invasion. British morale had collapsed with the news that Toussaint had taken Port-au-Prince, and Maitland decided to abandon all of Saint-Domingue, writing that the expedition had become such a complete disaster that withdrawal was the only sensible thing to do, even though he did not have the authority to do so. On 31 August, Maitland and Toussaint signed an agreement whereby in exchange for the British pulling out of all of Saint-Domingue, Toussaint promised to not support any slave revolts in Jamaica. Rigaud took control of Jeremie without any cost to his forces, as Maitland withdrew his southern forces to Jamaica. In the end of 1798, Maitland withdrew the last of his forces from Mole St Nicholas, as Toussaint took command of the fortress. Maitland disbanded his "Black Shot" troops, and left them in St Domingue, fearing they might return to Jamaica and start a revolution to overthrow slavery in the British colony. Many of them joined Toussaint's army. After the departure of the British, Toussaint turned his attention to Rigaud, who was conspiring against him in the south of Saint Domingue. In June 1799, Rigaud initiated the War of Knives against Toussaint's rule, sending a brutal offensive at Petit-Goâve and Grand-Goâve . Taking no prisoners, Rigaud's predominantly mulatto forces put blacks and whites to the sword. Though the United States was hostile towards Toussaint, the U.S. Navy agreed to support Toussaint's forces with the frigate USS General Greene , commanded by Captain Christopher Perry, providing fire support to the blacks as Toussaint laid siege to the city of Jacmel , held by mulatto forces under the command of Rigaud. To the United States, Rigaud's ties to France represented a threat to American commerce. On 11 March 1800, Toussaint took Jacmel and Rigaud fled on the French schooner La Diana . Though Toussaint maintained he was still loyal to France, to all intents and purposes, he ruled Saint Domingue as its dictator. Guillaume Raynal attacked slavery in the 1780 edition of his history of European colonization. He also predicted a general slave revolt in the colonies, saying that there were signs of "the impending storm". One such sign was the action of the French revolutionary government to grant citizenship to wealthy free people of color in May 1791. Since white planters refused to comply with this decision, within two months isolated fighting broke out between the former slaves and the whites. This added to the tense climate between slaves and grands blancs . Raynal's prediction came true on the night of 21 August 1791, when the slaves of Saint-Domingue rose in revolt; thousands of slaves attended a secret vodou ceremony as a tropical storm came in—the lighting and the thunder were taken as auspicious omens —and later that night, the slaves began to kill their masters and plunged the colony into civil war . The signal to begin the revolt had been given by Dutty Boukman , a high priest of vodou and leader of the Maroon slaves , and Cecile Fatiman during a religious ceremony at Bois Caïman on the night of 14 August. Within the next ten days, slaves had taken control of the entire Northern Province in an unprecedented slave revolt. Whites kept control of only a few isolated, fortified camps. The slaves sought revenge on their masters through "pillage, rape, torture, mutilation, and death". The long years of oppression by the planters had left many blacks with a hatred of all whites, and the revolt was marked by extreme violence from the very start. The masters and mistresses were dragged from their beds to be killed, and the heads of French children were placed on pikes that were carried at the front of the rebel columns. In the south, beginning in September , thirteen thousand slaves and rebels led by Romaine-la-Prophétesse , based in Trou Coffy, took supplies from and burned plantations, freed slaves, and occupied (and burned) the area's two major cities, Léogâne and Jacmel . The planters had long feared such a revolt, and were well armed with some defensive preparations. But within weeks, the number of slaves who joined the revolt in the north reached 100,000. Within the next two months, as the violence escalated, the slaves killed 4,000 whites and burned or destroyed 180 sugar plantations and hundreds of coffee and indigo plantations. At least 900 coffee plantations were destroyed, and the total damage inflicted over the next two weeks amounted to 2 million francs . In September 1791, the surviving whites organized into militias and struck back, killing about 15,000 blacks. Though demanding freedom from slavery, the rebels did not demand independence from France at this point. Most of the rebel leaders professed to be fighting for the king of France, who they believed had issued a decree freeing the slaves, which had been suppressed by the colonial governor. As such, they were demanding their rights as Frenchmen which had been granted by the king. By 1792, slave rebels controlled a third of Saint-Domingue . The success of the rebellion caused the National Assembly to realize it was facing an ominous situation. The Assembly granted civil and political rights to free men of color in the colonies in March 1792. Countries throughout Europe , as well as the United States , were shocked by the decision, but the Assembly was determined to stop the revolt. Apart from granting rights to free People of Color, the Assembly dispatched 6,000 French soldiers to the island. A new governor sent by Paris, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax , abolished slavery in the Northern Province and had hostile relations with the planters, whom he saw as royalists. The same month , a coalition of whites and conservative free blacks and forces under French commissaire nationale Edmond de Saint-Léger put down the Trou Coffy uprising in the south, after André Rigaud , then based near Port-au-Prince , declined to ally with them. Meanwhile, in 1793, France declared war on Great Britain . The grands blancs in Saint-Domingue, unhappy with Sonthonax , arranged with Britain to declare British sovereignty over the colony, believing that the British would maintain slavery. The British prime minister, William Pitt the Younger , believed that the success of the slave revolt in Saint-Domingue would inspire insurrections in the British Caribbean colonies. He further thought that taking Saint-Domingue, the richest of the French colonies, would be a useful bargaining chip in eventual peace negotiations with France, and in the interim, occupying Saint-Domingue would mean diverting its great wealth into the British treasury. Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville , who was Pitt's Secretary of State for War , instructed Sir Adam Williamson, the lieutenant-governor of the Colony of Jamaica , to sign an agreement with representatives of the French colonists that promised to restore the Ancien Régime , slavery and discrimination against mixed-race colonists, a move that drew criticism from abolitionists William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson . The troops who came to Saint-Domingue from Britain had an extremely low survival rate, often dying to diseases such as yellow fever . The British government would send less trained adolescents to maintain strong regiments. The incompetence of the new soldiers, combined with the ravaging of disease upon the army, led to a very unsuccessful campaign in Saint-Domingue. The American journalist James Perry notes that the great irony of the British campaign in Saint-Domingue was that it ended as a complete debacle, costing the British treasury millions of pounds and the British military thousands upon thousands of dead, all for nothing. Spain, which controlled the rest of the island of Hispaniola ( Santo Domingo ), also joined the conflict and fought with Britain against France. The proportion of slaves was not as high in the Spanish portion of the island. Spanish forces invaded Saint-Domingue and were joined by the rebels. For most of the conflict, the British and Spanish supplied the rebels with food, ammunition, arms, medicine, naval support, and military advisors. By August 1793, there were only 3,500 French soldiers on the island. On 20 September 1793, about 600 British soldiers from Jamaica landed at Jérémie to be greeted with shouts of, "Vivent les Anglais!" from the French population. On 22 September 1793, Mole St. Nicolas, the main French naval base in Saint-Domingue, surrendered to the Royal Navy peacefully. However, everywhere the British went, they restored slavery, which made them hated by the mass of common people. To prevent military disaster, and secure the colony for republican France as opposed to Britain, Spain, and French royalists, separately or in combination, the French commissioners Sonthonax and Étienne Polverel offered freedom to the slaves who would agree to fight alongside them. Then, under pressure, they gradually emancipated all the slaves of the colony. On 29 August 1793, Sonthonax proclaimed the abolition of slavery in the northern province. On 31 October, Étienne Polverel did the same in the other two western and southern provinces. Sonthonax sent three of his deputies, namely the colonist Louis Duffay, the free black army officer Jean-Baptiste Belley and a free man of color, Jean-Baptiste Mills , to seek the National Convention's endorsement for the emancipation of slaves near the end of January 1794. On 4 February, Dufay gave a speech to the convention arguing that abolishing slavery was the only way to keep the colony in control of the French, and that former slaves would willingly work to restore the colony. The convention deputies agreed and made the dramatic decree that "slavery of the blacks is abolished in all the colonies; consequently, it decrees that all men living in the colonies, without distinction of color, are French citizens and enjoy all the rights guaranteed by the constitution". The National Convention abolished slavery by law in France and all its colonies, and granted civil and political rights to all black men in the colonies. The French constitutions of 1793 and 1795 both included the abolition of slavery. The constitution of 1793 never went into effect, but that of 1795 did; it lasted until it was replaced by the consular and imperial constitutions under Napoleon Bonaparte . Despite racial tensions in Saint-Domingue, the French revolutionary government at the time welcomed abolition with a show of idealism and optimism. The emancipation of slaves was viewed as an example of liberty for other countries, much as the American Revolution was meant to serve as the first of many liberation movements. Georges Danton , one of the Frenchmen present at the meeting of the National Convention, expressed this sentiment: Representatives of the French people, until now our decrees of liberty have been selfish, and only for ourselves. But today we proclaim it to the universe, and generations to come will glory in this decree; we are proclaiming universal liberty ... We are working for future generations; let us launch liberty into the colonies; the English are dead, today. In nationalistic terms, the abolition of slavery also served as a moral triumph of France over England, as seen in the latter half of the above quote. Yet Toussaint Louverture did not stop working with the Spanish Army until sometime later, as he was suspicious of the French. The British force that landed in Saint-Domingue in 1793 was too small to conquer the colony, being capable only of holding only few coastal enclaves. The French planters were disappointed as they had hoped to regain power; Sonthonax was relieved, as he had twice refused ultimatums from Commodore John Ford to surrender Port-au-Prince. In the meantime, a Spanish force under Captain-General Joaquín García y Moreno had marched into the Northern Province. Louverture, the ablest of the Haitian generals, had joined the Spanish, accepting an officer's commission in the Spanish Army and being made a knight in the Order of St. Isabella. The main British force for the conquest of Saint-Domingue under General Charles Grey , nicknamed "No-flint Grey", and Admiral Sir John Jervis set sail from Portsmouth on 26 November 1793, which was in defiance of the well-known rule that the only time that one could campaign in the West Indies was from September to November, when the mosquitoes that carried malaria and yellow fever were scarce. After arriving in the West Indies in February 1794, Grey chose to conquer Martinique , Saint Lucia , and Guadeloupe . Troops under the command of John Whyte did not arrive in Saint-Domingue until 19 May 1794. Rather than attacking the main French bases at Le Cap and Port-de-Paix, Whyte chose to march towards Port-au-Prince, whose harbour was reported to have forty-five ships loaded with sugar. Whyte took Port-au-Prince, but Sonthonax and the French forces were allowed to leave in exchange for not burning the sugar-loaded ships. By May 1794, the French forces were severed in two by Toussaint, with Sonthonax commanding in the north and André Rigaud leading in the south. In May 1794, Toussaint suddenly joined the French and turned against the Spanish, ambushing his allies as they emerged from attending mass in a church at San Raphael on 6 May 1794. The Haitians soon expelled the Spanish from Saint-Domingue. Toussaint proved to be forgiving of the whites, insisting that he was fighting to assert the rights of the slaves as black French people to be free. He said he did not seek independence from France, and urged the surviving whites, including the former slave masters, to stay and work with him in rebuilding Saint-Domingue. Rigaud had checked the British in the south, taking the town of Léogâne by storm and driving the British back to Port-au-Prince. During the course of 1794, most of the British forces were killed by yellow fever, the dreaded "black vomit" as the British called it. Within two months of arriving in Saint-Domingue, the British lost 40 officers and 600 men to yellow fever. Of Grey's 7,000 men, about 5,000 died of yellow fever while the Royal Navy reported losing "forty-six masters and eleven hundred men dead, chiefly of yellow fever". The British historian Sir John Fortescue wrote, "It is probably beneath the mark to say that twelve thousand Englishmen were buried in the West Indies in 1794". Rigaud failed in attempt to retake Port-au-Prince, but on Christmas Day 1794, he stormed and retook Tiburon in a surprise attack. The British lost about 300 soldiers, and Rigaud's forces took no prisoners, executing any British soldier or sailor who surrendered. At this point, Pitt decided to launch what he called "the great push" to conquer Saint-Domingue and the rest of the French West Indies, sending out the largest expedition Britain had yet mounted in its history, a force of about 30,000 men to be carried in 200 ships. Fortescue wrote that the aim of the British in the first expedition had been to destroy "the power of France in these pestilent islands ... only to discover when it was too late, that they practically destroyed the British army". By this point, it was well known that service in the West Indies was virtually a death sentence. In Dublin and Cork , soldiers from the 104th , 105th , 111th , and 112th regiments rioted when they learned that they were being sent to Saint-Domingue. The fleet for the "great push" left Portsmouth on 16 November 1795 and was wrecked by a storm, before sending out again on 9 December. The overall forces in St Domingue was at that time under the command of the lieutenant-governor of Jamaica, Sir Adam Williamson. He was optimistically given the title "Governor of St Domingue", and among his British forces were Jamaican "Black Shot" militias. General Ralph Abercromby , the commander of the forces committed to the "great push", hesitated over which island to attack when he arrived in Barbados on 17 March 1796. He dispatched a force under Major General Gordon Forbes to Port-au-Prince. Forbes's attempt to take the French-held city of Léogâne ended in disaster. The French had built a deep defensive ditch with palisades and Forbes had neglected to bring along heavy artillery. The French commander, the mulatto General Alexandre Pétion , proved to be an excellent artilleryman, who used the guns of his fort to sink two of the three ships-of-the-line under Admiral Hyde Parker in the harbour, before turning his guns to the British forces; a French sortie led to a rout of the British, and Forbes retreated back to Port-au-Prince. As more ships arrived with British troops, more soldiers died of yellow fever. By 1 June 1796, of the 1,000 from the 66th Regiment , only 198 had not been infected with yellow fever; and of the 1,000 men of the 69th Regiment , only 515 were not infected with yellow fever. Abercromby predicted that at the current rate of yellow fever infection, all of the men from the two regiments were dead by November. Ultimately, 10,000 British soldiers arrived in Saint Domingue by June, but aside from some skirmishing near Bombarde, the British remained in Port-au-Prince and other coastal enclaves, while yellow fever continued to kill them all off. The government attracted criticism in the House of Commons about the mounting costs of the expedition to Saint-Domingue. In February 1797, General John Graves Simcoe arrived to replace Forbes with orders to pull back the British forces to Port-au-Prince. As the human and financial costs of the expedition mounted, people in Britain demanded a withdrawal from Saint-Domingue, which was devouring money and soldiers, while failing to produce the expected profits. On 11 April 1797, Colonel Thomas Maitland of the 62nd Regiment of Foot landed in Port-au-Prince, and wrote in a letter to his brother that British forces in Saint-Domingue had been "annihilated" by the yellow fever. Service in Saint-Domingue was extremely unpopular in the British Army owing to the terrible death toll caused by yellow fever. One British officer wrote of his horror of seeing his friends "drowned in their own blood" while "some died raving Mad". Simcoe used the new British troops to push back the Haitians under Toussaint, but in a counter-offensive, Toussaint and Rigaud stopped the offensive. Toussaint retook the fortress at Mirebalais. On 7 June 1797, Toussaint attacked Fort Churchill in an assault that was as noted for its professionalism as for its ferocity. Under a storm of artillery, the Haitians placed ladders on the walls and were driven back four times, with heavy losses. Even though Toussaint had been repulsed, the British were astonished that he had turned a group of former slaves with no military experience into troops whose skills were the equal of a European army. In July 1797, Simcoe and Maitland sailed to London to advise a total withdrawal from Saint-Domingue. In March 1798 Maitland returned with a mandate to withdraw, at least from Port-au-Prince. On 10 May 1798, Maitland met with Toussaint to agree to an armistice , and on 18 May the British left Port-au-Prince. The British forces were reduced to only holding the western peninsular towns of Mole St Nicholas in the north and Jeremie in the south. The new governor of Jamaica, Alexander Lindsay, 6th Earl of Balcarres , urged Maitland not to withdraw from Mole St Nicholas. However, Toussaint sent a message to Balcarres, warning him that if he persisted, to remember that Jamaica was not far from St Domingue, and could be invaded. Maitland knew that his forces could not defeat Toussaint, and that he had to take action to protect Jamaica from invasion. British morale had collapsed with the news that Toussaint had taken Port-au-Prince, and Maitland decided to abandon all of Saint-Domingue, writing that the expedition had become such a complete disaster that withdrawal was the only sensible thing to do, even though he did not have the authority to do so. On 31 August, Maitland and Toussaint signed an agreement whereby in exchange for the British pulling out of all of Saint-Domingue, Toussaint promised to not support any slave revolts in Jamaica. Rigaud took control of Jeremie without any cost to his forces, as Maitland withdrew his southern forces to Jamaica. In the end of 1798, Maitland withdrew the last of his forces from Mole St Nicholas, as Toussaint took command of the fortress. Maitland disbanded his "Black Shot" troops, and left them in St Domingue, fearing they might return to Jamaica and start a revolution to overthrow slavery in the British colony. Many of them joined Toussaint's army. After the departure of the British, Toussaint turned his attention to Rigaud, who was conspiring against him in the south of Saint Domingue. In June 1799, Rigaud initiated the War of Knives against Toussaint's rule, sending a brutal offensive at Petit-Goâve and Grand-Goâve . Taking no prisoners, Rigaud's predominantly mulatto forces put blacks and whites to the sword. Though the United States was hostile towards Toussaint, the U.S. Navy agreed to support Toussaint's forces with the frigate USS General Greene , commanded by Captain Christopher Perry, providing fire support to the blacks as Toussaint laid siege to the city of Jacmel , held by mulatto forces under the command of Rigaud. To the United States, Rigaud's ties to France represented a threat to American commerce. On 11 March 1800, Toussaint took Jacmel and Rigaud fled on the French schooner La Diana . Though Toussaint maintained he was still loyal to France, to all intents and purposes, he ruled Saint Domingue as its dictator. Toussaint Louverture , although a self-educated former domestic slave, was one of the most successful black commanders. Like Jean François and Biassou , he initially fought for the Spanish crown. After the British had invaded Saint-Domingue, Louverture decided to fight for the French if they would agree to free all the slaves. Sonthonax had proclaimed an end to slavery on 29 August 1792. Louverture worked with a French general, Étienne Laveaux , to ensure that all slaves would be freed. Louverture abandoned the Spanish Army in the east and brought his forces over to the French side on 6 May 1794 after the Spanish refused to take steps to end slavery. Under the military leadership of Toussaint, the former slaves succeeded in winning concessions from the British and expelled the Spanish forces. In the end, Toussaint essentially restored control of Saint-Domingue to France. Louverture was very intelligent, organized and articulate. Having made himself master of the island, however, Toussaint did not wish to surrender too much power to France. He began to rule the country as an effectively autonomous entity. Louverture overcame a succession of local rivals, including: the Commissioner Sonthonax, a French white man who gained support from many Haitians, angering Louverture; André Rigaud , a free man of color who fought to keep control of the South in the War of Knives ; and Comte d'Hédouville , who forced a fatal wedge between Rigaud and Louverture before escaping to France. Toussaint defeated a British expeditionary force in 1798. In addition, he led an invasion of neighboring Santo Domingo (December 1800), and freed the slaves there on 3 January 1801. In 1801, Louverture issued a constitution for Saint-Domingue that decreed he would be governor-for-life and called for black autonomy and a sovereign black state. In response, Napoleon Bonaparte dispatched a large expeditionary force of French soldiers and warships to the island, led by Bonaparte's brother-in-law Charles Leclerc , to restore French rule. They were under secret instructions to restore slavery, at least in the formerly Spanish-held part of the island. Bonaparte ordered that Toussaint was to be treated with respect until the French forces were established; once that was done, Toussaint was to be summoned to Le Cap and arrested; if he failed to show, Leclerc was to wage "a war to the death" with no mercy and all of Toussaint's followers to be shot when captured. Once that was completed, slavery would be ultimately restored. The numerous French soldiers were accompanied by mulatto troops led by Alexandre Pétion and André Rigaud , mulatto leaders who had been defeated by Toussaint three years earlier. The French arrived on 2 February 1802 at Le Cap with the Haitian commander Henri Christophe being ordered by Leclerc to turn over the city to the French. When Christophe refused, the French assaulted Le Cap and the Haitians set the city afire rather than surrender it. Leclerc sent Toussaint letters promising him: "Have no worries about your personal fortune. It will be safeguarded for you, since it has been only too well earned by your own efforts. Do not worry about the liberty of your fellow citizens". When Toussaint still failed to appear at Le Cap, Leclerc issued a proclamation on 17 February 1802: "General Toussaint and General Christophe are outlawed; all citizens are ordered to hunt them down, and treat them as rebels against the French Republic". Captain Marcus Rainsford , a British Army officer who visited Saint-Domingue observed the training of the Haitian Army, writing: "At a whistle, a whole brigade ran three or four hundred yards, and then, separating, threw themselves flat on the ground, changing to their backs and sides, and all the time keeping up a strong fire until recalled...This movement is executed with such facility and precision as totally to prevent cavalry from charging them in bushy and hilly country". In a letter to Jean-Jacques Dessalines , Toussaint outlined his plans for defeating the French using scorched-earth : "Do not forget, while waiting for the rainy reason which will rid us of our foes, that we have no other resource than destruction and fire. Bear in mind that the soil bathed with our sweat must not furnish our enemies with the smallest sustenance. Tear up the roads with shot; throw corpses and horses into all the foundations, burn and annihilate everything in order that those who have come to reduce us to slavery may have before their eyes the image of the hell which they deserve". Dessalines never received the letter as he had already taken to the field, evaded a French column sent to capture him and stormed Léogâne. The Haitians burned down Léogâne and killed all of the French with the Trinidadian historian C. L. R. James writing of Dessalines's actions at Léogâne: "Men, women and children, indeed all the whites who came into his hands, he massacred. And forbidding burial, he left stacks of corpses rotting in the sun to strike terror into the French detachments as they toiled behind his flying columns". The French had been expecting the Haitians to happily go back to being their slaves, as they believed it was natural for blacks to be the slaves of whites, and were stunned to learn how much the Haitians hated them for wanting to reduce them back to a life in chains. A visibly shocked General Pamphile de Lacroix after seeing the ruins of Léogâne wrote: "They heaped up bodies" which "still had their attitudes; they were bent over, their hands outstretched and beseeching; the ice of death had not effaced the look on their faces". Leclerc ordered four French columns to march on Gonaives , which was the main Haitian base. One of the French columns was commanded by General Donatien de Rochambeau , a proud white supremacist and a supporter of slavery who detested the Haitians for wanting to be free. Toussaint tried to stop Rochambeau at Ravine-à -Couleuvre, a very narrow gully up in the mountains that the Haitians had filled with chopped down trees. In the ensuring Battle of Ravine-à -Couleuvres , after six hours of fierce hand-to-hand fighting with no quarter given on either side, the French finally broke through, albeit with heavy losses. During the battle, Toussaint personally took part in the fighting to lead his men in charges against the French. After losing 800 men, Toussaint ordered a retreat. The Haitians next tried to stop the French at a British-built fort up in the mountains called Crête-à -Pierrot, a battle that is remembered as a national epic in Haiti. While Toussaint took to the field, he left Dessalines in command of Crête-à -Pierrot, who from his fastness could see three French columns converging on the fort. Dessalines appeared before his men standing atop of a barrel of gunpowder, holding a lit torch, saying: "We are going to be attacked, and if the French put their feet in here, I shall blow everything up", leading his men to reply "We shall die for liberty!". The first of the French columns to appear before the fort was commanded by General Jean Boudet, whose men were harassed by skirmishers until they reached a deep ditch the Haitians had dug. As the French tried to cross the ditch, Dessalines ordered his men who were hiding to come out and open fire, hitting the French with a tremendous volley of artillery and musket fire, inflicting heavy losses on the attackers. General Boudet himself was wounded and as the French dead and wounded started to pile up in the ditch, the French retreated. The next French commander who tried to assault the ditch was General Charles Dugua, joined shortly afterwards by the column commanded by Leclerc. All of the French assaults ended in total failure, and after the failure of their last attack, the Haitians charged the French, cutting down any Frenchmen. General Dugua was killed, Leclerc was wounded and the French lost about 800 dead. The final French column to arrive was the one commanded by Rochambeau, who brought along heavy artillery that knocked out the Haitian artillery, though his attempt to storm the ditch also ended in failure with about 300 of his men killed. Over the following days, the French kept on bombarding and assaulting the fort, only to be repulsed every time while the Haitians defiantly sang songs of the French Revolution, celebrating the right of all men to be equal and free. The Haitian psychological warfare was successful with many French soldiers asking why they were fighting to enslave the Haitians, who were only asserting the rights promised by the Revolution to make all men free. Despite Bonaparte's attempt to keep his intention to restore slavery a secret, it was widely believed by both sides that was why the French had returned to Haiti, as a sugar plantation could only be profitable with slave labour. [ citation needed ] Finally after twenty days of siege with food and ammunition running out, Dessalines ordered his men to abandon the fort on the night of 24 March 1802 and the Haitians slipped out of the fort to fight another day. Even Rochambeau, who hated all blacks was forced to admit in a report: "Their retreat—this miraculous retreat from our trap—was an incredible feat of arms". The French had won, but they had lost 2,000 dead against an opponent whom they held in contempt on racial grounds, believing all blacks to be stupid and cowardly, and furthermore, that it was shortages of food and ammunition that forced the Haitians to retreat, not because of any feats of arms by the French army. After the Battle of Crête-à -Pierrot , the Haitians abandoned conventional warfare and reverted to guerrilla tactics, making the French hold over much of the countryside from Le Cap down to the Artibonite valley very tenuous. With March, the rainy season came to Saint-Domingue, and as stagnant water collected, the mosquitoes began to breed, leading to yet another outbreak of yellow fever. By the end of March, 5,000 French soldiers had died of yellow fever and another 5,000 were hospitalized with yellow fever, leading to a worried Leclerc to write in his diary: "The rainy season has arrived. My troops are exhausted with fatigue and sickness". On 25 April 1802, the situation suddenly changed when Christophe defected, along with much of the Haitian Army, to the French. Louverture was promised his freedom if he agreed to integrate his remaining troops into the French army. Louverture agreed to this on 6 May 1802. Just what motivated Toussaint to give up the fight has been the subject of much debate with most probable explanation being that he was just tired after 11 years of war. Under the terms of surrender, Leclerc gave his solemn word that slavery would not be restored in Saint-Domingue, that blacks could be officers in the French Army, and that the Haitian Army would be allowed to integrate into the French Army. Leclerc also gave Toussaint a plantation at Ennery. Toussaint was later deceived, seized by the French and shipped to France. He died months later in prison at Fort-de-Joux in the Jura Mountains. Shortly afterwards, the ferocious Dessalines rode into Le Cap to submit to France and was rewarded by being made the governor of Saint-Marc, a place that Dessalines ruled with his customary cruelty. However, the surrender of Christophe, Toussaint, and Dessalines did not mean the end of Haitian resistance. Throughout the countryside, guerrilla warfare continued and the French staged mass executions via firing squads, hanging, and drowning Haitians in bags. Rochambeau invented a new means of mass execution , which he called "fumigational-sulphurous baths": killing hundreds of Haitians in the holds of ships by burning sulphur to make sulphur dioxide to gas them. Toussaint Louverture , although a self-educated former domestic slave, was one of the most successful black commanders. Like Jean François and Biassou , he initially fought for the Spanish crown. After the British had invaded Saint-Domingue, Louverture decided to fight for the French if they would agree to free all the slaves. Sonthonax had proclaimed an end to slavery on 29 August 1792. Louverture worked with a French general, Étienne Laveaux , to ensure that all slaves would be freed. Louverture abandoned the Spanish Army in the east and brought his forces over to the French side on 6 May 1794 after the Spanish refused to take steps to end slavery. Under the military leadership of Toussaint, the former slaves succeeded in winning concessions from the British and expelled the Spanish forces. In the end, Toussaint essentially restored control of Saint-Domingue to France. Louverture was very intelligent, organized and articulate. Having made himself master of the island, however, Toussaint did not wish to surrender too much power to France. He began to rule the country as an effectively autonomous entity. Louverture overcame a succession of local rivals, including: the Commissioner Sonthonax, a French white man who gained support from many Haitians, angering Louverture; André Rigaud , a free man of color who fought to keep control of the South in the War of Knives ; and Comte d'Hédouville , who forced a fatal wedge between Rigaud and Louverture before escaping to France. Toussaint defeated a British expeditionary force in 1798. In addition, he led an invasion of neighboring Santo Domingo (December 1800), and freed the slaves there on 3 January 1801. In 1801, Louverture issued a constitution for Saint-Domingue that decreed he would be governor-for-life and called for black autonomy and a sovereign black state. In response, Napoleon Bonaparte dispatched a large expeditionary force of French soldiers and warships to the island, led by Bonaparte's brother-in-law Charles Leclerc , to restore French rule. They were under secret instructions to restore slavery, at least in the formerly Spanish-held part of the island. Bonaparte ordered that Toussaint was to be treated with respect until the French forces were established; once that was done, Toussaint was to be summoned to Le Cap and arrested; if he failed to show, Leclerc was to wage "a war to the death" with no mercy and all of Toussaint's followers to be shot when captured. Once that was completed, slavery would be ultimately restored. The numerous French soldiers were accompanied by mulatto troops led by Alexandre Pétion and André Rigaud , mulatto leaders who had been defeated by Toussaint three years earlier.The French arrived on 2 February 1802 at Le Cap with the Haitian commander Henri Christophe being ordered by Leclerc to turn over the city to the French. When Christophe refused, the French assaulted Le Cap and the Haitians set the city afire rather than surrender it. Leclerc sent Toussaint letters promising him: "Have no worries about your personal fortune. It will be safeguarded for you, since it has been only too well earned by your own efforts. Do not worry about the liberty of your fellow citizens". When Toussaint still failed to appear at Le Cap, Leclerc issued a proclamation on 17 February 1802: "General Toussaint and General Christophe are outlawed; all citizens are ordered to hunt them down, and treat them as rebels against the French Republic". Captain Marcus Rainsford , a British Army officer who visited Saint-Domingue observed the training of the Haitian Army, writing: "At a whistle, a whole brigade ran three or four hundred yards, and then, separating, threw themselves flat on the ground, changing to their backs and sides, and all the time keeping up a strong fire until recalled...This movement is executed with such facility and precision as totally to prevent cavalry from charging them in bushy and hilly country". In a letter to Jean-Jacques Dessalines , Toussaint outlined his plans for defeating the French using scorched-earth : "Do not forget, while waiting for the rainy reason which will rid us of our foes, that we have no other resource than destruction and fire. Bear in mind that the soil bathed with our sweat must not furnish our enemies with the smallest sustenance. Tear up the roads with shot; throw corpses and horses into all the foundations, burn and annihilate everything in order that those who have come to reduce us to slavery may have before their eyes the image of the hell which they deserve". Dessalines never received the letter as he had already taken to the field, evaded a French column sent to capture him and stormed Léogâne. The Haitians burned down Léogâne and killed all of the French with the Trinidadian historian C. L. R. James writing of Dessalines's actions at Léogâne: "Men, women and children, indeed all the whites who came into his hands, he massacred. And forbidding burial, he left stacks of corpses rotting in the sun to strike terror into the French detachments as they toiled behind his flying columns". The French had been expecting the Haitians to happily go back to being their slaves, as they believed it was natural for blacks to be the slaves of whites, and were stunned to learn how much the Haitians hated them for wanting to reduce them back to a life in chains. A visibly shocked General Pamphile de Lacroix after seeing the ruins of Léogâne wrote: "They heaped up bodies" which "still had their attitudes; they were bent over, their hands outstretched and beseeching; the ice of death had not effaced the look on their faces". Leclerc ordered four French columns to march on Gonaives , which was the main Haitian base. One of the French columns was commanded by General Donatien de Rochambeau , a proud white supremacist and a supporter of slavery who detested the Haitians for wanting to be free. Toussaint tried to stop Rochambeau at Ravine-à -Couleuvre, a very narrow gully up in the mountains that the Haitians had filled with chopped down trees. In the ensuring Battle of Ravine-à -Couleuvres , after six hours of fierce hand-to-hand fighting with no quarter given on either side, the French finally broke through, albeit with heavy losses. During the battle, Toussaint personally took part in the fighting to lead his men in charges against the French. After losing 800 men, Toussaint ordered a retreat. The Haitians next tried to stop the French at a British-built fort up in the mountains called Crête-à -Pierrot, a battle that is remembered as a national epic in Haiti. While Toussaint took to the field, he left Dessalines in command of Crête-à -Pierrot, who from his fastness could see three French columns converging on the fort. Dessalines appeared before his men standing atop of a barrel of gunpowder, holding a lit torch, saying: "We are going to be attacked, and if the French put their feet in here, I shall blow everything up", leading his men to reply "We shall die for liberty!". The first of the French columns to appear before the fort was commanded by General Jean Boudet, whose men were harassed by skirmishers until they reached a deep ditch the Haitians had dug. As the French tried to cross the ditch, Dessalines ordered his men who were hiding to come out and open fire, hitting the French with a tremendous volley of artillery and musket fire, inflicting heavy losses on the attackers. General Boudet himself was wounded and as the French dead and wounded started to pile up in the ditch, the French retreated. The next French commander who tried to assault the ditch was General Charles Dugua, joined shortly afterwards by the column commanded by Leclerc. All of the French assaults ended in total failure, and after the failure of their last attack, the Haitians charged the French, cutting down any Frenchmen. General Dugua was killed, Leclerc was wounded and the French lost about 800 dead. The final French column to arrive was the one commanded by Rochambeau, who brought along heavy artillery that knocked out the Haitian artillery, though his attempt to storm the ditch also ended in failure with about 300 of his men killed. Over the following days, the French kept on bombarding and assaulting the fort, only to be repulsed every time while the Haitians defiantly sang songs of the French Revolution, celebrating the right of all men to be equal and free. The Haitian psychological warfare was successful with many French soldiers asking why they were fighting to enslave the Haitians, who were only asserting the rights promised by the Revolution to make all men free. Despite Bonaparte's attempt to keep his intention to restore slavery a secret, it was widely believed by both sides that was why the French had returned to Haiti, as a sugar plantation could only be profitable with slave labour. [ citation needed ] Finally after twenty days of siege with food and ammunition running out, Dessalines ordered his men to abandon the fort on the night of 24 March 1802 and the Haitians slipped out of the fort to fight another day. Even Rochambeau, who hated all blacks was forced to admit in a report: "Their retreat—this miraculous retreat from our trap—was an incredible feat of arms". The French had won, but they had lost 2,000 dead against an opponent whom they held in contempt on racial grounds, believing all blacks to be stupid and cowardly, and furthermore, that it was shortages of food and ammunition that forced the Haitians to retreat, not because of any feats of arms by the French army. After the Battle of Crête-à -Pierrot , the Haitians abandoned conventional warfare and reverted to guerrilla tactics, making the French hold over much of the countryside from Le Cap down to the Artibonite valley very tenuous. With March, the rainy season came to Saint-Domingue, and as stagnant water collected, the mosquitoes began to breed, leading to yet another outbreak of yellow fever. By the end of March, 5,000 French soldiers had died of yellow fever and another 5,000 were hospitalized with yellow fever, leading to a worried Leclerc to write in his diary: "The rainy season has arrived. My troops are exhausted with fatigue and sickness". On 25 April 1802, the situation suddenly changed when Christophe defected, along with much of the Haitian Army, to the French. Louverture was promised his freedom if he agreed to integrate his remaining troops into the French army. Louverture agreed to this on 6 May 1802. Just what motivated Toussaint to give up the fight has been the subject of much debate with most probable explanation being that he was just tired after 11 years of war. Under the terms of surrender, Leclerc gave his solemn word that slavery would not be restored in Saint-Domingue, that blacks could be officers in the French Army, and that the Haitian Army would be allowed to integrate into the French Army. Leclerc also gave Toussaint a plantation at Ennery. Toussaint was later deceived, seized by the French and shipped to France. He died months later in prison at Fort-de-Joux in the Jura Mountains. Shortly afterwards, the ferocious Dessalines rode into Le Cap to submit to France and was rewarded by being made the governor of Saint-Marc, a place that Dessalines ruled with his customary cruelty. However, the surrender of Christophe, Toussaint, and Dessalines did not mean the end of Haitian resistance. Throughout the countryside, guerrilla warfare continued and the French staged mass executions via firing squads, hanging, and drowning Haitians in bags. Rochambeau invented a new means of mass execution , which he called "fumigational-sulphurous baths": killing hundreds of Haitians in the holds of ships by burning sulphur to make sulphur dioxide to gas them. For a few months, the island was quiet under Napoleonic rule. But when it became apparent that the French intended to re-establish slavery (because they had nearly done so on Guadeloupe ), black cultivators revolted in the summer of 1802. Yellow fever had decimated the French; by the middle of July 1802, the French lost about 10,000 dead to yellow fever. By September, Leclerc wrote in his diary that he had only 8,000 fit men left as yellow fever had killed the others. In 1802, Napoleon added a Polish legion of around 5,200 to the forces sent to Saint-Domingue to fight off the slave rebellion. However, the Poles were told that there was a revolt of prisoners in Saint-Domingue. Upon arrival and the first fights, the Polish soldiers soon discovered that what was actually taking place in the colony was a rebellion of slaves fighting off their French masters for their freedom. During this time, there was a familiar situation going on back in their homeland as these Polish soldiers were fighting for their liberty from the occupying forces of Russia, Prussia, and Austria that began in 1772 . Many Poles believed that if they fought for France, Bonaparte would reward them by restoring Polish independence, which had been ended with the Third Partition of Poland in 1795. As hopeful as the Haitians, many Poles were seeking union amongst themselves to win back their freedom and independence by organizing an uprising. As a result, many Polish soldiers admired their opponents, to eventually turn on the French army and join the Haitian slaves. Polish soldiers participated in the Haitian revolution of 1804, contributing to the establishment of the world's first free black republic and the first independent Caribbean state. Haiti's first head of state Jean-Jacques Dessalines called Polish people "the White Negroes of Europe" , which was then regarded a great honor, as it meant brotherhood between Poles and Haitians. Many years later François Duvalier , the president of Haiti who was known for his black nationalist and Pan-African views, used the same concept of "European white negroes" while referring to Polish people and glorifying their patriotism. After Haiti gained its independence, the Poles acquired Haitian citizenship for their loyalty and support in overthrowing the French colonialists, and were called "black" by the Haitian constitution. Dessalines and Pétion remained allied with France until they switched sides again, in October 1802, and fought against the French. As Leclerc lay dying of yellow fever and heard that Christophe and Dessalines had joined the rebels, he reacted by ordering all of the blacks living in Le Cap to be killed by drowning in the harbour. In November, Leclerc died of yellow fever , like much of his army. His successor, the Vicomte de Rochambeau , fought an even more brutal campaign. Rochambeau waged a near-genocidal campaign against the Haitians, killing everyone who was black. Rochambeau imported about 15,000 attack dogs from Jamaica, who had been trained to savage blacks and mulattoes. (Other sources suggest the dogs may have been dogo cubanos sourced in their hundreds from Cuba rather than Jamaica.) At the Bay of Le Cap, Rochambeau had blacks drowned. No one would eat fish from the bay for months afterward, as no one wished to eat the fish that had eaten human flesh. Bonaparte, hearing that most of his army in Saint-Domingue had died of yellow fever and the French held only Port-au-Prince , Le Cap , and Les Cayes , sent about 20,000 reinforcements to Rochambeau. Dessalines matched Rochambeau in his vicious cruelty. At Le Cap, when Rochambeau hanged 500 blacks, Dessalines replied by killing 500 whites and sticking their heads on spikes all around Le Cap, so that the French could see what he was planning on doing to them. Rochambeau's atrocities helped rally many former French loyalists to the rebel cause. Many on both sides had come to see the war as a race war where no mercy was to be given. The Haitians burned French prisoners alive, cut them up with axes, or tied them to a board and sawed them into two. With Napoleon's inability to send the requested massive reinforcements after the outbreak of war on 18 May 1803 with the British, the Royal Navy immediately despatched a squadron under Sir John Duckworth from Jamaica to cruise in the region, seeking to eliminate communication between the French outposts and to capture or destroy the French warships based in the colony. The Blockade of Saint-Domingue not only cut the French forces out from reinforcements and supplies from France, but also meant that the British began to supply arms to the Haitians. Trapped, engaged in a vicious race war, and with much of his army dying of yellow fever, Rochambeau fell to pieces. He lost interest in commanding his army and as James wrote, he "amused himself with sexual pleasures, military balls, banquets and the amassing of a personal fortune". The Royal Navy squadrons soon blockaded the French-held ports of Cap Français and Môle-Saint-Nicolas on the Northern coast of the French colony. In the summer of 1803, when war broke out between the United Kingdom and the French Consulate, Saint-Domingue had been almost completely overrun by Haitian forces under the command of Jean-Jacques Dessalines . In the north of the country, the French forces were isolated in the two large ports of Cap Français and Môle-Saint-Nicolas and a few smaller settlements, all supplied by a French naval force based primarily at Cap Français. On 28 June, the squadron encountered a French convoy from Les Cayes off Môle-Saint-Nicolas, capturing one ship although the other escaped. Two days later an independently sailing French frigate was chased down and captured in the same waters. On 24 July, another British squadron intercepted the main French squadron from Cap Français, which was attempting to break past the blockade and reach France. The British, led by Commodore John Loring gave chase, but one French ship of the line and a frigate escaped. Another ship of the line was trapped against the coast and captured after coming under fire from Haitian shore batteries. The remainder of the squadron was forced to fight two more actions on their return to Europe, but did eventually reach the Spanish port of Corunna . On 8 October 1803, the French abandoned Port-au-Prince as Rochambeau decided to concentrate what was left of his army at Le Cap. Dessalines marched into Port-au-Prince, where he was welcomed as a hero by the 100 whites who had chosen to stay behind. Dessalines thanked them all for their kindness and belief in racial equality, but then he said that the French had treated him as less than human when he was a slave, and so to avenge his mistreatment, he promptly had the 100 whites all hanged. On 3 November, the frigate HMS Blanche captured a supply schooner near Cap Français, the last hope in supplying the French forces. On 16 November 1803, Dessalines began attacking the French blockhouses outside of Le Cap. The last battle on land of the Haitian Revolution, the Battle of Vertières , occurred on 18 November 1803, near Cap-Haïtien fought between Dessalines' army and the remaining French colonial army under the Vicomte de Rochambeau; the slave rebels and freed revolutionary soldiers won the battle. By this point, Perry observed that both sides were "a little mad" as the pressures of the war and yellow fever had taken their toll, and both the French and the Haitians fought with a reckless courage, seeing death in battle as preferable to a slow death by yellow fever or being tortured to death by the enemy. Rochambeau, seeing defeat inevitable, procrastinated until the last possible moment, but eventually was forced to surrender to the British commander—by the end of the month the garrison was starving, having reached the conclusion at a council of war that surrender was the only way to escape from this "place of death". Commodore Loring, however, refused the French permission to sail and agreed terms with Dessalines that permitted them to safely evacuate provided they had left the port by 1 December. On the night of 30 November 1803, 8,000 French soldiers and hundreds of white civilians boarded the British ships to take them away. One of Rochambeau's ships was almost wrecked while leaving the harbour, but was saved by a British lieutenant acting alone, who not only rescued the 900 people on board, but also refloated the ship. At Môle-Saint-Nicolas, General Louis de Noailles refused to surrender and instead sailed to Havana, Cuba in a fleet of small vessels on 3 December, but was intercepted and mortally wounded by a Royal Navy frigate. Soon after, the few remaining French-held towns in Saint-Domingue surrendered to the Royal Navy to prevent massacres by the Haitian army. Meanwhile, Dessalines led the rebellion until its completion, when the French forces were finally defeated by the end of 1803. On 1 January 1804, from the city of Gonaïves , Dessalines officially declared the former colony's independence, renaming it "Haiti" after the indigenous Arawak name. Although he lasted from 1804 to 1806, several changes began taking place in Haiti. The independence of Haiti was a major blow to France and its colonial empire, but the French state would take several decades to recognize the loss of the colony. As the French retreated, Haiti, which had once been called the "Pearl of the Antilles", the richest French colony in the world, was impoverished, as its economy was in ruins after the revolution. Haiti struggled to recover economically from the war. The Haitians had paid a high price for their freedom, losing about 200,000 dead between 1791 and 1803, and unlike the majority of the European dead, who were killed by yellow fever, the majority of the Haitian dead were the victims of violence. For a few months, the island was quiet under Napoleonic rule. But when it became apparent that the French intended to re-establish slavery (because they had nearly done so on Guadeloupe ), black cultivators revolted in the summer of 1802. Yellow fever had decimated the French; by the middle of July 1802, the French lost about 10,000 dead to yellow fever. By September, Leclerc wrote in his diary that he had only 8,000 fit men left as yellow fever had killed the others. In 1802, Napoleon added a Polish legion of around 5,200 to the forces sent to Saint-Domingue to fight off the slave rebellion. However, the Poles were told that there was a revolt of prisoners in Saint-Domingue. Upon arrival and the first fights, the Polish soldiers soon discovered that what was actually taking place in the colony was a rebellion of slaves fighting off their French masters for their freedom. During this time, there was a familiar situation going on back in their homeland as these Polish soldiers were fighting for their liberty from the occupying forces of Russia, Prussia, and Austria that began in 1772 . Many Poles believed that if they fought for France, Bonaparte would reward them by restoring Polish independence, which had been ended with the Third Partition of Poland in 1795. As hopeful as the Haitians, many Poles were seeking union amongst themselves to win back their freedom and independence by organizing an uprising. As a result, many Polish soldiers admired their opponents, to eventually turn on the French army and join the Haitian slaves. Polish soldiers participated in the Haitian revolution of 1804, contributing to the establishment of the world's first free black republic and the first independent Caribbean state. Haiti's first head of state Jean-Jacques Dessalines called Polish people "the White Negroes of Europe" , which was then regarded a great honor, as it meant brotherhood between Poles and Haitians. Many years later François Duvalier , the president of Haiti who was known for his black nationalist and Pan-African views, used the same concept of "European white negroes" while referring to Polish people and glorifying their patriotism. After Haiti gained its independence, the Poles acquired Haitian citizenship for their loyalty and support in overthrowing the French colonialists, and were called "black" by the Haitian constitution. Dessalines and Pétion remained allied with France until they switched sides again, in October 1802, and fought against the French. As Leclerc lay dying of yellow fever and heard that Christophe and Dessalines had joined the rebels, he reacted by ordering all of the blacks living in Le Cap to be killed by drowning in the harbour. In November, Leclerc died of yellow fever , like much of his army. His successor, the Vicomte de Rochambeau , fought an even more brutal campaign. Rochambeau waged a near-genocidal campaign against the Haitians, killing everyone who was black. Rochambeau imported about 15,000 attack dogs from Jamaica, who had been trained to savage blacks and mulattoes. (Other sources suggest the dogs may have been dogo cubanos sourced in their hundreds from Cuba rather than Jamaica.) At the Bay of Le Cap, Rochambeau had blacks drowned. No one would eat fish from the bay for months afterward, as no one wished to eat the fish that had eaten human flesh. Bonaparte, hearing that most of his army in Saint-Domingue had died of yellow fever and the French held only Port-au-Prince , Le Cap , and Les Cayes , sent about 20,000 reinforcements to Rochambeau. Dessalines matched Rochambeau in his vicious cruelty. At Le Cap, when Rochambeau hanged 500 blacks, Dessalines replied by killing 500 whites and sticking their heads on spikes all around Le Cap, so that the French could see what he was planning on doing to them. Rochambeau's atrocities helped rally many former French loyalists to the rebel cause. Many on both sides had come to see the war as a race war where no mercy was to be given. The Haitians burned French prisoners alive, cut them up with axes, or tied them to a board and sawed them into two. With Napoleon's inability to send the requested massive reinforcements after the outbreak of war on 18 May 1803 with the British, the Royal Navy immediately despatched a squadron under Sir John Duckworth from Jamaica to cruise in the region, seeking to eliminate communication between the French outposts and to capture or destroy the French warships based in the colony. The Blockade of Saint-Domingue not only cut the French forces out from reinforcements and supplies from France, but also meant that the British began to supply arms to the Haitians. Trapped, engaged in a vicious race war, and with much of his army dying of yellow fever, Rochambeau fell to pieces. He lost interest in commanding his army and as James wrote, he "amused himself with sexual pleasures, military balls, banquets and the amassing of a personal fortune". The Royal Navy squadrons soon blockaded the French-held ports of Cap Français and Môle-Saint-Nicolas on the Northern coast of the French colony. In the summer of 1803, when war broke out between the United Kingdom and the French Consulate, Saint-Domingue had been almost completely overrun by Haitian forces under the command of Jean-Jacques Dessalines . In the north of the country, the French forces were isolated in the two large ports of Cap Français and Môle-Saint-Nicolas and a few smaller settlements, all supplied by a French naval force based primarily at Cap Français. On 28 June, the squadron encountered a French convoy from Les Cayes off Môle-Saint-Nicolas, capturing one ship although the other escaped. Two days later an independently sailing French frigate was chased down and captured in the same waters. On 24 July, another British squadron intercepted the main French squadron from Cap Français, which was attempting to break past the blockade and reach France. The British, led by Commodore John Loring gave chase, but one French ship of the line and a frigate escaped. Another ship of the line was trapped against the coast and captured after coming under fire from Haitian shore batteries. The remainder of the squadron was forced to fight two more actions on their return to Europe, but did eventually reach the Spanish port of Corunna . On 8 October 1803, the French abandoned Port-au-Prince as Rochambeau decided to concentrate what was left of his army at Le Cap. Dessalines marched into Port-au-Prince, where he was welcomed as a hero by the 100 whites who had chosen to stay behind. Dessalines thanked them all for their kindness and belief in racial equality, but then he said that the French had treated him as less than human when he was a slave, and so to avenge his mistreatment, he promptly had the 100 whites all hanged. On 3 November, the frigate HMS Blanche captured a supply schooner near Cap Français, the last hope in supplying the French forces. On 16 November 1803, Dessalines began attacking the French blockhouses outside of Le Cap. The last battle on land of the Haitian Revolution, the Battle of Vertières , occurred on 18 November 1803, near Cap-Haïtien fought between Dessalines' army and the remaining French colonial army under the Vicomte de Rochambeau; the slave rebels and freed revolutionary soldiers won the battle. By this point, Perry observed that both sides were "a little mad" as the pressures of the war and yellow fever had taken their toll, and both the French and the Haitians fought with a reckless courage, seeing death in battle as preferable to a slow death by yellow fever or being tortured to death by the enemy. Rochambeau, seeing defeat inevitable, procrastinated until the last possible moment, but eventually was forced to surrender to the British commander—by the end of the month the garrison was starving, having reached the conclusion at a council of war that surrender was the only way to escape from this "place of death". Commodore Loring, however, refused the French permission to sail and agreed terms with Dessalines that permitted them to safely evacuate provided they had left the port by 1 December. On the night of 30 November 1803, 8,000 French soldiers and hundreds of white civilians boarded the British ships to take them away. One of Rochambeau's ships was almost wrecked while leaving the harbour, but was saved by a British lieutenant acting alone, who not only rescued the 900 people on board, but also refloated the ship. At Môle-Saint-Nicolas, General Louis de Noailles refused to surrender and instead sailed to Havana, Cuba in a fleet of small vessels on 3 December, but was intercepted and mortally wounded by a Royal Navy frigate. Soon after, the few remaining French-held towns in Saint-Domingue surrendered to the Royal Navy to prevent massacres by the Haitian army. Meanwhile, Dessalines led the rebellion until its completion, when the French forces were finally defeated by the end of 1803. On 1 January 1804, from the city of Gonaïves , Dessalines officially declared the former colony's independence, renaming it "Haiti" after the indigenous Arawak name. Although he lasted from 1804 to 1806, several changes began taking place in Haiti. The independence of Haiti was a major blow to France and its colonial empire, but the French state would take several decades to recognize the loss of the colony. As the French retreated, Haiti, which had once been called the "Pearl of the Antilles", the richest French colony in the world, was impoverished, as its economy was in ruins after the revolution. Haiti struggled to recover economically from the war. The Haitians had paid a high price for their freedom, losing about 200,000 dead between 1791 and 1803, and unlike the majority of the European dead, who were killed by yellow fever, the majority of the Haitian dead were the victims of violence. In the early 21st century, historian Robert L. Scheina estimated that the slave rebellion resulted in the death of 350,000 Haitians and 50,000 European troops. According to the Encyclopedia of African American Politics , "Between 1791 and independence in 1804 nearly 200,000 blacks died, as did thousands of mulattoes and as many as 100,000 French and British soldiers." Yellow fever caused the most deaths. Geggus points out that at least 3 of every 5 British troops sent there in 1791–1797 died of disease. There has been considerable debate over whether the number of deaths caused by disease was exaggerated. An estimated 37,000 French soldiers were killed in action during the Haitian Revolution, exceeding the total French soldiers killed in action across various 19th-century colonial campaigns in Algeria, Mexico, Indochina, Tunisia, and West Africa, which resulted in approximately 10,000 French soldiers killed in action combined. Between 1793 and 1798, the expedition to Saint-Domingue had cost the British treasury four million pounds (in 1798 money) and 100,000 men either dead, wounded, or permanently disabled from the effects of yellow fever. On 1 January 1804, Dessalines, the new leader under the dictatorial 1805 constitution, declared Haiti a free republic in the name of the Haitian people, which was followed by the massacre of the remaining whites . His secretary Boisrond-Tonnerre stated, "For our declaration of independence, we should have the skin of a white man for parchment, his skull for an inkwell, his blood for ink, and a bayonet for a pen!" Haiti was the first independent nation in Latin America, the first post-colonial independent black-led nation in the world, and the only nation whose independence was gained as part of a successful slave rebellion. The country was damaged from years of war, its agriculture devastated, its formal commerce nonexistent. The country, therefore, had to be rebuilt. To realise this goal, Dessalines adopted the economic organisation of serfdom . He proclaimed that every citizen would belong to one of two categories, laborer or soldier. Furthermore, he proclaimed the mastery of the state over the individual and consequently ordered that all laborers would be bound to a plantation. Those that possessed skills outside of plantation work, like craftsmanship and artisans, were exempt from this ordinance. To avoid the appearance of slavery, however, Dessalines abolished the ultimate symbol of slavery, the whip. Likewise, the working day was shortened by a third. His chief motivator nonetheless was production, and to this aim he granted much freedom to the plantations' overseers. Barred from using the whip, many instead turned to lianes , which were thick vines abundant throughout the island, to persuade the laborers to keep working. Many of the workers likened the new labor system to slavery, much like Toussaint L'Ouverture's system, which caused resentment between Dessalines and his people. Workers were given a fourth of all wealth produced from their labor. Nevertheless, he succeeded in rebuilding much of the country and in raising production levels, thus slowly rebuilding the economy. Dessalines paid large sums of money to liberate slaves on slave ships near the Haitian coast. He paid for the expenses of the returns of the thousands of Haitian refugees that left during the revolution. Fearing a return of French forces, Dessalines first expanded and maintained a significant military force. During his reign, nearly 10% of able-bodied men were in active service resulting in a military force of up to 37,000 men. Furthermore, Dessalines ordered the construction of massive fortifications throughout the island, like the Citadelle Laferrière , the largest fortress in the Western Hemisphere. Cities and commercial centers were moved to the interior of the country, while less important ones were kept to the coast, so they could be burnt down completely to discourage the French; many commentators believe that this over militarization contributed to many of Haiti's future problems. In fact, because young fit men were the most likely to be drafted into the army, the plantations were thus deprived of the workforce needed to function properly. There was growing frustration between the workers, the elites, and Dessalines. A conspiracy led by the mulatto elites ultimately led to Dessalines assassination and two separate sovereign states of Haiti.The 1804 massacre was carried out against the remaining white population of French colonists and loyalists, both enemies and traitors of the revolution, by the black population of Haiti on the order of Jean-Jacques Dessalines , who declared the French as barbarians , demanding their expulsion and vengeance for their crimes. The massacre—which took place in the entire territory of Haiti—was carried out from early February 1804 until 22 April 1804. During February and March, Dessalines traveled among the cities of Haiti to assure himself that his orders were carried out. Despite his orders, the massacres were often not carried out until he personally visited the cities. The course of the massacre showed an almost identical pattern in every city he visited. Before his arrival, there were only a few killings, despite his orders. When Dessalines arrived, he first spoke about the atrocities committed by former French authorities, such as Rochambeau and Leclerc , after which he demanded that his orders about mass killings of the area's French population be carried out. Reportedly, he also ordered the unwilling to take part in the killings, especially men of mixed-race, so that blame would not rest solely on the black population. Mass killings then took place on the streets and on places outside the cities. In parallel to the killings, plundering and rape also occurred. Women and children were generally killed last. White women were "often raped or pushed into forced marriages under threat of death". By the end of April 1804, some 3,000 to 5,000 people had been killed practically eradicating the country's white population. Dessalines had specifically stated that France is "the real enemy of the new nation." This allowed certain categories of whites to be excluded from massacre who had to pledge their rejection to France: the Polish soldiers who deserted from the French army; the group of German colonists of Nord-Ouest who were inhabitants before the revolution; French widows who were allowed to keep their property; select male Frenchmen; and a group of medical doctors and professionals. Reportedly, also people with connections to Haitian notables were spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men. In the 1805 constitution that declared all its citizens as black , it specifically mentions the naturalizations of German and Polish peoples enacted by the government, as being exempt from Article XII that prohibited whites ("non-Haitians;" foreigners) from owning land. An independent government was created in Haiti, but the country's society remained deeply affected by patterns established under French colonial rule. As in other French colonial societies, a class of free people of color had developed after centuries of French rule here. Many planters or young unmarried men had relations with African or Afro-Caribbean women, sometimes providing for their freedom and that of their children, as well as providing for education of the mixed-race children, especially the boys. Some were sent to France for education and training, and some joined the French military. The mulattoes who returned to Saint-Domingue became the elite of the people of color. As an educated class used to the French political system, they became the elite of Haitian society after the war's end. Many of them had used their social capital to acquire wealth, and some already owned land. Some had identified more with the French colonists than the slaves. Many of the free people of color, by contrast, were raised in French culture, had certain rights within colonial society, and generally spoke French and practiced Catholicism (with syncretic absorption of African religions.) Following Dessaline's assassination, another of Toussaint's black generals, Henri Christophe , succeeded his in control of the north, while Alexandre Pétion presided over mulatto rule in the south. There were large differences in governance between Petion's republic, and what would eventually become Christophe's kingdom. While the southern republic did not have as much focus on economic development, and put more attention on liberal land distribution and education, the northern kingdom went on to become relatively wealthy, though wealth distribution was disputed. As a result of temporary trade agreements between Christophe, the United States, and British colonies, Christophe was able to rebuild the northern region. There were large investments in education and public works, military infrastructure, and many chateaux, the most notable being the Sans Souci palace in Milot. However, much like his predecessors, this was achieved through forced labor which ultimately led to his downfall. Contrarily, Petion was beloved by his people, but despised by his northern counterpart. A major effort by Christophe to take Port-au-Prince in mid–1812 failed. The mulattoes were harassed by a pocket of black rebellion in their rear from February 1807 to May 1819. A black leader named Goman kept alive the angry spirit of Dessalines in the southern mountains of the Grand-Anse, resisting several mulatto punitive expeditions. Finally, in 1819, the new mulatto leader, Jean-Pierre Boyer , sent six regiments into the Grand-Anse to ferret out Goman. The black rebel was trapped and shot off a 1,000-foot-high cliff. In 1820, the island nation was finally reunified when Christophe, ill and surrounded by new rebellions, killed himself. Boyer with 20,000 troops marched into Cap-Haïtien , the northern capital, shortly afterward to establish his power over all of Haiti. Not too long after, Boyer was able to secure cooperation with the general of the neighboring Spanish Haiti , and in February 1822 began a 22 year long unification with the eastern state. The nascent state's future was hobbled in 1825 when France under Charles X forced it (with French warships anchored off the coast during the negotiations ) to pay 150 million gold francs in reparations to French ex-slaveholders—as a condition of French political recognition and to end the newly formed state's political and economic isolation. By an order of 17 April 1825, the King of France renounced his rights of sovereignty over Santo Domingo, and recognized the independence of Haiti. President Jean-Pierre Boyer believed that the constant threat of a French invasion was stymieing the Haitian economy and thus felt the need to settle the matter once and for all. Though the amount of the reparations was reduced to 90 million francs in 1838, Haiti was unable to finish paying off its debt until 1947. The indemnity bankrupted the Haitian treasury and left the country's government deeply impoverished, causing long-term instability. Haiti was therefore forced to take out a loan from French banks, who provided the funds for the large first installment, severely affecting Haiti's ability to prosper. While Haiti suffered major economic setbacks during the early years of the post revolutionary era, the ideals of freedom and anti-colonialism never ceased to be part of the Haitian consciousness. Citizenship was offered to any slave or oppressed person that made it to Haiti's shores as mandated by Dessaline's constitution. All four of Haiti's earlier rulers, Dessalines, Christophe, Petion, and Boyer all had programs that involved swaying African Americans to resettle there and assure their freedom. Slave boats that were captured and brought to Haiti's shores resulted in the liberation and integration of all captives on board into Haitian society. On one occasion, President Alexandre Petion protected Jamaican slaves from re-enslavement after they escaped their plantation and landed in the southern city of Jérémie . On multiple occasions, Haiti's leaders offered asylum to liberal revolutionaries globally. One of the more notable examples of this included Haiti's involvement with Gran Colombia , where Dessalines and Petion both offered aid, ammunitions, and asylum to Francisco de Miranda and Simón Bolívar , who even went as far as to credit Haiti for the liberation of his country. [ citation needed ] Dessalines offered citizenship and assistance to slaves in Martinique and Guadeloupe so that they could start their own uprisings. Mexican nationalists, Francisco Javier Mina and José Joaquín de Herrera took asylum in Les Cayes and were welcomed by Petion during Mexico's War of Independence. The Greeks later received support from President Boyer during their fight against the Ottomans . The end of the Haitian Revolution in 1804 marked the end of French colonialism on the island. However, the social conflict cultivated under slavery continued to affect the population for years to come. Mulatto domination of politics and economics, and urban life after the revolution, created a different kind of two-caste society, as most Haitians were rural subsistence farmers. The affranchi élite, who continued to rule Haiti while the formidable Haitian army kept them in power. France continued the slavery system in French Guiana , Martinique , and Guadeloupe . The nascent state's future was hobbled in 1825 when France under Charles X forced it (with French warships anchored off the coast during the negotiations ) to pay 150 million gold francs in reparations to French ex-slaveholders—as a condition of French political recognition and to end the newly formed state's political and economic isolation. By an order of 17 April 1825, the King of France renounced his rights of sovereignty over Santo Domingo, and recognized the independence of Haiti. President Jean-Pierre Boyer believed that the constant threat of a French invasion was stymieing the Haitian economy and thus felt the need to settle the matter once and for all. Though the amount of the reparations was reduced to 90 million francs in 1838, Haiti was unable to finish paying off its debt until 1947. The indemnity bankrupted the Haitian treasury and left the country's government deeply impoverished, causing long-term instability. Haiti was therefore forced to take out a loan from French banks, who provided the funds for the large first installment, severely affecting Haiti's ability to prosper.While Haiti suffered major economic setbacks during the early years of the post revolutionary era, the ideals of freedom and anti-colonialism never ceased to be part of the Haitian consciousness. Citizenship was offered to any slave or oppressed person that made it to Haiti's shores as mandated by Dessaline's constitution. All four of Haiti's earlier rulers, Dessalines, Christophe, Petion, and Boyer all had programs that involved swaying African Americans to resettle there and assure their freedom. Slave boats that were captured and brought to Haiti's shores resulted in the liberation and integration of all captives on board into Haitian society. On one occasion, President Alexandre Petion protected Jamaican slaves from re-enslavement after they escaped their plantation and landed in the southern city of Jérémie . On multiple occasions, Haiti's leaders offered asylum to liberal revolutionaries globally. One of the more notable examples of this included Haiti's involvement with Gran Colombia , where Dessalines and Petion both offered aid, ammunitions, and asylum to Francisco de Miranda and Simón Bolívar , who even went as far as to credit Haiti for the liberation of his country. [ citation needed ] Dessalines offered citizenship and assistance to slaves in Martinique and Guadeloupe so that they could start their own uprisings. Mexican nationalists, Francisco Javier Mina and José Joaquín de Herrera took asylum in Les Cayes and were welcomed by Petion during Mexico's War of Independence. The Greeks later received support from President Boyer during their fight against the Ottomans . The end of the Haitian Revolution in 1804 marked the end of French colonialism on the island. However, the social conflict cultivated under slavery continued to affect the population for years to come. Mulatto domination of politics and economics, and urban life after the revolution, created a different kind of two-caste society, as most Haitians were rural subsistence farmers. The affranchi élite, who continued to rule Haiti while the formidable Haitian army kept them in power. France continued the slavery system in French Guiana , Martinique , and Guadeloupe . Historians continue to debate the importance of the Haitian Revolution. David Geggus asks: "How much of a difference did it make?" A limited amount, he concludes, for slavery flourished in the western hemisphere for many more decades. In the opposing camp, African American historian W. E. B. Du Bois said that the Haitian Revolution was an economic pressure without which the British parliament would not have accepted abolitionism as readily. Other historians say the Haitian Revolution influenced slave rebellions in the U.S. as well as in British colonies. The biggest slave revolt in U.S. history was the 1811 German Coast uprising in Louisiana. This slave rebellion was put down and the punishment the slaves received was so severe that no contemporary news reports about it exist. The neighboring revolution brought the slavery question to the forefront of U.S. politics, and though inspiring to the enslaved themselves the resulting intensification of racial divides and sectional politics ended the idealism of the Revolutionary period. The American President Thomas Jefferson—who was a slaveholder himself—refused to establish diplomatic relations with Haiti (the United States did not recognize Haiti until 1862) and imposed an economic embargo on trade with Haiti that also lasted until 1862 in an attempt to ensure the economic failure of the new republic as Jefferson wanted Haiti to fail, regarding a successful slave revolt in the West Indies as a dangerous example for American slaves. Beginning during the slave insurrections of 1791, white refugees from Saint-Domingue fled to the United States, particularly to Philadelphia, Baltimore , New York, and Charleston. The immigration intensified after the journée (crisis) of 20 June 1793, and soon American families began to raise money and open up their homes to help exiles in what became the United States' first refugee crisis. While some white refugees blamed the French Revolutionary government for sparking the violence in Haiti, many supported the Republican regime and openly expressed their support of the Jacobins . There is also some historical evidence suggesting that displaying solidarity with the French Revolution was the easiest way for the refugees to earn the support and sympathy of the Americans, who had just recently lived through their own revolution. American slaveholders, in particular, commiserated with the French planters who had been forcibly removed from their plantations in Saint-Domingue. While the exiles found themselves in a peaceful situation in the United States—safe from the violence raging in both France and Haiti—their presence complicated the already precarious diplomatic relations among Britain, France, and the U.S. Many of the whites and free people of color who left Saint-Domingue for the United States settled in southern Louisiana, adding many new members to its French-speaking, mixed-race, and black populations. The exiles causing the most alarm were the African slaves who came with their refugee owners. Some southern planters grew concerned that the presence of these slaves who had witnessed the revolution in Haiti would ignite similar revolts in the United States. Other planters, however, were confident they had the situation under control. In 1807, Haiti was divided into two parts, the Republic of Haiti in the south, and the Kingdom of Haiti in the north. Land could not be privately owned; it reverted to the State through Biens Nationaux (national bonds), and no French whites could own land. The remaining French settlers were forced to leave the island. Those who refused were slaughtered. The Haitian State owned up to 90% of the land and the other 10% was leased in 5-year intervals. Since the resistance and the murderous disease environment made it impossible for Napoleon to regain control over Haiti, he gave up hope of rebuilding a French New World empire. He decided to sell Louisiana to the U.S. The Haitian Revolution brought about two unintended consequences: the creation of a continental America and the virtual end of Napoleonic rule in the Americas. There never again was such a large-scale slave rebellion. Napoleon reversed the French abolition of slavery in law, constitution, and practice, which had occurred between 1793 and 1801, and reinstated slavery in the French colonies in 1801–1803—which lasted until 1848.The Haitian Revolution was a revolution ignited from below, by the underrepresented majority of the population. A huge majority of the supporters of the Haitian revolution were slaves and freed Africans who were severely discriminated against by colonial society and the law. Despite the idealist, rational and utopian thinking surrounding both uprisings, extreme brutality was a fundamental aspect of both uprisings. Besides initial cruelty that created the precarious conditions that bred the revolution, there was violence from both sides throughout the revolution. The period of violence during the French Revolution is known as the Reign of Terror . Waves of suspicion meant that the government rounded up and killed thousands of suspects, ranging from known aristocrats to people thought to oppose the leaders. They were killed by guillotine, "breaking at the wheel", mobs and other death machines: death toll estimates range from 18,000 to 40,000. Total casualties for the French Revolution are estimated at 2 million. In the Caribbean, total casualties totaled approximately 162,000. Violence in Haiti was largely characterized by military confrontations, riots, killing of slave owners and their families, and guerrilla warfare. The Revolution in Haiti did not wait on the Revolution in France. The call for modification of society was influenced by the revolution in France, but once the hope for change found a place in the hearts of the Haitian people, there was no stopping the radical reformation that was occurring. The Enlightenment ideals and the initiation of the French Revolution were enough to inspire the Haitian Revolution, which evolved into the most successful and comprehensive slave rebellion in history. Just as the French were successful in transforming their society, so were the Haitians. On 4 April 1792, the French Legislative Assembly granted freedom to slaves in Saint-Domingue. The revolution culminated in 1804; Haiti was an independent state solely of freed peoples. The activities of the revolutions sparked change across the world. France's transformation was most influential in Europe, and Haiti's influence spanned every location that continued to practice slavery. John E. Baur honors Haiti as home of the most influential revolution in history. The Haitian Revolution was a revolution ignited from below, by the underrepresented majority of the population. A huge majority of the supporters of the Haitian revolution were slaves and freed Africans who were severely discriminated against by colonial society and the law. Despite the idealist, rational and utopian thinking surrounding both uprisings, extreme brutality was a fundamental aspect of both uprisings. Besides initial cruelty that created the precarious conditions that bred the revolution, there was violence from both sides throughout the revolution. The period of violence during the French Revolution is known as the Reign of Terror . Waves of suspicion meant that the government rounded up and killed thousands of suspects, ranging from known aristocrats to people thought to oppose the leaders. They were killed by guillotine, "breaking at the wheel", mobs and other death machines: death toll estimates range from 18,000 to 40,000. Total casualties for the French Revolution are estimated at 2 million. In the Caribbean, total casualties totaled approximately 162,000. Violence in Haiti was largely characterized by military confrontations, riots, killing of slave owners and their families, and guerrilla warfare. The Revolution in Haiti did not wait on the Revolution in France. The call for modification of society was influenced by the revolution in France, but once the hope for change found a place in the hearts of the Haitian people, there was no stopping the radical reformation that was occurring. The Enlightenment ideals and the initiation of the French Revolution were enough to inspire the Haitian Revolution, which evolved into the most successful and comprehensive slave rebellion in history. Just as the French were successful in transforming their society, so were the Haitians. On 4 April 1792, the French Legislative Assembly granted freedom to slaves in Saint-Domingue. The revolution culminated in 1804; Haiti was an independent state solely of freed peoples. The activities of the revolutions sparked change across the world. France's transformation was most influential in Europe, and Haiti's influence spanned every location that continued to practice slavery. John E. Baur honors Haiti as home of the most influential revolution in history. While acknowledging the cross-influences, most contemporary historians [ who? ] distinguish the Haitian Revolution from the French Revolution . Some [ who? ] also separate it from the earlier armed conflicts by free men of color who were seeking expansion of political rights for themselves, but not the abolition of slavery . These scholars show that if the agency of the enslaved blacks becomes the focus of studies, the Revolution's opening and closing dates are certain. From this premise, the narrative began with the enslaved blacks' bid for freedom through armed struggle and concluded with their victory over slavery powers and the creation of an independent state. In April 1791, a massive black insurgency in the north of the island rose violently against the plantation system , setting a precedent of resistance to racial slavery. In cooperation with their former mulatto rivals, blacks ended the Revolution in November 1803 when they decidedly defeated the French Army at the Battle of Vertières . The French had already lost a high proportion of their troops to yellow fever and other diseases. After acknowledging defeat in Saint-Domingue, Napoleon withdrew from North America, agreeing to the Louisiana Purchase by the United States. Although the series of events during these years is known under the name of "Haitian Revolution", alternative views suggest that the entire affair was an assorted number of coincidental conflicts that ended with a fragile truce between free men of color and blacks. [ failed verification ] Historians debate whether the victorious Haitians were "intrinsically [a] revolutionary force". One thing is certain: Haiti became an independent country on 1 January 1804, when the council of generals chose Jean-Jacques Dessalines to assume the office of governor-general. One of the state's first significant documents was Dessaliness' "Liberty or Death" speech, which circulated broadly in the foreign press. In it, the new head of state made the case for the new nation's objective: the permanent abolition of slavery in Haiti. The role of women in the Haitian Revolution was for a long time given little attention by historians, but has in recent years garnered significant attention. The revolution of African slaves brought many fears to colonies surrounding Haiti and the Caribbean. Prominent wealthy American slave owners , reading about the revolution, also read speculation about what might come in their own states. Anti-abolitionist critics of the revolution dubbed it "the horrors of Santo Domingo". However, newspapers like the Columbian Centinel took extra steps to support the revolution, comparing it to the American Revolution . The French media also played an important role in the Haitian Revolution, with contributions that made many French upstarts quite interested in the young, passionate Toussaint's writings of freedom. There were many written discussions about the events in Haiti during the revolution in both France and England, however, they were generally written by anonymous authors. These texts also generally fell into two camps—one being proslavery authors who warned of a repetition of the violence of St. Domingue wherever abolition occurred; and the other being abolitionist authors who countered that white owners had sown the seeds of revolution. However, all was not simple in the press. A top critic who significantly drove Toussaint into fear of backlash from France was Sonthonax , who was responsible for many outlooks of Haiti in the French newspapers. Yet Sonthonax was one of the few contenders who truly pushed for the independence of the African slaves and became a major factor in Toussaint's decision of declaring independence from France.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Typhoid_fever/html

Typhoid fever

Among untreated acute cases, 10% will shed bacteria for three months after initial onset of symptoms, and 2–5% will become chronic typhoid carriers. 99j Typhoid fever , also known simply as typhoid , is a disease caused by Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi bacteria, also called Salmonella typhi . Symptoms vary from mild to severe, and usually begin six to 30 days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days. This is commonly accompanied by weakness, abdominal pain , constipation , headaches , and mild vomiting. Some people develop a skin rash with rose colored spots . In severe cases, people may experience confusion. Without treatment, symptoms may last weeks or months. Diarrhea may be severe, but is uncommon. Other people may carry it without being affected, but are still contagious. Typhoid fever is a type of enteric fever, along with paratyphoid fever . Salmonella enterica Typhi is believed to infect and replicate only within humans. Typhoid is caused by the bacterium Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi growing in the intestines , Peyer's patches , mesenteric lymph nodes , spleen , liver , gallbladder , bone marrow and blood . Typhoid is spread by eating or drinking food or water contaminated with the feces of an infected person. Risk factors include limited access to clean drinking water and poor sanitation . Those who have not yet been exposed to it and ingest contaminated drinking water or food are most at risk for developing symptoms. Only humans can be infected; there are no known animal reservoirs. Salmonella Typhi which causes typhoid fever is different than the other Salmonella bacteria that usually cause salmonellosis , a common type of food poisoning. Diagnosis is performed by culturing and identifying S. enterica typhi from patient samples or detecting an immune response to the pathogen from blood samples . Recently, new advances in large-scale data collection and analysis have allowed researchers to develop better diagnostics, such as detecting changing abundances of small molecules in the blood that may specifically indicate typhoid fever. Diagnostic tools in regions where typhoid is most prevalent are quite limited in their accuracy and specificity, and the time required for a proper diagnosis, the increasing spread of antibiotic resistance , and the cost of testing are also hardships for under-resourced healthcare systems. A typhoid vaccine can prevent about 40% to 90% of cases during the first two years. The vaccine may have some effect for up to seven years. For those at high risk or people traveling to areas where it is common, vaccination is recommended. Other efforts to prevent it include providing clean drinking water , good sanitation , and handwashing . Until an infection is confirmed as cleared, the infected person should not prepare food for others. Typhoid is treated with antibiotics such as azithromycin , fluoroquinolones , or third-generation cephalosporins . Resistance to these antibiotics has been developing, which has made treatment more difficult. In 2015, 12.5 million new typhoid cases were reported. The disease is most common in India. Children are most commonly affected. Typhoid decreased in the developed world in the 1940s as a result of improved sanitation and the use of antibiotics. Every year about 400 cases are reported in the U.S. and an estimated 6,000 people have typhoid. In 2015, it resulted in about 149,000 deaths worldwide – down from 181,000 in 1990. Without treatment, the risk of death may be as high as 20%. With treatment, it is between 1% and 4%. Typhus is a different disease, caused by unrelated species of bacteria. Owing to their similar symptoms, they were not recognized as distinct diseases until the 1800s. "Typhoid" means "resembling typhus". Classically, the progression of untreated typhoid fever has three distinct stages, each lasting about a week. Over the course of these stages, the patient becomes exhausted and emaciated. The Gram-negative bacterium that causes typhoid fever is Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi. Based on MLST subtyping scheme, the two main sequence types of the S. Typhi are ST1 and ST2, which are widespread globally. Global phylogeographical analysis showed dominance of a haplotype 58 (H58), which probably originated in India during the late 1980s and is now spreading through the world with multi-drug resistance . A more detailed genotyping scheme was reported in 2016 and is now being used widely. This scheme reclassified the nomenclature of H58 to genotype 4.3.1. Unlike other strains of Salmonella , no animal carriers of typhoid are known. Humans are the only known carriers of the bacterium. S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi is spread by the fecal-oral route from people who are infected and from asymptomatic carriers of the bacterium. An asymptomatic human carrier is someone who is still excreting typhoid bacteria in stool a year after the acute stage of the infection. The Gram-negative bacterium that causes typhoid fever is Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi. Based on MLST subtyping scheme, the two main sequence types of the S. Typhi are ST1 and ST2, which are widespread globally. Global phylogeographical analysis showed dominance of a haplotype 58 (H58), which probably originated in India during the late 1980s and is now spreading through the world with multi-drug resistance . A more detailed genotyping scheme was reported in 2016 and is now being used widely. This scheme reclassified the nomenclature of H58 to genotype 4.3.1. Unlike other strains of Salmonella , no animal carriers of typhoid are known. Humans are the only known carriers of the bacterium. S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi is spread by the fecal-oral route from people who are infected and from asymptomatic carriers of the bacterium. An asymptomatic human carrier is someone who is still excreting typhoid bacteria in stool a year after the acute stage of the infection. Diagnosis is made by any blood , bone marrow , or stool cultures and with the Widal test (demonstration of antibodies against Salmonella antigens O-somatic and H-flagellar ). In epidemics and less wealthy countries, after excluding malaria , dysentery , or pneumonia , a therapeutic trial time with chloramphenicol is generally undertaken while awaiting the results of the Widal test and blood and stool cultures. The Widal test is used to identify specific antibodies in the serum of people with typhoid by using antigen-antibody interactions. In this test, the serum is mixed with a dead bacterial suspension of salmonella with specific antigens. If the patient's serum contains antibodies against those antigens, they get attached to them, forming clumps. If clumping does not occur, the test is negative. The Widal test is time-consuming and prone to significant false positives. It may also be falsely negative in recently infected people. But unlike the Typhidot test, the Widal test quantifies the specimen with titres . Rapid diagnostic tests such as Tubex, Typhidot, and Test-It have shown moderate diagnostic accuracy. Typhidot is based on the presence of specific IgM and IgG antibodies to a specific 50 Kd OMP antigen. This test is carried out on a cellulose nitrate membrane where a specific S. typhi outer membrane protein is attached as fixed test lines. It separately identifies IgM and IgG antibodies. IgM shows recent infection; IgG signifies remote infection. [ citation needed ] The sample pad of this kit contains colloidal gold-anti-human IgG or gold-anti-human IgM. If the sample contains IgG and IgM antibodies against those antigens, they will react and turn red. The typhidot test becomes positive within 2–3 days of infection. [ citation needed ] Two colored bands indicate a positive test. A single control band indicates a negative test. A single first fixed line or no band at all indicates an invalid test. Typhidot's biggest limitation is that it is not quantitative, just positive or negative. The Tubex test contains two types of particles: brown magnetic particles coated with antigen and blue indicator particles coated with O9 antibody. During the test, if antibodies are present in the serum, they will attach to the brown magnetic particles and settle at the base, while the blue indicator particles remain in the solution, producing a blue color, which means the test is positive. [ citation needed ] If the serum does not have an antibody in it, the blue particles attach to the brown particles and settle at the bottom, producing a colorless solution, which means the test is negative. The Widal test is used to identify specific antibodies in the serum of people with typhoid by using antigen-antibody interactions. In this test, the serum is mixed with a dead bacterial suspension of salmonella with specific antigens. If the patient's serum contains antibodies against those antigens, they get attached to them, forming clumps. If clumping does not occur, the test is negative. The Widal test is time-consuming and prone to significant false positives. It may also be falsely negative in recently infected people. But unlike the Typhidot test, the Widal test quantifies the specimen with titres . Rapid diagnostic tests such as Tubex, Typhidot, and Test-It have shown moderate diagnostic accuracy. Typhidot is based on the presence of specific IgM and IgG antibodies to a specific 50 Kd OMP antigen. This test is carried out on a cellulose nitrate membrane where a specific S. typhi outer membrane protein is attached as fixed test lines. It separately identifies IgM and IgG antibodies. IgM shows recent infection; IgG signifies remote infection. [ citation needed ] The sample pad of this kit contains colloidal gold-anti-human IgG or gold-anti-human IgM. If the sample contains IgG and IgM antibodies against those antigens, they will react and turn red. The typhidot test becomes positive within 2–3 days of infection. [ citation needed ] Two colored bands indicate a positive test. A single control band indicates a negative test. A single first fixed line or no band at all indicates an invalid test. Typhidot's biggest limitation is that it is not quantitative, just positive or negative. The Tubex test contains two types of particles: brown magnetic particles coated with antigen and blue indicator particles coated with O9 antibody. During the test, if antibodies are present in the serum, they will attach to the brown magnetic particles and settle at the base, while the blue indicator particles remain in the solution, producing a blue color, which means the test is positive. [ citation needed ] If the serum does not have an antibody in it, the blue particles attach to the brown particles and settle at the bottom, producing a colorless solution, which means the test is negative. Typhidot is based on the presence of specific IgM and IgG antibodies to a specific 50 Kd OMP antigen. This test is carried out on a cellulose nitrate membrane where a specific S. typhi outer membrane protein is attached as fixed test lines. It separately identifies IgM and IgG antibodies. IgM shows recent infection; IgG signifies remote infection. [ citation needed ] The sample pad of this kit contains colloidal gold-anti-human IgG or gold-anti-human IgM. If the sample contains IgG and IgM antibodies against those antigens, they will react and turn red. The typhidot test becomes positive within 2–3 days of infection. [ citation needed ] Two colored bands indicate a positive test. A single control band indicates a negative test. A single first fixed line or no band at all indicates an invalid test. Typhidot's biggest limitation is that it is not quantitative, just positive or negative. The Tubex test contains two types of particles: brown magnetic particles coated with antigen and blue indicator particles coated with O9 antibody. During the test, if antibodies are present in the serum, they will attach to the brown magnetic particles and settle at the base, while the blue indicator particles remain in the solution, producing a blue color, which means the test is positive. [ citation needed ] If the serum does not have an antibody in it, the blue particles attach to the brown particles and settle at the bottom, producing a colorless solution, which means the test is negative. Sanitation and hygiene are important to prevent typhoid. It can spread only in environments where human feces can come into contact with food or drinking water. Careful food preparation and washing of hands are crucial to prevent typhoid. Industrialization contributed greatly to the elimination of typhoid fever, as it eliminated the public-health hazards associated with having horse manure in public streets, which led to a large number of flies, which are vectors of many pathogens, including Salmonella spp. According to statistics from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , the chlorination of drinking water has led to dramatic decreases in the transmission of typhoid fever. Two typhoid vaccines are licensed for use for the prevention of typhoid: the live, oral Ty21a vaccine (sold as Vivotif by Crucell Switzerland AG) and the injectable typhoid polysaccharide vaccine (sold as Typhim Vi by Sanofi Pasteur and Typherix by GlaxoSmithKline ). Both are efficacious and recommended for travelers to areas where typhoid is endemic. Boosters are recommended every five years for the oral vaccine and every two years for the injectable form. An older, killed whole-cell vaccine is still used in countries where the newer preparations are not available, but this vaccine is no longer recommended for use because it has more side effects (mainly pain and inflammation at the site of the injection). To help decrease rates of typhoid fever in developing nations , the World Health Organization (WHO) endorsed the use of a vaccination program starting in 1999. Vaccination has proven effective at controlling outbreaks in high-incidence areas and is also very cost-effective: prices are normally less than US$1 per dose. Because the price is low, poverty-stricken communities are more willing to take advantage of the vaccinations. Although vaccination programs for typhoid have proven effective, they alone cannot eliminate typhoid fever. Combining vaccines with public-health efforts is the only proven way to control this disease. Since the 1990s, the WHO has recommended two typhoid fever vaccines. The ViPS vaccine is given by injection, and the Ty21a by capsules. Only people over age two are recommended to be vaccinated with the ViPS vaccine, and it requires a revaccination after 2–3 years, with a 55%–72% efficacy. The Ty21a vaccine is recommended for people five and older, lasting 5–7 years with 51%–67% efficacy. The two vaccines have proved safe and effective for epidemic disease control in multiple regions. A version of the vaccine combined with a hepatitis A vaccine is also available. Results of a phase 3 trial of typhoid conjugate vaccine (TCV) in December 2019 reported 81% fewer cases among children. Two typhoid vaccines are licensed for use for the prevention of typhoid: the live, oral Ty21a vaccine (sold as Vivotif by Crucell Switzerland AG) and the injectable typhoid polysaccharide vaccine (sold as Typhim Vi by Sanofi Pasteur and Typherix by GlaxoSmithKline ). Both are efficacious and recommended for travelers to areas where typhoid is endemic. Boosters are recommended every five years for the oral vaccine and every two years for the injectable form. An older, killed whole-cell vaccine is still used in countries where the newer preparations are not available, but this vaccine is no longer recommended for use because it has more side effects (mainly pain and inflammation at the site of the injection). To help decrease rates of typhoid fever in developing nations , the World Health Organization (WHO) endorsed the use of a vaccination program starting in 1999. Vaccination has proven effective at controlling outbreaks in high-incidence areas and is also very cost-effective: prices are normally less than US$1 per dose. Because the price is low, poverty-stricken communities are more willing to take advantage of the vaccinations. Although vaccination programs for typhoid have proven effective, they alone cannot eliminate typhoid fever. Combining vaccines with public-health efforts is the only proven way to control this disease. Since the 1990s, the WHO has recommended two typhoid fever vaccines. The ViPS vaccine is given by injection, and the Ty21a by capsules. Only people over age two are recommended to be vaccinated with the ViPS vaccine, and it requires a revaccination after 2–3 years, with a 55%–72% efficacy. The Ty21a vaccine is recommended for people five and older, lasting 5–7 years with 51%–67% efficacy. The two vaccines have proved safe and effective for epidemic disease control in multiple regions. A version of the vaccine combined with a hepatitis A vaccine is also available. Results of a phase 3 trial of typhoid conjugate vaccine (TCV) in December 2019 reported 81% fewer cases among children. The rediscovery of oral rehydration therapy in the 1960s provided a simple way to prevent many of the deaths of diarrheal diseases in general. Where resistance is uncommon, the treatment of choice is a fluoroquinolone such as ciprofloxacin . Otherwise, a third-generation cephalosporin such as ceftriaxone or cefotaxime is the first choice. Cefixime is a suitable oral alternative. Properly treated, typhoid fever is not fatal in most cases. Antibiotics such as ampicillin , chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole , amoxicillin , and ciprofloxacin have been commonly used to treat it. Treatment with antibiotics reduces the case-fatality rate to about 1%. Without treatment, some patients develop sustained fever, bradycardia, hepatosplenomegaly, abdominal symptoms, and occasionally pneumonia. In white-skinned patients, pink spots, which fade on pressure, appear on the skin of the trunk in up to 20% of cases. In the third week, untreated cases may develop gastrointestinal and cerebral complications, which may prove fatal in 10%–20% of cases. The highest case fatality rates are reported in children under 4. Around 2%–5% of those who contract typhoid fever become chronic carriers, as bacteria persist in the biliary tract after symptoms have resolved. Surgery is usually indicated if intestinal perforation occurs. One study found a 30-day mortality rate of 9% (8/88), and surgical site infections at 67% (59/88), with the disease burden borne predominantly by low-resource countries. For surgical treatment, most surgeons prefer simple closure of the perforation with drainage of the peritoneum . Small-bowel resection is indicated for patients with multiple perforations. If antibiotic treatment fails to eradicate the hepatobiliary carriage, the gallbladder should be resected. Cholecystectomy is sometimes successful, especially in patients with gallstones , but is not always successful in eradicating the carrier state because of persisting hepatic infection. As resistance to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and streptomycin is now common, these agents are no longer used as first–line treatment of typhoid fever. Typhoid resistant to these agents is known as multidrug-resistant typhoid. Ciprofloxacin resistance is an increasing problem, especially in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia . Many centres are shifting from ciprofloxacin to ceftriaxone as the first line for treating suspected typhoid originating in South America, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand, or Vietnam. Also, it has been suggested that azithromycin is better at treating resistant typhoid than both fluoroquinolone drugs and ceftriaxone. Azithromycin can be taken by mouth and is less expensive than ceftriaxone, which is given by injection. A separate problem exists with laboratory testing for reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin; current recommendations are that isolates should be tested simultaneously against ciprofloxacin (CIP) and against nalidixic acid (NAL), that isolates sensitive to both CIP and NAL should be reported as "sensitive to ciprofloxacin", and that isolates sensitive to CIP but not to NAL should be reported as "reduced sensitivity to ciprofloxacin". But an analysis of 271 isolates found that around 18% of isolates with a reduced susceptibility to fluoroquinolones , the class which CIP belongs ( MIC 0.125–1.0 mg/L), would not be detected by this method. The rediscovery of oral rehydration therapy in the 1960s provided a simple way to prevent many of the deaths of diarrheal diseases in general. Where resistance is uncommon, the treatment of choice is a fluoroquinolone such as ciprofloxacin . Otherwise, a third-generation cephalosporin such as ceftriaxone or cefotaxime is the first choice. Cefixime is a suitable oral alternative. Properly treated, typhoid fever is not fatal in most cases. Antibiotics such as ampicillin , chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole , amoxicillin , and ciprofloxacin have been commonly used to treat it. Treatment with antibiotics reduces the case-fatality rate to about 1%. Without treatment, some patients develop sustained fever, bradycardia, hepatosplenomegaly, abdominal symptoms, and occasionally pneumonia. In white-skinned patients, pink spots, which fade on pressure, appear on the skin of the trunk in up to 20% of cases. In the third week, untreated cases may develop gastrointestinal and cerebral complications, which may prove fatal in 10%–20% of cases. The highest case fatality rates are reported in children under 4. Around 2%–5% of those who contract typhoid fever become chronic carriers, as bacteria persist in the biliary tract after symptoms have resolved. Surgery is usually indicated if intestinal perforation occurs. One study found a 30-day mortality rate of 9% (8/88), and surgical site infections at 67% (59/88), with the disease burden borne predominantly by low-resource countries. For surgical treatment, most surgeons prefer simple closure of the perforation with drainage of the peritoneum . Small-bowel resection is indicated for patients with multiple perforations. If antibiotic treatment fails to eradicate the hepatobiliary carriage, the gallbladder should be resected. Cholecystectomy is sometimes successful, especially in patients with gallstones , but is not always successful in eradicating the carrier state because of persisting hepatic infection. As resistance to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and streptomycin is now common, these agents are no longer used as first–line treatment of typhoid fever. Typhoid resistant to these agents is known as multidrug-resistant typhoid. Ciprofloxacin resistance is an increasing problem, especially in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia . Many centres are shifting from ciprofloxacin to ceftriaxone as the first line for treating suspected typhoid originating in South America, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand, or Vietnam. Also, it has been suggested that azithromycin is better at treating resistant typhoid than both fluoroquinolone drugs and ceftriaxone. Azithromycin can be taken by mouth and is less expensive than ceftriaxone, which is given by injection. A separate problem exists with laboratory testing for reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin; current recommendations are that isolates should be tested simultaneously against ciprofloxacin (CIP) and against nalidixic acid (NAL), that isolates sensitive to both CIP and NAL should be reported as "sensitive to ciprofloxacin", and that isolates sensitive to CIP but not to NAL should be reported as "reduced sensitivity to ciprofloxacin". But an analysis of 271 isolates found that around 18% of isolates with a reduced susceptibility to fluoroquinolones , the class which CIP belongs ( MIC 0.125–1.0 mg/L), would not be detected by this method. In 2000, typhoid fever caused an estimated 21.7 million illnesses and 217,000 deaths. It occurs most often in children and young adults between 5 and 19 years old. In 2013, it resulted in about 161,000 deaths – down from 181,000 in 1990. Infants, children, and adolescents in south-central and Southeast Asia have the highest rates of typhoid. Outbreaks are also often reported in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia. In 2000, more than 90% of morbidity and mortality due to typhoid fever occurred in Asia. In the U.S., about 400 cases occur each year, 75% of which are acquired while traveling internationally. Before the antibiotic era, the case fatality rate of typhoid fever was 10%–20%. Today, with prompt treatment, it is less than 1%, but 3%–5% of people who are infected develop a chronic infection in the gall bladder. Since S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi is human-restricted, these chronic carriers become the crucial reservoir, which can persist for decades for further spread of the disease, further complicating its identification and treatment. Lately, the study of S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi associated with a large outbreak and a carrier at the genome level provides new insight into the pathogenesis of the pathogen. In industrialized nations, water sanitation and food handling improvements have reduced the number of typhoid cases. Third world nations have the highest rates. These areas lack access to clean water, proper sanitation systems, and proper health-care facilities. In these areas, such access to basic public-health needs is not expected in the near future. In 2004–2005 an outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo resulted in more than 42,000 cases and 214 deaths. Since November 2016, Pakistan has had an outbreak of extensively drug-resistant (XDR) typhoid fever. In Europe, a report based on data for 2017 retrieved from The European Surveillance System (TESSy) on the distribution of confirmed typhoid and paratyphoid fever cases found that 22 EU/EEA countries reported a total of 1,098 cases, 90.9% of which were travel-related, mainly acquired during travel to South Asia . The plague of Athens , during the Peloponnesian War , was most likely an outbreak of typhoid fever. During the war, Athenians retreated into a walled-in city to escape attack from the Spartans . This massive influx of humans into a concentrated space overwhelmed the water supply and waste infrastructure, likely leading to unsanitary conditions as fresh water became harder to obtain and waste became more difficult to collect and remove beyond the city walls. In 2006, examining the remains for a mass burial site from Athens from around the time of the plague (~430 B.C.) revealed that fragments of DNA similar to modern day S. Typhi DNA were detected, whereas Yersinia pestis (plague), Rickettsia prowazekii (typhus), Mycobacterium tuberculosis , cowpox virus , and Bartonella henselae were not detected in any of the remains tested. It is possible that the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar had either a liver abscess or typhoid fever, and survived by using ice baths and cold compresses as a means of treatment for his fever. There is a statue of the Greek physician, Antonius Musa , who treated his fever. [ citation needed ] The French doctors Pierre-Fidele Bretonneau and Pierre-Charles-Alexandre Louis are credited with describing typhoid fever as a specific disease, unique from typhus . Both doctors performed autopsies on individuals who died in Paris due to fever – and indicated that many had lesions on the Peyer's patches which correlated with distinct symptoms before death. British medics were skeptical of the differentiation between typhoid and typhus because both were endemic to Britain at that time. However, in France only typhoid was present circulating in the population. Pierre-Charlles-Alexandre Louis also performed case studies and statistical analysis to demonstrate that typhoid was contagious – and that persons who already had the disease seemed to be protected. Afterward, several American doctors confirmed these findings, and then Sir William Jenner convinced any remaining skeptics that typhoid is a specific disease recognizable by lesions in the Peyer's patches by examining sixty-six autopsies from fever patients and concluding that the symptoms of headaches, diarrhea, rash spots, and abdominal pain were present only in patients who were found to have intestinal lesions after death; these observations solidified the association of the disease with the intestinal tract and gave the first clue to the route of transmission. In 1847 William Budd learned of an epidemic of typhoid fever in Clifton, and identified that all 13 of 34 residents who had contracted the disease drew their drinking water from the same well. Notably, this observation was two years prior to John Snow first publishing an early version of his theory that contaminated water was the central conduit for transmitting cholera . Budd later became health officer of Bristol and ensured a clean water supply, and documented further evidence of typhoid as a water-borne illness throughout his career. Polish scientist Tadeusz Browicz described a short bacillus in the organs and feces of typhoid victims in 1874. Browicz was able to isolate and grow the bacilli but did not go as far as to insinuate or prove that they caused the disease. In April 1880, three months prior to Eberth's publication, Edwin Klebs described short and filamentous bacilli in the Peyer's patches in typhoid victims. The bacterium's role in disease was speculated but not confirmed. In 1880, Karl Joseph Eberth described a bacillus that he suspected was the cause of typhoid. Eberth is given credit for discovering the bacterium definitively by successfully isolating the same bacterium from 18 of 40 typhoid victims and failing to discover the bacterium present in any "control" victims of other diseases. In 1884, pathologist Georg Theodor August Gaffky (1850–1918) confirmed Eberth's findings. Gaffky isolated the same bacterium as Eberth from the spleen of a typhoid victim, and was able to grow the bacterium on solid media. The organism was given names such as Eberth's bacillus, Eberthella Typhi, and Gaffky-Eberth bacillus. Today, the bacillus that causes typhoid fever goes by the scientific name Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. Most developed countries had declining rates of typhoid fever throughout the first half of the 20th century due to vaccinations and advances in public sanitation and hygiene. In 1893 attempts were made to chlorinate the water supply in Hamburg , Germany and in 1897 Maidstone , England, was the first town to have its entire water supply chlorinated. In 1905, following an outbreak of typhoid fever, the City of Lincoln, England , instituted permanent water chlorination. The first permanent disinfection of drinking water in the US was made in 1908 to the Jersey City, New Jersey , water supply. Credit for the decision to build the chlorination system has been given to John L. Leal . The chlorination facility was designed by George W. Fuller . Outbreaks in traveling military groups led to the creation of the Lyster bag in 1915; a bag with a faucet which can be hung from a tree or pole, filled with water, and comes with a chlorination tablet to drop into the water. The Lyster bag was essential for the survival of American soldiers in the Vietnam War . There were several occurrences of milk delivery men spreading typhoid fever throughout the communities they served. Although typhoid is not spread through milk itself, there were several examples of milk distributors in many locations watering their milk down with contaminated water, or cleaning the glass bottles the milk was placed in with contaminated water. Boston had two such cases around the turn of the 20th century. In 1899 there were 24 cases of typhoid traced to a single milkman, whose wife had died of typhoid fever a week before the outbreak. In 1908, J.J. Fallon, who was also a milkman, died of typhoid fever. Following his death and confirmation of the typhoid fever diagnosis, the city conducted an investigation of typhoid symptoms and cases along his route and found evidence of a significant outbreak. A month after the outbreak was first reported, the Boston Globe published a short statement declaring the outbreak over, stating "[a]t Jamaica Plain there is a slight increase, the total being 272 cases. Throughout the city there is a total of 348 cases." There was at least one death reported during this outbreak: Mrs. Sophia S. Engstrom, aged 46. Typhoid continued to ravage the Jamaica Plain neighborhood in particular throughout 1908, and several more people were reported dead due to typhoid fever, although these cases were not explicitly linked to the outbreak. The Jamaica Plain neighborhood at that time was home to many working-class and poor immigrants, mostly from Ireland . The most notorious carrier of typhoid fever, but by no means the most destructive, was Mary Mallon , known as Typhoid Mary. Although other cases of human-to-human spread of typhoid were known at the time, the concept of an asymptomatic carrier, who was able to transmit disease, had only been hypothesized and not yet identified or proven. Mary Mallon became the first known example of an asymptomatic carrier of an infectious disease, making typhoid fever the first known disease being transmissible through asymptomatic hosts. The cases and deaths caused by Mallon were mainly upper-class families in New York City. At the time of Mallon's tenure as a personal cook for upper-class families, New York City reported 3,000 to 4,500 cases of typhoid fever annually. In the summer of 1906 two daughters of a wealthy family and maids working in their home became ill with typhoid fever. After investigating their home water sources and ruling out water contamination, the family hired civil engineer George Soper to conduct an investigation of the possible source of typhoid fever in the home. Soper described himself as an "epidemic fighter". His investigation ruled out many sources of food, and led him to question if the cook the family hired just prior to their household outbreak, Mallon, was the source. Since she had already left and begun employment elsewhere, he proceeded to track her down in order to obtain a stool sample. When he was able to finally meet Mallon in person he described her by saying "Mary had a good figure and might have been called athletic had she not been a little too heavy." In recounts of Soper's pursuit of Mallon, his only remorse appears to be that he was not given enough credit for his relentless pursuit and publication of her personal identifying information, stating that the media "rob[s] me of whatever credit belongs to the discovery of the first typhoid fever carrier to be found in America." Ultimately, 51 cases and 3 deaths were suspected to be caused by Mallon. In 1924 the city of Portland, Oregon , experienced an outbreak of typhoid fever, consisting of 26 cases and 5 deaths, all deaths due to intestinal hemorrhage . All cases were concluded to be due to a single milk farm worker, who was shedding large amounts of the typhoid pathogen in his urine. Misidentification of the disease, due to inaccurate Widal test results, delayed identification of the carrier and proper treatment. Ultimately, it took four samplings of different secretions from all of the dairy workers in order to successfully identify the carrier. Upon discovery, the dairy worker was forcibly quarantined for seven weeks, and regular samples were taken, most of the time the stool samples yielding no typhoid and often the urine yielding the pathogen. The carrier was reported as being 72 years old and appearing in excellent health with no symptoms. Pharmaceutical treatment decreased the amount of bacteria secreted, however, the infection was never fully cleared from the urine, and the carrier was released "under orders never again to engage in the handling of foods for human consumption." At the time of release, the authors noted "for more than fifty years he has earned his living chiefly by milking cows and knows little of other forms of labor, it must be expected that the closest surveillance will be necessary to make certain that he does not again engage in this occupation." Overall, in the early 20th century the medical profession began to identify carriers of the disease, and evidence of transmission independent of water contamination. In a 1933 American Medical Association publication, physicians' treatment of asymptomatic carriers is best summarized by the opening line "Carriers of typhoid bacilli are a menace". Within the same publication, the first official estimate of typhoid carriers is given: 2 to 5% of all typhoid patients, and distinguished between temporary carriers and chronic carriers. The authors further estimate that there are four to five chronic female carriers to every one male carrier, although offered no data to explain this assertion of a gender difference in the rate of typhoid carriers. As far as treatment, the authors suggest: "When recognized, carriers must be instructed as to the disposal of excreta as well as to the importance of personal cleanliness. They should be forbidden to handle food or drink intended for others, and their movements and whereabouts must be reported to the public health officers". Today, typhoid carriers exist all over the world, but the highest incidence of asymptomatic infection is likely to occur in South/Southeast Asian and Sub-Saharan countries. The Los Angeles County department of public health tracks typhoid carriers and reports the number of carriers identified within the county yearly; between 2006 and 2016 0–4 new cases of typhoid carriers were identified per year. Cases of typhoid fever must be reported within one working day from identification. As of 2018, chronic typhoid carriers must sign a "Carrier Agreement" and are required to test for typhoid shedding twice yearly, ideally every 6 months. Carriers may be released from their agreements upon fulfilling "release" requirements, based on completion of a personalized treatment plan designed with medical professionals. Fecal or gallbladder carrier release requirements: 6 consecutive negative feces and urine specimens submitted at 1-month or greater intervals beginning at least 7 days after completion of therapy. Urinary or kidney carrier release requirements: 6 consecutive negative urine specimens submitted at 1-month or greater intervals beginning at least 7 days after completion of therapy. Due to the nature of asymptomatic cases, many questions remain about how individuals are able to tolerate infection for long periods of time, how to identify such cases, and efficient options for treatment. Researchers are currently working to understand asymptomatic infection with Salmonella species by studying infections in laboratory animals, which will ultimately lead to improved prevention and treatment options for typhoid carriers. In 2002, John Gunn described the ability of Salmonella sp. to form biofilms on gallstones in mice, providing a model for studying carriage in the gallbladder. Denise Monack and Stanley Falkow described a mouse model of asymptomatic intestinal and systemic infection in 2004, and Monack went on to demonstrate that a sub-population of superspreaders are responsible for the majority of transmission to new hosts, following the 80/20 rule of disease transmission, and that the intestinal microbiota likely plays a role in transmission. Monack 's mouse model allows long-term carriage of salmonella in mesenteric lymph nodes , spleen and liver . British bacteriologist Almroth Edward Wright first developed an effective typhoid vaccine at the Army Medical School in Netley , Hampshire . It was introduced in 1896 and used successfully by the British during the Second Boer War in South Africa. At that time, typhoid often killed more soldiers at war than were lost due to enemy combat. Wright further developed his vaccine at a newly opened research department at St Mary's Hospital Medical School in London from 1902, where he established a method for measuring protective substances ( opsonin ) in human blood. Wright's version of the typhoid vaccine was produced by growing the bacterium at body temperature in broth, then heating the bacteria to 60 °C to "heat inactivate" the pathogen, killing it, while keeping the surface antigens intact. The heat-killed bacteria was then injected into a patient. To show evidence of the vaccine's efficacy, Wright then collected serum samples from patients several weeks post-vaccination, and tested their serum's ability to agglutinate live typhoid bacteria. A "positive" result was represented by clumping of bacteria, indicating that the body was producing anti-serum (now called antibodies ) against the pathogen. Citing the example of the Second Boer War, during which many soldiers died from easily preventable diseases, Wright convinced the British Army that 10 million vaccine doses should be produced for the troops being sent to the Western Front , thereby saving up to half a million lives during World War I . The British Army was the only combatant at the outbreak of the war to have its troops fully immunized against the bacterium. For the first time, their casualties due to combat exceeded those from disease. In 1909, Frederick F. Russell , a U.S. Army physician, adopted Wright's typhoid vaccine for use with the Army, and two years later, his vaccination program became the first in which an entire army was immunized. It eliminated typhoid as a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in the U.S. military. Typhoid vaccination for members of the American military became mandatory in 1911. Before the vaccine, the rate of typhoid fever in the military was 14,000 or greater per 100,000 soldiers. By World War I, the rate of typhoid in American soldiers was 37 per 100,000. During the second world war, the United States army authorized the use of a trivalent vaccine – containing heat-inactivated Typhoid, Paratyphi A and Paratyphi B pathogens. In 1934, discovery of the Vi capsular antigen by Arthur Felix and Miss S. R. Margaret Pitt enabled development of the safer Vi Antigen vaccine – which is widely in use today. Arthur Felix and Margaret Pitt also isolated the strain Ty2, which became the parent strain of Ty21a , the strain used as a live-attenuated vaccine for typhoid fever today. Chloramphenicol was isolated from Streptomyces by David Gotlieb during the 1940s. In 1948 American army doctors tested its efficacy in treating typhoid patients in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia. Individuals who received a full course of treatment cleared the infection, whereas patients given a lower dose had a relapse. Asymptomatic carriers continued to shed bacilli despite chloramphenicol treatment – only ill patients were improved with chloramphenicol. Resistance to chloramphenicol became frequent in Southeast Asia by the 1950s, and today chloramphenicol is only used as a last resort due to the high prevalence of resistance. The plague of Athens , during the Peloponnesian War , was most likely an outbreak of typhoid fever. During the war, Athenians retreated into a walled-in city to escape attack from the Spartans . This massive influx of humans into a concentrated space overwhelmed the water supply and waste infrastructure, likely leading to unsanitary conditions as fresh water became harder to obtain and waste became more difficult to collect and remove beyond the city walls. In 2006, examining the remains for a mass burial site from Athens from around the time of the plague (~430 B.C.) revealed that fragments of DNA similar to modern day S. Typhi DNA were detected, whereas Yersinia pestis (plague), Rickettsia prowazekii (typhus), Mycobacterium tuberculosis , cowpox virus , and Bartonella henselae were not detected in any of the remains tested. It is possible that the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar had either a liver abscess or typhoid fever, and survived by using ice baths and cold compresses as a means of treatment for his fever. There is a statue of the Greek physician, Antonius Musa , who treated his fever. [ citation needed ]The French doctors Pierre-Fidele Bretonneau and Pierre-Charles-Alexandre Louis are credited with describing typhoid fever as a specific disease, unique from typhus . Both doctors performed autopsies on individuals who died in Paris due to fever – and indicated that many had lesions on the Peyer's patches which correlated with distinct symptoms before death. British medics were skeptical of the differentiation between typhoid and typhus because both were endemic to Britain at that time. However, in France only typhoid was present circulating in the population. Pierre-Charlles-Alexandre Louis also performed case studies and statistical analysis to demonstrate that typhoid was contagious – and that persons who already had the disease seemed to be protected. Afterward, several American doctors confirmed these findings, and then Sir William Jenner convinced any remaining skeptics that typhoid is a specific disease recognizable by lesions in the Peyer's patches by examining sixty-six autopsies from fever patients and concluding that the symptoms of headaches, diarrhea, rash spots, and abdominal pain were present only in patients who were found to have intestinal lesions after death; these observations solidified the association of the disease with the intestinal tract and gave the first clue to the route of transmission. In 1847 William Budd learned of an epidemic of typhoid fever in Clifton, and identified that all 13 of 34 residents who had contracted the disease drew their drinking water from the same well. Notably, this observation was two years prior to John Snow first publishing an early version of his theory that contaminated water was the central conduit for transmitting cholera . Budd later became health officer of Bristol and ensured a clean water supply, and documented further evidence of typhoid as a water-borne illness throughout his career. Polish scientist Tadeusz Browicz described a short bacillus in the organs and feces of typhoid victims in 1874. Browicz was able to isolate and grow the bacilli but did not go as far as to insinuate or prove that they caused the disease. In April 1880, three months prior to Eberth's publication, Edwin Klebs described short and filamentous bacilli in the Peyer's patches in typhoid victims. The bacterium's role in disease was speculated but not confirmed. In 1880, Karl Joseph Eberth described a bacillus that he suspected was the cause of typhoid. Eberth is given credit for discovering the bacterium definitively by successfully isolating the same bacterium from 18 of 40 typhoid victims and failing to discover the bacterium present in any "control" victims of other diseases. In 1884, pathologist Georg Theodor August Gaffky (1850–1918) confirmed Eberth's findings. Gaffky isolated the same bacterium as Eberth from the spleen of a typhoid victim, and was able to grow the bacterium on solid media. The organism was given names such as Eberth's bacillus, Eberthella Typhi, and Gaffky-Eberth bacillus. Today, the bacillus that causes typhoid fever goes by the scientific name Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. Most developed countries had declining rates of typhoid fever throughout the first half of the 20th century due to vaccinations and advances in public sanitation and hygiene. In 1893 attempts were made to chlorinate the water supply in Hamburg , Germany and in 1897 Maidstone , England, was the first town to have its entire water supply chlorinated. In 1905, following an outbreak of typhoid fever, the City of Lincoln, England , instituted permanent water chlorination. The first permanent disinfection of drinking water in the US was made in 1908 to the Jersey City, New Jersey , water supply. Credit for the decision to build the chlorination system has been given to John L. Leal . The chlorination facility was designed by George W. Fuller . Outbreaks in traveling military groups led to the creation of the Lyster bag in 1915; a bag with a faucet which can be hung from a tree or pole, filled with water, and comes with a chlorination tablet to drop into the water. The Lyster bag was essential for the survival of American soldiers in the Vietnam War . There were several occurrences of milk delivery men spreading typhoid fever throughout the communities they served. Although typhoid is not spread through milk itself, there were several examples of milk distributors in many locations watering their milk down with contaminated water, or cleaning the glass bottles the milk was placed in with contaminated water. Boston had two such cases around the turn of the 20th century. In 1899 there were 24 cases of typhoid traced to a single milkman, whose wife had died of typhoid fever a week before the outbreak. In 1908, J.J. Fallon, who was also a milkman, died of typhoid fever. Following his death and confirmation of the typhoid fever diagnosis, the city conducted an investigation of typhoid symptoms and cases along his route and found evidence of a significant outbreak. A month after the outbreak was first reported, the Boston Globe published a short statement declaring the outbreak over, stating "[a]t Jamaica Plain there is a slight increase, the total being 272 cases. Throughout the city there is a total of 348 cases." There was at least one death reported during this outbreak: Mrs. Sophia S. Engstrom, aged 46. Typhoid continued to ravage the Jamaica Plain neighborhood in particular throughout 1908, and several more people were reported dead due to typhoid fever, although these cases were not explicitly linked to the outbreak. The Jamaica Plain neighborhood at that time was home to many working-class and poor immigrants, mostly from Ireland . The most notorious carrier of typhoid fever, but by no means the most destructive, was Mary Mallon , known as Typhoid Mary. Although other cases of human-to-human spread of typhoid were known at the time, the concept of an asymptomatic carrier, who was able to transmit disease, had only been hypothesized and not yet identified or proven. Mary Mallon became the first known example of an asymptomatic carrier of an infectious disease, making typhoid fever the first known disease being transmissible through asymptomatic hosts. The cases and deaths caused by Mallon were mainly upper-class families in New York City. At the time of Mallon's tenure as a personal cook for upper-class families, New York City reported 3,000 to 4,500 cases of typhoid fever annually. In the summer of 1906 two daughters of a wealthy family and maids working in their home became ill with typhoid fever. After investigating their home water sources and ruling out water contamination, the family hired civil engineer George Soper to conduct an investigation of the possible source of typhoid fever in the home. Soper described himself as an "epidemic fighter". His investigation ruled out many sources of food, and led him to question if the cook the family hired just prior to their household outbreak, Mallon, was the source. Since she had already left and begun employment elsewhere, he proceeded to track her down in order to obtain a stool sample. When he was able to finally meet Mallon in person he described her by saying "Mary had a good figure and might have been called athletic had she not been a little too heavy." In recounts of Soper's pursuit of Mallon, his only remorse appears to be that he was not given enough credit for his relentless pursuit and publication of her personal identifying information, stating that the media "rob[s] me of whatever credit belongs to the discovery of the first typhoid fever carrier to be found in America." Ultimately, 51 cases and 3 deaths were suspected to be caused by Mallon. In 1924 the city of Portland, Oregon , experienced an outbreak of typhoid fever, consisting of 26 cases and 5 deaths, all deaths due to intestinal hemorrhage . All cases were concluded to be due to a single milk farm worker, who was shedding large amounts of the typhoid pathogen in his urine. Misidentification of the disease, due to inaccurate Widal test results, delayed identification of the carrier and proper treatment. Ultimately, it took four samplings of different secretions from all of the dairy workers in order to successfully identify the carrier. Upon discovery, the dairy worker was forcibly quarantined for seven weeks, and regular samples were taken, most of the time the stool samples yielding no typhoid and often the urine yielding the pathogen. The carrier was reported as being 72 years old and appearing in excellent health with no symptoms. Pharmaceutical treatment decreased the amount of bacteria secreted, however, the infection was never fully cleared from the urine, and the carrier was released "under orders never again to engage in the handling of foods for human consumption." At the time of release, the authors noted "for more than fifty years he has earned his living chiefly by milking cows and knows little of other forms of labor, it must be expected that the closest surveillance will be necessary to make certain that he does not again engage in this occupation." Overall, in the early 20th century the medical profession began to identify carriers of the disease, and evidence of transmission independent of water contamination. In a 1933 American Medical Association publication, physicians' treatment of asymptomatic carriers is best summarized by the opening line "Carriers of typhoid bacilli are a menace". Within the same publication, the first official estimate of typhoid carriers is given: 2 to 5% of all typhoid patients, and distinguished between temporary carriers and chronic carriers. The authors further estimate that there are four to five chronic female carriers to every one male carrier, although offered no data to explain this assertion of a gender difference in the rate of typhoid carriers. As far as treatment, the authors suggest: "When recognized, carriers must be instructed as to the disposal of excreta as well as to the importance of personal cleanliness. They should be forbidden to handle food or drink intended for others, and their movements and whereabouts must be reported to the public health officers". Today, typhoid carriers exist all over the world, but the highest incidence of asymptomatic infection is likely to occur in South/Southeast Asian and Sub-Saharan countries. The Los Angeles County department of public health tracks typhoid carriers and reports the number of carriers identified within the county yearly; between 2006 and 2016 0–4 new cases of typhoid carriers were identified per year. Cases of typhoid fever must be reported within one working day from identification. As of 2018, chronic typhoid carriers must sign a "Carrier Agreement" and are required to test for typhoid shedding twice yearly, ideally every 6 months. Carriers may be released from their agreements upon fulfilling "release" requirements, based on completion of a personalized treatment plan designed with medical professionals. Fecal or gallbladder carrier release requirements: 6 consecutive negative feces and urine specimens submitted at 1-month or greater intervals beginning at least 7 days after completion of therapy. Urinary or kidney carrier release requirements: 6 consecutive negative urine specimens submitted at 1-month or greater intervals beginning at least 7 days after completion of therapy. Due to the nature of asymptomatic cases, many questions remain about how individuals are able to tolerate infection for long periods of time, how to identify such cases, and efficient options for treatment. Researchers are currently working to understand asymptomatic infection with Salmonella species by studying infections in laboratory animals, which will ultimately lead to improved prevention and treatment options for typhoid carriers. In 2002, John Gunn described the ability of Salmonella sp. to form biofilms on gallstones in mice, providing a model for studying carriage in the gallbladder. Denise Monack and Stanley Falkow described a mouse model of asymptomatic intestinal and systemic infection in 2004, and Monack went on to demonstrate that a sub-population of superspreaders are responsible for the majority of transmission to new hosts, following the 80/20 rule of disease transmission, and that the intestinal microbiota likely plays a role in transmission. Monack 's mouse model allows long-term carriage of salmonella in mesenteric lymph nodes , spleen and liver . British bacteriologist Almroth Edward Wright first developed an effective typhoid vaccine at the Army Medical School in Netley , Hampshire . It was introduced in 1896 and used successfully by the British during the Second Boer War in South Africa. At that time, typhoid often killed more soldiers at war than were lost due to enemy combat. Wright further developed his vaccine at a newly opened research department at St Mary's Hospital Medical School in London from 1902, where he established a method for measuring protective substances ( opsonin ) in human blood. Wright's version of the typhoid vaccine was produced by growing the bacterium at body temperature in broth, then heating the bacteria to 60 °C to "heat inactivate" the pathogen, killing it, while keeping the surface antigens intact. The heat-killed bacteria was then injected into a patient. To show evidence of the vaccine's efficacy, Wright then collected serum samples from patients several weeks post-vaccination, and tested their serum's ability to agglutinate live typhoid bacteria. A "positive" result was represented by clumping of bacteria, indicating that the body was producing anti-serum (now called antibodies ) against the pathogen. Citing the example of the Second Boer War, during which many soldiers died from easily preventable diseases, Wright convinced the British Army that 10 million vaccine doses should be produced for the troops being sent to the Western Front , thereby saving up to half a million lives during World War I . The British Army was the only combatant at the outbreak of the war to have its troops fully immunized against the bacterium. For the first time, their casualties due to combat exceeded those from disease. In 1909, Frederick F. Russell , a U.S. Army physician, adopted Wright's typhoid vaccine for use with the Army, and two years later, his vaccination program became the first in which an entire army was immunized. It eliminated typhoid as a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in the U.S. military. Typhoid vaccination for members of the American military became mandatory in 1911. Before the vaccine, the rate of typhoid fever in the military was 14,000 or greater per 100,000 soldiers. By World War I, the rate of typhoid in American soldiers was 37 per 100,000. During the second world war, the United States army authorized the use of a trivalent vaccine – containing heat-inactivated Typhoid, Paratyphi A and Paratyphi B pathogens. In 1934, discovery of the Vi capsular antigen by Arthur Felix and Miss S. R. Margaret Pitt enabled development of the safer Vi Antigen vaccine – which is widely in use today. Arthur Felix and Margaret Pitt also isolated the strain Ty2, which became the parent strain of Ty21a , the strain used as a live-attenuated vaccine for typhoid fever today. Chloramphenicol was isolated from Streptomyces by David Gotlieb during the 1940s. In 1948 American army doctors tested its efficacy in treating typhoid patients in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia. Individuals who received a full course of treatment cleared the infection, whereas patients given a lower dose had a relapse. Asymptomatic carriers continued to shed bacilli despite chloramphenicol treatment – only ill patients were improved with chloramphenicol. Resistance to chloramphenicol became frequent in Southeast Asia by the 1950s, and today chloramphenicol is only used as a last resort due to the high prevalence of resistance. The disease has been referred to by various names, often associated with symptoms, such as gastric fever, enteric fever, abdominal typhus, infantile remittant fever, slow fever, nervous fever, pythogenic fever, drain fever, and low fever.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Diseases_and_epidemics_of_the_19th_century/html

Diseases and epidemics of the 19th century

Diseases and epidemics of the 19th century included long-standing epidemic threats such as smallpox , typhus , yellow fever , and scarlet fever . In addition, cholera emerged as an epidemic threat and spread worldwide in six pandemics in the nineteenth century.Epidemics of the 19th century were faced without the medical advances that made 20th-century epidemics much rarer and less lethal. Micro-organisms (viruses and bacteria) had been discovered in the 18th century, but it was not until the late 19th century that the experiments of Lazzaro Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation conclusively, allowing germ theory and Robert Koch 's discovery of micro-organisms as the cause of disease transmission . Thus throughout the majority of the 19th century, there was only the most basic, common-sense understanding of the causes, amelioration, and treatment of epidemic disease. [ citation needed ] The 19th century did, however, mark a transformation period in medicine. This included the first uses of chloroform and nitrous dioxides as anesthesia, important discoveries in regards of pathology and the perfection of the autopsy , and advances in our understanding of the human body. Medical institutions were also transitioning to new hospital styles to try to prevent the spread of disease and stop over crowding with the mixing of the poor and the sick which had been a common practice. With the increasing rise in urban population, disease and epidemic crisis became much more prevalent and was seen as a consequence of urban living. Problems arose as both governments and the medical professionals at the time tried to get a handle on the spread of disease. They had yet to figure out what actually causes disease. So as those in authority scrambled to make leaps and bounds in science and track down what may be the cause of these epidemics, entire communities would be lost to the grips of terrible ailments. During these many outbreaks, members of the medical profession rapidly began trying different cures to treat their patients. During the cholera epidemic of 1832 , a doctor in London, Thomas Latta , discovered that he could greatly increase the survival rate of his patients by injecting saline solutions into their arms. However, due to the wide range of medicines being touted as cures and treatments, his technique failed to gain widespread adoption. Many other medical discoveries made in the 19th century failed to gain traction for similar reasons. With the increasing circulation of mass media and little content review in medical journals , almost anyone with or without proper education could publish a potential cure for disease. Actual practicing medical professionals also had to compete with the ever expanding pharmacy companies that were all too ready to provide new elixirs and promising treatments for the epidemics of the time. Emerging from the medical chaos were legitimate and life changing treatments. The late 19th century was the beginning of widespread use of vaccines . The cholera bacterium was isolated in 1854 by Italian anatomist Filippo Pacini , and a vaccine, the first to immunize humans against a bacterial disease, was developed by Spanish physician Jaume Ferran i Clua in 1885, and by Russian–Jewish bacteriologist Waldemar Haffkine in July 1892. Antibiotic drugs did not appear until the middle of the 20th century. Sulfonamides did not appear until 1935 , and penicillin , discovered in 1928, was not available as a treatment until 1950. [ citation needed ] A big response and potential cure to these epidemics were better sanitation in the cities. Sanitation prior to this was very poor and sometimes attempts to get better sanitation often exacerbated the diseases, especially during the cholera epidemics because their understanding of diseases relied on the miasma (bad air) theory . During the first cholera epidemic, Edwin Chadwick made an inquiry into sanitation and used quantitative data to link poor living conditions and disease and low life expectancy. As a result, the Board of Health in London took measure to improve drainage and ventilation around the city. Unfortunately, the measures helped clean the city but it further contaminated the River Thames (the primary drinking water for the city) and the epidemic got worse. During the second cholera pandemic of 1816–1837, the scientific community varied in its beliefs about its causes. In France, doctors believed cholera was associated with the poverty of certain communities or poor environment. Russians believed the disease was contagious and quarantined their citizens. The United States believed that cholera was brought by recent immigrants, specifically the Irish. Lastly, some British thought the disease might arise from divine intervention. During the third pandemic , Tunisia, which had not been affected by the two previous pandemics, thought Europeans had brought the disease. They blamed their sanitation practices. The prevalence of the disease in the South in areas of black populations convinced United States scientists that cholera was associated with African Americans. Current researchers note they lived near the waterways by which travelers and ships carried the disease and their populations were underserved with sanitation infrastructure and health care. The Soho outbreak in London in 1854 ended after the physician John Snow identified a neighborhood Broad Street pump as contaminated and convinced officials to remove its handle. Snow believed that germ-contaminated water was the source of cholera , rather than particles in the air (referred to as "miasmata"). His study proved contaminated water was the main agent spreading cholera, although he did not identify the contaminant. Though Filippo Pacini had isolated Vibrio cholerae as the causative agent for cholera that year, it would be many years before miasma theory would fall out of favor. [ citation needed ] In London, in June 1866 ), a localized epidemic in the East End claimed 5,596 lives, just as the city was completing construction of its major sewage and water treatment systems. William Farr , using the work of John Snow, et al. , as to contaminated drinking water being the likely source of the disease, relatively quickly identified the East London Water Company as the source of the contaminated water. Quick action prevented further deaths. During the fifth cholera pandemic , Robert Koch isolated Vibrio cholerae and proposed postulates to explain how bacteria caused disease. His work helped to establish the germ theory of disease . Prior to this time, many physicians believed that microorganisms were spontaneously generated, and disease was caused by direct exposure to filth and decay. Koch helped establish that the disease was more specifically contagious and was transmittable through the contaminated water supply. The fifth was the last serious European cholera outbreak, as cities improved their sanitation and water systems. [ citation needed ]Epidemics of the 19th century were faced without the medical advances that made 20th-century epidemics much rarer and less lethal. Micro-organisms (viruses and bacteria) had been discovered in the 18th century, but it was not until the late 19th century that the experiments of Lazzaro Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation conclusively, allowing germ theory and Robert Koch 's discovery of micro-organisms as the cause of disease transmission . Thus throughout the majority of the 19th century, there was only the most basic, common-sense understanding of the causes, amelioration, and treatment of epidemic disease. [ citation needed ] The 19th century did, however, mark a transformation period in medicine. This included the first uses of chloroform and nitrous dioxides as anesthesia, important discoveries in regards of pathology and the perfection of the autopsy , and advances in our understanding of the human body. Medical institutions were also transitioning to new hospital styles to try to prevent the spread of disease and stop over crowding with the mixing of the poor and the sick which had been a common practice. With the increasing rise in urban population, disease and epidemic crisis became much more prevalent and was seen as a consequence of urban living. Problems arose as both governments and the medical professionals at the time tried to get a handle on the spread of disease. They had yet to figure out what actually causes disease. So as those in authority scrambled to make leaps and bounds in science and track down what may be the cause of these epidemics, entire communities would be lost to the grips of terrible ailments. During these many outbreaks, members of the medical profession rapidly began trying different cures to treat their patients. During the cholera epidemic of 1832 , a doctor in London, Thomas Latta , discovered that he could greatly increase the survival rate of his patients by injecting saline solutions into their arms. However, due to the wide range of medicines being touted as cures and treatments, his technique failed to gain widespread adoption. Many other medical discoveries made in the 19th century failed to gain traction for similar reasons. With the increasing circulation of mass media and little content review in medical journals , almost anyone with or without proper education could publish a potential cure for disease. Actual practicing medical professionals also had to compete with the ever expanding pharmacy companies that were all too ready to provide new elixirs and promising treatments for the epidemics of the time. Emerging from the medical chaos were legitimate and life changing treatments. The late 19th century was the beginning of widespread use of vaccines . The cholera bacterium was isolated in 1854 by Italian anatomist Filippo Pacini , and a vaccine, the first to immunize humans against a bacterial disease, was developed by Spanish physician Jaume Ferran i Clua in 1885, and by Russian–Jewish bacteriologist Waldemar Haffkine in July 1892. Antibiotic drugs did not appear until the middle of the 20th century. Sulfonamides did not appear until 1935 , and penicillin , discovered in 1928, was not available as a treatment until 1950. [ citation needed ] A big response and potential cure to these epidemics were better sanitation in the cities. Sanitation prior to this was very poor and sometimes attempts to get better sanitation often exacerbated the diseases, especially during the cholera epidemics because their understanding of diseases relied on the miasma (bad air) theory . During the first cholera epidemic, Edwin Chadwick made an inquiry into sanitation and used quantitative data to link poor living conditions and disease and low life expectancy. As a result, the Board of Health in London took measure to improve drainage and ventilation around the city. Unfortunately, the measures helped clean the city but it further contaminated the River Thames (the primary drinking water for the city) and the epidemic got worse. During the second cholera pandemic of 1816–1837, the scientific community varied in its beliefs about its causes. In France, doctors believed cholera was associated with the poverty of certain communities or poor environment. Russians believed the disease was contagious and quarantined their citizens. The United States believed that cholera was brought by recent immigrants, specifically the Irish. Lastly, some British thought the disease might arise from divine intervention. During the third pandemic , Tunisia, which had not been affected by the two previous pandemics, thought Europeans had brought the disease. They blamed their sanitation practices. The prevalence of the disease in the South in areas of black populations convinced United States scientists that cholera was associated with African Americans. Current researchers note they lived near the waterways by which travelers and ships carried the disease and their populations were underserved with sanitation infrastructure and health care. The Soho outbreak in London in 1854 ended after the physician John Snow identified a neighborhood Broad Street pump as contaminated and convinced officials to remove its handle. Snow believed that germ-contaminated water was the source of cholera , rather than particles in the air (referred to as "miasmata"). His study proved contaminated water was the main agent spreading cholera, although he did not identify the contaminant. Though Filippo Pacini had isolated Vibrio cholerae as the causative agent for cholera that year, it would be many years before miasma theory would fall out of favor. [ citation needed ] In London, in June 1866 ), a localized epidemic in the East End claimed 5,596 lives, just as the city was completing construction of its major sewage and water treatment systems. William Farr , using the work of John Snow, et al. , as to contaminated drinking water being the likely source of the disease, relatively quickly identified the East London Water Company as the source of the contaminated water. Quick action prevented further deaths. During the fifth cholera pandemic , Robert Koch isolated Vibrio cholerae and proposed postulates to explain how bacteria caused disease. His work helped to establish the germ theory of disease . Prior to this time, many physicians believed that microorganisms were spontaneously generated, and disease was caused by direct exposure to filth and decay. Koch helped establish that the disease was more specifically contagious and was transmittable through the contaminated water supply. The fifth was the last serious European cholera outbreak, as cities improved their sanitation and water systems. [ citation needed ]Cholera is an infection of the small intestine caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae . Cholera is transmitted primarily by drinking water or eating food that has been contaminated by the cholera bacterium. The bacteria multiply in the small intestine; the feces (waste product) of an infected person, including one with no apparent symptoms, can pass on the disease if it contacts the water supply by any means. History does not recount any incidents of cholera until the 19th century . Cholera came in seven waves, the last two of which occurred in the 20th century. [ citation needed ] The first cholera pandemic started in 1816, spread across India by 1820, and extended to Southeast Asia and Central Europe, lasting until 1826. A second cholera pandemic began in 1829, reached Russia, causing the Cholera riots . It spread to Hungary , Germany and Egypt in 1831, and London, Paris, Quebec , Ontario and New York City the following year. Cholera reached the Pacific coast of North America by 1834, reaching into the center of the country by steamboat and other river traffic. The third cholera pandemic began in 1846 and lasted until 1860. It hit Russia hardest, with over one million deaths. In 1846, cholera struck Mecca , killing over 15,000. A two-year outbreak began in England and Wales in 1848, and claimed 52,000 lives. In 1849, outbreak occurred again in Paris, and in London, killing 14,137, over twice as many as the 1832 outbreak. Cholera hit Ireland in 1849 and killed many of the Irish Famine survivors, already weakened by starvation and fever. In 1849, cholera claimed 5,308 lives in the major port city of Liverpool , England, an embarkation point for immigrants to North America, and 1,834 in Hull , England. Cholera spread throughout the Mississippi River system. Thousands died in New York City, a major destination for Irish immigrants. Cholera killed 200,000 people in Mexico. That year, cholera was transmitted along the California , Mormon and Oregon Trails , killing people that are believed to have died on their way to the California Gold Rush , Utah and Oregon in the cholera years of 1849–1855. In 1851, a ship coming from Cuba carried the disease to Gran Canaria , killing up to 6,000 people. The pandemic spread east to Indonesia by 1852, and China and Japan in 1854. The Philippines were infected in 1858 and Korea in 1859. In 1859, an outbreak in Bengal contributed to transmission of the disease by travelers and troops to Iran , Iraq , Arabia and Russia. Japan suffered at least seven major outbreaks of cholera between 1858 and 1902. The Ansei outbreak of 1858–60, for example, is believed to have killed between 100,000 and 200,000 people in Tokyo alone. An outbreak of cholera in Chicago in 1854 took the lives of 5.5% of the population (about 3,500 people). In 1853–4, London's epidemic claimed 10,738 lives. Throughout Spain , cholera caused more than 236,000 deaths in 1854–55. In 1854, it entered Venezuela; Brazil also suffered in 1855. The fourth cholera pandemic (1863–1875) spread mostly in Europe and Africa. At least 30,000 of the 90,000 Mecca pilgrims died from the disease. Cholera ravaged northern Africa in 1865 and southeastward to Zanzibar , killing 70,000 in 1869–70. Cholera claimed 90,000 lives in Russia in 1866. The epidemic of cholera that spread with the Austro-Prussian War (1866) is estimated to have killed 165,000 people in the Austrian Empire . In 1867, 113,000 died from cholera in Italy. and 80,000 in Algeria . Outbreaks in North America in 1866–1873 killed some 50,000 Americans. In 1866, localized epidemics occurred in the East End of London, in southern Wales , and Amsterdam . In the 1870s, cholera spread in the U.S. as an epidemic from New Orleans along the Mississippi River and to ports on its tributaries. [ citation needed ] In the fifth cholera pandemic (1881–1896), according to Dr A. J. Wall, the 1883–1887 part of the epidemic cost 250,000 lives in Europe and at least 50,000 in the Americas. Cholera claimed 267,890 lives in Russia (1892); 120,000 in Spain ; 90,000 in Japan and over 60,000 in Persia . In Egypt , cholera claimed more than 58,000 lives. The 1892 outbreak in Hamburg killed 8,600 people. [ citation needed ]Smallpox is caused by either of the two viruses, Variola major and Variola minor. Smallpox vaccine was available in Europe, the United States, and the Spanish Colonies during the last part of the century. The Latin names of this disease are Variola Vera. The words come from various (spotted) or varus (pimple). In England, this disease was first known as the "pox" or the "red plague". Smallpox settles itself in small blood vessels of the skin and in the mouth and throat. The symptoms of smallpox are rash on the skin and blisters filled with raised liquid. [ citation needed ] The disease killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans annually during the 19th century and one-third of all the blindness of that time was caused by smallpox. 20 to 60% of all the people that were infected died and 80% of all the children with the infection also died. It caused also many deaths in the 20th century, over 300–500 million. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart also had smallpox when he was only 11 years old. He survived the smallpox outbreak in Austria. [ citation needed ]Epidemic typhus is caused by the bacteria Rickettsia Prowazekii; it comes from lice . Murine typhus is caused by the Rickettsia Typhi bacteria, from the fleas on rats. Scrub typhus is caused by the Orientia Tsutsugamushi bacteria, from the harvest mites on humans and rodents. Queensland tick typhus is caused by the Rickettsia Australis bacteria, from ticks . [ citation needed ] During Napoleon 's retreat from Moscow in 1812, more French soldiers died of typhus than were killed by the Russians. A major epidemic occurred in Ireland between 1816 and 1819, during the Year Without a Summer ; an estimated 100,000 Irish perished. Typhus appeared again in the late 1830s, and between 1846 and 1849 during the Great Irish Famine . Spreading to England, and called "Irish fever", it was noted for its virulence. It killed people of all social classes, as lice were endemic and inescapable, but it hit particularly hard in the lower or "unwashed" social strata. In Canada alone, the typhus epidemic of 1847 killed more than 20,000 people from 1847 to 1848, mainly Irish immigrants in fever sheds and other forms of quarantine, who had contracted the disease aboard coffin ships . In the United States, epidemics occurred in Baltimore , Memphis and Washington DC between 1865 and 1873, and during the US Civil War . [ citation needed ]This disease is transmitted by the bite of female mosquito; the higher prevalence of transmission by Aedes aegypti has led to it being known as the Yellow Fever Mosquito. The transmission of yellow fever is entirely a matter of available habitat for vector mosquito and prevention such as mosquito netting. They mostly infect other primates, but humans can be infected. The symptoms of the fever are: Headaches, back and muscle pain, chills and vomiting, bleeding in the eyes and mouth, and vomit containing blood. [ citation needed ] Yellow fever accounted for the largest number of the 19th-century's individual epidemic outbreaks, and most of the recorded serious outbreaks of yellow fever occurred in the 19th century. It is most prevalent in tropical-like climates, but the United States was not exempted from the fever. New Orleans was plagued with major epidemics during the 19th century, most notably in 1833 and 1853. At least 25 major outbreaks took place in the Americas during the 18th and 19th centuries, including particularly serious ones in Santo Domingo in 1803 and Memphis in 1878 . Major outbreaks occurred repeatedly in Gibraltar ; outbreaks in 1804, 1814, and again in 1828. Barcelona suffered the loss of several thousand citizens during an outbreak in 1821. Urban epidemics continued in the United States until 1905, with the last outbreak affecting New Orleans . The third plague pandemic was a major bubonic plague pandemic that began in Yunnan , China in 1855. This episode of bubonic plague spread to all inhabited continents in the 1890s and first years of the 1900s, and ultimately led to more than 12,000,000 deaths in India and China, with about 10,000,000 killed in India alone. A natural reservoir of plague is located in western Yunnan and is an ongoing health risk today. The third pandemic of plague originated in this area after a rapid influx of Han Chinese to exploit the demand for minerals, primarily copper, in the latter half of the 19th century. By 1850, the population had exploded to over 7,000,000 people. Increasing transportation throughout the region brought people in contact with plague-infected fleas , the primary vector between the yellow-breasted rat ( Rattus flavipectus ) and humans. The spread of European empires and the development of new forms of transport such as the steam engine made it easier for both humans and rats to spread the disease along existing trade routes. [ citation needed ]Haemolytic streptococcus, which was identified in the 1880s, causes scarlet fever , which is a bacterial disease. Scarlet fever spreads through respiratory droplets and children between the ages of 5 and 15 years were most affected by scarlet fever. Scarlet fever had several epidemic phases, and around 1825 to 1885 outbreaks began to recur cyclically and often highly fatal. In the mid-19th century, the mortality caused by scarlet fever rose in England and Wales . The major outbreak in England and Wales took place during 1825–1885 with high mortality marking this as remarkable. There were several other notable outbreaks across Europe, South America, and the United States in the 19th century. In the UK, scarlet fever was considered benign for two centuries, but fatal epidemics were seen in the 1700s. Scarlet fever broke out in England in the 19th century and was responsible for an enormous number of deaths in the 60-year period from 1825 to 1885; decades that followed had lower levels of annual mortality from scarlet fever. In NW England there was heavy mortality in Liverpool . Babies born in Liverpool with a birthday in 1861 were only expected to live 26 years, and in larger cities, life expectancy was less than 35 years. Over time, the life expectancy changed as well as the number of fatalities from scarlet fever. There was a reduction in child mortality from scarlet fever when you compare the decades, 1851–60 and 1891–1900. The decline of mortality seen for scarlet fever was noticed after the identification of streptococcus , but the decline was not associated with a treatment. A treatment would not be available until the introduction of sulphonamides in the 1930s, and the decline in mortality was due to the quality of air, food, and water improving. Outbreaks of scarlet fever also took place in Dublin in 1896 with 1,354 cases and 149 deaths, Norway from 1862 to 1884, Scotland in 1861, and in the rest of United Kingdom. The United Kingdom saw cases in Canterbury from 1839 to 1865 with 305 deaths, Bristol in 1870 with 106 deaths and in 1875, and Manchester in 1886 with six cases. Chile reported scarlet fever the first time in 1827 and highest rates were seen during winter months. The disease spread from Valparaiso to Santiago from 1831 to 1832 and claimed 7,000 lives. There were multiple outbreaks in different locations of Chile, including Copaipo in 1875 and Caldera in 1876. Similarly to Europe, America considered scarlet fever to be benign for two centuries. In the early 19th century the scarlet fever impact drastically changed and lethal epidemics started to arise in the United States. The United States had a notable outbreak of scarlet fever in Minnesota in 1847 and Augusta, Georgia had a lethal epidemic in 1832–1833. Scarlet fever had low mortality rates in New York for many years before 1828, but remained high for long after. Cases of scarlet fever were also seen in Boston during a period of decreasing severity after 1885. Boston City Hospital opened a scarlet fever pavilion in 1887 to house patients with infectious diseases and saw nearly 25,000 patients during 1895–1905. In the mid-1800s, more specific epidemiological information was emerging and incidence in infants were found to be low. In 1870, the US census showed a decrease in scarlet fever mortality in children below the age of one. In the UK, scarlet fever was considered benign for two centuries, but fatal epidemics were seen in the 1700s. Scarlet fever broke out in England in the 19th century and was responsible for an enormous number of deaths in the 60-year period from 1825 to 1885; decades that followed had lower levels of annual mortality from scarlet fever. In NW England there was heavy mortality in Liverpool . Babies born in Liverpool with a birthday in 1861 were only expected to live 26 years, and in larger cities, life expectancy was less than 35 years. Over time, the life expectancy changed as well as the number of fatalities from scarlet fever. There was a reduction in child mortality from scarlet fever when you compare the decades, 1851–60 and 1891–1900. The decline of mortality seen for scarlet fever was noticed after the identification of streptococcus , but the decline was not associated with a treatment. A treatment would not be available until the introduction of sulphonamides in the 1930s, and the decline in mortality was due to the quality of air, food, and water improving. Outbreaks of scarlet fever also took place in Dublin in 1896 with 1,354 cases and 149 deaths, Norway from 1862 to 1884, Scotland in 1861, and in the rest of United Kingdom. The United Kingdom saw cases in Canterbury from 1839 to 1865 with 305 deaths, Bristol in 1870 with 106 deaths and in 1875, and Manchester in 1886 with six cases. Chile reported scarlet fever the first time in 1827 and highest rates were seen during winter months. The disease spread from Valparaiso to Santiago from 1831 to 1832 and claimed 7,000 lives. There were multiple outbreaks in different locations of Chile, including Copaipo in 1875 and Caldera in 1876. Similarly to Europe, America considered scarlet fever to be benign for two centuries. In the early 19th century the scarlet fever impact drastically changed and lethal epidemics started to arise in the United States. The United States had a notable outbreak of scarlet fever in Minnesota in 1847 and Augusta, Georgia had a lethal epidemic in 1832–1833. Scarlet fever had low mortality rates in New York for many years before 1828, but remained high for long after. Cases of scarlet fever were also seen in Boston during a period of decreasing severity after 1885. Boston City Hospital opened a scarlet fever pavilion in 1887 to house patients with infectious diseases and saw nearly 25,000 patients during 1895–1905. In the mid-1800s, more specific epidemiological information was emerging and incidence in infants were found to be low. In 1870, the US census showed a decrease in scarlet fever mortality in children below the age of one.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Acacia/html

Acacia

List of Acacia species Adianthum Burm.f. Chithonanthus Lehm. Cuparilla Raf. Drepaphyla Raf. Hecatandra Raf. Phyllodoce Link Racosperma Mart. Tetracheilos Lehm. Zigmaloba Raf. Acacia , commonly known as wattles or acacias , is a genus of about 1084 species of shrubs and trees in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the pea family Fabaceae . Initially, it comprised a group of plant species native to Africa, South America and Australasia , but is now reserved for species mainly from Australia, with others from New Guinea , Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. The genus name is Neo-Latin , borrowed from the Greek ἀκακία ( akakia ), a term used by Dioscorides for a preparation extracted from the leaves and fruit pods of Vachellia nilotica , the original type of the genus. In his Pinax (1623), Gaspard Bauhin mentioned the Greek ἀκακία from Dioscorides as the origin of the Latin name. A number of species of Acacia have been introduced to various parts of the world, and two million hectares of commercial plantations have been established. Plants in the genus Acacia are shrubs or trees with bipinnate leaves, the mature leaves sometimes reduced to phyllodes or rarely absent. There are 2 small stipules at the base of the leaf, but sometimes fall off as the leaf matures. The flowers are borne in spikes or cylindrical heads, sometimes singly, in pairs or in racemes in the axils of leaves or phyllodes, sometimes in panicles on the ends of branches. Each spike or cylindrical head has many small golden-yellow to pale creamy-white flowers, each with 4 or 5 sepals and petals, more than 10 stamens , and a thread-like style that is longer than the stamens. The fruit is a variably-shaped pod , sometimes flat or cylindrical, containing seeds with a fleshy aril on the end. The genus was first validly named in 1754 by Philip Miller in The Gardeners Dictionary . In 1913 Nathaniel Lord Britton and Addison Brown selected Mimosa scorpioides L. (≡ Acacia scorpioides ( L. ) W.Wight = Acacia nilotica ( L. ) Delille ), a species from Africa, as the lectotype of the name. Genus Acacia was considered to contain some 1352 species leading to 1986. That year Leslie Pedley questioned the monophyletic nature of the genus, and proposed a split into three genera: Acacia sensu stricto (161 species), Senegalia (231 species) and Racosperma (960 species), the last name first proposed in 1829 by Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius as the name of a section in Acacia , but raised to generic rank in 1835. In 2003, Pedley published a paper with 834 new combinations in Racosperma for species, most of which were formerly placed in Acacia . All but 10 of these species are native to Australasia , where it constitutes the largest plant genus. In the early 2000s, it had become evident that the genus as it stood was not monophyletic and that several divergent lineages needed to be placed in separate genera. It turned out that one lineage comprising over 900 species mainly native to Australia, New Guinea, and Indonesia was not closely related to the much smaller group of African lineage that contained A. nilotica – the type species . This meant that the Australasian lineage (by far the most prolific in number of species) would need to be renamed. Pedley's proposed name of Racosperma for this group had received little acclaim in the botanical community. Australian botanists proposed a less disruptive solution, setting a different type species for Acacia ( A. penninervis ) and allowing this largest number of species to remain in Acacia , resulting in the two pan-tropical lineages being renamed Vachellia and Senegalia , and the two endemic American lineages renamed Acaciella and Mariosousa . In 2003, Anthony Orchard and Bruce Maslin filed a proposal to conserve the name Acacia with a different type , in order to retain the Australasian group of species in the genus Acacia . Following a controversial decision to choose a new type for Acacia in 2005, the Australian component of Acacia s.l. now retains the name Acacia . At the 2011 International Botanical Congress held in Melbourne , Australia, the decision to use the name Acacia , rather than the proposed Racosperma for this genus, was upheld. Other Acacia s.l. taxa continue to be called Acacia by those who choose to consider the entire group as one genus. Australian species of the genus Paraserianthes s.l. are deemed its closest relatives, particularly P. lophantha . The nearest relatives of Acacia and Paraserianthes s.l. in turn include the Australian and South East Asian genera Archidendron , Archidendropsis , Pararchidendron and Wallaceodendron , all of the tribe Ingeae . The origin of " wattle " may be an Old Teutonic word meaning "to weave". From around 700 CE, watul was used in Old English to refer to the interwoven branches and sticks which formed fences, walls and roofs. Since about 1810 it refers to the Australian legumes that provide these branches. There are about 1080 species of Acacia , mostly native to Australia. Genus Acacia was considered to contain some 1352 species leading to 1986. That year Leslie Pedley questioned the monophyletic nature of the genus, and proposed a split into three genera: Acacia sensu stricto (161 species), Senegalia (231 species) and Racosperma (960 species), the last name first proposed in 1829 by Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius as the name of a section in Acacia , but raised to generic rank in 1835. In 2003, Pedley published a paper with 834 new combinations in Racosperma for species, most of which were formerly placed in Acacia . All but 10 of these species are native to Australasia , where it constitutes the largest plant genus. In the early 2000s, it had become evident that the genus as it stood was not monophyletic and that several divergent lineages needed to be placed in separate genera. It turned out that one lineage comprising over 900 species mainly native to Australia, New Guinea, and Indonesia was not closely related to the much smaller group of African lineage that contained A. nilotica – the type species . This meant that the Australasian lineage (by far the most prolific in number of species) would need to be renamed. Pedley's proposed name of Racosperma for this group had received little acclaim in the botanical community. Australian botanists proposed a less disruptive solution, setting a different type species for Acacia ( A. penninervis ) and allowing this largest number of species to remain in Acacia , resulting in the two pan-tropical lineages being renamed Vachellia and Senegalia , and the two endemic American lineages renamed Acaciella and Mariosousa . In 2003, Anthony Orchard and Bruce Maslin filed a proposal to conserve the name Acacia with a different type , in order to retain the Australasian group of species in the genus Acacia . Following a controversial decision to choose a new type for Acacia in 2005, the Australian component of Acacia s.l. now retains the name Acacia . At the 2011 International Botanical Congress held in Melbourne , Australia, the decision to use the name Acacia , rather than the proposed Racosperma for this genus, was upheld. Other Acacia s.l. taxa continue to be called Acacia by those who choose to consider the entire group as one genus. Australian species of the genus Paraserianthes s.l. are deemed its closest relatives, particularly P. lophantha . The nearest relatives of Acacia and Paraserianthes s.l. in turn include the Australian and South East Asian genera Archidendron , Archidendropsis , Pararchidendron and Wallaceodendron , all of the tribe Ingeae . The origin of " wattle " may be an Old Teutonic word meaning "to weave". From around 700 CE, watul was used in Old English to refer to the interwoven branches and sticks which formed fences, walls and roofs. Since about 1810 it refers to the Australian legumes that provide these branches. There are about 1080 species of Acacia , mostly native to Australia. An Acacia -like 14 centimetres ( 5 + 1 ⁄ 2 inches) long fossil seed pod has been described from the Eocene of the Paris Basin . Acacia -like fossil pods under the name Leguminocarpon are known from late Oligocene deposits at different sites in Hungary . Seed pod fossils of †Acacia parschlugiana and †Acacia cyclosperma are known from Tertiary deposits in Switzerland . †Acacia colchica has been described from the Miocene of West Georgia . Pliocene fossil pollen of an Acacia sp. has been described from West Georgia (including Abkhazia ). The oldest fossil Acacia pollen in Australia are recorded as being from the late Oligocene epoch , 25 million years ago. Species of Acacia occurs in all Australian states and territories, and on its nearby islands. About 20 species occur naturally outside Australia and 7 of these also occur in Australia. One species ( Acacia koa ) is native to Hawaii and one ( Acacia heterophylla ) is native to Mauritius and Réunion in the Indian Ocean. They are present in all terrestrial habitats, including alpine settings, rainforests, woodlands, grasslands, coastal dunes and deserts. In drier woodlands or forests they are an important component of the understory. Elsewhere they may be dominant, as in the Brigalow Belt , Myall woodlands and the eremaean Mulga woodlands. In Australia, Acacia forest is the second most common forest type after eucalypt forest, covering 980,000 square kilometres (378,380 sq mi) or 8% of total forest area. Acacia is also the nation's largest genus of flowering plants with almost 1,000 species found. Acacia is a common food source and host plant for butterflies of the genus Jalmenus . The imperial hairstreak, Jalmenus evagoras , feeds on at least 25 acacia species. Many reptiles feed on the sap, such as the native house gecko in Australia. The sap is also consumed by bugs (Hemiptera), such as Hackerobrachys viridiventris and Sextius virescens . Some species of acacia contain psychoactive alkaloids , and some contain potassium fluoroacetate . The seed pods, flowers, and young leaves are generally edible either raw or cooked. Aboriginal Australians have traditionally harvested the seeds of some species, to be ground into flour and eaten as a paste or baked into a cake. Wattleseeds contain as much as 25% more protein than common cereals, and they store well for long periods due to the hard seed coats. In addition to using the edible seed and gum, the people employed the timber for implements, weapons, fuel and musical instruments. A number of species, most notably Acacia mangium (hickory wattle), Acacia mearnsii (black wattle) and Acacia saligna (coojong), are economically important and are widely planted globally for wood products, tannin , firewood and fodder. Acacia melanoxylon (blackwood) and Acacia aneura (mulga) supply some of the most attractive timbers in the genus. Black wattle bark supported the tanning industries of several countries, and may supply tannins for production of waterproof adhesives . In Vietnam , Acacia is used in plantations of non-native species that are regularly clear-cut for paper or timber uses. Wattle bark collected in Australia in the 19th century was exported to Europe where it was used in the tanning process . One ton of wattle or mimosa bark contained about 68 kilograms (150 pounds) of pure tannin. Some species of acacia – notably Acacia baileyana , Acacia dealbata and Acacia pravissima – are cultivated as ornamental garden plants. The 1889 publication Useful Native Plants of Australia describes various uses for eating. Some species of acacia – notably Acacia baileyana , Acacia dealbata and Acacia pravissima – are cultivated as ornamental garden plants. The 1889 publication Useful Native Plants of Australia describes various uses for eating.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Memphis,_Tennessee/html

Memphis, Tennessee

37501, 37544, 38101, 38103–38109, 38111–38120, 38122, 38124–38128, 38130–38139, 38141, 38145, 38148, 38150–38152, 38157, 38159, 38161, 38163, 38166–38168, 38173–38175, 38177, 38181–38182, 38184, 38186–38188, 38190, 38193–38194, 38197 Memphis is a city in the U.S. state of Tennessee . It is the seat of Shelby County , in the southwesternmost part of the state, and is situated along the Mississippi River . With a population of 633,104 at the 2020 U.S. census , Memphis is the second-most populous city in Tennessee after Nashville . Memphis is the fifth-most populous city in the Southeast , the nation's 28th-most populous overall, as well as the largest city bordering the Mississippi River and third largest metropolitan statistical area behind Greater St. Louis and the Twin Cities on the Mississippi River. The Memphis metropolitan area includes West Tennessee and the greater Mid-South region , which includes portions of neighboring Arkansas , Mississippi and the Missouri Bootheel . One of the more historic and culturally significant cities of the Southern United States , Memphis has a wide variety of landscapes and distinct neighborhoods . The first European explorer to visit the area of present-day Memphis was Spanish conquistador Hernando de Soto in 1541. The high Chickasaw Bluffs protecting the location from the waters of the Mississippi was contested by European settlers as Memphis developed. By 1819, when modern Memphis was founded, it was part of the United States territory. John Overton , James Winchester , and Andrew Jackson founded the city. Based on the wealth of cotton plantations and river traffic along the Mississippi, Memphis grew into one of the largest cities of the Antebellum South . After the Civil War and the end of slavery , the city continued to grow into the 20th century. It became among the largest world markets for cotton and hardwood . Home to Tennessee's largest African-American population, Memphis played a prominent role in the American Civil Rights Movement . Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in 1968 after activities supporting a strike by the city's maintenance workers. The National Civil Rights Museum was established there and is a Smithsonian affiliate institution. Since the civil rights era, Memphis has become one of the nation's leading commercial centers in transportation and logistics . The largest employer is FedEx , which maintains its global air hub at Memphis International Airport . In 2021, Memphis was the world's second-busiest cargo airport. The International Port of Memphis also hosts the fifth-busiest inland water port in the U.S. The Globalization and World Cities Research Network considers Memphis a "Sufficiency" level global city as of 2020. Memphis is a center for media and entertainment, notably a historic music scene . With blues clubs on Beale Street originating the unique Memphis blues sound, the city has been nicknamed the "Home of the Blues". Its music has continued to be shaped by a multicultural mix of influences: country , rock and roll , soul , and hip-hop . The city is home to a major professional sports team , the Grizzlies of the NBA and the Memphis Showboats of the UFL. Other attractions include Graceland , the Memphis Pyramid , Sun Studio , the Blues Hall of Fame and Stax Museum of American Soul Music . Memphis-style barbecue has achieved international prominence, and the city hosts the annual World Championship Barbecue Cooking Contest , which attracts more than 100,000 visitors each year. Higher-level educational institutions include the University of Memphis , Christian Brothers University and Rhodes College .Occupying a substantial bluff rising from the Mississippi River, the site of Memphis has been a natural location for human settlement by varying indigenous cultures over thousands of years. In the first millennium A.D. people of the Mississippian culture were prominent; the culture influenced a network of communities throughout the Mississippi River Valley and its tributaries. The hierarchical societies built complexes with large earthwork ceremonial and burial mounds as expressions of their sophisticated culture. The Chickasaw people, believed to be their descendants, later inhabited this site and a large territory in the Southeast. French explorers led by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle , and Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto encountered the historic Chickasaw in this area in the 16th century. J. D. L. Holmes, writing in Hudson's Four Centuries of Southern Indians (2007), notes that this site was a third strategic point in the late 18th century through which European powers could control United States encroachment beyond the Appalachians and their interference with Indian matters—after Fort Nogales (present-day Vicksburg ) and Fort Confederación (present-day Epes, Alabama ): "Chickasaw Bluffs, located on the Mississippi River at the present-day location of Memphis. Spain and the United States vied for control of this site, which was a favorite of the Chickasaws." : 71 In 1795 the Spanish Governor-General of Louisiana , Francisco Luis Héctor de Carondelet , sent his lieutenant governor, Manuel Gayoso de Lemos , to negotiate and secure consent from the local Chickasaw so that a Spanish fort could be erected on the bluff; Fort San Fernando De Las Barrancas was the result. : 71 Holmes notes that consent was reached despite opposition from "disappointed Americans and a pro-American faction of the Chickasaws" when the "pro-Spanish faction signed the Chickasaw Bluffs Cession and Spain provided the Chickasaws with a trading post". : 71 Fort San Fernando de las Barrancas remained a focal point of Spanish activity until, as Holmes summarizes: The Spanish dismantled the fort, shipping its lumber and iron to their locations in Arkansas. In 1796, the site became the westernmost point of the newly admitted state of Tennessee, in what was then called the Southwest United States. The area was still largely occupied and controlled by the Chickasaw nation. Captain Isaac Guion led an American force down the Ohio River to claim the land, arriving on July 20, 1797. By this time, the Spanish had departed. The fort's ruins went unnoticed 20 years later when Memphis was laid out as a city after the United States government paid the Chickasaw for land. At the beginning of the century, as recognized by the United States in 1786 Treaty of Hopewell , the land still belonged to the Chickasaw Nation . In the Treaty of Tuscaloosa , signed in October 1818 and ratified by Congress on January 7, 1819, the Chickasaw ceded their territory in Western Tennessee to the United States . The city of Memphis was founded less than five months after the U.S. takeover of the territory, on May 22, 1819 (incorporated December 19, 1826), by John Overton , James Winchester and Andrew Jackson . They named it after the ancient capital of Egypt on the Nile River . From the city's foundation onwards, African Americans formed large proportion of Memphis' population. Prior to the abolition of slavery in the United States , most Black people in Memphis were enslaved, being used as forced labor by white enslavers along the river or on outlying cotton plantations in the Mississippi Delta . The city's demographics changed dramatically in the 1850s and 1860s, due to waves of immigration and domestic migration. Due to increased immigration since the 1840s and the Great Famine , Irish Americans made up 9.9% of the population in 1850, but 23.2% by 1860, when the total population was 22,623. Tennessee seceded from the Union in June 1861, and Memphis briefly became a Confederate stronghold. Union ironclad gunboats captured it in the naval Battle of Memphis on June 6, 1862, and the city and state were occupied by the Union Army for the duration of the war. Union commanders allowed the city to maintain its civil government during most of this period but excluded Confederate States Army veterans from office. This shifted political dynamics in the city as the war went on. The war years contributed to additional dramatic changes in the city population. The Union Army's presence attracted many fugitive slaves who had escaped from surrounding rural plantations. So many sought protection behind Union lines that the Army set up contraband camps to accommodate them. Memphis's black population increased from 3,000 in 1860, when the total population was 22,623, to nearly 20,000 in 1865, with most settling south of the city limits. The rapid demographic changes added to the stress of war and occupation and uncertainty about who was in charge, increasing tensions between the city's ethnic Irish policemen and black Union soldiers after the war. In three days of rioting in early May 1866, the Memphis Riots erupted, in which white mobs made up of policemen, firemen, and other mostly ethnic Irish Americans attacked and killed 46 blacks, wounding 75 and injuring 100; raped several women; and destroyed nearly 100 houses while severely damaging churches and schools in South Memphis. Much of the black settlement was left in ruins. Two whites were killed in the riot. Many blacks permanently fled Memphis afterward, especially as the Freedmen's Bureau continued to have difficulty in protecting them. Their population fell to about 15,000 by 1870, 37.4% of the total population of 40,226. Historian Barrington Walker suggests that the Irish rioted against blacks because of their relatively recent arrival as immigrants and the uncertain nature of their own claim to "whiteness"; they were trying to distinguish themselves from blacks in the underclass. The main fighting participants were ethnic Irish, decommissioned black Union soldiers, and newly emancipated African-American freedmen . Walker suggests that most of the mob was not in direct economic conflict with the blacks, as by then the Irish had attained better jobs, but were establishing social and political dominance over the freedmen. Unlike the disturbances in some other cities, ex-Confederate veterans were generally not part of the attacks against blacks in Memphis. As a result of the riots in Memphis, and a similar one in New Orleans, Louisiana in September, Congress passed the Reconstruction Act and the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution . In the 1870s, a series of yellow fever epidemics devastated Memphis, with the disease carried by river passengers traveling by ships along the waterways. During the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1878, more than 5,000 people were listed in the official register of deaths between July 26 and November 27. The vast majority died of yellow fever, making the epidemic in the city of 40,000 one of the most traumatic and severe in urban U.S. history. Within four days of the Memphis Board of Health's declaration of a yellow fever outbreak, 20,000 residents fled the city. The ensuing panic left the poverty-stricken, the working classes, and the African-American community at the most risk from the epidemic. Those who remained relied on volunteers from religious and physician organizations to tend to the sick. By the end of the year, more than 5,000 were confirmed dead in Memphis. The New Orleans health board listed "not less than 4,600" dead. The Mississippi Valley recorded 120,000 cases of yellow fever, with 20,000 deaths. The $15 million in losses caused by the epidemic bankrupted Memphis, and as a result, its charter was revoked by the state legislature. By 1870, Memphis's population of 40,000 was almost double that of Nashville and Atlanta, and it was the second-largest city in the South after New Orleans. Its population continued to grow after 1870, even when the Panic of 1873 hit the US hard, particularly in the South. The Panic of 1873 resulted in expanding Memphis's underclasses amid the poverty and hardship it wrought, giving further credence to Memphis as a rough, shiftless city. Leading up to the outbreak in 1878, it had suffered two yellow fever epidemics, cholera , and malaria , giving it a reputation as sickly and filthy. It was unheard of for a city with a population as large as Memphis's not to have any waterworks; the city still relied for supplies entirely on collecting water from the river and rain cisterns, and had no way to remove sewage. The combination of a swelling population, especially of lower and working classes, and abysmal health and sanitary conditions made Memphis ripe for a serious epidemic. Kate Bionda, an owner of an Italian "snack house", died of a fever on August 13, 1878. Hers was officially reported by the Board of Health, on August 14, as the first case of yellow fever in the city. A massive panic ensued. The same trains and steamboats that had brought thousands into Memphis, in five days carried away more than 25,000 refugees, more than half of the city's population. On August 23, the Board of Health finally declared a yellow fever epidemic in Memphis, and the city collapsed, hemorrhaging its population. In July of that year, the city had a population of 47,000; by September, 19,000 remained, and 17,000 of them had yellow fever. The only people left in the city were the lower classes, such as German and Irish immigrant workers and African Americans. None had the means to flee the city, as did the middle and upper-class whites of Memphis, and thus they were subjected to a city of death. Immediately following the Board of Health's declaration, a Citizen's Relief Committee was formed by Charles G. Fisher. It organized the city into refugee camps. The committee's main priority was to separate the poor from the city and isolate them in refugee camps. The Howard Association, formed specifically for yellow fever epidemics in New Orleans and Memphis, organized nurses and doctors in Memphis and throughout the country. They stayed at the Peabody Hotel , the only hotel to keep its doors open during the epidemic. From there they were assigned to their respective districts. Physicians of the epidemic reported seeing as many as 100 to 150 patients daily. The Episcopal Community of St. Mary at St. Mary's Episcopal Cathedral played an important role during the epidemic in caring for the lower classes. Already supporting a girls' school and church orphanage, the Sisters of St. Mary also sought to provide care for the Canfield Asylum, a home for black children. Each day, they alternated caring for the orphans at St. Mary's, delivering children to the Canfield Asylum, and taking soup and medicine on house calls to patients. Between September 9 and October 4, Sister Constance and three other nuns fell victim to the epidemic and died. They later became known as the Martyrs of Memphis. At long last, on October 28, a killing frost struck. The city sent out word to Memphians scattered all over the country to come home. Though yellow fever cases were recorded in the pages of Elmwood Cemetery's burial record as late as February 29, 1874, the epidemic seemed quieted. The Board of Health declared the epidemic at an end after it had caused over 20,000 deaths and financial losses of nearly $200 million. On November 27, a general citizen's meeting was called at the Greenlaw Opera House to offer thanks to those who had stayed behind to serve, of whom many had died. Over the next year property tax revenues collapsed, and the city could not make payments on its municipal debts. As a result, Memphis temporarily lost its city charter and was reclassified by the state legislature as a Taxing District from 1878 to 1893. But a new era of sanitation was developed in the city, a new municipal government in 1879 helped form the first regional health organization, and during the 1880s Memphis led the nation in sanitary reform and improvements. Perhaps the most significant effect of yellow fever on Memphis was in demographic changes. Nearly all of Memphis's upper and middle classes vanished, depriving the city of its general leadership and class structure that dictated everyday life, similar to that in other large Southern cities, such as New Orleans , Charleston, South Carolina , and Atlanta, Georgia . In Memphis, the poorer whites and blacks fundamentally made up the city and played the greatest role in rebuilding it. The epidemic had resulted in Memphis being a less cosmopolitan place, with an economy that served the cotton trade and a population drawn increasingly from poor white and black Southerners. The 1890 election was strongly contested, resulting in white opponents of the D. P. Hadden faction working to deprive them of votes by disenfranchising blacks . The state had enacted several laws, including the requirement of poll taxes , that made it more difficult for them to register to vote and served to disenfranchise many blacks. Although political party factions in the future sometimes paid poll taxes to enable blacks to vote, African Americans lost their last positions on the city council in this election and were forced out of the police force. (They did not recover the ability to exercise the franchise until after the passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s.) Historian L. B. Wrenn suggests the heightened political hostility of the Democratic contest and related social tensions contributed to a white mob lynching three black grocers in Memphis in 1892 . : 124, 131 Journalist Ida B. Wells of Memphis investigated the lynchings, as one of the men killed was a friend of hers. She demonstrated that these and other lynchings were more often due to economic and social competition than any criminal offenses by black men. Her findings were considered so controversial and aroused so much anger that she was forced to move away from the city. But she continued to investigate and publish the abuses of lynching . : 131 Businessmen were eager to increase the city population after the losses of 1878–79, and supported the annexation of new areas; this measure was passed in 1890 before the census. The annexation measure was finally approved by the state legislature through a compromise achieved with real estate magnates, and the area annexed was slightly smaller than first proposed. : 126 In 1893 the city was rechartered with home rule , which restored its ability to enact taxes. The state legislature established a cap rate. Although the commission government was retained and enlarged to five commissioners, Democratic politicians regained control from the business elite. The commission form of government was believed effective in getting things done, but because all positions were elected at-large , requiring them to gain majority votes, this practice reduced representation by candidates representing significant minority political interests. : 126f In terms of its economy, Memphis developed as the world's largest spot cotton market and the world's largest hardwood lumber market, both commodity products of the Mississippi Delta. Into the 1950s, it was also the world's largest mule market. These animals were still used extensively for agriculture. Attracting workers from Southern rural areas as well as new European immigrants, from 1900 to 1950 the city increased nearly fourfold in population, from 102,350 to 396,000 residents. Racist violence continued into the 20th century, with four lynchings between 1900 and the lynching of Thomas Williams in 1928. A Tennessee Powder Company built an explosives powder plant to make TNT and gunpowder on a 6,000-acre site in Millington in 1940. The plant was built to make smokeless gunpowder for the British Armed Forces during World War II . In May 1941, DuPont (1802–2017) took over the plant, changed the name to the Chickasaw Ordnance Works, and produced powder for the United States Armed Forces . There were 8,000 employees. The plant was dismantled after the war in 1946. From the 1910s to the 1950s, Memphis was a place of machine politics under the direction of E. H. "Boss" Crump . He gained a state law in 1911 to establish a small commission to manage the city. The city retained a form of commission government until 1967 and patronage flourished under Crump. Per the publisher's summary of L.B. Wrenn's study of the period, "This centralization of political power in a small commission aided the efficient transaction of municipal business, but the public policies that resulted from it tended to benefit upper-class Memphians while neglecting the less affluent residents and neighborhoods." [ page needed ] The city installed a revolutionary sewer system and upgraded sanitation and drainage to prevent another epidemic. Pure water from an artesian well was discovered in the 1880s, securing the city's water supply. The commissioners developed an extensive network of parks and public works as part of the national City Beautiful movement , but did not encourage heavy industry, which might have provided substantial employment for the working-class population. The lack of representation in city government resulted in the poor and minorities being underrepresented. The majority controlled the election of all the at-large positions. [ page needed ] Memphis did not become a home rule city until 1963, although the state legislature had amended the constitution in 1953 to provide home rule for cities and counties. Before that, the city had to get state bills approved in order to change its charter and other policies and programs. Since 1963, it can change the charter by popular approval of the electorate. : 194 During the 1960s, the city was at the center of the Civil Rights Movement , as its large African-American population had been affected by state segregation practices and disenfranchisement in the early 20th century. African-American residents drew from the civil rights movement to improve their lives. In 1968, the Memphis sanitation strike began for living wages and better working conditions; the workers were overwhelmingly African American. They marched to gain public awareness and support for their plight: the danger of their work, and the struggles to support families with their low pay. Their drive for better pay had been met with resistance by the city government. Martin Luther King Jr. of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference , known for his leadership in the non-violent movement, came to lend his support to the workers' cause. King stayed at the Lorraine Motel in the city, and was assassinated by James Earl Ray on April 4, 1968, the day after giving his I've Been to the Mountaintop speech at the Mason Temple . After learning of King's murder, many African Americans in the city rioted, looting and destroying businesses and other facilities, some by arson. The governor ordered Tennessee National Guardsmen into the city within hours, where small, roving bands of rioters continued to be active. Fearing the violence, more of the middle-class began to leave the city for the suburbs. In 1970, the Census Bureau reported Memphis's population as 60.8% white and 38.9% black. Suburbanization was attracting wealthier residents to newer housing outside the city. After the riots and court-ordered busing in 1973 to achieve desegregation of public schools, "about 40,000 of the system's 71,000 white students abandon[ed] the system in four years." Today, the city has a majority African-American population. Memphis is well known for its cultural contributions to the identity of the American South . Many renowned musicians grew up in and around Memphis and moved to Chicago and other areas from the Mississippi Delta , carrying their music with them to influence other cities and listeners over radio airwaves. [ full citation needed ] Former and current Memphis residents include musicians Elvis Presley , Jerry Lee Lewis , Muddy Waters , Carl Perkins , Johnny Cash , Robert Johnson , W. C. Handy , Bobby Whitlock , B.B. King , Howlin' Wolf , Isaac Hayes , Booker T. Jones , Eric Gales , Al Green , Alex Chilton , Three 6 Mafia , the Sylvers , Jay Reatard , Zach Myers , and Aretha Franklin . On December 23, 1988, a tanker truck hauling liquefied propane crashed at the I-40/I-240 interchange in Midtown and exploded , starting multiple vehicle and structural fires. Nine people were killed and ten were injured. It was one of Tennessee's deadliest motor vehicle accidents and eventually led to the reconstruction of the interchange where it occurred. On June 2, 2021, the remains of Confederate General and Ku Klux Klan leader Nathan Bedford Forrest were removed from a Memphis park. On January 7, 2023, after a routine traffic stop, five African American police officers brutally beat a 29-year-old African American man, Tyre Nichols . Nichols died from his injuries in the hospital three days later. Officer body cam footage and local surveillance cameras captured the altercations, which were described as "heinous" and showed "a total lack of regard for human life", according to Memphis police chief Cerelyn "CJ" Davis. The officers were fired and charged with second-degree murder, aggravated kidnapping, and other crimes. The relatively rapid dismissal and prosecution of the offending officers were favorably perceived by Nichols's family, and Davis called it a "blueprint" for future incidents of police brutality nationwide. The incident also resulted in the disbanding of the city's "SCORPION" unit, which had been mandated with directly combating the most violent crimes in the city. All the officers charged with involvement in Nichols's death were members of the unit. Occupying a substantial bluff rising from the Mississippi River, the site of Memphis has been a natural location for human settlement by varying indigenous cultures over thousands of years. In the first millennium A.D. people of the Mississippian culture were prominent; the culture influenced a network of communities throughout the Mississippi River Valley and its tributaries. The hierarchical societies built complexes with large earthwork ceremonial and burial mounds as expressions of their sophisticated culture. The Chickasaw people, believed to be their descendants, later inhabited this site and a large territory in the Southeast. French explorers led by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle , and Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto encountered the historic Chickasaw in this area in the 16th century. J. D. L. Holmes, writing in Hudson's Four Centuries of Southern Indians (2007), notes that this site was a third strategic point in the late 18th century through which European powers could control United States encroachment beyond the Appalachians and their interference with Indian matters—after Fort Nogales (present-day Vicksburg ) and Fort Confederación (present-day Epes, Alabama ): "Chickasaw Bluffs, located on the Mississippi River at the present-day location of Memphis. Spain and the United States vied for control of this site, which was a favorite of the Chickasaws." : 71 In 1795 the Spanish Governor-General of Louisiana , Francisco Luis Héctor de Carondelet , sent his lieutenant governor, Manuel Gayoso de Lemos , to negotiate and secure consent from the local Chickasaw so that a Spanish fort could be erected on the bluff; Fort San Fernando De Las Barrancas was the result. : 71 Holmes notes that consent was reached despite opposition from "disappointed Americans and a pro-American faction of the Chickasaws" when the "pro-Spanish faction signed the Chickasaw Bluffs Cession and Spain provided the Chickasaws with a trading post". : 71 Fort San Fernando de las Barrancas remained a focal point of Spanish activity until, as Holmes summarizes: The Spanish dismantled the fort, shipping its lumber and iron to their locations in Arkansas. In 1796, the site became the westernmost point of the newly admitted state of Tennessee, in what was then called the Southwest United States. The area was still largely occupied and controlled by the Chickasaw nation. Captain Isaac Guion led an American force down the Ohio River to claim the land, arriving on July 20, 1797. By this time, the Spanish had departed. The fort's ruins went unnoticed 20 years later when Memphis was laid out as a city after the United States government paid the Chickasaw for land. At the beginning of the century, as recognized by the United States in 1786 Treaty of Hopewell , the land still belonged to the Chickasaw Nation . In the Treaty of Tuscaloosa , signed in October 1818 and ratified by Congress on January 7, 1819, the Chickasaw ceded their territory in Western Tennessee to the United States . The city of Memphis was founded less than five months after the U.S. takeover of the territory, on May 22, 1819 (incorporated December 19, 1826), by John Overton , James Winchester and Andrew Jackson . They named it after the ancient capital of Egypt on the Nile River . From the city's foundation onwards, African Americans formed large proportion of Memphis' population. Prior to the abolition of slavery in the United States , most Black people in Memphis were enslaved, being used as forced labor by white enslavers along the river or on outlying cotton plantations in the Mississippi Delta . The city's demographics changed dramatically in the 1850s and 1860s, due to waves of immigration and domestic migration. Due to increased immigration since the 1840s and the Great Famine , Irish Americans made up 9.9% of the population in 1850, but 23.2% by 1860, when the total population was 22,623. Tennessee seceded from the Union in June 1861, and Memphis briefly became a Confederate stronghold. Union ironclad gunboats captured it in the naval Battle of Memphis on June 6, 1862, and the city and state were occupied by the Union Army for the duration of the war. Union commanders allowed the city to maintain its civil government during most of this period but excluded Confederate States Army veterans from office. This shifted political dynamics in the city as the war went on. The war years contributed to additional dramatic changes in the city population. The Union Army's presence attracted many fugitive slaves who had escaped from surrounding rural plantations. So many sought protection behind Union lines that the Army set up contraband camps to accommodate them. Memphis's black population increased from 3,000 in 1860, when the total population was 22,623, to nearly 20,000 in 1865, with most settling south of the city limits. The rapid demographic changes added to the stress of war and occupation and uncertainty about who was in charge, increasing tensions between the city's ethnic Irish policemen and black Union soldiers after the war. In three days of rioting in early May 1866, the Memphis Riots erupted, in which white mobs made up of policemen, firemen, and other mostly ethnic Irish Americans attacked and killed 46 blacks, wounding 75 and injuring 100; raped several women; and destroyed nearly 100 houses while severely damaging churches and schools in South Memphis. Much of the black settlement was left in ruins. Two whites were killed in the riot. Many blacks permanently fled Memphis afterward, especially as the Freedmen's Bureau continued to have difficulty in protecting them. Their population fell to about 15,000 by 1870, 37.4% of the total population of 40,226. Historian Barrington Walker suggests that the Irish rioted against blacks because of their relatively recent arrival as immigrants and the uncertain nature of their own claim to "whiteness"; they were trying to distinguish themselves from blacks in the underclass. The main fighting participants were ethnic Irish, decommissioned black Union soldiers, and newly emancipated African-American freedmen . Walker suggests that most of the mob was not in direct economic conflict with the blacks, as by then the Irish had attained better jobs, but were establishing social and political dominance over the freedmen. Unlike the disturbances in some other cities, ex-Confederate veterans were generally not part of the attacks against blacks in Memphis. As a result of the riots in Memphis, and a similar one in New Orleans, Louisiana in September, Congress passed the Reconstruction Act and the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution . In the 1870s, a series of yellow fever epidemics devastated Memphis, with the disease carried by river passengers traveling by ships along the waterways. During the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1878, more than 5,000 people were listed in the official register of deaths between July 26 and November 27. The vast majority died of yellow fever, making the epidemic in the city of 40,000 one of the most traumatic and severe in urban U.S. history. Within four days of the Memphis Board of Health's declaration of a yellow fever outbreak, 20,000 residents fled the city. The ensuing panic left the poverty-stricken, the working classes, and the African-American community at the most risk from the epidemic. Those who remained relied on volunteers from religious and physician organizations to tend to the sick. By the end of the year, more than 5,000 were confirmed dead in Memphis. The New Orleans health board listed "not less than 4,600" dead. The Mississippi Valley recorded 120,000 cases of yellow fever, with 20,000 deaths. The $15 million in losses caused by the epidemic bankrupted Memphis, and as a result, its charter was revoked by the state legislature. By 1870, Memphis's population of 40,000 was almost double that of Nashville and Atlanta, and it was the second-largest city in the South after New Orleans. Its population continued to grow after 1870, even when the Panic of 1873 hit the US hard, particularly in the South. The Panic of 1873 resulted in expanding Memphis's underclasses amid the poverty and hardship it wrought, giving further credence to Memphis as a rough, shiftless city. Leading up to the outbreak in 1878, it had suffered two yellow fever epidemics, cholera , and malaria , giving it a reputation as sickly and filthy. It was unheard of for a city with a population as large as Memphis's not to have any waterworks; the city still relied for supplies entirely on collecting water from the river and rain cisterns, and had no way to remove sewage. The combination of a swelling population, especially of lower and working classes, and abysmal health and sanitary conditions made Memphis ripe for a serious epidemic. Kate Bionda, an owner of an Italian "snack house", died of a fever on August 13, 1878. Hers was officially reported by the Board of Health, on August 14, as the first case of yellow fever in the city. A massive panic ensued. The same trains and steamboats that had brought thousands into Memphis, in five days carried away more than 25,000 refugees, more than half of the city's population. On August 23, the Board of Health finally declared a yellow fever epidemic in Memphis, and the city collapsed, hemorrhaging its population. In July of that year, the city had a population of 47,000; by September, 19,000 remained, and 17,000 of them had yellow fever. The only people left in the city were the lower classes, such as German and Irish immigrant workers and African Americans. None had the means to flee the city, as did the middle and upper-class whites of Memphis, and thus they were subjected to a city of death. Immediately following the Board of Health's declaration, a Citizen's Relief Committee was formed by Charles G. Fisher. It organized the city into refugee camps. The committee's main priority was to separate the poor from the city and isolate them in refugee camps. The Howard Association, formed specifically for yellow fever epidemics in New Orleans and Memphis, organized nurses and doctors in Memphis and throughout the country. They stayed at the Peabody Hotel , the only hotel to keep its doors open during the epidemic. From there they were assigned to their respective districts. Physicians of the epidemic reported seeing as many as 100 to 150 patients daily. The Episcopal Community of St. Mary at St. Mary's Episcopal Cathedral played an important role during the epidemic in caring for the lower classes. Already supporting a girls' school and church orphanage, the Sisters of St. Mary also sought to provide care for the Canfield Asylum, a home for black children. Each day, they alternated caring for the orphans at St. Mary's, delivering children to the Canfield Asylum, and taking soup and medicine on house calls to patients. Between September 9 and October 4, Sister Constance and three other nuns fell victim to the epidemic and died. They later became known as the Martyrs of Memphis. At long last, on October 28, a killing frost struck. The city sent out word to Memphians scattered all over the country to come home. Though yellow fever cases were recorded in the pages of Elmwood Cemetery's burial record as late as February 29, 1874, the epidemic seemed quieted. The Board of Health declared the epidemic at an end after it had caused over 20,000 deaths and financial losses of nearly $200 million. On November 27, a general citizen's meeting was called at the Greenlaw Opera House to offer thanks to those who had stayed behind to serve, of whom many had died. Over the next year property tax revenues collapsed, and the city could not make payments on its municipal debts. As a result, Memphis temporarily lost its city charter and was reclassified by the state legislature as a Taxing District from 1878 to 1893. But a new era of sanitation was developed in the city, a new municipal government in 1879 helped form the first regional health organization, and during the 1880s Memphis led the nation in sanitary reform and improvements. Perhaps the most significant effect of yellow fever on Memphis was in demographic changes. Nearly all of Memphis's upper and middle classes vanished, depriving the city of its general leadership and class structure that dictated everyday life, similar to that in other large Southern cities, such as New Orleans , Charleston, South Carolina , and Atlanta, Georgia . In Memphis, the poorer whites and blacks fundamentally made up the city and played the greatest role in rebuilding it. The epidemic had resulted in Memphis being a less cosmopolitan place, with an economy that served the cotton trade and a population drawn increasingly from poor white and black Southerners. The 1890 election was strongly contested, resulting in white opponents of the D. P. Hadden faction working to deprive them of votes by disenfranchising blacks . The state had enacted several laws, including the requirement of poll taxes , that made it more difficult for them to register to vote and served to disenfranchise many blacks. Although political party factions in the future sometimes paid poll taxes to enable blacks to vote, African Americans lost their last positions on the city council in this election and were forced out of the police force. (They did not recover the ability to exercise the franchise until after the passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s.) Historian L. B. Wrenn suggests the heightened political hostility of the Democratic contest and related social tensions contributed to a white mob lynching three black grocers in Memphis in 1892 . : 124, 131 Journalist Ida B. Wells of Memphis investigated the lynchings, as one of the men killed was a friend of hers. She demonstrated that these and other lynchings were more often due to economic and social competition than any criminal offenses by black men. Her findings were considered so controversial and aroused so much anger that she was forced to move away from the city. But she continued to investigate and publish the abuses of lynching . : 131 Businessmen were eager to increase the city population after the losses of 1878–79, and supported the annexation of new areas; this measure was passed in 1890 before the census. The annexation measure was finally approved by the state legislature through a compromise achieved with real estate magnates, and the area annexed was slightly smaller than first proposed. : 126 In 1893 the city was rechartered with home rule , which restored its ability to enact taxes. The state legislature established a cap rate. Although the commission government was retained and enlarged to five commissioners, Democratic politicians regained control from the business elite. The commission form of government was believed effective in getting things done, but because all positions were elected at-large , requiring them to gain majority votes, this practice reduced representation by candidates representing significant minority political interests. : 126fIn terms of its economy, Memphis developed as the world's largest spot cotton market and the world's largest hardwood lumber market, both commodity products of the Mississippi Delta. Into the 1950s, it was also the world's largest mule market. These animals were still used extensively for agriculture. Attracting workers from Southern rural areas as well as new European immigrants, from 1900 to 1950 the city increased nearly fourfold in population, from 102,350 to 396,000 residents. Racist violence continued into the 20th century, with four lynchings between 1900 and the lynching of Thomas Williams in 1928. A Tennessee Powder Company built an explosives powder plant to make TNT and gunpowder on a 6,000-acre site in Millington in 1940. The plant was built to make smokeless gunpowder for the British Armed Forces during World War II . In May 1941, DuPont (1802–2017) took over the plant, changed the name to the Chickasaw Ordnance Works, and produced powder for the United States Armed Forces . There were 8,000 employees. The plant was dismantled after the war in 1946. From the 1910s to the 1950s, Memphis was a place of machine politics under the direction of E. H. "Boss" Crump . He gained a state law in 1911 to establish a small commission to manage the city. The city retained a form of commission government until 1967 and patronage flourished under Crump. Per the publisher's summary of L.B. Wrenn's study of the period, "This centralization of political power in a small commission aided the efficient transaction of municipal business, but the public policies that resulted from it tended to benefit upper-class Memphians while neglecting the less affluent residents and neighborhoods." [ page needed ] The city installed a revolutionary sewer system and upgraded sanitation and drainage to prevent another epidemic. Pure water from an artesian well was discovered in the 1880s, securing the city's water supply. The commissioners developed an extensive network of parks and public works as part of the national City Beautiful movement , but did not encourage heavy industry, which might have provided substantial employment for the working-class population. The lack of representation in city government resulted in the poor and minorities being underrepresented. The majority controlled the election of all the at-large positions. [ page needed ] Memphis did not become a home rule city until 1963, although the state legislature had amended the constitution in 1953 to provide home rule for cities and counties. Before that, the city had to get state bills approved in order to change its charter and other policies and programs. Since 1963, it can change the charter by popular approval of the electorate. : 194 During the 1960s, the city was at the center of the Civil Rights Movement , as its large African-American population had been affected by state segregation practices and disenfranchisement in the early 20th century. African-American residents drew from the civil rights movement to improve their lives. In 1968, the Memphis sanitation strike began for living wages and better working conditions; the workers were overwhelmingly African American. They marched to gain public awareness and support for their plight: the danger of their work, and the struggles to support families with their low pay. Their drive for better pay had been met with resistance by the city government. Martin Luther King Jr. of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference , known for his leadership in the non-violent movement, came to lend his support to the workers' cause. King stayed at the Lorraine Motel in the city, and was assassinated by James Earl Ray on April 4, 1968, the day after giving his I've Been to the Mountaintop speech at the Mason Temple . After learning of King's murder, many African Americans in the city rioted, looting and destroying businesses and other facilities, some by arson. The governor ordered Tennessee National Guardsmen into the city within hours, where small, roving bands of rioters continued to be active. Fearing the violence, more of the middle-class began to leave the city for the suburbs. In 1970, the Census Bureau reported Memphis's population as 60.8% white and 38.9% black. Suburbanization was attracting wealthier residents to newer housing outside the city. After the riots and court-ordered busing in 1973 to achieve desegregation of public schools, "about 40,000 of the system's 71,000 white students abandon[ed] the system in four years." Today, the city has a majority African-American population. Memphis is well known for its cultural contributions to the identity of the American South . Many renowned musicians grew up in and around Memphis and moved to Chicago and other areas from the Mississippi Delta , carrying their music with them to influence other cities and listeners over radio airwaves. [ full citation needed ] Former and current Memphis residents include musicians Elvis Presley , Jerry Lee Lewis , Muddy Waters , Carl Perkins , Johnny Cash , Robert Johnson , W. C. Handy , Bobby Whitlock , B.B. King , Howlin' Wolf , Isaac Hayes , Booker T. Jones , Eric Gales , Al Green , Alex Chilton , Three 6 Mafia , the Sylvers , Jay Reatard , Zach Myers , and Aretha Franklin . On December 23, 1988, a tanker truck hauling liquefied propane crashed at the I-40/I-240 interchange in Midtown and exploded , starting multiple vehicle and structural fires. Nine people were killed and ten were injured. It was one of Tennessee's deadliest motor vehicle accidents and eventually led to the reconstruction of the interchange where it occurred. On June 2, 2021, the remains of Confederate General and Ku Klux Klan leader Nathan Bedford Forrest were removed from a Memphis park. On January 7, 2023, after a routine traffic stop, five African American police officers brutally beat a 29-year-old African American man, Tyre Nichols . Nichols died from his injuries in the hospital three days later. Officer body cam footage and local surveillance cameras captured the altercations, which were described as "heinous" and showed "a total lack of regard for human life", according to Memphis police chief Cerelyn "CJ" Davis. The officers were fired and charged with second-degree murder, aggravated kidnapping, and other crimes. The relatively rapid dismissal and prosecution of the offending officers were favorably perceived by Nichols's family, and Davis called it a "blueprint" for future incidents of police brutality nationwide. The incident also resulted in the disbanding of the city's "SCORPION" unit, which had been mandated with directly combating the most violent crimes in the city. All the officers charged with involvement in Nichols's death were members of the unit. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 324.0 square miles (839.2 km 2 ) , of which 315.1 square miles (816.0 km 2 ) is land and 9.0 square miles (23.2 km 2 ) , or 2.76%, is water. Downtown Memphis rises from a bluff along the Mississippi River . The city and metro area spread out through suburbanization, and encompass southwest Tennessee, northern Mississippi , and eastern Arkansas . Several large parks were founded in the city in the early 20th century, notably Overton Park in Midtown and the 4,500-acre (18 km 2 ) Shelby Farms . The city is a national transportation hub and Mississippi River crossing for Interstate 40 , (east-west), Interstate 55 (north-south), barge traffic, Memphis International Airport ( FedEx's "SuperHub" facility ) and numerous freight railroads that serve the city. The Memphis Riverfront stretches along the Mississippi River from the Meeman-Shelby Forest State Park in the north, to the T. O. Fuller State Park in the south. The River Walk is a park system that connects downtown Memphis from Mississippi River Greenbelt Park in the north, to Tom Lee Park in the south. In recent years, the city has decided to deannex some of its territory. It has gone through a three-phase process to deannex five areas within the city limits, returning them to unincorporated Shelby County. The first phase of deannexation occurred on January 1, 2020, when the Eads and River Bottoms areas returned to county jurisdiction. As a result, the Shelby County Sheriff is responsible for patrolling these former parts of Memphis. The first phase of the deannexation process reduced the city's size by 5% and its population by 0.03%. Shelby County is located over four natural aquifers , one of which is recognized as the "Memphis Sand Aquifer" or simply as the "Memphis Aquifer". Located 350 to 1,100 feet (110 to 340 m) underground, this artesian water source is considered soft and estimated by Memphis Light, Gas and Water to contain more than 100 trillion US gallons (380 km 3 ) of water. The Byhalia Pipeline proposed by Plains All American Pipeline and Valero Energy , and set to begin construction in 2020, was the subject of massive public and legal opposition to the project over concerns regarding possible contamination of the Memphis aquifer. Notable figures voicing public opposition to the project included Memphis Congressman Steve Cohen , Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez , Al Gore , Danny Glover , Giancarlo Esposito , and Jane Fonda . The pipeline's route, which was set to run through the historic Black Boxtown neighborhood, raised concerns among the projects opponents about the racially disproportionate impacts that contamination from the pipeline would cause if completed. Construction of the pipeline was cancelled in July 2021 after months of activism and resistance from organizations including Memphis Community Against the Pipeline (MCAP), Protect Our Aquifer, the Memphis and Mid-South Chapter of The Climate Reality Project , and other partnered organizations. Memphis has a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cfa , Trewartha Cf ), with four distinct seasons, and is located in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 8a in downtown, cooling to 7b for much of the surrounding region. Winter weather comes alternately from the upper Great Plains and the Gulf of Mexico , which can lead to drastic swings in temperature. Summer weather may come from Texas (very hot and humid) or the Gulf (hot and very humid). July has a daily average temperature of 82.8 °F (28.2 °C) , with high levels of humidity due to moisture encroaching from the Gulf of Mexico. Afternoon and evening thunderstorms are frequent during summer, but usually brief, lasting no longer than an hour. Early autumn is pleasantly drier and mild, but can be hot until late October. Late autumn is rainy and cooler; precipitation peaks again in November and December. Winters are mild to chilly, with a January daily average temperature of 42.1 °F (5.6 °C) . Snow occurs sporadically in winter, with an average seasonal snowfall of 2.7 inches (6.9 cm) . Ice storms and freezing rain pose a greater danger, as they can often pull tree limbs down on power lines and make driving hazardous. Severe thunderstorms can occur at any time of the year though mainly during the spring months. Large hail, strong winds, flooding, and frequent lightning can accompany these storms. Some storms spawn tornadoes. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Memphis was −13 °F (−25 °C) on December 24, 1963, and the highest temperature ever was 108 °F (42 °C) on July 13, 1980. Over the course of a year, there is an average of 4.4 days of highs below freezing, 6.9 nights of lows below 20 °F (−7 °C) , 43 nights of lows below freezing, 64 days of highs above 90 °F (32 °C) , and 2.1 days of highs above 100 °F (38 °C) . Memphis temperatures dropped to -4 F during the 1985 North American cold wave and during the December 1989 United States cold wave . Annual precipitation is high ( 54.94 inches [1,400 mm] ) and relatively evenly distributed throughout the year. Average monthly rainfall is especially high in March through May, and December, while August and September are relatively drier.Downtown Memphis rises from a bluff along the Mississippi River . The city and metro area spread out through suburbanization, and encompass southwest Tennessee, northern Mississippi , and eastern Arkansas . Several large parks were founded in the city in the early 20th century, notably Overton Park in Midtown and the 4,500-acre (18 km 2 ) Shelby Farms . The city is a national transportation hub and Mississippi River crossing for Interstate 40 , (east-west), Interstate 55 (north-south), barge traffic, Memphis International Airport ( FedEx's "SuperHub" facility ) and numerous freight railroads that serve the city.The Memphis Riverfront stretches along the Mississippi River from the Meeman-Shelby Forest State Park in the north, to the T. O. Fuller State Park in the south. The River Walk is a park system that connects downtown Memphis from Mississippi River Greenbelt Park in the north, to Tom Lee Park in the south.In recent years, the city has decided to deannex some of its territory. It has gone through a three-phase process to deannex five areas within the city limits, returning them to unincorporated Shelby County. The first phase of deannexation occurred on January 1, 2020, when the Eads and River Bottoms areas returned to county jurisdiction. As a result, the Shelby County Sheriff is responsible for patrolling these former parts of Memphis. The first phase of the deannexation process reduced the city's size by 5% and its population by 0.03%. Shelby County is located over four natural aquifers , one of which is recognized as the "Memphis Sand Aquifer" or simply as the "Memphis Aquifer". Located 350 to 1,100 feet (110 to 340 m) underground, this artesian water source is considered soft and estimated by Memphis Light, Gas and Water to contain more than 100 trillion US gallons (380 km 3 ) of water. The Byhalia Pipeline proposed by Plains All American Pipeline and Valero Energy , and set to begin construction in 2020, was the subject of massive public and legal opposition to the project over concerns regarding possible contamination of the Memphis aquifer. Notable figures voicing public opposition to the project included Memphis Congressman Steve Cohen , Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez , Al Gore , Danny Glover , Giancarlo Esposito , and Jane Fonda . The pipeline's route, which was set to run through the historic Black Boxtown neighborhood, raised concerns among the projects opponents about the racially disproportionate impacts that contamination from the pipeline would cause if completed. Construction of the pipeline was cancelled in July 2021 after months of activism and resistance from organizations including Memphis Community Against the Pipeline (MCAP), Protect Our Aquifer, the Memphis and Mid-South Chapter of The Climate Reality Project , and other partnered organizations. The Byhalia Pipeline proposed by Plains All American Pipeline and Valero Energy , and set to begin construction in 2020, was the subject of massive public and legal opposition to the project over concerns regarding possible contamination of the Memphis aquifer. Notable figures voicing public opposition to the project included Memphis Congressman Steve Cohen , Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez , Al Gore , Danny Glover , Giancarlo Esposito , and Jane Fonda . The pipeline's route, which was set to run through the historic Black Boxtown neighborhood, raised concerns among the projects opponents about the racially disproportionate impacts that contamination from the pipeline would cause if completed. Construction of the pipeline was cancelled in July 2021 after months of activism and resistance from organizations including Memphis Community Against the Pipeline (MCAP), Protect Our Aquifer, the Memphis and Mid-South Chapter of The Climate Reality Project , and other partnered organizations. Memphis has a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cfa , Trewartha Cf ), with four distinct seasons, and is located in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 8a in downtown, cooling to 7b for much of the surrounding region. Winter weather comes alternately from the upper Great Plains and the Gulf of Mexico , which can lead to drastic swings in temperature. Summer weather may come from Texas (very hot and humid) or the Gulf (hot and very humid). July has a daily average temperature of 82.8 °F (28.2 °C) , with high levels of humidity due to moisture encroaching from the Gulf of Mexico. Afternoon and evening thunderstorms are frequent during summer, but usually brief, lasting no longer than an hour. Early autumn is pleasantly drier and mild, but can be hot until late October. Late autumn is rainy and cooler; precipitation peaks again in November and December. Winters are mild to chilly, with a January daily average temperature of 42.1 °F (5.6 °C) . Snow occurs sporadically in winter, with an average seasonal snowfall of 2.7 inches (6.9 cm) . Ice storms and freezing rain pose a greater danger, as they can often pull tree limbs down on power lines and make driving hazardous. Severe thunderstorms can occur at any time of the year though mainly during the spring months. Large hail, strong winds, flooding, and frequent lightning can accompany these storms. Some storms spawn tornadoes. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Memphis was −13 °F (−25 °C) on December 24, 1963, and the highest temperature ever was 108 °F (42 °C) on July 13, 1980. Over the course of a year, there is an average of 4.4 days of highs below freezing, 6.9 nights of lows below 20 °F (−7 °C) , 43 nights of lows below freezing, 64 days of highs above 90 °F (32 °C) , and 2.1 days of highs above 100 °F (38 °C) . Memphis temperatures dropped to -4 F during the 1985 North American cold wave and during the December 1989 United States cold wave . Annual precipitation is high ( 54.94 inches [1,400 mm] ) and relatively evenly distributed throughout the year. Average monthly rainfall is especially high in March through May, and December, while August and September are relatively drier.For historical population data, see: History of Memphis, Tennessee . According to the 2020 United States Census , the racial composition of the city of Memphis was: As of the 2010 United States Census [ update ] , there were 652,078 people and 245,836 households in the city. The population density was 2,327.4 people per sq mi (898.6/km 2 ). There were 271,552 housing units at an average density of 972.2 per square mile (375.4/km 2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 63.33% African American , 29.39% White , 1.46% Asian American , 1.57% Native American , 0.04% Pacific Islander , 1.45% from other races, and 1.04% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 6.49% of the population. The median income for a household in the city was $32,285, and the median income for a family was $37,767. Males had a median income of $31,236 versus $25,183 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,838. About 17.2% of families and 20.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30.1% of those under age 18, and 15.4% of those age 65 or over. In 2011, the U.S. Census Bureau ranked the Memphis area as the poorest large metro area in the country. Jeff Wallace of the University of Memphis noted that the problem was related to decades of segregation in government and schools. He said that it was a low-cost job market, but other places in the world could offer cheaper labor, and the workforce was undereducated for today's challenges. The Memphis Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), the 42nd largest in the United States, has a 2010 population of 1,316,100 and includes the Tennessee counties of Shelby , Tipton and Fayette ; as well as the northern Mississippi counties of DeSoto , Marshall , Tate , and Tunica ; and Crittenden County, Arkansas , all part of the Mississippi Delta . The total metropolitan area has a higher proportion of whites and a higher per capita income than the population in the city. The 2010 census shows that the Memphis metro area is close to a majority-minority population: the white population is 47.9 percent of the eight-county area's 1,316,100 residents. The non-Hispanic white population, a designation frequently used in census reports, was 46.2 percent of the total. The African American percentage was 45.7. For several decades, the Memphis metro area has had the highest percentage of black population among the nation's large metropolitan areas. The area has seemed on a path to become the nation's first metro area of one million or more with a majority black population. In a reverse trend of the Great Migration, numerous African Americans and other minorities have moved into DeSoto County, and blacks have followed suburban trends, moving into the suburbs of Shelby County. Anglo-American migrants, Irish and German immigrants contributed to Memphis's population rise. An 1870 map of Memphis shows religious buildings of the Baptist , Catholic , Episcopal , Methodist , Presbyterian , Congregational , and other Christian denominations , and a Jewish congregation. In 2009, places of worship exist for Christians , Jews , Hindus , Buddhists , and Muslims . The international headquarters of the Church of God in Christ , the largest Pentecostal denomination in the United States, is located in Memphis. Its Mason Temple was named after the denomination's founder, Charles Harrison Mason . This auditorium is where Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. gave his noted " I've Been to the Mountaintop " speech in April 1968, the night before he was assassinated at his motel. The National Civil Rights Museum , located in Memphis at the Lorraine Motel and other buildings, has an annual ceremony at Mason's Temple of Deliverance where it honors people with Freedom Awards. Bellevue Baptist Church is a Southern Baptist megachurch in Memphis that was founded in 1903. Its current membership is around 30,000. For many years, it was led by Adrian Rogers , a three-term president of the Southern Baptist Convention . Other notable and/or large churches in Memphis include Second Presbyterian Church ( EPC ), Highpoint Church (SBC), Hope Presbyterian Church ( EPC ), Evergreen Presbyterian Church ( PCUSA ), Colonial Park United Methodist Church, Christ United Methodist Church , Idlewild Presbyterian Church (PCUSA), GraceLife Pentecostal Church ( UPCI ), First Baptist Broad, Temple of Deliverance, Calvary Episcopal Church , the Church of the River (First Unitarian Church of Memphis) , First Congregational Church (UCC) and Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church. Memphis is home to two cathedrals. The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Memphis , and St. Mary's Episcopal Cathedral is the seat of the Episcopal Diocese of West Tennessee . Memphis is home to Temple Israel , a Reform synagogue that has approximately 7,000 members, making it one of the largest Reform synagogues in the country. Baron Hirsch Synagogue is the largest Orthodox shul in the United States. Jewish residents were part of the city before the Civil War, but more Jewish immigrants came from Eastern Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Memphis is home to an estimated 10,000 to 15,000 Muslims of various cultures and ethnicities. A number of seminaries are located in Memphis and the metropolitan area. Memphis is home to Memphis Theological Seminary and Harding School of Theology . Suburban Cordova is home to Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary . In the 21st century, Memphis' crime rate has remained significantly higher than the national average. Memphis' gangs are a major reason for the crime crises in the city. Since the 2000s, it has consistently been recognized as one of the most dangerous cities in the U.S. In 2023, Memphis set a homicide record with 397 homicides. New York City , the nation's largest city with a population of 8.5 million, had a lower homicide count of 386 in 2023. Identity theft, carjackings and robberies were also happening at a highly concerning rate in the city after 2020. Crime was the leading reason 30,000 former Memphis residents decided to relocate outside the city between 2017 and 2022. Memphis' businesses are also leaving the city or closing down at a high rate due to rampant crime. Memphis' leaders are continually discussing and implementing strategies such as hiring more police officers to hopefully lower crime in the city. As of the 2010 United States Census [ update ] , there were 652,078 people and 245,836 households in the city. The population density was 2,327.4 people per sq mi (898.6/km 2 ). There were 271,552 housing units at an average density of 972.2 per square mile (375.4/km 2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 63.33% African American , 29.39% White , 1.46% Asian American , 1.57% Native American , 0.04% Pacific Islander , 1.45% from other races, and 1.04% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 6.49% of the population. The median income for a household in the city was $32,285, and the median income for a family was $37,767. Males had a median income of $31,236 versus $25,183 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,838. About 17.2% of families and 20.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30.1% of those under age 18, and 15.4% of those age 65 or over. In 2011, the U.S. Census Bureau ranked the Memphis area as the poorest large metro area in the country. Jeff Wallace of the University of Memphis noted that the problem was related to decades of segregation in government and schools. He said that it was a low-cost job market, but other places in the world could offer cheaper labor, and the workforce was undereducated for today's challenges. The Memphis Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), the 42nd largest in the United States, has a 2010 population of 1,316,100 and includes the Tennessee counties of Shelby , Tipton and Fayette ; as well as the northern Mississippi counties of DeSoto , Marshall , Tate , and Tunica ; and Crittenden County, Arkansas , all part of the Mississippi Delta . The total metropolitan area has a higher proportion of whites and a higher per capita income than the population in the city. The 2010 census shows that the Memphis metro area is close to a majority-minority population: the white population is 47.9 percent of the eight-county area's 1,316,100 residents. The non-Hispanic white population, a designation frequently used in census reports, was 46.2 percent of the total. The African American percentage was 45.7. For several decades, the Memphis metro area has had the highest percentage of black population among the nation's large metropolitan areas. The area has seemed on a path to become the nation's first metro area of one million or more with a majority black population. In a reverse trend of the Great Migration, numerous African Americans and other minorities have moved into DeSoto County, and blacks have followed suburban trends, moving into the suburbs of Shelby County. Anglo-American migrants, Irish and German immigrants contributed to Memphis's population rise. An 1870 map of Memphis shows religious buildings of the Baptist , Catholic , Episcopal , Methodist , Presbyterian , Congregational , and other Christian denominations , and a Jewish congregation. In 2009, places of worship exist for Christians , Jews , Hindus , Buddhists , and Muslims . The international headquarters of the Church of God in Christ , the largest Pentecostal denomination in the United States, is located in Memphis. Its Mason Temple was named after the denomination's founder, Charles Harrison Mason . This auditorium is where Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. gave his noted " I've Been to the Mountaintop " speech in April 1968, the night before he was assassinated at his motel. The National Civil Rights Museum , located in Memphis at the Lorraine Motel and other buildings, has an annual ceremony at Mason's Temple of Deliverance where it honors people with Freedom Awards. Bellevue Baptist Church is a Southern Baptist megachurch in Memphis that was founded in 1903. Its current membership is around 30,000. For many years, it was led by Adrian Rogers , a three-term president of the Southern Baptist Convention . Other notable and/or large churches in Memphis include Second Presbyterian Church ( EPC ), Highpoint Church (SBC), Hope Presbyterian Church ( EPC ), Evergreen Presbyterian Church ( PCUSA ), Colonial Park United Methodist Church, Christ United Methodist Church , Idlewild Presbyterian Church (PCUSA), GraceLife Pentecostal Church ( UPCI ), First Baptist Broad, Temple of Deliverance, Calvary Episcopal Church , the Church of the River (First Unitarian Church of Memphis) , First Congregational Church (UCC) and Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church. Memphis is home to two cathedrals. The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Memphis , and St. Mary's Episcopal Cathedral is the seat of the Episcopal Diocese of West Tennessee . Memphis is home to Temple Israel , a Reform synagogue that has approximately 7,000 members, making it one of the largest Reform synagogues in the country. Baron Hirsch Synagogue is the largest Orthodox shul in the United States. Jewish residents were part of the city before the Civil War, but more Jewish immigrants came from Eastern Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Memphis is home to an estimated 10,000 to 15,000 Muslims of various cultures and ethnicities. A number of seminaries are located in Memphis and the metropolitan area. Memphis is home to Memphis Theological Seminary and Harding School of Theology . Suburban Cordova is home to Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary .In the 21st century, Memphis' crime rate has remained significantly higher than the national average. Memphis' gangs are a major reason for the crime crises in the city. Since the 2000s, it has consistently been recognized as one of the most dangerous cities in the U.S. In 2023, Memphis set a homicide record with 397 homicides. New York City , the nation's largest city with a population of 8.5 million, had a lower homicide count of 386 in 2023. Identity theft, carjackings and robberies were also happening at a highly concerning rate in the city after 2020. Crime was the leading reason 30,000 former Memphis residents decided to relocate outside the city between 2017 and 2022. Memphis' businesses are also leaving the city or closing down at a high rate due to rampant crime. Memphis' leaders are continually discussing and implementing strategies such as hiring more police officers to hopefully lower crime in the city. The city's central geographic location has aided its business development. On the Mississippi River and intersected by five major freight railroads and two Interstate Highways , I-40 and I-55, Memphis is well positioned for commerce in the transportation and shipping industry. Its access by water was key to its initial development, with steamboats plying the Mississippi river. Railroad construction strengthened its connection to other markets to the east and west. Since the second half of the 20th century, highways and interstates have played major roles as transportation corridors. A third interstate, I-69 , is under construction, and a fourth, I-22 , has recently been designated from the former High Priority Corridor X. River barges are unloaded onto trucks and trains. The city is home to Memphis International Airport , the world's busiest cargo airport , surpassing Hong Kong International Airport in 2021. Memphis serves as a primary hub for FedEx Express shipping. As of 2014 [ update ] , Memphis was the home of three Fortune 500 companies: FedEx (no. 63), International Paper (no. 107), and AutoZone (no. 306). Other major corporations based in Memphis include Allenberg Cotton , American Residential Services (also known as ARS/Rescue Rooter); Baker, Donelson, Bearman, Caldwell & Berkowitz ; Cargill Cotton , City Gear , First Horizon National Corporation , Fred's , GTx , Lenny's Sub Shop , Mid-America Apartments , Perkins Restaurant and Bakery , ServiceMaster , True Temper Sports , Varsity Brands , and Verso Paper . Corporations with major operations based in Memphis include Gibson guitars (based in Nashville), and Smith & Nephew . The Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis also has a branch in Memphis . The entertainment and film industries have discovered Memphis in recent years. Several major motion pictures, most of which were recruited and assisted by the Memphis & Shelby County Film and Television Commission, have been filmed in Memphis, including Making the Grade (1984), Elvis and Me (1988), Great Balls of Fire! (1988), Heart of Dixie (1989), Mystery Train (1989), The Silence of the Lambs (1991), Trespass (1992), The Gun in Betty Lou's Handbag (1992), The Firm (1993), The Delta (1996), The People Vs. Larry Flynt (1996), The Rainmaker (1997), Cast Away (2000), 21 Grams (2002), A Painted House (2002), Hustle & Flow (2005), Forty Shades of Blue (2005), Walk the Line (2005), Black Snake Moan (2007), Nothing But the Truth (2008), Soul Men (2008), and The Grace Card (2011). The Blind Side (2009) was set in Memphis but filmed in Atlanta . The 1992 television movie Memphis , starring Memphis native Cybill Shepherd , who also served as executive producer and writer, was also filmed in Memphis.One of the largest celebrations of the city is Memphis in May . The month-long series of events promotes Memphis's heritage and outreach of its people far beyond the city's borders. The four main events are the Beale Street Music Festival , International Week, The World Championship Barbecue Cooking Contest, and the Great River Run. The World Championship Barbecue Cooking Contest is the largest pork barbecue -cooking contest in the world. In April, downtown Memphis celebrates "Africa in April Cultural Awareness Festival", or simply Africa in April. The festival was designed to celebrate the arts, history, culture, and diversity of the African diaspora . Africa in April is a three-day festival with vendors' markets, fashion showcases, blues showcases, and an international diversity parade. During late May-early June, Memphis is home to the Memphis Italian Festival at Marquette Park. The 2019 festival will be its 30th and has hosted musical acts, local artisans, and Italian cooking competitions. It also presents chef demonstrations, the Coors Light Competitive Bocce Tournament, the Galtelli Cup Recreational Bocce Tournament, a volleyball tournament, and pizza tossing demonstrations. This festival was started by Holy Rosary School and Parish and began inside the School parking lot in 1989. The Memphis Italian Festival is run almost completely by former and current Holy Rosary School and Church members and begins with a 5K run each year. Carnival Memphis , formerly known as the Memphis Cotton Carnival, is an annual series of parties and festivities in June that salutes various aspects of Memphis and its industries. An annual King and Queen of Carnival are secretly selected to reign over Carnival activities. From 1935 to 1982, the African-American community staged the Cotton Makers Jubilee; it has merged with Carnival Memphis. A market and arts festival, the Cooper-Young Festival, is held annually in September in the Cooper-Young district of Midtown Memphis . The event draws artists from all over North America and includes local music, art sales, contests, and displays. Memphis sponsors several film festivals: the Indie Memphis Film Festival , Outflix, and the Memphis International Film and Music Festival. The Indie Memphis Film Festival is in its 14th year and was held April 27–28, 2013. Recognized by MovieMaker Magazine as one of 25 "Coolest Film Festivals" (2009) and one of 25 "Festivals Worth the Entry Fee" (2011), Indie Memphis offers Memphis year-round independent film programming, including the Global Lens international film series, IM Student Shorts student films, and an outdoor concert film series at the historic Levitt Shell . The Outflix Film Festival, also in its 15th year, was held September 7–13, 2013. Outflix features a full week of LGBT cinema, including short films, features, and documentaries. The Memphis International Film and Music Festival is held in April; it is in its 11th year and takes place at Malco's Ridgeway Four. Mid-South Pride is Tennessee's second-largest LGBT pride event. On the weekend before Thanksgiving, the Memphis International Jazz Festival is held in the South Main Historic Arts District in Downtown Memphis. This festival promotes the important role Memphis has played in shaping Jazz nationally and internationally. Acts such as George Coleman, Herman Green, Kirk Whalum and Marvin Stamm all come out of the rich musical heritage in Memphis. Formerly titled the W. C. Handy Awards, the International Blues Awards are presented by the Blues Foundation (headquartered in Memphis) for blues music achievement. Weeklong playing competitions are held, as well as an awards banquet including a night of performance and celebration. Memphis is the home of founders and pioneers of various American music genres, including Memphis soul , Memphis blues , gospel , rock n' roll , rockabilly , Memphis rap , Buck , crunk , and "sharecropper" country music (in contrast to the " rhinestone " country sound historically associated with Nashville ). Many musicians, including Aretha Franklin , Jerry Lee Lewis , Johnny Cash , Elvis Presley , Carl Perkins , Roy Orbison , Booker T. & the M.G.'s , Otis Redding , Isaac Hayes , Shawn Lane , Al Green , Bobby Whitlock , Rance Allen , Percy Sledge , Solomon Burke , William Bell , Sam & Dave and B.B. King , got their start in Memphis in the 1950s and 1960s. Beale Street is a national historical landmark, and shows the impact Memphis has had on American blues , particularly after World War II as electric guitars took precedence over the original acoustic sound from the Mississippi Delta . Sam Phillips 's Sun Studio still stands, and is open for tours. Elvis, Johnny Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins and Roy Orbison all made their first recordings there, and were "discovered" by Phillips. Many great blues artists recorded there, such as W. C. Handy , the "Father of the Blues." Stax Records created a classic 1960s soul music sound, much grittier and horn-based than the better-known Motown from Detroit . Booker T. and the M.G.s were the label's backing band for most of the classic hits that came from Stax, by Sam & Dave, Otis Redding , Wilson Pickett , and many more. The sound was revisited in the 1980s in the Blues Brothers movie , in which many of the musicians starred as themselves. Memphis is also noted for its influence on the power pop musical genre in the 1970s. Notable bands and musicians include Big Star , Chris Bell , Alex Chilton , Tommy Hoehn , The Scruffs , and Prix . Memphis rap has significantly influenced rap culture worldwide. Memphis rap became more mainstream in the 2000s. Memphis rappers such as Three 6 Mafia , Juicy J , Lil Wyte , 8Ball & MJG , Gangsta Boo , Project Pat , La Chat , Young Dolph , Yo Gotti , NLE Choppa , Moneybagg Yo , GloRilla , and Pooh Shiesty are among the most popular rappers in the nation. Several notable singers are from the Memphis area, including Justin Timberlake , K. Michelle , Kirk Whalum , Ruth Welting , Kid Memphis , Kallen Esperian , Julien Baker , and Andrew VanWyngarden . The Metropolitan Opera of New York had its first tour in Memphis in 1906; in the 1990s it decided to tour only larger cities. Metropolitan Opera performances are now broadcast in HD at local movie theaters across the country. Memphis is home to Memphis-style barbecue , which is one of four predominant regional styles of barbecue in the United States. Memphis-style barbecue has become well known due to the World Championship Barbecue Cooking Contest held each May, which has been listed in Guinness World Records as the largest pork barbecue contest in the world. Notable Memphis restaurants include: In addition to the Brooks Museum and Dixon Gallery and Gardens , Memphis plays host to two burgeoning visual art areas, one city-sanctioned, and the other organically formed. The South Main Arts District is an arts neighborhood in south downtown. Over the past 20 years, the area has morphed from a derelict brothel and juke joint neighborhood to a gentrified , well-lit area sponsoring "Trolley Night", when arts patrons stroll down the street to see fire spinners, DJs playing in front of clubs, specialty shops and galleries. Not far from South Main Arts district is Medicine Factory , an artist-run organization. Another developing arts district in Memphis is Broad Avenue. This east–west avenue is undergoing neighborhood revitalization from the influx of craft and visual artists taking up residence and studios in the area. An art professor from Rhodes College holds small openings on the first floor of his home for local students and professional artists. Odessa, another art space on Broad Avenue, hosts student art shows and local electronic music. Other gallery spaces spring up for semi-annual artwalks. Memphis also has non-commercial visual arts organizations and spaces, including local painter Pinkney Herbert's Marshall Arts gallery, on Marshall Avenue near Sun Studios , another arts neighborhood characterized by affordable rent. Well-known writers from Memphis include Shelby Foote , the noted Civil War historian. Novelist John Grisham grew up in nearby DeSoto County, Mississippi , and sets many of his books in Memphis. Many works of fiction and literature are set in Memphis. These include The Reivers by William Faulkner (1962), September, September by Shelby Foote (1977); Peter Taylor 's The Old Forest and Other Stories (1985), and his Pulitzer Prize -winning A Summons to Memphis (1986); The Firm (1991) and The Client (1993), both by John Grisham ; Memphis Afternoons: a Memoir by James Conaway (1993), Plague of Dreamers by Steve Stern (1997); Cassina Gambrel Was Missing by William Watkins (1999); The Guardian by Beecher Smith (1999), "We are Billion-Year-Old Carbon" by Corey Mesler (2005), The Silence of the Lambs by Thomas Harris , and The Architect by James Williamson (2007). Other Memphis attractions include the Simmons Bank Liberty Stadium , FedExForum , and Mississippi riverboat day cruises. The Memphis National Cemetery is a United States National Cemetery located in northeastern Memphis. Historic Elmwood Cemetery is one of the oldest rural garden cemeteries in the South, and contains the Carlisle S. Page Arboretum . Memorial Park Cemetery is noted for its sculptures by Mexican artist Dionicio Rodriguez . Elvis Presley was originally buried in Forest Hill Cemetery, the resting place of his backing band's bassist, Bill Black . After an attempted grave robbing, Elvis's body was moved and reinterred at the grounds of Graceland.One of the largest celebrations of the city is Memphis in May . The month-long series of events promotes Memphis's heritage and outreach of its people far beyond the city's borders. The four main events are the Beale Street Music Festival , International Week, The World Championship Barbecue Cooking Contest, and the Great River Run. The World Championship Barbecue Cooking Contest is the largest pork barbecue -cooking contest in the world. In April, downtown Memphis celebrates "Africa in April Cultural Awareness Festival", or simply Africa in April. The festival was designed to celebrate the arts, history, culture, and diversity of the African diaspora . Africa in April is a three-day festival with vendors' markets, fashion showcases, blues showcases, and an international diversity parade. During late May-early June, Memphis is home to the Memphis Italian Festival at Marquette Park. The 2019 festival will be its 30th and has hosted musical acts, local artisans, and Italian cooking competitions. It also presents chef demonstrations, the Coors Light Competitive Bocce Tournament, the Galtelli Cup Recreational Bocce Tournament, a volleyball tournament, and pizza tossing demonstrations. This festival was started by Holy Rosary School and Parish and began inside the School parking lot in 1989. The Memphis Italian Festival is run almost completely by former and current Holy Rosary School and Church members and begins with a 5K run each year. Carnival Memphis , formerly known as the Memphis Cotton Carnival, is an annual series of parties and festivities in June that salutes various aspects of Memphis and its industries. An annual King and Queen of Carnival are secretly selected to reign over Carnival activities. From 1935 to 1982, the African-American community staged the Cotton Makers Jubilee; it has merged with Carnival Memphis. A market and arts festival, the Cooper-Young Festival, is held annually in September in the Cooper-Young district of Midtown Memphis . The event draws artists from all over North America and includes local music, art sales, contests, and displays. Memphis sponsors several film festivals: the Indie Memphis Film Festival , Outflix, and the Memphis International Film and Music Festival. The Indie Memphis Film Festival is in its 14th year and was held April 27–28, 2013. Recognized by MovieMaker Magazine as one of 25 "Coolest Film Festivals" (2009) and one of 25 "Festivals Worth the Entry Fee" (2011), Indie Memphis offers Memphis year-round independent film programming, including the Global Lens international film series, IM Student Shorts student films, and an outdoor concert film series at the historic Levitt Shell . The Outflix Film Festival, also in its 15th year, was held September 7–13, 2013. Outflix features a full week of LGBT cinema, including short films, features, and documentaries. The Memphis International Film and Music Festival is held in April; it is in its 11th year and takes place at Malco's Ridgeway Four. Mid-South Pride is Tennessee's second-largest LGBT pride event. On the weekend before Thanksgiving, the Memphis International Jazz Festival is held in the South Main Historic Arts District in Downtown Memphis. This festival promotes the important role Memphis has played in shaping Jazz nationally and internationally. Acts such as George Coleman, Herman Green, Kirk Whalum and Marvin Stamm all come out of the rich musical heritage in Memphis. Formerly titled the W. C. Handy Awards, the International Blues Awards are presented by the Blues Foundation (headquartered in Memphis) for blues music achievement. Weeklong playing competitions are held, as well as an awards banquet including a night of performance and celebration.Memphis is the home of founders and pioneers of various American music genres, including Memphis soul , Memphis blues , gospel , rock n' roll , rockabilly , Memphis rap , Buck , crunk , and "sharecropper" country music (in contrast to the " rhinestone " country sound historically associated with Nashville ). Many musicians, including Aretha Franklin , Jerry Lee Lewis , Johnny Cash , Elvis Presley , Carl Perkins , Roy Orbison , Booker T. & the M.G.'s , Otis Redding , Isaac Hayes , Shawn Lane , Al Green , Bobby Whitlock , Rance Allen , Percy Sledge , Solomon Burke , William Bell , Sam & Dave and B.B. King , got their start in Memphis in the 1950s and 1960s. Beale Street is a national historical landmark, and shows the impact Memphis has had on American blues , particularly after World War II as electric guitars took precedence over the original acoustic sound from the Mississippi Delta . Sam Phillips 's Sun Studio still stands, and is open for tours. Elvis, Johnny Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins and Roy Orbison all made their first recordings there, and were "discovered" by Phillips. Many great blues artists recorded there, such as W. C. Handy , the "Father of the Blues." Stax Records created a classic 1960s soul music sound, much grittier and horn-based than the better-known Motown from Detroit . Booker T. and the M.G.s were the label's backing band for most of the classic hits that came from Stax, by Sam & Dave, Otis Redding , Wilson Pickett , and many more. The sound was revisited in the 1980s in the Blues Brothers movie , in which many of the musicians starred as themselves. Memphis is also noted for its influence on the power pop musical genre in the 1970s. Notable bands and musicians include Big Star , Chris Bell , Alex Chilton , Tommy Hoehn , The Scruffs , and Prix . Memphis rap has significantly influenced rap culture worldwide. Memphis rap became more mainstream in the 2000s. Memphis rappers such as Three 6 Mafia , Juicy J , Lil Wyte , 8Ball & MJG , Gangsta Boo , Project Pat , La Chat , Young Dolph , Yo Gotti , NLE Choppa , Moneybagg Yo , GloRilla , and Pooh Shiesty are among the most popular rappers in the nation. Several notable singers are from the Memphis area, including Justin Timberlake , K. Michelle , Kirk Whalum , Ruth Welting , Kid Memphis , Kallen Esperian , Julien Baker , and Andrew VanWyngarden . The Metropolitan Opera of New York had its first tour in Memphis in 1906; in the 1990s it decided to tour only larger cities. Metropolitan Opera performances are now broadcast in HD at local movie theaters across the country.Memphis is home to Memphis-style barbecue , which is one of four predominant regional styles of barbecue in the United States. Memphis-style barbecue has become well known due to the World Championship Barbecue Cooking Contest held each May, which has been listed in Guinness World Records as the largest pork barbecue contest in the world. Notable Memphis restaurants include:In addition to the Brooks Museum and Dixon Gallery and Gardens , Memphis plays host to two burgeoning visual art areas, one city-sanctioned, and the other organically formed. The South Main Arts District is an arts neighborhood in south downtown. Over the past 20 years, the area has morphed from a derelict brothel and juke joint neighborhood to a gentrified , well-lit area sponsoring "Trolley Night", when arts patrons stroll down the street to see fire spinners, DJs playing in front of clubs, specialty shops and galleries. Not far from South Main Arts district is Medicine Factory , an artist-run organization. Another developing arts district in Memphis is Broad Avenue. This east–west avenue is undergoing neighborhood revitalization from the influx of craft and visual artists taking up residence and studios in the area. An art professor from Rhodes College holds small openings on the first floor of his home for local students and professional artists. Odessa, another art space on Broad Avenue, hosts student art shows and local electronic music. Other gallery spaces spring up for semi-annual artwalks. Memphis also has non-commercial visual arts organizations and spaces, including local painter Pinkney Herbert's Marshall Arts gallery, on Marshall Avenue near Sun Studios , another arts neighborhood characterized by affordable rent. Well-known writers from Memphis include Shelby Foote , the noted Civil War historian. Novelist John Grisham grew up in nearby DeSoto County, Mississippi , and sets many of his books in Memphis. Many works of fiction and literature are set in Memphis. These include The Reivers by William Faulkner (1962), September, September by Shelby Foote (1977); Peter Taylor 's The Old Forest and Other Stories (1985), and his Pulitzer Prize -winning A Summons to Memphis (1986); The Firm (1991) and The Client (1993), both by John Grisham ; Memphis Afternoons: a Memoir by James Conaway (1993), Plague of Dreamers by Steve Stern (1997); Cassina Gambrel Was Missing by William Watkins (1999); The Guardian by Beecher Smith (1999), "We are Billion-Year-Old Carbon" by Corey Mesler (2005), The Silence of the Lambs by Thomas Harris , and The Architect by James Williamson (2007).Other Memphis attractions include the Simmons Bank Liberty Stadium , FedExForum , and Mississippi riverboat day cruises. The Memphis National Cemetery is a United States National Cemetery located in northeastern Memphis. Historic Elmwood Cemetery is one of the oldest rural garden cemeteries in the South, and contains the Carlisle S. Page Arboretum . Memorial Park Cemetery is noted for its sculptures by Mexican artist Dionicio Rodriguez . Elvis Presley was originally buried in Forest Hill Cemetery, the resting place of his backing band's bassist, Bill Black . After an attempted grave robbing, Elvis's body was moved and reinterred at the grounds of Graceland.Other Memphis attractions include the Simmons Bank Liberty Stadium , FedExForum , and Mississippi riverboat day cruises.The Memphis National Cemetery is a United States National Cemetery located in northeastern Memphis. Historic Elmwood Cemetery is one of the oldest rural garden cemeteries in the South, and contains the Carlisle S. Page Arboretum . Memorial Park Cemetery is noted for its sculptures by Mexican artist Dionicio Rodriguez . Elvis Presley was originally buried in Forest Hill Cemetery, the resting place of his backing band's bassist, Bill Black . After an attempted grave robbing, Elvis's body was moved and reinterred at the grounds of Graceland.The Memphis Grizzlies of the National Basketball Association is the only team from one of the " big four " major sports leagues in Memphis. The Memphis Redbirds of the Triple-A East are a Minor League Baseball affiliate of the St. Louis Cardinals . Memphis 901 FC is a professional soccer team that plays in the USL Championship division and plays their home matches at AutoZone Park The University of Memphis college basketball team, the Memphis Tigers , has a strong following in the city due to a history of competitive success. The Tigers have competed in three NCAA Final Fours (1973, 1985, 2008), with the latter two appearances being vacated. The current coach of the Memphis Tigers is Penny Hardaway . Memphis is home to Simmons Bank Liberty Stadium , the site of University of Memphis football, the Liberty Bowl and the Southern Heritage Classic . The annual St. Jude Classic , a regular part of the PGA Tour , is also held in the city. Each February the city hosts the Regions Morgan Keegan Championships and the Cellular South Cup , which are men's ATP World Tour 500 series and WTA events, respectively. Memphis has a significant history in pro wrestling . Jerry "The King" Lawler and Jimmy "The Mouth of the South" Hart are among the sport's most well-known figures who came out of the city. Sputnik Monroe , a wrestler of the 1950s, like Lawler, promoted racial integration in the city. Ric Flair also noted Memphis as his birthplace. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the former WFL franchise Memphis Southmen / Memphis Grizzlies sued the NFL in an attempt to be accepted as an expansion franchise. In 1993, the Memphis Hound Dogs was a proposed NFL expansion that was passed over in favor of the Jacksonville Jaguars and Carolina Panthers . The Simmons Bank Liberty Stadium also served as the temporary home of the former Tennessee Oilers (now the Titans) while the city of Nashville worked out stadium issues. The city is also the site of Memphis International Raceway , which held NASCAR events from 1998 to 2009, when Dover Motorsports closed it. In 2011 it reopened under different ownership. It no longer holds NASCAR races, but the Arca Menards Series returned to the track in 2020.Major Memphis parks include W.C. Handy Park, Tom Lee Park , Audubon Park, Overton Park including the Old Forest Arboretum , the Lichterman Nature Center (a nature learning center), the Memphis Botanic Garden , and Jesse H Turner Park . Shelby Farms park, located at the eastern edge of the city, is one of the largest urban parks in the United States.Beginning in 1963, Memphis adopted a mayor-council form of government, with 13 City Council members, six elected at-large from throughout the city and seven elected from geographic districts. Following passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 , civil rights activists challenged the at-large electoral system in court because it made it more difficult for the minority to elect candidates of their choice; at-large voting favored candidates who could command a majority across the city. In 1995, the city adopted a new plan. The 13 Council positions are elected from nine geographic districts: seven are single-member districts and two elect three members each. Paul Young , a Democrat, is the city's mayor. He took office on January 1, 2024. Since the late 20th century, regional discussions have recurred on the concept of consolidating unincorporated Shelby County and Memphis into a metropolitan government , as Nashville-Davidson County did in 1963. Consolidation was a referendum item on the 2010 ballots in both the city of Memphis and Shelby County, under the state law for dual-voting on such measures. The referendum was controversial in both jurisdictions. Black leaders, including then-Shelby County Commissioner Joe Ford and national civil rights leader Al Sharpton , opposed the consolidation. According to the plaintiffs' expert, Marcus Pohlmann, these leaders "tried to turn that referendum into a civil rights issue, suggesting that for blacks to vote for consolidation was to give up hard-won civil rights victories of the past". In October 2010 before the vote, eight Shelby County citizens had filed a lawsuit in federal court against the state and the Shelby County Elections Commission against the dual-voting requirement. Plaintiffs argued that total votes for the referendum should have been counted together, rather than as separate elections. City voters narrowly supported the measure for consolidation with 50.8% in favor; county voters overwhelmingly voted against the measure with 85% against. The state argued that with the election decided, the lawsuit should be dismissed, but the federal court disagreed. By late 2013, in pre-trial actions, both sides were trying to disqualify the other's experts, in discussions of whether regional voting revealed racial polarization, and whether voting on the referendum demonstrated racial bloc voting. "The experts for both sides have clashed on whether racial bloc voting is inevitable in local elections and whether that would require some kind of court remedy." The defendants' expert, Todd Donovan, did not think that polarized voting as revealed for political candidates meant that "African-American voters and white voters have polarized interests when it comes to referendum choices on government administration, taxation, service provision and other policy questions." He noted, "In the absence of distinct political interests that create polarized blocs of referendum voters defined by race, there is no cohesive racial minority voting interest that can be diluted by a referendum." In 2014, the federal district court dismissed the lawsuit, on the grounds that the referendum would have failed when both jurisdictions' votes were counted together. (In total voting, 64% of voters opposed the consolidation.) In the last week of December 2014, the U.S. Sixth District Court of Appeals upheld that decision, ruling that, ""In this election, the referendum for consolidation did not pass and would not have passed even if there had been no dual-majority vote requirement (with the vote counts combined)." Before the referendum, the decision was made by the city and county to exclude public school management and operations from the proposed consolidation. As noted below, in 2011 the Memphis city council voted to dissolve its city school board and consolidate with the Shelby County School System, without the collaboration or agreement of Shelby County. The city had authority for this action under Tennessee state laws that differentiate between city and county powers.The city is served by Memphis-Shelby County Schools (formerly Shelby County Schools). On March 8, 2011, residents voted to dissolve the charter for Memphis City Schools , effectively merging it with the Shelby County School District. After issues with state law and court challenges, the merger took effect the start of the 2013–14 school year. In Shelby County, six incorporated cities voted to establish separate school systems in 2013. [ citation needed ] The Memphis-Shelby County School System operates 222 elementary, middle, and high schools. The Memphis area is also home to many private, college-prep schools, including: Colleges and universities in the city include: Memphis also has campuses of several for-profit post-secondary institutions, including Concorde Career College, ITT Technical Institute , Vatterott College , and University of Phoenix . Remington College is a local nonprofit post-secondary institution. The University of Tennessee College of Dentistry was founded in 1878, making it the oldest dental college in the South , and the third oldest public college of dentistry in the United States. The city is served by Memphis-Shelby County Schools (formerly Shelby County Schools). On March 8, 2011, residents voted to dissolve the charter for Memphis City Schools , effectively merging it with the Shelby County School District. After issues with state law and court challenges, the merger took effect the start of the 2013–14 school year. In Shelby County, six incorporated cities voted to establish separate school systems in 2013. [ citation needed ] The Memphis-Shelby County School System operates 222 elementary, middle, and high schools. The Memphis area is also home to many private, college-prep schools, including:Colleges and universities in the city include: Memphis also has campuses of several for-profit post-secondary institutions, including Concorde Career College, ITT Technical Institute , Vatterott College , and University of Phoenix . Remington College is a local nonprofit post-secondary institution. The University of Tennessee College of Dentistry was founded in 1878, making it the oldest dental college in the South , and the third oldest public college of dentistry in the United States. Nielsen Media Research currently defines Memphis and its surrounding metropolitan area as the 51st largest American media market. Despite Memphis proper's large size, Memphis has always been a medium-sized market; the nearby suburban and rural areas are not much larger than the city itself. Major broadcast television affiliate stations in the Memphis area include, but are not limited to: Terrestrial broadcast radio stations in the Memphis area include, but are not limited to: Memphis is the subject of numerous pop and country songs, including " The Memphis Blues " by W. C. Handy , " Memphis, Tennessee " by Chuck Berry , "Night Train to Memphis" by Roy Acuff , "Goin' to Memphis" by Paul Revere and the Raiders , " Queen of Memphis " by Confederate Railroad , " Memphis Soul Stew " by King Curtis , " Maybe It Was Memphis " by Pam Tillis , " Graceland " by Paul Simon , "Memphis Train" by Rufus Thomas , " All the Way from Memphis " by Mott the Hoople , " Wrong Side of Memphis " by Trisha Yearwood , " Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again " by Bob Dylan , "Memphis Skyline" by Rufus Wainwright , "Sequestered in Memphis" by the Hold Steady and " Walking in Memphis " by Marc Cohn . In addition, Memphis is mentioned in scores of other songs, including " Proud Mary " by Creedence Clearwater Revival , " Honky Tonk Women " by the Rolling Stones , " Dixie Chicken " by Little Feat , " Who's Gonna Fill Their Shoes " by George Jones , "Daisy Jane" by America , " Life Is a Highway " by Tom Cochrane , " Black Velvet " by Alannah Myles , " Cities " by Talking Heads , "Crazed Country Rebel" by Hank Williams III , " Pride (In the Name of Love) " by U2 , "M.E.M.P.H.I.S." by the Disco Biscuits , "New New Minglewood Blues" and "Candyman" by the Grateful Dead , "You Should Be Glad" by Widespread Panic , "Roll With Me" by 8Ball & MJG , "Someday" by Steve Earle and popularly recorded by Shawn Colvin , and many others. More than 1,000 commercial recordings of over 800 distinct songs contain "Memphis" in them. The Memphis Rock N' Soul Museum maintains an ever updated list of these on their website. Many films are set in the American city including, Black Snake Moan , The Blind Side , Cast Away , Choices: The Movie , The Client , Elvis , The Firm , Forty Shades of Blue , Great Balls of Fire! , Hustle & Flow , Kill Switch , Making the Grade , Memphis Belle , Mississippi Grind , Mystery Train , N-Secure , The Rainmaker , The Silence of the Lambs , Soul Men , and Walk the Line . Many of those and other films have also been filmed in Memphis including, Black Snake Moan , Walk the Line , Hustle & Flow , Forty Shades of Blue , 21 Grams , A Painted House , American Saint , The Poor and Hungry , Cast Away , Woman's Story , The Big Muddy , The Rainmaker , Finding Graceland , The People vs. Larry Flynt , The Delta , Teenage Tupelo , A Family Thing , Without Air , The Firm , The Client , The Gun in Betty Lou's Handbag , Trespass , The Silence of the Lambs , Great Balls of Fire! , Elvis and Me , Mystery Train , Leningrad Cowboys Go America , Heart of Dixie , The Contemporary Gladiator , U2: Rattle and Hum , Making the Grade , The River Rat , The River , Hallelujah! , Elizabethtown , 3000 Miles to Graceland , A Face in the Crowd , Undefeated , Man on the Moon , Nothing But the Truth , Sore Losers , Soul Men , I Was a Zombie for the F.B.I. , I'm From Hollywood , The Grace Card , This is Elvis , Cookie's Fortune , Open Five , The Open Road , In the Valley of Elah , Walk Hard , My Blueberry Nights , Savage Country , and Two-Lane Blacktop . The television series Greenleaf , Memphis Beat , Quarry and Bluff City Law are set in the city. Many works of fiction and literature are set in Memphis. These include The Reivers by William Faulkner (1962), September, September by Shelby Foote (1977); Peter Taylor 's The Old Forest and Other Stories (1985), and his Pulitzer Prize -winning A Summons to Memphis (1986); The Firm (1991) and The Client (1993), both by John Grisham ; Memphis Afternoons: a Memoir by James Conaway (1993), Plague of Dreamers by Steve Stern (1997); Cassina Gambrel Was Missing by William Watkins (1999); The Guardian by Beecher Smith (1999), "We are Billion-Year-Old Carbon" by Corey Mesler (2005), The Silence of the Lambs by Thomas Harris , and The Architect by James Williamson (2007).Nielsen Media Research currently defines Memphis and its surrounding metropolitan area as the 51st largest American media market. Despite Memphis proper's large size, Memphis has always been a medium-sized market; the nearby suburban and rural areas are not much larger than the city itself. Major broadcast television affiliate stations in the Memphis area include, but are not limited to:Terrestrial broadcast radio stations in the Memphis area include, but are not limited to:Memphis is the subject of numerous pop and country songs, including " The Memphis Blues " by W. C. Handy , " Memphis, Tennessee " by Chuck Berry , "Night Train to Memphis" by Roy Acuff , "Goin' to Memphis" by Paul Revere and the Raiders , " Queen of Memphis " by Confederate Railroad , " Memphis Soul Stew " by King Curtis , " Maybe It Was Memphis " by Pam Tillis , " Graceland " by Paul Simon , "Memphis Train" by Rufus Thomas , " All the Way from Memphis " by Mott the Hoople , " Wrong Side of Memphis " by Trisha Yearwood , " Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again " by Bob Dylan , "Memphis Skyline" by Rufus Wainwright , "Sequestered in Memphis" by the Hold Steady and " Walking in Memphis " by Marc Cohn . In addition, Memphis is mentioned in scores of other songs, including " Proud Mary " by Creedence Clearwater Revival , " Honky Tonk Women " by the Rolling Stones , " Dixie Chicken " by Little Feat , " Who's Gonna Fill Their Shoes " by George Jones , "Daisy Jane" by America , " Life Is a Highway " by Tom Cochrane , " Black Velvet " by Alannah Myles , " Cities " by Talking Heads , "Crazed Country Rebel" by Hank Williams III , " Pride (In the Name of Love) " by U2 , "M.E.M.P.H.I.S." by the Disco Biscuits , "New New Minglewood Blues" and "Candyman" by the Grateful Dead , "You Should Be Glad" by Widespread Panic , "Roll With Me" by 8Ball & MJG , "Someday" by Steve Earle and popularly recorded by Shawn Colvin , and many others. More than 1,000 commercial recordings of over 800 distinct songs contain "Memphis" in them. The Memphis Rock N' Soul Museum maintains an ever updated list of these on their website. Many films are set in the American city including, Black Snake Moan , The Blind Side , Cast Away , Choices: The Movie , The Client , Elvis , The Firm , Forty Shades of Blue , Great Balls of Fire! , Hustle & Flow , Kill Switch , Making the Grade , Memphis Belle , Mississippi Grind , Mystery Train , N-Secure , The Rainmaker , The Silence of the Lambs , Soul Men , and Walk the Line . Many of those and other films have also been filmed in Memphis including, Black Snake Moan , Walk the Line , Hustle & Flow , Forty Shades of Blue , 21 Grams , A Painted House , American Saint , The Poor and Hungry , Cast Away , Woman's Story , The Big Muddy , The Rainmaker , Finding Graceland , The People vs. Larry Flynt , The Delta , Teenage Tupelo , A Family Thing , Without Air , The Firm , The Client , The Gun in Betty Lou's Handbag , Trespass , The Silence of the Lambs , Great Balls of Fire! , Elvis and Me , Mystery Train , Leningrad Cowboys Go America , Heart of Dixie , The Contemporary Gladiator , U2: Rattle and Hum , Making the Grade , The River Rat , The River , Hallelujah! , Elizabethtown , 3000 Miles to Graceland , A Face in the Crowd , Undefeated , Man on the Moon , Nothing But the Truth , Sore Losers , Soul Men , I Was a Zombie for the F.B.I. , I'm From Hollywood , The Grace Card , This is Elvis , Cookie's Fortune , Open Five , The Open Road , In the Valley of Elah , Walk Hard , My Blueberry Nights , Savage Country , and Two-Lane Blacktop . The television series Greenleaf , Memphis Beat , Quarry and Bluff City Law are set in the city. Many works of fiction and literature are set in Memphis. These include The Reivers by William Faulkner (1962), September, September by Shelby Foote (1977); Peter Taylor 's The Old Forest and Other Stories (1985), and his Pulitzer Prize -winning A Summons to Memphis (1986); The Firm (1991) and The Client (1993), both by John Grisham ; Memphis Afternoons: a Memoir by James Conaway (1993), Plague of Dreamers by Steve Stern (1997); Cassina Gambrel Was Missing by William Watkins (1999); The Guardian by Beecher Smith (1999), "We are Billion-Year-Old Carbon" by Corey Mesler (2005), The Silence of the Lambs by Thomas Harris , and The Architect by James Williamson (2007).Memphis is the subject of numerous pop and country songs, including " The Memphis Blues " by W. C. Handy , " Memphis, Tennessee " by Chuck Berry , "Night Train to Memphis" by Roy Acuff , "Goin' to Memphis" by Paul Revere and the Raiders , " Queen of Memphis " by Confederate Railroad , " Memphis Soul Stew " by King Curtis , " Maybe It Was Memphis " by Pam Tillis , " Graceland " by Paul Simon , "Memphis Train" by Rufus Thomas , " All the Way from Memphis " by Mott the Hoople , " Wrong Side of Memphis " by Trisha Yearwood , " Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again " by Bob Dylan , "Memphis Skyline" by Rufus Wainwright , "Sequestered in Memphis" by the Hold Steady and " Walking in Memphis " by Marc Cohn . In addition, Memphis is mentioned in scores of other songs, including " Proud Mary " by Creedence Clearwater Revival , " Honky Tonk Women " by the Rolling Stones , " Dixie Chicken " by Little Feat , " Who's Gonna Fill Their Shoes " by George Jones , "Daisy Jane" by America , " Life Is a Highway " by Tom Cochrane , " Black Velvet " by Alannah Myles , " Cities " by Talking Heads , "Crazed Country Rebel" by Hank Williams III , " Pride (In the Name of Love) " by U2 , "M.E.M.P.H.I.S." by the Disco Biscuits , "New New Minglewood Blues" and "Candyman" by the Grateful Dead , "You Should Be Glad" by Widespread Panic , "Roll With Me" by 8Ball & MJG , "Someday" by Steve Earle and popularly recorded by Shawn Colvin , and many others. More than 1,000 commercial recordings of over 800 distinct songs contain "Memphis" in them. The Memphis Rock N' Soul Museum maintains an ever updated list of these on their website. Many films are set in the American city including, Black Snake Moan , The Blind Side , Cast Away , Choices: The Movie , The Client , Elvis , The Firm , Forty Shades of Blue , Great Balls of Fire! , Hustle & Flow , Kill Switch , Making the Grade , Memphis Belle , Mississippi Grind , Mystery Train , N-Secure , The Rainmaker , The Silence of the Lambs , Soul Men , and Walk the Line . Many of those and other films have also been filmed in Memphis including, Black Snake Moan , Walk the Line , Hustle & Flow , Forty Shades of Blue , 21 Grams , A Painted House , American Saint , The Poor and Hungry , Cast Away , Woman's Story , The Big Muddy , The Rainmaker , Finding Graceland , The People vs. Larry Flynt , The Delta , Teenage Tupelo , A Family Thing , Without Air , The Firm , The Client , The Gun in Betty Lou's Handbag , Trespass , The Silence of the Lambs , Great Balls of Fire! , Elvis and Me , Mystery Train , Leningrad Cowboys Go America , Heart of Dixie , The Contemporary Gladiator , U2: Rattle and Hum , Making the Grade , The River Rat , The River , Hallelujah! , Elizabethtown , 3000 Miles to Graceland , A Face in the Crowd , Undefeated , Man on the Moon , Nothing But the Truth , Sore Losers , Soul Men , I Was a Zombie for the F.B.I. , I'm From Hollywood , The Grace Card , This is Elvis , Cookie's Fortune , Open Five , The Open Road , In the Valley of Elah , Walk Hard , My Blueberry Nights , Savage Country , and Two-Lane Blacktop . The television series Greenleaf , Memphis Beat , Quarry and Bluff City Law are set in the city.Many works of fiction and literature are set in Memphis. These include The Reivers by William Faulkner (1962), September, September by Shelby Foote (1977); Peter Taylor 's The Old Forest and Other Stories (1985), and his Pulitzer Prize -winning A Summons to Memphis (1986); The Firm (1991) and The Client (1993), both by John Grisham ; Memphis Afternoons: a Memoir by James Conaway (1993), Plague of Dreamers by Steve Stern (1997); Cassina Gambrel Was Missing by William Watkins (1999); The Guardian by Beecher Smith (1999), "We are Billion-Year-Old Carbon" by Corey Mesler (2005), The Silence of the Lambs by Thomas Harris , and The Architect by James Williamson (2007).Interstate 40 , Interstate 55 , Interstate 22 , Interstate 240 , Interstate 269 , and State Route 385 are the main expressways in the Memphis area. Interstates 40 and 55 cross the Mississippi River at Memphis from the state of Arkansas . Interstate 69 is a proposed interstate that, upon completion, would connect Memphis to Canada and Mexico. I-40 is a coast-to-coast freeway that connects Memphis to Nashville and on to North Carolina to the east, and Little Rock, Arkansas , Oklahoma City , and the Greater Los Angeles Area to the west. I-55 connects Memphis to St. Louis and Chicago to the north, and Jackson, Mississippi and New Orleans to the south. I-240 is the inner beltway which serves areas including Downtown, Midtown, South Memphis, Memphis International Airport , East Memphis, and North Memphis. I-269 is the larger, outer interstate loop immediately serving the suburbs of Millington , Eads, Arlington , Collierville , and Hernando, Mississippi . It was completed in 2018. Interstate 22 connects Memphis with Birmingham, Alabama , via northern Mississippi (including Tupelo ) and northwestern Alabama. While technically not entering the city of Memphis proper, I-22 ends at I-269 in Byhalia, Mississippi , connecting it to the rest of the Memphis interstate system. Interstate 69 is proposed to follow I-55 and I-240 through the city of Memphis. Once completed, I-69 will link Memphis with Port Huron, Michigan via Indianapolis, Indiana , and Brownsville, Texas via Shreveport, Louisiana and Houston, Texas . A new spur, Interstate 555 , also serves the Memphis metro area connecting it to Jonesboro, Arkansas . Other important federal highways though Memphis include the east–west U.S. Route 70 , U.S. Route 64 , and U.S. Route 72 ; and the north–south U.S. Route 51 and U.S. Route 61 . The former is the historic highway north to Chicago via Cairo, Illinois , while the latter roughly parallels the Mississippi River for most of its course and crosses the Mississippi Delta region to the south, with the Delta also legendary for Blues music. Roadways Memphis maintains 6,800 lane-miles of city roadways. The city collaborated with Google Cloud Platform and SpringML in February 2019 to test machine learning (ML) to improve public services. A key focus is pothole identification using TensorFlow technology. Public Works personnel completed 63,000 repairs, with around 7,500 of those reported by citizens to 311. The Memphis Area Transit Authority provides local transit services around Memphis, including the MATA Trolley heritage streetcar system. Intercity bus service to the city is provided by Flixbus , Greyhound Lines , and Jefferson Lines . A large volume of railroad freight moves through Memphis, because of its two heavy-duty Mississippi River railroad crossings, which carry several major east–west railroad freight lines, and also because of the major north–south railroad lines through Memphis which connect with such major cities as Chicago, St. Louis , Indianapolis , Louisville , New Orleans , Dallas , Houston , Mobile , and Birmingham . By the early 20th century, Memphis had two major passenger railroad stations, which made the city a regional hub for trains coming from the north, east, south and west. After passenger railroad service declined heavily through the middle of the 20th century, the Memphis Union Station was demolished in 1969. The Memphis Central Station was eventually renovated, and it still serves the city. The only inter-city passenger railroad service to Memphis is the daily City of New Orleans train, operated by Amtrak , which has one train northbound and one train southbound each day between Chicago and New Orleans. Amtrak (AMTK) Memphis International Airport is the global "SuperHub" of FedEx Express , and has the largest cargo operations by volume of any airport worldwide, surpassing Hong Kong International Airport in 2021. Memphis International ranks as the 41st busiest passenger airport in the US and served as a hub for Northwest Airlines (later Delta Air Lines ) until September 3, 2013. and had 4.39 million boarding passengers (enplanements) in 2011, an 11.9% decrease over the previous year. Delta has reduced its flights at Memphis by approximately 65% since its 2008 merger with Northwest Airlines and operates an average of 30 daily flights as of December 2013, with two international destinations (Cancún – seasonally; Toronto year-round). Delta Air Lines announced the closing of its Memphis pilot and crew base in 2012. Other airlines providing passenger service are: Southwest Airlines ; American Airlines ; United Airlines ; Allegiant ; Frontier ; Air Canada ; and Southern Vacations Express. There are also general aviation airports in the Memphis Metropolitan Area, including the Millington Regional Jetport , located at the former Naval Air Station in Millington, Tennessee . Memphis has the second-busiest cargo port on the Mississippi River, which is also the fourth-busiest inland port in the United States. The International Port of Memphis covers both the Tennessee and Arkansas sides of the Mississippi River from river mile 725 (km 1167) to mile 740 (km 1191). A focal point of the river port is the industrial park on President's Island , just south of Downtown Memphis . Four railroad and highway bridges cross the Mississippi River at Memphis. In order of their opening years, these are the Frisco Bridge (1892, single-track rail), the Harahan Bridge (1916, a road-rail bridge until 1949, currently carries double-track rail), the Memphis-Arkansas Memorial Bridge (Highway, 1949; later incorporated into Interstate 55 ), and the Hernando de Soto Bridge ( Interstate 40 , 1973). A bicycle/pedestrian walkway opened along the Harahan Bridge in late 2016, utilizing the former westbound roadway. Memphis's primary utility provider is the Memphis Light, Gas and Water Division (MLGW). This is the largest three-service municipal utility in the United States, providing electricity, natural gas, and pure water service to all residents of Shelby County. Prior to that, Memphis was served by two primary electric companies, which were merged into the Memphis Power Company. The City of Memphis bought the private company in 1939 to form MLGW, which was an early customer of electricity from the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). In 1954 the Dixon-Yates contract was proposed to make more power available to the city from the TVA, but the contract was cancelled; it had been an issue for the Democrats in the 1954 Congressional elections . MLGW still buys most of its power from TVA, and the company pumps its own fresh water from the Memphis Aquifer, using more than 180 water wells. The Memphis and Shelby County region supports numerous hospitals, including the Methodist and Baptist Memorial health systems, two of the nation's largest private hospitals. Until the 1960s and the end of segregation , most hospitals only served white patients. One of the few hospitals for African Americans in Memphis in those times was Collins Chapel Connectional Hospital, whose historic building now houses a homeless shelter. Methodist Le Bonheur Healthcare , the largest healthcare provider in the Memphis region and the fourth largest employer as of 2018, operates seven hospitals and several rural clinics. Methodist Healthcare operates, among others, the Le Bonheur Children's Hospital , which offers primary level 1 pediatric trauma care, as well as a nationally recognized pediatric brain tumor program. Methodist Healthcare also operates Methodist University Hospital , a 617-bed facility 1 mile southeast of Le Bonheur. Baptist Memorial Healthcare operates fifteen hospitals (three in Memphis), including Baptist Memorial Hospital , and with a merger in 2018 became the largest healthcare system in the mid-South. According to Health Care Market Guide's annual studies, Mid-Southerners have named Baptist Memorial their "preferred hospital choice for quality". The St. Jude Children's Research Hospital , leading pediatric treatment and research facility focused on children's catastrophic diseases, resides in Memphis. The institution was conceived and built by entertainer Danny Thomas in 1962 as a tribute to St. Jude Thaddeus , patron saint of impossible, hopeless, and difficult causes. Regional One Health is located in Memphis. Memphis is home to Delta Medical Center of Memphis, which is the only employee-owned medical facility in North America. Individual health insurance marketplace insurers are limited, with Bright Health and Cigna offering coverage in the area. Interstate 40 , Interstate 55 , Interstate 22 , Interstate 240 , Interstate 269 , and State Route 385 are the main expressways in the Memphis area. Interstates 40 and 55 cross the Mississippi River at Memphis from the state of Arkansas . Interstate 69 is a proposed interstate that, upon completion, would connect Memphis to Canada and Mexico. I-40 is a coast-to-coast freeway that connects Memphis to Nashville and on to North Carolina to the east, and Little Rock, Arkansas , Oklahoma City , and the Greater Los Angeles Area to the west. I-55 connects Memphis to St. Louis and Chicago to the north, and Jackson, Mississippi and New Orleans to the south. I-240 is the inner beltway which serves areas including Downtown, Midtown, South Memphis, Memphis International Airport , East Memphis, and North Memphis. I-269 is the larger, outer interstate loop immediately serving the suburbs of Millington , Eads, Arlington , Collierville , and Hernando, Mississippi . It was completed in 2018. Interstate 22 connects Memphis with Birmingham, Alabama , via northern Mississippi (including Tupelo ) and northwestern Alabama. While technically not entering the city of Memphis proper, I-22 ends at I-269 in Byhalia, Mississippi , connecting it to the rest of the Memphis interstate system. Interstate 69 is proposed to follow I-55 and I-240 through the city of Memphis. Once completed, I-69 will link Memphis with Port Huron, Michigan via Indianapolis, Indiana , and Brownsville, Texas via Shreveport, Louisiana and Houston, Texas . A new spur, Interstate 555 , also serves the Memphis metro area connecting it to Jonesboro, Arkansas . Other important federal highways though Memphis include the east–west U.S. Route 70 , U.S. Route 64 , and U.S. Route 72 ; and the north–south U.S. Route 51 and U.S. Route 61 . The former is the historic highway north to Chicago via Cairo, Illinois , while the latter roughly parallels the Mississippi River for most of its course and crosses the Mississippi Delta region to the south, with the Delta also legendary for Blues music. Roadways Memphis maintains 6,800 lane-miles of city roadways. The city collaborated with Google Cloud Platform and SpringML in February 2019 to test machine learning (ML) to improve public services. A key focus is pothole identification using TensorFlow technology. Public Works personnel completed 63,000 repairs, with around 7,500 of those reported by citizens to 311. The Memphis Area Transit Authority provides local transit services around Memphis, including the MATA Trolley heritage streetcar system. Intercity bus service to the city is provided by Flixbus , Greyhound Lines , and Jefferson Lines . A large volume of railroad freight moves through Memphis, because of its two heavy-duty Mississippi River railroad crossings, which carry several major east–west railroad freight lines, and also because of the major north–south railroad lines through Memphis which connect with such major cities as Chicago, St. Louis , Indianapolis , Louisville , New Orleans , Dallas , Houston , Mobile , and Birmingham . By the early 20th century, Memphis had two major passenger railroad stations, which made the city a regional hub for trains coming from the north, east, south and west. After passenger railroad service declined heavily through the middle of the 20th century, the Memphis Union Station was demolished in 1969. The Memphis Central Station was eventually renovated, and it still serves the city. The only inter-city passenger railroad service to Memphis is the daily City of New Orleans train, operated by Amtrak , which has one train northbound and one train southbound each day between Chicago and New Orleans. Amtrak (AMTK) Memphis International Airport is the global "SuperHub" of FedEx Express , and has the largest cargo operations by volume of any airport worldwide, surpassing Hong Kong International Airport in 2021. Memphis International ranks as the 41st busiest passenger airport in the US and served as a hub for Northwest Airlines (later Delta Air Lines ) until September 3, 2013. and had 4.39 million boarding passengers (enplanements) in 2011, an 11.9% decrease over the previous year. Delta has reduced its flights at Memphis by approximately 65% since its 2008 merger with Northwest Airlines and operates an average of 30 daily flights as of December 2013, with two international destinations (Cancún – seasonally; Toronto year-round). Delta Air Lines announced the closing of its Memphis pilot and crew base in 2012. Other airlines providing passenger service are: Southwest Airlines ; American Airlines ; United Airlines ; Allegiant ; Frontier ; Air Canada ; and Southern Vacations Express. There are also general aviation airports in the Memphis Metropolitan Area, including the Millington Regional Jetport , located at the former Naval Air Station in Millington, Tennessee . Memphis has the second-busiest cargo port on the Mississippi River, which is also the fourth-busiest inland port in the United States. The International Port of Memphis covers both the Tennessee and Arkansas sides of the Mississippi River from river mile 725 (km 1167) to mile 740 (km 1191). A focal point of the river port is the industrial park on President's Island , just south of Downtown Memphis . Four railroad and highway bridges cross the Mississippi River at Memphis. In order of their opening years, these are the Frisco Bridge (1892, single-track rail), the Harahan Bridge (1916, a road-rail bridge until 1949, currently carries double-track rail), the Memphis-Arkansas Memorial Bridge (Highway, 1949; later incorporated into Interstate 55 ), and the Hernando de Soto Bridge ( Interstate 40 , 1973). A bicycle/pedestrian walkway opened along the Harahan Bridge in late 2016, utilizing the former westbound roadway. Interstate 40 , Interstate 55 , Interstate 22 , Interstate 240 , Interstate 269 , and State Route 385 are the main expressways in the Memphis area. Interstates 40 and 55 cross the Mississippi River at Memphis from the state of Arkansas . Interstate 69 is a proposed interstate that, upon completion, would connect Memphis to Canada and Mexico. I-40 is a coast-to-coast freeway that connects Memphis to Nashville and on to North Carolina to the east, and Little Rock, Arkansas , Oklahoma City , and the Greater Los Angeles Area to the west. I-55 connects Memphis to St. Louis and Chicago to the north, and Jackson, Mississippi and New Orleans to the south. I-240 is the inner beltway which serves areas including Downtown, Midtown, South Memphis, Memphis International Airport , East Memphis, and North Memphis. I-269 is the larger, outer interstate loop immediately serving the suburbs of Millington , Eads, Arlington , Collierville , and Hernando, Mississippi . It was completed in 2018. Interstate 22 connects Memphis with Birmingham, Alabama , via northern Mississippi (including Tupelo ) and northwestern Alabama. While technically not entering the city of Memphis proper, I-22 ends at I-269 in Byhalia, Mississippi , connecting it to the rest of the Memphis interstate system. Interstate 69 is proposed to follow I-55 and I-240 through the city of Memphis. Once completed, I-69 will link Memphis with Port Huron, Michigan via Indianapolis, Indiana , and Brownsville, Texas via Shreveport, Louisiana and Houston, Texas . A new spur, Interstate 555 , also serves the Memphis metro area connecting it to Jonesboro, Arkansas . Other important federal highways though Memphis include the east–west U.S. Route 70 , U.S. Route 64 , and U.S. Route 72 ; and the north–south U.S. Route 51 and U.S. Route 61 . The former is the historic highway north to Chicago via Cairo, Illinois , while the latter roughly parallels the Mississippi River for most of its course and crosses the Mississippi Delta region to the south, with the Delta also legendary for Blues music. Roadways Memphis maintains 6,800 lane-miles of city roadways. The city collaborated with Google Cloud Platform and SpringML in February 2019 to test machine learning (ML) to improve public services. A key focus is pothole identification using TensorFlow technology. Public Works personnel completed 63,000 repairs, with around 7,500 of those reported by citizens to 311. The Memphis Area Transit Authority provides local transit services around Memphis, including the MATA Trolley heritage streetcar system. Intercity bus service to the city is provided by Flixbus , Greyhound Lines , and Jefferson Lines . A large volume of railroad freight moves through Memphis, because of its two heavy-duty Mississippi River railroad crossings, which carry several major east–west railroad freight lines, and also because of the major north–south railroad lines through Memphis which connect with such major cities as Chicago, St. Louis , Indianapolis , Louisville , New Orleans , Dallas , Houston , Mobile , and Birmingham . By the early 20th century, Memphis had two major passenger railroad stations, which made the city a regional hub for trains coming from the north, east, south and west. After passenger railroad service declined heavily through the middle of the 20th century, the Memphis Union Station was demolished in 1969. The Memphis Central Station was eventually renovated, and it still serves the city. The only inter-city passenger railroad service to Memphis is the daily City of New Orleans train, operated by Amtrak , which has one train northbound and one train southbound each day between Chicago and New Orleans. Amtrak (AMTK)Amtrak (AMTK)Memphis International Airport is the global "SuperHub" of FedEx Express , and has the largest cargo operations by volume of any airport worldwide, surpassing Hong Kong International Airport in 2021. Memphis International ranks as the 41st busiest passenger airport in the US and served as a hub for Northwest Airlines (later Delta Air Lines ) until September 3, 2013. and had 4.39 million boarding passengers (enplanements) in 2011, an 11.9% decrease over the previous year. Delta has reduced its flights at Memphis by approximately 65% since its 2008 merger with Northwest Airlines and operates an average of 30 daily flights as of December 2013, with two international destinations (Cancún – seasonally; Toronto year-round). Delta Air Lines announced the closing of its Memphis pilot and crew base in 2012. Other airlines providing passenger service are: Southwest Airlines ; American Airlines ; United Airlines ; Allegiant ; Frontier ; Air Canada ; and Southern Vacations Express. There are also general aviation airports in the Memphis Metropolitan Area, including the Millington Regional Jetport , located at the former Naval Air Station in Millington, Tennessee .Memphis has the second-busiest cargo port on the Mississippi River, which is also the fourth-busiest inland port in the United States. The International Port of Memphis covers both the Tennessee and Arkansas sides of the Mississippi River from river mile 725 (km 1167) to mile 740 (km 1191). A focal point of the river port is the industrial park on President's Island , just south of Downtown Memphis .Four railroad and highway bridges cross the Mississippi River at Memphis. In order of their opening years, these are the Frisco Bridge (1892, single-track rail), the Harahan Bridge (1916, a road-rail bridge until 1949, currently carries double-track rail), the Memphis-Arkansas Memorial Bridge (Highway, 1949; later incorporated into Interstate 55 ), and the Hernando de Soto Bridge ( Interstate 40 , 1973). A bicycle/pedestrian walkway opened along the Harahan Bridge in late 2016, utilizing the former westbound roadway. Memphis's primary utility provider is the Memphis Light, Gas and Water Division (MLGW). This is the largest three-service municipal utility in the United States, providing electricity, natural gas, and pure water service to all residents of Shelby County. Prior to that, Memphis was served by two primary electric companies, which were merged into the Memphis Power Company. The City of Memphis bought the private company in 1939 to form MLGW, which was an early customer of electricity from the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). In 1954 the Dixon-Yates contract was proposed to make more power available to the city from the TVA, but the contract was cancelled; it had been an issue for the Democrats in the 1954 Congressional elections . MLGW still buys most of its power from TVA, and the company pumps its own fresh water from the Memphis Aquifer, using more than 180 water wells.The Memphis and Shelby County region supports numerous hospitals, including the Methodist and Baptist Memorial health systems, two of the nation's largest private hospitals. Until the 1960s and the end of segregation , most hospitals only served white patients. One of the few hospitals for African Americans in Memphis in those times was Collins Chapel Connectional Hospital, whose historic building now houses a homeless shelter. Methodist Le Bonheur Healthcare , the largest healthcare provider in the Memphis region and the fourth largest employer as of 2018, operates seven hospitals and several rural clinics. Methodist Healthcare operates, among others, the Le Bonheur Children's Hospital , which offers primary level 1 pediatric trauma care, as well as a nationally recognized pediatric brain tumor program. Methodist Healthcare also operates Methodist University Hospital , a 617-bed facility 1 mile southeast of Le Bonheur. Baptist Memorial Healthcare operates fifteen hospitals (three in Memphis), including Baptist Memorial Hospital , and with a merger in 2018 became the largest healthcare system in the mid-South. According to Health Care Market Guide's annual studies, Mid-Southerners have named Baptist Memorial their "preferred hospital choice for quality". The St. Jude Children's Research Hospital , leading pediatric treatment and research facility focused on children's catastrophic diseases, resides in Memphis. The institution was conceived and built by entertainer Danny Thomas in 1962 as a tribute to St. Jude Thaddeus , patron saint of impossible, hopeless, and difficult causes. Regional One Health is located in Memphis. Memphis is home to Delta Medical Center of Memphis, which is the only employee-owned medical facility in North America. Individual health insurance marketplace insurers are limited, with Bright Health and Cigna offering coverage in the area. Memphis has three sister cities , as per Sister Cities International:

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Yellow/html

Yellow

Yellow is the color between green and orange on the spectrum of light . It is evoked by light with a dominant wavelength of roughly 575 – 585 nm . It is a primary color in subtractive color systems, used in painting or color printing. In the RGB color model , used to create colors on television and computer screens, yellow is a secondary color made by combining red and green at equal intensity. Carotenoids give the characteristic yellow color to autumn leaves , corn , canaries , daffodils , and lemons, as well as egg yolks , buttercups , and bananas. They absorb light energy and protect plants from photo damage in some cases. Sunlight has a slight yellowish hue when the Sun is near the horizon, due to atmospheric scattering of shorter wavelengths (green, blue, and violet). Because it was widely available, yellow ochre pigment was one of the first colors used in art; the Lascaux cave in France has a painting of a yellow horse 17,000 years old. Ochre and orpiment pigments were used to represent gold and skin color in Egyptian tombs, then in the murals in Roman villas. In the early Christian church, yellow was the color associated with the Pope and the golden keys of the Kingdom, but it was also associated with Judas Iscariot and used to mark heretics. In the 20th century, Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe were forced to wear a yellow star . In China, bright yellow was the color of the Middle Kingdom, and could be worn only by the emperor and his household; special guests were welcomed on a yellow carpet. According to surveys in Europe, Canada, the United States and elsewhere, yellow is the color people most often associate with amusement, gentleness, humor, happiness, and spontaneity; however it can also be associated with duplicity, envy, jealousy, greed, and, in the U.S., cowardice. In Iran it has connotations of pallor/sickness, but also wisdom and connection. In China and many Asian countries, it is seen as the color of happiness, glory, harmony and wisdom. The word yellow is from the Old English geolu, geolwe ( oblique case ), meaning "yellow, and yellowish", derived from the Proto-Germanic word gelwaz "yellow". It has the same Indo-European base, gel- , as the words gold and yell ; gʰel- means both bright and gleaming, and to cry out. The English term is related to other Germanic words for yellow , namely Scots yella , East Frisian jeel , West Frisian giel , Dutch geel , German gelb , and Swedish and Norwegian gul . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the oldest known use of this word in English is from The Epinal Glossary in 700. Yellow is found between green and red on the spectrum of visible light. It is the color the human eye sees when it looks at light with a dominant wavelength between 570 and 590 nanometers. In color printing, yellow is one of the three subtractive primary colors of ink along with magenta and cyan . Together with black , they can be overlaid in the right combination to print any full color image. (See the CMYK color model ). A particular yellow is used, called Process yellow (also known as "pigment yellow", "printer's yellow", and "canary yellow"). Process yellow is not an RGB color, and there is no fixed conversion from CMYK primaries to RGB. Different formulations are used for printer's ink, so there can be variations in the printed color that is pure yellow ink. The yellow on a color television or computer screen is created in a completely different way; by combining green and red light at the right level of intensity. (See RGB color model ). Traditionally, the complementary color of yellow is purple; the two colors are opposite each other on the color wheel long used by painters. Vincent van Gogh , an avid student of color theory, used combinations of yellow and purple in several of his paintings for the maximum contrast and harmony. Hunt defines that "two colors are complementary when it is possible to reproduce the tristimulus values of a specified achromatic stimulus by an additive mixture of these two stimuli." That is, when two colored lights can be mixed to match a specified white (achromatic, non-colored) light, the colors of those two lights are complementary . This definition, however, does not constrain what version of white will be specified. In the nineteenth century, the scientists Grassmann and Helmholtz did experiments in which they concluded that finding a good complement for spectral yellow was difficult, but that the result was indigo, that is, a wavelength that today's color scientists would call violet or purple. Helmholtz says "Yellow and indigo blue" are complements. Grassmann reconstructs Newton's category boundaries in terms of wavelengths and says "This indigo therefore falls within the limits of color between which, according to Helmholtz, the complementary colors of yellow lie." Newton's own color circle has yellow directly opposite the boundary between indigo and violet. These results, that the complement of yellow is a wavelength shorter than 450 nm, are derivable from the modern CIE 1931 system of colorimetry if it is assumed that the yellow is about 580 nm or shorter wavelength, and the specified white is the color of a blackbody radiator of temperature 2800 K or lower (that is, the white of an ordinary incandescent light bulb). More typically, with a daylight-colored or around 5000 to 6000 K white, the complement of yellow will be in the blue wavelength range, which is the standard modern answer for the complement of yellow. Because of the characteristics of paint pigments and use of different color wheels , painters traditionally regard the complement of yellow as the color indigo or blue-violet. Lasers emitting in the yellow part of the spectrum are less common and more expensive than most other colors. In commercial products diode pumped solid state ( DPSS ) technology is employed to create the yellow light. An infrared laser diode at 808 nm is used to pump a crystal of neodymium-doped yttrium vanadium oxide (Nd:YVO4) or neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) and induces it to emit at two frequencies (281.76 THz and 223.39 THz: 1064 nm and 1342 nm wavelengths) simultaneously. This deeper infrared light is then passed through another crystal containing potassium, titanium and phosphorus (KTP), whose non-linear properties generate light at a frequency that is the sum of the two incident beams (505.15 THz); in this case corresponding to the wavelength of 593.5 nm ("yellow"). This wavelength is also available, though even more rarely, from a helium–neon laser . However, this not a true yellow, as it exceeds 590 nm. A variant of this same DPSS technology using slightly different starting frequencies was made available in 2010, producing a wavelength of 589 nm, which is considered a true yellow color. The use of yellow lasers at 589 nm and 594 nm have recently become more widespread thanks to the field of optogenetics . Stars of spectral classes F and G have color temperatures that make them look "yellowish". The first astronomer to classify stars according to their color was F. G. W. Struve in 1827. One of his classifications was flavae , or yellow, and this roughly corresponded to stars in the modern spectral range F5 to K0. The Strömgren photometric system for stellar classification includes a 'y' or yellow filter that is centered at a wavelength of 550 nm and has a bandwidth of 20–30 nm. Supergiant stars are rarely yellow supergiants because F and G class supergiants are physically unstable; they are most often a transitional phase between blue supergiants and red supergiants . Some yellow supergiants, the Cepheid variables , pulsate with a period proportional to their absolute magnitude ; hence, if their apparent magnitude is known, the distance to them can be calculated with great precision. Cepheid variables were hence used to determine distances within and beyond the Milky Way galaxy. The most famous example is the current North Pole star, Polaris . Autumn leaves , yellow flowers, bananas, oranges and other yellow fruits all contain carotenoids , yellow and red organic pigments that are found in the chloroplasts and chromoplasts of plants and some other photosynthetic organisms like algae , some bacteria and some fungi. They serve two key roles in plants and algae: they absorb light energy for use in photosynthesis , and they protect the green chlorophyll from photodamage. In late summer, as daylight hours shorten and temperatures cool, the veins that carry fluids into and out of the leaf are gradually closed off. The water and mineral intake into the leaf is reduced, slowly at first, and then more rapidly. It is during this time that the chlorophyll begins to decrease. As the chlorophyll diminishes, the yellow and red carotenoids become more and more visible, creating the classic autumn leaf color . Carotenoids are common in many living things; they give the characteristic color to carrots, maize, daffodils , rutabagas , buttercups and bananas. They are responsible for the red of cooked lobsters , the pink of flamingoes and salmon and the yellow of canaries and egg yolks . Xanthophylls are the most common yellow pigments that form one of two major divisions of the carotenoid group. The name is from Greek xanthos ( ξανθος , "yellow") + phyllon ( φύλλον , "leaf"). Xanthophylls are most commonly found in the leaves of green plants, but they also find their way into animals through the food they eat. For example, the yellow color of chicken egg yolks, fat, and skin comes from the feed the chickens consume. Chicken farmers understand this, and often add xanthophylls , usually lutein , to make the egg yolks more yellow. Bananas are green when they are picked because of the chlorophyll their skin contains. Once picked, they begin to ripen; hormones in the bananas convert amino acids into ethylene gas, which stimulates the production of several enzymes . These enzymes start to change the color, texture and flavor of the banana. The green chlorophyll supply is stopped and the yellow color of the carotenoids replaces it; eventually, as the enzymes continue their work, the cell walls break down and the bananas turn brown.Yellow is found between green and red on the spectrum of visible light. It is the color the human eye sees when it looks at light with a dominant wavelength between 570 and 590 nanometers. In color printing, yellow is one of the three subtractive primary colors of ink along with magenta and cyan . Together with black , they can be overlaid in the right combination to print any full color image. (See the CMYK color model ). A particular yellow is used, called Process yellow (also known as "pigment yellow", "printer's yellow", and "canary yellow"). Process yellow is not an RGB color, and there is no fixed conversion from CMYK primaries to RGB. Different formulations are used for printer's ink, so there can be variations in the printed color that is pure yellow ink. The yellow on a color television or computer screen is created in a completely different way; by combining green and red light at the right level of intensity. (See RGB color model ). Traditionally, the complementary color of yellow is purple; the two colors are opposite each other on the color wheel long used by painters. Vincent van Gogh , an avid student of color theory, used combinations of yellow and purple in several of his paintings for the maximum contrast and harmony. Hunt defines that "two colors are complementary when it is possible to reproduce the tristimulus values of a specified achromatic stimulus by an additive mixture of these two stimuli." That is, when two colored lights can be mixed to match a specified white (achromatic, non-colored) light, the colors of those two lights are complementary . This definition, however, does not constrain what version of white will be specified. In the nineteenth century, the scientists Grassmann and Helmholtz did experiments in which they concluded that finding a good complement for spectral yellow was difficult, but that the result was indigo, that is, a wavelength that today's color scientists would call violet or purple. Helmholtz says "Yellow and indigo blue" are complements. Grassmann reconstructs Newton's category boundaries in terms of wavelengths and says "This indigo therefore falls within the limits of color between which, according to Helmholtz, the complementary colors of yellow lie." Newton's own color circle has yellow directly opposite the boundary between indigo and violet. These results, that the complement of yellow is a wavelength shorter than 450 nm, are derivable from the modern CIE 1931 system of colorimetry if it is assumed that the yellow is about 580 nm or shorter wavelength, and the specified white is the color of a blackbody radiator of temperature 2800 K or lower (that is, the white of an ordinary incandescent light bulb). More typically, with a daylight-colored or around 5000 to 6000 K white, the complement of yellow will be in the blue wavelength range, which is the standard modern answer for the complement of yellow. Because of the characteristics of paint pigments and use of different color wheels , painters traditionally regard the complement of yellow as the color indigo or blue-violet. Lasers emitting in the yellow part of the spectrum are less common and more expensive than most other colors. In commercial products diode pumped solid state ( DPSS ) technology is employed to create the yellow light. An infrared laser diode at 808 nm is used to pump a crystal of neodymium-doped yttrium vanadium oxide (Nd:YVO4) or neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) and induces it to emit at two frequencies (281.76 THz and 223.39 THz: 1064 nm and 1342 nm wavelengths) simultaneously. This deeper infrared light is then passed through another crystal containing potassium, titanium and phosphorus (KTP), whose non-linear properties generate light at a frequency that is the sum of the two incident beams (505.15 THz); in this case corresponding to the wavelength of 593.5 nm ("yellow"). This wavelength is also available, though even more rarely, from a helium–neon laser . However, this not a true yellow, as it exceeds 590 nm. A variant of this same DPSS technology using slightly different starting frequencies was made available in 2010, producing a wavelength of 589 nm, which is considered a true yellow color. The use of yellow lasers at 589 nm and 594 nm have recently become more widespread thanks to the field of optogenetics . Traditionally, the complementary color of yellow is purple; the two colors are opposite each other on the color wheel long used by painters. Vincent van Gogh , an avid student of color theory, used combinations of yellow and purple in several of his paintings for the maximum contrast and harmony. Hunt defines that "two colors are complementary when it is possible to reproduce the tristimulus values of a specified achromatic stimulus by an additive mixture of these two stimuli." That is, when two colored lights can be mixed to match a specified white (achromatic, non-colored) light, the colors of those two lights are complementary . This definition, however, does not constrain what version of white will be specified. In the nineteenth century, the scientists Grassmann and Helmholtz did experiments in which they concluded that finding a good complement for spectral yellow was difficult, but that the result was indigo, that is, a wavelength that today's color scientists would call violet or purple. Helmholtz says "Yellow and indigo blue" are complements. Grassmann reconstructs Newton's category boundaries in terms of wavelengths and says "This indigo therefore falls within the limits of color between which, according to Helmholtz, the complementary colors of yellow lie." Newton's own color circle has yellow directly opposite the boundary between indigo and violet. These results, that the complement of yellow is a wavelength shorter than 450 nm, are derivable from the modern CIE 1931 system of colorimetry if it is assumed that the yellow is about 580 nm or shorter wavelength, and the specified white is the color of a blackbody radiator of temperature 2800 K or lower (that is, the white of an ordinary incandescent light bulb). More typically, with a daylight-colored or around 5000 to 6000 K white, the complement of yellow will be in the blue wavelength range, which is the standard modern answer for the complement of yellow. Because of the characteristics of paint pigments and use of different color wheels , painters traditionally regard the complement of yellow as the color indigo or blue-violet.Lasers emitting in the yellow part of the spectrum are less common and more expensive than most other colors. In commercial products diode pumped solid state ( DPSS ) technology is employed to create the yellow light. An infrared laser diode at 808 nm is used to pump a crystal of neodymium-doped yttrium vanadium oxide (Nd:YVO4) or neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) and induces it to emit at two frequencies (281.76 THz and 223.39 THz: 1064 nm and 1342 nm wavelengths) simultaneously. This deeper infrared light is then passed through another crystal containing potassium, titanium and phosphorus (KTP), whose non-linear properties generate light at a frequency that is the sum of the two incident beams (505.15 THz); in this case corresponding to the wavelength of 593.5 nm ("yellow"). This wavelength is also available, though even more rarely, from a helium–neon laser . However, this not a true yellow, as it exceeds 590 nm. A variant of this same DPSS technology using slightly different starting frequencies was made available in 2010, producing a wavelength of 589 nm, which is considered a true yellow color. The use of yellow lasers at 589 nm and 594 nm have recently become more widespread thanks to the field of optogenetics . Stars of spectral classes F and G have color temperatures that make them look "yellowish". The first astronomer to classify stars according to their color was F. G. W. Struve in 1827. One of his classifications was flavae , or yellow, and this roughly corresponded to stars in the modern spectral range F5 to K0. The Strömgren photometric system for stellar classification includes a 'y' or yellow filter that is centered at a wavelength of 550 nm and has a bandwidth of 20–30 nm. Supergiant stars are rarely yellow supergiants because F and G class supergiants are physically unstable; they are most often a transitional phase between blue supergiants and red supergiants . Some yellow supergiants, the Cepheid variables , pulsate with a period proportional to their absolute magnitude ; hence, if their apparent magnitude is known, the distance to them can be calculated with great precision. Cepheid variables were hence used to determine distances within and beyond the Milky Way galaxy. The most famous example is the current North Pole star, Polaris .Autumn leaves , yellow flowers, bananas, oranges and other yellow fruits all contain carotenoids , yellow and red organic pigments that are found in the chloroplasts and chromoplasts of plants and some other photosynthetic organisms like algae , some bacteria and some fungi. They serve two key roles in plants and algae: they absorb light energy for use in photosynthesis , and they protect the green chlorophyll from photodamage. In late summer, as daylight hours shorten and temperatures cool, the veins that carry fluids into and out of the leaf are gradually closed off. The water and mineral intake into the leaf is reduced, slowly at first, and then more rapidly. It is during this time that the chlorophyll begins to decrease. As the chlorophyll diminishes, the yellow and red carotenoids become more and more visible, creating the classic autumn leaf color . Carotenoids are common in many living things; they give the characteristic color to carrots, maize, daffodils , rutabagas , buttercups and bananas. They are responsible for the red of cooked lobsters , the pink of flamingoes and salmon and the yellow of canaries and egg yolks . Xanthophylls are the most common yellow pigments that form one of two major divisions of the carotenoid group. The name is from Greek xanthos ( ξανθος , "yellow") + phyllon ( φύλλον , "leaf"). Xanthophylls are most commonly found in the leaves of green plants, but they also find their way into animals through the food they eat. For example, the yellow color of chicken egg yolks, fat, and skin comes from the feed the chickens consume. Chicken farmers understand this, and often add xanthophylls , usually lutein , to make the egg yolks more yellow. Bananas are green when they are picked because of the chlorophyll their skin contains. Once picked, they begin to ripen; hormones in the bananas convert amino acids into ethylene gas, which stimulates the production of several enzymes . These enzymes start to change the color, texture and flavor of the banana. The green chlorophyll supply is stopped and the yellow color of the carotenoids replaces it; eventually, as the enzymes continue their work, the cell walls break down and the bananas turn brown.Yellow, in the form of yellow ochre pigment made from clay, was one of the first colors used in prehistoric cave art. The cave of Lascaux has an image of a horse colored with yellow estimated to be 17,300 years old. In Ancient Egypt , yellow was associated with gold, which was considered to be imperishable, eternal and indestructible. The skin and bones of the gods were believed to be made of gold. The Egyptians used yellow extensively in tomb paintings; they usually used either yellow ochre or the brilliant orpiment , though it was made of arsenic and was highly toxic. A small paintbox with orpiment pigment was found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun . Men were always shown with brown faces, women with yellow ochre or gold faces. The ancient Romans used yellow in their paintings to represent gold and also in skin tones. It is found frequently in the murals of Pompeii . During the Post-Classical period, yellow became firmly established as the color of Judas Iscariot , the disciple who betrayed Jesus Christ , even though the Bible never describes his clothing. From this connection, yellow also took on associations with envy , jealousy and duplicity. The tradition started in the Renaissance of marking non-Christian outsiders, such as Jews, with the color yellow. In 16th-century Spain , those accused of heresy and who refused to renounce their views were compelled to come before the Spanish Inquisition dressed in a yellow cape. The color yellow has been historically associated with moneylenders and finance. The National Pawnbrokers Association 's logo depicts three golden spheres hanging from a bar, referencing the three bags of gold that the patron saint of pawnbroking, St. Nicholas , holds in his hands. Additionally, the symbol of three golden orbs is found in the coat of arms of the House of Medici , a famous fifteenth-century Italian dynasty of bankers and lenders. The 18th and 19th century saw the discovery and manufacture of synthetic pigments and dyes, which quickly replaced the traditional yellows made from arsenic, cow urine, and other substances. c. 1776 , Jean-Honoré Fragonard painted A Young Girl Reading . She is dressed in a bright saffron yellow dress. This painting is "considered by many critics to be among Fragonard's most appealing and masterly". The 19th-century British painter J. M. W. Turner was one of the first in that century to use yellow to create moods and emotions, the way romantic composers were using music. His painting Rain, Steam, and Speed – the Great Central Railway was dominated by glowing yellow clouds. Georges Seurat used the new synthetic colors in his experimental paintings composed of tiny points of primary colors, particularly in his famous Sunday Afternoon on the Isle de la Grand jatte (1884–86). He did not know that the new synthetic yellow pigment, zinc yellow or zinc chromate , which he used in the light green lawns, was highly unstable and would quickly turn brown. The painter Vincent van Gogh was a particular admirer of the color yellow, the color of sunshine. Writing to his sister from the south of France in 1888, he wrote, "Now we are having beautiful warm, windless weather that is very beneficial to me. The sun, a light that for lack of a better word I can only call yellow, bright sulfur yellow, pale lemon gold. How beautiful yellow is!" In Arles, Van Gogh painted sunflowers inside a small house he rented at 2 Place Lamartine, a house painted with a color that Van Gogh described as "buttery yellow". Van Gogh was one of the first artists to use commercially manufactured paints, rather than paints he made himself. He used the traditional yellow ochre, but also chrome yellow , first made in 1809; and cadmium yellow , first made in 1820. At the end of the 19th century, in 1895, a new popular art form began to appear in New York newspapers; the color comic strip . It took advantage of a new color printing process, which used color separation and three different colors of ink; magenta, cyan, and yellow, plus black, to create all the colors on the page. One of the first characters in the new comic strips was a humorous boy of the New York streets named Mickey Dugen, more commonly known as the Yellow Kid , from the yellow nightshirt he wore. He gave his name (and color) to the whole genre of popular, sensational journalism, which became known as " yellow journalism ". In the 20th century, yellow was revived as a symbol of exclusion, as it had been in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Jews in Nazi Germany and German-occupied countries were required to sew yellow triangles with the star of David onto their clothing. In the 20th century, modernist painters reduced painting to its simplest colors and geometric shapes. The Dutch modernist painter Piet Mondrian made a series of paintings which consisted of a pure white canvas with a grid of vertical and horizontal black lines and rectangles of yellow, red, and blue. Yellow was particularly valued in the 20th century because of its high visibility. Because of its ability to be seen well from greater distances and at high speeds, yellow makes for the ideal color to be viewed from moving automobiles. It often replaced red as the color of fire trucks and other emergency vehicles, and was popular in neon signs, especially in Las Vegas and in China, where yellow was the most esteemed color. In the 1960s, Pickett Brand developed the "Eye Saver Yellow" slide rule , which was produced with a specific yellow color (Angstrom 5600) that reflects long-wavelength rays and promotes optimum eye-ease to help prevent eyestrain and improve visual accuracy. The 21st century saw the use of unusual materials and technologies to create new ways of experiencing the color yellow. One example was The weather project , by Danish-Icelandic artist Olafur Eliasson , which was installed in the open space of the Turbine Hall of London's Tate Modern in 2003. Eliasson used humidifiers to create a fine mist in the air via a mixture of sugar and water, as well as a semi-circular disc made up of hundreds of monochromatic lamps which radiated yellow light. The ceiling of the hall was covered with a huge mirror , in which visitors could see themselves as tiny black shadows against a mass of light. Many fruits are yellow when ripe, such as lemons and bananas, their color derived from carotenoid pigments. Egg yolks gain their color from xanthophylls , also a type of carotenoid pigment. Yellow is a common color of flowers. The color of saffron comes from crocin , a red variety of carotenoid natural pigment. The color of the dyed fabric varies from deep red to orange to yellow, depending upon the type of saffron and the process. Most saffron today comes from Iran, but it is also grown commercially in Spain, Italy and Kashmir in India, and as a boutique crop in New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, Switzerland and other countries. In the United States, it has been cultivated by the Pennsylvania Dutch community since the early 18th century. Because of the high price of saffron, other similar dyes and spices are often sold under the name saffron; for instance, what is called Indian saffron is often really turmeric. The most common yellow food coloring in use today is called Tartrazine . It is a synthetic lemon yellow azo dye . It is also known as E number E102, C.I. 19140, FD&C yellow 5, acid yellow 23, food yellow 4, and trisodium 1-(4-sulfonatophenyl)-4-(4-sulfonatophenylazo)-5-pyrazolone-3-carboxylate. It is the yellow most frequently used such processed food products as corn and potato chips, breakfast cereals such as corn flakes, candies, popcorn, mustard, jams and jellies, gelatin, soft drinks (notably Mountain Dew ), energy and sports drinks, and pastries. It is also widely used in liquid and bar soap, shampoo, cosmetics and medicines. Sometimes it is mixed with blue dyes to color processed products green. It is typically labelled on food packages as "color", "tartrazine", or "E102". In the United States, because of concerns about possible health problems related to intolerance to tartrazine, its presence must be declared on food and drug product labels. Another popular synthetic yellow coloring is Sunset Yellow FCF (also known as orange yellow S , FD&C yellow 6 and C.I. 15985 ) It is manufactured from aromatic hydrocarbons from petroleum. When added to foods sold in Europe, it is denoted by E number E110. Yellow, in the form of yellow ochre pigment made from clay, was one of the first colors used in prehistoric cave art. The cave of Lascaux has an image of a horse colored with yellow estimated to be 17,300 years old.In Ancient Egypt , yellow was associated with gold, which was considered to be imperishable, eternal and indestructible. The skin and bones of the gods were believed to be made of gold. The Egyptians used yellow extensively in tomb paintings; they usually used either yellow ochre or the brilliant orpiment , though it was made of arsenic and was highly toxic. A small paintbox with orpiment pigment was found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun . Men were always shown with brown faces, women with yellow ochre or gold faces. The ancient Romans used yellow in their paintings to represent gold and also in skin tones. It is found frequently in the murals of Pompeii .During the Post-Classical period, yellow became firmly established as the color of Judas Iscariot , the disciple who betrayed Jesus Christ , even though the Bible never describes his clothing. From this connection, yellow also took on associations with envy , jealousy and duplicity. The tradition started in the Renaissance of marking non-Christian outsiders, such as Jews, with the color yellow. In 16th-century Spain , those accused of heresy and who refused to renounce their views were compelled to come before the Spanish Inquisition dressed in a yellow cape. The color yellow has been historically associated with moneylenders and finance. The National Pawnbrokers Association 's logo depicts three golden spheres hanging from a bar, referencing the three bags of gold that the patron saint of pawnbroking, St. Nicholas , holds in his hands. Additionally, the symbol of three golden orbs is found in the coat of arms of the House of Medici , a famous fifteenth-century Italian dynasty of bankers and lenders. The 18th and 19th century saw the discovery and manufacture of synthetic pigments and dyes, which quickly replaced the traditional yellows made from arsenic, cow urine, and other substances. c. 1776 , Jean-Honoré Fragonard painted A Young Girl Reading . She is dressed in a bright saffron yellow dress. This painting is "considered by many critics to be among Fragonard's most appealing and masterly". The 19th-century British painter J. M. W. Turner was one of the first in that century to use yellow to create moods and emotions, the way romantic composers were using music. His painting Rain, Steam, and Speed – the Great Central Railway was dominated by glowing yellow clouds. Georges Seurat used the new synthetic colors in his experimental paintings composed of tiny points of primary colors, particularly in his famous Sunday Afternoon on the Isle de la Grand jatte (1884–86). He did not know that the new synthetic yellow pigment, zinc yellow or zinc chromate , which he used in the light green lawns, was highly unstable and would quickly turn brown. The painter Vincent van Gogh was a particular admirer of the color yellow, the color of sunshine. Writing to his sister from the south of France in 1888, he wrote, "Now we are having beautiful warm, windless weather that is very beneficial to me. The sun, a light that for lack of a better word I can only call yellow, bright sulfur yellow, pale lemon gold. How beautiful yellow is!" In Arles, Van Gogh painted sunflowers inside a small house he rented at 2 Place Lamartine, a house painted with a color that Van Gogh described as "buttery yellow". Van Gogh was one of the first artists to use commercially manufactured paints, rather than paints he made himself. He used the traditional yellow ochre, but also chrome yellow , first made in 1809; and cadmium yellow , first made in 1820. At the end of the 19th century, in 1895, a new popular art form began to appear in New York newspapers; the color comic strip . It took advantage of a new color printing process, which used color separation and three different colors of ink; magenta, cyan, and yellow, plus black, to create all the colors on the page. One of the first characters in the new comic strips was a humorous boy of the New York streets named Mickey Dugen, more commonly known as the Yellow Kid , from the yellow nightshirt he wore. He gave his name (and color) to the whole genre of popular, sensational journalism, which became known as " yellow journalism ". In the 20th century, yellow was revived as a symbol of exclusion, as it had been in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Jews in Nazi Germany and German-occupied countries were required to sew yellow triangles with the star of David onto their clothing. In the 20th century, modernist painters reduced painting to its simplest colors and geometric shapes. The Dutch modernist painter Piet Mondrian made a series of paintings which consisted of a pure white canvas with a grid of vertical and horizontal black lines and rectangles of yellow, red, and blue. Yellow was particularly valued in the 20th century because of its high visibility. Because of its ability to be seen well from greater distances and at high speeds, yellow makes for the ideal color to be viewed from moving automobiles. It often replaced red as the color of fire trucks and other emergency vehicles, and was popular in neon signs, especially in Las Vegas and in China, where yellow was the most esteemed color. In the 1960s, Pickett Brand developed the "Eye Saver Yellow" slide rule , which was produced with a specific yellow color (Angstrom 5600) that reflects long-wavelength rays and promotes optimum eye-ease to help prevent eyestrain and improve visual accuracy. The 21st century saw the use of unusual materials and technologies to create new ways of experiencing the color yellow. One example was The weather project , by Danish-Icelandic artist Olafur Eliasson , which was installed in the open space of the Turbine Hall of London's Tate Modern in 2003. Eliasson used humidifiers to create a fine mist in the air via a mixture of sugar and water, as well as a semi-circular disc made up of hundreds of monochromatic lamps which radiated yellow light. The ceiling of the hall was covered with a huge mirror , in which visitors could see themselves as tiny black shadows against a mass of light. The 18th and 19th century saw the discovery and manufacture of synthetic pigments and dyes, which quickly replaced the traditional yellows made from arsenic, cow urine, and other substances. c. 1776 , Jean-Honoré Fragonard painted A Young Girl Reading . She is dressed in a bright saffron yellow dress. This painting is "considered by many critics to be among Fragonard's most appealing and masterly". The 19th-century British painter J. M. W. Turner was one of the first in that century to use yellow to create moods and emotions, the way romantic composers were using music. His painting Rain, Steam, and Speed – the Great Central Railway was dominated by glowing yellow clouds. Georges Seurat used the new synthetic colors in his experimental paintings composed of tiny points of primary colors, particularly in his famous Sunday Afternoon on the Isle de la Grand jatte (1884–86). He did not know that the new synthetic yellow pigment, zinc yellow or zinc chromate , which he used in the light green lawns, was highly unstable and would quickly turn brown. The painter Vincent van Gogh was a particular admirer of the color yellow, the color of sunshine. Writing to his sister from the south of France in 1888, he wrote, "Now we are having beautiful warm, windless weather that is very beneficial to me. The sun, a light that for lack of a better word I can only call yellow, bright sulfur yellow, pale lemon gold. How beautiful yellow is!" In Arles, Van Gogh painted sunflowers inside a small house he rented at 2 Place Lamartine, a house painted with a color that Van Gogh described as "buttery yellow". Van Gogh was one of the first artists to use commercially manufactured paints, rather than paints he made himself. He used the traditional yellow ochre, but also chrome yellow , first made in 1809; and cadmium yellow , first made in 1820. At the end of the 19th century, in 1895, a new popular art form began to appear in New York newspapers; the color comic strip . It took advantage of a new color printing process, which used color separation and three different colors of ink; magenta, cyan, and yellow, plus black, to create all the colors on the page. One of the first characters in the new comic strips was a humorous boy of the New York streets named Mickey Dugen, more commonly known as the Yellow Kid , from the yellow nightshirt he wore. He gave his name (and color) to the whole genre of popular, sensational journalism, which became known as " yellow journalism ".In the 20th century, yellow was revived as a symbol of exclusion, as it had been in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Jews in Nazi Germany and German-occupied countries were required to sew yellow triangles with the star of David onto their clothing. In the 20th century, modernist painters reduced painting to its simplest colors and geometric shapes. The Dutch modernist painter Piet Mondrian made a series of paintings which consisted of a pure white canvas with a grid of vertical and horizontal black lines and rectangles of yellow, red, and blue. Yellow was particularly valued in the 20th century because of its high visibility. Because of its ability to be seen well from greater distances and at high speeds, yellow makes for the ideal color to be viewed from moving automobiles. It often replaced red as the color of fire trucks and other emergency vehicles, and was popular in neon signs, especially in Las Vegas and in China, where yellow was the most esteemed color. In the 1960s, Pickett Brand developed the "Eye Saver Yellow" slide rule , which was produced with a specific yellow color (Angstrom 5600) that reflects long-wavelength rays and promotes optimum eye-ease to help prevent eyestrain and improve visual accuracy. The 21st century saw the use of unusual materials and technologies to create new ways of experiencing the color yellow. One example was The weather project , by Danish-Icelandic artist Olafur Eliasson , which was installed in the open space of the Turbine Hall of London's Tate Modern in 2003. Eliasson used humidifiers to create a fine mist in the air via a mixture of sugar and water, as well as a semi-circular disc made up of hundreds of monochromatic lamps which radiated yellow light. The ceiling of the hall was covered with a huge mirror , in which visitors could see themselves as tiny black shadows against a mass of light. Many fruits are yellow when ripe, such as lemons and bananas, their color derived from carotenoid pigments. Egg yolks gain their color from xanthophylls , also a type of carotenoid pigment. Yellow is a common color of flowers.Yellow is a common color of flowers.The color of saffron comes from crocin , a red variety of carotenoid natural pigment. The color of the dyed fabric varies from deep red to orange to yellow, depending upon the type of saffron and the process. Most saffron today comes from Iran, but it is also grown commercially in Spain, Italy and Kashmir in India, and as a boutique crop in New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, Switzerland and other countries. In the United States, it has been cultivated by the Pennsylvania Dutch community since the early 18th century. Because of the high price of saffron, other similar dyes and spices are often sold under the name saffron; for instance, what is called Indian saffron is often really turmeric. The most common yellow food coloring in use today is called Tartrazine . It is a synthetic lemon yellow azo dye . It is also known as E number E102, C.I. 19140, FD&C yellow 5, acid yellow 23, food yellow 4, and trisodium 1-(4-sulfonatophenyl)-4-(4-sulfonatophenylazo)-5-pyrazolone-3-carboxylate. It is the yellow most frequently used such processed food products as corn and potato chips, breakfast cereals such as corn flakes, candies, popcorn, mustard, jams and jellies, gelatin, soft drinks (notably Mountain Dew ), energy and sports drinks, and pastries. It is also widely used in liquid and bar soap, shampoo, cosmetics and medicines. Sometimes it is mixed with blue dyes to color processed products green. It is typically labelled on food packages as "color", "tartrazine", or "E102". In the United States, because of concerns about possible health problems related to intolerance to tartrazine, its presence must be declared on food and drug product labels. Another popular synthetic yellow coloring is Sunset Yellow FCF (also known as orange yellow S , FD&C yellow 6 and C.I. 15985 ) It is manufactured from aromatic hydrocarbons from petroleum. When added to foods sold in Europe, it is denoted by E number E110. The color of saffron comes from crocin , a red variety of carotenoid natural pigment. The color of the dyed fabric varies from deep red to orange to yellow, depending upon the type of saffron and the process. Most saffron today comes from Iran, but it is also grown commercially in Spain, Italy and Kashmir in India, and as a boutique crop in New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, Switzerland and other countries. In the United States, it has been cultivated by the Pennsylvania Dutch community since the early 18th century. Because of the high price of saffron, other similar dyes and spices are often sold under the name saffron; for instance, what is called Indian saffron is often really turmeric.The most common yellow food coloring in use today is called Tartrazine . It is a synthetic lemon yellow azo dye . It is also known as E number E102, C.I. 19140, FD&C yellow 5, acid yellow 23, food yellow 4, and trisodium 1-(4-sulfonatophenyl)-4-(4-sulfonatophenylazo)-5-pyrazolone-3-carboxylate. It is the yellow most frequently used such processed food products as corn and potato chips, breakfast cereals such as corn flakes, candies, popcorn, mustard, jams and jellies, gelatin, soft drinks (notably Mountain Dew ), energy and sports drinks, and pastries. It is also widely used in liquid and bar soap, shampoo, cosmetics and medicines. Sometimes it is mixed with blue dyes to color processed products green. It is typically labelled on food packages as "color", "tartrazine", or "E102". In the United States, because of concerns about possible health problems related to intolerance to tartrazine, its presence must be declared on food and drug product labels. Another popular synthetic yellow coloring is Sunset Yellow FCF (also known as orange yellow S , FD&C yellow 6 and C.I. 15985 ) It is manufactured from aromatic hydrocarbons from petroleum. When added to foods sold in Europe, it is denoted by E number E110. In the west, yellow is not a well-loved color. In a year 2000 survey, only 6% of respondents in Europe and America named it as their favorite color, compared with 45% for blue, 15% for green, 12% for red, and 10% for black. For 7% of respondents, it was their least favorite color. Yellow is considered a color of ambivalence and contradiction. It is associated with optimism and amusement, but also with betrayal, duplicity, and jealousy. However, in China and other parts of Asia, yellow is a color of virtue and nobility. Yellow has strong historical and cultural associations in China, where huáng ( 黃 or 黄 ) is the color of happiness, glory, and wisdom. Although huáng originally and occasionally still covers a range inclusive of tans and oranges , speakers of modern Standard Mandarin tend to map their use of huáng to shades corresponding to English yellow. In Chinese symbolism, yellow, red, and green are masculine colors, while black and white are considered feminine. After the development of the theory of five elements , the Chinese reckoned various correspondences. On a five season model, late summer was characterized by yellowing leaves. [ dubious – discuss ] Yellow was taken as the color of the fifth direction of the compass, the central. China is called the Middle Kingdom; the palace of the Emperor was considered to be in the exact center of the world. The legendary first emperor of China was called the Yellow Emperor and the last, Puyi (1906–67), described in his memoirs how every object which surrounded him as a child was yellow. "It made me understand from my most tender age that I was of a unique essence, and it instilled in me the consciousness of my 'celestial nature' which made me different from every other human." The Chinese Emperor was literally considered the child of heaven, with both a political and religious role, both symbolized by yellow. After the Song dynasty , laws banned the use of certain bright yellow shades by anyone but the emperor. Distinguished visitors were honored with a yellow, not a red, carpet. In current Chinese pop culture , the term "yellow movie" ( 黃色電影 ) refers to films and other cultural items of a pornographic nature, analogous to the English " blue movie ". This was the basis of the 2007 " very erotic very violent " meme, with the word "erotic" calquing Chinese "yellow". Yellow, as the color of sunlight when sun is near the horizon, is commonly associated with warmth. Yellow combined with red symbolized heat and energy. A room painted yellow feels warmer than a room painted white, and a lamp with yellow light seems more natural than a lamp with white light. As the color of light, yellow is also associated with knowledge and wisdom. In English and many other languages, "brilliant" and "bright" mean intelligent. In Islam , the yellow color of gold symbolizes wisdom. In medieval European symbolism, red symbolized passion, blue symbolized the spiritual, and yellow symbolized reason. In many European universities, yellow gowns and caps are worn by members of the faculty of physical and natural sciences, as yellow is the color of reason and research. In ancient Greece and Rome, the gods were often depicted with yellow, or blonde hair, which was described in literature as 'golden'. The color yellow was associated with the sun gods Helios and Apollo . It was fashionable in ancient Greece for men and women to dye their hair yellow, or to spend time in the sun to bleach it. In ancient Rome, prostitutes were required to bleach their hair, to be easily identified, but it also became a fashionable hair color for aristocratic women, influenced by the exotic blonde hair of many of the newly conquered slaves from Gaul, Britain, and Germany. However, in medieval Europe and later, the word yellow often had negative connotations; associated with betrayal, so yellow hair was more poetically called 'blond,' 'light', 'fair,' or most often "golden". Yellow is the most visible color from a distance, so it is often used for objects that need to be seen, such as fire engines, road maintenance equipment, school buses and taxicabs. It is also often used for warning signs, since yellow traditionally signals caution, rather than danger. Safety yellow is often used for safety and accident prevention information. A yellow light on a traffic signal means slow down, but not stop. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) uses Pantone 116 (a yellow hue) as their standard color implying "general warning", while the Federal Highway Administration similarly uses yellow to communicate warning or caution on highway signage. A yellow penalty card in a soccer match means warning, but not expulsion. Yellow is the color most associated with optimism and pleasure ; it is a color designed to attract attention, and is used for amusement. Yellow dresses in fashion are rare, but always associated with gaiety and celebration. The ancient Maya associated the color yellow with the direction South. The Maya glyph for "yellow" (k'an) also means "precious" or "ripe". " Giallo ", in Italian, refers to crime stories, both fictional and real. This association began in about 1930, when the first series of crime novels published in Italy had yellow covers. Three of the five most populous countries in the world (China and Brazil) have yellow or gold in their flag, representing about half of the world's population. While many flags use yellow, their symbolism varies widely, from civic virtue to golden treasure, golden fields, the desert, royalty, the keys to Heaven and the leadership of the Communist Party. In classic European heraldry , yellow, along with white, is one of the two metals (called gold and silver) and therefore flags following heraldic design rules must use either yellow or white to separate any of their other colors (see the rule of tincture and insignia ).Yellow has strong historical and cultural associations in China, where huáng ( 黃 or 黄 ) is the color of happiness, glory, and wisdom. Although huáng originally and occasionally still covers a range inclusive of tans and oranges , speakers of modern Standard Mandarin tend to map their use of huáng to shades corresponding to English yellow. In Chinese symbolism, yellow, red, and green are masculine colors, while black and white are considered feminine. After the development of the theory of five elements , the Chinese reckoned various correspondences. On a five season model, late summer was characterized by yellowing leaves. [ dubious – discuss ] Yellow was taken as the color of the fifth direction of the compass, the central. China is called the Middle Kingdom; the palace of the Emperor was considered to be in the exact center of the world. The legendary first emperor of China was called the Yellow Emperor and the last, Puyi (1906–67), described in his memoirs how every object which surrounded him as a child was yellow. "It made me understand from my most tender age that I was of a unique essence, and it instilled in me the consciousness of my 'celestial nature' which made me different from every other human." The Chinese Emperor was literally considered the child of heaven, with both a political and religious role, both symbolized by yellow. After the Song dynasty , laws banned the use of certain bright yellow shades by anyone but the emperor. Distinguished visitors were honored with a yellow, not a red, carpet. In current Chinese pop culture , the term "yellow movie" ( 黃色電影 ) refers to films and other cultural items of a pornographic nature, analogous to the English " blue movie ". This was the basis of the 2007 " very erotic very violent " meme, with the word "erotic" calquing Chinese "yellow".Yellow, as the color of sunlight when sun is near the horizon, is commonly associated with warmth. Yellow combined with red symbolized heat and energy. A room painted yellow feels warmer than a room painted white, and a lamp with yellow light seems more natural than a lamp with white light. As the color of light, yellow is also associated with knowledge and wisdom. In English and many other languages, "brilliant" and "bright" mean intelligent. In Islam , the yellow color of gold symbolizes wisdom. In medieval European symbolism, red symbolized passion, blue symbolized the spiritual, and yellow symbolized reason. In many European universities, yellow gowns and caps are worn by members of the faculty of physical and natural sciences, as yellow is the color of reason and research. In ancient Greece and Rome, the gods were often depicted with yellow, or blonde hair, which was described in literature as 'golden'. The color yellow was associated with the sun gods Helios and Apollo . It was fashionable in ancient Greece for men and women to dye their hair yellow, or to spend time in the sun to bleach it. In ancient Rome, prostitutes were required to bleach their hair, to be easily identified, but it also became a fashionable hair color for aristocratic women, influenced by the exotic blonde hair of many of the newly conquered slaves from Gaul, Britain, and Germany. However, in medieval Europe and later, the word yellow often had negative connotations; associated with betrayal, so yellow hair was more poetically called 'blond,' 'light', 'fair,' or most often "golden". Yellow is the most visible color from a distance, so it is often used for objects that need to be seen, such as fire engines, road maintenance equipment, school buses and taxicabs. It is also often used for warning signs, since yellow traditionally signals caution, rather than danger. Safety yellow is often used for safety and accident prevention information. A yellow light on a traffic signal means slow down, but not stop. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) uses Pantone 116 (a yellow hue) as their standard color implying "general warning", while the Federal Highway Administration similarly uses yellow to communicate warning or caution on highway signage. A yellow penalty card in a soccer match means warning, but not expulsion.Yellow is the color most associated with optimism and pleasure ; it is a color designed to attract attention, and is used for amusement. Yellow dresses in fashion are rare, but always associated with gaiety and celebration.The ancient Maya associated the color yellow with the direction South. The Maya glyph for "yellow" (k'an) also means "precious" or "ripe". " Giallo ", in Italian, refers to crime stories, both fictional and real. This association began in about 1930, when the first series of crime novels published in Italy had yellow covers.Three of the five most populous countries in the world (China and Brazil) have yellow or gold in their flag, representing about half of the world's population. While many flags use yellow, their symbolism varies widely, from civic virtue to golden treasure, golden fields, the desert, royalty, the keys to Heaven and the leadership of the Communist Party. In classic European heraldry , yellow, along with white, is one of the two metals (called gold and silver) and therefore flags following heraldic design rules must use either yellow or white to separate any of their other colors (see the rule of tincture and insignia ).

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Visa_requirements_for_United_States_citizens/html

Visa requirements for United States citizens

National Elections Elections by State and Territory Visa requirements for United States citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states that are imposed on citizens of the United States. As of 2024, holders of a United States passport may travel to 188 countries and territories without a travel visa , or with a visa on arrival . The United States passport currently ranks [Note 1] 7th in terms of travel freedom, according to the Henley Passport Index . It is also ranked 7th by the Global Passport Power Rank. General visa requirements of sovereign countries towards United States citizens: Application for a tourist visa to Algeria must be accompanied by a certificate of accommodation. Persons may be denied entry if entering with a passport containing visas or stamps issued by Israel. 30 days per stay, max 90 days in a year. Proof of onwards tickets and hotel reservations required. Yellow Fever Vaccine no longer required of US citizens. Stringent application of rules regarding proof of sufficient funds, return ticket and accommodation. Extendable up to 180 days. Visitors are fingerprinted (Right thumb fingerprint) and photographed upon entry. 90 days within any 180-day period in the Schengen Area . Residence permit ( Aufenthaltstitel ) for stays of longer than 90 days obtainable after arrival under certain conditions. Passport Card or Enhanced Drivers License valid for Sea Travel. No Fee if visa obtained prior to arrival (consular visa). 160 dollar fee payable by US dollars that must be clean, and not wrinkled or torn or local currency if obtaining at border 90 days within any 6-month period. Registration with the local police within 24 hours of arrival is mandatory. Visa is also obtainable online. All visitors are fingerprinted upon arrival and departure. Anyone with a criminal record (including misdemeanors or alcohol-related driving offenses in the US) may not be able to enter Canada without first obtaining an approval for rehabilitation or a Temporary Resident Permit (TRP). Passport Card, NEXUS card, or Enhanced Drivers License valid for Land and Sea Travel. US citizens exempt from obtaining Canada ETA and are in fact barred from doing so. Green Card Holders exempt as well. Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan count as third countries under the 24, 72 and 144-hours transit without visa (TWOV) policies. Extendable up to 180-days stay within a one-year period Colombian-born U.S. citizens and U.S. citizens traveling with children may face special exit requirements. International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis required. A letter of invitation or written proof of a hotel reservation is required. International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis required. Registration required. Visas must be issued at the DR Congo embassy in Washington, D.C. Evisas valid at any Port of Entry Extendable up to 90 days. Passport Card or Enhanced Drivers License valid for sea travel. Permit required to leave capital. Iranian visas must be obtained from the Iranian Interests section of the Embassy of Pakistan, Washington, D.C. or an Iranian embassy in a third country. U.S. visitors are fingerprinted and photographed upon entry. Independent travelers must be accompanied by an authorized guide at all times. Admission refused if passport contains stamps or visas issued by Israel. Residence permit for stays of longer than 90 days obtainable after arrival under certain conditions. Visa free was granted in 2014 under the Unilateral visa waiver for countries with high investment in Kazakhstan Economy Applications can be submitted up to 90 days prior to travel and must be submitted at least 3 days in advance. eTA fee is USD 32.50. Proof of reservation at the hotel where visitors plan to stay is required (if staying with friends, an invitation letter is also acceptable). Yellow fever vaccination certificate is required if coming from endemic countries. May not exceed 90 days within any 12 months period. Extendable for 2 additional months. Visa waiver granted if there is no Israeli visa or seal and traveler has a telephone number, an address in Lebanon, and a non refundable return or circle trip ticket. International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis required only for travellers from high risk countries. Pre-approved visa letter valid for 14 days from date of issuance is mandatory. Extendable up to 90 days. Visitors must obtain a Multiple Immigration Form. There is no charge for a tourist FMM for stays of less than 7 days when entering by land. For visitors staying more than 7 days and entering by land, it will cost 687 Mexican Pesos or nearly USD 40. The FMM is required for all visitors entering via air, regardless of length of stay, and the cost is included in the traveler's airfare and remitted by the airline. Passport Card or Enhanced Drivers License is valid for Land and Sea Travel. 90 days within any 180-day period. Registration upon arrival is mandatory. 90 days within any 180-day period. Travelers must register on the e-Visa platform at least 48 hours prior to travel and pay a processing fee of 650 MT. Visas are issued with validity of 30 days. Visa can be obtained in the Nauruan Press Office at the United Nations. Determined on arrival. Naturalized US citizens of former Philippine nationality (balikbayan) allowed to stay for one year. Visitors are fingerprinted. International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis required only if arriving from high risk countries as defined by WHO. Application can be submitted up to 30 days before travel. Visitors must upload a reservation confirmation(s) for each visitor's location of stay in Seychelles. Yellow fever vaccination certificate is required if coming from endemic countries. Payment of the fee (EUR 10) by credit or debit card. Valid for one journey only and it expires once exit the country. All visitors are fingerprinted upon arrival and departure US citizens can use Automated Border Control 90 days within any 180-day period in the Schengen Area . Medical insurance required. Sufficient funds of USD 50 per person per day required. Registration within 3 working days required. 3 months within 12 months Visitors visa issued upon arrival for free. Holders of passports without 2 blank pages may be refused entry. Printed visa authorization must be presented at the time of travel. International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis required. The standard visitor visa allows a stay of 60 days within any 6 month period. Visa fees (for Standard visitor visa): SAARC - USD 35 Non SAARC - USD 75 e-Visa categories will be charged an additional USD 18.50 service fee. If transiting from any of the Sri Lankan airports, An e-Visa is exempted (2 day transit period). If arriving from a country of high yellow fever risk and stayed for more than 12 hours, then Yellow Fever vaccine required. Exit visa required. Registration within 3 days mandatory. Registration required within 15 days. Persons with passports bearing Israeli visas or entry/exit stamps are not allowed to enter. Visa not required for foreign citizens with proof of Syrian origin, such as an identification card or passport. Dual-citizen males ages 17–42 need military service book. If not forgiven by the military, dual-citizens may apply for a visit visa once a year through the embassy. Visitors fingerprinted upon arrival. e-Visa also available. e-Visa holders can enter through all border points. Maximum two visits annually if not arriving by air. Visas issued upon arrival at no charge to the passenger. Valid for 31 days. Determined at the port of entry. Must apply online at least 2 business days prior to travel. Airlines may deny passengers permission to board flights to Uganda without proof that they had successfully applied for an e-Visa. Ugandan immigration authorities may require additional documentation, including proof of a return plane ticket and detailed tour itinerary in Uganda. International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis required. Extension possible with a fee. Iris scan taken on arrival. U.S. passport holders can sign up for E-Gate access on arrival/departure at Dubai International Airport. Open borders but de facto follows Italian visa policy. No foreign accomidations, residency restricted to Vatican citizens only. Registration mandatory. Exit visa required for stays over 30 days. Also eligible for a universal visa allowing access to Zimbabwe. All visitors are fingerprinted. Two blank pages required. International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis required only travellers arriving from certian places as defined by Govertment. Please check the WHO 2020 Yellow Fever vaccination requirments document for exact list. Also eligible for a universal visa allowing access to Zambia. Tourism purposes only. Visa requirements for United States citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries not mentioned in the list above, recognized administrative subdivisions that operate on different visa policies and restricted zones: 3 months within any one-year period. U.S. citizens and U.S. nationals may live and work freely in Puerto Rico. Passport/EDL is not required for entry of U.S. Citizens. U.S. citizens and U.S. nationals may live and work freely in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Passport / EDL is not required for entry of U.S. Citizens. Passport is required for entry because American Samoans, by law, are not US citizens; rather they are US nationals. U.S. citizens and U.S. nationals may live and work freely in American Samoa. U.S. citizens and U.S. nationals citizens may live and work freely in the Northern Mariana Islands. Passport / EDL is not required for entry of U.S. Citizens. By being Argentine territories, the same visa policy applies. Online pre-registration is required. Transit Control Card must be obtained at the airport prior to departure. A visitor permit is normally issued as a stamp in the passport on arrival.General visa requirements of sovereign countries towards United States citizens: Application for a tourist visa to Algeria must be accompanied by a certificate of accommodation. Persons may be denied entry if entering with a passport containing visas or stamps issued by Israel. 30 days per stay, max 90 days in a year. Proof of onwards tickets and hotel reservations required. Yellow Fever Vaccine no longer required of US citizens. Stringent application of rules regarding proof of sufficient funds, return ticket and accommodation. Extendable up to 180 days. Visitors are fingerprinted (Right thumb fingerprint) and photographed upon entry. 90 days within any 180-day period in the Schengen Area . Residence permit ( Aufenthaltstitel ) for stays of longer than 90 days obtainable after arrival under certain conditions. Passport Card or Enhanced Drivers License valid for Sea Travel. No Fee if visa obtained prior to arrival (consular visa). 160 dollar fee payable by US dollars that must be clean, and not wrinkled or torn or local currency if obtaining at border 90 days within any 6-month period. Registration with the local police within 24 hours of arrival is mandatory. Visa is also obtainable online. All visitors are fingerprinted upon arrival and departure. Anyone with a criminal record (including misdemeanors or alcohol-related driving offenses in the US) may not be able to enter Canada without first obtaining an approval for rehabilitation or a Temporary Resident Permit (TRP). Passport Card, NEXUS card, or Enhanced Drivers License valid for Land and Sea Travel. US citizens exempt from obtaining Canada ETA and are in fact barred from doing so. Green Card Holders exempt as well. Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan count as third countries under the 24, 72 and 144-hours transit without visa (TWOV) policies. Extendable up to 180-days stay within a one-year period Colombian-born U.S. citizens and U.S. citizens traveling with children may face special exit requirements. International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis required. A letter of invitation or written proof of a hotel reservation is required. International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis required. Registration required. Visas must be issued at the DR Congo embassy in Washington, D.C. Evisas valid at any Port of Entry Extendable up to 90 days. Passport Card or Enhanced Drivers License valid for sea travel. Permit required to leave capital. Iranian visas must be obtained from the Iranian Interests section of the Embassy of Pakistan, Washington, D.C. or an Iranian embassy in a third country. U.S. visitors are fingerprinted and photographed upon entry. Independent travelers must be accompanied by an authorized guide at all times. Admission refused if passport contains stamps or visas issued by Israel. Residence permit for stays of longer than 90 days obtainable after arrival under certain conditions. Visa free was granted in 2014 under the Unilateral visa waiver for countries with high investment in Kazakhstan Economy Applications can be submitted up to 90 days prior to travel and must be submitted at least 3 days in advance. eTA fee is USD 32.50. Proof of reservation at the hotel where visitors plan to stay is required (if staying with friends, an invitation letter is also acceptable). Yellow fever vaccination certificate is required if coming from endemic countries. May not exceed 90 days within any 12 months period. Extendable for 2 additional months. Visa waiver granted if there is no Israeli visa or seal and traveler has a telephone number, an address in Lebanon, and a non refundable return or circle trip ticket. International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis required only for travellers from high risk countries. Pre-approved visa letter valid for 14 days from date of issuance is mandatory. Extendable up to 90 days. Visitors must obtain a Multiple Immigration Form. There is no charge for a tourist FMM for stays of less than 7 days when entering by land. For visitors staying more than 7 days and entering by land, it will cost 687 Mexican Pesos or nearly USD 40. The FMM is required for all visitors entering via air, regardless of length of stay, and the cost is included in the traveler's airfare and remitted by the airline. Passport Card or Enhanced Drivers License is valid for Land and Sea Travel. 90 days within any 180-day period. Registration upon arrival is mandatory. 90 days within any 180-day period. Travelers must register on the e-Visa platform at least 48 hours prior to travel and pay a processing fee of 650 MT. Visas are issued with validity of 30 days. Visa can be obtained in the Nauruan Press Office at the United Nations. Determined on arrival. Naturalized US citizens of former Philippine nationality (balikbayan) allowed to stay for one year. Visitors are fingerprinted. International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis required only if arriving from high risk countries as defined by WHO. Application can be submitted up to 30 days before travel. Visitors must upload a reservation confirmation(s) for each visitor's location of stay in Seychelles. Yellow fever vaccination certificate is required if coming from endemic countries. Payment of the fee (EUR 10) by credit or debit card. Valid for one journey only and it expires once exit the country. All visitors are fingerprinted upon arrival and departure US citizens can use Automated Border Control 90 days within any 180-day period in the Schengen Area . Medical insurance required. Sufficient funds of USD 50 per person per day required. Registration within 3 working days required. 3 months within 12 months Visitors visa issued upon arrival for free. Holders of passports without 2 blank pages may be refused entry. Printed visa authorization must be presented at the time of travel. International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis required. The standard visitor visa allows a stay of 60 days within any 6 month period. Visa fees (for Standard visitor visa): SAARC - USD 35 Non SAARC - USD 75 e-Visa categories will be charged an additional USD 18.50 service fee. If transiting from any of the Sri Lankan airports, An e-Visa is exempted (2 day transit period). If arriving from a country of high yellow fever risk and stayed for more than 12 hours, then Yellow Fever vaccine required. Exit visa required. Registration within 3 days mandatory. Registration required within 15 days. Persons with passports bearing Israeli visas or entry/exit stamps are not allowed to enter. Visa not required for foreign citizens with proof of Syrian origin, such as an identification card or passport. Dual-citizen males ages 17–42 need military service book. If not forgiven by the military, dual-citizens may apply for a visit visa once a year through the embassy. Visitors fingerprinted upon arrival. e-Visa also available. e-Visa holders can enter through all border points. Maximum two visits annually if not arriving by air. Visas issued upon arrival at no charge to the passenger. Valid for 31 days. Determined at the port of entry. Must apply online at least 2 business days prior to travel. Airlines may deny passengers permission to board flights to Uganda without proof that they had successfully applied for an e-Visa. Ugandan immigration authorities may require additional documentation, including proof of a return plane ticket and detailed tour itinerary in Uganda. International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis required. Extension possible with a fee. Iris scan taken on arrival. U.S. passport holders can sign up for E-Gate access on arrival/departure at Dubai International Airport. Open borders but de facto follows Italian visa policy. No foreign accomidations, residency restricted to Vatican citizens only. Registration mandatory. Exit visa required for stays over 30 days. Also eligible for a universal visa allowing access to Zimbabwe. All visitors are fingerprinted. Two blank pages required. International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis required only travellers arriving from certian places as defined by Govertment. Please check the WHO 2020 Yellow Fever vaccination requirments document for exact list. Also eligible for a universal visa allowing access to Zambia. Tourism purposes only. Visa requirements for United States citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries not mentioned in the list above, recognized administrative subdivisions that operate on different visa policies and restricted zones: 3 months within any one-year period. U.S. citizens and U.S. nationals may live and work freely in Puerto Rico. Passport/EDL is not required for entry of U.S. Citizens. U.S. citizens and U.S. nationals may live and work freely in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Passport / EDL is not required for entry of U.S. Citizens. Passport is required for entry because American Samoans, by law, are not US citizens; rather they are US nationals. U.S. citizens and U.S. nationals may live and work freely in American Samoa. U.S. citizens and U.S. nationals citizens may live and work freely in the Northern Mariana Islands. Passport / EDL is not required for entry of U.S. Citizens. By being Argentine territories, the same visa policy applies. Online pre-registration is required. Transit Control Card must be obtained at the airport prior to departure. A visitor permit is normally issued as a stamp in the passport on arrival.Pre-approved visas can be picked up on arrival in the following countries instead of an embassy or consulate.The United States passport card can be used as an alternative to the passport booklet only when travelling to and from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, The Bahamas, British Virgin Islands, Caribbean Netherlands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Turks and Caico at maritime ports-of-entry or land border crossings. The card is not valid for international air travel whatsoever; if traveling by air, the passport book is required. The APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) is meant to facilitate travel for U.S. citizens engaged in verified business in the APEC region. The U.S. ABTC should enable access to a dedicated fast-track lane for expedited immigration processing at some participating foreign APEC member airports. U.S. APEC Business Travel Card holders may also use the Global Entry kiosks at participating airports upon their U.S. return. As the U.S. is a transitional member of the ABTC scheme, however, the U.S. APEC Business Travel Card cannot be used in lieu of a visa to enter an APEC member country. The program was initially set to expire on September 30, 2018, but the November 2017 signing of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Business Travel Cards Act of 2017 (S. 504) ensured it would permanently remain. The United States has the second most diplomatic missions of any country in the world. [ citation needed ] See also List of diplomatic missions of the United States and List of diplomatic missions in the United States . The Department of State regularly publishes travel warnings or travel alerts. Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages to be available in the passport being presented, typically one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being valid or available. Many African countries, including Angola , Benin , Burkina Faso , Burundi , Cameroon , Central African Republic , Chad , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Republic of the Congo , Côte d'Ivoire , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , Gambia , Ghana , Guinea-Bissau , Kenya , Liberia , Mali , Mauritania , Niger , Rwanda , Senegal , Sierra Leone and Togo , South Sudan , Uganda , and Zambia , require all incoming passengers older than nine months to one year to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis , as does the South American territory of French Guiana . Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has visited one recently or has transited for 12 hours in those countries: Algeria, Botswana, Cabo Verde, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Lesotho, Libya, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tunisia, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Very few countries, such as Paraguay, just require a valid passport on arrival. However many countries and groupings now require only an identity card – especially from their neighbours. Other countries may have special bilateral arrangements that depart from the generality of their passport validity length policies to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled). Some countries, such as Japan, Ireland and the United Kingdom, require a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid for at least 6 more months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Turkey, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, and Vietnam. Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia. Countries requiring passports with a validity of at least 3 months beyond the date of intended departure include Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Honduras, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova and New Zealand. Similarly, the EEA countries of Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, all European Union countries (except Ireland) together with Switzerland also require 3 months validity beyond the date of the bearer's intended departure unless the bearer is an EEA or Swiss national. Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include Albania, North Macedonia, Panama, and Senegal. Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry. Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the date of intended departure include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macau, the Maldives and South Africa. Some countries, including Australia, Canada, Fiji, New Zealand and the United States, routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record while others impose restrictions depending on the type of conviction and the length of the sentence. The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata , banning entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Syria, and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt. To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel , the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel (unless the entry is for some work-related purposes). Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport . Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017 [ update ] ) stamped at Erez when passing into and out of Gaza . [ citation needed ] Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old. Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest travellers who refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to change planes rather than go landside . Fingerprinting countries/regions include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, India, Japan, Kenya (both fingerprints and a photo are taken), Malaysia upon entry and departure, Mongolia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Uganda, the United Arab Emirates and the United States. Many countries also require a photo be taken of people entering the country. The United States, which does not fully implement exit control formalities at its land frontiers (although long mandated by domestic legislation), intends to implement facial recognition for passengers departing from international airports to identify people who overstay their visa. Together with fingerprint and face recognition, iris scanning is one of three biometric identification technologies internationally standardised since 2006 by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) for use in e-passports and the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors who need to apply for a visa. The United States Department of Homeland Security has announced plans to greatly increase the biometric data it collects at US borders. In 2018, Singapore began trials of iris scanning at three land and maritime immigration checkpoints. Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages to be available in the passport being presented, typically one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being valid or available.Many African countries, including Angola , Benin , Burkina Faso , Burundi , Cameroon , Central African Republic , Chad , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Republic of the Congo , Côte d'Ivoire , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , Gambia , Ghana , Guinea-Bissau , Kenya , Liberia , Mali , Mauritania , Niger , Rwanda , Senegal , Sierra Leone and Togo , South Sudan , Uganda , and Zambia , require all incoming passengers older than nine months to one year to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis , as does the South American territory of French Guiana . Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has visited one recently or has transited for 12 hours in those countries: Algeria, Botswana, Cabo Verde, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Lesotho, Libya, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tunisia, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Very few countries, such as Paraguay, just require a valid passport on arrival. However many countries and groupings now require only an identity card – especially from their neighbours. Other countries may have special bilateral arrangements that depart from the generality of their passport validity length policies to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled). Some countries, such as Japan, Ireland and the United Kingdom, require a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid for at least 6 more months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Turkey, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, and Vietnam. Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia. Countries requiring passports with a validity of at least 3 months beyond the date of intended departure include Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Honduras, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova and New Zealand. Similarly, the EEA countries of Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, all European Union countries (except Ireland) together with Switzerland also require 3 months validity beyond the date of the bearer's intended departure unless the bearer is an EEA or Swiss national. Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include Albania, North Macedonia, Panama, and Senegal. Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry. Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the date of intended departure include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macau, the Maldives and South Africa.Some countries, including Australia, Canada, Fiji, New Zealand and the United States, routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record while others impose restrictions depending on the type of conviction and the length of the sentence.The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata , banning entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Syria, and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt. To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel , the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel (unless the entry is for some work-related purposes). Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport . Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017 [ update ] ) stamped at Erez when passing into and out of Gaza . [ citation needed ] Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest travellers who refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to change planes rather than go landside . Fingerprinting countries/regions include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, India, Japan, Kenya (both fingerprints and a photo are taken), Malaysia upon entry and departure, Mongolia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Uganda, the United Arab Emirates and the United States. Many countries also require a photo be taken of people entering the country. The United States, which does not fully implement exit control formalities at its land frontiers (although long mandated by domestic legislation), intends to implement facial recognition for passengers departing from international airports to identify people who overstay their visa. Together with fingerprint and face recognition, iris scanning is one of three biometric identification technologies internationally standardised since 2006 by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) for use in e-passports and the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors who need to apply for a visa. The United States Department of Homeland Security has announced plans to greatly increase the biometric data it collects at US borders. In 2018, Singapore began trials of iris scanning at three land and maritime immigration checkpoints. These are the numbers of visits by U.S. nationals to various countries in 2015 (unless otherwise noted): 5,900 2,000 2,700 1,200 Family visits Official business of the U.S. government, foreign governments, and certain intergovernmental organizations Journalistic activity Professional research and professional meetings Educational activities Religious activities Public performances, clinics, workshops, athletic and other competitions, and exhibitions Support for the Cuban people Humanitarian projects Activities of private foundations or research or educational institutes Exportation, importation, or transmission of information or informational materials Certain export transactions that may be considered for authorization under existing Department of Commerce regulations and guidelines with respect to Cuba or engaged in by U.S.-owned or -controlled foreign firms

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Indiana_Fever/html

Indiana Fever

The Indiana Fever is an American professional basketball team based in Indianapolis , playing in the Eastern Conference in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). The team was founded before the 2000 season began. The team is owned by Herb Simon , who also owns the Fever's NBA counterpart, the Indiana Pacers , and Simon Malls . The Fever have qualified for the WNBA Playoffs in 13 of its 24 seasons in Indiana. Some of the players who have helped define the history of the Fever include Tamika Catchings , Katie Douglas , Briann January , Shavonte Zellous , Natalie Williams , Tully Bevilaqua , Candice Dupree , Erica Wheeler , Kelsey Mitchell , NaLyssa Smith , and Aliyah Boston . In 2009 , the Fever reached the WNBA Finals but fell short to the Phoenix Mercury in game 5. In 2012 , the Fever won the WNBA Finals with a 3-1 series victory over the Minnesota Lynx . Tamika Catchings was named the 2012 Finals MVP . In 2015 , the Fever again reached the WNBA Finals but fell short to Minnesota in game 5.The Indiana Fever team began in 2000, when the state was granted an expansion franchise to coincide with the opening of Gainbridge Fieldhouse (then Conseco Fieldhouse). In their first two seasons, they were coached by women's basketball legends Anne Donovan and Nell Fortner . Led by center Kara Wolters , in their inaugural campaign the team posted a record of 9–23. The Fever drafted University of Tennessee star Tamika Catchings in the 2001 WNBA Draft. The Fever went into the year with high expectations of a playoff berth, but Catchings tore her ACL during a college game and missed the entire WNBA season. The Fever posted a 10–22 record in 2001. After missing the entire 2001 season, the 2002 season proved to be the breakout season for Tamika Catchings and the Fever. Catchings came out strong and became one of the most versatile players in the WNBA, easily winning Rookie of the Year honors as well as making the WNBA All-Star team . Her team competed well all year and posted a respectable 16–16 record, tying for the final playoff spot with the Orlando Miracle . Indiana won the tiebreaker and earned their first playoff appearance in franchise history. They drew the #1 seed in the playoffs, the Liberty ; with the Fever losing two games to one. The 2002–2003 offseason brought a lot of change for the Fever. The team added Olympian Natalie Williams and Charlotte Sting star Kelly Miller before the 2003 season. During the offseason the original coach and GM Nell Fortner resigned. Kelly Krauskopf replaced Fortner as GM and immediately hired Brian Winters to be the head coach. On May 29, 2003, the Fever registered their first sellout of 18,345 and defeated the Washington Mystics on national television. The team did better under the new coaching, but missed the playoffs, posting a 16–18 record. The 2004 campaign was very similar to 2003's. The Fever finished with a 15–19 record. They missed the playoffs by one game in the Eastern Conference. In 2005, the Fever had their best season since joining the league, posting a 21–13 record, and making the playoffs for just the second time. In the first round, the Fever swept the New York Liberty two games to none, earning their first playoff series victory in franchise history. In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Fever faced the heavily favored Connecticut Sun . Game 1 came down to the final seconds when Katie Douglas hit a crucial three to win the game for the Sun. Game 2 went into overtime, with the Sun winning, thus sweeping the Fever two games to none. In the 2005–2006 offseason, the Fever acquired All-Star Anna DeForge from the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Kelly Miller . Later that offseason the Fever made another All-Star addition by signing free agent Tamika Whitmore from the Los Angeles Sparks . In the 2006 WNBA draft they selected athletic swing-forward La'Tangela Atkinson from the North Carolina Tar Heels along with Kasha Terry from the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets . The Fever started the 2006 season off at 4–0 and jumped out to an early lead in the Eastern Conference standings. Teammates Tamika Catchings and Tully Bevilaqua led the league in steals, first and second respectively, the first time teammates led the league in one statistical category. The Fever posted a 21–13 record, making the playoffs for the second year in a row. In the first round, the Fever faced archrival Detroit. Detroit won Game 1 in Indianapolis and held a one-game to nothing lead in the series. Game 2 in Detroit was a high-scoring affair with Tamika Whitmore scoring a WNBA Playoff record 41 points. Detroit won in the end, 98–83 and won the series two games to none. Going into the 2006–2007 off-season, the Fever looked to improve their post play. In the Dispersal Draft , the Fever added veteran forward Sheri Sam from the Charlotte Sting . Kelly Krauskopf and the front office then set their eyes on key Free Agent Center Tammy Sutton-Brown , signing her on March 22, 2007. The Fever also selected 6–7 center Alison Bales from Duke University in the 2007 WNBA draft to go along with Sutton-Brown. Going into the 2007 season, the Fever had their eyes set on the WNBA Finals. They started off the season strong, winning 16 out of their first 20 games, which was the best 20 game start in history of the Eastern Conference. Then on July 20, key player Tamika Catchings injured her foot causing her to miss the rest of the regular season. The injury was later revealed as a partial tear of her plantar fascia . The Fever finished 5–9 without Catchings. They won the #2 seed in the Eastern Conference Playoffs, beating out the Connecticut Sun. They played the same Sun team in first round of the playoffs. Game 1 in Connecticut was an epic battle, going three overtimes with the Sun hanging on to win Game 1, 93–88. The Fever won Game 2 at home by double digits forcing a decisive Game 3. In game 3, the Fever found themselves down by 22 points late halfway through the 3rd quarter. The Fever battled back to win Game 3 in overtime by the same score as Game 1 93–88. The 22-point comeback was the largest comeback in WNBA Playoff history. In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Fever played their other hated rival, the Detroit Shock . The Fever grabbed an early lead in the series, winning Game 1 at Conseco Fieldhouse. With the team just 1 game away from the WNBA Finals the Fever traveled to Detroit. In Game 2, the game was close until the 2nd quarter, when the Shock blew the game wide open with a 14–0 run, easily winning the game. With a spot in the Finals up for grabs in Game 3, the Fever started off the game with an early 17–3 lead. Then late in the first half Catchings went down with another injury; she had completely torn her Achilles tendon . The Shock ended up winning Game 3, 85–61. On October 26, 2007, the Fever announced that they declined the option for head coach Brian Winters , ending his four-year tenure in charge. He compiled a 78–58 regular season record with a 5–7 playoff record. On December 12, 2007, assistant coach Lin Dunn was named his successor to the job as head coach. In one of the biggest trades in WNBA history, the Fever traded Tamika Whitmore and their first-round pick in the 2008 WNBA draft for Indianapolis native, Katie Douglas on February 19, 2008. The Fever were part of the Liberty Outdoor Classic , which was the first regular-season professional basketball game played outdoors. It was played between the Fever and New York Liberty at Arthur Ashe Stadium in Flushing, New York on July 19, 2008, with the Fever winning the game, 71–55. During the 2008 season, the Fever struggled in comparison to the three previous seasons. They finished with a 17–17 record, good for fourth place in the playoffs. Meeting the Detroit Shock in the first round, the Fever lost in three games. After a disappointing 2008 season, the Fever were looking to improve in 2009. Indiana Pacers owners had said the Fever have been losing money. The only thing to save the Fever from folding in the near future, the owners inferred, was for the Fever to be successful on the court and at the box office. The Fever took the owners' ultimatum to heart and reached the playoffs as the first seed overall in the Eastern Conference with a franchise best record of 22–12. In the first round, the Fever ousted the Washington Mystics in a sweep, marking their return to the conference finals. In the East finals, again facing their rival Detroit Shock , they reached their first ever WNBA Finals by defeating the Shock in three games. The Fever then lost in 5 games to the Phoenix Mercury in the WNBA Finals . Because of the success in 2009, the Fever announced they would remain in Indianapolis for 2010. Their 2011 season in Indianapolis was also confirmed as well. In 2012, the Fever advanced to the 2012 WNBA Finals. Indiana then defeated the Minnesota Lynx , 3 games to 1. It was the Fever's first WNBA title. After the Fever won the 2012 WNBA championship, the ownership group took notice of their management – by promoting general manager Kelly Krauskopf to president of the franchise. Krauskopf has been giving additional duties within the franchise as well as a pay increase. The Fever competed for another title in 2015 , reaching the finals for the third time in franchise history, but fell short losing to the Minnesota Lynx in five games. In 2016 , the Fever made it to the playoffs for the 12th consecutive time (the current WNBA record for most consecutive playoff appearances by a team). However, the Fever were upset in the first round elimination game against the Phoenix Mercury after the league's new playoff format was in effect. This game also marked the final game of Tamika Catchings 's playing career; she had been known as the Fever's franchise player since 2002. On November 18, 2016, it was announced that the Fever hired Pokey Chatman as their new head coach. In February 2017, the Fever traded for five-time all-star Candice Dupree along with the Mercury's 2017 first-round pick in a three-team deal that sent Camille Little and Jillian Alleyne to the Mercury and the Connecticut Sun receiving the 8th overall pick in the 2017 WNBA draft along with Lynetta Kizer from the Fever. Despite acquiring a veteran all-star forward and a new head coach, the Fever would have one of the most disappointing seasons in franchise history. On August 12, 2017, the Fever were defeated 111–52 by the Minnesota Lynx, making it the largest margin of defeat in WNBA history, in which they allowed a league record 37–0 scoring run during the game. The Fever finished with the second-worst record in the league of 9–25 in their first season after Catchings's retirement, ending their streak of 12 consecutive playoff seasons. In 2018, disappointment continued for the Fever as they rebuilt their team. They finished in last place, this time with a 6–28 record. On March 4, 2019, Pacers Sports & Entertainment announced Allison Barber , a graduate of Tennessee Temple University and Indiana University, as the new president and chief operating officer of the Fever, while Catchings was named vice president of Fever Basketball Operations. They wound up with the third selection in the 2019 WNBA draft , selecting Teaira McCowan from Mississippi State . The 2019 season saw some improvement, but the team nonetheless finished 13–21, two games behind the last playoff spot. After the season, coach and general manager Pokey Chatman was fired. On November 27, 2019, Marianne Stanley was introduced as the head coach of the Indiana Fever, making her the seventh coach in the franchise's 20-year WNBA history. In addition, it was also announced that Catchings would be promoted to general manager. Near the end of the 2019 season, the Fever announced that they would move their home games to Butler University's Hinkle Fieldhouse for the 2020 and 2021 seasons, plus at least part of the 2022 season, to accommodate renovations of Bankers Life Fieldhouse. The team planned to return to the renamed Gainbridge Fieldhouse upon project completion. However, the 2020 WNBA season was played in IMG Academy in Bradenton, Florida , due to the COVID-19 pandemic . For the 2021 season, the Fever played their first four home games at Bankers Life Fieldhouse, before playing the remaining home games at Indiana Farmers Coliseum . On February 14, 2022, Tamika Catchings stepped down as the vice president of basketball operations and general manager of the Indiana Fever. On February 24, 2022, former Fever coach Lin Dunn, who guided the team to a WNBA title in 2012, was introduced as the franchise's interim general manager and senior advisor for Fever basketball operations. The franchise generally struggled in 2022 and 2023, earning the top WNBA draft pick in the following seasons. In 2023 , the Fever chose South Carolina 's Aliyah Boston with their first choice; the next season, amidst the raging popularity of women's basketball at the collegiate level, the Fever chose Iowa 's Caitlin Clark first overall. Drafting Clark in the latter season led to a surge of interest in the team and the WNBA in general, with TV ratings for the 2024 WNBA draft (at 2.5 million) overshadowing actual games played over the prior 25 seasons. 2000–2006: The home jerseys were white with red, dark blue and yellow on the sides. On the front, Fever was written across. The road jersey were dark blue with red and yellow on the sides. Indiana in red letters trimmed with white on the chest. 2007–2010: Home jerseys are white with blue and yellow strips/trim from the neck down the side. Fever is written in red across the front and on the back the player name is written in all dark blue under the number also in red trimmed in dark blue. The new road jerseys are dark blue with yellow and white trim/strips. Indiana is written on the front in red with white trim and on the back the number is in red with white trim with the player's name underneath in all white. Each jersey has the Fever's alternate logo at the top on the back. 2011–2012: As part of the move to Adidas 's Revolution 30 technology, the Fever made subtle changes to the uniforms. Home uniforms remain white, but the 'Fever' wordmark is now written in navy with red and yellow trim. Numbers are now rounded and in red. Away uniforms remain unchanged save for the striping patterns and rounded numbers. 2013–2015: On October 19, 2012, the Fever announced that Finish Line will be their uniform sponsor, beginning with the 2013 season . The uniform stayed the same aside from a new number scheme and the addition of the uniform sponsor. 2016: As part of a league-wide initiative for its 20th season, all games featured all-color uniform matchups. Therefore, the Fever unveiled a yellow jersey as a light-colored uniform to complement its standard navy uniform. 2019: The Fever announced Salesforce as their uniform sponsor, replacing Finish Line. Along with all other WNBA team uniforms, the front of the jersey prominently features both Salesforce and AT&T, a new partner for the WNBA. The number of the player is now just on the back of the jersey.The Indiana Fever team began in 2000, when the state was granted an expansion franchise to coincide with the opening of Gainbridge Fieldhouse (then Conseco Fieldhouse). In their first two seasons, they were coached by women's basketball legends Anne Donovan and Nell Fortner . Led by center Kara Wolters , in their inaugural campaign the team posted a record of 9–23. The Fever drafted University of Tennessee star Tamika Catchings in the 2001 WNBA Draft. The Fever went into the year with high expectations of a playoff berth, but Catchings tore her ACL during a college game and missed the entire WNBA season. The Fever posted a 10–22 record in 2001. After missing the entire 2001 season, the 2002 season proved to be the breakout season for Tamika Catchings and the Fever. Catchings came out strong and became one of the most versatile players in the WNBA, easily winning Rookie of the Year honors as well as making the WNBA All-Star team . Her team competed well all year and posted a respectable 16–16 record, tying for the final playoff spot with the Orlando Miracle . Indiana won the tiebreaker and earned their first playoff appearance in franchise history. They drew the #1 seed in the playoffs, the Liberty ; with the Fever losing two games to one. The 2002–2003 offseason brought a lot of change for the Fever. The team added Olympian Natalie Williams and Charlotte Sting star Kelly Miller before the 2003 season. During the offseason the original coach and GM Nell Fortner resigned. Kelly Krauskopf replaced Fortner as GM and immediately hired Brian Winters to be the head coach. On May 29, 2003, the Fever registered their first sellout of 18,345 and defeated the Washington Mystics on national television. The team did better under the new coaching, but missed the playoffs, posting a 16–18 record. The 2004 campaign was very similar to 2003's. The Fever finished with a 15–19 record. They missed the playoffs by one game in the Eastern Conference.In 2005, the Fever had their best season since joining the league, posting a 21–13 record, and making the playoffs for just the second time. In the first round, the Fever swept the New York Liberty two games to none, earning their first playoff series victory in franchise history. In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Fever faced the heavily favored Connecticut Sun . Game 1 came down to the final seconds when Katie Douglas hit a crucial three to win the game for the Sun. Game 2 went into overtime, with the Sun winning, thus sweeping the Fever two games to none. In the 2005–2006 offseason, the Fever acquired All-Star Anna DeForge from the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Kelly Miller . Later that offseason the Fever made another All-Star addition by signing free agent Tamika Whitmore from the Los Angeles Sparks . In the 2006 WNBA draft they selected athletic swing-forward La'Tangela Atkinson from the North Carolina Tar Heels along with Kasha Terry from the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets . The Fever started the 2006 season off at 4–0 and jumped out to an early lead in the Eastern Conference standings. Teammates Tamika Catchings and Tully Bevilaqua led the league in steals, first and second respectively, the first time teammates led the league in one statistical category. The Fever posted a 21–13 record, making the playoffs for the second year in a row. In the first round, the Fever faced archrival Detroit. Detroit won Game 1 in Indianapolis and held a one-game to nothing lead in the series. Game 2 in Detroit was a high-scoring affair with Tamika Whitmore scoring a WNBA Playoff record 41 points. Detroit won in the end, 98–83 and won the series two games to none. Going into the 2006–2007 off-season, the Fever looked to improve their post play. In the Dispersal Draft , the Fever added veteran forward Sheri Sam from the Charlotte Sting . Kelly Krauskopf and the front office then set their eyes on key Free Agent Center Tammy Sutton-Brown , signing her on March 22, 2007. The Fever also selected 6–7 center Alison Bales from Duke University in the 2007 WNBA draft to go along with Sutton-Brown. Going into the 2007 season, the Fever had their eyes set on the WNBA Finals. They started off the season strong, winning 16 out of their first 20 games, which was the best 20 game start in history of the Eastern Conference. Then on July 20, key player Tamika Catchings injured her foot causing her to miss the rest of the regular season. The injury was later revealed as a partial tear of her plantar fascia . The Fever finished 5–9 without Catchings. They won the #2 seed in the Eastern Conference Playoffs, beating out the Connecticut Sun. They played the same Sun team in first round of the playoffs. Game 1 in Connecticut was an epic battle, going three overtimes with the Sun hanging on to win Game 1, 93–88. The Fever won Game 2 at home by double digits forcing a decisive Game 3. In game 3, the Fever found themselves down by 22 points late halfway through the 3rd quarter. The Fever battled back to win Game 3 in overtime by the same score as Game 1 93–88. The 22-point comeback was the largest comeback in WNBA Playoff history. In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Fever played their other hated rival, the Detroit Shock . The Fever grabbed an early lead in the series, winning Game 1 at Conseco Fieldhouse. With the team just 1 game away from the WNBA Finals the Fever traveled to Detroit. In Game 2, the game was close until the 2nd quarter, when the Shock blew the game wide open with a 14–0 run, easily winning the game. With a spot in the Finals up for grabs in Game 3, the Fever started off the game with an early 17–3 lead. Then late in the first half Catchings went down with another injury; she had completely torn her Achilles tendon . The Shock ended up winning Game 3, 85–61.On October 26, 2007, the Fever announced that they declined the option for head coach Brian Winters , ending his four-year tenure in charge. He compiled a 78–58 regular season record with a 5–7 playoff record. On December 12, 2007, assistant coach Lin Dunn was named his successor to the job as head coach. In one of the biggest trades in WNBA history, the Fever traded Tamika Whitmore and their first-round pick in the 2008 WNBA draft for Indianapolis native, Katie Douglas on February 19, 2008. The Fever were part of the Liberty Outdoor Classic , which was the first regular-season professional basketball game played outdoors. It was played between the Fever and New York Liberty at Arthur Ashe Stadium in Flushing, New York on July 19, 2008, with the Fever winning the game, 71–55. During the 2008 season, the Fever struggled in comparison to the three previous seasons. They finished with a 17–17 record, good for fourth place in the playoffs. Meeting the Detroit Shock in the first round, the Fever lost in three games.After a disappointing 2008 season, the Fever were looking to improve in 2009. Indiana Pacers owners had said the Fever have been losing money. The only thing to save the Fever from folding in the near future, the owners inferred, was for the Fever to be successful on the court and at the box office. The Fever took the owners' ultimatum to heart and reached the playoffs as the first seed overall in the Eastern Conference with a franchise best record of 22–12. In the first round, the Fever ousted the Washington Mystics in a sweep, marking their return to the conference finals. In the East finals, again facing their rival Detroit Shock , they reached their first ever WNBA Finals by defeating the Shock in three games. The Fever then lost in 5 games to the Phoenix Mercury in the WNBA Finals . Because of the success in 2009, the Fever announced they would remain in Indianapolis for 2010. Their 2011 season in Indianapolis was also confirmed as well. In 2012, the Fever advanced to the 2012 WNBA Finals. Indiana then defeated the Minnesota Lynx , 3 games to 1. It was the Fever's first WNBA title.After the Fever won the 2012 WNBA championship, the ownership group took notice of their management – by promoting general manager Kelly Krauskopf to president of the franchise. Krauskopf has been giving additional duties within the franchise as well as a pay increase. The Fever competed for another title in 2015 , reaching the finals for the third time in franchise history, but fell short losing to the Minnesota Lynx in five games. In 2016 , the Fever made it to the playoffs for the 12th consecutive time (the current WNBA record for most consecutive playoff appearances by a team). However, the Fever were upset in the first round elimination game against the Phoenix Mercury after the league's new playoff format was in effect. This game also marked the final game of Tamika Catchings 's playing career; she had been known as the Fever's franchise player since 2002.On November 18, 2016, it was announced that the Fever hired Pokey Chatman as their new head coach. In February 2017, the Fever traded for five-time all-star Candice Dupree along with the Mercury's 2017 first-round pick in a three-team deal that sent Camille Little and Jillian Alleyne to the Mercury and the Connecticut Sun receiving the 8th overall pick in the 2017 WNBA draft along with Lynetta Kizer from the Fever. Despite acquiring a veteran all-star forward and a new head coach, the Fever would have one of the most disappointing seasons in franchise history. On August 12, 2017, the Fever were defeated 111–52 by the Minnesota Lynx, making it the largest margin of defeat in WNBA history, in which they allowed a league record 37–0 scoring run during the game. The Fever finished with the second-worst record in the league of 9–25 in their first season after Catchings's retirement, ending their streak of 12 consecutive playoff seasons. In 2018, disappointment continued for the Fever as they rebuilt their team. They finished in last place, this time with a 6–28 record. On March 4, 2019, Pacers Sports & Entertainment announced Allison Barber , a graduate of Tennessee Temple University and Indiana University, as the new president and chief operating officer of the Fever, while Catchings was named vice president of Fever Basketball Operations. They wound up with the third selection in the 2019 WNBA draft , selecting Teaira McCowan from Mississippi State . The 2019 season saw some improvement, but the team nonetheless finished 13–21, two games behind the last playoff spot. After the season, coach and general manager Pokey Chatman was fired. On November 27, 2019, Marianne Stanley was introduced as the head coach of the Indiana Fever, making her the seventh coach in the franchise's 20-year WNBA history. In addition, it was also announced that Catchings would be promoted to general manager. Near the end of the 2019 season, the Fever announced that they would move their home games to Butler University's Hinkle Fieldhouse for the 2020 and 2021 seasons, plus at least part of the 2022 season, to accommodate renovations of Bankers Life Fieldhouse. The team planned to return to the renamed Gainbridge Fieldhouse upon project completion. However, the 2020 WNBA season was played in IMG Academy in Bradenton, Florida , due to the COVID-19 pandemic . For the 2021 season, the Fever played their first four home games at Bankers Life Fieldhouse, before playing the remaining home games at Indiana Farmers Coliseum . On February 14, 2022, Tamika Catchings stepped down as the vice president of basketball operations and general manager of the Indiana Fever. On February 24, 2022, former Fever coach Lin Dunn, who guided the team to a WNBA title in 2012, was introduced as the franchise's interim general manager and senior advisor for Fever basketball operations. The franchise generally struggled in 2022 and 2023, earning the top WNBA draft pick in the following seasons. In 2023 , the Fever chose South Carolina 's Aliyah Boston with their first choice; the next season, amidst the raging popularity of women's basketball at the collegiate level, the Fever chose Iowa 's Caitlin Clark first overall. Drafting Clark in the latter season led to a surge of interest in the team and the WNBA in general, with TV ratings for the 2024 WNBA draft (at 2.5 million) overshadowing actual games played over the prior 25 seasons. 2000–2006: The home jerseys were white with red, dark blue and yellow on the sides. On the front, Fever was written across. The road jersey were dark blue with red and yellow on the sides. Indiana in red letters trimmed with white on the chest. 2007–2010: Home jerseys are white with blue and yellow strips/trim from the neck down the side. Fever is written in red across the front and on the back the player name is written in all dark blue under the number also in red trimmed in dark blue. The new road jerseys are dark blue with yellow and white trim/strips. Indiana is written on the front in red with white trim and on the back the number is in red with white trim with the player's name underneath in all white. Each jersey has the Fever's alternate logo at the top on the back. 2011–2012: As part of the move to Adidas 's Revolution 30 technology, the Fever made subtle changes to the uniforms. Home uniforms remain white, but the 'Fever' wordmark is now written in navy with red and yellow trim. Numbers are now rounded and in red. Away uniforms remain unchanged save for the striping patterns and rounded numbers. 2013–2015: On October 19, 2012, the Fever announced that Finish Line will be their uniform sponsor, beginning with the 2013 season . The uniform stayed the same aside from a new number scheme and the addition of the uniform sponsor. 2016: As part of a league-wide initiative for its 20th season, all games featured all-color uniform matchups. Therefore, the Fever unveiled a yellow jersey as a light-colored uniform to complement its standard navy uniform. 2019: The Fever announced Salesforce as their uniform sponsor, replacing Finish Line. Along with all other WNBA team uniforms, the front of the jersey prominently features both Salesforce and AT&T, a new partner for the WNBA. The number of the player is now just on the back of the jersey.(C) Team captain (DP) Unsigned draft pick (FA) Free agent (S) Suspended Injured(C) Team captain (DP) Unsigned draft pick (FA) Free agent (S) Suspended InjuredCurrently, most Fever games are broadcast online through FeverBasketball.com and the Indiana Fever Facebook Page. Select games air instead on Bally Sports Indiana . Broadcasters for the Fever games are Pat Boylan, Debbie Antonelli , and Tully Bevilaqua . Select games air nationally on ABC , ESPN , ESPN2 , Ion Television , NBA TV , CBS , and CBS Sports Network . Chris Denari served as the team's Play-by-Play Announcer from 2000 to 2017 before stepping down.A sellout for a basketball game at Gainbridge Fieldhouse is: 18,345 from 2000 to 2006. 18,165 from 2007 to 2016. 17,923 from 2017 to 2021. A sellout for a basketball game at Indiana Farmers Coliseum , the team's home during part of the 2021 and 2022 seasons, is 6,800. A sellout for a basketball game at Hinkle Fieldhouse , the team's home for the end of the 2022 season, is 9,100. 18,345 from 2000 to 2006. 18,165 from 2007 to 2016. 17,923 from 2017 to 2021. December 15, 1999 : The Fever acquired Monica Maxwell from the Washington Mystics in exchange for agreeing to select Nyree Roberts in the expansion draft. December 15, 1999 : The Fever traded Sandy Brondello and a first-round pick in the 2000 Draft to the Miami Sol in exchange for Stephanie White. April 25, 2000 : The Fever traded Latina Davis and Renee Robinson to the Houston Comets in exchange for Latavia Coleman. April 11, 2001 : The Fever traded Kara Wolters to the Sacramento Monarchs in exchange for a first-round pick in the 2001 Draft. May 27, 2001 : The Fever traded a second-round pick in the 2002 Draft to the Detroit Shock in exchange for Olympia Scott and a third-round pick in the 2002 Draft. December 5, 2001 : The Fever traded Angie Braziel to the Washington Mystics in exchange for Nikki McCray and the right to swap second- and fourth-round picks in the 2002 Draft. March 4, 2002 : The Fever traded Gordana Grubin to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Bridget Pettis and a first-round pick in the 2002 Draft. July 20, 2002 : The Fever traded Rita Williams to the Houston Comets in exchange for Coquese Washington. May 1, 2003 : The Fever traded Sylvia Crawley and Gwen Jackson to the San Antonio Silver Stars in exchange for Coretta Brown and Natalie Williams. February 5, 2004 : The Fever traded the 3rd overall and the 18th overall picks in the 2004 Draft to the Charlotte Sting in exchange for Kelly Miller and the 9th overall pick in the 2004 Draft. February 3, 2006 : The Fever traded Kelly Miller to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Anna DeForge. February 24, 2006 : The Fever traded Kelly Schumacher and the 12th overall pick in the 2006 Draft to the New York Liberty in exchange for the 9th overall pick in the 2006 Draft. March 7, 2007 : The Fever traded Olympia Scott to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Ann Strother. March 23, 2007 : The Fever traded La'Tangela Atkinson to the Sacramento Monarchs in exchange for a second-round pick in the 2008 Draft. February 19, 2008 : The Fever traded Tamika Whitmore, the 9th overall pick in the 2008 Draft and the rights to Jessica Foley to the Connecticut Sun in exchange for Katie Douglas. May 14, 2008 : The Fever traded K.B. Sharp to the Chicago Sky in exchange for Bernadette Ngoyisa. July 4, 2008 : The Fever traded Alison Bales to the Atlanta Dream in exchange for Kristen Mann. May 27, 2010 : The Fever traded a second-round pick in the 2011 Draft to the Tulsa Shock in exchange for Shavonte Zellous. April 29, 2011 : The Fever traded second- and third-round picks to the Seattle Storm and the Washington Mystics in exchange for Erin Phillips and Seattle's third-round pick in the 2012 Draft. March 1, 2012 : The Fever traded Tangela Smith to the San Antonio Silver Stars in exchange for Roneeka Hodges. July 2, 2012 : The Fever traded Roneeka Hodges to the Tulsa Shock in exchange for Karima Christmas. March 11, 2014 : The Fever traded Erin Phillips to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Lynetta Kizer. May 12, 2014 : The Fever traded a second-round pick in the 2015 Draft to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Maggie Lucas. March 12, 2015 : The Fever traded a first- and third-round picks in the 2015 Draft to the San Antonio Stars in exchange for Shenise Johnson and the second-round pick in the 2015 Draft. February 2, 2016 : The Fever traded Natasha Howard to the Minnesota Lynx in exchange for Devereaux Peters. February 21, 2017: In a three-way trade, the Fever traded Lynetta Kizer and a first-round pick in the 2017 Draft to the Connecticut Sun. The Fever received Candice Dupree and a second-round pick in the 2017 Draft from the Phoenix Mercury. February 1, 2018: The Fever acquired C Kayla Alexander and 2019 WNBA Draft third round pick via trade from Las Vegas Aces for 2019 WNBA Draft second round pick. March 6, 2018: The Fever acquired 8th overall pick in the 2018 WNBA Draft via trade from Phoenix Mercury for Briann January . March 6, 2020: The Fever acquired the 14th pick in the 2020 Draft and Minnesota's second round pick in the 2021 Draft in exchange for Shenise Johnson and the 16th pick in the 2020 Draft. February 8, 2021: The Fever acquired Lindsay Allen from Las Vegas and the 24th pick in the 2021 Draft in exchange for the 14th pick in the 2021 Draft. February 15, 2021: The Fever acquired the Minnesota Lynx's 1st and 3rd round picks in the 2022 Draft, Odyssey Sims and negotiating rights to Temi Fagbenle in exchange for the Fever's 2nd round pick in the 2022 Draft. February 20, 2022: The Fever acquired Bria Hartley, the 7th pick in the 2022 WNBA Draft, Chicago's 2023 First Round Draft pick, and Phoenix's 2022 and 2023 Second Round Draft picks in exchange for Julie Allemand. March 8, 2022: The Fever acquired the 4th and 6th picks in the 2022 Draft and Dallas' 2023 First Round pick in exchange for Teaira McCowan, the 7th pick in the 2022 Draft and the 2023 First Round pick from Chicago. July 4, 2023: The Fever acquired Amanda Zahui B from Washington in exchange for Queen Egbo. 2000 : None 2001 : Rita Williams 2002 : Tamika Catchings 2003 : Tamika Catchings, Natalie Williams 2004 : Natalie Williams 2005 : Tamika Catchings 2006 : Tamika Catchings, Tamika Whitmore 2007 : Tamika Catchings, Anna DeForge, Tammy Sutton-Brown 2008 : No All-Star Game 2009 : Tamika Catchings, Katie Douglas 2010 : Tamika Catchings, Katie Douglas 2011 : Tamika Catchings, Katie Douglas 2012 : No All-Star Game 2013 : Tamika Catchings, Shavonte Zellous 2014 : Tamika Catchings, Briann January 2015 : Tamika Catchings, Marissa Coleman 2016 : No All-Star Game 2017 : Candice Dupree 2018 : None 2019 : Candice Dupree, Erica Wheeler 2020 : No All-Star Game 2021 : None 2022 : None 2023 : Aliyah Boston, Kelsey Mitchell 2000 : Kara Wolters 2004 : Tamika Catchings 2008 : Tamika Catchings, Tully Bevilaqua ( AUS ) 2012 : Tamika Catchings 2016 : Tamika Catchings, Natalie Achonwa ( CAN ) 2020 : Julie Allemand, ( BEL ) 2002 Rookie of the Year : Tamika Catchings 2002 All-WNBA First Team : Tamika Catchings 2003 All-WNBA First Team : Tamika Catchings 2004 All-WNBA Second Team : Tamika Catchings 2004 Most Improved Player : Kelly Miller 2005 All-WNBA Second Team : Tamika Catchings 2005 Defensive Player of the Year : Tamika Catchings 2005 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2005 All-Defensive First Team : Tully Bevilaqua 2005 All-Rookie Team : Tan White 2006 All-Decade Team : Tamika Catchings 2006 All-WNBA First Team : Tamika Catchings 2006 Defensive Player of the Year : Tamika Catchings 2006 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2006 All-Defensive First Team : Tully Bevilaqua 2007 All-WNBA Second Team : Tamika Catchings 2007 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award : Tully Bevilaqua 2007 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2007 All-Defensive Second Team : Tully Bevilaqua 2008 Most Improved Player : Ebony Hoffman 2008 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2008 All-Defensive First Team : Tully Bevilaqua 2009 All-WNBA First Team : Tamika Catchings 2009 All-WNBA Second Team : Katie Douglas 2009 Defensive Player of the Year : Tamika Catchings 2009 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2009 All-Defensive First Team : Tully Bevilaqua 2010 All-WNBA First Team : Tamika Catchings 2010 All-WNBA Second Team : Katie Douglas 2010 Defensive Player of the Year : Tamika Catchings 2010 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award : Tamika Catchings 2010 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2010 All-Defensive Second Team : Tully Bevilaqua 2010 All-Defensive Second Team : Katie Douglas 2011 Most Valuable Player : Tamika Catchings 2011 All-WNBA First Team: Tamika Catchings 2011 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2011 All-Defensive Second Team : Katie Douglas 2012 Finals Most Valuable Player : Tamika Catchings 2012 Defensive Player of the Year : Tamika Catchings 2012 All-WNBA First Team: Tamika Catchings 2012 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2012 All-Defensive First Team : Briann January 2013 Most Improved Player : Shavonte Zellous 2013 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award : Tamika Catchings 2013 All-WNBA Second Team : Tamika Catchings 2013 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2013 All-Defensive Second Team : Briann January 2014 All-Defensive First Team : Briann January 2014 All-Defensive Second Team : Tamika Catchings 2015 All-Rookie Team : Natalie Achonwa 2015 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2015 All-Defensive First Team : Briann January 2015 All-WNBA Second Team : Tamika Catchings 2016 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award : Tamika Catchings 2016 All-Defensive First Team : Briann January 2016 All-Defensive Second Team : Tamika Catchings 2016 All-Rookie Team : Tiffany Mitchell 2018 All-Rookie Team : Kelsey Mitchell 2019 All-Star Game MVP : Erica Wheeler 2019 All-Rookie Team : Teaira McCowan 2020 All-Rookie Team : Julie Allemand 2022 All-Rookie Team : Queen Egbo 2022 All-Rookie Team : NaLyssa Smith 2023 Rookie of the Year : Aliyah Boston 2023 All-Rookie Team : Aliyah BostonA sellout for a basketball game at Gainbridge Fieldhouse is: 18,345 from 2000 to 2006. 18,165 from 2007 to 2016. 17,923 from 2017 to 2021. A sellout for a basketball game at Indiana Farmers Coliseum , the team's home during part of the 2021 and 2022 seasons, is 6,800. A sellout for a basketball game at Hinkle Fieldhouse , the team's home for the end of the 2022 season, is 9,100. 18,345 from 2000 to 2006. 18,165 from 2007 to 2016. 17,923 from 2017 to 2021.December 15, 1999 : The Fever acquired Monica Maxwell from the Washington Mystics in exchange for agreeing to select Nyree Roberts in the expansion draft. December 15, 1999 : The Fever traded Sandy Brondello and a first-round pick in the 2000 Draft to the Miami Sol in exchange for Stephanie White. April 25, 2000 : The Fever traded Latina Davis and Renee Robinson to the Houston Comets in exchange for Latavia Coleman. April 11, 2001 : The Fever traded Kara Wolters to the Sacramento Monarchs in exchange for a first-round pick in the 2001 Draft. May 27, 2001 : The Fever traded a second-round pick in the 2002 Draft to the Detroit Shock in exchange for Olympia Scott and a third-round pick in the 2002 Draft. December 5, 2001 : The Fever traded Angie Braziel to the Washington Mystics in exchange for Nikki McCray and the right to swap second- and fourth-round picks in the 2002 Draft. March 4, 2002 : The Fever traded Gordana Grubin to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Bridget Pettis and a first-round pick in the 2002 Draft. July 20, 2002 : The Fever traded Rita Williams to the Houston Comets in exchange for Coquese Washington. May 1, 2003 : The Fever traded Sylvia Crawley and Gwen Jackson to the San Antonio Silver Stars in exchange for Coretta Brown and Natalie Williams. February 5, 2004 : The Fever traded the 3rd overall and the 18th overall picks in the 2004 Draft to the Charlotte Sting in exchange for Kelly Miller and the 9th overall pick in the 2004 Draft. February 3, 2006 : The Fever traded Kelly Miller to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Anna DeForge. February 24, 2006 : The Fever traded Kelly Schumacher and the 12th overall pick in the 2006 Draft to the New York Liberty in exchange for the 9th overall pick in the 2006 Draft. March 7, 2007 : The Fever traded Olympia Scott to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Ann Strother. March 23, 2007 : The Fever traded La'Tangela Atkinson to the Sacramento Monarchs in exchange for a second-round pick in the 2008 Draft. February 19, 2008 : The Fever traded Tamika Whitmore, the 9th overall pick in the 2008 Draft and the rights to Jessica Foley to the Connecticut Sun in exchange for Katie Douglas. May 14, 2008 : The Fever traded K.B. Sharp to the Chicago Sky in exchange for Bernadette Ngoyisa. July 4, 2008 : The Fever traded Alison Bales to the Atlanta Dream in exchange for Kristen Mann. May 27, 2010 : The Fever traded a second-round pick in the 2011 Draft to the Tulsa Shock in exchange for Shavonte Zellous. April 29, 2011 : The Fever traded second- and third-round picks to the Seattle Storm and the Washington Mystics in exchange for Erin Phillips and Seattle's third-round pick in the 2012 Draft. March 1, 2012 : The Fever traded Tangela Smith to the San Antonio Silver Stars in exchange for Roneeka Hodges. July 2, 2012 : The Fever traded Roneeka Hodges to the Tulsa Shock in exchange for Karima Christmas. March 11, 2014 : The Fever traded Erin Phillips to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Lynetta Kizer. May 12, 2014 : The Fever traded a second-round pick in the 2015 Draft to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Maggie Lucas. March 12, 2015 : The Fever traded a first- and third-round picks in the 2015 Draft to the San Antonio Stars in exchange for Shenise Johnson and the second-round pick in the 2015 Draft. February 2, 2016 : The Fever traded Natasha Howard to the Minnesota Lynx in exchange for Devereaux Peters. February 21, 2017: In a three-way trade, the Fever traded Lynetta Kizer and a first-round pick in the 2017 Draft to the Connecticut Sun. The Fever received Candice Dupree and a second-round pick in the 2017 Draft from the Phoenix Mercury. February 1, 2018: The Fever acquired C Kayla Alexander and 2019 WNBA Draft third round pick via trade from Las Vegas Aces for 2019 WNBA Draft second round pick. March 6, 2018: The Fever acquired 8th overall pick in the 2018 WNBA Draft via trade from Phoenix Mercury for Briann January . March 6, 2020: The Fever acquired the 14th pick in the 2020 Draft and Minnesota's second round pick in the 2021 Draft in exchange for Shenise Johnson and the 16th pick in the 2020 Draft. February 8, 2021: The Fever acquired Lindsay Allen from Las Vegas and the 24th pick in the 2021 Draft in exchange for the 14th pick in the 2021 Draft. February 15, 2021: The Fever acquired the Minnesota Lynx's 1st and 3rd round picks in the 2022 Draft, Odyssey Sims and negotiating rights to Temi Fagbenle in exchange for the Fever's 2nd round pick in the 2022 Draft. February 20, 2022: The Fever acquired Bria Hartley, the 7th pick in the 2022 WNBA Draft, Chicago's 2023 First Round Draft pick, and Phoenix's 2022 and 2023 Second Round Draft picks in exchange for Julie Allemand. March 8, 2022: The Fever acquired the 4th and 6th picks in the 2022 Draft and Dallas' 2023 First Round pick in exchange for Teaira McCowan, the 7th pick in the 2022 Draft and the 2023 First Round pick from Chicago. July 4, 2023: The Fever acquired Amanda Zahui B from Washington in exchange for Queen Egbo.2000 : None 2001 : Rita Williams 2002 : Tamika Catchings 2003 : Tamika Catchings, Natalie Williams 2004 : Natalie Williams 2005 : Tamika Catchings 2006 : Tamika Catchings, Tamika Whitmore 2007 : Tamika Catchings, Anna DeForge, Tammy Sutton-Brown 2008 : No All-Star Game 2009 : Tamika Catchings, Katie Douglas 2010 : Tamika Catchings, Katie Douglas 2011 : Tamika Catchings, Katie Douglas 2012 : No All-Star Game 2013 : Tamika Catchings, Shavonte Zellous 2014 : Tamika Catchings, Briann January 2015 : Tamika Catchings, Marissa Coleman 2016 : No All-Star Game 2017 : Candice Dupree 2018 : None 2019 : Candice Dupree, Erica Wheeler 2020 : No All-Star Game 2021 : None 2022 : None 2023 : Aliyah Boston, Kelsey Mitchell2000 : Kara Wolters 2004 : Tamika Catchings 2008 : Tamika Catchings, Tully Bevilaqua ( AUS ) 2012 : Tamika Catchings 2016 : Tamika Catchings, Natalie Achonwa ( CAN ) 2020 : Julie Allemand, ( BEL )2002 Rookie of the Year : Tamika Catchings 2002 All-WNBA First Team : Tamika Catchings 2003 All-WNBA First Team : Tamika Catchings 2004 All-WNBA Second Team : Tamika Catchings 2004 Most Improved Player : Kelly Miller 2005 All-WNBA Second Team : Tamika Catchings 2005 Defensive Player of the Year : Tamika Catchings 2005 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2005 All-Defensive First Team : Tully Bevilaqua 2005 All-Rookie Team : Tan White 2006 All-Decade Team : Tamika Catchings 2006 All-WNBA First Team : Tamika Catchings 2006 Defensive Player of the Year : Tamika Catchings 2006 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2006 All-Defensive First Team : Tully Bevilaqua 2007 All-WNBA Second Team : Tamika Catchings 2007 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award : Tully Bevilaqua 2007 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2007 All-Defensive Second Team : Tully Bevilaqua 2008 Most Improved Player : Ebony Hoffman 2008 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2008 All-Defensive First Team : Tully Bevilaqua 2009 All-WNBA First Team : Tamika Catchings 2009 All-WNBA Second Team : Katie Douglas 2009 Defensive Player of the Year : Tamika Catchings 2009 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2009 All-Defensive First Team : Tully Bevilaqua 2010 All-WNBA First Team : Tamika Catchings 2010 All-WNBA Second Team : Katie Douglas 2010 Defensive Player of the Year : Tamika Catchings 2010 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award : Tamika Catchings 2010 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2010 All-Defensive Second Team : Tully Bevilaqua 2010 All-Defensive Second Team : Katie Douglas 2011 Most Valuable Player : Tamika Catchings 2011 All-WNBA First Team: Tamika Catchings 2011 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2011 All-Defensive Second Team : Katie Douglas 2012 Finals Most Valuable Player : Tamika Catchings 2012 Defensive Player of the Year : Tamika Catchings 2012 All-WNBA First Team: Tamika Catchings 2012 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2012 All-Defensive First Team : Briann January 2013 Most Improved Player : Shavonte Zellous 2013 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award : Tamika Catchings 2013 All-WNBA Second Team : Tamika Catchings 2013 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2013 All-Defensive Second Team : Briann January 2014 All-Defensive First Team : Briann January 2014 All-Defensive Second Team : Tamika Catchings 2015 All-Rookie Team : Natalie Achonwa 2015 All-Defensive First Team : Tamika Catchings 2015 All-Defensive First Team : Briann January 2015 All-WNBA Second Team : Tamika Catchings 2016 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award : Tamika Catchings 2016 All-Defensive First Team : Briann January 2016 All-Defensive Second Team : Tamika Catchings 2016 All-Rookie Team : Tiffany Mitchell 2018 All-Rookie Team : Kelsey Mitchell 2019 All-Star Game MVP : Erica Wheeler 2019 All-Rookie Team : Teaira McCowan 2020 All-Rookie Team : Julie Allemand 2022 All-Rookie Team : Queen Egbo 2022 All-Rookie Team : NaLyssa Smith 2023 Rookie of the Year : Aliyah Boston 2023 All-Rookie Team : Aliyah Boston

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Brown_howler/html

Brown howler

Alouatta guariba clamitans Alouatta guariba guariba The brown howler ( Alouatta guariba ), also known as brown howler monkey , is a species of howler monkey , a type of New World monkey that lives in forests in southeastern Brazil and far northeastern Argentina ( Misiones ). It lives in groups of two to 11 individuals. Despite the name "brown howler", it is notably variable in colour, with some individuals appearing largely reddish-orange or black. The two subspecies are: The brown howler lives in the Atlantic forest in South America. The region spreads through the Brazilian states of Bahia and Espírito Santo through Rio Grande do Sul, and Misiones in Argentina. Brown howler monkeys are folivores and frugivorous . The diet of the brown howler monkey consists primarily of leaves and trees. Of the food sources it seems that the genera Ficus , Zanthoxylum , and Eugenia are the most significant types consumed. Brown howler monkeys that live in higher latitudes tend to eat a lower percentage of leaves in their diet. Mature leaves are less nutritious and are more fibrous, than the preferred young leaves. A typical brown howler diet will also include mature fruit, wild figs, petioles, buds, flowers, seeds, moss, stems, and twigs The Atlantic forest , where brown howlers tend to live, has an increasing forest fragmentation . Forest fragmentation means that there would be a decrease in potential food supplies. The brown howler's feeding ecology, however, does not seem to be affected by the loss in habitat. Brown howler monkeys are part of the group of monkeys known for their howls/roars. Howlers are able to create such loud and specific sounds by specific body shape and structures. The larynx is enlarged and they have an enlarged open chest that creates a resonating chamber to increase the sound produced. The howlers also have specialized vocal chords to produce the specific sound. The most frequent reason for the howling is for mate defense. Howling occurs most when there are both female and male howlers present. The males are the dominant group as they begin all cases of howling. Females participate in howling much less than males. Howling can also occur in groups during the dry season. It is believed that this is due to food scarcity. The brown howlers use their sounds to show ownership over certain food or territory. The black hawk eagle is a predator of the brown howler monkey. The roars of the brown howler allow the black hawk eagle to determine their location. The brown howler's response has three parts. First, when one brown howler becomes aware of a black hawk eagle they will alarm the group and then they will immediately become silent. Next they descend in the understory of the trees, and finally they will all disperse in an organized manner. The adults will lead the young away from danger. The young are considered to be the primary target for the black hawk eagle. There is a more conservative response when adult brown howlers are without the young, and the black hawk eagle is present, thus indicating that the black hawk eagles are targeting the young howlers. When the brown howler monkey is threatened by terrestrial animals they will remain in the tree canopy and remain silent for 5–15 minutes. Brown howler monkeys rub one another for group communication. The rubbing can be used for various purposes. Males will rub their hyoid bone and sternum against each other to show agonistic and territorial signals. Males will also rub females for sexual intentions. The males are considered to be the dominant over females because they rub much more often than females. Dominate females will rub more often than non-dominate females, but still much less than males. It is difficult to breed the genus Alouatta in captivity and therefore the reproduction is relatively unknown. Brown howlers reproduce year round. There seems to be no correlation to birth rates in rainy or dry season or in times of increased fruit or leaves. It is thought that because the brown howler has a folivorous diet, conception is less dependent on maternal conditions. The average interbirth interval (IBI) for the brown howler is 19.9 months, which is similar to other howler species. It does not seem that the sex of the infant or the number of females in the population has a significant effect on IBI. The death of an infant will shorten the mother's IBI and seems to be one of the few factors that affects IBI. Brown howler monkeys are part of the group of monkeys known for their howls/roars. Howlers are able to create such loud and specific sounds by specific body shape and structures. The larynx is enlarged and they have an enlarged open chest that creates a resonating chamber to increase the sound produced. The howlers also have specialized vocal chords to produce the specific sound. The most frequent reason for the howling is for mate defense. Howling occurs most when there are both female and male howlers present. The males are the dominant group as they begin all cases of howling. Females participate in howling much less than males. Howling can also occur in groups during the dry season. It is believed that this is due to food scarcity. The brown howlers use their sounds to show ownership over certain food or territory. The black hawk eagle is a predator of the brown howler monkey. The roars of the brown howler allow the black hawk eagle to determine their location. The brown howler's response has three parts. First, when one brown howler becomes aware of a black hawk eagle they will alarm the group and then they will immediately become silent. Next they descend in the understory of the trees, and finally they will all disperse in an organized manner. The adults will lead the young away from danger. The young are considered to be the primary target for the black hawk eagle. There is a more conservative response when adult brown howlers are without the young, and the black hawk eagle is present, thus indicating that the black hawk eagles are targeting the young howlers. When the brown howler monkey is threatened by terrestrial animals they will remain in the tree canopy and remain silent for 5–15 minutes. Brown howler monkeys rub one another for group communication. The rubbing can be used for various purposes. Males will rub their hyoid bone and sternum against each other to show agonistic and territorial signals. Males will also rub females for sexual intentions. The males are considered to be the dominant over females because they rub much more often than females. Dominate females will rub more often than non-dominate females, but still much less than males. It is difficult to breed the genus Alouatta in captivity and therefore the reproduction is relatively unknown. Brown howlers reproduce year round. There seems to be no correlation to birth rates in rainy or dry season or in times of increased fruit or leaves. It is thought that because the brown howler has a folivorous diet, conception is less dependent on maternal conditions. The average interbirth interval (IBI) for the brown howler is 19.9 months, which is similar to other howler species. It does not seem that the sex of the infant or the number of females in the population has a significant effect on IBI. The death of an infant will shorten the mother's IBI and seems to be one of the few factors that affects IBI. Brown howlers are highly susceptible to the yellow fever virus and have a high mortality rate when infected. When mass amounts of brown howlers are found dead it is a good indication that there may be a yellow fever outbreak occurring. Since the brown howlers have such a high mortality rate they are not considered to maintain the virus in their population. Communities that live near the brown howler populations have previously held the belief that the brown howlers were the cause of the disease, and would kill them to stop the spread of disease. In order to protect the brown howlers the local communities should limit their killing and become vaccinated to prevent the disease from spreading. The transmission of yellow fever is through mosquito vectors. In South America the known mosquito vectors of yellow fever are in the genera Haemagogus and Sabethes . In Argentina, the species that has been shown to carry the yellow fever virus (YFV) is Sabethes albiprivis . In 2008–2009 there was a yellow fever outbreak among a brown howler study group in the protected Misiones, El Piñalito Provincial Park. The brown howler is not abundant in Argentina and any outbreak could have a detrimental effect on the population. A group of researchers have created the Brown Howler Conservation Group to continue to study and monitor yellow fever in the brown howler populations.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Wellington_Phoenix_FC/html

Wellington Phoenix FC

Wellington Phoenix Football Club is a professional football club based in Wellington , New Zealand. It competes in the Australian A-League , under licence from Football Federation Australia . Phoenix entered the competition in the 2007–08 season after its formation in March 2007, by New Zealand Football to replace New Zealand Knights as a New Zealand-based club in the Australian A-League competition. Since 2011, the club has been owned by Welnix , a consortium of seven Wellington businessmen. The club is one of the few clubs in the world to compete in a league of a different confederation ( AFC ) from that of the country where it is based ( OFC ). It plays matches at Sky Stadium (formerly Westpac Stadium), a 34,500-seat multi-purpose venue in Wellington. Their home kit consists of black and yellow stripes. Its highest achievement is reaching the A-League Preliminary Final in 2010 .During the later stages of the 2006–07 A-League season , Football Federation Australia (FFA) removed New Zealand Knights A-League licence due to the club's financial and administrative problems and poor on-field performance. After the resignation of the New Zealand Knights board, FFA transferred the licence to New Zealand Soccer (NZS, now New Zealand Football ), which administered the club for the rest of the season before its subsequent dissolution. FFA then provided NZS a provisional A-League licence to sub-let to a suitable New Zealand team to enter the 2007–08 A-League season . FFA set an application deadline to NZS and subsequently delayed that deadline to give more time for potential applicants in New Zealand to apply along with NZS support. While NZS was given a chance to apply with a new sub-licensee, a Townsville -based consortium, Tropical Football Australia (TFA) also expressed interest and prepared an A-League application to replace the place previously held by the Knights. However, TFA eventually pulled out with the understanding of the FFA's preference to retain a New Zealand team for the league. TFA resubmitted its bid the following year as a potential A-League expansion franchise under the name "Northern Thunder FC", which was later changed to " North Queensland Thunder "; however, this bid died after expansion for the 2007–08 season was cancelled. After much delay, the final amount needed for the application came from Wellington property businessman Terry Serepisos in the latter stages of the bid. Serepisos, the club's majority owner and chairman, provided NZD $1,250,000 to ensure the beginnings of a new New Zealand franchise and a continuation of New Zealand's participation in the A-League. FFA finalised a three-year A-League licence to New Zealand Football who then sub-let the licence to the Wellington-based club. The new Wellington club was confirmed on 19 March 2007. The name for the new club was picked from a shortlist of six, pruned from 250 names suggested by the public, and was announced on 28 March 2007. Serepisos said of the name, that "It symbolises the fresh start, the rising from the ashes, and the incredible Wellington support that has come out". Despite the backing of FIFA , AFC president Mohammed Bin Hammam stated that due to AFC criteria, the Wellington team must move to Australia or disband by 2011. However, in an interview aired on SBS on 21 December 2008, FIFA president Sepp Blatter stated unequivocally, "It is not the matter of the Confederation, it is the matter of the FIFA Executive Committee... If Wellington will go on play on in Australian League, then as long as Australian league wants to have them and Wellington wants to stay (and) Both association in this case, New Zealand Soccer and Australian Football are happy with that then we will give them the blessing. The Confederation cannot interfere with that.". In the 2009–10 season , Wellington Phoenix became the first New Zealand side to reach the playoffs of an Australian football competition when Adelaide United beat Brisbane Roar 2–0 in the 26th round. It meant that Brisbane , which before the match was the only team outside the top six with a chance of making the playoffs, no longer could. The Phoenix overcame the Central Coast Mariners on 12 February 2010 to finish fourth, which meant it would host a playoff game against Perth Glory on 21 February 2010. The Phoenix beat Perth by penalty shootout (4–2) after 120 minutes (including 30 minutes of extra time). Phoenix then hosted a home game against Newcastle Jets on 7 March, which they won in extra time 3–1. In the Preliminary Final against Sydney FC , the Phoenix lost 4–2 in controversial circumstances. After being locked at 1–1 through goals from Chris Payne for Sydney and Andrew Durante for Wellington, Payne apparently missed a header and deflected the ball into the goal off his hand. Andrew Durante , who was marking Payne went straight to the linesman, but the goal stood. "I went straight to the linesman. I knew 100 per cent it was handball. I spoke to the ref at halftime about it and he said it wasn't deliberate. It's pretty funny that one. Such a big game and such a big occasion, for something like that to change the game is very disappointing." Sydney FC strikers Alex Brosque and Mark Bridge both scored break-away goals as Phoenix pushed forward, and Eugene Dadi added a late consolation goal. Phoenix striker Chris Greenacre said that the error changed the dynamics of the game. "It just rips the heart out of you. We got back in the game with a good goal and that takes it away from you. It wasn't to be. I think we were right back in it. They played some good football but I thought we had withstood it OK. If we went into halftime [at 1–1] we were really confident we could get something out of it." Coach Ricki Herbert echoed those statements. The loss brought the end to the Phoenix's season, meaning that Melbourne Victory and Sydney FC would compete in the Grand Final. On 20 April 2010, FFA granted Wellington Phoenix a five-year licence extension, keeping it in the competition until at least the conclusion of the 2015–16 season. Many argue Wellington's ability to play in the A-League as being instrumental to the progress of the New Zealand national side and the wider football landscape. Prior to the 2011/12 season, it emerged that Serepisos was experiencing financial difficulties, both personally and in the property empire. This included highly publicised action by the Inland Revenue Department to liquidate a number of Serepisos' companies for unpaid taxes, including Century City Football Ltd, the club Serepisos owned the Phoenix through. Initially, Serepisos claimed he had obtained finance through Swiss-based lenders, then announced he had agreed to a deal with Western Gulf Advisory, the Bahrain-based lender owned by Racing Santander owner Ahsan Ali Syed which would see 50% of the club sold. However, these funds were never received and the partial transfer never took place. While the liquidation action was resolved through an unnamed third-party Serepisos' financial troubles did not end. Despite this, he stated he would not give up ownership of the club. Additional stories also emerged that coach Ricki Herbert was personally owed $100,000 in unpaid wages by the club. However, on 23 September 2011, it was announced by Serepisos and the FFA that Serepisos had relinquished ownership of the club as a result of his ongoing financial difficulties. The club's licence was passed by the FFA to a new consortium of seven Wellington businessmen headed by Rob Morrison and including Gareth Morgan , Lloyd Morrison and John Morrison . On 26 February 2013, with the Phoenix sitting in last place, Ricki Herbert resigned from the position of head coach. The Phoenix had endured a poor run of results in a season where they were expected to be challenging for the title. Assistant Coach Chris Greenacre took the reins on an interim basis for the remainder of the season. Following a "worldwide search", Ernie Merrick was announced as the head coach on 20 May 2013. Merrick had six successful years at the Melbourne Victory , which was seen as important. Merrick will once again become the most experienced A-League coach in the coming season, retaking this from Herbert who passed him towards the end of the 2012–13 season. Greenacre was retained by Merrick as the assistant coach. On 5 December 2017, Merrick resigned as head coach following the Phoenix's 2–0 loss to Adelaide United . On 2 January 2017, Des Buckingham took over as head coach, while Chris Greenacre was made co-coach. On 1 March 2018, Wellington Phoenix announced that Darije Kalezic will be departing the club at the end of the season after they were not able to come to an agreement on how the club proceeds forward for the next season. On 30 May 2018, Wellington Phoenix announced the appointment of former Sydney FC captain Marko Rudan as manager on a two-year contract. Rudan became the first-ever Wellington Phoenix coach to win his first game in charge when the Wellington Phoenix were 2–1 victors over Newcastle Jets in the opening round of the 2018–19 season . Following Round 2 clash with Brisbane Roar which ended in a 0–0 draw, it was the best start the team has had since the 2012/13 season. They suffered their first defeat of the season in Round 3 going down 3–0 to Western Sydney Wanderers . After a defeat in Round 5 against Adelaide United , Phoenix went on a 9-game undefeated streak including draws with Premiers Perth Glory and Champions Melbourne Victory , and wins over clubs like Sydney FC and Newcastle Jets . Their streak was broken by Sydney FC in round 15. The Phoenix finished in 6th place qualifying for the playoffs. On 15 April, it was announced that Rudan would not see out the second year of his contract and would leave at season's end due to personal reasons. They were knocked out in the first elimination final by Melbourne Victory 3–1. On 4 May 2019, it was announced Ufuk Talay would be taking the reins of head coach after the departure of Marko Rudan on a one-year deal. In his first press conference, Talay expressed his idea of building a young team with a strong Kiwi core. He made his first signing with All Whites goalkeeper Stefan Marinovic and signed local Kiwi players, Te Atawhai Hudson-Wihongi , Tim Payne , and Callum McCowatt . Talay made his first import signing with Mexican Ulises Dávila following another import signing of English striker, David Ball . On 24 July, it was announced that Steven Taylor would be the captain heading into the new season while Alex Rufer was made vice-captain. On 18 August, it was announced that Phoenix had paid an undisclosed fee for Reno Piscopo , marking the first time the club paid a transfer fee for a player. Talay also made a handful of signings of young Australian players including Walter Scott , Jaushua Sotirio , Cameron Devlin , Liam McGing , and experienced centre-back Luke DeVere . Talay used his fourth import spot signing Matti Steinmann on a one-year deal. Talay had a positive start to his managerial tenure with the Wellington Phoenix when he led them to a 7–0 victory over Wairarapa United in a pre-season friendly in his first match in charge. They were knocked-out of the 2019 FFA Cup in the Round of 32, losing 4–2 on penalties to Brisbane Strikers , after making an extraordinary comeback from 2-0 down to a 2–2 draw at full time. On 22 May 2021, Wellington Phoenix broke their home attendance record, attracting 24,105 spectators against Western United FC . This game (as of 22 May), is the 2020/21 Hyundai A-League's most attended game. This was the first A-League game to be held in New Zealand since 15 March 2020, a total of 433 days in between. During the later stages of the 2006–07 A-League season , Football Federation Australia (FFA) removed New Zealand Knights A-League licence due to the club's financial and administrative problems and poor on-field performance. After the resignation of the New Zealand Knights board, FFA transferred the licence to New Zealand Soccer (NZS, now New Zealand Football ), which administered the club for the rest of the season before its subsequent dissolution. FFA then provided NZS a provisional A-League licence to sub-let to a suitable New Zealand team to enter the 2007–08 A-League season . FFA set an application deadline to NZS and subsequently delayed that deadline to give more time for potential applicants in New Zealand to apply along with NZS support. While NZS was given a chance to apply with a new sub-licensee, a Townsville -based consortium, Tropical Football Australia (TFA) also expressed interest and prepared an A-League application to replace the place previously held by the Knights. However, TFA eventually pulled out with the understanding of the FFA's preference to retain a New Zealand team for the league. TFA resubmitted its bid the following year as a potential A-League expansion franchise under the name "Northern Thunder FC", which was later changed to " North Queensland Thunder "; however, this bid died after expansion for the 2007–08 season was cancelled. After much delay, the final amount needed for the application came from Wellington property businessman Terry Serepisos in the latter stages of the bid. Serepisos, the club's majority owner and chairman, provided NZD $1,250,000 to ensure the beginnings of a new New Zealand franchise and a continuation of New Zealand's participation in the A-League. FFA finalised a three-year A-League licence to New Zealand Football who then sub-let the licence to the Wellington-based club. The new Wellington club was confirmed on 19 March 2007. The name for the new club was picked from a shortlist of six, pruned from 250 names suggested by the public, and was announced on 28 March 2007. Serepisos said of the name, that "It symbolises the fresh start, the rising from the ashes, and the incredible Wellington support that has come out". Despite the backing of FIFA , AFC president Mohammed Bin Hammam stated that due to AFC criteria, the Wellington team must move to Australia or disband by 2011. However, in an interview aired on SBS on 21 December 2008, FIFA president Sepp Blatter stated unequivocally, "It is not the matter of the Confederation, it is the matter of the FIFA Executive Committee... If Wellington will go on play on in Australian League, then as long as Australian league wants to have them and Wellington wants to stay (and) Both association in this case, New Zealand Soccer and Australian Football are happy with that then we will give them the blessing. The Confederation cannot interfere with that.". In the 2009–10 season , Wellington Phoenix became the first New Zealand side to reach the playoffs of an Australian football competition when Adelaide United beat Brisbane Roar 2–0 in the 26th round. It meant that Brisbane , which before the match was the only team outside the top six with a chance of making the playoffs, no longer could. The Phoenix overcame the Central Coast Mariners on 12 February 2010 to finish fourth, which meant it would host a playoff game against Perth Glory on 21 February 2010. The Phoenix beat Perth by penalty shootout (4–2) after 120 minutes (including 30 minutes of extra time). Phoenix then hosted a home game against Newcastle Jets on 7 March, which they won in extra time 3–1. In the Preliminary Final against Sydney FC , the Phoenix lost 4–2 in controversial circumstances. After being locked at 1–1 through goals from Chris Payne for Sydney and Andrew Durante for Wellington, Payne apparently missed a header and deflected the ball into the goal off his hand. Andrew Durante , who was marking Payne went straight to the linesman, but the goal stood. "I went straight to the linesman. I knew 100 per cent it was handball. I spoke to the ref at halftime about it and he said it wasn't deliberate. It's pretty funny that one. Such a big game and such a big occasion, for something like that to change the game is very disappointing." Sydney FC strikers Alex Brosque and Mark Bridge both scored break-away goals as Phoenix pushed forward, and Eugene Dadi added a late consolation goal. Phoenix striker Chris Greenacre said that the error changed the dynamics of the game. "It just rips the heart out of you. We got back in the game with a good goal and that takes it away from you. It wasn't to be. I think we were right back in it. They played some good football but I thought we had withstood it OK. If we went into halftime [at 1–1] we were really confident we could get something out of it." Coach Ricki Herbert echoed those statements. The loss brought the end to the Phoenix's season, meaning that Melbourne Victory and Sydney FC would compete in the Grand Final. On 20 April 2010, FFA granted Wellington Phoenix a five-year licence extension, keeping it in the competition until at least the conclusion of the 2015–16 season. Many argue Wellington's ability to play in the A-League as being instrumental to the progress of the New Zealand national side and the wider football landscape. Prior to the 2011/12 season, it emerged that Serepisos was experiencing financial difficulties, both personally and in the property empire. This included highly publicised action by the Inland Revenue Department to liquidate a number of Serepisos' companies for unpaid taxes, including Century City Football Ltd, the club Serepisos owned the Phoenix through. Initially, Serepisos claimed he had obtained finance through Swiss-based lenders, then announced he had agreed to a deal with Western Gulf Advisory, the Bahrain-based lender owned by Racing Santander owner Ahsan Ali Syed which would see 50% of the club sold. However, these funds were never received and the partial transfer never took place. While the liquidation action was resolved through an unnamed third-party Serepisos' financial troubles did not end. Despite this, he stated he would not give up ownership of the club. Additional stories also emerged that coach Ricki Herbert was personally owed $100,000 in unpaid wages by the club. However, on 23 September 2011, it was announced by Serepisos and the FFA that Serepisos had relinquished ownership of the club as a result of his ongoing financial difficulties. The club's licence was passed by the FFA to a new consortium of seven Wellington businessmen headed by Rob Morrison and including Gareth Morgan , Lloyd Morrison and John Morrison . On 26 February 2013, with the Phoenix sitting in last place, Ricki Herbert resigned from the position of head coach. The Phoenix had endured a poor run of results in a season where they were expected to be challenging for the title. Assistant Coach Chris Greenacre took the reins on an interim basis for the remainder of the season. Following a "worldwide search", Ernie Merrick was announced as the head coach on 20 May 2013. Merrick had six successful years at the Melbourne Victory , which was seen as important. Merrick will once again become the most experienced A-League coach in the coming season, retaking this from Herbert who passed him towards the end of the 2012–13 season. Greenacre was retained by Merrick as the assistant coach. On 5 December 2017, Merrick resigned as head coach following the Phoenix's 2–0 loss to Adelaide United . On 2 January 2017, Des Buckingham took over as head coach, while Chris Greenacre was made co-coach. On 1 March 2018, Wellington Phoenix announced that Darije Kalezic will be departing the club at the end of the season after they were not able to come to an agreement on how the club proceeds forward for the next season. On 30 May 2018, Wellington Phoenix announced the appointment of former Sydney FC captain Marko Rudan as manager on a two-year contract. Rudan became the first-ever Wellington Phoenix coach to win his first game in charge when the Wellington Phoenix were 2–1 victors over Newcastle Jets in the opening round of the 2018–19 season . Following Round 2 clash with Brisbane Roar which ended in a 0–0 draw, it was the best start the team has had since the 2012/13 season. They suffered their first defeat of the season in Round 3 going down 3–0 to Western Sydney Wanderers . After a defeat in Round 5 against Adelaide United , Phoenix went on a 9-game undefeated streak including draws with Premiers Perth Glory and Champions Melbourne Victory , and wins over clubs like Sydney FC and Newcastle Jets . Their streak was broken by Sydney FC in round 15. The Phoenix finished in 6th place qualifying for the playoffs. On 15 April, it was announced that Rudan would not see out the second year of his contract and would leave at season's end due to personal reasons. They were knocked out in the first elimination final by Melbourne Victory 3–1. On 4 May 2019, it was announced Ufuk Talay would be taking the reins of head coach after the departure of Marko Rudan on a one-year deal. In his first press conference, Talay expressed his idea of building a young team with a strong Kiwi core. He made his first signing with All Whites goalkeeper Stefan Marinovic and signed local Kiwi players, Te Atawhai Hudson-Wihongi , Tim Payne , and Callum McCowatt . Talay made his first import signing with Mexican Ulises Dávila following another import signing of English striker, David Ball . On 24 July, it was announced that Steven Taylor would be the captain heading into the new season while Alex Rufer was made vice-captain. On 18 August, it was announced that Phoenix had paid an undisclosed fee for Reno Piscopo , marking the first time the club paid a transfer fee for a player. Talay also made a handful of signings of young Australian players including Walter Scott , Jaushua Sotirio , Cameron Devlin , Liam McGing , and experienced centre-back Luke DeVere . Talay used his fourth import spot signing Matti Steinmann on a one-year deal. Talay had a positive start to his managerial tenure with the Wellington Phoenix when he led them to a 7–0 victory over Wairarapa United in a pre-season friendly in his first match in charge. They were knocked-out of the 2019 FFA Cup in the Round of 32, losing 4–2 on penalties to Brisbane Strikers , after making an extraordinary comeback from 2-0 down to a 2–2 draw at full time. On 22 May 2021, Wellington Phoenix broke their home attendance record, attracting 24,105 spectators against Western United FC . This game (as of 22 May), is the 2020/21 Hyundai A-League's most attended game. This was the first A-League game to be held in New Zealand since 15 March 2020, a total of 433 days in between. The general consensus among Phoenix fans was for a kit featuring yellow and black vertical stripes; however, this format did not comply with the A-League template required by Reebok when Phoenix was admitted into the League. Instead, players wore a predominantly black strip with yellow and white trim for the first two seasons. When Reebok lifted constraints on kit designs in 2009, Phoenix adopted yellow and black vertical stripes. The Phoenix kit is currently provided by Paladin after Adidas decided against renewing their contract with the club. The badge is a shield depicting a rising phoenix . The team's current kit sponsors are KPMG (front of kit), Sky Sports (back of shirt), GoMedia (front of shorts), and Revera (back of shorts). In August 2017, the club unveiled a new badge removing the shield in place of a larger, simplified phoenix. The updated badge also featured the club's new motto of 'E Rere Te Keo', a rising call rooted in the Māori legend of Taniwha . Wellington Phoenix FC has played most of its home matches at the Wellington Regional Stadium (currently named Sky Stadium for sponsorship reasons), which is referred to as the 'Ring of Fire' by fans. The stadium has a capacity of 34,500. The NZD$130 million stadium was built in 1999 by Fletcher Construction and is situated close to major transport facilities (such as Wellington railway station ) one kilometre north of the central business district. The stadium is owned and operated by Wellington Regional Stadium Trust. It is built on surplus-to-requirements reclaimed railway land on Wellington's waterfront. Home fans sit in the southern and western areas of the stadium, while away fans sit to the north. In the 2009–2010 A-League season, Wellington Phoenix FC played two home games away from Sky Stadium , the first at Arena Manawatu in Palmerston North , the second at AMI Stadium in Christchurch . The two games were key to Wellington Phoenix expanding their fan base in New Zealand. This was followed by playing a game in Auckland at Eden Park in front of 20,078 attendees during the 2011–2012 A-League season. The Phoenix previously trained at Newtown Park , on a ground that was specially redeveloped in 2008 and separate to the playing pitch. This ground was shared with NZFC franchise, Team Wellington however in 2017 the Phoenix moved to Martin Luckie Park which had been redeveloped with two full-sized sand-based pitches. Funding for the redevelopment came from the Phoenix as well as $550,000 given by Wellington City Council . Due to COVID-19 in both New Zealand and Australia, the Wellington Phoenix based themselves in Wollongong and played home games at WIN Stadium for the 2020–21 A-League season. Wellington returned to Wollongong for the 2021–22 A-League season and again played their home games at Win Stadium . Wellington Phoenix has built a strong fan-base in Wellington, across New Zealand, and amongst New Zealanders in Australia . The main supporters' group , named the Yellow Fever, was founded a day after the Wellington Phoenix's formation was announced. Yellow Fever founder Mike Greene met with the founder of New Zealand cricket supporter group, the Beige Brigade , to get ideas of how to get the group started. The name was originally chosen on the assumption that the new Wellington-based team would play in a yellow playing strip (yellow being the dominant sporting colour of the region). Although the eventual strip was primarily black, the Yellow Fever elected to retain the name; many Yellow Fever members chose to wear yellow to fixtures as opposed to black. The 'Fever Zone' is located within aisles 21 and 22 of Sky Stadium ; although it is an all-seater facility, most Yellow Fever members choose to stand in front of their seat – similar to terrace seating traditions in British football. The Yellow Fever are renowned within the A-League for their traditions; the most prominent of which being if the Phoenix are winning by the 80th minute, members remove their shirts. Additionally, prior to the last home game before Christmas, the Yellow Fever organise a pub crawl , entitled The 12 Pubs of Lochhead after defender Tony Lochhead . Many Yellow Fever members have also lent their support to other football fixtures in Wellington and New Zealand, mostly notably Team Wellington of the ISPS Handa Premiership and the New Zealand national football team . Yellow Fever also lent its support to the New Zealand women's national under-17 football team during the 2008 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup , held in New Zealand. The former official podcast of Yellow Fever, 'Phoenix City', is hosted by Patrick Barnes, and features Cameron McIntosh and Andrew French as panellists. The weekly recording often includes a guest interview and covers the Wellington Phoenix, the All Whites and other national teams, New Zealanders playing overseas, the ISPS Handa Premiership , and local club football, including the Chatham Cup . The Yellow Fever supporters share a strong relationship with the club due to their charity initiatives. Yellow Fever is the first supporters club in the A-League to organise and sponsor an annual footballing scholarship. The "Retro Ricki Youth Scholarship" was awarded annually to a promising young New Zealand footballer. Nominations for the scholarship were made by Yellow Fever members, and the recipient was chosen by the Yellow Fever executive and Wellington Phoenix staff. The recipient received a trial with the Phoenix, covering travel and accommodation costs. Although the initiative only lasted four seasons, the scholarship is widely credited with bringing New Zealand international Marco Rojas professional attention. Yellow Fever members have also combined charity campaigns with their support of the Phoenix, with supporters selling bandannas in the club colours every year as part of the youth-cancer charity CanTeen's "Bandana Day" fundraiser. Yellow Fever members have also notably participated in the Movember movement since 2007, leading to the club itself participating as of 2008, and other Australian A-League clubs following suit in 2009. In 2010, Yellow Fever, The Dominion Post and local sportswear chain RYOS teamed up to release the "LifeFlight Shirt", a white T-shirt emblazoned with pictures of Phoenix players sent into the Dominion Post as part of a competition. 25% of the proceeds from the sale of these T-shirts were donated to the LifeFlight air ambulance service. Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. Wellington Phoenix's academy system was formed in 2013, absorbing the prolific Christchurch -based Asia-Pacific Football Academy. Since then, Wellington Phoenix have developed a number of notable players, including several New Zealand internationals. The following players graduated from the Wellington Phoenix Football Academy, and have either represented their nation at international level or have played at a professional level outside New Zealand.Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.Wellington Phoenix's academy system was formed in 2013, absorbing the prolific Christchurch -based Asia-Pacific Football Academy. Since then, Wellington Phoenix have developed a number of notable players, including several New Zealand internationals. The following players graduated from the Wellington Phoenix Football Academy, and have either represented their nation at international level or have played at a professional level outside New Zealand.KeyKeyIn June 2020, Wellington Phoenix announced their desire in creating a women's team before the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup as part of a A-League Women plan of adding three expansion clubs by the said period and in September 2021, they announced the newly created team would be joining the A-League as an expansion starting with the 2021–22 season. This made Phoenix the first women's professional football team from New Zealand.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Lower_Mississippi_Valley_yellow_fever_epidemic_of_1878/html

Lower Mississippi Valley yellow fever epidemic of 1878

In 1878, a severe yellow fever epidemic swept through the lower Mississippi Valley .During the American Civil War , New Orleans was occupied with Union troops, and the local populace believed that yellow fever would only kill the northern troops. These rumors instilled fear into the Union troops, and they actively practiced sanitation and quarantine procedures during their occupation in 1862 until the government pulled federal troops out of the city in 1877. The withdrawal of Union troops resulted in the relaxation of sanitation and quarantine efforts in New Orleans . Following the yellow fever epidemic in Shreveport, Louisiana , where 769 people died between August and November, the states in the Lower Mississippi Valley began to take precautions for any following epidemics. After the epidemic in Shreveport, the Quarantine Act of 1878 was passed that allowed the United States federal government to assume control over the state in quarantines, but the law did not allow for the federal government to intercede on local medical authorities or health boards. In March of that year, a virulent strain of Yellow Fever was found in Havana, Cuba , and New Orleans health officials ordered the detainment of all vessels from the Cuban and Brazilian regions. It is unknown what exactly led to the outbreak in the Mississippi River Valley as causes range from unchecked vessels from the fruit trade to refugees from the Ten Years' War in Cuba , which was experiencing a rise in yellow fever cases, however, investigations at the time suggest that the epidemic originated from the steamer Emily B. Souder on May 22, 1878. The entire Mississippi River Valley from St. Louis south was affected, and tens of thousands fled the stricken cities of New Orleans , Vicksburg , and Memphis . The epidemic in the Lower Mississippi Valley also greatly affected trade in the region, with orders of steamboats to be tied up in order to reduce the amount of travel along the Mississippi River, railroad lines were halted, and all the workers to be laid off. Carrigan states that "An estimated 15,000 heads of households were unemployed in New Orleans , 8,000 in Memphis , and several thousands more in scattered small towns - representing a total of over 100,000 persons in dire need." When the epidemic broke out from the Emily B. Souder in May, roughly 40,000 residents that represent 20% of the city population fled the city, many of whom fled via the new railroads systems constructed during the Reconstruction period after the American Civil War , which further spread the virus across the Lower Mississippi Valley. The city saw roughly 20,000 total infections during the epidemic with 5,000 resulting in deaths, and saw a loss of more than $15 million due to the disruptions in trade from the epidemic. Due to the struggles of the remaining citizens, numerous organizations formed relief committees that relied heavily on aid from the federal government in the form of relief rations and money donations from unaffected cities in the Northern United States. The federal relief came with heavy restrictions, as they were only allowed to be given to households that had yellow fever and could provide proof via a doctor's certificate or given to people considered "destitute." These restrictions led to many citizens having to go without federal aid, resulting in roughly 10,000 people receiving aid despite there being 20,000 cases of yellow fever alone. Memphis suffered several epidemics during the 1870s, culminating in the 1879 epidemic following the most severe bout of the fever, the 1878 wave. During this year, there were more than 5,000 fatalities in the city. Some contemporary accounts said that commercial interests had prevented the rapid reporting of the outbreak of the epidemic, increasing the total number of deaths. People still did not understand how the disease developed or was transmitted, and did not know how to prevent it. These misconceptions regarding the mechanism of the virus exacerbated the rising death toll in Memphis as people operated under false notions of safety in the fever-ridden zones of the city. According to J.M. Keating, renowned for his highly-referenced history of the 1878 yellow fever epidemic in Memphis, his text underscores the lack of consensus among medical professionals at this time. He spends the first two chapters of his anthology explaining the conflicting theories regarding the epidemiology of the virus and makes no mention of what is now known to be the real culprit, the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Unknown to physicians at the time, yellow fever was spread through the bite of an infected mosquito which proliferated in warm, moist areas of high population density. Given its urban and largely unsanitary environment in a vital trading location on the Mississippi River , Memphis became the ideal locale for the virus to take root after spreading from its origin in New Orleans. Similar to the preventative measures taken in New Orleans was the implementation of the quarantine in Memphis. Once the spread of the virus to Memphis became imminent, a city-wide quarantine was instated which barred entry into the city. Unknown to public officials in Memphis, the virus had already arrived to the city by the time the quarantine went into effect, making this a futile approach to reducing spread. Beyond the quarantine, other common precautions included avoiding coming in contact with the "excreta" or bodily fluids of fever victims due to the misconception that the virus could be transferred through these liquids. While the impact of the mosquito remained unnoticed, ill-prepared citizens continued to operate unprotected under these poor defenses, adding to the ever-growing number of fever victims. For those who wished to avoid the grip of the fever in the city, flight from Memphis was appealing to a majority of the city's population. The news of deaths in New Orleans and in the nearby town of Hickman in August led to the mass withdrawal of an estimated 25,000 residents from the city of Memphis within four days, which led to further spread of the virus across the Lower Mississippi Valley. This exodus of a large proportion of the population of Memphis consisted primarily of those of the white Protestant class who possessed the means to leave the city for safety. Left behind were African American residents and a large circle of Irish Catholics who lacked the wealth to uproot from their homes located in the poorest sectors of town. The departure of white Protestants not only fueled the animosity that existed between the Catholics of the city and themselves, but also left Memphis ill-equipped in the manpower needed to sustain fever relief efforts. Consequently, the integral role Catholic clergy came to play in aiding fever victims was largely a product of the gap left by white Protestant flight. In light of this reality, Catholic intervention in the path of the fever in Memphis becomes crucial to understanding the story of these devastating months. Catholic clergy opened their churches and convents to render aid on a non-discriminatory basis, aiding a community that would have remained insufficiently aided otherwise. Despite their extensive service during the epidemic years in Memphis, the involvement of Catholic clergy in fever relief efforts has largely gone undocumented. No explanation for their absence from fever records is confirmed. However, the death the Catholic community experienced was a blow from which their population would never recover, effecting a change in the character of Memphis felt deeply in the years after the fever had run its course. In addition to extensive mortality, Memphis also saw an economic crisis during the epidemic, where trade was halted entirely in the city, and the lack of commerce led to mass starvations throughout the city, inciting riots and looting. All in all, Ellis states that " of the approximately 20,000 persons remaining in the city, an estimated 17,000 contracted the fever, of whom 5,150 died. There were at least 11,000 cases among 14,000 blacks, resulting in 946 deaths. By contrast, virtually all of the 6,000 whites were stricken, and 4,204 cases proved fatal. The disaster's economic cost to the city was later calculated to be upward of fifteen million dollars." The 1878 epidemic was the worst that occurred in the state of Mississippi . Sometimes known as "Yellow Jack", and "Bronze John", devastated Mississippi socially and economically. Entire families were killed, while others fled their homes for the presumed safety of other parts of the state. Quarantine regulations, passed to prevent the spread of the disease, brought trade to a stop. Some local economies never recovered. Beechland, near Vicksburg, became a ghost town because of the epidemic. By the end of the year, 3,227 people had died from the disease. In the town of Grenada located in northern Mississippi, about 1,000 people of the town's population fled while the remaining population suffered "approximately 1,050 cases and 350 deaths." The town was a known railroad town, and it was found that the refugees from railroad towns often spread the illness with them along the railroads. When the epidemic broke out from the Emily B. Souder in May, roughly 40,000 residents that represent 20% of the city population fled the city, many of whom fled via the new railroads systems constructed during the Reconstruction period after the American Civil War , which further spread the virus across the Lower Mississippi Valley. The city saw roughly 20,000 total infections during the epidemic with 5,000 resulting in deaths, and saw a loss of more than $15 million due to the disruptions in trade from the epidemic. Due to the struggles of the remaining citizens, numerous organizations formed relief committees that relied heavily on aid from the federal government in the form of relief rations and money donations from unaffected cities in the Northern United States. The federal relief came with heavy restrictions, as they were only allowed to be given to households that had yellow fever and could provide proof via a doctor's certificate or given to people considered "destitute." These restrictions led to many citizens having to go without federal aid, resulting in roughly 10,000 people receiving aid despite there being 20,000 cases of yellow fever alone. Memphis suffered several epidemics during the 1870s, culminating in the 1879 epidemic following the most severe bout of the fever, the 1878 wave. During this year, there were more than 5,000 fatalities in the city. Some contemporary accounts said that commercial interests had prevented the rapid reporting of the outbreak of the epidemic, increasing the total number of deaths. People still did not understand how the disease developed or was transmitted, and did not know how to prevent it. These misconceptions regarding the mechanism of the virus exacerbated the rising death toll in Memphis as people operated under false notions of safety in the fever-ridden zones of the city. According to J.M. Keating, renowned for his highly-referenced history of the 1878 yellow fever epidemic in Memphis, his text underscores the lack of consensus among medical professionals at this time. He spends the first two chapters of his anthology explaining the conflicting theories regarding the epidemiology of the virus and makes no mention of what is now known to be the real culprit, the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Unknown to physicians at the time, yellow fever was spread through the bite of an infected mosquito which proliferated in warm, moist areas of high population density. Given its urban and largely unsanitary environment in a vital trading location on the Mississippi River , Memphis became the ideal locale for the virus to take root after spreading from its origin in New Orleans. Similar to the preventative measures taken in New Orleans was the implementation of the quarantine in Memphis. Once the spread of the virus to Memphis became imminent, a city-wide quarantine was instated which barred entry into the city. Unknown to public officials in Memphis, the virus had already arrived to the city by the time the quarantine went into effect, making this a futile approach to reducing spread. Beyond the quarantine, other common precautions included avoiding coming in contact with the "excreta" or bodily fluids of fever victims due to the misconception that the virus could be transferred through these liquids. While the impact of the mosquito remained unnoticed, ill-prepared citizens continued to operate unprotected under these poor defenses, adding to the ever-growing number of fever victims. For those who wished to avoid the grip of the fever in the city, flight from Memphis was appealing to a majority of the city's population. The news of deaths in New Orleans and in the nearby town of Hickman in August led to the mass withdrawal of an estimated 25,000 residents from the city of Memphis within four days, which led to further spread of the virus across the Lower Mississippi Valley. This exodus of a large proportion of the population of Memphis consisted primarily of those of the white Protestant class who possessed the means to leave the city for safety. Left behind were African American residents and a large circle of Irish Catholics who lacked the wealth to uproot from their homes located in the poorest sectors of town. The departure of white Protestants not only fueled the animosity that existed between the Catholics of the city and themselves, but also left Memphis ill-equipped in the manpower needed to sustain fever relief efforts. Consequently, the integral role Catholic clergy came to play in aiding fever victims was largely a product of the gap left by white Protestant flight. In light of this reality, Catholic intervention in the path of the fever in Memphis becomes crucial to understanding the story of these devastating months. Catholic clergy opened their churches and convents to render aid on a non-discriminatory basis, aiding a community that would have remained insufficiently aided otherwise. Despite their extensive service during the epidemic years in Memphis, the involvement of Catholic clergy in fever relief efforts has largely gone undocumented. No explanation for their absence from fever records is confirmed. However, the death the Catholic community experienced was a blow from which their population would never recover, effecting a change in the character of Memphis felt deeply in the years after the fever had run its course. In addition to extensive mortality, Memphis also saw an economic crisis during the epidemic, where trade was halted entirely in the city, and the lack of commerce led to mass starvations throughout the city, inciting riots and looting. All in all, Ellis states that " of the approximately 20,000 persons remaining in the city, an estimated 17,000 contracted the fever, of whom 5,150 died. There were at least 11,000 cases among 14,000 blacks, resulting in 946 deaths. By contrast, virtually all of the 6,000 whites were stricken, and 4,204 cases proved fatal. The disaster's economic cost to the city was later calculated to be upward of fifteen million dollars." The 1878 epidemic was the worst that occurred in the state of Mississippi . Sometimes known as "Yellow Jack", and "Bronze John", devastated Mississippi socially and economically. Entire families were killed, while others fled their homes for the presumed safety of other parts of the state. Quarantine regulations, passed to prevent the spread of the disease, brought trade to a stop. Some local economies never recovered. Beechland, near Vicksburg, became a ghost town because of the epidemic. By the end of the year, 3,227 people had died from the disease. In the town of Grenada located in northern Mississippi, about 1,000 people of the town's population fled while the remaining population suffered "approximately 1,050 cases and 350 deaths." The town was a known railroad town, and it was found that the refugees from railroad towns often spread the illness with them along the railroads. The epidemic lasted until late October when lower temperatures drove off the A. Aegypti mosquitoes, the primary carrier of yellow fever, away or into hibernation. It was not until November 19 when the epidemic was officially declared to be over. Ellis states that "according to estimates, there were around 120,000 cases of yellow fever and approximately 20,000 deaths." The Lower Mississippi Valley also experienced roughly $30 million in economic losses due to the disruption of commerce caused by the epidemic.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/List_of_unmade_Doctor_Who_serials_and_films/html

List of unmade Doctor Who serials and films

During the long history of the British science fiction television program Doctor Who , a number of stories were proposed but never fully produced. Below is a list of unmade serials submitted by recognized professionals. Although the BBC intended to produce the series, they were not made. Many have since been the subjects of features in Doctor Who Magazine or other professional periodicals and books devoted to the television show. Such series existed during the tenure of each of the previous thirteen incarnations of the Doctor . The reasons for the series being incomplete include strike action (which caused the partially filmed Shada to be abandoned), actors leaving roles ( The Final Game , which was cancelled after Roger Delgado 's death), and the series being put on hiatus twice—once in 1985 and again in 1989—causing the following series to be shelved. The plots of the unmade series also vary. The theme of a civilization in which women are dominant was proposed twice—for The Hidden Planet and The Prison in Space . In some cases, elements of an unmade series was adapted or moved from one project to another. For example, Song of the Space Whale was intended to be the introduction of Vislor Turlough until it was repeatedly set back, causing Mawdryn Undead to be Turlough's first appearance. Some unused stories have been adapted for other media. Shada was animated and several unmade series compiled into an audio series released by Big Finish called The Lost Stories .The first serial of the series, The Giants , was originally to be written by C. E. Webber , the first episode being titled "Nothing at the End of the Lane", and would concern the four main characters (at that point named as the Doctor, Cliff, Lola, and Biddy) being shrunk to a "miniature size" and attacked by giant animals. The serial established the Doctor's original backstory, revealing that the Time Lord had escaped from "his own galaxy" in the year 5733, seeking a perfect society in the past and that he was pursued by agents from his own time who sought to prevent him from stopping their society from coming into being. By May 1963, a storyline for all four parts had been established, and the first two episodes scripted. However, the story was rejected on 10 June 1963 because the story was too thin on characterisation and that the giant monsters would be clichéd and too expensive to produce. Some of the initial opening script was retained for An Unearthly Child when Anthony Coburn was commissioned to write a replacement on 14 June 1963, though details like those about the Doctor's home were removed. Around early September 1963, the idea was given to Robert Gould to develop, referred to as the "minuscule" storyline, which was anticipated to be the fourth serial of the season, but this story was later dropped from this slot in January 1964 and Gould abandoned work on the story altogether a month later. In March 1964, the story idea was offered to writer Louis Marks and eventually became Planet of Giants . The Masters of Luxor , originally titled The Robots , was a six-part story submitted by Anthony Coburn while he was part of the BBC Script Department and considered for the second serial of Season 1, in which the Doctor faces a self-aware robot which is trying to gain a soul . It was rejected by the production team in mid-September 1963 in favour of Terry Nation 's first Dalek serial . Titan Books published the unused scripts in August 1992. Edited by John McElroy, the text of Coburn's script was amended to fit in with accepted conventions – for example, consistent use of the name "Susan", rather than the "Suzanne" and "Sue" used by Coburn. It was later adapted by Nigel Robinson for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in August 2012. The Hidden Planet by Malcolm Hulke was commissioned in December 1963 and at one point was to be the fourth serial and then later the fifth serial of Series 1 after the insertion of The Edge of Destruction into the production block. It would further be deferred in January 1964 when it was realised that substantial rewrites would need to be undertaken. The story would have concerned a planet in an orbit opposite Earth's, with a parallel but in some ways opposite society to ours; for example, women were to be the dominant sex and all clovers would have four leaves. The original script was sent back for rewrites, and, due to a pay dispute, the rewrites were not made until after Susan had left the series; this necessitated further rewriting. A third submission was similarly rejected as Ian and Barbara were due to leave, and the script was dropped. The story was the subject of an April Fool's Day prank in 1983, when Doctor Who Magazine issue 76 claimed that one episode had been filmed and rediscovered and would be integrated into a twentieth anniversary special co-starring the Fifth Doctor entitled The Phoenix Rises . Written by Malcolm Hulke . The story involved the departure of the Romans from Britain around the start of the fifth century amid clashes against the Celts and the Saxons, culminating with the time travellers fleeing the indigenous savages back to the safety of the TARDIS. Britain 408 AD was first submitted on 2 September 1963. Story editor David Whitaker asked Hulke to revise his original storyline, as he felt that the plot—with its many opposing factions—was too complicated and that the serial's conclusion echoed that of An Unearthly Child too closely. It was hoped that an amended version of Britain 408 AD might occupy the sixth slot of Season One (Serial F), to be directed by Christopher Barry, but on 23 September it was decided that the production block did not need another historical story and Hulke's serial was abandoned. The spot in the schedule was ultimately occupied by The Aztecs , while Hulke began work on The Hidden Planet instead (see above). Following Whitaker's departure, Hulke resubmitted Britain 408 AD . It was rejected on 2 April 1965, by Whitaker's successor, Dennis Spooner, because the Romans had already featured in his own story The Romans . Commissioned 24 September 1963, Terry Nation had intended for his second seven-part serial to be set during the British Raj in India (probably to have been the eighth serial), but the story was ultimately abandoned as the Daleks became a success, and demand for further science fiction adventures grew. Farewell Great Macedon (also known as Alexander the Great in the script's early stages) was a six-part story pitched for Season 1 and was written by Moris Farhi . In the story, the Doctor and his companions are framed for murder as part of a conspiracy to kill Alexander the Great and must pass several trials, including walking on hot coals, to gain the trust of his bodyguard Ptolemy . The script was published by Nothing at the End of the Lane in October 2009. It was later adapted by Nigel Robinson for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in November 2010. The Fragile Yellow Arc of Fragrance was the first script sent by Moris Farhi. It was one episode long and was a calling card piece, never seriously pitched for production. This story never made it to the production stage and was included in the 2009 publication of Farhi's script for Farewell Great Macedon . It was later adapted by Nigel Robinson for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in November 2010. Written by Alan Wakeman . Wakeman was one of several writers contacted by David Whitaker in mid-1963. The story was commissioned on 31 July 1963. It involved a planet ruled by sentient rocks and trees, with the ability to control humans with an inaudible sound. A four-part episodic storyline breakdown of the story featured in the third volume of the magazine, Nothing at the End of the Lane . In this breakdown the following episode titles are quoted: "Airfish", "What Eats What", "The Living Planet" and "Just in Time". Note that in the script, Susan is referred to as Suzanne, and Barbara is referred to as Miss Canning. An idea suggested by Robert Gould when he abandoned work on the "minuscule" storyline in February 1964 that involved a planet where plants treated people the way people treat plants. This was rejected by Verity Lambert, who felt it too close to the book The Day of the Triffids . Written by Brian Hayles . This story was Hayles' first submission to the series. The story focuses on the Doctor, Ian, Barbara, and Vicki landing the TARDIS on the planet Numir, the sun of which is extinguished, and encountering the surface-dwelling 'light people' and the subterranean 'shadow people'. The story was rejected in favour of Bill Strutton 's The Web Planet by story editor Dennis Spooner on 8 February 1965, because the story was too similar to Malcolm Hulke's The Hidden Planet . It was later adapted by Matt Fitton for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in September 2013. Written by Victor Pemberton . This story focuses on a sentient form of mud that tries to take over the minds of British townsfolk. Script editor for Doctor Who David Whittaker rejected it because it was derivative of the Quatermass serials of the 1950s. Pemberton later submitted it to BBC Radio after he removed the Doctor Who elements from it. The Slide was commissioned as a seven-part serial that aired on the BBC Light Programme , beginning on 13 February 1966. This ultimately inspired Pemberton to adapt "The Slide" as the Doctor Who story, Fury from the Deep , which aired in 1968. Written by David Whitaker as he planned to leave his position as story editor. He submitted The New Armada in late February 1964 for season 2 but was rejected in the wake of The Dalek Invasion of Earth . He resubmitted for season 3 in late 1965 but was rejected by story editor Gerry Davis on January 17, 1966. The story was to be a six-part story set in sixteenth-century Spain. Written by Robert Holmes and submitted to Story editor Donald Tosh on 25 April 1965. This four-part story idea involved the Doctor and his three companions arriving on an uninhabited planet to discover a spacecraft controlled by robots while its human occupants lie in suspended animation waiting for the additional crew members needed to once again operate their crashed ship. The Doctor and his companions are taken captive and trained up by the robots as the replacement crew members, however only three additional crew members are required, so the member of the Doctor's party that proves least useful is to be callously killed off by the human crew. This was Holmes's first story submission for the series and was primarily rejected due to the robots' role being similar to that of the Mechanoids in The Chase from the previous season. Holmes would later resubmit this story idea to producer Peter Bryant on 20 May 1968 which led to the commissioning of what would become The Krotons . Written by John Lucarotti and was planned to be about Leif Eriksson . Story editor Donald Tosh turned down the storyline due to having already recently featured Vikings in The Time Meddler . Lucarotti later penned a short story for issue 184 of Doctor Who Magazine published in 1992, called "Who Discovered America?", which reuses the rejected storyline. Written by Brian Hayles. This storyline was submitted around the time that Hayles had completed The Smugglers in mid-1966. It may have also needed to incorporate the Second Doctor. The story would have concerned a mad scientist who kidnaps humans from points in Earth's history. The scientist would have been revealed to be working for an alien warlord who wishes to study mankind to determine the optimal point in Earth's history to invade. Written by Brian Hayles. Hayles was commissioned to write a storyline for "The Nazis" on 8 March 1966. Shortly thereafter, however, he was engaged to write The Smugglers , which he was told should take a higher priority. "The Nazis" was ultimately abandoned on 15 June 1966, with the sentiment being that the events it portrayed were too close to the present day. Written by David Ellis, not much is known about it. This storyline was submitted by David Ellis as a spy thriller in January 1966 but ultimately rejected by Gerry Davis in April 1966. Written by David Ellis & Malcolm Hulke. The story was submitted to the production office in April 1966, but script editor Gerry Davis rejected it on June 15, 1966, as Davis wanted to avoid airing comedy serials on television in the wake of the poorly received story, The Gunfighters . The first serial of the series, The Giants , was originally to be written by C. E. Webber , the first episode being titled "Nothing at the End of the Lane", and would concern the four main characters (at that point named as the Doctor, Cliff, Lola, and Biddy) being shrunk to a "miniature size" and attacked by giant animals. The serial established the Doctor's original backstory, revealing that the Time Lord had escaped from "his own galaxy" in the year 5733, seeking a perfect society in the past and that he was pursued by agents from his own time who sought to prevent him from stopping their society from coming into being. By May 1963, a storyline for all four parts had been established, and the first two episodes scripted. However, the story was rejected on 10 June 1963 because the story was too thin on characterisation and that the giant monsters would be clichéd and too expensive to produce. Some of the initial opening script was retained for An Unearthly Child when Anthony Coburn was commissioned to write a replacement on 14 June 1963, though details like those about the Doctor's home were removed. Around early September 1963, the idea was given to Robert Gould to develop, referred to as the "minuscule" storyline, which was anticipated to be the fourth serial of the season, but this story was later dropped from this slot in January 1964 and Gould abandoned work on the story altogether a month later. In March 1964, the story idea was offered to writer Louis Marks and eventually became Planet of Giants . The Masters of Luxor , originally titled The Robots , was a six-part story submitted by Anthony Coburn while he was part of the BBC Script Department and considered for the second serial of Season 1, in which the Doctor faces a self-aware robot which is trying to gain a soul . It was rejected by the production team in mid-September 1963 in favour of Terry Nation 's first Dalek serial . Titan Books published the unused scripts in August 1992. Edited by John McElroy, the text of Coburn's script was amended to fit in with accepted conventions – for example, consistent use of the name "Susan", rather than the "Suzanne" and "Sue" used by Coburn. It was later adapted by Nigel Robinson for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in August 2012. The Hidden Planet by Malcolm Hulke was commissioned in December 1963 and at one point was to be the fourth serial and then later the fifth serial of Series 1 after the insertion of The Edge of Destruction into the production block. It would further be deferred in January 1964 when it was realised that substantial rewrites would need to be undertaken. The story would have concerned a planet in an orbit opposite Earth's, with a parallel but in some ways opposite society to ours; for example, women were to be the dominant sex and all clovers would have four leaves. The original script was sent back for rewrites, and, due to a pay dispute, the rewrites were not made until after Susan had left the series; this necessitated further rewriting. A third submission was similarly rejected as Ian and Barbara were due to leave, and the script was dropped. The story was the subject of an April Fool's Day prank in 1983, when Doctor Who Magazine issue 76 claimed that one episode had been filmed and rediscovered and would be integrated into a twentieth anniversary special co-starring the Fifth Doctor entitled The Phoenix Rises . Written by Malcolm Hulke . The story involved the departure of the Romans from Britain around the start of the fifth century amid clashes against the Celts and the Saxons, culminating with the time travellers fleeing the indigenous savages back to the safety of the TARDIS. Britain 408 AD was first submitted on 2 September 1963. Story editor David Whitaker asked Hulke to revise his original storyline, as he felt that the plot—with its many opposing factions—was too complicated and that the serial's conclusion echoed that of An Unearthly Child too closely. It was hoped that an amended version of Britain 408 AD might occupy the sixth slot of Season One (Serial F), to be directed by Christopher Barry, but on 23 September it was decided that the production block did not need another historical story and Hulke's serial was abandoned. The spot in the schedule was ultimately occupied by The Aztecs , while Hulke began work on The Hidden Planet instead (see above). Following Whitaker's departure, Hulke resubmitted Britain 408 AD . It was rejected on 2 April 1965, by Whitaker's successor, Dennis Spooner, because the Romans had already featured in his own story The Romans . Commissioned 24 September 1963, Terry Nation had intended for his second seven-part serial to be set during the British Raj in India (probably to have been the eighth serial), but the story was ultimately abandoned as the Daleks became a success, and demand for further science fiction adventures grew. Farewell Great Macedon (also known as Alexander the Great in the script's early stages) was a six-part story pitched for Season 1 and was written by Moris Farhi . In the story, the Doctor and his companions are framed for murder as part of a conspiracy to kill Alexander the Great and must pass several trials, including walking on hot coals, to gain the trust of his bodyguard Ptolemy . The script was published by Nothing at the End of the Lane in October 2009. It was later adapted by Nigel Robinson for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in November 2010. The Fragile Yellow Arc of Fragrance was the first script sent by Moris Farhi. It was one episode long and was a calling card piece, never seriously pitched for production. This story never made it to the production stage and was included in the 2009 publication of Farhi's script for Farewell Great Macedon . It was later adapted by Nigel Robinson for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in November 2010. Written by Alan Wakeman . Wakeman was one of several writers contacted by David Whitaker in mid-1963. The story was commissioned on 31 July 1963. It involved a planet ruled by sentient rocks and trees, with the ability to control humans with an inaudible sound. A four-part episodic storyline breakdown of the story featured in the third volume of the magazine, Nothing at the End of the Lane . In this breakdown the following episode titles are quoted: "Airfish", "What Eats What", "The Living Planet" and "Just in Time". Note that in the script, Susan is referred to as Suzanne, and Barbara is referred to as Miss Canning. An idea suggested by Robert Gould when he abandoned work on the "minuscule" storyline in February 1964 that involved a planet where plants treated people the way people treat plants. This was rejected by Verity Lambert, who felt it too close to the book The Day of the Triffids . The first serial of the series, The Giants , was originally to be written by C. E. Webber , the first episode being titled "Nothing at the End of the Lane", and would concern the four main characters (at that point named as the Doctor, Cliff, Lola, and Biddy) being shrunk to a "miniature size" and attacked by giant animals. The serial established the Doctor's original backstory, revealing that the Time Lord had escaped from "his own galaxy" in the year 5733, seeking a perfect society in the past and that he was pursued by agents from his own time who sought to prevent him from stopping their society from coming into being. By May 1963, a storyline for all four parts had been established, and the first two episodes scripted. However, the story was rejected on 10 June 1963 because the story was too thin on characterisation and that the giant monsters would be clichéd and too expensive to produce. Some of the initial opening script was retained for An Unearthly Child when Anthony Coburn was commissioned to write a replacement on 14 June 1963, though details like those about the Doctor's home were removed. Around early September 1963, the idea was given to Robert Gould to develop, referred to as the "minuscule" storyline, which was anticipated to be the fourth serial of the season, but this story was later dropped from this slot in January 1964 and Gould abandoned work on the story altogether a month later. In March 1964, the story idea was offered to writer Louis Marks and eventually became Planet of Giants . The Masters of Luxor , originally titled The Robots , was a six-part story submitted by Anthony Coburn while he was part of the BBC Script Department and considered for the second serial of Season 1, in which the Doctor faces a self-aware robot which is trying to gain a soul . It was rejected by the production team in mid-September 1963 in favour of Terry Nation 's first Dalek serial . Titan Books published the unused scripts in August 1992. Edited by John McElroy, the text of Coburn's script was amended to fit in with accepted conventions – for example, consistent use of the name "Susan", rather than the "Suzanne" and "Sue" used by Coburn. It was later adapted by Nigel Robinson for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in August 2012.The Hidden Planet by Malcolm Hulke was commissioned in December 1963 and at one point was to be the fourth serial and then later the fifth serial of Series 1 after the insertion of The Edge of Destruction into the production block. It would further be deferred in January 1964 when it was realised that substantial rewrites would need to be undertaken. The story would have concerned a planet in an orbit opposite Earth's, with a parallel but in some ways opposite society to ours; for example, women were to be the dominant sex and all clovers would have four leaves. The original script was sent back for rewrites, and, due to a pay dispute, the rewrites were not made until after Susan had left the series; this necessitated further rewriting. A third submission was similarly rejected as Ian and Barbara were due to leave, and the script was dropped. The story was the subject of an April Fool's Day prank in 1983, when Doctor Who Magazine issue 76 claimed that one episode had been filmed and rediscovered and would be integrated into a twentieth anniversary special co-starring the Fifth Doctor entitled The Phoenix Rises .Written by Malcolm Hulke . The story involved the departure of the Romans from Britain around the start of the fifth century amid clashes against the Celts and the Saxons, culminating with the time travellers fleeing the indigenous savages back to the safety of the TARDIS. Britain 408 AD was first submitted on 2 September 1963. Story editor David Whitaker asked Hulke to revise his original storyline, as he felt that the plot—with its many opposing factions—was too complicated and that the serial's conclusion echoed that of An Unearthly Child too closely. It was hoped that an amended version of Britain 408 AD might occupy the sixth slot of Season One (Serial F), to be directed by Christopher Barry, but on 23 September it was decided that the production block did not need another historical story and Hulke's serial was abandoned. The spot in the schedule was ultimately occupied by The Aztecs , while Hulke began work on The Hidden Planet instead (see above). Following Whitaker's departure, Hulke resubmitted Britain 408 AD . It was rejected on 2 April 1965, by Whitaker's successor, Dennis Spooner, because the Romans had already featured in his own story The Romans . Commissioned 24 September 1963, Terry Nation had intended for his second seven-part serial to be set during the British Raj in India (probably to have been the eighth serial), but the story was ultimately abandoned as the Daleks became a success, and demand for further science fiction adventures grew. Farewell Great Macedon (also known as Alexander the Great in the script's early stages) was a six-part story pitched for Season 1 and was written by Moris Farhi . In the story, the Doctor and his companions are framed for murder as part of a conspiracy to kill Alexander the Great and must pass several trials, including walking on hot coals, to gain the trust of his bodyguard Ptolemy . The script was published by Nothing at the End of the Lane in October 2009. It was later adapted by Nigel Robinson for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in November 2010.The Fragile Yellow Arc of Fragrance was the first script sent by Moris Farhi. It was one episode long and was a calling card piece, never seriously pitched for production. This story never made it to the production stage and was included in the 2009 publication of Farhi's script for Farewell Great Macedon . It was later adapted by Nigel Robinson for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in November 2010.Written by Alan Wakeman . Wakeman was one of several writers contacted by David Whitaker in mid-1963. The story was commissioned on 31 July 1963. It involved a planet ruled by sentient rocks and trees, with the ability to control humans with an inaudible sound. A four-part episodic storyline breakdown of the story featured in the third volume of the magazine, Nothing at the End of the Lane . In this breakdown the following episode titles are quoted: "Airfish", "What Eats What", "The Living Planet" and "Just in Time". Note that in the script, Susan is referred to as Suzanne, and Barbara is referred to as Miss Canning. An idea suggested by Robert Gould when he abandoned work on the "minuscule" storyline in February 1964 that involved a planet where plants treated people the way people treat plants. This was rejected by Verity Lambert, who felt it too close to the book The Day of the Triffids . Written by Brian Hayles . This story was Hayles' first submission to the series. The story focuses on the Doctor, Ian, Barbara, and Vicki landing the TARDIS on the planet Numir, the sun of which is extinguished, and encountering the surface-dwelling 'light people' and the subterranean 'shadow people'. The story was rejected in favour of Bill Strutton 's The Web Planet by story editor Dennis Spooner on 8 February 1965, because the story was too similar to Malcolm Hulke's The Hidden Planet . It was later adapted by Matt Fitton for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in September 2013. Written by Victor Pemberton . This story focuses on a sentient form of mud that tries to take over the minds of British townsfolk. Script editor for Doctor Who David Whittaker rejected it because it was derivative of the Quatermass serials of the 1950s. Pemberton later submitted it to BBC Radio after he removed the Doctor Who elements from it. The Slide was commissioned as a seven-part serial that aired on the BBC Light Programme , beginning on 13 February 1966. This ultimately inspired Pemberton to adapt "The Slide" as the Doctor Who story, Fury from the Deep , which aired in 1968. Written by Brian Hayles . This story was Hayles' first submission to the series. The story focuses on the Doctor, Ian, Barbara, and Vicki landing the TARDIS on the planet Numir, the sun of which is extinguished, and encountering the surface-dwelling 'light people' and the subterranean 'shadow people'. The story was rejected in favour of Bill Strutton 's The Web Planet by story editor Dennis Spooner on 8 February 1965, because the story was too similar to Malcolm Hulke's The Hidden Planet . It was later adapted by Matt Fitton for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in September 2013.Written by Victor Pemberton . This story focuses on a sentient form of mud that tries to take over the minds of British townsfolk. Script editor for Doctor Who David Whittaker rejected it because it was derivative of the Quatermass serials of the 1950s. Pemberton later submitted it to BBC Radio after he removed the Doctor Who elements from it. The Slide was commissioned as a seven-part serial that aired on the BBC Light Programme , beginning on 13 February 1966. This ultimately inspired Pemberton to adapt "The Slide" as the Doctor Who story, Fury from the Deep , which aired in 1968. Written by David Whitaker as he planned to leave his position as story editor. He submitted The New Armada in late February 1964 for season 2 but was rejected in the wake of The Dalek Invasion of Earth . He resubmitted for season 3 in late 1965 but was rejected by story editor Gerry Davis on January 17, 1966. The story was to be a six-part story set in sixteenth-century Spain. Written by Robert Holmes and submitted to Story editor Donald Tosh on 25 April 1965. This four-part story idea involved the Doctor and his three companions arriving on an uninhabited planet to discover a spacecraft controlled by robots while its human occupants lie in suspended animation waiting for the additional crew members needed to once again operate their crashed ship. The Doctor and his companions are taken captive and trained up by the robots as the replacement crew members, however only three additional crew members are required, so the member of the Doctor's party that proves least useful is to be callously killed off by the human crew. This was Holmes's first story submission for the series and was primarily rejected due to the robots' role being similar to that of the Mechanoids in The Chase from the previous season. Holmes would later resubmit this story idea to producer Peter Bryant on 20 May 1968 which led to the commissioning of what would become The Krotons . Written by John Lucarotti and was planned to be about Leif Eriksson . Story editor Donald Tosh turned down the storyline due to having already recently featured Vikings in The Time Meddler . Lucarotti later penned a short story for issue 184 of Doctor Who Magazine published in 1992, called "Who Discovered America?", which reuses the rejected storyline.Written by David Whitaker as he planned to leave his position as story editor. He submitted The New Armada in late February 1964 for season 2 but was rejected in the wake of The Dalek Invasion of Earth . He resubmitted for season 3 in late 1965 but was rejected by story editor Gerry Davis on January 17, 1966. The story was to be a six-part story set in sixteenth-century Spain. Written by Robert Holmes and submitted to Story editor Donald Tosh on 25 April 1965. This four-part story idea involved the Doctor and his three companions arriving on an uninhabited planet to discover a spacecraft controlled by robots while its human occupants lie in suspended animation waiting for the additional crew members needed to once again operate their crashed ship. The Doctor and his companions are taken captive and trained up by the robots as the replacement crew members, however only three additional crew members are required, so the member of the Doctor's party that proves least useful is to be callously killed off by the human crew. This was Holmes's first story submission for the series and was primarily rejected due to the robots' role being similar to that of the Mechanoids in The Chase from the previous season. Holmes would later resubmit this story idea to producer Peter Bryant on 20 May 1968 which led to the commissioning of what would become The Krotons . Written by John Lucarotti and was planned to be about Leif Eriksson . Story editor Donald Tosh turned down the storyline due to having already recently featured Vikings in The Time Meddler . Lucarotti later penned a short story for issue 184 of Doctor Who Magazine published in 1992, called "Who Discovered America?", which reuses the rejected storyline.Written by Brian Hayles. This storyline was submitted around the time that Hayles had completed The Smugglers in mid-1966. It may have also needed to incorporate the Second Doctor. The story would have concerned a mad scientist who kidnaps humans from points in Earth's history. The scientist would have been revealed to be working for an alien warlord who wishes to study mankind to determine the optimal point in Earth's history to invade. Written by Brian Hayles. Hayles was commissioned to write a storyline for "The Nazis" on 8 March 1966. Shortly thereafter, however, he was engaged to write The Smugglers , which he was told should take a higher priority. "The Nazis" was ultimately abandoned on 15 June 1966, with the sentiment being that the events it portrayed were too close to the present day. Written by David Ellis, not much is known about it. This storyline was submitted by David Ellis as a spy thriller in January 1966 but ultimately rejected by Gerry Davis in April 1966. Written by David Ellis & Malcolm Hulke. The story was submitted to the production office in April 1966, but script editor Gerry Davis rejected it on June 15, 1966, as Davis wanted to avoid airing comedy serials on television in the wake of the poorly received story, The Gunfighters . Written by Brian Hayles. This storyline was submitted around the time that Hayles had completed The Smugglers in mid-1966. It may have also needed to incorporate the Second Doctor. The story would have concerned a mad scientist who kidnaps humans from points in Earth's history. The scientist would have been revealed to be working for an alien warlord who wishes to study mankind to determine the optimal point in Earth's history to invade. Written by Brian Hayles. Hayles was commissioned to write a storyline for "The Nazis" on 8 March 1966. Shortly thereafter, however, he was engaged to write The Smugglers , which he was told should take a higher priority. "The Nazis" was ultimately abandoned on 15 June 1966, with the sentiment being that the events it portrayed were too close to the present day. Written by David Ellis, not much is known about it. This storyline was submitted by David Ellis as a spy thriller in January 1966 but ultimately rejected by Gerry Davis in April 1966. Written by David Ellis & Malcolm Hulke. The story was submitted to the production office in April 1966, but script editor Gerry Davis rejected it on June 15, 1966, as Davis wanted to avoid airing comedy serials on television in the wake of the poorly received story, The Gunfighters . Written by Roger Dixon , this story was submitted on 16 January 1967. The basic story idea had the TARDIS bring the Doctor and his companions to the Nevada Desert, where they discover they have been shrunk to a tenth of an inch in height. To make matters worse, they learn that the local ants have been made super-intelligent by atomic bomb tests and plan to take over the Earth. Written by David Ellis & Malcolm Hulke, this story was submitted on 15 November 1966 and would involve faceless aliens infiltrating department stores as display mannequins. Ellis & Hulke would reuse the faceless aliens for their successful script submission The Faceless Ones . Written by William Emms . Planned as the fourth serial of Series 4, The Imps was a four-part story concerned about a spaceship overrun by Imp -like aliens and aggressive alien vegetation. The script was commissioned on 17 October 1966, and soon had to be rewritten to accommodate a new companion, Jamie . However, due to sickness on the part of Emms, this took so long that further rewrites were needed to explain the loss of Ben and Polly . Its place in the schedule was taken by The Underwater Menace , and on 4 January 1967, the story was dropped. Emms reused elements of the story in Mission to Venus , a Choose Your Own Adventure -style story featuring the Sixth Doctor . Written by Barry Letts , this story outline, submitted around November 1966 to story editor Gerry Davis, would involve a race of beings undergoing a cycle of mutations, akin to that of a butterfly, moving from one form to another via a chrysalis stage. Letts would later, as producer, have writers Bob Baker & Dave Martin use this as the basis of their script The Mutants for Season 9. Written by Roger Dixon, this story was submitted in early 1967. A race of people was wiped out by powerful robots that they created. The robots then become so advanced that they are able to create a new race of people. The robots then fear that these new humans will dominate them, and when the Doctor arrives on their planet, they take this as proof of their fears. Written by Roger Dixon, this storyline was about the TARDIS being dragged beneath the sands of Terunda to encounter people descended from Earth's Neanderthal Man who wish to return to Earth in 2016. These story elements are similar to the story arc of the Silurians , intelligent reptiles that lived on Earth millions of years ago, dwell underground and wish to one day return to the surface. Written by Roger Dixon, this six-part story was submitted on 16 January 1967. The story involved the TARDIS crew arriving on an Earth of the far future where a community of youth depend on the unseen Elders who dwell in the mountains. Written by Roger Dixon, not much is known about it. This story was submitted in early 1967. Written by Barry Letts, this story, submitted around November 1966, was about a sinister organisation operating on Earth under the cover of an amusement park. Letts later partly reused this idea in the radio adventure The Paradise of Death . Written by Roger Dixon, this story was submitted on 16 January 1967. The Doctor and his companions are forced to perpetually enact the King's favourite story without changing any aspect of it. Written by Douglas Camfield & Robert Kitts , the storyline for this six-part story was submitted to the production office on 18 September 1967, although Camfield & fellow BBC worker Kitts had developed the outline in 1965 due to Camfield's dismay at another sub-standard script, and would probably have been directed by Camfield himself. The story saw the Doctor arrive in Normandy just before the D-Day landings. It would feature a plan to stop the Nazis from using a form of matter teleportation. Only a draft script for episode 1 would be written. It went through several rewrites until 1967 when it was finally abandoned due to producer Innes Lloyd moving on and the writers both having other commitments. This story was given individual episode titles even though this practice had stopped with The Savages in 1966. Episode titles were listed as: "The Secret Army", "Chateau of Death", "Lair of the Werewolf", "Friend Or Foe", "Village of the Swastika", and "Crossfire". Four-part adventure serial written by Brian Hayles. The story considered is about the Doctor encountering the evil Hecuba, the relative of the Celestial Toymaker. It was later adapted by Catherine Harvey for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in October 2013. Written by Robert Holmes , this story was pitched on 22 October 1968. The story was set in the 22nd Century and dealt with an outbreak of mutants with ESP powers that disrupt the functions of a spacelane. The plot was reused by Holmes in 1977 as the non- Doctor Who radio serial Aliens in the Mind . [ citation needed ] Written by Paul Wheeler , not much is known about it. This four-part story was commissioned as a scene breakdown on 23 February 1968. It was dropped at a very late stage and replaced by The Space Pirates . Written by Victor Pemberton. Concerning an omniscient octopoid eye in space which drew things toward it. Doctor Who producer Peter Bryant asked Pemberton to develop a new idea shortly after completing Fury from the Deep in late 1967. When Bryant left Doctor Who in early 1969, Pemberton decided not to pursue the story, and it was not formally commissioned. Written by William Emms, the serial was later redrafted in early 1970 as The Vampire Planet and was considered as the finale of season 7, but was soon dropped. Written by Malcolm Hulke, not much is known about it, this six-part story was commissioned on 5 July 1968. The serial was cancelled on 30 December 1968 and its production budget was allocated to The War Games , which Hulke co-wrote with Terrance Dicks, allowing that story to be expanded to 10 episodes. Written by Mervyn Haisman & Henry Lincoln , this storyline was considered around mid-1968. The story would be set in Scotland in Jamie's ancestral home, Castle McCrimmon, where the Doctor's old foe the Great Intelligence plans to use Jamie's body. At the end of the story, Jamie would remain behind as the new laird, ending his travels with the Doctor. By late April 1968, it was clear that Frazer Hines would be leaving the series sometime during Season Six. One candidate for his departure story was Haisman and Lincoln's third Yeti serial, which they were working on around the start of June. Over the summer, however, the writers became embroiled in a dispute over copyright with the BBC regarding the Quarks, robot monsters that appeared in their previous Doctor Who commission, The Dominators . The ensuing acrimony resulted in the abandonment of The Laird of McCrimmon in August 1968. Written by Brian Hayles. The story would have been about the origins of the Ice Warriors . The story was initiated after the transmission of their debut story . This storyline was dropped around May 1968. It was later adapted by John Dorney for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in November 2013. The idea of the Ice Warriors returning to the series inspired Hayles to begin scripting The Seeds of Death . The Prison in Space by Dick Sharples , originally titled The Amazons . The story also had a record of six other working titles during its development. Sharples returned to the idea of a female-dominated planet last attempted with The Hidden Planet . The Doctor and Jamie were to be imprisoned, and Zoe was to start a sexual revolution and then be brainwashed . [ citation needed ] The four-part story was commissioned on 4 June 1968 and was intended to inject humour into the show. [ citation needed ] It was to feature Jamie in drag and end with Jamie deprogramming Zoe by smacking her bottom. The serial was rewritten to accommodate Frazer Hines ' desire to leave by introducing a new companion named Nik, and again when he later decided to stay. Scripts for the first two episodes were delivered on 27 August 1968. The production team became unhappy with the serial, and when Sharples refused to perform further rewrites, the serial was dropped. The story was replaced by The Krotons . It was later adapted as Prison in Space by Simon Guerrier for Big Finish's The Lost Stories series in December 2010. In 2011, an illustrated scriptbook was released by Nothing at the End of the Lane . Written by Donald Tosh . Beginning life as The Rosacrutians , this story came about after Tosh contacted the production staff in early 1968 to see if they would be interested in him pitching a script. Initial discussion saw the story begin as a story featuring Jamie and Victoria , but by the time Tosh delivered the first materials for the story Patrick Troughton had already decided to depart the series. At the point it was turned down by the production team Tosh had completed a script for the first episode and notes for the subsequent three episodes. Tosh completed a full storyline for Doctor Who Magazine (DWM) in 1994. Set on an Earth Space station it deals with a conflict between the staff of the station and the Rosemariners, a group who plan to hold the staff hostage in return for Earth supplying them with sophisticated weapons. It was later adapted by Tosh for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in September 2012. Written by Derrick Sherwin , not much is known about it, apart from two things (according to The War Games ' DVD information subtitles): it was going to be a studio-bound adventure and was to have ended with the exiled Doctor and Zoe stranded on Earth.Written by Roger Dixon , this story was submitted on 16 January 1967. The basic story idea had the TARDIS bring the Doctor and his companions to the Nevada Desert, where they discover they have been shrunk to a tenth of an inch in height. To make matters worse, they learn that the local ants have been made super-intelligent by atomic bomb tests and plan to take over the Earth. Written by David Ellis & Malcolm Hulke, this story was submitted on 15 November 1966 and would involve faceless aliens infiltrating department stores as display mannequins. Ellis & Hulke would reuse the faceless aliens for their successful script submission The Faceless Ones . Written by William Emms . Planned as the fourth serial of Series 4, The Imps was a four-part story concerned about a spaceship overrun by Imp -like aliens and aggressive alien vegetation. The script was commissioned on 17 October 1966, and soon had to be rewritten to accommodate a new companion, Jamie . However, due to sickness on the part of Emms, this took so long that further rewrites were needed to explain the loss of Ben and Polly . Its place in the schedule was taken by The Underwater Menace , and on 4 January 1967, the story was dropped. Emms reused elements of the story in Mission to Venus , a Choose Your Own Adventure -style story featuring the Sixth Doctor . Written by Barry Letts , this story outline, submitted around November 1966 to story editor Gerry Davis, would involve a race of beings undergoing a cycle of mutations, akin to that of a butterfly, moving from one form to another via a chrysalis stage. Letts would later, as producer, have writers Bob Baker & Dave Martin use this as the basis of their script The Mutants for Season 9. Written by Roger Dixon, this story was submitted in early 1967. A race of people was wiped out by powerful robots that they created. The robots then become so advanced that they are able to create a new race of people. The robots then fear that these new humans will dominate them, and when the Doctor arrives on their planet, they take this as proof of their fears. Written by Roger Dixon, this storyline was about the TARDIS being dragged beneath the sands of Terunda to encounter people descended from Earth's Neanderthal Man who wish to return to Earth in 2016. These story elements are similar to the story arc of the Silurians , intelligent reptiles that lived on Earth millions of years ago, dwell underground and wish to one day return to the surface. Written by Roger Dixon, this six-part story was submitted on 16 January 1967. The story involved the TARDIS crew arriving on an Earth of the far future where a community of youth depend on the unseen Elders who dwell in the mountains. Written by Roger Dixon, not much is known about it. This story was submitted in early 1967. Written by Barry Letts, this story, submitted around November 1966, was about a sinister organisation operating on Earth under the cover of an amusement park. Letts later partly reused this idea in the radio adventure The Paradise of Death .Written by Roger Dixon , this story was submitted on 16 January 1967. The basic story idea had the TARDIS bring the Doctor and his companions to the Nevada Desert, where they discover they have been shrunk to a tenth of an inch in height. To make matters worse, they learn that the local ants have been made super-intelligent by atomic bomb tests and plan to take over the Earth. Written by David Ellis & Malcolm Hulke, this story was submitted on 15 November 1966 and would involve faceless aliens infiltrating department stores as display mannequins. Ellis & Hulke would reuse the faceless aliens for their successful script submission The Faceless Ones . Written by William Emms . Planned as the fourth serial of Series 4, The Imps was a four-part story concerned about a spaceship overrun by Imp -like aliens and aggressive alien vegetation. The script was commissioned on 17 October 1966, and soon had to be rewritten to accommodate a new companion, Jamie . However, due to sickness on the part of Emms, this took so long that further rewrites were needed to explain the loss of Ben and Polly . Its place in the schedule was taken by The Underwater Menace , and on 4 January 1967, the story was dropped. Emms reused elements of the story in Mission to Venus , a Choose Your Own Adventure -style story featuring the Sixth Doctor .Written by Barry Letts , this story outline, submitted around November 1966 to story editor Gerry Davis, would involve a race of beings undergoing a cycle of mutations, akin to that of a butterfly, moving from one form to another via a chrysalis stage. Letts would later, as producer, have writers Bob Baker & Dave Martin use this as the basis of their script The Mutants for Season 9.Written by Roger Dixon, this story was submitted in early 1967. A race of people was wiped out by powerful robots that they created. The robots then become so advanced that they are able to create a new race of people. The robots then fear that these new humans will dominate them, and when the Doctor arrives on their planet, they take this as proof of their fears.Written by Roger Dixon, this storyline was about the TARDIS being dragged beneath the sands of Terunda to encounter people descended from Earth's Neanderthal Man who wish to return to Earth in 2016. These story elements are similar to the story arc of the Silurians , intelligent reptiles that lived on Earth millions of years ago, dwell underground and wish to one day return to the surface.Written by Roger Dixon, this six-part story was submitted on 16 January 1967. The story involved the TARDIS crew arriving on an Earth of the far future where a community of youth depend on the unseen Elders who dwell in the mountains. Written by Roger Dixon, not much is known about it. This story was submitted in early 1967. Written by Barry Letts, this story, submitted around November 1966, was about a sinister organisation operating on Earth under the cover of an amusement park. Letts later partly reused this idea in the radio adventure The Paradise of Death .Written by Roger Dixon, this story was submitted on 16 January 1967. The Doctor and his companions are forced to perpetually enact the King's favourite story without changing any aspect of it. Written by Douglas Camfield & Robert Kitts , the storyline for this six-part story was submitted to the production office on 18 September 1967, although Camfield & fellow BBC worker Kitts had developed the outline in 1965 due to Camfield's dismay at another sub-standard script, and would probably have been directed by Camfield himself. The story saw the Doctor arrive in Normandy just before the D-Day landings. It would feature a plan to stop the Nazis from using a form of matter teleportation. Only a draft script for episode 1 would be written. It went through several rewrites until 1967 when it was finally abandoned due to producer Innes Lloyd moving on and the writers both having other commitments. This story was given individual episode titles even though this practice had stopped with The Savages in 1966. Episode titles were listed as: "The Secret Army", "Chateau of Death", "Lair of the Werewolf", "Friend Or Foe", "Village of the Swastika", and "Crossfire". Four-part adventure serial written by Brian Hayles. The story considered is about the Doctor encountering the evil Hecuba, the relative of the Celestial Toymaker. It was later adapted by Catherine Harvey for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in October 2013.Written by Roger Dixon, this story was submitted on 16 January 1967. The Doctor and his companions are forced to perpetually enact the King's favourite story without changing any aspect of it. Written by Douglas Camfield & Robert Kitts , the storyline for this six-part story was submitted to the production office on 18 September 1967, although Camfield & fellow BBC worker Kitts had developed the outline in 1965 due to Camfield's dismay at another sub-standard script, and would probably have been directed by Camfield himself. The story saw the Doctor arrive in Normandy just before the D-Day landings. It would feature a plan to stop the Nazis from using a form of matter teleportation. Only a draft script for episode 1 would be written. It went through several rewrites until 1967 when it was finally abandoned due to producer Innes Lloyd moving on and the writers both having other commitments. This story was given individual episode titles even though this practice had stopped with The Savages in 1966. Episode titles were listed as: "The Secret Army", "Chateau of Death", "Lair of the Werewolf", "Friend Or Foe", "Village of the Swastika", and "Crossfire".Four-part adventure serial written by Brian Hayles. The story considered is about the Doctor encountering the evil Hecuba, the relative of the Celestial Toymaker. It was later adapted by Catherine Harvey for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in October 2013.Written by Robert Holmes , this story was pitched on 22 October 1968. The story was set in the 22nd Century and dealt with an outbreak of mutants with ESP powers that disrupt the functions of a spacelane. The plot was reused by Holmes in 1977 as the non- Doctor Who radio serial Aliens in the Mind . [ citation needed ] Written by Paul Wheeler , not much is known about it. This four-part story was commissioned as a scene breakdown on 23 February 1968. It was dropped at a very late stage and replaced by The Space Pirates . Written by Victor Pemberton. Concerning an omniscient octopoid eye in space which drew things toward it. Doctor Who producer Peter Bryant asked Pemberton to develop a new idea shortly after completing Fury from the Deep in late 1967. When Bryant left Doctor Who in early 1969, Pemberton decided not to pursue the story, and it was not formally commissioned. Written by William Emms, the serial was later redrafted in early 1970 as The Vampire Planet and was considered as the finale of season 7, but was soon dropped. Written by Malcolm Hulke, not much is known about it, this six-part story was commissioned on 5 July 1968. The serial was cancelled on 30 December 1968 and its production budget was allocated to The War Games , which Hulke co-wrote with Terrance Dicks, allowing that story to be expanded to 10 episodes. Written by Mervyn Haisman & Henry Lincoln , this storyline was considered around mid-1968. The story would be set in Scotland in Jamie's ancestral home, Castle McCrimmon, where the Doctor's old foe the Great Intelligence plans to use Jamie's body. At the end of the story, Jamie would remain behind as the new laird, ending his travels with the Doctor. By late April 1968, it was clear that Frazer Hines would be leaving the series sometime during Season Six. One candidate for his departure story was Haisman and Lincoln's third Yeti serial, which they were working on around the start of June. Over the summer, however, the writers became embroiled in a dispute over copyright with the BBC regarding the Quarks, robot monsters that appeared in their previous Doctor Who commission, The Dominators . The ensuing acrimony resulted in the abandonment of The Laird of McCrimmon in August 1968. Written by Brian Hayles. The story would have been about the origins of the Ice Warriors . The story was initiated after the transmission of their debut story . This storyline was dropped around May 1968. It was later adapted by John Dorney for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in November 2013. The idea of the Ice Warriors returning to the series inspired Hayles to begin scripting The Seeds of Death . The Prison in Space by Dick Sharples , originally titled The Amazons . The story also had a record of six other working titles during its development. Sharples returned to the idea of a female-dominated planet last attempted with The Hidden Planet . The Doctor and Jamie were to be imprisoned, and Zoe was to start a sexual revolution and then be brainwashed . [ citation needed ] The four-part story was commissioned on 4 June 1968 and was intended to inject humour into the show. [ citation needed ] It was to feature Jamie in drag and end with Jamie deprogramming Zoe by smacking her bottom. The serial was rewritten to accommodate Frazer Hines ' desire to leave by introducing a new companion named Nik, and again when he later decided to stay. Scripts for the first two episodes were delivered on 27 August 1968. The production team became unhappy with the serial, and when Sharples refused to perform further rewrites, the serial was dropped. The story was replaced by The Krotons . It was later adapted as Prison in Space by Simon Guerrier for Big Finish's The Lost Stories series in December 2010. In 2011, an illustrated scriptbook was released by Nothing at the End of the Lane . Written by Donald Tosh . Beginning life as The Rosacrutians , this story came about after Tosh contacted the production staff in early 1968 to see if they would be interested in him pitching a script. Initial discussion saw the story begin as a story featuring Jamie and Victoria , but by the time Tosh delivered the first materials for the story Patrick Troughton had already decided to depart the series. At the point it was turned down by the production team Tosh had completed a script for the first episode and notes for the subsequent three episodes. Tosh completed a full storyline for Doctor Who Magazine (DWM) in 1994. Set on an Earth Space station it deals with a conflict between the staff of the station and the Rosemariners, a group who plan to hold the staff hostage in return for Earth supplying them with sophisticated weapons. It was later adapted by Tosh for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in September 2012. Written by Derrick Sherwin , not much is known about it, apart from two things (according to The War Games ' DVD information subtitles): it was going to be a studio-bound adventure and was to have ended with the exiled Doctor and Zoe stranded on Earth.Written by Robert Holmes , this story was pitched on 22 October 1968. The story was set in the 22nd Century and dealt with an outbreak of mutants with ESP powers that disrupt the functions of a spacelane. The plot was reused by Holmes in 1977 as the non- Doctor Who radio serial Aliens in the Mind . [ citation needed ]Written by Paul Wheeler , not much is known about it. This four-part story was commissioned as a scene breakdown on 23 February 1968. It was dropped at a very late stage and replaced by The Space Pirates .Written by Victor Pemberton. Concerning an omniscient octopoid eye in space which drew things toward it. Doctor Who producer Peter Bryant asked Pemberton to develop a new idea shortly after completing Fury from the Deep in late 1967. When Bryant left Doctor Who in early 1969, Pemberton decided not to pursue the story, and it was not formally commissioned.Written by William Emms, the serial was later redrafted in early 1970 as The Vampire Planet and was considered as the finale of season 7, but was soon dropped. Written by Malcolm Hulke, not much is known about it, this six-part story was commissioned on 5 July 1968. The serial was cancelled on 30 December 1968 and its production budget was allocated to The War Games , which Hulke co-wrote with Terrance Dicks, allowing that story to be expanded to 10 episodes. Written by Mervyn Haisman & Henry Lincoln , this storyline was considered around mid-1968. The story would be set in Scotland in Jamie's ancestral home, Castle McCrimmon, where the Doctor's old foe the Great Intelligence plans to use Jamie's body. At the end of the story, Jamie would remain behind as the new laird, ending his travels with the Doctor. By late April 1968, it was clear that Frazer Hines would be leaving the series sometime during Season Six. One candidate for his departure story was Haisman and Lincoln's third Yeti serial, which they were working on around the start of June. Over the summer, however, the writers became embroiled in a dispute over copyright with the BBC regarding the Quarks, robot monsters that appeared in their previous Doctor Who commission, The Dominators . The ensuing acrimony resulted in the abandonment of The Laird of McCrimmon in August 1968.Written by Brian Hayles. The story would have been about the origins of the Ice Warriors . The story was initiated after the transmission of their debut story . This storyline was dropped around May 1968. It was later adapted by John Dorney for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in November 2013. The idea of the Ice Warriors returning to the series inspired Hayles to begin scripting The Seeds of Death .The Prison in Space by Dick Sharples , originally titled The Amazons . The story also had a record of six other working titles during its development. Sharples returned to the idea of a female-dominated planet last attempted with The Hidden Planet . The Doctor and Jamie were to be imprisoned, and Zoe was to start a sexual revolution and then be brainwashed . [ citation needed ] The four-part story was commissioned on 4 June 1968 and was intended to inject humour into the show. [ citation needed ] It was to feature Jamie in drag and end with Jamie deprogramming Zoe by smacking her bottom. The serial was rewritten to accommodate Frazer Hines ' desire to leave by introducing a new companion named Nik, and again when he later decided to stay. Scripts for the first two episodes were delivered on 27 August 1968. The production team became unhappy with the serial, and when Sharples refused to perform further rewrites, the serial was dropped. The story was replaced by The Krotons . It was later adapted as Prison in Space by Simon Guerrier for Big Finish's The Lost Stories series in December 2010. In 2011, an illustrated scriptbook was released by Nothing at the End of the Lane .Written by Donald Tosh . Beginning life as The Rosacrutians , this story came about after Tosh contacted the production staff in early 1968 to see if they would be interested in him pitching a script. Initial discussion saw the story begin as a story featuring Jamie and Victoria , but by the time Tosh delivered the first materials for the story Patrick Troughton had already decided to depart the series. At the point it was turned down by the production team Tosh had completed a script for the first episode and notes for the subsequent three episodes. Tosh completed a full storyline for Doctor Who Magazine (DWM) in 1994. Set on an Earth Space station it deals with a conflict between the staff of the station and the Rosemariners, a group who plan to hold the staff hostage in return for Earth supplying them with sophisticated weapons. It was later adapted by Tosh for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in September 2012.Written by Derrick Sherwin , not much is known about it, apart from two things (according to The War Games ' DVD information subtitles): it was going to be a studio-bound adventure and was to have ended with the exiled Doctor and Zoe stranded on Earth.Written by Brian Hayles. This story would have focused on a faulty communications satellite which causes the release of robotic "sensorspheres" which induce amnesia on their victims. The incident would have almost ignited World War III. Written by Brian Wright. This story would have seen the Doctor discovering a community of artificially made humans. The storyline was submitted on 9 May 1969 and was commissioned by script editor Terrance Dicks. The story was scheduled to be the finale to Season 7 but due to Wright taking an academic writing post in Bristol, he was unable to write it so the story was abandoned. Written by Charlotte & Dennis Plimmer , this seven-part story was submitted to the production office on 10 November 1969. It was seriously considered as the final story of Season 7 after The Mists of Madness was cancelled, but a pay dispute with the writers saw the story being dropped. The story was replaced by Inferno . Written by Jon Pertwee & Reed De Rouen and also known as The Brain Drain and The Labyrinth , this seven-part story was submitted to the production team in the summer of 1970. In the proposed storyline the Doctor poses as a Cambridge don to investigate a series of disappearances. He is then also kidnapped and taken to a civilization under Antarctica . Written by Douglas Camfield, this story involved a hidden Amazon city and was submitted in late 1970. Written by Martin Worth , this story would involve plant life trying to take over the Earth. The season 8 opener, Terror of the Autons , featured the Master using plastic flowers to take over the Earth. Written by Brian Hayles, this was submitted to the production office during the spring of 1971. The story involved an Ice Warrior 's plan to invade the Earth using a 'Z' beam which freezes things it strikes to absolute zero . When used on humans, it turns them into zombie -like slaves. Script editor Dicks rejected the storyline, but the inclusion of the Ice Warriors inspired the development of The Curse of Peladon . The Daleks in London , commissioned on 25 May 1971, was to be the final story of Season 9 in 1972, re-introducing the Daleks after a five-year absence. Little is known about the exact storyline of the six-part Robert Sloman serial, other than the fact that it would have had some similarities to The Dalek Invasion of Earth , except set in contemporary London . This similarity caused the production team some concern, [ citation needed ] and producer Barry Letts eventually decided that he would rather start the season with a Dalek adventure instead of ending it with one. [ citation needed ] An unrelated submission by Louis Marks was therefore rewritten into Day of the Daleks , and The Time Monster was then written and commissioned to replace the original series finale. Written by Bill Strutton , this four-part story was submitted to the production office on 25 September 1970 after Strutton had gained an interest in writing for the series again after scripting The Web Planet five years earlier. Despite Strutton working heavily on the project, it was ultimately discarded. It was later adapted by Simon Guerrier as a six-part story for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in December 2013. Written by Brian Hayles, this story was submitted during the spring of 1971. This story would have seen an alien shape-shifting entity attacking a space station and attempting to merge itself with the Doctor, which unwittingly causes its own destruction. Hayles recycled elements from it, particularly its Agatha Christie mystery style in his script for The Curse of Peladon . Written by Godfrey Harrison , this four-part story was commissioned by Letts on 19 July 1971. Feeling it was more fantastical than appropriate for Doctor Who , Letts dropped the story on 25 February 1972. Written by Robert Holmes, this four-part story was commissioned on 16 January 1973. Letts and Dicks did not like the storyline and it was replaced by The Time Warrior . The Third Doctor's final story was to be The Final Game by Robert Sloman and Barry Letts as an uncredited co-writer which was commissioned on 15 February 1973. The story was to end with the reveal that the Master and the Doctor were brothers or two different, opposing aspects of the same being (the Ego and the Id), and the Master dying in a manner that suggested that he sacrificed himself to save the Doctor's life. The actor who played the Master, Roger Delgado , was killed in a car accident in Turkey on 18 June 1973, forcing the scrapping of the story. The story was immediately replaced by Planet of the Spiders . The story's plot was later used for both fan-made and official media, in the form of a fan-made audio drama, and for the Tenth Doctor special, " The End of Time ". However, "The End of Time" did alter the plot removing the revelation of the Doctor and the Master being siblings and altering the circumstances of the Masters sacrifice. Written by Brian Hayles. This story would have focused on a faulty communications satellite which causes the release of robotic "sensorspheres" which induce amnesia on their victims. The incident would have almost ignited World War III. Written by Brian Wright. This story would have seen the Doctor discovering a community of artificially made humans. The storyline was submitted on 9 May 1969 and was commissioned by script editor Terrance Dicks. The story was scheduled to be the finale to Season 7 but due to Wright taking an academic writing post in Bristol, he was unable to write it so the story was abandoned. Written by Charlotte & Dennis Plimmer , this seven-part story was submitted to the production office on 10 November 1969. It was seriously considered as the final story of Season 7 after The Mists of Madness was cancelled, but a pay dispute with the writers saw the story being dropped. The story was replaced by Inferno .Written by Brian Hayles. This story would have focused on a faulty communications satellite which causes the release of robotic "sensorspheres" which induce amnesia on their victims. The incident would have almost ignited World War III.Written by Brian Wright. This story would have seen the Doctor discovering a community of artificially made humans. The storyline was submitted on 9 May 1969 and was commissioned by script editor Terrance Dicks. The story was scheduled to be the finale to Season 7 but due to Wright taking an academic writing post in Bristol, he was unable to write it so the story was abandoned.Written by Charlotte & Dennis Plimmer , this seven-part story was submitted to the production office on 10 November 1969. It was seriously considered as the final story of Season 7 after The Mists of Madness was cancelled, but a pay dispute with the writers saw the story being dropped. The story was replaced by Inferno .Written by Jon Pertwee & Reed De Rouen and also known as The Brain Drain and The Labyrinth , this seven-part story was submitted to the production team in the summer of 1970. In the proposed storyline the Doctor poses as a Cambridge don to investigate a series of disappearances. He is then also kidnapped and taken to a civilization under Antarctica . Written by Douglas Camfield, this story involved a hidden Amazon city and was submitted in late 1970. Written by Martin Worth , this story would involve plant life trying to take over the Earth. The season 8 opener, Terror of the Autons , featured the Master using plastic flowers to take over the Earth.Written by Jon Pertwee & Reed De Rouen and also known as The Brain Drain and The Labyrinth , this seven-part story was submitted to the production team in the summer of 1970. In the proposed storyline the Doctor poses as a Cambridge don to investigate a series of disappearances. He is then also kidnapped and taken to a civilization under Antarctica .Written by Douglas Camfield, this story involved a hidden Amazon city and was submitted in late 1970.Written by Martin Worth , this story would involve plant life trying to take over the Earth. The season 8 opener, Terror of the Autons , featured the Master using plastic flowers to take over the Earth.Written by Brian Hayles, this was submitted to the production office during the spring of 1971. The story involved an Ice Warrior 's plan to invade the Earth using a 'Z' beam which freezes things it strikes to absolute zero . When used on humans, it turns them into zombie -like slaves. Script editor Dicks rejected the storyline, but the inclusion of the Ice Warriors inspired the development of The Curse of Peladon . The Daleks in London , commissioned on 25 May 1971, was to be the final story of Season 9 in 1972, re-introducing the Daleks after a five-year absence. Little is known about the exact storyline of the six-part Robert Sloman serial, other than the fact that it would have had some similarities to The Dalek Invasion of Earth , except set in contemporary London . This similarity caused the production team some concern, [ citation needed ] and producer Barry Letts eventually decided that he would rather start the season with a Dalek adventure instead of ending it with one. [ citation needed ] An unrelated submission by Louis Marks was therefore rewritten into Day of the Daleks , and The Time Monster was then written and commissioned to replace the original series finale. Written by Bill Strutton , this four-part story was submitted to the production office on 25 September 1970 after Strutton had gained an interest in writing for the series again after scripting The Web Planet five years earlier. Despite Strutton working heavily on the project, it was ultimately discarded. It was later adapted by Simon Guerrier as a six-part story for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in December 2013. Written by Brian Hayles, this story was submitted during the spring of 1971. This story would have seen an alien shape-shifting entity attacking a space station and attempting to merge itself with the Doctor, which unwittingly causes its own destruction. Hayles recycled elements from it, particularly its Agatha Christie mystery style in his script for The Curse of Peladon .Written by Brian Hayles, this was submitted to the production office during the spring of 1971. The story involved an Ice Warrior 's plan to invade the Earth using a 'Z' beam which freezes things it strikes to absolute zero . When used on humans, it turns them into zombie -like slaves. Script editor Dicks rejected the storyline, but the inclusion of the Ice Warriors inspired the development of The Curse of Peladon .The Daleks in London , commissioned on 25 May 1971, was to be the final story of Season 9 in 1972, re-introducing the Daleks after a five-year absence. Little is known about the exact storyline of the six-part Robert Sloman serial, other than the fact that it would have had some similarities to The Dalek Invasion of Earth , except set in contemporary London . This similarity caused the production team some concern, [ citation needed ] and producer Barry Letts eventually decided that he would rather start the season with a Dalek adventure instead of ending it with one. [ citation needed ] An unrelated submission by Louis Marks was therefore rewritten into Day of the Daleks , and The Time Monster was then written and commissioned to replace the original series finale.Written by Bill Strutton , this four-part story was submitted to the production office on 25 September 1970 after Strutton had gained an interest in writing for the series again after scripting The Web Planet five years earlier. Despite Strutton working heavily on the project, it was ultimately discarded. It was later adapted by Simon Guerrier as a six-part story for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in December 2013.Written by Brian Hayles, this story was submitted during the spring of 1971. This story would have seen an alien shape-shifting entity attacking a space station and attempting to merge itself with the Doctor, which unwittingly causes its own destruction. Hayles recycled elements from it, particularly its Agatha Christie mystery style in his script for The Curse of Peladon .Written by Godfrey Harrison , this four-part story was commissioned by Letts on 19 July 1971. Feeling it was more fantastical than appropriate for Doctor Who , Letts dropped the story on 25 February 1972.Written by Godfrey Harrison , this four-part story was commissioned by Letts on 19 July 1971. Feeling it was more fantastical than appropriate for Doctor Who , Letts dropped the story on 25 February 1972.Written by Robert Holmes, this four-part story was commissioned on 16 January 1973. Letts and Dicks did not like the storyline and it was replaced by The Time Warrior . The Third Doctor's final story was to be The Final Game by Robert Sloman and Barry Letts as an uncredited co-writer which was commissioned on 15 February 1973. The story was to end with the reveal that the Master and the Doctor were brothers or two different, opposing aspects of the same being (the Ego and the Id), and the Master dying in a manner that suggested that he sacrificed himself to save the Doctor's life. The actor who played the Master, Roger Delgado , was killed in a car accident in Turkey on 18 June 1973, forcing the scrapping of the story. The story was immediately replaced by Planet of the Spiders . The story's plot was later used for both fan-made and official media, in the form of a fan-made audio drama, and for the Tenth Doctor special, " The End of Time ". However, "The End of Time" did alter the plot removing the revelation of the Doctor and the Master being siblings and altering the circumstances of the Masters sacrifice. Written by Robert Holmes, this four-part story was commissioned on 16 January 1973. Letts and Dicks did not like the storyline and it was replaced by The Time Warrior .The Third Doctor's final story was to be The Final Game by Robert Sloman and Barry Letts as an uncredited co-writer which was commissioned on 15 February 1973. The story was to end with the reveal that the Master and the Doctor were brothers or two different, opposing aspects of the same being (the Ego and the Id), and the Master dying in a manner that suggested that he sacrificed himself to save the Doctor's life. The actor who played the Master, Roger Delgado , was killed in a car accident in Turkey on 18 June 1973, forcing the scrapping of the story. The story was immediately replaced by Planet of the Spiders . The story's plot was later used for both fan-made and official media, in the form of a fan-made audio drama, and for the Tenth Doctor special, " The End of Time ". However, "The End of Time" did alter the plot removing the revelation of the Doctor and the Master being siblings and altering the circumstances of the Masters sacrifice. Written by Christopher Langley , this storyline for a four-part story was submitted to the production office on 30 December 1973. The story involves the Doctor and Sarah arriving at a space station in the far future, a period when mankind no longer lives on Earth. It was subsequently commissioned for scripts on 24 January 1974 and planned as the second story of Season 12. It was dropped on 17 June 1974 and replaced by Lucarotti's The Ark in Space . Written by John Lucarotti , this script came about after Space Station was rejected and Lucarotti was suggested by Terrance Dicks as a replacement writer on the strength of his Moonbase 3 script. The story would use the same space station setting as Space Station , the setting being dictated by the production office as a means of saving money by having it share sets with Revenge of the Cybermen . Commissioned in June 1974, Lucarotti devised the concept of the ark, a space station that housed a huge plot of countryside the size of Kent – a sort of Home Counties in space. His six-part story concerned the invasion of the ark by a species called the Delc, a spore-like fungus with separate heads and bodies. The final episode was to have the Doctor defeating the Delc leader by hitting it out into space with a golf club, and indeed Lucarotti planned to give each episode a frivolous title, citing Puffball as the title of an early episode and Golfball as the title of the final episode. When the draft scripts arrived from his home in Corsica, Holmes and Hinchcliffe felt they were far too ambitious and complicated to realise on the programme's budget and Lucarotti had over-conceptualised the story, which meant that it was inappropriate for the viewers. It was replaced by a different story with the same title by Robert Holmes, which shared only the setting with the previous version. Big Finish Productions has announced an audio adaptation of this story, written by Jonathan Morris for their Lost Stories range for release in March 2023. This adaptation will maintain the original episode titles, as written by Lucarotti. Written by Douglas Adams , this story was submitted around the middle of 1974. It involved a spaceship leaving Earth and filled with the affluent but "useless" members of society. The story was rejected due to being too similar to The Ark in Space , which was also being developed around that time. Adams later adapted the material for the "B Ark" storyline of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy . Written by Terry Nation. It was rejected for being too similar to his previous Dalek stories. It was replaced with Genesis of the Daleks . Big Finish Productions has announced an audio adaptation of the script from the first episode of this story with additional material for the rest of the story adapted into an audiobook by Simon Guerrier. It was released in May 2023 as Doctor Who: Daleks! Genesis of Terror . Written by Gerry Davis . This story was submitted to the production office, sometime in 1974 and commissioned soon after. The story was reworked by script editor Robert Holmes into Revenge of the Cybermen after the production crew had reservations about it, though Davis still received the full credit. It was later adapted by John Dorney for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in March 2021. Written by Eric Pringle . Pringle was commissioned on 11 August 1975 by producer Philip Hinchcliffe to write the first two episodes of the four-part story. Pringle submitted the final two episodes without commission on 10 March 1976, but the story was cancelled on 23 June 1976. Written by Brian Hayles, this story was submitted to the production office on 15 May 1975. It would involve the Doctor and Sarah in a chase between the hunter Torr and his quarry Lakdem. Towards the end of the adventure, it is revealed that Torr works for the Celestial Toymaker. Written by Marc Platt , this unsolicited story was submitted to script editor Robert Holmes in late 1975 and dealt with a sentient star using the Time Lord libraries as a means of invading Gallifrey . Holmes felt that it lacked action and drama and needed a proper antagonist. Even so, Robert Holmes thought that Fires of the Starmind had more potential than most of the other amateur submissions and he encouraged Marc Platt to continue writing. Fires of the Starmind was rejected on 15 December 1975. Written by Terrance Dicks, this six-part story was submitted at the start of November 1974 and was to have dealt with vampires . The storyline was commissioned on 11 December 1974 but was abandoned on 13 May 1975. Dicks later reused some of the material for his 1977 script The Vampire Mutations , the story that eventually evolved further and became State of Decay in 1980. Written by David Wiltshire , this was an unsolicited script for a six-part story. The story revolves around a nuclear submarine diving into the 'Fault of Menday' and discovering a subterranean world. The 'sun' for this world is dying and the underground dwellers, Suranians led by Zorr, are planning to invade the surface world. Wiltshire was never commissioned to develop the storyline further. Written by Dennis Spooner, this story centers around a planet where drugs in the food and water are used to control the populace. Punishment would be meted out by temporary withdrawal from the drugs which would cause people to see monsters all around them. The storyline for the four-part story was commissioned on 31 January 1975 and the full scripts on 4 February 1975. Written by Barry Letts, the storyline for this four-part story was commissioned on 21 January 1975. It was based on an audition piece for the role of Sarah Jane Smith that Letts had written in 1973 and was initially known as Time Lord Story . Scripts were requested, but Hinchcliffe was unhappy with the draft of the first part and ultimately the story was dropped. Written by Lewis Greifer , this story was commissioned in July 1974. The story would involve museum keepers being chased out of the British Museum by a mummy. It would turn out that a group was scaring people away to gain access to a sarcophagus that would contain wild rice from thousands of years ago. The group wanted to use the rice to seed Mars and make a fortune. It was replaced by Robert Holmes' Pyramids of Mars but under the pen name, Stephen Harris, when Griefer fell ill and the scripts came in late and were not what the production team wanted. Written by Terry Nation, this story was commissioned for a storyline on 13 February 1975. It was replaced by The Android Invasion . Written by Chris Boucher , this story was an unsolicited submission sent to the production office in early 1975. Although only fifteen minutes worth of material was considered unsuitable for Doctor Who , script editor Robert Holmes brought in Chris Boucher to discuss ideas with himself and producer Philip Hinchcliffe. This led to unmade scripts for The Dreamers of Phados and The Mentor Conspiracy , before finally being commissioned as The Face of Evil . Written by Basil Dawson, this four-part story involves murders in Victorian London . Dawson, a veteran screenwriter, was approached by script editor Robert Holmes to develop a story that would introduce a new companion to replace Sarah Jane Smith following her departure. The new character was to be a Cockney girl whom the Doctor would take under his wing and educate, in the manner of Eliza Doolittle in the George Bernard Shaw play Pygmalion . This story was planned to be the fourth story of Season 14. The Gaslight Murders was quickly abandoned, however. Its spot in the schedule was ultimately filled by The Face of Evil with the Eliza Doolittle character being replaced with Leela , while Holmes reused the general framework in The Talons of Weng-Chiang . Written by Robert Banks Stewart as a six-part story, the story was commissioned in May 1976. This story was replaced by The Talons of Weng-Chiang , which used the same basic premise of a villain traveling back in time, when Stewart took up the post of script editor on the series Armchair Thriller and was unable to deliver the scripts, forcing Robert Holmes to step in to rework the story. It was later adapted by John Dorney for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in January 2012. Written by Chris Boucher and submitted at some point after The Silent Scream had been rejected in early 1975. It was based on a premise that Hinchcliffe and Holmes wanted to use in which people and machines are controlled by a computer that malfunctions. It was to be set on a spaceship that has been home to several generations of a civilization. Boucher recycled some elements in The Face of Evil . Written by Douglas Camfield, this four-part story was commissioned on 22 January 1976. The story would involve the Doctor and Sarah arriving in North Africa at an isolated French Legion outpost. This has become the battleground for a fight between two alien races, the Skarkel and Khoorians. The story was planned to write out the character of Sarah and would see Sarah killed by one of the aliens. The first script was submitted on 9 February 1976 and removed from the series schedule in April 1976. Camfield would continue to work on the scripts, delivering the final part on 24 September 1976, but the production team was no longer interested in pursuing the story. Written by Chris Boucher, this story was, like The Dreamer of Phados , written to an idea brief from Holmes and Hinchcliffe. It was to be set on a spaceship that has been home to several generations of a civilization. The script was turned down on 30 October 1975. Written by Terrance Dicks and script edited by Robert Holmes, this four-part story was scheduled to be the opening serial of Season 15, featuring the Fourth Doctor and Leela investigating three sinister vampires who malevolently controlled a medieval Earth village and had far grander intentions than first appeared. The serial was ready to be made until the BBC decided that they didn't want Doctor Who producing a story about vampires at the same time that they were doing a dramatisation of Bram Stoker 's Count Dracula starring Louis Jourdan in the title role. The Vampire Mutations was therefore replaced by Horror of Fang Rock , also written by Terrance Dicks, after Robert Holmes told Dicks to write him a new story set on a lighthouse. The Vampire Mutations is a rarity among unmade Doctor Who serials in that its script was later changed, adapted and made into an actual televised serial for Season 18. Season 18's script editor, Christopher H. Bidmead, was looking through old scripts that had never been made for one reason or another and came across The Vampire Mutations , liked the script more than the others and then contacted Dicks. Bidmead and Dicks then worked alongside each other to develop what became the Season 18 serial State of Decay , with their ideas for the script often clashing. Following the successful realisation of the Doctor's home planet of Gallifrey on screen in The Deadly Assassin , producer Graham Williams wanted another Gallifrey story. [ citation needed ] Script editor Anthony Read approached David Weir with whom he had worked before. Weir's script, a six-part story, was planned as the final story of Season 15 and was commissioned on 18 July 1977. Weir's script had elements drawn from Asian cultures , and included a race of cat-people with links to Gallifrey. Scenes included a gladiatorial duel in a stadium filled with cat-people. Read and director Gerald Blake , upon reading the finished script, determined that the story would be impossible to shoot on Doctor Who' s budget and the story was abandoned in mid-August 1977. With only two weeks to spare before filming, Read and Williams quickly co-wrote a replacement script in the form of The Invasion of Time . When asked about Weir's story at a fan convention years later, Williams could not recall its title and made up the name The Killer Cats of Geng Singh , by which title the story became widely known in fan circles. Written by Moris Farhi, this four-part story was officially commissioned by producer Graham Williams on 8 November 1977. The script was not produced and Farhi no longer recalls what it was about; the script itself is lost. It is unclear whether this was considered for either season 15 or season 16. Written by Douglas Adams, this was one of several ideas that Adams proposed to the production office around 1976. Adams had submitted The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy scripts to both BBC Radio and the Doctor Who department. Adams was hired by Doctor Who first but was subsequently hired by BBC Radio as well. The Krikkitmen is believed to be the story he had spent the most time working on, before it was rejected by script editor Robert Holmes, who encouraged Adams to work on The Hitchhiker's Guide instead and continue submitting material for Doctor Who , although for Season 16; this ultimately led to his commission for The Pirate Planet . In 1980, Adams revised The Krikkitmen for use by Paramount Pictures as a potential Doctor Who feature film, although nothing came of this project. Finally, Adams included many of the ideas from The Krikkitmen in his novel Life, the Universe and Everything , the second sequel to his book The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy . A novel adaptation of the Doctor Who version by James Goss was released by BBC Books in January 2018. Written by Robert Holmes, this storyline was considered in the autumn of 1976 when it was assumed Hinchcliffe would still be producing Season 15. It was to have been inspired by Joseph Conrad 's novel Heart of Darkness . The 1995 Doctor Who Magazine Summer Special ran a feature on a supposed lost Season 16 story titled The Lords of Misrule , purported to be by Ted Willis . This was a hoax based on a misreport that Willis - the creator of Dixon of Dock Green - had been commissioned to write for Doctor Who in this season, not Lewis. Written by Ted Lewis , and also known as The Doppelgängers , The search for the fourth segment of the Key to Time takes the Doctor and Romana to Nottingham where they meet Robin Hood and discover that the alleged hero is actually a blackhearted villain. The scripts for the first two episodes of the four-part fourth serial of the season were delivered to the production office on 28 April 1978. Although a third script arrived on 12 May 1978, Lewis turned up inebriated to a meeting with Graham Williams and Anthony Read and the unsuitability of the submitted material meant the story was dropped and replaced by David Fisher 's The Androids of Tara , which deliberately adopted the same swashbuckling genre as Lewis' storyline. Written by Chris Boucher, this idea was submitted shortly after Boucher had completed Image of the Fendahl . The story involved a remote Earth outpost under attack. BBC Head of Drama Ronnie Marsh did not want writers working on both Doctor Who and Blake's 7 at the same time, and the story was consequently dropped. Proposed by Douglas Adams. It concerned the Time Lords mining a planet and using a machine that would sap the aggression out of the natives to make them peaceful. One Time Lord would become trapped in the statue and absorb all the aggression driving him insane. He planned to make the machine dematerialise, reform around Gallifrey and hollow Gallifrey out. Elements from this story were re-used by Adams in his script of The Pirate Planet . Proposed by Bob Baker and Dave Martin. It concerned two planets (Atrios and Zeos) at war over a catastrophic shift in their orbits. The war was being baited by a mysterious force. The Doctor was forced to fashion a Key to Time to temporarily freeze both planets' armies. The Shadow (the mysterious force who was provoking the war) was planning to use the powers of the Key to Time to pit the universe at war against everyone. His own shadow was the sixth segment. The Doctor thwarted the Shadow's plan by unfreezing both planets' armies and giving each the co-ordinates of the Shadow's planet which just so happened to be in between both planets. Many elements of this story were recycled to create The Armageddon Factor . Written by David Fisher, The Gamble With Time was initially set in 1920s Las Vegas , which was later changed by Fisher to Paris and Monte Carlo in 1928, along with a 16th-century Florence timeline as well, and had The Doctor and Romana teaming up with a detective named Pug. Gambling was going to be a big focal point in the story, as well as an ancient alien race called the Sephiroth. The Gamble With Time evolved further into the Season 17 serial City of Death which was written by Douglas Adams and Graham Williams over a weekend at Williams' house, under the pen name of David Agnew. Shada was a six-part serial written by Douglas Adams that was scheduled to conclude Season 17 and be broadcast from 19 January - 23 February 1980. Production was halted during studio recordings due to a strike, with the remaining studio scenes never being recorded, and the serial never transmitted. A reconstruction of the serial using the Fourth Doctor's narration and existing footage was later released on VHS in 1992. The story was later adapted by Big Finish in 2003 as a webcast production featuring Paul McGann 's Eighth Doctor (and later released as an audio story that same year), while Adams himself reused elements from the serial for his first Dirk Gently novel Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency . The story was novelised by Gareth Roberts in 2012, and completed with animation in 2017, with most of the original cast returning to play their original roles. Written by Alistair Beaton & Sarah Dunant , this four-part story was commissioned on 12 December 1978. The scripts were delivered on 5 January 1979 and rejected four days later as unacceptable. For Season 17, John Lloyd , a frequent collaborator with script editor Douglas Adams, adapted material from his unpublished science fiction story GiGax and in October 1978 [ citation needed ] submitted Shylock , a four-part serial written in Adams' light-hearted style. After providing a second draft of the storyline to modify parts of the script to avoid issues such as the rules involving child actors, Lloyd was forced to focus on his commitments as producer of Not the Nine O'Clock News . Williams was still interested enough in the storyline that he made plans to involve writer Allan Prior to work on the scripts. The storyline was commissioned on 7 February 1979 and a script list dated 29 June 1979 links Prior and Lloyd to the project. Lloyd officially agreed to another writer taking on his story on 25 August 1979. In the story, the Doctor is subpoenaed to appear in court when a corporation tries to buy Earth in order to obtain a matter-transmutation device. It was later adapted by Nev Fountain for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in March 2021. Written by Pennant Roberts , this four-part story was commissioned on 10 January 1979 as Dragons of Fear . The adventure would involve the planet Erinella and two men fighting over a princess. The Doctor would become involved in his own timeline by arriving at the wrong time and becoming accused of being a poisoner. Roberts resubmitted the story in the mid-1980s to script editor Eric Saward but nothing came of the submission. Written by Andrew Smith , this story was rejected by Read in August 1978. Written by Allen Drury , the scripts were commissioned on 2 April 1979 for this four-part story. The story was set in the Victorian era and the entire action would take place in and around a vicarage. The vicar has recently died and fake spiritualists are exploiting the widow. The first episode would open with a seance during which the TARDIS would arrive. On 19 September 1979, the story was accepted subject to alterations. Written by Philip Hinchcliffe, this story involved the Doctor and Romana encountering an alien Luron called Godrin who crash-landed in a South American jungle in 1870. Adams wrote to Hinchcliffe on 3 January 1979, explaining that the proposed script would be too costly to produce. It was later adapted as The Valley of Death by Jonathan Morris for Big Finish's The Lost Stories series in January 2012. Written by Douglas Adams, this story would involve the Doctor going into retirement but being constantly called upon to solve various problems. It was considered as the final story of Series 17 until Williams dismissed the idea. It was replaced by Shada . Written by Pat Mills & John Wagner , this story was submitted around the start of 1979. The story would involve a parallel universe in which the Roman Empire never fell. Mills & Wagner subsequently adapted it to become the comic story The Iron Legion for Doctor Who Weekly in late 1979. Written by David Fisher, this story was submitted by Fisher on 7 November 1979. John Nathan-Turner rejected it in favour of developing The Leisure Hive . Written by Jack Gardner, a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 29 March 1980 and the scripts on 11 August 1980. It was still under consideration in April 1981, when Jack Gardner was asked to expand "The Dogs of Darkness" into full scripts for the Fifth Doctor for Season 19. Written by Andrew Stephenson , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 18 March 1980. Written by James Follett , this involved monsters attacking a race of beings who live inside Halley's Comet , unaware that there is anything beyond it they believe that their world is the sum and total of the universe. Into the Comet would have used the companions of Romana and K9. Follett was a novelist who pitched this idea to script editor Douglas Adams circa September 1979 when they met up and discussed the forthcoming return of Halley's Comet. Though the storyline was rejected by Adams, Follett resubmitted Into the Comet to new script editor Christopher H. Bidmead around May 1980, but once again the storyline was not pursued. Written by Nabil Shaban (better known as Sil from the Colin Baker Doctor Who stories Vengeance on Varos and The Trial of a Time Lord ) who was a longtime fan of Doctor Who and had previously suggested himself to replace the late Roger Delgado as the Master. In offering this script to the production office in 1980, Shaban also put himself forward as a potential successor to Tom Baker as the Doctor. Nothing came of Invasion of the Veridians . Nabil Shaban had only written the first episode, it was written around the early 1970s and was very much influenced by the Troughton/Pertwee era. Nabil believes that the only copy has now been lost to time, as he no longer has it. Written by Keith Miles , a story outline for this four-part story was commissioned on 14 March 1980. Written by Malcolm Edwards & Leroy Kettle , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 18 March 1980. Written by David Fisher, this story was discussed with Script Editor Douglas Adams in late 1979, shortly before Adams left Doctor Who. New producer Nathan-Turner was not interested and instead, The Leisure Hive was developed as the season opener. Written by Geoff Lowe , this spec outline arrived at the production office in the summer of 1980. It was passed on to Nathan-Turner on 9 December 1980. Written by Christopher Priest , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 27 February 1980 and the full scripts on 24 March 1981. The story, set on Gallifrey, involved hopping back and forth in time resulting in multiple variants of the TARDIS and a spare Doctor, one of whom was killed. The story was abandoned and replaced with Stephen Gallagher 's Warriors' Gate . Written by John Bennett , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 10 April 1980. Space-Whale was originally pitched by Pat Mills and his writing partner John Wagner in 1980 as a Fourth Doctor adventure. When the production office showed some signs of interest, Wagner left the project, and the script was commissioned as a four-part Fifth Doctor story for a scene breakdown on 7 September 1981 and full scripts on 2 December 1981. The new drafts reduced the humor and the renamed Song of the Space Whale was now planned as the third serial in Season 20 and intended to introduce a new companion, Vislor Turlough . The story concerned a group of people living in the belly of a giant whale in space. The Doctor would find this out while attempting to protect the creature from being slaughtered by a rusting factory ship. The castaways living in the whale, as well as the ship's captain, would be working-class characters, with the former's dialogue being based on that of a working-class Northern Irish family that Mills knew. During the writing, Mills and script editor Eric Saward "fundamentally disagreed" on the character of the captain (Saward wanting a more Star Trek -type figure) and the dialogue for the castaways. Mills has said that "there was a Coronation Street quality to it that Eric felt didn't work in space. He thought the future would be classless, and I didn't." Mills' disagreements with Saward led to the script being delayed until it was too late to serve as Turlough's introductory story. The script was then considered for Season 21 and later Season 22. By this point, the script had been revised as two 45-minute episodes, but although it was still listed in July 1985 as an ongoing script, by November 1985 Nathan-Turner confirmed at a convention that the script had been dropped. The "Space Whale" concept was eventually revised and realised in the 2010 episode The Beast Below . The rejected script was later adapted as The Song of Megaptera by Mills for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in May 2010. Written by John Brosnan who submitted this idea sometime after Bidmead became script editor in January 1980. The story would have involved the Doctor arriving at the BBC Television Centre and meeting Tom Baker . The two would then pair up to combat a threat.Written by Christopher Langley , this storyline for a four-part story was submitted to the production office on 30 December 1973. The story involves the Doctor and Sarah arriving at a space station in the far future, a period when mankind no longer lives on Earth. It was subsequently commissioned for scripts on 24 January 1974 and planned as the second story of Season 12. It was dropped on 17 June 1974 and replaced by Lucarotti's The Ark in Space . Written by John Lucarotti , this script came about after Space Station was rejected and Lucarotti was suggested by Terrance Dicks as a replacement writer on the strength of his Moonbase 3 script. The story would use the same space station setting as Space Station , the setting being dictated by the production office as a means of saving money by having it share sets with Revenge of the Cybermen . Commissioned in June 1974, Lucarotti devised the concept of the ark, a space station that housed a huge plot of countryside the size of Kent – a sort of Home Counties in space. His six-part story concerned the invasion of the ark by a species called the Delc, a spore-like fungus with separate heads and bodies. The final episode was to have the Doctor defeating the Delc leader by hitting it out into space with a golf club, and indeed Lucarotti planned to give each episode a frivolous title, citing Puffball as the title of an early episode and Golfball as the title of the final episode. When the draft scripts arrived from his home in Corsica, Holmes and Hinchcliffe felt they were far too ambitious and complicated to realise on the programme's budget and Lucarotti had over-conceptualised the story, which meant that it was inappropriate for the viewers. It was replaced by a different story with the same title by Robert Holmes, which shared only the setting with the previous version. Big Finish Productions has announced an audio adaptation of this story, written by Jonathan Morris for their Lost Stories range for release in March 2023. This adaptation will maintain the original episode titles, as written by Lucarotti. Written by Douglas Adams , this story was submitted around the middle of 1974. It involved a spaceship leaving Earth and filled with the affluent but "useless" members of society. The story was rejected due to being too similar to The Ark in Space , which was also being developed around that time. Adams later adapted the material for the "B Ark" storyline of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy . Written by Terry Nation. It was rejected for being too similar to his previous Dalek stories. It was replaced with Genesis of the Daleks . Big Finish Productions has announced an audio adaptation of the script from the first episode of this story with additional material for the rest of the story adapted into an audiobook by Simon Guerrier. It was released in May 2023 as Doctor Who: Daleks! Genesis of Terror . Written by Gerry Davis . This story was submitted to the production office, sometime in 1974 and commissioned soon after. The story was reworked by script editor Robert Holmes into Revenge of the Cybermen after the production crew had reservations about it, though Davis still received the full credit. It was later adapted by John Dorney for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in March 2021.Written by Christopher Langley , this storyline for a four-part story was submitted to the production office on 30 December 1973. The story involves the Doctor and Sarah arriving at a space station in the far future, a period when mankind no longer lives on Earth. It was subsequently commissioned for scripts on 24 January 1974 and planned as the second story of Season 12. It was dropped on 17 June 1974 and replaced by Lucarotti's The Ark in Space . Written by John Lucarotti , this script came about after Space Station was rejected and Lucarotti was suggested by Terrance Dicks as a replacement writer on the strength of his Moonbase 3 script. The story would use the same space station setting as Space Station , the setting being dictated by the production office as a means of saving money by having it share sets with Revenge of the Cybermen . Commissioned in June 1974, Lucarotti devised the concept of the ark, a space station that housed a huge plot of countryside the size of Kent – a sort of Home Counties in space. His six-part story concerned the invasion of the ark by a species called the Delc, a spore-like fungus with separate heads and bodies. The final episode was to have the Doctor defeating the Delc leader by hitting it out into space with a golf club, and indeed Lucarotti planned to give each episode a frivolous title, citing Puffball as the title of an early episode and Golfball as the title of the final episode. When the draft scripts arrived from his home in Corsica, Holmes and Hinchcliffe felt they were far too ambitious and complicated to realise on the programme's budget and Lucarotti had over-conceptualised the story, which meant that it was inappropriate for the viewers. It was replaced by a different story with the same title by Robert Holmes, which shared only the setting with the previous version. Big Finish Productions has announced an audio adaptation of this story, written by Jonathan Morris for their Lost Stories range for release in March 2023. This adaptation will maintain the original episode titles, as written by Lucarotti.Written by Douglas Adams , this story was submitted around the middle of 1974. It involved a spaceship leaving Earth and filled with the affluent but "useless" members of society. The story was rejected due to being too similar to The Ark in Space , which was also being developed around that time. Adams later adapted the material for the "B Ark" storyline of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy .Written by Terry Nation. It was rejected for being too similar to his previous Dalek stories. It was replaced with Genesis of the Daleks . Big Finish Productions has announced an audio adaptation of the script from the first episode of this story with additional material for the rest of the story adapted into an audiobook by Simon Guerrier. It was released in May 2023 as Doctor Who: Daleks! Genesis of Terror . Written by Gerry Davis . This story was submitted to the production office, sometime in 1974 and commissioned soon after. The story was reworked by script editor Robert Holmes into Revenge of the Cybermen after the production crew had reservations about it, though Davis still received the full credit. It was later adapted by John Dorney for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in March 2021.Written by Eric Pringle . Pringle was commissioned on 11 August 1975 by producer Philip Hinchcliffe to write the first two episodes of the four-part story. Pringle submitted the final two episodes without commission on 10 March 1976, but the story was cancelled on 23 June 1976. Written by Brian Hayles, this story was submitted to the production office on 15 May 1975. It would involve the Doctor and Sarah in a chase between the hunter Torr and his quarry Lakdem. Towards the end of the adventure, it is revealed that Torr works for the Celestial Toymaker. Written by Marc Platt , this unsolicited story was submitted to script editor Robert Holmes in late 1975 and dealt with a sentient star using the Time Lord libraries as a means of invading Gallifrey . Holmes felt that it lacked action and drama and needed a proper antagonist. Even so, Robert Holmes thought that Fires of the Starmind had more potential than most of the other amateur submissions and he encouraged Marc Platt to continue writing. Fires of the Starmind was rejected on 15 December 1975. Written by Terrance Dicks, this six-part story was submitted at the start of November 1974 and was to have dealt with vampires . The storyline was commissioned on 11 December 1974 but was abandoned on 13 May 1975. Dicks later reused some of the material for his 1977 script The Vampire Mutations , the story that eventually evolved further and became State of Decay in 1980. Written by David Wiltshire , this was an unsolicited script for a six-part story. The story revolves around a nuclear submarine diving into the 'Fault of Menday' and discovering a subterranean world. The 'sun' for this world is dying and the underground dwellers, Suranians led by Zorr, are planning to invade the surface world. Wiltshire was never commissioned to develop the storyline further. Written by Dennis Spooner, this story centers around a planet where drugs in the food and water are used to control the populace. Punishment would be meted out by temporary withdrawal from the drugs which would cause people to see monsters all around them. The storyline for the four-part story was commissioned on 31 January 1975 and the full scripts on 4 February 1975. Written by Barry Letts, the storyline for this four-part story was commissioned on 21 January 1975. It was based on an audition piece for the role of Sarah Jane Smith that Letts had written in 1973 and was initially known as Time Lord Story . Scripts were requested, but Hinchcliffe was unhappy with the draft of the first part and ultimately the story was dropped. Written by Lewis Greifer , this story was commissioned in July 1974. The story would involve museum keepers being chased out of the British Museum by a mummy. It would turn out that a group was scaring people away to gain access to a sarcophagus that would contain wild rice from thousands of years ago. The group wanted to use the rice to seed Mars and make a fortune. It was replaced by Robert Holmes' Pyramids of Mars but under the pen name, Stephen Harris, when Griefer fell ill and the scripts came in late and were not what the production team wanted. Written by Terry Nation, this story was commissioned for a storyline on 13 February 1975. It was replaced by The Android Invasion . Written by Chris Boucher , this story was an unsolicited submission sent to the production office in early 1975. Although only fifteen minutes worth of material was considered unsuitable for Doctor Who , script editor Robert Holmes brought in Chris Boucher to discuss ideas with himself and producer Philip Hinchcliffe. This led to unmade scripts for The Dreamers of Phados and The Mentor Conspiracy , before finally being commissioned as The Face of Evil . Written by Eric Pringle . Pringle was commissioned on 11 August 1975 by producer Philip Hinchcliffe to write the first two episodes of the four-part story. Pringle submitted the final two episodes without commission on 10 March 1976, but the story was cancelled on 23 June 1976. Written by Brian Hayles, this story was submitted to the production office on 15 May 1975. It would involve the Doctor and Sarah in a chase between the hunter Torr and his quarry Lakdem. Towards the end of the adventure, it is revealed that Torr works for the Celestial Toymaker. Written by Marc Platt , this unsolicited story was submitted to script editor Robert Holmes in late 1975 and dealt with a sentient star using the Time Lord libraries as a means of invading Gallifrey . Holmes felt that it lacked action and drama and needed a proper antagonist. Even so, Robert Holmes thought that Fires of the Starmind had more potential than most of the other amateur submissions and he encouraged Marc Platt to continue writing. Fires of the Starmind was rejected on 15 December 1975.Written by Terrance Dicks, this six-part story was submitted at the start of November 1974 and was to have dealt with vampires . The storyline was commissioned on 11 December 1974 but was abandoned on 13 May 1975. Dicks later reused some of the material for his 1977 script The Vampire Mutations , the story that eventually evolved further and became State of Decay in 1980.Written by David Wiltshire , this was an unsolicited script for a six-part story. The story revolves around a nuclear submarine diving into the 'Fault of Menday' and discovering a subterranean world. The 'sun' for this world is dying and the underground dwellers, Suranians led by Zorr, are planning to invade the surface world. Wiltshire was never commissioned to develop the storyline further. Written by Dennis Spooner, this story centers around a planet where drugs in the food and water are used to control the populace. Punishment would be meted out by temporary withdrawal from the drugs which would cause people to see monsters all around them. The storyline for the four-part story was commissioned on 31 January 1975 and the full scripts on 4 February 1975.Written by Barry Letts, the storyline for this four-part story was commissioned on 21 January 1975. It was based on an audition piece for the role of Sarah Jane Smith that Letts had written in 1973 and was initially known as Time Lord Story . Scripts were requested, but Hinchcliffe was unhappy with the draft of the first part and ultimately the story was dropped.Written by Lewis Greifer , this story was commissioned in July 1974. The story would involve museum keepers being chased out of the British Museum by a mummy. It would turn out that a group was scaring people away to gain access to a sarcophagus that would contain wild rice from thousands of years ago. The group wanted to use the rice to seed Mars and make a fortune. It was replaced by Robert Holmes' Pyramids of Mars but under the pen name, Stephen Harris, when Griefer fell ill and the scripts came in late and were not what the production team wanted. Written by Terry Nation, this story was commissioned for a storyline on 13 February 1975. It was replaced by The Android Invasion .Written by Chris Boucher , this story was an unsolicited submission sent to the production office in early 1975. Although only fifteen minutes worth of material was considered unsuitable for Doctor Who , script editor Robert Holmes brought in Chris Boucher to discuss ideas with himself and producer Philip Hinchcliffe. This led to unmade scripts for The Dreamers of Phados and The Mentor Conspiracy , before finally being commissioned as The Face of Evil . Written by Basil Dawson, this four-part story involves murders in Victorian London . Dawson, a veteran screenwriter, was approached by script editor Robert Holmes to develop a story that would introduce a new companion to replace Sarah Jane Smith following her departure. The new character was to be a Cockney girl whom the Doctor would take under his wing and educate, in the manner of Eliza Doolittle in the George Bernard Shaw play Pygmalion . This story was planned to be the fourth story of Season 14. The Gaslight Murders was quickly abandoned, however. Its spot in the schedule was ultimately filled by The Face of Evil with the Eliza Doolittle character being replaced with Leela , while Holmes reused the general framework in The Talons of Weng-Chiang . Written by Robert Banks Stewart as a six-part story, the story was commissioned in May 1976. This story was replaced by The Talons of Weng-Chiang , which used the same basic premise of a villain traveling back in time, when Stewart took up the post of script editor on the series Armchair Thriller and was unable to deliver the scripts, forcing Robert Holmes to step in to rework the story. It was later adapted by John Dorney for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in January 2012. Written by Chris Boucher and submitted at some point after The Silent Scream had been rejected in early 1975. It was based on a premise that Hinchcliffe and Holmes wanted to use in which people and machines are controlled by a computer that malfunctions. It was to be set on a spaceship that has been home to several generations of a civilization. Boucher recycled some elements in The Face of Evil . Written by Douglas Camfield, this four-part story was commissioned on 22 January 1976. The story would involve the Doctor and Sarah arriving in North Africa at an isolated French Legion outpost. This has become the battleground for a fight between two alien races, the Skarkel and Khoorians. The story was planned to write out the character of Sarah and would see Sarah killed by one of the aliens. The first script was submitted on 9 February 1976 and removed from the series schedule in April 1976. Camfield would continue to work on the scripts, delivering the final part on 24 September 1976, but the production team was no longer interested in pursuing the story. Written by Chris Boucher, this story was, like The Dreamer of Phados , written to an idea brief from Holmes and Hinchcliffe. It was to be set on a spaceship that has been home to several generations of a civilization. The script was turned down on 30 October 1975. Written by Basil Dawson, this four-part story involves murders in Victorian London . Dawson, a veteran screenwriter, was approached by script editor Robert Holmes to develop a story that would introduce a new companion to replace Sarah Jane Smith following her departure. The new character was to be a Cockney girl whom the Doctor would take under his wing and educate, in the manner of Eliza Doolittle in the George Bernard Shaw play Pygmalion . This story was planned to be the fourth story of Season 14. The Gaslight Murders was quickly abandoned, however. Its spot in the schedule was ultimately filled by The Face of Evil with the Eliza Doolittle character being replaced with Leela , while Holmes reused the general framework in The Talons of Weng-Chiang .Written by Robert Banks Stewart as a six-part story, the story was commissioned in May 1976. This story was replaced by The Talons of Weng-Chiang , which used the same basic premise of a villain traveling back in time, when Stewart took up the post of script editor on the series Armchair Thriller and was unable to deliver the scripts, forcing Robert Holmes to step in to rework the story. It was later adapted by John Dorney for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in January 2012.Written by Chris Boucher and submitted at some point after The Silent Scream had been rejected in early 1975. It was based on a premise that Hinchcliffe and Holmes wanted to use in which people and machines are controlled by a computer that malfunctions. It was to be set on a spaceship that has been home to several generations of a civilization. Boucher recycled some elements in The Face of Evil .Written by Douglas Camfield, this four-part story was commissioned on 22 January 1976. The story would involve the Doctor and Sarah arriving in North Africa at an isolated French Legion outpost. This has become the battleground for a fight between two alien races, the Skarkel and Khoorians. The story was planned to write out the character of Sarah and would see Sarah killed by one of the aliens. The first script was submitted on 9 February 1976 and removed from the series schedule in April 1976. Camfield would continue to work on the scripts, delivering the final part on 24 September 1976, but the production team was no longer interested in pursuing the story.Written by Chris Boucher, this story was, like The Dreamer of Phados , written to an idea brief from Holmes and Hinchcliffe. It was to be set on a spaceship that has been home to several generations of a civilization. The script was turned down on 30 October 1975. Written by Terrance Dicks and script edited by Robert Holmes, this four-part story was scheduled to be the opening serial of Season 15, featuring the Fourth Doctor and Leela investigating three sinister vampires who malevolently controlled a medieval Earth village and had far grander intentions than first appeared. The serial was ready to be made until the BBC decided that they didn't want Doctor Who producing a story about vampires at the same time that they were doing a dramatisation of Bram Stoker 's Count Dracula starring Louis Jourdan in the title role. The Vampire Mutations was therefore replaced by Horror of Fang Rock , also written by Terrance Dicks, after Robert Holmes told Dicks to write him a new story set on a lighthouse. The Vampire Mutations is a rarity among unmade Doctor Who serials in that its script was later changed, adapted and made into an actual televised serial for Season 18. Season 18's script editor, Christopher H. Bidmead, was looking through old scripts that had never been made for one reason or another and came across The Vampire Mutations , liked the script more than the others and then contacted Dicks. Bidmead and Dicks then worked alongside each other to develop what became the Season 18 serial State of Decay , with their ideas for the script often clashing. Following the successful realisation of the Doctor's home planet of Gallifrey on screen in The Deadly Assassin , producer Graham Williams wanted another Gallifrey story. [ citation needed ] Script editor Anthony Read approached David Weir with whom he had worked before. Weir's script, a six-part story, was planned as the final story of Season 15 and was commissioned on 18 July 1977. Weir's script had elements drawn from Asian cultures , and included a race of cat-people with links to Gallifrey. Scenes included a gladiatorial duel in a stadium filled with cat-people. Read and director Gerald Blake , upon reading the finished script, determined that the story would be impossible to shoot on Doctor Who' s budget and the story was abandoned in mid-August 1977. With only two weeks to spare before filming, Read and Williams quickly co-wrote a replacement script in the form of The Invasion of Time . When asked about Weir's story at a fan convention years later, Williams could not recall its title and made up the name The Killer Cats of Geng Singh , by which title the story became widely known in fan circles. Written by Moris Farhi, this four-part story was officially commissioned by producer Graham Williams on 8 November 1977. The script was not produced and Farhi no longer recalls what it was about; the script itself is lost. It is unclear whether this was considered for either season 15 or season 16. Written by Douglas Adams, this was one of several ideas that Adams proposed to the production office around 1976. Adams had submitted The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy scripts to both BBC Radio and the Doctor Who department. Adams was hired by Doctor Who first but was subsequently hired by BBC Radio as well. The Krikkitmen is believed to be the story he had spent the most time working on, before it was rejected by script editor Robert Holmes, who encouraged Adams to work on The Hitchhiker's Guide instead and continue submitting material for Doctor Who , although for Season 16; this ultimately led to his commission for The Pirate Planet . In 1980, Adams revised The Krikkitmen for use by Paramount Pictures as a potential Doctor Who feature film, although nothing came of this project. Finally, Adams included many of the ideas from The Krikkitmen in his novel Life, the Universe and Everything , the second sequel to his book The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy . A novel adaptation of the Doctor Who version by James Goss was released by BBC Books in January 2018. Written by Robert Holmes, this storyline was considered in the autumn of 1976 when it was assumed Hinchcliffe would still be producing Season 15. It was to have been inspired by Joseph Conrad 's novel Heart of Darkness .Written by Terrance Dicks and script edited by Robert Holmes, this four-part story was scheduled to be the opening serial of Season 15, featuring the Fourth Doctor and Leela investigating three sinister vampires who malevolently controlled a medieval Earth village and had far grander intentions than first appeared. The serial was ready to be made until the BBC decided that they didn't want Doctor Who producing a story about vampires at the same time that they were doing a dramatisation of Bram Stoker 's Count Dracula starring Louis Jourdan in the title role. The Vampire Mutations was therefore replaced by Horror of Fang Rock , also written by Terrance Dicks, after Robert Holmes told Dicks to write him a new story set on a lighthouse. The Vampire Mutations is a rarity among unmade Doctor Who serials in that its script was later changed, adapted and made into an actual televised serial for Season 18. Season 18's script editor, Christopher H. Bidmead, was looking through old scripts that had never been made for one reason or another and came across The Vampire Mutations , liked the script more than the others and then contacted Dicks. Bidmead and Dicks then worked alongside each other to develop what became the Season 18 serial State of Decay , with their ideas for the script often clashing.Following the successful realisation of the Doctor's home planet of Gallifrey on screen in The Deadly Assassin , producer Graham Williams wanted another Gallifrey story. [ citation needed ] Script editor Anthony Read approached David Weir with whom he had worked before. Weir's script, a six-part story, was planned as the final story of Season 15 and was commissioned on 18 July 1977. Weir's script had elements drawn from Asian cultures , and included a race of cat-people with links to Gallifrey. Scenes included a gladiatorial duel in a stadium filled with cat-people. Read and director Gerald Blake , upon reading the finished script, determined that the story would be impossible to shoot on Doctor Who' s budget and the story was abandoned in mid-August 1977. With only two weeks to spare before filming, Read and Williams quickly co-wrote a replacement script in the form of The Invasion of Time . When asked about Weir's story at a fan convention years later, Williams could not recall its title and made up the name The Killer Cats of Geng Singh , by which title the story became widely known in fan circles.Written by Moris Farhi, this four-part story was officially commissioned by producer Graham Williams on 8 November 1977. The script was not produced and Farhi no longer recalls what it was about; the script itself is lost. It is unclear whether this was considered for either season 15 or season 16. Written by Douglas Adams, this was one of several ideas that Adams proposed to the production office around 1976. Adams had submitted The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy scripts to both BBC Radio and the Doctor Who department. Adams was hired by Doctor Who first but was subsequently hired by BBC Radio as well. The Krikkitmen is believed to be the story he had spent the most time working on, before it was rejected by script editor Robert Holmes, who encouraged Adams to work on The Hitchhiker's Guide instead and continue submitting material for Doctor Who , although for Season 16; this ultimately led to his commission for The Pirate Planet . In 1980, Adams revised The Krikkitmen for use by Paramount Pictures as a potential Doctor Who feature film, although nothing came of this project. Finally, Adams included many of the ideas from The Krikkitmen in his novel Life, the Universe and Everything , the second sequel to his book The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy . A novel adaptation of the Doctor Who version by James Goss was released by BBC Books in January 2018.Written by Robert Holmes, this storyline was considered in the autumn of 1976 when it was assumed Hinchcliffe would still be producing Season 15. It was to have been inspired by Joseph Conrad 's novel Heart of Darkness .The 1995 Doctor Who Magazine Summer Special ran a feature on a supposed lost Season 16 story titled The Lords of Misrule , purported to be by Ted Willis . This was a hoax based on a misreport that Willis - the creator of Dixon of Dock Green - had been commissioned to write for Doctor Who in this season, not Lewis. Written by Ted Lewis , and also known as The Doppelgängers , The search for the fourth segment of the Key to Time takes the Doctor and Romana to Nottingham where they meet Robin Hood and discover that the alleged hero is actually a blackhearted villain. The scripts for the first two episodes of the four-part fourth serial of the season were delivered to the production office on 28 April 1978. Although a third script arrived on 12 May 1978, Lewis turned up inebriated to a meeting with Graham Williams and Anthony Read and the unsuitability of the submitted material meant the story was dropped and replaced by David Fisher 's The Androids of Tara , which deliberately adopted the same swashbuckling genre as Lewis' storyline. Written by Chris Boucher, this idea was submitted shortly after Boucher had completed Image of the Fendahl . The story involved a remote Earth outpost under attack. BBC Head of Drama Ronnie Marsh did not want writers working on both Doctor Who and Blake's 7 at the same time, and the story was consequently dropped. Proposed by Douglas Adams. It concerned the Time Lords mining a planet and using a machine that would sap the aggression out of the natives to make them peaceful. One Time Lord would become trapped in the statue and absorb all the aggression driving him insane. He planned to make the machine dematerialise, reform around Gallifrey and hollow Gallifrey out. Elements from this story were re-used by Adams in his script of The Pirate Planet . Proposed by Bob Baker and Dave Martin. It concerned two planets (Atrios and Zeos) at war over a catastrophic shift in their orbits. The war was being baited by a mysterious force. The Doctor was forced to fashion a Key to Time to temporarily freeze both planets' armies. The Shadow (the mysterious force who was provoking the war) was planning to use the powers of the Key to Time to pit the universe at war against everyone. His own shadow was the sixth segment. The Doctor thwarted the Shadow's plan by unfreezing both planets' armies and giving each the co-ordinates of the Shadow's planet which just so happened to be in between both planets. Many elements of this story were recycled to create The Armageddon Factor . Written by Ted Lewis , and also known as The Doppelgängers , The search for the fourth segment of the Key to Time takes the Doctor and Romana to Nottingham where they meet Robin Hood and discover that the alleged hero is actually a blackhearted villain. The scripts for the first two episodes of the four-part fourth serial of the season were delivered to the production office on 28 April 1978. Although a third script arrived on 12 May 1978, Lewis turned up inebriated to a meeting with Graham Williams and Anthony Read and the unsuitability of the submitted material meant the story was dropped and replaced by David Fisher 's The Androids of Tara , which deliberately adopted the same swashbuckling genre as Lewis' storyline. Written by Chris Boucher, this idea was submitted shortly after Boucher had completed Image of the Fendahl . The story involved a remote Earth outpost under attack. BBC Head of Drama Ronnie Marsh did not want writers working on both Doctor Who and Blake's 7 at the same time, and the story was consequently dropped.Proposed by Douglas Adams. It concerned the Time Lords mining a planet and using a machine that would sap the aggression out of the natives to make them peaceful. One Time Lord would become trapped in the statue and absorb all the aggression driving him insane. He planned to make the machine dematerialise, reform around Gallifrey and hollow Gallifrey out. Elements from this story were re-used by Adams in his script of The Pirate Planet . Proposed by Bob Baker and Dave Martin. It concerned two planets (Atrios and Zeos) at war over a catastrophic shift in their orbits. The war was being baited by a mysterious force. The Doctor was forced to fashion a Key to Time to temporarily freeze both planets' armies. The Shadow (the mysterious force who was provoking the war) was planning to use the powers of the Key to Time to pit the universe at war against everyone. His own shadow was the sixth segment. The Doctor thwarted the Shadow's plan by unfreezing both planets' armies and giving each the co-ordinates of the Shadow's planet which just so happened to be in between both planets. Many elements of this story were recycled to create The Armageddon Factor . Written by David Fisher, The Gamble With Time was initially set in 1920s Las Vegas , which was later changed by Fisher to Paris and Monte Carlo in 1928, along with a 16th-century Florence timeline as well, and had The Doctor and Romana teaming up with a detective named Pug. Gambling was going to be a big focal point in the story, as well as an ancient alien race called the Sephiroth. The Gamble With Time evolved further into the Season 17 serial City of Death which was written by Douglas Adams and Graham Williams over a weekend at Williams' house, under the pen name of David Agnew. Shada was a six-part serial written by Douglas Adams that was scheduled to conclude Season 17 and be broadcast from 19 January - 23 February 1980. Production was halted during studio recordings due to a strike, with the remaining studio scenes never being recorded, and the serial never transmitted. A reconstruction of the serial using the Fourth Doctor's narration and existing footage was later released on VHS in 1992. The story was later adapted by Big Finish in 2003 as a webcast production featuring Paul McGann 's Eighth Doctor (and later released as an audio story that same year), while Adams himself reused elements from the serial for his first Dirk Gently novel Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency . The story was novelised by Gareth Roberts in 2012, and completed with animation in 2017, with most of the original cast returning to play their original roles. Written by Alistair Beaton & Sarah Dunant , this four-part story was commissioned on 12 December 1978. The scripts were delivered on 5 January 1979 and rejected four days later as unacceptable. For Season 17, John Lloyd , a frequent collaborator with script editor Douglas Adams, adapted material from his unpublished science fiction story GiGax and in October 1978 [ citation needed ] submitted Shylock , a four-part serial written in Adams' light-hearted style. After providing a second draft of the storyline to modify parts of the script to avoid issues such as the rules involving child actors, Lloyd was forced to focus on his commitments as producer of Not the Nine O'Clock News . Williams was still interested enough in the storyline that he made plans to involve writer Allan Prior to work on the scripts. The storyline was commissioned on 7 February 1979 and a script list dated 29 June 1979 links Prior and Lloyd to the project. Lloyd officially agreed to another writer taking on his story on 25 August 1979. In the story, the Doctor is subpoenaed to appear in court when a corporation tries to buy Earth in order to obtain a matter-transmutation device. It was later adapted by Nev Fountain for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in March 2021. Written by Pennant Roberts , this four-part story was commissioned on 10 January 1979 as Dragons of Fear . The adventure would involve the planet Erinella and two men fighting over a princess. The Doctor would become involved in his own timeline by arriving at the wrong time and becoming accused of being a poisoner. Roberts resubmitted the story in the mid-1980s to script editor Eric Saward but nothing came of the submission. Written by Andrew Smith , this story was rejected by Read in August 1978. Written by Allen Drury , the scripts were commissioned on 2 April 1979 for this four-part story. The story was set in the Victorian era and the entire action would take place in and around a vicarage. The vicar has recently died and fake spiritualists are exploiting the widow. The first episode would open with a seance during which the TARDIS would arrive. On 19 September 1979, the story was accepted subject to alterations. Written by Philip Hinchcliffe, this story involved the Doctor and Romana encountering an alien Luron called Godrin who crash-landed in a South American jungle in 1870. Adams wrote to Hinchcliffe on 3 January 1979, explaining that the proposed script would be too costly to produce. It was later adapted as The Valley of Death by Jonathan Morris for Big Finish's The Lost Stories series in January 2012. Written by Douglas Adams, this story would involve the Doctor going into retirement but being constantly called upon to solve various problems. It was considered as the final story of Series 17 until Williams dismissed the idea. It was replaced by Shada . Written by Pat Mills & John Wagner , this story was submitted around the start of 1979. The story would involve a parallel universe in which the Roman Empire never fell. Mills & Wagner subsequently adapted it to become the comic story The Iron Legion for Doctor Who Weekly in late 1979.Written by David Fisher, The Gamble With Time was initially set in 1920s Las Vegas , which was later changed by Fisher to Paris and Monte Carlo in 1928, along with a 16th-century Florence timeline as well, and had The Doctor and Romana teaming up with a detective named Pug. Gambling was going to be a big focal point in the story, as well as an ancient alien race called the Sephiroth. The Gamble With Time evolved further into the Season 17 serial City of Death which was written by Douglas Adams and Graham Williams over a weekend at Williams' house, under the pen name of David Agnew.Shada was a six-part serial written by Douglas Adams that was scheduled to conclude Season 17 and be broadcast from 19 January - 23 February 1980. Production was halted during studio recordings due to a strike, with the remaining studio scenes never being recorded, and the serial never transmitted. A reconstruction of the serial using the Fourth Doctor's narration and existing footage was later released on VHS in 1992. The story was later adapted by Big Finish in 2003 as a webcast production featuring Paul McGann 's Eighth Doctor (and later released as an audio story that same year), while Adams himself reused elements from the serial for his first Dirk Gently novel Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency . The story was novelised by Gareth Roberts in 2012, and completed with animation in 2017, with most of the original cast returning to play their original roles.Written by Alistair Beaton & Sarah Dunant , this four-part story was commissioned on 12 December 1978. The scripts were delivered on 5 January 1979 and rejected four days later as unacceptable. For Season 17, John Lloyd , a frequent collaborator with script editor Douglas Adams, adapted material from his unpublished science fiction story GiGax and in October 1978 [ citation needed ] submitted Shylock , a four-part serial written in Adams' light-hearted style. After providing a second draft of the storyline to modify parts of the script to avoid issues such as the rules involving child actors, Lloyd was forced to focus on his commitments as producer of Not the Nine O'Clock News . Williams was still interested enough in the storyline that he made plans to involve writer Allan Prior to work on the scripts. The storyline was commissioned on 7 February 1979 and a script list dated 29 June 1979 links Prior and Lloyd to the project. Lloyd officially agreed to another writer taking on his story on 25 August 1979. In the story, the Doctor is subpoenaed to appear in court when a corporation tries to buy Earth in order to obtain a matter-transmutation device. It was later adapted by Nev Fountain for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in March 2021.Written by Pennant Roberts , this four-part story was commissioned on 10 January 1979 as Dragons of Fear . The adventure would involve the planet Erinella and two men fighting over a princess. The Doctor would become involved in his own timeline by arriving at the wrong time and becoming accused of being a poisoner. Roberts resubmitted the story in the mid-1980s to script editor Eric Saward but nothing came of the submission.Written by Andrew Smith , this story was rejected by Read in August 1978. Written by Allen Drury , the scripts were commissioned on 2 April 1979 for this four-part story. The story was set in the Victorian era and the entire action would take place in and around a vicarage. The vicar has recently died and fake spiritualists are exploiting the widow. The first episode would open with a seance during which the TARDIS would arrive. On 19 September 1979, the story was accepted subject to alterations. Written by Philip Hinchcliffe, this story involved the Doctor and Romana encountering an alien Luron called Godrin who crash-landed in a South American jungle in 1870. Adams wrote to Hinchcliffe on 3 January 1979, explaining that the proposed script would be too costly to produce. It was later adapted as The Valley of Death by Jonathan Morris for Big Finish's The Lost Stories series in January 2012.Written by Douglas Adams, this story would involve the Doctor going into retirement but being constantly called upon to solve various problems. It was considered as the final story of Series 17 until Williams dismissed the idea. It was replaced by Shada .Written by Pat Mills & John Wagner , this story was submitted around the start of 1979. The story would involve a parallel universe in which the Roman Empire never fell. Mills & Wagner subsequently adapted it to become the comic story The Iron Legion for Doctor Who Weekly in late 1979.Written by David Fisher, this story was submitted by Fisher on 7 November 1979. John Nathan-Turner rejected it in favour of developing The Leisure Hive . Written by Jack Gardner, a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 29 March 1980 and the scripts on 11 August 1980. It was still under consideration in April 1981, when Jack Gardner was asked to expand "The Dogs of Darkness" into full scripts for the Fifth Doctor for Season 19. Written by Andrew Stephenson , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 18 March 1980. Written by James Follett , this involved monsters attacking a race of beings who live inside Halley's Comet , unaware that there is anything beyond it they believe that their world is the sum and total of the universe. Into the Comet would have used the companions of Romana and K9. Follett was a novelist who pitched this idea to script editor Douglas Adams circa September 1979 when they met up and discussed the forthcoming return of Halley's Comet. Though the storyline was rejected by Adams, Follett resubmitted Into the Comet to new script editor Christopher H. Bidmead around May 1980, but once again the storyline was not pursued. Written by Nabil Shaban (better known as Sil from the Colin Baker Doctor Who stories Vengeance on Varos and The Trial of a Time Lord ) who was a longtime fan of Doctor Who and had previously suggested himself to replace the late Roger Delgado as the Master. In offering this script to the production office in 1980, Shaban also put himself forward as a potential successor to Tom Baker as the Doctor. Nothing came of Invasion of the Veridians . Nabil Shaban had only written the first episode, it was written around the early 1970s and was very much influenced by the Troughton/Pertwee era. Nabil believes that the only copy has now been lost to time, as he no longer has it. Written by Keith Miles , a story outline for this four-part story was commissioned on 14 March 1980. Written by Malcolm Edwards & Leroy Kettle , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 18 March 1980. Written by David Fisher, this story was discussed with Script Editor Douglas Adams in late 1979, shortly before Adams left Doctor Who. New producer Nathan-Turner was not interested and instead, The Leisure Hive was developed as the season opener. Written by Geoff Lowe , this spec outline arrived at the production office in the summer of 1980. It was passed on to Nathan-Turner on 9 December 1980. Written by Christopher Priest , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 27 February 1980 and the full scripts on 24 March 1981. The story, set on Gallifrey, involved hopping back and forth in time resulting in multiple variants of the TARDIS and a spare Doctor, one of whom was killed. The story was abandoned and replaced with Stephen Gallagher 's Warriors' Gate . Written by John Bennett , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 10 April 1980. Space-Whale was originally pitched by Pat Mills and his writing partner John Wagner in 1980 as a Fourth Doctor adventure. When the production office showed some signs of interest, Wagner left the project, and the script was commissioned as a four-part Fifth Doctor story for a scene breakdown on 7 September 1981 and full scripts on 2 December 1981. The new drafts reduced the humor and the renamed Song of the Space Whale was now planned as the third serial in Season 20 and intended to introduce a new companion, Vislor Turlough . The story concerned a group of people living in the belly of a giant whale in space. The Doctor would find this out while attempting to protect the creature from being slaughtered by a rusting factory ship. The castaways living in the whale, as well as the ship's captain, would be working-class characters, with the former's dialogue being based on that of a working-class Northern Irish family that Mills knew. During the writing, Mills and script editor Eric Saward "fundamentally disagreed" on the character of the captain (Saward wanting a more Star Trek -type figure) and the dialogue for the castaways. Mills has said that "there was a Coronation Street quality to it that Eric felt didn't work in space. He thought the future would be classless, and I didn't." Mills' disagreements with Saward led to the script being delayed until it was too late to serve as Turlough's introductory story. The script was then considered for Season 21 and later Season 22. By this point, the script had been revised as two 45-minute episodes, but although it was still listed in July 1985 as an ongoing script, by November 1985 Nathan-Turner confirmed at a convention that the script had been dropped. The "Space Whale" concept was eventually revised and realised in the 2010 episode The Beast Below . The rejected script was later adapted as The Song of Megaptera by Mills for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in May 2010. Written by John Brosnan who submitted this idea sometime after Bidmead became script editor in January 1980. The story would have involved the Doctor arriving at the BBC Television Centre and meeting Tom Baker . The two would then pair up to combat a threat.Written by David Fisher, this story was submitted by Fisher on 7 November 1979. John Nathan-Turner rejected it in favour of developing The Leisure Hive .Written by Jack Gardner, a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 29 March 1980 and the scripts on 11 August 1980. It was still under consideration in April 1981, when Jack Gardner was asked to expand "The Dogs of Darkness" into full scripts for the Fifth Doctor for Season 19. Written by Andrew Stephenson , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 18 March 1980. Written by James Follett , this involved monsters attacking a race of beings who live inside Halley's Comet , unaware that there is anything beyond it they believe that their world is the sum and total of the universe. Into the Comet would have used the companions of Romana and K9. Follett was a novelist who pitched this idea to script editor Douglas Adams circa September 1979 when they met up and discussed the forthcoming return of Halley's Comet. Though the storyline was rejected by Adams, Follett resubmitted Into the Comet to new script editor Christopher H. Bidmead around May 1980, but once again the storyline was not pursued. Written by Nabil Shaban (better known as Sil from the Colin Baker Doctor Who stories Vengeance on Varos and The Trial of a Time Lord ) who was a longtime fan of Doctor Who and had previously suggested himself to replace the late Roger Delgado as the Master. In offering this script to the production office in 1980, Shaban also put himself forward as a potential successor to Tom Baker as the Doctor. Nothing came of Invasion of the Veridians . Nabil Shaban had only written the first episode, it was written around the early 1970s and was very much influenced by the Troughton/Pertwee era. Nabil believes that the only copy has now been lost to time, as he no longer has it. Written by Keith Miles , a story outline for this four-part story was commissioned on 14 March 1980. Written by Malcolm Edwards & Leroy Kettle , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 18 March 1980. Written by David Fisher, this story was discussed with Script Editor Douglas Adams in late 1979, shortly before Adams left Doctor Who. New producer Nathan-Turner was not interested and instead, The Leisure Hive was developed as the season opener. Written by Geoff Lowe , this spec outline arrived at the production office in the summer of 1980. It was passed on to Nathan-Turner on 9 December 1980. Written by Christopher Priest , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 27 February 1980 and the full scripts on 24 March 1981. The story, set on Gallifrey, involved hopping back and forth in time resulting in multiple variants of the TARDIS and a spare Doctor, one of whom was killed. The story was abandoned and replaced with Stephen Gallagher 's Warriors' Gate .Written by John Bennett , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 10 April 1980. Space-Whale was originally pitched by Pat Mills and his writing partner John Wagner in 1980 as a Fourth Doctor adventure. When the production office showed some signs of interest, Wagner left the project, and the script was commissioned as a four-part Fifth Doctor story for a scene breakdown on 7 September 1981 and full scripts on 2 December 1981. The new drafts reduced the humor and the renamed Song of the Space Whale was now planned as the third serial in Season 20 and intended to introduce a new companion, Vislor Turlough . The story concerned a group of people living in the belly of a giant whale in space. The Doctor would find this out while attempting to protect the creature from being slaughtered by a rusting factory ship. The castaways living in the whale, as well as the ship's captain, would be working-class characters, with the former's dialogue being based on that of a working-class Northern Irish family that Mills knew. During the writing, Mills and script editor Eric Saward "fundamentally disagreed" on the character of the captain (Saward wanting a more Star Trek -type figure) and the dialogue for the castaways. Mills has said that "there was a Coronation Street quality to it that Eric felt didn't work in space. He thought the future would be classless, and I didn't." Mills' disagreements with Saward led to the script being delayed until it was too late to serve as Turlough's introductory story. The script was then considered for Season 21 and later Season 22. By this point, the script had been revised as two 45-minute episodes, but although it was still listed in July 1985 as an ongoing script, by November 1985 Nathan-Turner confirmed at a convention that the script had been dropped. The "Space Whale" concept was eventually revised and realised in the 2010 episode The Beast Below . The rejected script was later adapted as The Song of Megaptera by Mills for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in May 2010.Written by John Brosnan who submitted this idea sometime after Bidmead became script editor in January 1980. The story would have involved the Doctor arriving at the BBC Television Centre and meeting Tom Baker . The two would then pair up to combat a threat.Written by Christopher Priest, the opportunity to write this four-part story was offered to Priest after his previous script, Sealed Orders , had been cancelled. The scene breakdown was commissioned on 5 December 1980 and the scripts on 6 February 1981. Priest's story idea dealt with the 'secret' of what actually powered the TARDIS , in this case fear. Somewhere hidden inside the TARDIS was the one being the Doctor feared above all others, and the psychic tension between the two of them produced the energy to move through space and time. The story involved the Doctor having to confront and ultimately defeat this fear and was designed to write out the character of Adric . After hearing nothing from the production office about his completed scripts or his payment from them, Priest made contact with John Nathan-Turner . He was told that the scripts were unusable and that he would not be paid. After a bitter dispute, Priest was paid and both Nathan-Turner and Eric Saward were forced to pen a letter of apology over their treatment of the writer. The script was replaced by Saward's script Earthshock . Written by Gerry Davis , this four-part story was submitted on spec to the production office around February 1982. It concerns the Doctor arriving on Mondas at a point in time when the Cybermen are being created. The rough storyline involves the Doctor and his companion "Felicity" arriving on the planet Mondas, Earth's twin orbiting on the opposite side of the Sun. While the Doctor works on a piece of TARDIS equipment, Felicity encounters the gentle Prince Sylvan. Sylvan accidentally activates the TARDIS, sending him, the Doctor and Felicity fifty years into the future. There, Sylvan's brother, Dega, is now king and has used the Doctor's device to begin turning his people into Cybermen. He has constructed a space fleet with which he intends to invade the mineral-rich Earth, and he plans to kill any unconverted Mondasians with cyanide gas. Felicity appeals to Dega's partly Cybernised wife, Queen Meta, and she shoots her husband dead—only to be killed by Dega's chief of staff, Krail. In the confusion, Sylvan and a band of Mondan rebels flee in the spaceships to Earth; the massive concussion of take-off knocks Mondas out of its orbit into deep space. Former script editor Davis submitted this idea circa early 1981, intending it to be a prequel to his and Kit Pedler's original Cyberman serial, The Tenth Planet (which also featured Cyberman Krail). It also borrowed elements from The Ark and The Savages , two stories on which Davis had been story editor. Producer John Nathan-Turner and script editor Antony Root were ultimately not interested in Genesis of the Cybermen . Davis wrote his storyline with only the Doctor and one female companion in mind; he called this character "Felicity" rather than writing with any particular companion in mind. Elements of this story were later used in Big Finish Production's Spare Parts by Marc Platt in July 2002 with the Felicity role filled in by Nyssa. Written by Rod Beacham , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 5 December 1980. The Fifth Doctor's first story was originally intended to be the four-part Project Zeta Sigma , written by John Flanagan & Andrew McCulloch , who had previously scripted Meglos . It was not intended to follow directly from the events of Logopolis ; instead, the Doctor and his companions would have already left Earth. The story concerns nuclear disarmament . Commissioned as Project '4G' on 7 October 1980, the script proved unworkable, and producer John Nathan-Turner dropped the story on 19 February 1981. He then commissioned recently departed script editor Christopher H. Bidmead to write a replacement which became Castrovalva . This last-minute change disrupted the shooting schedule, meaning that Castrovalva would be the fourth serial of the series filmed, though it would be the first transmitted. Written by Terence Greer , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 13 June 1980. It was finally rejected sometime after April 1981 and was originally submitted featuring the Fourth Doctor. It is not known if the idea's development extended to the point that Greer would have had to modify it to include the Fifth Doctor. Written by Andrew Smith, a scene breakdown for this four-part story set on present-day Earth was commissioned on 25 November 1980. The story was still under consideration in April 1981. Written by Bill Lyons and also known as The Parasites , a scene breakdown was commissioned on 22 September 1981, with the scripts commissioned on 16 February & 23 April 1982 by which point it was being considered for Season 21. Written by Lesley Elizabeth Thomas , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 23 April 1981. The story was abandoned at some point after November 1981. Written by Tanith Lee , the scripts for this four-part story were commissioned on 6 February 1981. Written by Robert Holmes, this story was planned as the 20th anniversary special. The 90-minute single-part story was commissioned on 2 August 1982 and would involve the various Doctors and companions drawn to the planet Maladoom where they are trapped by the Master who is working for the Cybermen. The Cybermen want to isolate the genetic material that permits Time Lords to time travel freely so that they can incorporate that information into their own biology. The First Doctor would be revealed as an android called "Doctor Bill", hence the title being The Six Doctors. Holmes made little headway with the script and withdrew from the project on 13 October 1982. After completing Snakedance , Saward requested that writer Christopher Bailey devise another story. The initial outline for May Time was commissioned on 24 August 1982 and is about the Doctor and his companions arriving at the court of Byzantium. Full scripts were commissioned on 16 September 1982 with the new title Man-watch , but the scripts were dropped from production for unclear reasons. A second attempt at the story under the title Children of Seth was attempted as a Sixth Doctor story, for which the scripts were commissioned on 14 July 1983. This failed because Bailey did not devise a structure for the Doctor's new 45-minute episode format, nor did he create a tangible villain for the Doctor to face. It was later adapted as The Children of Seth by Marc Platt for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in December 2011. Written by Ben Steed , this two-part story was delivered in January 1983. It was ultimately not taken forward. Eric Pringle submitted this storyline for a four-part story to the production office in August 1981 alongside The Awakening , but only the latter was developed further. The story may have involved the Daleks. Written by Andrew Smith, this story was submitted to the production office around 1983 and was to have been set in early Nineteenth century Japan. Written by Barbara Clegg this was submitted in late 1982. It dealt with a race of intelligent youths controlled by a lone Dalek. It was later adapted by John Dorney for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in October 2011, which backdated the story to after the events of the Season 20 serial Arc of Infinity , with Nyssa and Tegan as companions of the Fifth Doctor. Written by Robin Squire , this four-part story had a scene breakdown commissioned on 5 January 1983 and the scripts on 20 May 1983. The story may have been considered to incorporate the Sixth Doctor. Written by Peter Ling & Hazel Adair , this story developed from plans by producer Nathan-Turner to create a sequel to the 1960s soap opera Compact , entitled Impact . When, after drafting three or four scripts for the proposed Impact , Nathan-Turner informed the pair that plans for the soap had been cancelled, the producer offered them the opportunity to write for Doctor Who as a form of compensation. A scene breakdown (whittled down from six parts to four) was commissioned on 12 July 1983, but after three months of development on the scripts, during which the story was restructured into two 45-minute episodes, it was ultimately rejected. The plot involves the disappearance of various people on Earth, which leads the Doctor and Peri to the planet Hexagora where the Doctor becomes romantically involved with Queen Zafia who is trying to save the insect race of Hexagora from destruction through a plan to infiltrate and take over Earth. It was later adapted as Hexagora by Paul Finch for Big Finish's The Lost Stories with Tegan and Nyssa in November 2011. Written by Andrew (Michael) Stephenson , (the SF writer) a scene breakdown was commissioned on 10 June 1982. Written by Andrew Smith, this story was submitted to the production office around 1983. This storyline led to Smith being commissioned for The First Sontarans . Written by Stephen Gallagher , this script was submitted in late 1982 but rejected by Saward on grounds of cost. The four-part story would involve the Doctor, Tegan and Turlough testing a Reality Simulator. This simulator projects a graveyard world overrun by the Vodyani who soon find a way out of the virtual reality and into the real world. Big Finish Productions produced an audio adaptation of this story, which was released on 14 November 2019. Written by Colin Davis , a scene breakdown was commissioned on 10 June 1982. Proposed as a four-part adventure where people from different periods in history find themselves able to move between times in the English countryside. Written by Rod Beacham, a screen breakdown was commissioned on 27 April 1982 and the scripts on 27 May 1982. Written by Barbara Clegg, this story was submitted in late 1982 and dealt with the Doctor searching for a missing Time Lord who has regenerated to merge with his TARDIS. Written by William Emms, this four-part storyline was discussed but not commissioned when Emms approached the production office in 1983. The story involved the populace of the planet Alden falling under mental domination. Written by Barbara Clegg, this story was submitted in late 1982 and saw the Doctor travel down the River Styx in Ancient Greece where he would discover an alien race, the Hadeans, kidnapping the women of Greece due to their own race being rendered infertile. Written by Marc Platt and Charles M. Stevens (a pseudonym for J. Jeremy Bentham), this story was submitted on spec in 1983 and was discussed with Saward but not commissioned. This story dealt with Sontarans and Rutans in England during the 1940s blitz . Written by William Emms, this four-part storyline was discussed but not commissioned when Emms approached the production office in 1983.Written by Christopher Priest, the opportunity to write this four-part story was offered to Priest after his previous script, Sealed Orders , had been cancelled. The scene breakdown was commissioned on 5 December 1980 and the scripts on 6 February 1981. Priest's story idea dealt with the 'secret' of what actually powered the TARDIS , in this case fear. Somewhere hidden inside the TARDIS was the one being the Doctor feared above all others, and the psychic tension between the two of them produced the energy to move through space and time. The story involved the Doctor having to confront and ultimately defeat this fear and was designed to write out the character of Adric . After hearing nothing from the production office about his completed scripts or his payment from them, Priest made contact with John Nathan-Turner . He was told that the scripts were unusable and that he would not be paid. After a bitter dispute, Priest was paid and both Nathan-Turner and Eric Saward were forced to pen a letter of apology over their treatment of the writer. The script was replaced by Saward's script Earthshock . Written by Gerry Davis , this four-part story was submitted on spec to the production office around February 1982. It concerns the Doctor arriving on Mondas at a point in time when the Cybermen are being created. The rough storyline involves the Doctor and his companion "Felicity" arriving on the planet Mondas, Earth's twin orbiting on the opposite side of the Sun. While the Doctor works on a piece of TARDIS equipment, Felicity encounters the gentle Prince Sylvan. Sylvan accidentally activates the TARDIS, sending him, the Doctor and Felicity fifty years into the future. There, Sylvan's brother, Dega, is now king and has used the Doctor's device to begin turning his people into Cybermen. He has constructed a space fleet with which he intends to invade the mineral-rich Earth, and he plans to kill any unconverted Mondasians with cyanide gas. Felicity appeals to Dega's partly Cybernised wife, Queen Meta, and she shoots her husband dead—only to be killed by Dega's chief of staff, Krail. In the confusion, Sylvan and a band of Mondan rebels flee in the spaceships to Earth; the massive concussion of take-off knocks Mondas out of its orbit into deep space. Former script editor Davis submitted this idea circa early 1981, intending it to be a prequel to his and Kit Pedler's original Cyberman serial, The Tenth Planet (which also featured Cyberman Krail). It also borrowed elements from The Ark and The Savages , two stories on which Davis had been story editor. Producer John Nathan-Turner and script editor Antony Root were ultimately not interested in Genesis of the Cybermen . Davis wrote his storyline with only the Doctor and one female companion in mind; he called this character "Felicity" rather than writing with any particular companion in mind. Elements of this story were later used in Big Finish Production's Spare Parts by Marc Platt in July 2002 with the Felicity role filled in by Nyssa. Written by Rod Beacham , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 5 December 1980. The Fifth Doctor's first story was originally intended to be the four-part Project Zeta Sigma , written by John Flanagan & Andrew McCulloch , who had previously scripted Meglos . It was not intended to follow directly from the events of Logopolis ; instead, the Doctor and his companions would have already left Earth. The story concerns nuclear disarmament . Commissioned as Project '4G' on 7 October 1980, the script proved unworkable, and producer John Nathan-Turner dropped the story on 19 February 1981. He then commissioned recently departed script editor Christopher H. Bidmead to write a replacement which became Castrovalva . This last-minute change disrupted the shooting schedule, meaning that Castrovalva would be the fourth serial of the series filmed, though it would be the first transmitted. Written by Terence Greer , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 13 June 1980. It was finally rejected sometime after April 1981 and was originally submitted featuring the Fourth Doctor. It is not known if the idea's development extended to the point that Greer would have had to modify it to include the Fifth Doctor. Written by Andrew Smith, a scene breakdown for this four-part story set on present-day Earth was commissioned on 25 November 1980. The story was still under consideration in April 1981.Written by Christopher Priest, the opportunity to write this four-part story was offered to Priest after his previous script, Sealed Orders , had been cancelled. The scene breakdown was commissioned on 5 December 1980 and the scripts on 6 February 1981. Priest's story idea dealt with the 'secret' of what actually powered the TARDIS , in this case fear. Somewhere hidden inside the TARDIS was the one being the Doctor feared above all others, and the psychic tension between the two of them produced the energy to move through space and time. The story involved the Doctor having to confront and ultimately defeat this fear and was designed to write out the character of Adric . After hearing nothing from the production office about his completed scripts or his payment from them, Priest made contact with John Nathan-Turner . He was told that the scripts were unusable and that he would not be paid. After a bitter dispute, Priest was paid and both Nathan-Turner and Eric Saward were forced to pen a letter of apology over their treatment of the writer. The script was replaced by Saward's script Earthshock .Written by Gerry Davis , this four-part story was submitted on spec to the production office around February 1982. It concerns the Doctor arriving on Mondas at a point in time when the Cybermen are being created. The rough storyline involves the Doctor and his companion "Felicity" arriving on the planet Mondas, Earth's twin orbiting on the opposite side of the Sun. While the Doctor works on a piece of TARDIS equipment, Felicity encounters the gentle Prince Sylvan. Sylvan accidentally activates the TARDIS, sending him, the Doctor and Felicity fifty years into the future. There, Sylvan's brother, Dega, is now king and has used the Doctor's device to begin turning his people into Cybermen. He has constructed a space fleet with which he intends to invade the mineral-rich Earth, and he plans to kill any unconverted Mondasians with cyanide gas. Felicity appeals to Dega's partly Cybernised wife, Queen Meta, and she shoots her husband dead—only to be killed by Dega's chief of staff, Krail. In the confusion, Sylvan and a band of Mondan rebels flee in the spaceships to Earth; the massive concussion of take-off knocks Mondas out of its orbit into deep space. Former script editor Davis submitted this idea circa early 1981, intending it to be a prequel to his and Kit Pedler's original Cyberman serial, The Tenth Planet (which also featured Cyberman Krail). It also borrowed elements from The Ark and The Savages , two stories on which Davis had been story editor. Producer John Nathan-Turner and script editor Antony Root were ultimately not interested in Genesis of the Cybermen . Davis wrote his storyline with only the Doctor and one female companion in mind; he called this character "Felicity" rather than writing with any particular companion in mind. Elements of this story were later used in Big Finish Production's Spare Parts by Marc Platt in July 2002 with the Felicity role filled in by Nyssa.Written by Rod Beacham , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 5 December 1980. The Fifth Doctor's first story was originally intended to be the four-part Project Zeta Sigma , written by John Flanagan & Andrew McCulloch , who had previously scripted Meglos . It was not intended to follow directly from the events of Logopolis ; instead, the Doctor and his companions would have already left Earth. The story concerns nuclear disarmament . Commissioned as Project '4G' on 7 October 1980, the script proved unworkable, and producer John Nathan-Turner dropped the story on 19 February 1981. He then commissioned recently departed script editor Christopher H. Bidmead to write a replacement which became Castrovalva . This last-minute change disrupted the shooting schedule, meaning that Castrovalva would be the fourth serial of the series filmed, though it would be the first transmitted.Written by Terence Greer , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 13 June 1980. It was finally rejected sometime after April 1981 and was originally submitted featuring the Fourth Doctor. It is not known if the idea's development extended to the point that Greer would have had to modify it to include the Fifth Doctor.Written by Andrew Smith, a scene breakdown for this four-part story set on present-day Earth was commissioned on 25 November 1980. The story was still under consideration in April 1981.Written by Bill Lyons and also known as The Parasites , a scene breakdown was commissioned on 22 September 1981, with the scripts commissioned on 16 February & 23 April 1982 by which point it was being considered for Season 21. Written by Lesley Elizabeth Thomas , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 23 April 1981. The story was abandoned at some point after November 1981. Written by Tanith Lee , the scripts for this four-part story were commissioned on 6 February 1981. Written by Bill Lyons and also known as The Parasites , a scene breakdown was commissioned on 22 September 1981, with the scripts commissioned on 16 February & 23 April 1982 by which point it was being considered for Season 21. Written by Lesley Elizabeth Thomas , a scene breakdown for this four-part story was commissioned on 23 April 1981. The story was abandoned at some point after November 1981.Written by Tanith Lee , the scripts for this four-part story were commissioned on 6 February 1981. Written by Robert Holmes, this story was planned as the 20th anniversary special. The 90-minute single-part story was commissioned on 2 August 1982 and would involve the various Doctors and companions drawn to the planet Maladoom where they are trapped by the Master who is working for the Cybermen. The Cybermen want to isolate the genetic material that permits Time Lords to time travel freely so that they can incorporate that information into their own biology. The First Doctor would be revealed as an android called "Doctor Bill", hence the title being The Six Doctors. Holmes made little headway with the script and withdrew from the project on 13 October 1982.Written by Robert Holmes, this story was planned as the 20th anniversary special. The 90-minute single-part story was commissioned on 2 August 1982 and would involve the various Doctors and companions drawn to the planet Maladoom where they are trapped by the Master who is working for the Cybermen. The Cybermen want to isolate the genetic material that permits Time Lords to time travel freely so that they can incorporate that information into their own biology. The First Doctor would be revealed as an android called "Doctor Bill", hence the title being The Six Doctors. Holmes made little headway with the script and withdrew from the project on 13 October 1982.After completing Snakedance , Saward requested that writer Christopher Bailey devise another story. The initial outline for May Time was commissioned on 24 August 1982 and is about the Doctor and his companions arriving at the court of Byzantium. Full scripts were commissioned on 16 September 1982 with the new title Man-watch , but the scripts were dropped from production for unclear reasons. A second attempt at the story under the title Children of Seth was attempted as a Sixth Doctor story, for which the scripts were commissioned on 14 July 1983. This failed because Bailey did not devise a structure for the Doctor's new 45-minute episode format, nor did he create a tangible villain for the Doctor to face. It was later adapted as The Children of Seth by Marc Platt for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in December 2011. Written by Ben Steed , this two-part story was delivered in January 1983. It was ultimately not taken forward. Eric Pringle submitted this storyline for a four-part story to the production office in August 1981 alongside The Awakening , but only the latter was developed further. The story may have involved the Daleks. Written by Andrew Smith, this story was submitted to the production office around 1983 and was to have been set in early Nineteenth century Japan. Written by Barbara Clegg this was submitted in late 1982. It dealt with a race of intelligent youths controlled by a lone Dalek. It was later adapted by John Dorney for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in October 2011, which backdated the story to after the events of the Season 20 serial Arc of Infinity , with Nyssa and Tegan as companions of the Fifth Doctor. Written by Robin Squire , this four-part story had a scene breakdown commissioned on 5 January 1983 and the scripts on 20 May 1983. The story may have been considered to incorporate the Sixth Doctor. Written by Peter Ling & Hazel Adair , this story developed from plans by producer Nathan-Turner to create a sequel to the 1960s soap opera Compact , entitled Impact . When, after drafting three or four scripts for the proposed Impact , Nathan-Turner informed the pair that plans for the soap had been cancelled, the producer offered them the opportunity to write for Doctor Who as a form of compensation. A scene breakdown (whittled down from six parts to four) was commissioned on 12 July 1983, but after three months of development on the scripts, during which the story was restructured into two 45-minute episodes, it was ultimately rejected. The plot involves the disappearance of various people on Earth, which leads the Doctor and Peri to the planet Hexagora where the Doctor becomes romantically involved with Queen Zafia who is trying to save the insect race of Hexagora from destruction through a plan to infiltrate and take over Earth. It was later adapted as Hexagora by Paul Finch for Big Finish's The Lost Stories with Tegan and Nyssa in November 2011. Written by Andrew (Michael) Stephenson , (the SF writer) a scene breakdown was commissioned on 10 June 1982. Written by Andrew Smith, this story was submitted to the production office around 1983. This storyline led to Smith being commissioned for The First Sontarans . Written by Stephen Gallagher , this script was submitted in late 1982 but rejected by Saward on grounds of cost. The four-part story would involve the Doctor, Tegan and Turlough testing a Reality Simulator. This simulator projects a graveyard world overrun by the Vodyani who soon find a way out of the virtual reality and into the real world. Big Finish Productions produced an audio adaptation of this story, which was released on 14 November 2019. Written by Colin Davis , a scene breakdown was commissioned on 10 June 1982. Proposed as a four-part adventure where people from different periods in history find themselves able to move between times in the English countryside. Written by Rod Beacham, a screen breakdown was commissioned on 27 April 1982 and the scripts on 27 May 1982. Written by Barbara Clegg, this story was submitted in late 1982 and dealt with the Doctor searching for a missing Time Lord who has regenerated to merge with his TARDIS. Written by William Emms, this four-part storyline was discussed but not commissioned when Emms approached the production office in 1983. The story involved the populace of the planet Alden falling under mental domination. Written by Barbara Clegg, this story was submitted in late 1982 and saw the Doctor travel down the River Styx in Ancient Greece where he would discover an alien race, the Hadeans, kidnapping the women of Greece due to their own race being rendered infertile. Written by Marc Platt and Charles M. Stevens (a pseudonym for J. Jeremy Bentham), this story was submitted on spec in 1983 and was discussed with Saward but not commissioned. This story dealt with Sontarans and Rutans in England during the 1940s blitz . Written by William Emms, this four-part storyline was discussed but not commissioned when Emms approached the production office in 1983.After completing Snakedance , Saward requested that writer Christopher Bailey devise another story. The initial outline for May Time was commissioned on 24 August 1982 and is about the Doctor and his companions arriving at the court of Byzantium. Full scripts were commissioned on 16 September 1982 with the new title Man-watch , but the scripts were dropped from production for unclear reasons. A second attempt at the story under the title Children of Seth was attempted as a Sixth Doctor story, for which the scripts were commissioned on 14 July 1983. This failed because Bailey did not devise a structure for the Doctor's new 45-minute episode format, nor did he create a tangible villain for the Doctor to face. It was later adapted as The Children of Seth by Marc Platt for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in December 2011. Written by Ben Steed , this two-part story was delivered in January 1983. It was ultimately not taken forward. Eric Pringle submitted this storyline for a four-part story to the production office in August 1981 alongside The Awakening , but only the latter was developed further. The story may have involved the Daleks. Written by Andrew Smith, this story was submitted to the production office around 1983 and was to have been set in early Nineteenth century Japan.Written by Barbara Clegg this was submitted in late 1982. It dealt with a race of intelligent youths controlled by a lone Dalek. It was later adapted by John Dorney for Big Finish's The Lost Stories in October 2011, which backdated the story to after the events of the Season 20 serial Arc of Infinity , with Nyssa and Tegan as companions of the Fifth Doctor.Written by Robin Squire , this four-part story had a scene breakdown commissioned on 5 January 1983 and the scripts on 20 May 1983. The story may have been considered to incorporate the Sixth Doctor. Written by Peter Ling & Hazel Adair , this story developed from plans by producer Nathan-Turner to create a sequel to the 1960s soap opera Compact , entitled Impact . When, after drafting three or four scripts for the proposed Impact , Nathan-Turner informed the pair that plans for the soap had been cancelled, the producer offered them the opportunity to write for Doctor Who as a form of compensation. A scene breakdown (whittled down from six parts to four) was commissioned on 12 July 1983, but after three months of development on the scripts, during which the story was restructured into two 45-minute episodes, it was ultimately rejected. The plot involves the disappearance of various people on Earth, which leads the Doctor and Peri to the planet Hexagora where the Doctor becomes romantically involved with Queen Zafia who is trying to save the insect race of Hexagora from destruction through a plan to infiltrate and take over Earth. It was later adapted as Hexagora by Paul Finch for Big Finish's The Lost Stories with Tegan and Nyssa in November 2011.Written by Andrew (Michael) Stephenson , (the SF writer) a scene breakdown was commissioned on 10 June 1982. Written by Andrew Smith, this story was submitted to the production office around 1983. This storyline led to Smith being commissioned for The First Sontarans .Written by Stephen Gallagher , this script was submitted in late 1982 but rejected by Saward on grounds of cost. The four-part story would involve the Doctor, Tegan and Turlough testing a Reality Simulator. This simulator projects a graveyard world overrun by the Vodyani who soon find a way out of the virtual reality and into the real world. Big Finish Productions produced an audio adaptation of this story, which was released on 14 November 2019. Written by Colin Davis , a scene breakdown was commissioned on 10 June 1982. Proposed as a four-part adventure where people from different periods in history find themselves able to move between times in the English countryside.Written by Rod Beacham, a screen breakdown was commissioned on 27 April 1982 and the scripts on 27 May 1982. Written by Barbara Clegg, this story was submitted in late 1982 and dealt with the Doctor searching for a missing Time Lord who has regenerated to merge with his TARDIS. Written by William Emms, this four-part storyline was discussed but not commissioned when Emms approached the production office in 1983. The story involved the populace of the planet Alden falling under mental domination.Written by Barbara Clegg, this story was submitted in late 1982 and saw the Doctor travel down the River Styx in Ancient Greece where he would discover an alien race, the Hadeans, kidnapping the women of Greece due to their own race being rendered infertile.Written by Marc Platt and Charles M. Stevens (a pseudonym for J. Jeremy Bentham), this story was submitted on spec in 1983 and was discussed with Saward but not commissioned. This story dealt with Sontarans and Rutans in England during the 1940s blitz . Written by William Emms, this four-part storyline was discussed but not commissioned when Emms approached the production office in 1983.All scripts for this series were commissioned for the new 45-minute episode format. Written by Marc Platt, this was submitted to Saward in 1984 and rejected for being too ambitious and too complex for Doctor Who ' s budget. In early 1987, he revised his Cat's Cradle story for script editor Andrew Cartmel , but the story still fell through due to budget concerns. Platt later adapted the story as a novel for the Virgin New Adventures range in February 1992. Written by Andrew Smith, a scene breakdown was commissioned on 10 January 1984. Initially conceived as four 25-minute episodes, the two 45-minute episodes would have been set in 1872, involving the Mary Celeste in some way and would elaborate on the origins of the Sontaran - Rutan war. The First Sontarans was turned down because the Sontarans were to appear in the Season 22 serial The Two Doctors . It was later adapted by Smith for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in July 2012. Written by Johnny Byrne , a plot outline for this story, also known as The Place of Serenity , was submitted to the production office by Byrne in July 1983. The two-part story would have seen the Doctor visit the planet Serenity, which is part of the same union that Traken belonged to. The rulers of Serenity are assisted by a computer known as Prophecy and the villains of the piece, Auga and Mura, are attempting to overthrow the rulers. The story also would have seen the return of the Melkur. It was later adapted by Jonathan Morris for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in May 2012. Written by Brian Finch . The scripts for the two-part story were commissioned as Livanthian on 14 August 1983, and later became Leviathan . Leviathan would have seen the Doctor arriving in what appeared to be medieval times. No official reason has been given for its late cancellation during Season 22, but the most likely explanation is budgetary reasons [ citation needed ] . Leviathan was later adapted by Paul Finch (Brian's son) for Big Finish as a late addition to their The Lost Stories series in January 2010, after Paul Finch contacted them about his father's script. Big Finish had not previously known about Leviathan . Written by Ingrid Pitt & Tony Rudlin was conceived as a four-part Fifth Doctor story during the production of Season 21 before quickly being revised as a two-part Sixth Doctor tale. Only the first episode was commissioned as The Macro Men on 19 January 1984. It was later adapted by Pitt & Rudlin for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in June 2010. Written by Ian Marter , who had previously portrayed the character of Harry Sullivan in the series. The script for episode one only had been commissioned as Strange Encounter on 2 February 1984. The two-part story is thought to have dealt with the theme of hospital overcrowding. Written by Eric Saward, it had the Daleks either teaming up with or battling against another monster. The idea was abandoned when Terry Nation (the copyright holder of the Daleks) created a list of conditions that made writing difficult. The story was replaced by Revelation of the Daleks , Eric's later script. When Doctor Who was put on hiatus in February 1985, several completed scripts were already being prepared for the 1986 series (which would retain the format of thirteen 45-minute episodes). Other tales were still in the story-outline stage. All of these scripts were later abandoned to make way for The Trial of a Time Lord , when the series resumed in September 1986. Written by Graham Williams, this two-part story was commissioned on 25 September 1984 as Arcade and was planned to open the original 23rd season. Nathan-Turner hoped to have Matthew Robinson direct the adventure, and it would have featured the return of the Celestial Toymaker . Williams wrote a novelisation of the script which was published by Target Books in May 1989. It was later adapted by John Ainsworth for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in November 2009. Written by Wally K. Daly , this two-part story was planned to be the second story in the original 23rd season. Nathan-Turner hoped to have Fiona Cumming direct the adventure. Daly wrote a novelization of the script which was published by Target Books in August 1989. It was later adapted by Daly for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in November 2019. Written by Philip Martin , this two-part story was planned to be the fourth story recorded and third story transmitted in the original Season 23, and the story would have featured the Ice Warriors teaming up with Sil to ice the planet Magnus as a new home for the Ice Warriors but The Doctor and Peri notice this plan would ruin life for both of them and the Ice Warriors betray Sil... Nathan-Turner hoped to have Ron Jones direct the adventure. Martin wrote a novelization of the script which was published by Target Books in July 1990. It was later adapted by Martin for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in December 2009. Yellow Fever and How to Cure It was a three-part story by Robert Holmes that was scheduled to be recorded third and transmitted fourth in the original Season 23. It would have taken place in Singapore and featured the Autons as the monsters, with the Rani and/or the Master appearing. Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart would have also returned. The first episode was commissioned on 26 October 1984, before being put on hold. The entire story was subsequently commissioned on 6 February 1985. Nathan-Turner hoped to have Graeme Harper direct the adventure. After the news of the hiatus, Holmes was asked by the production team to continue with the story but in six 25-minute episodes., This version would see the removal of the Master from the plot. Holmes reportedly only completed a story outline before the planned Season 23 was completely cancelled. Commissioned as a two-part story from Christopher H. Bidmead on 21 November 1984. Nathan-Turner hoped to have Matthew Robinson direct the adventure, which would have been Robinson's second story of Season 23. After the news of the hiatus, Bidmead was asked by the production team to continue with the story but as four 25-minute episodes. It was later adapted as The Hollows of Time by Bidmead for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in June 2010. Written by Michael Feeney Callan , this story was commissioned on 5 February 1985. After the news of the hiatus, Callan was asked by the production team to continue with the story but as four 25-minute episodes but was backed up to the original 2 part-45-minute episodes. Nathan-Turner hoped to have Bob Gabriel direct the adventure, who directed some of the earliest episodes of EastEnders in 1985. It had been planned that an adaptation of this story would appear as part of Big Finish's The Lost Stories range, but fell through due to the author's other commitments and was replaced by The Macros . Written by David Banks , the story involved the Sixth Doctor and Peri encountering the Master in Ancient Crete, as well as a contingent of Cybermen. David Banks, who had played the Cyber Leader in three serials in the early 1980s, submitted this storyline around the time that 'Attack of the Cybermen' entered production in 1984. Script editor Eric Saward liked the idea but felt that it would prove too expensive to film. Written by Philip Martin, this story was submitted on 28 December 1983 and dealt with an alien race returning to Earth to discover their "humanity" experiment has failed. The story involved the TARDIS alerting the Doctor to the fact that a regeneration is in progress nearby, suggesting the presence of a fellow Timelord. The Doctor instead finds the elite of the Doomwraiths emerging, reconstituted, as shimmering metal columns with many moving strips and a deadly purpose. The Wraiths find that human evolution has failed, and mankind has not taken on their form; they will thus release a plague to destroy humanity, relocate the missing section of genetic code and repopulate Earth themselves. The Doctor and Peri discover that the Doomwraiths themselves have a genetic flaw that gives them the impulse to destroy. The Doctor manages to destroy the discovered code block but says that the Doomwraiths may have left their legacy on other worlds. On 9 March 1984, Saward noted that the story idea would need further development before he could assess it for commissioning. Written by David Banks. Gallifrey was a Pip & Jane Baker script for four 25-minute episodes that was commissioned on 11 March 1985 in the wake of the hiatus announcement, that reportedly would have dealt with the destruction of the Doctor's aforementioned home planet. Written by David Banks, the writer proposed the story around the time that he was engaged to play the Cyberleader in Attack of the Cybermen . Banks later adapted the story as a novel for the Virgin New Adventures range in September 1993 featuring the Seventh Doctor. Written by Peter Grimwade , this two-part story was commissioned on 13 August 1984 and abandoned due to budgetary concerns on 8 November 1984 after the completion of a scene breakdown. It was later used as the outline for Birthright by Nigel Robinson. Written by Gary Hopkins , this story reunites the Doctor with former companion Victoria Waterfield, now crusading against nuclear waste . It was later adapted as Power Play by Hopkins for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in June 2012. Written by Barbara Clegg, this storyline involves the Doctor and Peri in Elizabethan London as an alien race, the Omnim, returns via an Aztec knife. It was also to feature Christopher Marlowe . It was later adapted by Marc Platt for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in April 2010. Written by Philip Martin, this story was submitted on 28 December 1983 and had the TARDIS pulled to a spaceship graveyard controlled by the Master . On 9 March 1984, Saward felt that the story idea needed further work before it could be considered for commissioning. Written by Philip Martin, this story was submitted on 28 December 1983 and had the Doctor travel into the Egyptian underworld to save Peri. On 9 March 1984, Saward felt that the story idea needed further work before it could be considered for commissioning. After the decision was taken to cancel all the stories previously commissioned for Season 23, new stories were sought for the shortened 14-episode series. The plan was for three production blocks, divided up into two four-episode lots and one block of six episodes. Robert Holmes was assigned the opening four-part story and Philip Martin the second four-part story. The final six episodes were to be broken up into three two-part stories. Writer David Halliwell was approached by Eric Saward in early July 1985 as a prospective writer for the "new" Season 23. Halliwell submitted his untitled first draft of the then-untitled two-part story for episodes 9 & 10 to the production office in late July 1985. The story deals with a conflict between the ugly-looking Freds and the beautiful Penelopeans. Work on a second draft began on 14 August 1985 and was completed by 22 August 1985, with a third draft submitted on 11 September 1985. Saward spent much time with Halliwell on further drafts, changing the name of the Freds to Trikes. The fourth revision was delivered on 26 September 1985 and 7 October 1985 saw a fifth draft arrive at the production office. Halliwell received a letter from Saward on 18 October 1985, advising him that Attack from the Mind had been cancelled. Written by Jack Trevor Story . Story was invited to the same series briefing as David Halliwell, and this two-part story episodes 11 & 12 was meant to share sets with Attack from the Mind as well as being linked narratively. The plot centred on a man playing a saxophone inside an empty gasometer. In complete contrast to Halliwell, who submitted a total of five drafts of Attack from the Mind , Story never got around to submitting even his first draft of scripts for The Second Coming , and both stories were cancelled by script editor Eric Saward in October 1985. With the dismissal of Halliwell and Story's scripts, Saward looked to replace them with a single four-part adventure. Written by Christopher H. Bidmead, the story was commissioned on 29 October 1985 as The Last Adventure , this replaced the scripts by David Halliwell and Jack Trevor Story as episodes 9 – 12 with second draft scripts of all four episodes delivered by 9 January 1986. The story was dropped on 7 February 1986, rejected by Eric Saward. Written by P.J. Hammond , the story was commissioned as End of Term on 10 February 1986 as a replacement for Pinacotheca for episodes 9 – 12. It involved the Doctor investigating the resort of Paradise Five, while Mel goes undercover as a hostess. When this script was rejected by producer John Nathan-Turner, it was replaced in turn by Pip & Jane Baker's Terror of the Vervoids . It was later adapted as Paradise 5 by Andy Lane for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in March 2010, which scrapped all of the Trial scenes from the original script, replaced Mel with Peri, and backdated Paradise 5 to before the events of The Trial of a Time Lord . Time Inc. was the title for the concluding two-part story arc as to have originally been written by Robert Holmes for episodes 13 & 14 when commissioned on 4 February 1986. However, Holmes was unable to work on the script past the first part due to his untimely death on 24 May 1986. Script editor Eric Saward was tasked with completing the story, his version of the script ending with the Doctor and the Valeyard locked in battle in the time vortex and no clear victor. This ending was disapproved by series producer John Nathan-Turner as being too down-beat and would end the show at an inconclusive moment should the BBC decide to cancel the series, with Saward annoyed by what he saw as Nathan-Turner reneging on what Saward and the late Holmes had long agreed for the series ending. John Nathan-Turner subsequently commissioned Pip & Jane Baker to write the final episode after Saward had withdrawn permission for his version of episode 14 to be used following the rejection of his proposed ending. The versions of episodes 13 and 14 that were transmitted were subsequently renamed as "The Ultimate Foe" on the final scripts, an early title that had been used for Pip and Jane Baker's transmitted episodes 9-12 serial that became Terror of the Vervoids . During The Trial of a Time Lord , plans were underway for Season 24 with Colin Baker , although it was unclear whether or not the show was going to cancelled or who was to be in charge if it wasn't. Once John Nathan-Turner knew that Colin Baker had been fired, plans were put in place for a regeneration story. According to his book Doctor Who: The Companions (published at about the time The Trial of a Time Lord was broadcast), Producer John Nathan-Turner intended to chronicle the Doctor's first meeting with Melanie Bush in a later episode. The subsequent dismissal of Colin Baker from the role of the Doctor rendered this potential storyline moot. Written by Pip and Jane Baker, Time and the Rani (originally Strange Matter) was planned to be Colin Baker's final story. Once it was clear that Baker didn't want to return, it was subsequently rewritten as the Seventh Doctor's opening story with the regeneration occurring pre-titles. All scripts for this series were commissioned for the new 45-minute episode format. Written by Marc Platt, this was submitted to Saward in 1984 and rejected for being too ambitious and too complex for Doctor Who ' s budget. In early 1987, he revised his Cat's Cradle story for script editor Andrew Cartmel , but the story still fell through due to budget concerns. Platt later adapted the story as a novel for the Virgin New Adventures range in February 1992. Written by Andrew Smith, a scene breakdown was commissioned on 10 January 1984. Initially conceived as four 25-minute episodes, the two 45-minute episodes would have been set in 1872, involving the Mary Celeste in some way and would elaborate on the origins of the Sontaran - Rutan war. The First Sontarans was turned down because the Sontarans were to appear in the Season 22 serial The Two Doctors . It was later adapted by Smith for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in July 2012. Written by Johnny Byrne , a plot outline for this story, also known as The Place of Serenity , was submitted to the production office by Byrne in July 1983. The two-part story would have seen the Doctor visit the planet Serenity, which is part of the same union that Traken belonged to. The rulers of Serenity are assisted by a computer known as Prophecy and the villains of the piece, Auga and Mura, are attempting to overthrow the rulers. The story also would have seen the return of the Melkur. It was later adapted by Jonathan Morris for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in May 2012. Written by Brian Finch . The scripts for the two-part story were commissioned as Livanthian on 14 August 1983, and later became Leviathan . Leviathan would have seen the Doctor arriving in what appeared to be medieval times. No official reason has been given for its late cancellation during Season 22, but the most likely explanation is budgetary reasons [ citation needed ] . Leviathan was later adapted by Paul Finch (Brian's son) for Big Finish as a late addition to their The Lost Stories series in January 2010, after Paul Finch contacted them about his father's script. Big Finish had not previously known about Leviathan . Written by Ingrid Pitt & Tony Rudlin was conceived as a four-part Fifth Doctor story during the production of Season 21 before quickly being revised as a two-part Sixth Doctor tale. Only the first episode was commissioned as The Macro Men on 19 January 1984. It was later adapted by Pitt & Rudlin for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in June 2010. Written by Ian Marter , who had previously portrayed the character of Harry Sullivan in the series. The script for episode one only had been commissioned as Strange Encounter on 2 February 1984. The two-part story is thought to have dealt with the theme of hospital overcrowding. Written by Eric Saward, it had the Daleks either teaming up with or battling against another monster. The idea was abandoned when Terry Nation (the copyright holder of the Daleks) created a list of conditions that made writing difficult. The story was replaced by Revelation of the Daleks , Eric's later script.Written by Marc Platt, this was submitted to Saward in 1984 and rejected for being too ambitious and too complex for Doctor Who ' s budget. In early 1987, he revised his Cat's Cradle story for script editor Andrew Cartmel , but the story still fell through due to budget concerns. Platt later adapted the story as a novel for the Virgin New Adventures range in February 1992.Written by Andrew Smith, a scene breakdown was commissioned on 10 January 1984. Initially conceived as four 25-minute episodes, the two 45-minute episodes would have been set in 1872, involving the Mary Celeste in some way and would elaborate on the origins of the Sontaran - Rutan war. The First Sontarans was turned down because the Sontarans were to appear in the Season 22 serial The Two Doctors . It was later adapted by Smith for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in July 2012.Written by Johnny Byrne , a plot outline for this story, also known as The Place of Serenity , was submitted to the production office by Byrne in July 1983. The two-part story would have seen the Doctor visit the planet Serenity, which is part of the same union that Traken belonged to. The rulers of Serenity are assisted by a computer known as Prophecy and the villains of the piece, Auga and Mura, are attempting to overthrow the rulers. The story also would have seen the return of the Melkur. It was later adapted by Jonathan Morris for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in May 2012.Written by Brian Finch . The scripts for the two-part story were commissioned as Livanthian on 14 August 1983, and later became Leviathan . Leviathan would have seen the Doctor arriving in what appeared to be medieval times. No official reason has been given for its late cancellation during Season 22, but the most likely explanation is budgetary reasons [ citation needed ] . Leviathan was later adapted by Paul Finch (Brian's son) for Big Finish as a late addition to their The Lost Stories series in January 2010, after Paul Finch contacted them about his father's script. Big Finish had not previously known about Leviathan .Written by Ingrid Pitt & Tony Rudlin was conceived as a four-part Fifth Doctor story during the production of Season 21 before quickly being revised as a two-part Sixth Doctor tale. Only the first episode was commissioned as The Macro Men on 19 January 1984. It was later adapted by Pitt & Rudlin for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in June 2010.Written by Ian Marter , who had previously portrayed the character of Harry Sullivan in the series. The script for episode one only had been commissioned as Strange Encounter on 2 February 1984. The two-part story is thought to have dealt with the theme of hospital overcrowding. Written by Eric Saward, it had the Daleks either teaming up with or battling against another monster. The idea was abandoned when Terry Nation (the copyright holder of the Daleks) created a list of conditions that made writing difficult. The story was replaced by Revelation of the Daleks , Eric's later script.When Doctor Who was put on hiatus in February 1985, several completed scripts were already being prepared for the 1986 series (which would retain the format of thirteen 45-minute episodes). Other tales were still in the story-outline stage. All of these scripts were later abandoned to make way for The Trial of a Time Lord , when the series resumed in September 1986. Written by Graham Williams, this two-part story was commissioned on 25 September 1984 as Arcade and was planned to open the original 23rd season. Nathan-Turner hoped to have Matthew Robinson direct the adventure, and it would have featured the return of the Celestial Toymaker . Williams wrote a novelisation of the script which was published by Target Books in May 1989. It was later adapted by John Ainsworth for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in November 2009. Written by Wally K. Daly , this two-part story was planned to be the second story in the original 23rd season. Nathan-Turner hoped to have Fiona Cumming direct the adventure. Daly wrote a novelization of the script which was published by Target Books in August 1989. It was later adapted by Daly for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in November 2019. Written by Philip Martin , this two-part story was planned to be the fourth story recorded and third story transmitted in the original Season 23, and the story would have featured the Ice Warriors teaming up with Sil to ice the planet Magnus as a new home for the Ice Warriors but The Doctor and Peri notice this plan would ruin life for both of them and the Ice Warriors betray Sil... Nathan-Turner hoped to have Ron Jones direct the adventure. Martin wrote a novelization of the script which was published by Target Books in July 1990. It was later adapted by Martin for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in December 2009. Yellow Fever and How to Cure It was a three-part story by Robert Holmes that was scheduled to be recorded third and transmitted fourth in the original Season 23. It would have taken place in Singapore and featured the Autons as the monsters, with the Rani and/or the Master appearing. Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart would have also returned. The first episode was commissioned on 26 October 1984, before being put on hold. The entire story was subsequently commissioned on 6 February 1985. Nathan-Turner hoped to have Graeme Harper direct the adventure. After the news of the hiatus, Holmes was asked by the production team to continue with the story but in six 25-minute episodes., This version would see the removal of the Master from the plot. Holmes reportedly only completed a story outline before the planned Season 23 was completely cancelled. Commissioned as a two-part story from Christopher H. Bidmead on 21 November 1984. Nathan-Turner hoped to have Matthew Robinson direct the adventure, which would have been Robinson's second story of Season 23. After the news of the hiatus, Bidmead was asked by the production team to continue with the story but as four 25-minute episodes. It was later adapted as The Hollows of Time by Bidmead for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in June 2010. Written by Michael Feeney Callan , this story was commissioned on 5 February 1985. After the news of the hiatus, Callan was asked by the production team to continue with the story but as four 25-minute episodes but was backed up to the original 2 part-45-minute episodes. Nathan-Turner hoped to have Bob Gabriel direct the adventure, who directed some of the earliest episodes of EastEnders in 1985. It had been planned that an adaptation of this story would appear as part of Big Finish's The Lost Stories range, but fell through due to the author's other commitments and was replaced by The Macros . Written by Graham Williams, this two-part story was commissioned on 25 September 1984 as Arcade and was planned to open the original 23rd season. Nathan-Turner hoped to have Matthew Robinson direct the adventure, and it would have featured the return of the Celestial Toymaker . Williams wrote a novelisation of the script which was published by Target Books in May 1989. It was later adapted by John Ainsworth for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in November 2009.Written by Wally K. Daly , this two-part story was planned to be the second story in the original 23rd season. Nathan-Turner hoped to have Fiona Cumming direct the adventure. Daly wrote a novelization of the script which was published by Target Books in August 1989. It was later adapted by Daly for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in November 2019. Written by Philip Martin , this two-part story was planned to be the fourth story recorded and third story transmitted in the original Season 23, and the story would have featured the Ice Warriors teaming up with Sil to ice the planet Magnus as a new home for the Ice Warriors but The Doctor and Peri notice this plan would ruin life for both of them and the Ice Warriors betray Sil... Nathan-Turner hoped to have Ron Jones direct the adventure. Martin wrote a novelization of the script which was published by Target Books in July 1990. It was later adapted by Martin for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in December 2009.Yellow Fever and How to Cure It was a three-part story by Robert Holmes that was scheduled to be recorded third and transmitted fourth in the original Season 23. It would have taken place in Singapore and featured the Autons as the monsters, with the Rani and/or the Master appearing. Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart would have also returned. The first episode was commissioned on 26 October 1984, before being put on hold. The entire story was subsequently commissioned on 6 February 1985. Nathan-Turner hoped to have Graeme Harper direct the adventure. After the news of the hiatus, Holmes was asked by the production team to continue with the story but in six 25-minute episodes., This version would see the removal of the Master from the plot. Holmes reportedly only completed a story outline before the planned Season 23 was completely cancelled. Commissioned as a two-part story from Christopher H. Bidmead on 21 November 1984. Nathan-Turner hoped to have Matthew Robinson direct the adventure, which would have been Robinson's second story of Season 23. After the news of the hiatus, Bidmead was asked by the production team to continue with the story but as four 25-minute episodes. It was later adapted as The Hollows of Time by Bidmead for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in June 2010.Written by Michael Feeney Callan , this story was commissioned on 5 February 1985. After the news of the hiatus, Callan was asked by the production team to continue with the story but as four 25-minute episodes but was backed up to the original 2 part-45-minute episodes. Nathan-Turner hoped to have Bob Gabriel direct the adventure, who directed some of the earliest episodes of EastEnders in 1985. It had been planned that an adaptation of this story would appear as part of Big Finish's The Lost Stories range, but fell through due to the author's other commitments and was replaced by The Macros . Written by David Banks , the story involved the Sixth Doctor and Peri encountering the Master in Ancient Crete, as well as a contingent of Cybermen. David Banks, who had played the Cyber Leader in three serials in the early 1980s, submitted this storyline around the time that 'Attack of the Cybermen' entered production in 1984. Script editor Eric Saward liked the idea but felt that it would prove too expensive to film. Written by Philip Martin, this story was submitted on 28 December 1983 and dealt with an alien race returning to Earth to discover their "humanity" experiment has failed. The story involved the TARDIS alerting the Doctor to the fact that a regeneration is in progress nearby, suggesting the presence of a fellow Timelord. The Doctor instead finds the elite of the Doomwraiths emerging, reconstituted, as shimmering metal columns with many moving strips and a deadly purpose. The Wraiths find that human evolution has failed, and mankind has not taken on their form; they will thus release a plague to destroy humanity, relocate the missing section of genetic code and repopulate Earth themselves. The Doctor and Peri discover that the Doomwraiths themselves have a genetic flaw that gives them the impulse to destroy. The Doctor manages to destroy the discovered code block but says that the Doomwraiths may have left their legacy on other worlds. On 9 March 1984, Saward noted that the story idea would need further development before he could assess it for commissioning. Written by David Banks. Gallifrey was a Pip & Jane Baker script for four 25-minute episodes that was commissioned on 11 March 1985 in the wake of the hiatus announcement, that reportedly would have dealt with the destruction of the Doctor's aforementioned home planet. Written by David Banks, the writer proposed the story around the time that he was engaged to play the Cyberleader in Attack of the Cybermen . Banks later adapted the story as a novel for the Virgin New Adventures range in September 1993 featuring the Seventh Doctor. Written by Peter Grimwade , this two-part story was commissioned on 13 August 1984 and abandoned due to budgetary concerns on 8 November 1984 after the completion of a scene breakdown. It was later used as the outline for Birthright by Nigel Robinson. Written by Gary Hopkins , this story reunites the Doctor with former companion Victoria Waterfield, now crusading against nuclear waste . It was later adapted as Power Play by Hopkins for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in June 2012. Written by Barbara Clegg, this storyline involves the Doctor and Peri in Elizabethan London as an alien race, the Omnim, returns via an Aztec knife. It was also to feature Christopher Marlowe . It was later adapted by Marc Platt for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in April 2010. Written by Philip Martin, this story was submitted on 28 December 1983 and had the TARDIS pulled to a spaceship graveyard controlled by the Master . On 9 March 1984, Saward felt that the story idea needed further work before it could be considered for commissioning. Written by Philip Martin, this story was submitted on 28 December 1983 and had the Doctor travel into the Egyptian underworld to save Peri. On 9 March 1984, Saward felt that the story idea needed further work before it could be considered for commissioning.Written by David Banks , the story involved the Sixth Doctor and Peri encountering the Master in Ancient Crete, as well as a contingent of Cybermen. David Banks, who had played the Cyber Leader in three serials in the early 1980s, submitted this storyline around the time that 'Attack of the Cybermen' entered production in 1984. Script editor Eric Saward liked the idea but felt that it would prove too expensive to film.Written by Philip Martin, this story was submitted on 28 December 1983 and dealt with an alien race returning to Earth to discover their "humanity" experiment has failed. The story involved the TARDIS alerting the Doctor to the fact that a regeneration is in progress nearby, suggesting the presence of a fellow Timelord. The Doctor instead finds the elite of the Doomwraiths emerging, reconstituted, as shimmering metal columns with many moving strips and a deadly purpose. The Wraiths find that human evolution has failed, and mankind has not taken on their form; they will thus release a plague to destroy humanity, relocate the missing section of genetic code and repopulate Earth themselves. The Doctor and Peri discover that the Doomwraiths themselves have a genetic flaw that gives them the impulse to destroy. The Doctor manages to destroy the discovered code block but says that the Doomwraiths may have left their legacy on other worlds. On 9 March 1984, Saward noted that the story idea would need further development before he could assess it for commissioning.Written by David Banks. Gallifrey was a Pip & Jane Baker script for four 25-minute episodes that was commissioned on 11 March 1985 in the wake of the hiatus announcement, that reportedly would have dealt with the destruction of the Doctor's aforementioned home planet. Written by David Banks, the writer proposed the story around the time that he was engaged to play the Cyberleader in Attack of the Cybermen . Banks later adapted the story as a novel for the Virgin New Adventures range in September 1993 featuring the Seventh Doctor.Written by Peter Grimwade , this two-part story was commissioned on 13 August 1984 and abandoned due to budgetary concerns on 8 November 1984 after the completion of a scene breakdown. It was later used as the outline for Birthright by Nigel Robinson.Written by Gary Hopkins , this story reunites the Doctor with former companion Victoria Waterfield, now crusading against nuclear waste . It was later adapted as Power Play by Hopkins for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in June 2012.Written by Barbara Clegg, this storyline involves the Doctor and Peri in Elizabethan London as an alien race, the Omnim, returns via an Aztec knife. It was also to feature Christopher Marlowe . It was later adapted by Marc Platt for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in April 2010.Written by Philip Martin, this story was submitted on 28 December 1983 and had the TARDIS pulled to a spaceship graveyard controlled by the Master . On 9 March 1984, Saward felt that the story idea needed further work before it could be considered for commissioning.Written by Philip Martin, this story was submitted on 28 December 1983 and had the Doctor travel into the Egyptian underworld to save Peri. On 9 March 1984, Saward felt that the story idea needed further work before it could be considered for commissioning.After the decision was taken to cancel all the stories previously commissioned for Season 23, new stories were sought for the shortened 14-episode series. The plan was for three production blocks, divided up into two four-episode lots and one block of six episodes. Robert Holmes was assigned the opening four-part story and Philip Martin the second four-part story. The final six episodes were to be broken up into three two-part stories. Writer David Halliwell was approached by Eric Saward in early July 1985 as a prospective writer for the "new" Season 23. Halliwell submitted his untitled first draft of the then-untitled two-part story for episodes 9 & 10 to the production office in late July 1985. The story deals with a conflict between the ugly-looking Freds and the beautiful Penelopeans. Work on a second draft began on 14 August 1985 and was completed by 22 August 1985, with a third draft submitted on 11 September 1985. Saward spent much time with Halliwell on further drafts, changing the name of the Freds to Trikes. The fourth revision was delivered on 26 September 1985 and 7 October 1985 saw a fifth draft arrive at the production office. Halliwell received a letter from Saward on 18 October 1985, advising him that Attack from the Mind had been cancelled. Written by Jack Trevor Story . Story was invited to the same series briefing as David Halliwell, and this two-part story episodes 11 & 12 was meant to share sets with Attack from the Mind as well as being linked narratively. The plot centred on a man playing a saxophone inside an empty gasometer. In complete contrast to Halliwell, who submitted a total of five drafts of Attack from the Mind , Story never got around to submitting even his first draft of scripts for The Second Coming , and both stories were cancelled by script editor Eric Saward in October 1985. With the dismissal of Halliwell and Story's scripts, Saward looked to replace them with a single four-part adventure. Written by Christopher H. Bidmead, the story was commissioned on 29 October 1985 as The Last Adventure , this replaced the scripts by David Halliwell and Jack Trevor Story as episodes 9 – 12 with second draft scripts of all four episodes delivered by 9 January 1986. The story was dropped on 7 February 1986, rejected by Eric Saward. Written by P.J. Hammond , the story was commissioned as End of Term on 10 February 1986 as a replacement for Pinacotheca for episodes 9 – 12. It involved the Doctor investigating the resort of Paradise Five, while Mel goes undercover as a hostess. When this script was rejected by producer John Nathan-Turner, it was replaced in turn by Pip & Jane Baker's Terror of the Vervoids . It was later adapted as Paradise 5 by Andy Lane for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in March 2010, which scrapped all of the Trial scenes from the original script, replaced Mel with Peri, and backdated Paradise 5 to before the events of The Trial of a Time Lord . Time Inc. was the title for the concluding two-part story arc as to have originally been written by Robert Holmes for episodes 13 & 14 when commissioned on 4 February 1986. However, Holmes was unable to work on the script past the first part due to his untimely death on 24 May 1986. Script editor Eric Saward was tasked with completing the story, his version of the script ending with the Doctor and the Valeyard locked in battle in the time vortex and no clear victor. This ending was disapproved by series producer John Nathan-Turner as being too down-beat and would end the show at an inconclusive moment should the BBC decide to cancel the series, with Saward annoyed by what he saw as Nathan-Turner reneging on what Saward and the late Holmes had long agreed for the series ending. John Nathan-Turner subsequently commissioned Pip & Jane Baker to write the final episode after Saward had withdrawn permission for his version of episode 14 to be used following the rejection of his proposed ending. The versions of episodes 13 and 14 that were transmitted were subsequently renamed as "The Ultimate Foe" on the final scripts, an early title that had been used for Pip and Jane Baker's transmitted episodes 9-12 serial that became Terror of the Vervoids . Writer David Halliwell was approached by Eric Saward in early July 1985 as a prospective writer for the "new" Season 23. Halliwell submitted his untitled first draft of the then-untitled two-part story for episodes 9 & 10 to the production office in late July 1985. The story deals with a conflict between the ugly-looking Freds and the beautiful Penelopeans. Work on a second draft began on 14 August 1985 and was completed by 22 August 1985, with a third draft submitted on 11 September 1985. Saward spent much time with Halliwell on further drafts, changing the name of the Freds to Trikes. The fourth revision was delivered on 26 September 1985 and 7 October 1985 saw a fifth draft arrive at the production office. Halliwell received a letter from Saward on 18 October 1985, advising him that Attack from the Mind had been cancelled. Written by Jack Trevor Story . Story was invited to the same series briefing as David Halliwell, and this two-part story episodes 11 & 12 was meant to share sets with Attack from the Mind as well as being linked narratively. The plot centred on a man playing a saxophone inside an empty gasometer. In complete contrast to Halliwell, who submitted a total of five drafts of Attack from the Mind , Story never got around to submitting even his first draft of scripts for The Second Coming , and both stories were cancelled by script editor Eric Saward in October 1985. With the dismissal of Halliwell and Story's scripts, Saward looked to replace them with a single four-part adventure.Written by Christopher H. Bidmead, the story was commissioned on 29 October 1985 as The Last Adventure , this replaced the scripts by David Halliwell and Jack Trevor Story as episodes 9 – 12 with second draft scripts of all four episodes delivered by 9 January 1986. The story was dropped on 7 February 1986, rejected by Eric Saward. Written by P.J. Hammond , the story was commissioned as End of Term on 10 February 1986 as a replacement for Pinacotheca for episodes 9 – 12. It involved the Doctor investigating the resort of Paradise Five, while Mel goes undercover as a hostess. When this script was rejected by producer John Nathan-Turner, it was replaced in turn by Pip & Jane Baker's Terror of the Vervoids . It was later adapted as Paradise 5 by Andy Lane for Big Finish as part of their The Lost Stories series in March 2010, which scrapped all of the Trial scenes from the original script, replaced Mel with Peri, and backdated Paradise 5 to before the events of The Trial of a Time Lord .Time Inc. was the title for the concluding two-part story arc as to have originally been written by Robert Holmes for episodes 13 & 14 when commissioned on 4 February 1986. However, Holmes was unable to work on the script past the first part due to his untimely death on 24 May 1986. Script editor Eric Saward was tasked with completing the story, his version of the script ending with the Doctor and the Valeyard locked in battle in the time vortex and no clear victor. This ending was disapproved by series producer John Nathan-Turner as being too down-beat and would end the show at an inconclusive moment should the BBC decide to cancel the series, with Saward annoyed by what he saw as Nathan-Turner reneging on what Saward and the late Holmes had long agreed for the series ending. John Nathan-Turner subsequently commissioned Pip & Jane Baker to write the final episode after Saward had withdrawn permission for his version of episode 14 to be used following the rejection of his proposed ending. The versions of episodes 13 and 14 that were transmitted were subsequently renamed as "The Ultimate Foe" on the final scripts, an early title that had been used for Pip and Jane Baker's transmitted episodes 9-12 serial that became Terror of the Vervoids . During The Trial of a Time Lord , plans were underway for Season 24 with Colin Baker , although it was unclear whether or not the show was going to cancelled or who was to be in charge if it wasn't. Once John Nathan-Turner knew that Colin Baker had been fired, plans were put in place for a regeneration story. According to his book Doctor Who: The Companions (published at about the time The Trial of a Time Lord was broadcast), Producer John Nathan-Turner intended to chronicle the Doctor's first meeting with Melanie Bush in a later episode. The subsequent dismissal of Colin Baker from the role of the Doctor rendered this potential storyline moot. Written by Pip and Jane Baker, Time and the Rani (originally Strange Matter) was planned to be Colin Baker's final story. Once it was clear that Baker didn't want to return, it was subsequently rewritten as the Seventh Doctor's opening story with the regeneration occurring pre-titles. According to his book Doctor Who: The Companions (published at about the time The Trial of a Time Lord was broadcast), Producer John Nathan-Turner intended to chronicle the Doctor's first meeting with Melanie Bush in a later episode. The subsequent dismissal of Colin Baker from the role of the Doctor rendered this potential storyline moot.Written by Pip and Jane Baker, Time and the Rani (originally Strange Matter) was planned to be Colin Baker's final story. Once it was clear that Baker didn't want to return, it was subsequently rewritten as the Seventh Doctor's opening story with the regeneration occurring pre-titles. Written by Ben Aaronovitch , this story concerned privatisation. This idea was submitted in May 1987, the then script editor Andrew Cartmel liked some of the concepts, but he felt that it was generally inappropriate for Doctor Who, and that there were too many supporting characters. However, Andrew Cartmel encouraged Ben Aaronovitch to pitch more stories, which led to the story Transit . Written by Ben Aaronovitch. It is unknown why it was dropped, but it was replaced by Remembrance of the Daleks . Aaronovitch later adapted Transit as a novel for the Virgin New Adventures series. Written by Robin Mukherjee , this three-part story had been considered for season 26 as the "spare" script should another planned story become no longer suitable. The adventure was to take place on a monastic planet inhabited by humans and large beetles. The humans were monks who worked to provide a special elixir that enhanced intelligence. This elixir would be produced by the beetles feeding on intelligent beings. The abbot of the monastery wants to feed the Doctor to the beetles to produce a more potent elixir for himself. The script was not completed beyond a partial storyline. Mukherjee was unsure how events would have been resolved beyond a contest of wills between the Doctor and the abbot. It was also up for consideration as the final serial of Season 27 where it would have also included the Doctor playing a series of deadly games and would likely have led to the Seventh Doctor's regeneration and Sylvester McCoy's departure. In an interesting historical footnote, Mukherjee would've been the first person of colour writer to work on the programme (something later accomplished by Malorie Blackman 29 years later, with the episode Rosa .) Written by David A. McIntee , this was a four-part Lovecraftian horror story set in Arkham , New England in 1927, although McIntee later began a rewrite to shift the action to Cornwall . The story involved alien bodysnatchers who could only inhabit the bodies of the dead. The villain of the piece would discover the remains of a Silurian god and try and clone a new body from the fossilized body to inhabit. Written by Mike Tucker & Robert Perry , this was a three-part Cybermen story set in war-torn London in the 1940s. They had completed the first two episodes in script form and the final episode as a storyline, which they were planning to submit during the start of production on season 26. Fellow writer Ben Aaronovitch intercepted the script, suggesting that submitting Illegal Alien, a World War II script, to script editor Andrew Cartmel when he was currently editing something similar ( The Curse of Fenric ) was a mistake and to instead submit it for the following series. Tucker & Perry later adapted the story as a novel for the BBC Past Doctors range in October 1997. Written by Marc Platt. The story was to feature the Doctor and Ace, who arrive at the former's ancestral home on the planet Gallifrey and meet his relatives. However, Platt and Andrew Cartmel agreed that the storyline didn't work for TV, and it was replaced by Platt's late script, Ghost Light , which ultimately had to be refocused to revealing more of Ace's back story due to producer John Nathan-Turner arguing that the script was "too revealing" of the Doctor's origins. Platt later adapted the story as a novel for the Virgin New Adventures range in March 1997. In 1988 writer Marc Platt discussed with script editor Andrew Cartmel an idea inspired by Leo Tolstoy 's War and Peace , concerning stone-headed aliens looking for their God-King in Tsarist 19th Century Russia. Before the original Doctor Who series reached its conclusion, some tentative plans had been made for a proposed 27th season under the assumption that it would maintain the then-current pattern of two four-part and two three-part stories. As noted in each entry, Big Finish Productions produced audio adaptations of several scripts as part of their The Lost Stories releases. The safecracking companion introduced in Crime of the Century (see below), who was never named during the planning, has now been given a name, that of Raine Creevy , and she is portrayed by Beth Chalmers. The opening three-part, studio-bound story was to be written by Ben Aaronovitch; a space opera featuring a race of samurai insect-like aliens called the Metatraxi. Bad Destination was to open with Ace in the captain's chair of a starship, and the story would concern the politics of humanitarian aid . The Metatraxi were originally conceived as part of a stage play entitled War World . Bad Destination was later adapted by Aaronovitch and Cartmel for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in July 2011 under the name Earth Aid (a title invented by Dave Owen for his "27 up" article in DWM ). This four-parter, the second story of the proposed series, was to have been written by Marc Platt and was due to feature Ice Warriors in London 1968. It would have seen the departure of Ace to the Prydonian Academy to become a Time Lord . The story was to introduce a character with underworld connections who was intended to become a recurring character similar to the Brigadier . The character would have a daughter born at the conclusion of the adventure who would be named by the Doctor. The plot would have featured an Ice Warrior's armour in the London Dungeon and two reincarnated Warriors continuing a long rivalry. Platt planned to have bikers being controlled by the Ice Warriors (and wearing similar helmets). Platt also intended to include scenes on a terraformed pastoral Mars and a more mystical bent to the aliens while deepening their history. Marc Platt has revealed that the name Ice Time was "only ever invented for an article in Doctor Who Magazine " (Dave Owen's "27 up" article). It was later adapted by Platt for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in April 2011. An unrelated television story by the same name was aired in 2017 as part of Series 10 . Was to have been written by Andrew Cartmel and would have introduced a cat burglar /safecracker as the next companion. The character with underworld connections from Thin Ice would be featured as an older individual and the father of the new companion. Action At a Distance was later adapted by Cartmel for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in May 2011 as Crime of the Century (another title invented by Owen for "27 up"). The audio Earth Aid makes references that this story takes place before it. This version also features Ace. Cartmel had wanted to pen a story of his own. He planned this to include Seventh Doctor's regeneration. Blood and Iron was later adapted by Cartmel for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in June 2011 as Animal (another title invented by Owen for "27 up"). Written by Neil Penswick , this was a three-part futuristic thriller in which a group of soldiers are hunting down two shape-changing criminals called Butler and Swarfe. The cliffhanger to part one had Swarfe changing into a monster who then went on the hunt in part two. Penswick later adapted some material from this for his Virgin New Adventures novel The Pit in March 1993. Written by Edward Young, this is a horror story set in an isolated house. It would feature a group of university staff, one who was a cripple, trapped in the house during winter. One of the characters would turn out to be a murderer. The story took its name and theme from the poem Night-Thoughts by Edward Young , namesake of the story's writer. It was later adapted by Young for Big Finish in February 2006. The adaptation featured the Seventh Doctor and Ace, as well as Big Finish-original companion Hex . Written by Tony Etchells & an unidentified writer, this was to be set during the Great War . The narrative was planned to alternate between the trenches and a British country house doubling as an army academy. In a 2024 interview, Steven Moffat revealed that he and Russell T Davies had both been in talks over scripts for Season 27. He implied that they were writing separately for separate slots. He did not reveal what the stories would be about, though did admit, at another point in the same interview, that he has probably done all his ideas at least twice over the years. Written by David Roden, this story involved the Doctor meeting with the Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart fighting against Cybermen in a church. This story was dropped in favor of Dimensions in Time . Written by David Roden, this two-part story would feature the Doctor and the Brigadier trying to save the Doctor's previous reincarnations from the powers of the Celestial Toymaker. Michael Gough turned down the role, and the story was replaced by Dimensions in Time . The first time the idea of a special video-only anniversary special was mooted was in a memo Nathan-Turner wrote to Head of Video Production Penny Mills on 18 February 1992. With Tom Baker not averse to appearing should conditions be met, serious thought was given to an original production and there was a meeting in June 1992 to discuss the concept of the special; by 21 July 1992 writer Adrian Rigelsford (later joined by Joanna McCaul ) had completed an initial outline for the story entitled Timeflyers . Shortly afterwards the project was given the cover name The Environment Roadshow . A production office was opened for the project in the first week of September 1992 with shooting planned for January–February 1993. The script was sent to Peter Cregeen on 22 March 1993, indicating at the same time that Graeme Harper was being looked at as a potential director for the special. However, issues with budget plagued the production and shooting slipped to taking place November–December 1993 with a final delivery date of 14 March 1994. Around mid-May Cregeen indicated that he'd like to see the special broadcast on the BBC in November 1993. By the end of May 1993, the project was now being referred to as The Dark Dimension before a new working title of Lost in the Dark Dimension was settled on. Harper was contracted as the director of the special in June 1993 and intended Rik Mayall to play the part of the villain, Hawkspur. What was hoped to be the final shooting script was completed on 21 June 1993 and with the production now aimed for broadcast than a direct-to-video release, Alan Yentob gave the special the green light with the plan to have the completed project delivered by 27 November 1993 but by the start of July 1993, budget issues continued to plague the production and on 9 July 1993 the project was officially cancelled. With the project sunk, the thirtieth anniversary was instead celebrated with the light-hearted Children in Need charity special Dimensions in Time and the documentary 30 Years in the TARDIS . The BBC press release had hinted at the plot with the following: The future? The Earth is dying under the onslaught of industry, the polar caps are melting, the ozone layer is nearly destroyed ... To save the planet, the Doctor must overcome the combined forces of some of the most feared of his old adversaries. But he must also confront a far greater enemy – one that has already reverted him to his Fourth Incarnation – in order to save both the past and future Doctors before they are taken out of time and cease to exist. Written by Ben Aaronovitch , this story concerned privatisation. This idea was submitted in May 1987, the then script editor Andrew Cartmel liked some of the concepts, but he felt that it was generally inappropriate for Doctor Who, and that there were too many supporting characters. However, Andrew Cartmel encouraged Ben Aaronovitch to pitch more stories, which led to the story Transit . Written by Ben Aaronovitch. It is unknown why it was dropped, but it was replaced by Remembrance of the Daleks . Aaronovitch later adapted Transit as a novel for the Virgin New Adventures series.Written by Ben Aaronovitch , this story concerned privatisation. This idea was submitted in May 1987, the then script editor Andrew Cartmel liked some of the concepts, but he felt that it was generally inappropriate for Doctor Who, and that there were too many supporting characters. However, Andrew Cartmel encouraged Ben Aaronovitch to pitch more stories, which led to the story Transit . Written by Ben Aaronovitch. It is unknown why it was dropped, but it was replaced by Remembrance of the Daleks . Aaronovitch later adapted Transit as a novel for the Virgin New Adventures series.Written by Robin Mukherjee , this three-part story had been considered for season 26 as the "spare" script should another planned story become no longer suitable. The adventure was to take place on a monastic planet inhabited by humans and large beetles. The humans were monks who worked to provide a special elixir that enhanced intelligence. This elixir would be produced by the beetles feeding on intelligent beings. The abbot of the monastery wants to feed the Doctor to the beetles to produce a more potent elixir for himself. The script was not completed beyond a partial storyline. Mukherjee was unsure how events would have been resolved beyond a contest of wills between the Doctor and the abbot. It was also up for consideration as the final serial of Season 27 where it would have also included the Doctor playing a series of deadly games and would likely have led to the Seventh Doctor's regeneration and Sylvester McCoy's departure. In an interesting historical footnote, Mukherjee would've been the first person of colour writer to work on the programme (something later accomplished by Malorie Blackman 29 years later, with the episode Rosa .) Written by David A. McIntee , this was a four-part Lovecraftian horror story set in Arkham , New England in 1927, although McIntee later began a rewrite to shift the action to Cornwall . The story involved alien bodysnatchers who could only inhabit the bodies of the dead. The villain of the piece would discover the remains of a Silurian god and try and clone a new body from the fossilized body to inhabit. Written by Mike Tucker & Robert Perry , this was a three-part Cybermen story set in war-torn London in the 1940s. They had completed the first two episodes in script form and the final episode as a storyline, which they were planning to submit during the start of production on season 26. Fellow writer Ben Aaronovitch intercepted the script, suggesting that submitting Illegal Alien, a World War II script, to script editor Andrew Cartmel when he was currently editing something similar ( The Curse of Fenric ) was a mistake and to instead submit it for the following series. Tucker & Perry later adapted the story as a novel for the BBC Past Doctors range in October 1997. Written by Marc Platt. The story was to feature the Doctor and Ace, who arrive at the former's ancestral home on the planet Gallifrey and meet his relatives. However, Platt and Andrew Cartmel agreed that the storyline didn't work for TV, and it was replaced by Platt's late script, Ghost Light , which ultimately had to be refocused to revealing more of Ace's back story due to producer John Nathan-Turner arguing that the script was "too revealing" of the Doctor's origins. Platt later adapted the story as a novel for the Virgin New Adventures range in March 1997. In 1988 writer Marc Platt discussed with script editor Andrew Cartmel an idea inspired by Leo Tolstoy 's War and Peace , concerning stone-headed aliens looking for their God-King in Tsarist 19th Century Russia. Written by Robin Mukherjee , this three-part story had been considered for season 26 as the "spare" script should another planned story become no longer suitable. The adventure was to take place on a monastic planet inhabited by humans and large beetles. The humans were monks who worked to provide a special elixir that enhanced intelligence. This elixir would be produced by the beetles feeding on intelligent beings. The abbot of the monastery wants to feed the Doctor to the beetles to produce a more potent elixir for himself. The script was not completed beyond a partial storyline. Mukherjee was unsure how events would have been resolved beyond a contest of wills between the Doctor and the abbot. It was also up for consideration as the final serial of Season 27 where it would have also included the Doctor playing a series of deadly games and would likely have led to the Seventh Doctor's regeneration and Sylvester McCoy's departure. In an interesting historical footnote, Mukherjee would've been the first person of colour writer to work on the programme (something later accomplished by Malorie Blackman 29 years later, with the episode Rosa .) Written by David A. McIntee , this was a four-part Lovecraftian horror story set in Arkham , New England in 1927, although McIntee later began a rewrite to shift the action to Cornwall . The story involved alien bodysnatchers who could only inhabit the bodies of the dead. The villain of the piece would discover the remains of a Silurian god and try and clone a new body from the fossilized body to inhabit. Written by Mike Tucker & Robert Perry , this was a three-part Cybermen story set in war-torn London in the 1940s. They had completed the first two episodes in script form and the final episode as a storyline, which they were planning to submit during the start of production on season 26. Fellow writer Ben Aaronovitch intercepted the script, suggesting that submitting Illegal Alien, a World War II script, to script editor Andrew Cartmel when he was currently editing something similar ( The Curse of Fenric ) was a mistake and to instead submit it for the following series. Tucker & Perry later adapted the story as a novel for the BBC Past Doctors range in October 1997.Written by Marc Platt. The story was to feature the Doctor and Ace, who arrive at the former's ancestral home on the planet Gallifrey and meet his relatives. However, Platt and Andrew Cartmel agreed that the storyline didn't work for TV, and it was replaced by Platt's late script, Ghost Light , which ultimately had to be refocused to revealing more of Ace's back story due to producer John Nathan-Turner arguing that the script was "too revealing" of the Doctor's origins. Platt later adapted the story as a novel for the Virgin New Adventures range in March 1997.In 1988 writer Marc Platt discussed with script editor Andrew Cartmel an idea inspired by Leo Tolstoy 's War and Peace , concerning stone-headed aliens looking for their God-King in Tsarist 19th Century Russia. Before the original Doctor Who series reached its conclusion, some tentative plans had been made for a proposed 27th season under the assumption that it would maintain the then-current pattern of two four-part and two three-part stories. As noted in each entry, Big Finish Productions produced audio adaptations of several scripts as part of their The Lost Stories releases. The safecracking companion introduced in Crime of the Century (see below), who was never named during the planning, has now been given a name, that of Raine Creevy , and she is portrayed by Beth Chalmers. The opening three-part, studio-bound story was to be written by Ben Aaronovitch; a space opera featuring a race of samurai insect-like aliens called the Metatraxi. Bad Destination was to open with Ace in the captain's chair of a starship, and the story would concern the politics of humanitarian aid . The Metatraxi were originally conceived as part of a stage play entitled War World . Bad Destination was later adapted by Aaronovitch and Cartmel for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in July 2011 under the name Earth Aid (a title invented by Dave Owen for his "27 up" article in DWM ). This four-parter, the second story of the proposed series, was to have been written by Marc Platt and was due to feature Ice Warriors in London 1968. It would have seen the departure of Ace to the Prydonian Academy to become a Time Lord . The story was to introduce a character with underworld connections who was intended to become a recurring character similar to the Brigadier . The character would have a daughter born at the conclusion of the adventure who would be named by the Doctor. The plot would have featured an Ice Warrior's armour in the London Dungeon and two reincarnated Warriors continuing a long rivalry. Platt planned to have bikers being controlled by the Ice Warriors (and wearing similar helmets). Platt also intended to include scenes on a terraformed pastoral Mars and a more mystical bent to the aliens while deepening their history. Marc Platt has revealed that the name Ice Time was "only ever invented for an article in Doctor Who Magazine " (Dave Owen's "27 up" article). It was later adapted by Platt for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in April 2011. An unrelated television story by the same name was aired in 2017 as part of Series 10 . Was to have been written by Andrew Cartmel and would have introduced a cat burglar /safecracker as the next companion. The character with underworld connections from Thin Ice would be featured as an older individual and the father of the new companion. Action At a Distance was later adapted by Cartmel for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in May 2011 as Crime of the Century (another title invented by Owen for "27 up"). The audio Earth Aid makes references that this story takes place before it. This version also features Ace. Cartmel had wanted to pen a story of his own. He planned this to include Seventh Doctor's regeneration. Blood and Iron was later adapted by Cartmel for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in June 2011 as Animal (another title invented by Owen for "27 up"). Written by Neil Penswick , this was a three-part futuristic thriller in which a group of soldiers are hunting down two shape-changing criminals called Butler and Swarfe. The cliffhanger to part one had Swarfe changing into a monster who then went on the hunt in part two. Penswick later adapted some material from this for his Virgin New Adventures novel The Pit in March 1993. Written by Edward Young, this is a horror story set in an isolated house. It would feature a group of university staff, one who was a cripple, trapped in the house during winter. One of the characters would turn out to be a murderer. The story took its name and theme from the poem Night-Thoughts by Edward Young , namesake of the story's writer. It was later adapted by Young for Big Finish in February 2006. The adaptation featured the Seventh Doctor and Ace, as well as Big Finish-original companion Hex . Written by Tony Etchells & an unidentified writer, this was to be set during the Great War . The narrative was planned to alternate between the trenches and a British country house doubling as an army academy. In a 2024 interview, Steven Moffat revealed that he and Russell T Davies had both been in talks over scripts for Season 27. He implied that they were writing separately for separate slots. He did not reveal what the stories would be about, though did admit, at another point in the same interview, that he has probably done all his ideas at least twice over the years.The opening three-part, studio-bound story was to be written by Ben Aaronovitch; a space opera featuring a race of samurai insect-like aliens called the Metatraxi. Bad Destination was to open with Ace in the captain's chair of a starship, and the story would concern the politics of humanitarian aid . The Metatraxi were originally conceived as part of a stage play entitled War World . Bad Destination was later adapted by Aaronovitch and Cartmel for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in July 2011 under the name Earth Aid (a title invented by Dave Owen for his "27 up" article in DWM ).This four-parter, the second story of the proposed series, was to have been written by Marc Platt and was due to feature Ice Warriors in London 1968. It would have seen the departure of Ace to the Prydonian Academy to become a Time Lord . The story was to introduce a character with underworld connections who was intended to become a recurring character similar to the Brigadier . The character would have a daughter born at the conclusion of the adventure who would be named by the Doctor. The plot would have featured an Ice Warrior's armour in the London Dungeon and two reincarnated Warriors continuing a long rivalry. Platt planned to have bikers being controlled by the Ice Warriors (and wearing similar helmets). Platt also intended to include scenes on a terraformed pastoral Mars and a more mystical bent to the aliens while deepening their history. Marc Platt has revealed that the name Ice Time was "only ever invented for an article in Doctor Who Magazine " (Dave Owen's "27 up" article). It was later adapted by Platt for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in April 2011. An unrelated television story by the same name was aired in 2017 as part of Series 10 .Was to have been written by Andrew Cartmel and would have introduced a cat burglar /safecracker as the next companion. The character with underworld connections from Thin Ice would be featured as an older individual and the father of the new companion. Action At a Distance was later adapted by Cartmel for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in May 2011 as Crime of the Century (another title invented by Owen for "27 up"). The audio Earth Aid makes references that this story takes place before it. This version also features Ace.Cartmel had wanted to pen a story of his own. He planned this to include Seventh Doctor's regeneration. Blood and Iron was later adapted by Cartmel for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range in June 2011 as Animal (another title invented by Owen for "27 up").Written by Neil Penswick , this was a three-part futuristic thriller in which a group of soldiers are hunting down two shape-changing criminals called Butler and Swarfe. The cliffhanger to part one had Swarfe changing into a monster who then went on the hunt in part two. Penswick later adapted some material from this for his Virgin New Adventures novel The Pit in March 1993.Written by Edward Young, this is a horror story set in an isolated house. It would feature a group of university staff, one who was a cripple, trapped in the house during winter. One of the characters would turn out to be a murderer. The story took its name and theme from the poem Night-Thoughts by Edward Young , namesake of the story's writer. It was later adapted by Young for Big Finish in February 2006. The adaptation featured the Seventh Doctor and Ace, as well as Big Finish-original companion Hex .Written by Tony Etchells & an unidentified writer, this was to be set during the Great War . The narrative was planned to alternate between the trenches and a British country house doubling as an army academy. In a 2024 interview, Steven Moffat revealed that he and Russell T Davies had both been in talks over scripts for Season 27. He implied that they were writing separately for separate slots. He did not reveal what the stories would be about, though did admit, at another point in the same interview, that he has probably done all his ideas at least twice over the years.Written by David Roden, this story involved the Doctor meeting with the Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart fighting against Cybermen in a church. This story was dropped in favor of Dimensions in Time . Written by David Roden, this two-part story would feature the Doctor and the Brigadier trying to save the Doctor's previous reincarnations from the powers of the Celestial Toymaker. Michael Gough turned down the role, and the story was replaced by Dimensions in Time . The first time the idea of a special video-only anniversary special was mooted was in a memo Nathan-Turner wrote to Head of Video Production Penny Mills on 18 February 1992. With Tom Baker not averse to appearing should conditions be met, serious thought was given to an original production and there was a meeting in June 1992 to discuss the concept of the special; by 21 July 1992 writer Adrian Rigelsford (later joined by Joanna McCaul ) had completed an initial outline for the story entitled Timeflyers . Shortly afterwards the project was given the cover name The Environment Roadshow . A production office was opened for the project in the first week of September 1992 with shooting planned for January–February 1993. The script was sent to Peter Cregeen on 22 March 1993, indicating at the same time that Graeme Harper was being looked at as a potential director for the special. However, issues with budget plagued the production and shooting slipped to taking place November–December 1993 with a final delivery date of 14 March 1994. Around mid-May Cregeen indicated that he'd like to see the special broadcast on the BBC in November 1993. By the end of May 1993, the project was now being referred to as The Dark Dimension before a new working title of Lost in the Dark Dimension was settled on. Harper was contracted as the director of the special in June 1993 and intended Rik Mayall to play the part of the villain, Hawkspur. What was hoped to be the final shooting script was completed on 21 June 1993 and with the production now aimed for broadcast than a direct-to-video release, Alan Yentob gave the special the green light with the plan to have the completed project delivered by 27 November 1993 but by the start of July 1993, budget issues continued to plague the production and on 9 July 1993 the project was officially cancelled. With the project sunk, the thirtieth anniversary was instead celebrated with the light-hearted Children in Need charity special Dimensions in Time and the documentary 30 Years in the TARDIS . The BBC press release had hinted at the plot with the following: The future? The Earth is dying under the onslaught of industry, the polar caps are melting, the ozone layer is nearly destroyed ... To save the planet, the Doctor must overcome the combined forces of some of the most feared of his old adversaries. But he must also confront a far greater enemy – one that has already reverted him to his Fourth Incarnation – in order to save both the past and future Doctors before they are taken out of time and cease to exist. Written by David Roden, this story involved the Doctor meeting with the Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart fighting against Cybermen in a church. This story was dropped in favor of Dimensions in Time .Written by David Roden, this two-part story would feature the Doctor and the Brigadier trying to save the Doctor's previous reincarnations from the powers of the Celestial Toymaker. Michael Gough turned down the role, and the story was replaced by Dimensions in Time .The first time the idea of a special video-only anniversary special was mooted was in a memo Nathan-Turner wrote to Head of Video Production Penny Mills on 18 February 1992. With Tom Baker not averse to appearing should conditions be met, serious thought was given to an original production and there was a meeting in June 1992 to discuss the concept of the special; by 21 July 1992 writer Adrian Rigelsford (later joined by Joanna McCaul ) had completed an initial outline for the story entitled Timeflyers . Shortly afterwards the project was given the cover name The Environment Roadshow . A production office was opened for the project in the first week of September 1992 with shooting planned for January–February 1993. The script was sent to Peter Cregeen on 22 March 1993, indicating at the same time that Graeme Harper was being looked at as a potential director for the special. However, issues with budget plagued the production and shooting slipped to taking place November–December 1993 with a final delivery date of 14 March 1994. Around mid-May Cregeen indicated that he'd like to see the special broadcast on the BBC in November 1993. By the end of May 1993, the project was now being referred to as The Dark Dimension before a new working title of Lost in the Dark Dimension was settled on. Harper was contracted as the director of the special in June 1993 and intended Rik Mayall to play the part of the villain, Hawkspur. What was hoped to be the final shooting script was completed on 21 June 1993 and with the production now aimed for broadcast than a direct-to-video release, Alan Yentob gave the special the green light with the plan to have the completed project delivered by 27 November 1993 but by the start of July 1993, budget issues continued to plague the production and on 9 July 1993 the project was officially cancelled. With the project sunk, the thirtieth anniversary was instead celebrated with the light-hearted Children in Need charity special Dimensions in Time and the documentary 30 Years in the TARDIS . The BBC press release had hinted at the plot with the following: The future? The Earth is dying under the onslaught of industry, the polar caps are melting, the ozone layer is nearly destroyed ... To save the planet, the Doctor must overcome the combined forces of some of the most feared of his old adversaries. But he must also confront a far greater enemy – one that has already reverted him to his Fourth Incarnation – in order to save both the past and future Doctors before they are taken out of time and cease to exist. Early in the process that was to lead to the 1996 Doctor Who film , Universal Television had Amblin Entertainment produce a writers' bible which detailed John Leekley 's proposed pilot and episodes of a new series. The new series would have established a new continuity rather than following on from the classic series, and the bible reused many elements from the classic series. It is unclear whether clearance could have been obtained for all the episodes detailed, as the costs would likely have fallen to the BBC. The pilot was to feature the half-human Doctor seeking his father, Ulysses, through various time periods—contemporary Gallifrey (where Borusa dies and is merged with the TARDIS, and the Master becomes leader of the Time Lords), England during the Blitz, Ancient Egypt , and Skaro (where the Daleks are being created ). Other proposed episodes in the bible included The Pirates , in which the Doctor teamed up with Blackbeard , and several remakes of stories from the classic series, including: Earlier versions of the bible included, among others: Leekley's scripts were not well received at Amblin or elsewhere; and in September 1994, he was removed from the project. Early in the process that was to lead to the 1996 Doctor Who film , Universal Television had Amblin Entertainment produce a writers' bible which detailed John Leekley 's proposed pilot and episodes of a new series. The new series would have established a new continuity rather than following on from the classic series, and the bible reused many elements from the classic series. It is unclear whether clearance could have been obtained for all the episodes detailed, as the costs would likely have fallen to the BBC. The pilot was to feature the half-human Doctor seeking his father, Ulysses, through various time periods—contemporary Gallifrey (where Borusa dies and is merged with the TARDIS, and the Master becomes leader of the Time Lords), England during the Blitz, Ancient Egypt , and Skaro (where the Daleks are being created ). Other proposed episodes in the bible included The Pirates , in which the Doctor teamed up with Blackbeard , and several remakes of stories from the classic series, including: Earlier versions of the bible included, among others: Leekley's scripts were not well received at Amblin or elsewhere; and in September 1994, he was removed from the project. Written by Russell T Davies , the episode was intended for the episode 11 slot of Series 1 . The Doctor, Rose and Jack would land in Pompeii, on the day Mount Vesuvius erupted. It later evolved into " The Fires of Pompeii ". Written by Paul Abbott , this episode was also intended for the episode 11 slot of Series 1 . The storyline was about the revelation that The Doctor had manipulated Rose's life to experiment on what the perfect companion would be. However, the episode was dropped when Abbott's commitment to Shameless and other projects led him to drop out of the episode. Written by Mark Gatiss , this episode concerned an alien entity living inside a song, anyone who listened to the melody would turn into faceless creatures. A draft was written to accommodate the Ninth Doctor, before the announcement of the casting of the Tenth Doctor moved the story into Series 2 where it evolved into The Idiot's Lantern . Concepts from the story would later be reused in Sleep No More .Written by Russell T Davies , the episode was intended for the episode 11 slot of Series 1 . The Doctor, Rose and Jack would land in Pompeii, on the day Mount Vesuvius erupted. It later evolved into " The Fires of Pompeii ".Written by Paul Abbott , this episode was also intended for the episode 11 slot of Series 1 . The storyline was about the revelation that The Doctor had manipulated Rose's life to experiment on what the perfect companion would be. However, the episode was dropped when Abbott's commitment to Shameless and other projects led him to drop out of the episode. Written by Mark Gatiss , this episode concerned an alien entity living inside a song, anyone who listened to the melody would turn into faceless creatures. A draft was written to accommodate the Ninth Doctor, before the announcement of the casting of the Tenth Doctor moved the story into Series 2 where it evolved into The Idiot's Lantern . Concepts from the story would later be reused in Sleep No More .Written by Stephen Fry , the episode was to be set in the 1920's and would have concerned about the Arthurian legend of the Green Knight. Drafts were written for the eleventh episode of Series 2 with Stephen attending the first cast read-through for Series 2. However, due to budgetary constraints, the episode was to be moved into Series 3. Fry, with no spare time for the rewriting necessary due to commitments to the series Kingdom , allowed the team to withdraw the episode from Series 3. Written by Matthew Graham , the episode would have had the TARDIS land in a grey landscape, with the grass, sky and trees drained of colour, where it would have turned out that the villain was sucking all the beauty out of the world. Originally placed for Series 3, it was moved back to the eleventh episode slot of Series 2 when Stephen Fry's script had to be pulled out due to budgetary concerns. After rewriting and tuning the story, the storyline later evolved into Fear Her . Written by Russell T Davies , the episode would have had The Doctor meet new companion, Penny Carter just as London would be enclosed in a glass dome whilst an alien would have roamed the streets. Originally planned with new companion, journalist Penny Carter in mind, plans changed when Catherine Tate had decided to sign on for a full series as Donna Noble. The episode was abandoned when plans had changed to move on different storylines, eventually leading into Partners in Crime . Written by Mark Gatiss , the episode would have had a Nazi task force assault the Natural History Museum in London, which had been overrun by monsters. Later action would have involved the discovery of a secret chamber beneath the museum. Originally written for Series 3 with Martha Jones as companion, it was delayed to later become the third episode of Series 4 where it was rewritten with Penny Carter, then Donna Noble. It was then removed from the schedules when Russell T Davies wanted to pursue The Fires of Pompeii instead. Mark Gatiss would end up using the setting of the Second World War for his next story " Victory of the Daleks " and the museum elements would be used with Steven Moffat's The Big Bang . A "companion-lite" episode, Century House was written by Tom MacRae for Series 3 of the revived show. The Doctor was to appear on a live broadcast of Most Haunted , investigating a house haunted by the "Red Widow", with Martha Jones watching at home as a framing device. The episode did not fit into the production schedule, and was pushed back to Series 4 and reworked such that the show was watched by Donna Noble and her mother Sylvia. Due to dissatisfaction with the premise, and to avoid two comedic episodes in the same series, the episode was dropped and replaced with Davies' Midnight . This premise was expanded upon for the Doctor Who audio drama No Place . An audio drama of Century House by VocaLAB Productions was released in 2022, featuring regular Tenth Doctor impersonator Elliott Crossley. A family goes to a hotel with their gran, (a role which Davies hoped would have been played by Helen Mirren). Gran hates the family so much that she wants them to disappear, and then they do. She's stuck in the hotel until the Doctor appears in a lift. Russell T Davies thought of this idea for a potential Christmas Special for 2009 to give to Phil Ford to write. Phil decided to use some aliens in the plot he was given, including a chase scene down Buckingham Palace. However, Russell decided that the better choice was 'Christmas on Mars' which then became " The Waters of Mars ". This was a storyline that Russell T Davies thought up as a final one-part special for David Tennant on Doctor Who, (this was going to air around Easter 2010, near the time Series 5 would be airing). The plot would have been that the Doctor finds a spaceship with an alien family on board (Russell mockingly titled them 'The Prostetix Family'.) where the ship was broken, in the special he would have to sacrifice his life to save this family. This was a choice of a plotline which was also brought up with a two-part special that then became " The End of Time " that he told to Jane Tranter and Julie Gardner. The Prostetix family was kept in the special but were changed to be the Vinvocci, Addams and Rossiter.Written by Stephen Fry , the episode was to be set in the 1920's and would have concerned about the Arthurian legend of the Green Knight. Drafts were written for the eleventh episode of Series 2 with Stephen attending the first cast read-through for Series 2. However, due to budgetary constraints, the episode was to be moved into Series 3. Fry, with no spare time for the rewriting necessary due to commitments to the series Kingdom , allowed the team to withdraw the episode from Series 3. Written by Matthew Graham , the episode would have had the TARDIS land in a grey landscape, with the grass, sky and trees drained of colour, where it would have turned out that the villain was sucking all the beauty out of the world. Originally placed for Series 3, it was moved back to the eleventh episode slot of Series 2 when Stephen Fry's script had to be pulled out due to budgetary concerns. After rewriting and tuning the story, the storyline later evolved into Fear Her .Written by Russell T Davies , the episode would have had The Doctor meet new companion, Penny Carter just as London would be enclosed in a glass dome whilst an alien would have roamed the streets. Originally planned with new companion, journalist Penny Carter in mind, plans changed when Catherine Tate had decided to sign on for a full series as Donna Noble. The episode was abandoned when plans had changed to move on different storylines, eventually leading into Partners in Crime .Written by Mark Gatiss , the episode would have had a Nazi task force assault the Natural History Museum in London, which had been overrun by monsters. Later action would have involved the discovery of a secret chamber beneath the museum. Originally written for Series 3 with Martha Jones as companion, it was delayed to later become the third episode of Series 4 where it was rewritten with Penny Carter, then Donna Noble. It was then removed from the schedules when Russell T Davies wanted to pursue The Fires of Pompeii instead. Mark Gatiss would end up using the setting of the Second World War for his next story " Victory of the Daleks " and the museum elements would be used with Steven Moffat's The Big Bang . A "companion-lite" episode, Century House was written by Tom MacRae for Series 3 of the revived show. The Doctor was to appear on a live broadcast of Most Haunted , investigating a house haunted by the "Red Widow", with Martha Jones watching at home as a framing device. The episode did not fit into the production schedule, and was pushed back to Series 4 and reworked such that the show was watched by Donna Noble and her mother Sylvia. Due to dissatisfaction with the premise, and to avoid two comedic episodes in the same series, the episode was dropped and replaced with Davies' Midnight . This premise was expanded upon for the Doctor Who audio drama No Place . An audio drama of Century House by VocaLAB Productions was released in 2022, featuring regular Tenth Doctor impersonator Elliott Crossley. A family goes to a hotel with their gran, (a role which Davies hoped would have been played by Helen Mirren). Gran hates the family so much that she wants them to disappear, and then they do. She's stuck in the hotel until the Doctor appears in a lift. Russell T Davies thought of this idea for a potential Christmas Special for 2009 to give to Phil Ford to write. Phil decided to use some aliens in the plot he was given, including a chase scene down Buckingham Palace. However, Russell decided that the better choice was 'Christmas on Mars' which then became " The Waters of Mars ".This was a storyline that Russell T Davies thought up as a final one-part special for David Tennant on Doctor Who, (this was going to air around Easter 2010, near the time Series 5 would be airing). The plot would have been that the Doctor finds a spaceship with an alien family on board (Russell mockingly titled them 'The Prostetix Family'.) where the ship was broken, in the special he would have to sacrifice his life to save this family. This was a choice of a plotline which was also brought up with a two-part special that then became " The End of Time " that he told to Jane Tranter and Julie Gardner. The Prostetix family was kept in the special but were changed to be the Vinvocci, Addams and Rossiter.Written by Matthew Graham and planned for the 2010 series, to be about an old people's home and a lighthouse that was a spaceship. Trips to the US, and Graham's work on Ashes to Ashes precluded him from developing the storyline to script stage. During an Interview, Robert Shearman revealed he was asked to write an episode for Series 5 by Steven Moffat. He attended the read-through. He left due to feeling that he could "never get the story right". Written by Gareth Roberts . Before settling upon the storyline that would become The Lodger , Roberts initially developed a different storyline for the 2010 series which would have featured a disgraced Sontaran called Strom. This idea reached the draft stage before being abandoned altogether. However, the idea of Strom was later recycled into Sontaran Commander Strax , who first appeared in A Good Man Goes to War and became a recurring character. Paul Cornell was invited by showrunner Steven Moffat to work on a script idea for inclusion in series 5. Initially, Moffat suggested the possibility of adapting Cornell's Virgin New Adventure novel " Love and War ", originally published in 1992. Big Finish would later produce an audio adaption of this novel twenty years later in 2012. Cornell's Doctor Who short story "The Hopes and Fears of All the Years" was also considered as a possibility for adaption, previously published by The Daily Telegraph in 2007. The short story involves the Doctor visiting a little boy every Christmas Day through to adulthood with the foreknowledge that the Doctor is destined to save the boy's life. A similar idea was later used in Moffat's 2010 Christmas special " A Christmas Carol ", much to Cornell's annoyance at the time. As it was clear that Cornell would not be writing the Christmas special, it was decided to use the boy's birthday instead. Cornell worked on six drafts of the script before it became apparent that the cost of depicting many different time periods, including two world wars, in one episode would be too prohibitive. It was then hoped by the production team that the idea could be reworked for inclusion in Series 6, however, this came to nothing.Written by Matthew Graham and planned for the 2010 series, to be about an old people's home and a lighthouse that was a spaceship. Trips to the US, and Graham's work on Ashes to Ashes precluded him from developing the storyline to script stage. During an Interview, Robert Shearman revealed he was asked to write an episode for Series 5 by Steven Moffat. He attended the read-through. He left due to feeling that he could "never get the story right". Written by Gareth Roberts . Before settling upon the storyline that would become The Lodger , Roberts initially developed a different storyline for the 2010 series which would have featured a disgraced Sontaran called Strom. This idea reached the draft stage before being abandoned altogether. However, the idea of Strom was later recycled into Sontaran Commander Strax , who first appeared in A Good Man Goes to War and became a recurring character.Paul Cornell was invited by showrunner Steven Moffat to work on a script idea for inclusion in series 5. Initially, Moffat suggested the possibility of adapting Cornell's Virgin New Adventure novel " Love and War ", originally published in 1992. Big Finish would later produce an audio adaption of this novel twenty years later in 2012.Cornell's Doctor Who short story "The Hopes and Fears of All the Years" was also considered as a possibility for adaption, previously published by The Daily Telegraph in 2007. The short story involves the Doctor visiting a little boy every Christmas Day through to adulthood with the foreknowledge that the Doctor is destined to save the boy's life. A similar idea was later used in Moffat's 2010 Christmas special " A Christmas Carol ", much to Cornell's annoyance at the time. As it was clear that Cornell would not be writing the Christmas special, it was decided to use the boy's birthday instead. Cornell worked on six drafts of the script before it became apparent that the cost of depicting many different time periods, including two world wars, in one episode would be too prohibitive. It was then hoped by the production team that the idea could be reworked for inclusion in Series 6, however, this came to nothing.Intended to be written by Peter Harness , this story would have seen the return of the Meddling Monk. The intent was for him to be played by Matt Berry , and would revolve around an encounter with Rasputin . It was never made, but Harness later published the opening page of a script on his Twitter account. Elements of this story would be used by Chris Chibnall for the 2022 Thirteenth Doctor story " The Power of the Doctor ", where a different renegade Time Lord—the Master—impersonates Rasputin. After the submission of his untitled vampire story, Paul Cornell submitted a storyline idea titled "Pride and Prejudice and Daleks", which would have taken place in the Land of Fiction, previously seen in the 1968 story The Mind Robber . However, Cornell was informed that the idea was too similar to a script already in development by another writer and so they would not be able to develop the idea with Cornell any further. Written by Jamie Mathieson , the episode would have had the Doctor be mistaken for Matthew Hopkins , the Witchfinder General. Moffat found the pitch too dark and Mathieson would instead write Oxygen . Written by Mark Gatiss. After " Sleep No More " aired, Gatiss had initially developed a sequel that would have pre-empted the story by being set thousands of years before Gagan Rassmussen's Morpheus process experiments at the Le Verrier, where the Doctor discovers the same process being experimented with on Earth. The script was changed once Gatiss had found out that showrunner Steven Moffat was leaving and the story he was doing would be his last for the show; he instead pitched " Empress of Mars ". Intended to be written by Peter Harness , this story would have seen the return of the Meddling Monk. The intent was for him to be played by Matt Berry , and would revolve around an encounter with Rasputin . It was never made, but Harness later published the opening page of a script on his Twitter account. Elements of this story would be used by Chris Chibnall for the 2022 Thirteenth Doctor story " The Power of the Doctor ", where a different renegade Time Lord—the Master—impersonates Rasputin.After the submission of his untitled vampire story, Paul Cornell submitted a storyline idea titled "Pride and Prejudice and Daleks", which would have taken place in the Land of Fiction, previously seen in the 1968 story The Mind Robber . However, Cornell was informed that the idea was too similar to a script already in development by another writer and so they would not be able to develop the idea with Cornell any further.Written by Jamie Mathieson , the episode would have had the Doctor be mistaken for Matthew Hopkins , the Witchfinder General. Moffat found the pitch too dark and Mathieson would instead write Oxygen . Written by Mark Gatiss. After " Sleep No More " aired, Gatiss had initially developed a sequel that would have pre-empted the story by being set thousands of years before Gagan Rassmussen's Morpheus process experiments at the Le Verrier, where the Doctor discovers the same process being experimented with on Earth. The script was changed once Gatiss had found out that showrunner Steven Moffat was leaving and the story he was doing would be his last for the show; he instead pitched " Empress of Mars ". Written by Ed Hime. This story was based on one of the very early ideas that Ed Hime had in the first writer's room for Series 11. The storyline had played out in an ex-military compound that had been turned into a safari lodge on a war-devastated planet that was home to the Blox/Damaje. The species were a tourist attraction for tourists who wanted to see the rare life form. A draft of the script was set on a planet named Kryll. The story was then shelved for Series 11 in early 2017 as Ed decided to write " It Takes You Away " before transforming the idea into what would become Orphan 55 in 2018. Written by Chris Chibnall. This story would have been a sequel to The Tsuranga Conundrum and seen multiple Ptings. The original version of Series 13 had to be jettisoned, due to the COVID-19 pandemic demanding alterations to production. Ed Hime was set to write an untitled episode for the original series, as was Pete McTighe . Both were abandoned in favour of a serialized narrative which became Flux . Whilst planning out the 2022 specials, Chris Chibnall had originally planned for the 2022 New Year special to be set on board a moving bullet train through space. However, when it was realised that he would not have enough time to allow the production team to build the set in time for production, he wrote Eve of the Daleks as a replacement. A version of the original idea would later appear as the opening setpiece of the 2022 Centenary special, The Power of the Doctor . Written by Ed Hime. This story was based on one of the very early ideas that Ed Hime had in the first writer's room for Series 11. The storyline had played out in an ex-military compound that had been turned into a safari lodge on a war-devastated planet that was home to the Blox/Damaje. The species were a tourist attraction for tourists who wanted to see the rare life form. A draft of the script was set on a planet named Kryll. The story was then shelved for Series 11 in early 2017 as Ed decided to write " It Takes You Away " before transforming the idea into what would become Orphan 55 in 2018. Written by Chris Chibnall. This story would have been a sequel to The Tsuranga Conundrum and seen multiple Ptings. The original version of Series 13 had to be jettisoned, due to the COVID-19 pandemic demanding alterations to production. Ed Hime was set to write an untitled episode for the original series, as was Pete McTighe . Both were abandoned in favour of a serialized narrative which became Flux .Whilst planning out the 2022 specials, Chris Chibnall had originally planned for the 2022 New Year special to be set on board a moving bullet train through space. However, when it was realised that he would not have enough time to allow the production team to build the set in time for production, he wrote Eve of the Daleks as a replacement. A version of the original idea would later appear as the opening setpiece of the 2022 Centenary special, The Power of the Doctor . Several proposals for Doctor Who spin-offs have been proposed, including one featuring the Doctor's friends Professor George Litefoot and Henry Gordon Jago from The Talons of Weng Chiang . On 1 November 1966, Dalek creator Terry Nation pitched a spin-off series The Daleks to the BBC, writing a thirty-minute teleplay entitled "The Destroyers" as a possible pilot episode for an American co-production. The Daleks was to have focused on the adventures of the SSS. Lead characters included agents Captain Jack Corey, David Kingdom, his sister Sara Kingdom (from the Doctor Who story The Daleks' Master Plan , in which Kingdom died) and Mark Seven, an android . On 22 November 1966, the BBC informed Nation that they were no longer interested in the project. The pilot episode was adapted by Nicholas Briggs and John Dorney for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range for an audio story released in December 2010 and included on The Second Doctor Boxset , although it did not feature the Doctor himself. In 1990, following the cancellation of the live-action series, the BBC approached the Canadian animation house Nelvana to propose an animated continuation of the show. The cartoon series was to feature an unspecified new Doctor, incorporating elements of various BBC series Doctors. It was not to be more oriented toward a young audience than the live-action series; rather, it was intended to be a continuation of the cancelled series in animated form in to save costs, with design elements that would promote merchandise sales. According to Nelvana's Ted Bastien : "We went through a lot of development on it, then we were scripting and storyboarding it and about four scripts had been written. It happened really fast". Concept art was prepared to depict several possible versions of the Doctor based on actors such as Peter O'Toole , Jeff Goldblum and Christopher Lloyd with elements of the wardrobes of previous Doctors. Production sketches also showed new versions of allies such as K-9 and enemies such as the Daleks and Cybermen. The Master was to be "half-man, half-robot with a cybernetic bird accessory and a face modeled after Sean Connery ". The show was also to feature female companions from Earth, and space battles which the BBC would not have been able to afford for the live-action series. The series would have been Nelvana's biggest show to date. According to Bastien, "it was pulled out from under us" after a British animation studio told the BBC that it could do what Nelvana intended for a much lower price. The project did not proceed further and no pilot was produced. Elisabeth Sladen was approached to return to Doctor Who as Sarah Jane Smith to help with the transition between Tom Baker and Peter Davison but resisted the offer. Following the outcry after K-9 was removed from the show, producer John Nathan-Turner proposed a spin-off featuring the two characters. A single episode, "A Girl's Best Friend", was produced as a pilot for a proposed series, and broadcast by BBC1 as a Christmas special on 28 December 1981, but the series was not taken up. The basic premise of a series centered on Sarah Jane Smith was reused by Big Finish with the Sarah Jane Smith audio series and in the TV Series The Sarah Jane Adventures just over 25 years later. When it was decided that Billie Piper would leave the series at the end of Series 2, executive producer and head writer Russell T Davies considered giving her character Rose Tyler her own 90-minute spin-off production, Rose Tyler: Earth Defence , with the possibility of such a special becoming an annual Bank Holiday event. The special would have picked up from Rose's departure in Doomsday , in which Rose joins the Torchwood Institute of a parallel Earth. The special was officially commissioned by Peter Fincham , the Controller of BBC One , and assigned a production budget. Davies changed his mind while filming Piper's final scenes for Series 2 of Doctor Who . He would later call Earth Defence "a spin-off too far," and decided that for the audience to be able to see Rose, when the Doctor could not, would spoil the ending of Doomsday . The production was cancelled. Davies said Piper had been told about the idea, but the project ended before she was formally approached about starring in it. The plot element of Rose working with an alternative Earth's Torchwood would be revisited in " The Stolen Earth " and " Journey's End ". On 1 November 1966, Dalek creator Terry Nation pitched a spin-off series The Daleks to the BBC, writing a thirty-minute teleplay entitled "The Destroyers" as a possible pilot episode for an American co-production. The Daleks was to have focused on the adventures of the SSS. Lead characters included agents Captain Jack Corey, David Kingdom, his sister Sara Kingdom (from the Doctor Who story The Daleks' Master Plan , in which Kingdom died) and Mark Seven, an android . On 22 November 1966, the BBC informed Nation that they were no longer interested in the project. The pilot episode was adapted by Nicholas Briggs and John Dorney for Big Finish's The Lost Stories range for an audio story released in December 2010 and included on The Second Doctor Boxset , although it did not feature the Doctor himself.In 1990, following the cancellation of the live-action series, the BBC approached the Canadian animation house Nelvana to propose an animated continuation of the show. The cartoon series was to feature an unspecified new Doctor, incorporating elements of various BBC series Doctors. It was not to be more oriented toward a young audience than the live-action series; rather, it was intended to be a continuation of the cancelled series in animated form in to save costs, with design elements that would promote merchandise sales. According to Nelvana's Ted Bastien : "We went through a lot of development on it, then we were scripting and storyboarding it and about four scripts had been written. It happened really fast". Concept art was prepared to depict several possible versions of the Doctor based on actors such as Peter O'Toole , Jeff Goldblum and Christopher Lloyd with elements of the wardrobes of previous Doctors. Production sketches also showed new versions of allies such as K-9 and enemies such as the Daleks and Cybermen. The Master was to be "half-man, half-robot with a cybernetic bird accessory and a face modeled after Sean Connery ". The show was also to feature female companions from Earth, and space battles which the BBC would not have been able to afford for the live-action series. The series would have been Nelvana's biggest show to date. According to Bastien, "it was pulled out from under us" after a British animation studio told the BBC that it could do what Nelvana intended for a much lower price. The project did not proceed further and no pilot was produced. Elisabeth Sladen was approached to return to Doctor Who as Sarah Jane Smith to help with the transition between Tom Baker and Peter Davison but resisted the offer. Following the outcry after K-9 was removed from the show, producer John Nathan-Turner proposed a spin-off featuring the two characters. A single episode, "A Girl's Best Friend", was produced as a pilot for a proposed series, and broadcast by BBC1 as a Christmas special on 28 December 1981, but the series was not taken up. The basic premise of a series centered on Sarah Jane Smith was reused by Big Finish with the Sarah Jane Smith audio series and in the TV Series The Sarah Jane Adventures just over 25 years later.When it was decided that Billie Piper would leave the series at the end of Series 2, executive producer and head writer Russell T Davies considered giving her character Rose Tyler her own 90-minute spin-off production, Rose Tyler: Earth Defence , with the possibility of such a special becoming an annual Bank Holiday event. The special would have picked up from Rose's departure in Doomsday , in which Rose joins the Torchwood Institute of a parallel Earth. The special was officially commissioned by Peter Fincham , the Controller of BBC One , and assigned a production budget. Davies changed his mind while filming Piper's final scenes for Series 2 of Doctor Who . He would later call Earth Defence "a spin-off too far," and decided that for the audience to be able to see Rose, when the Doctor could not, would spoil the ending of Doomsday . The production was cancelled. Davies said Piper had been told about the idea, but the project ended before she was formally approached about starring in it. The plot element of Rose working with an alternative Earth's Torchwood would be revisited in " The Stolen Earth " and " Journey's End ". In the mid-1960s, two motion pictures starring Peter Cushing as the non-canon " Dr. Who " (a human in the films) were produced, based on the television stories The Daleks and The Dalek Invasion of Earth . Since then, there have been periodic further attempts to adapt Doctor Who as a feature film. Walt Disney Productions had expressed interest in a remake of the Doctor Who serial Marco Polo as a straight historical adventure film with the element of the Doctor and his companions removed. Plans to adapt the Dalek serial The Chase were shelved after the poor box office reception of Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D. . During spare time in filming, Tom Baker (the Fourth Doctor ) and Ian Marter ( Harry Sullivan ), who later novelised several Doctor Who scripts for Target Books, wrote a script for a Doctor Who film which they entitled Doctor Who Meets Scratchman (alternatively Doctor Who and the Big Game ). The script saw the Doctor encounter the Devil (who called himself Harry Scratch or Scratchman), the Daleks, robots known as Cybors, scarecrows made from bones and, briefly, the Greek god Pan . At times Vincent Price and Twiggy were associated with the production. Price would have played the villain Harry Scratch and Twiggy a replacement female companion after Elisabeth Sladen had left the TV series. The finale of the film was to have taken place on a giant pinball table, with the Doctor, Harry and Sarah dodging balls as well as battling Daleks on the board. Up until the late 1970s, Baker repeatedly tried to attract funding for the film. In an interview in 1975, Baker had referred to the flaws of the two Peter Cushing Dalek films in the 1960s, saying "There have been two Doctor Who films in the past, both rather poor... There are many dangers in transporting a television series onto the big screen... a lot of things that you could get away with on the small screen wouldn't wash in the cinema." At one point, he received substantial donations from fans, but after taking legal advice was forced to return them. The plans were dropped. With the release of Star Wars , it also seemed futile for a movie of this kind to even try to compete. In late January 2019, BBC Books released a novelization of the screenplay by Tom Baker himself, co-written with James Goss. In 1984, after failing to find success in financing King Crab , a horror film based on Guy N. Smith 's Night of the Crabs , Milton Subtosky, who had produced the 1960s Dalek films, adapted the screenplay into a Doctor Who film featuring two Doctors. He envisioned either Jon Pertwee or Tom Baker in the role of an older Doctor, and a new actor in the role of a younger one. At first the working title was The Lossiemouth Affair and later it became Dr Who's Greatest Adventure . Subotsky pursued production of the film until 1991 when he died. As the original Doctor Who series was nearing its end and continuing during the first interregnum (1989–1996), numerous attempts were made to adapt the series for the big screen for the first time since the Peter Cushing films of the 1960s. Jean-Marc Lofficier , in his book The Nth Doctor , profiles a number of film proposals, some of which came close to being produced. Ultimately, however, the only film version of Doctor Who (other than the two Cushing films) produced to date has been the 1996 made-for-TV film which was developed as a continuation of the TV series rather than a reboot or reimagining of the concept. At one point, the film had the full working title, Doctor Who: The Last of the Time Lords . Among the script proposals profiled by Lofficier are several submissions by Doctor Who and Space: 1999 alumnus Johnny Byrne , plus others by Robert DeLaurentis , Adrian Rigelsford , John Leekley , Mark Ezra and Denny Martin Flinn. The title "Last of the Time Lords" would later be used by Russell T Davies for an episode in 2007.Walt Disney Productions had expressed interest in a remake of the Doctor Who serial Marco Polo as a straight historical adventure film with the element of the Doctor and his companions removed. Plans to adapt the Dalek serial The Chase were shelved after the poor box office reception of Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D. . During spare time in filming, Tom Baker (the Fourth Doctor ) and Ian Marter ( Harry Sullivan ), who later novelised several Doctor Who scripts for Target Books, wrote a script for a Doctor Who film which they entitled Doctor Who Meets Scratchman (alternatively Doctor Who and the Big Game ). The script saw the Doctor encounter the Devil (who called himself Harry Scratch or Scratchman), the Daleks, robots known as Cybors, scarecrows made from bones and, briefly, the Greek god Pan . At times Vincent Price and Twiggy were associated with the production. Price would have played the villain Harry Scratch and Twiggy a replacement female companion after Elisabeth Sladen had left the TV series. The finale of the film was to have taken place on a giant pinball table, with the Doctor, Harry and Sarah dodging balls as well as battling Daleks on the board. Up until the late 1970s, Baker repeatedly tried to attract funding for the film. In an interview in 1975, Baker had referred to the flaws of the two Peter Cushing Dalek films in the 1960s, saying "There have been two Doctor Who films in the past, both rather poor... There are many dangers in transporting a television series onto the big screen... a lot of things that you could get away with on the small screen wouldn't wash in the cinema." At one point, he received substantial donations from fans, but after taking legal advice was forced to return them. The plans were dropped. With the release of Star Wars , it also seemed futile for a movie of this kind to even try to compete. In late January 2019, BBC Books released a novelization of the screenplay by Tom Baker himself, co-written with James Goss. In 1984, after failing to find success in financing King Crab , a horror film based on Guy N. Smith 's Night of the Crabs , Milton Subtosky, who had produced the 1960s Dalek films, adapted the screenplay into a Doctor Who film featuring two Doctors. He envisioned either Jon Pertwee or Tom Baker in the role of an older Doctor, and a new actor in the role of a younger one. At first the working title was The Lossiemouth Affair and later it became Dr Who's Greatest Adventure . Subotsky pursued production of the film until 1991 when he died. As the original Doctor Who series was nearing its end and continuing during the first interregnum (1989–1996), numerous attempts were made to adapt the series for the big screen for the first time since the Peter Cushing films of the 1960s. Jean-Marc Lofficier , in his book The Nth Doctor , profiles a number of film proposals, some of which came close to being produced. Ultimately, however, the only film version of Doctor Who (other than the two Cushing films) produced to date has been the 1996 made-for-TV film which was developed as a continuation of the TV series rather than a reboot or reimagining of the concept. At one point, the film had the full working title, Doctor Who: The Last of the Time Lords . Among the script proposals profiled by Lofficier are several submissions by Doctor Who and Space: 1999 alumnus Johnny Byrne , plus others by Robert DeLaurentis , Adrian Rigelsford , John Leekley , Mark Ezra and Denny Martin Flinn. The title "Last of the Time Lords" would later be used by Russell T Davies for an episode in 2007.During the late sixties, a radio series starring Peter Cushing, who had played a human version of Doctor called "Dr. Who" in feature films featuring the Daleks, had been planned to be produced. A collaboration between Stanmark Productions and Watermill Productions, a pilot had been recorded and a further 52 episodes were to be produced. The pilot story titled "Journey into Time"' featured The Doctor and his granddaughter travel to the time of the American Revolution . The script was written by future Doctor Who television series writer Malcolm Hulke . The recording remains lost. A full transcript of the first episode appears in the magazine Nothing at the End of the Lane , Issue 3. Proposed stage play written by Ben Aaronovitch and Andrew Cartmel set at partly in space. It would have opened at a hippy festival at Stonehenge , it would featured honor-obsessed insect aliens called the Metraxi, a "data vampire", space pirates and revealed the real purpose of Stonehenge: to protect Earth against alien threats, as posited by a hippy at the festival. [ citation needed ] It was replaced by Terrance Dicks's The Ultimate Adventure . In 2003, the BBC announced the return of Doctor Who , as a series of webcasts to air on BBC.com. Richard E. Grant was announced as the Ninth Doctor. A webcast, written by Paul Cornell , entitled Scream of the Shalka was completed, and aired on bbc.com. This was followed by an online text short story entitled "The Feast of the Stone". Work was already well underway on another webcast story entitled Blood of the Robots . This was to be written by Simon Clark . Before production began, it was announced that Doctor Who would be returning to television, with Russell T. Davies as its showrunner and as a result production was permanently halted. The synopsis: "A blend of adventure, drama and humour. The Doctor arrives to find a world full of intelligent, sensitive robots that have been abandoned by their human owners, who are too squeamish to 'kill' them when they're obsolete. Now ruthless salvage squads are hunting the robots in order to make room for human settlers forced to migrate from their dangerously over-crowded home planet." A detailed episode breakdown of "Blood of the Robots" was published in the book "Scream of the Shalka" by Jon Arnold, released by Observe Books in 2017 as part of The Black Archive series of Doctor Who books.During the late sixties, a radio series starring Peter Cushing, who had played a human version of Doctor called "Dr. Who" in feature films featuring the Daleks, had been planned to be produced. A collaboration between Stanmark Productions and Watermill Productions, a pilot had been recorded and a further 52 episodes were to be produced. The pilot story titled "Journey into Time"' featured The Doctor and his granddaughter travel to the time of the American Revolution . The script was written by future Doctor Who television series writer Malcolm Hulke . The recording remains lost. A full transcript of the first episode appears in the magazine Nothing at the End of the Lane , Issue 3.Proposed stage play written by Ben Aaronovitch and Andrew Cartmel set at partly in space. It would have opened at a hippy festival at Stonehenge , it would featured honor-obsessed insect aliens called the Metraxi, a "data vampire", space pirates and revealed the real purpose of Stonehenge: to protect Earth against alien threats, as posited by a hippy at the festival. [ citation needed ] It was replaced by Terrance Dicks's The Ultimate Adventure .In 2003, the BBC announced the return of Doctor Who , as a series of webcasts to air on BBC.com. Richard E. Grant was announced as the Ninth Doctor. A webcast, written by Paul Cornell , entitled Scream of the Shalka was completed, and aired on bbc.com. This was followed by an online text short story entitled "The Feast of the Stone". Work was already well underway on another webcast story entitled Blood of the Robots . This was to be written by Simon Clark . Before production began, it was announced that Doctor Who would be returning to television, with Russell T. Davies as its showrunner and as a result production was permanently halted. The synopsis: "A blend of adventure, drama and humour. The Doctor arrives to find a world full of intelligent, sensitive robots that have been abandoned by their human owners, who are too squeamish to 'kill' them when they're obsolete. Now ruthless salvage squads are hunting the robots in order to make room for human settlers forced to migrate from their dangerously over-crowded home planet." A detailed episode breakdown of "Blood of the Robots" was published in the book "Scream of the Shalka" by Jon Arnold, released by Observe Books in 2017 as part of The Black Archive series of Doctor Who books.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Haemagogus/html

Haemagogus

Cacomyia Coquillett , 1906 Haemagogus is a genus of mosquitoes in the dipteran family Culicidae . They mainly occur in Central America and northern South America (including Trinidad ), although some species inhabit forested areas of Brazil , and range as far as northern Argentina . In the Rio Grande Do Sul area of Brazil, one species, H. leucocelaenus , has been found carrying yellow fever virus. Several species have a distinct metallic sheen. Species of this genus are vectors in the transmission of sylvan or "jungle" yellow fever, which is often carried by monkeys in the forest canopies . Haemagogus species have also been found to carry the Mayaro virus and Ilheus virus. As these mosquitoes, in general, have relatively long lives, they can transmit viruses for long periods. They tend to live in the canopy of forests, where the female lays eggs in between layers of tree bark or in cut bamboo . The eggs adhere to the surface and when submerged by rain water develop into larvae .The discovery in 1953 by two scientists from the Trinidad Regional Virus Laboratory of a sick Red Howler monkey that was found to be suffering from yellow fever provided the first indication that yellow fever was still endemic in Trinidad although there had not been a case reliably reported from Trinidad since an outbreak in 1914. Blood specimens taken from over 4,500 humans in late 1953 and early 1954 and checked to detect the presence of a wide variety of known viruses showed that 15% had antibodies to the yellow fever virus. A form of the disease, termed "jungle yellow fever", was shown to be carried by Red Howler monkeys ( Alouatta seniculus insulanus Elliot) that provided a continuous reservoir for the disease, which was then spread by the Haemagogus s. spegazzini mosquito which normally inhabits rainforest regions, both at ground level and in the treetops. After government felling of large stands of native forest, yellow fever was isolated from a patient from Cumaca in the northern range in 1954. The infection soon spread to other humans and into the Aedes aegypti mosquito population, greatly increasing transmission. Warnings were made that an epidemic was imminent and Dr. Wilbur Downs and Dr. A. E. (Ted) Hill, a specialist in tropical medicine , began a program of inoculating health workers and stockpiling vaccine. Trinidad health authorities followed up with large-scale vaccination and intensive anti- aegypti measures including public education, regular inspection for breeding sites, and spraying of domestic residences with DDT . In spite of these measures, and the fact that an estimated 80% of the population of Port of Spain were immune to yellow fever and dengue, several more cases were soon reported. Most probably due to the health measures taken, it did not develop into a widespread epidemic in Trinidad itself. An attempt was made to totally quarantine the island just before Christmas, 1954, but the disease spread to the nearby mainland of Venezuela and, from there, all the way to southern Mexico, probably killing several thousand people in the process. In 1998 an epidemic of yellow fever killed many Howler monkeys near the city of Altamira, Pará in the eastern Amazon basin , in Brazil. The virus was isolated in specimens of Haemagogus janthinomys mosquitoes.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Vaccination_requirements_for_international_travel/html

Vaccination requirements for international travel

Vaccination requirements for international travel are the aspect of vaccination policy that concerns the movement of people across borders . Countries around the world require travellers departing to other countries, or arriving from other countries, to be vaccinated against certain infectious diseases in order to prevent epidemics . At border checks , these travellers are required to show proof of vaccination against specific diseases; the most widely used vaccination record is the International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis (ICVP or Carte Jaune/Yellow Card) . Some countries require information about a passenger's vaccination status in a passenger locator form . [ citation needed ]The first International Certificate of Vaccination against Smallpox was developed by the 1944 International Sanitary Convention (itself an amendment of the 1926 International Sanitary Convention on Maritime Navigation and the 1933 International Sanitary Convention for Aerial Navigation ). The initial certificate was valid for a maximum of three years. The policy had a few flaws: the smallpox vaccination certificates were not always checked by qualified airport personnel, or when passengers transferred at airports in smallpox-free countries. Travel agencies mistakenly provided certificates to some unvaccinated customers, and there were some instances of falsified documents. Lastly, a small number of passengers carrying valid certificates still contracted smallpox because they were improperly vaccinated. However, all experts agree that the mandatory possession of vaccination certificates significantly increased the number of travellers who were vaccinated, and thus contributed to preventing the spread of smallpox, especially when the rapid expansion of air travel in the 1960s and 1970s reduced the travelling time from endemic countries to all other countries to just a few hours. After smallpox was successfully eradicated in 1980, the International Certificate of Vaccination against Smallpox was cancelled in 1981, and the new 1983 form lacked any provision for smallpox vaccination. The first International Certificate of Vaccination against Smallpox was developed by the 1944 International Sanitary Convention (itself an amendment of the 1926 International Sanitary Convention on Maritime Navigation and the 1933 International Sanitary Convention for Aerial Navigation ). The initial certificate was valid for a maximum of three years. The policy had a few flaws: the smallpox vaccination certificates were not always checked by qualified airport personnel, or when passengers transferred at airports in smallpox-free countries. Travel agencies mistakenly provided certificates to some unvaccinated customers, and there were some instances of falsified documents. Lastly, a small number of passengers carrying valid certificates still contracted smallpox because they were improperly vaccinated. However, all experts agree that the mandatory possession of vaccination certificates significantly increased the number of travellers who were vaccinated, and thus contributed to preventing the spread of smallpox, especially when the rapid expansion of air travel in the 1960s and 1970s reduced the travelling time from endemic countries to all other countries to just a few hours. After smallpox was successfully eradicated in 1980, the International Certificate of Vaccination against Smallpox was cancelled in 1981, and the new 1983 form lacked any provision for smallpox vaccination. Travellers who wish to enter certain countries or territories must be vaccinated against yellow fever ten days before crossing the border, and be able to present a vaccination record/certificate at the border checks. : 45 In most cases, this travel requirement depends on whether the country they are travelling from has been designated by the World Health Organization as being a "country with risk of yellow fever transmission". In a few countries, it does not matter which country the traveller comes from: everyone who wants to enter these countries must be vaccinated against yellow fever. There are exemptions for newborn children; in most cases, any child who is at least nine months or one year old needs to be vaccinated. Travellers who wish to enter or leave certain countries must be vaccinated against polio, usually at most twelve months and at least four weeks before crossing the border, and be able to present a vaccination record/certificate at the border checks. : 25–27 Most requirements apply only to travel to or from so-called polio-endemic, polio-affected, polio-exporting, polio-transmission, or "high-risk" countries. As of August 2020, Afghanistan and Pakistan are the only polio-endemic countries in the world (where wild polio has not yet been eradicated ). Several countries have additional precautionary polio vaccination travel requirements, for example to and from "key at-risk countries", which as of December 2020 include China, Indonesia, Mozambique, Myanmar, and Papua New Guinea. Travellers who wish to enter or leave certain countries or territories must be vaccinated against meningococcal meningitis, preferably 10–14 days before crossing the border, and be able to present a vaccination record/certificate at the border checks. : 21–24 Countries with required meningococcal vaccination for travellers include The Gambia , Indonesia , Lebanon , Libya , the Philippines , and most importantly and extensively Saudi Arabia for Muslims visiting or working in Mecca and Medina during the Hajj or Umrah pilgrimages. For some countries in African meningitis belt , vaccinations prior to entry are not required, but highly recommended. : 21–24 During the COVID-19 pandemic , several COVID-19 vaccines were developed, and in December 2020 the first vaccination campaign was planned. Anticipating the vaccine, on 23 November 2020, Qantas announced that the company would ask for proof of COVID-19 vaccination from international travellers. According to Alan Joyce, the firm's CEO, a coronavirus vaccine would become a "necessity" when travelling, "We are looking at changing our terms and conditions to say for international travellers, we will ask people to have a vaccination before they can get on the aircraft." Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison subsequently announced that all international travellers who fly to Australia without proof of a COVID-19 vaccination will be required to quarantine at their own expense. Victoria Premier Daniel Andrews and the CEOs of Melbourne Airport , Brisbane Airport and Flight Centre all supported the Morrison government's "no jab, no fly" policy, with only Sydney Airport 's CEO suggesting advanced testing might also be sufficient to eliminate quarantine in the future. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) announced that it was almost finished with developing a digital health pass which states air passengers' COVID-19 testing and vaccination information to airlines and governments. Korean Air and Air New Zealand were seriously considering mandatory vaccination as well, but would negotiate it with their respective governments. KLM CEO Pieter Elbers responded on 24 November that KLM does not yet have any plans for mandatory vaccination on its flights. Brussels Airlines and Lufthansa said they had no plans yet on requiring passengers to present proof of vaccination before boarding, but Brussels Airport CEO Arnaud Feist agreed with Qantas' policy, stating: "Sooner or later, having proof of vaccination or a negative test will become compulsory." Ryanair announced it would not require proof of vaccination for air travel within the EU, EasyJet stated it would not require any proof at all. The Irish Times commented that a vaccination certificate for flying was quite common in countries around the world for other diseases, such as for yellow fever in many African countries. On 25 November, separately from IATA's digital health pass initiative, five major airlines – United Airlines , Lufthansa , Virgin Atlantic , Swiss International Air Lines , and JetBlue – announced the 1 December 2020 introduction of the CommonPass, which shows the results of passengers' COVID-19 tests. It was designed as an international standard by the World Economic Forum and The Commons Project, and set up in such a way that it could also be used to record vaccination results in the future. It standardises test results and aims to prevent forgery of vaccination records, while storing only limited data on a passenger's phone to safeguard their privacy. The CommonPass had already successfully undergone a trial period in October with United Airlines and Cathay Pacific Airways . On 26 November, the Danish Ministry of Health confirmed that it was working on a COVID-19 "vaccine passport" or simply Vaccination card which would likely not only work as proof of vaccination for air travel, but also for other activities such as concerts, private parties and access to various businesses, a perspective welcomed by the Confederation of Danish Industry . The Danish College of General Practitioners also welcomed the project, saying that it doesn't force anyone to vaccinate, but encourages them to do so if they want to enjoy certain privileges in society. Irish Foreign Minister Simon Coveney said on 27 November 2020 that, although he "currently has no plans" for a passport vaccination stamp, his government was working on changing the passenger locator form to include proof of PCR negative tests for the coronavirus, and that it was likely to be further adjusted to include vaccination data when a COVID-19 vaccine would become available. Coveney stressed that "We do not want, following enormous efforts and sacrifices from people, to reintroduce the virus again through international travel, which is a danger if it is not managed right." The IATA Travel Pass application for smartphone has been developed by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) in early 2021. The mobile app standardizes the health verification process confirming whether passengers have been vaccinated against, or tested negative for, COVID-19 prior to travel. Passengers will use the app to create a digital passport linked to their e-passport, receive test results and vaccination details from laboratories, and share that information with airlines and authorities. The application is intended to replace the existing paper-based method of providing proof of vaccination in international travel, colloquially known as the Yellow Card . Trials of the application are carried out by a number of airlines including Singapore Airlines , Emirates , Qatar Airways , Etihad and Air New Zealand . It has been opined that many countries will increasingly consider the vaccination status of travellers when deciding to allow them entry or not or require them to quarantine since recently published research shows that the Pfizer vaccine effect lasts for at least six months. Travellers who wish to enter certain countries or territories must be vaccinated against yellow fever ten days before crossing the border, and be able to present a vaccination record/certificate at the border checks. : 45 In most cases, this travel requirement depends on whether the country they are travelling from has been designated by the World Health Organization as being a "country with risk of yellow fever transmission". In a few countries, it does not matter which country the traveller comes from: everyone who wants to enter these countries must be vaccinated against yellow fever. There are exemptions for newborn children; in most cases, any child who is at least nine months or one year old needs to be vaccinated. Travellers who wish to enter or leave certain countries must be vaccinated against polio, usually at most twelve months and at least four weeks before crossing the border, and be able to present a vaccination record/certificate at the border checks. : 25–27 Most requirements apply only to travel to or from so-called polio-endemic, polio-affected, polio-exporting, polio-transmission, or "high-risk" countries. As of August 2020, Afghanistan and Pakistan are the only polio-endemic countries in the world (where wild polio has not yet been eradicated ). Several countries have additional precautionary polio vaccination travel requirements, for example to and from "key at-risk countries", which as of December 2020 include China, Indonesia, Mozambique, Myanmar, and Papua New Guinea. Travellers who wish to enter or leave certain countries or territories must be vaccinated against meningococcal meningitis, preferably 10–14 days before crossing the border, and be able to present a vaccination record/certificate at the border checks. : 21–24 Countries with required meningococcal vaccination for travellers include The Gambia , Indonesia , Lebanon , Libya , the Philippines , and most importantly and extensively Saudi Arabia for Muslims visiting or working in Mecca and Medina during the Hajj or Umrah pilgrimages. For some countries in African meningitis belt , vaccinations prior to entry are not required, but highly recommended. : 21–24During the COVID-19 pandemic , several COVID-19 vaccines were developed, and in December 2020 the first vaccination campaign was planned. Anticipating the vaccine, on 23 November 2020, Qantas announced that the company would ask for proof of COVID-19 vaccination from international travellers. According to Alan Joyce, the firm's CEO, a coronavirus vaccine would become a "necessity" when travelling, "We are looking at changing our terms and conditions to say for international travellers, we will ask people to have a vaccination before they can get on the aircraft." Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison subsequently announced that all international travellers who fly to Australia without proof of a COVID-19 vaccination will be required to quarantine at their own expense. Victoria Premier Daniel Andrews and the CEOs of Melbourne Airport , Brisbane Airport and Flight Centre all supported the Morrison government's "no jab, no fly" policy, with only Sydney Airport 's CEO suggesting advanced testing might also be sufficient to eliminate quarantine in the future. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) announced that it was almost finished with developing a digital health pass which states air passengers' COVID-19 testing and vaccination information to airlines and governments. Korean Air and Air New Zealand were seriously considering mandatory vaccination as well, but would negotiate it with their respective governments. KLM CEO Pieter Elbers responded on 24 November that KLM does not yet have any plans for mandatory vaccination on its flights. Brussels Airlines and Lufthansa said they had no plans yet on requiring passengers to present proof of vaccination before boarding, but Brussels Airport CEO Arnaud Feist agreed with Qantas' policy, stating: "Sooner or later, having proof of vaccination or a negative test will become compulsory." Ryanair announced it would not require proof of vaccination for air travel within the EU, EasyJet stated it would not require any proof at all. The Irish Times commented that a vaccination certificate for flying was quite common in countries around the world for other diseases, such as for yellow fever in many African countries. On 25 November, separately from IATA's digital health pass initiative, five major airlines – United Airlines , Lufthansa , Virgin Atlantic , Swiss International Air Lines , and JetBlue – announced the 1 December 2020 introduction of the CommonPass, which shows the results of passengers' COVID-19 tests. It was designed as an international standard by the World Economic Forum and The Commons Project, and set up in such a way that it could also be used to record vaccination results in the future. It standardises test results and aims to prevent forgery of vaccination records, while storing only limited data on a passenger's phone to safeguard their privacy. The CommonPass had already successfully undergone a trial period in October with United Airlines and Cathay Pacific Airways . On 26 November, the Danish Ministry of Health confirmed that it was working on a COVID-19 "vaccine passport" or simply Vaccination card which would likely not only work as proof of vaccination for air travel, but also for other activities such as concerts, private parties and access to various businesses, a perspective welcomed by the Confederation of Danish Industry . The Danish College of General Practitioners also welcomed the project, saying that it doesn't force anyone to vaccinate, but encourages them to do so if they want to enjoy certain privileges in society. Irish Foreign Minister Simon Coveney said on 27 November 2020 that, although he "currently has no plans" for a passport vaccination stamp, his government was working on changing the passenger locator form to include proof of PCR negative tests for the coronavirus, and that it was likely to be further adjusted to include vaccination data when a COVID-19 vaccine would become available. Coveney stressed that "We do not want, following enormous efforts and sacrifices from people, to reintroduce the virus again through international travel, which is a danger if it is not managed right." The IATA Travel Pass application for smartphone has been developed by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) in early 2021. The mobile app standardizes the health verification process confirming whether passengers have been vaccinated against, or tested negative for, COVID-19 prior to travel. Passengers will use the app to create a digital passport linked to their e-passport, receive test results and vaccination details from laboratories, and share that information with airlines and authorities. The application is intended to replace the existing paper-based method of providing proof of vaccination in international travel, colloquially known as the Yellow Card . Trials of the application are carried out by a number of airlines including Singapore Airlines , Emirates , Qatar Airways , Etihad and Air New Zealand . It has been opined that many countries will increasingly consider the vaccination status of travellers when deciding to allow them entry or not or require them to quarantine since recently published research shows that the Pfizer vaccine effect lasts for at least six months. The IATA Travel Pass application for smartphone has been developed by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) in early 2021. The mobile app standardizes the health verification process confirming whether passengers have been vaccinated against, or tested negative for, COVID-19 prior to travel. Passengers will use the app to create a digital passport linked to their e-passport, receive test results and vaccination details from laboratories, and share that information with airlines and authorities. The application is intended to replace the existing paper-based method of providing proof of vaccination in international travel, colloquially known as the Yellow Card . Trials of the application are carried out by a number of airlines including Singapore Airlines , Emirates , Qatar Airways , Etihad and Air New Zealand . It has been opined that many countries will increasingly consider the vaccination status of travellers when deciding to allow them entry or not or require them to quarantine since recently published research shows that the Pfizer vaccine effect lasts for at least six months. Various vaccines are not legally required for travellers, but highly recommended by the World Health Organization. For example, for areas with risk of meningococcal meningitis infection in countries in African meningitis belt , vaccinations prior to entry are not required by these countries, but nevertheless highly recommended by the WHO. : 21–24 As of July 2019, ebola vaccines and malaria vaccines were still in development and not yet recommended for travellers. : 4 Instead, the WHO recommends various other means of prevention, including several forms of chemoprophylaxis , in areas where there is a significant risk of becoming infected with malaria. : 4–5

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Golden_lion_tamarin/html

Golden lion tamarin

Jacchus rosalia brasiliensis Fischer, 1829 Jacchus rosalia guyannensis Fischer, 1829 Leontocebus leoninus Pocock, 1914 Leontopithecus aurora Elliot, 1913 Leontopithecus marikina Lesson, 1840 Simia rosalia Linnaeus, 1766 The golden lion tamarin ( Leontopithecus rosalia ; Portuguese : mico-leão-dourado [ ˈmiku leˈɐ̃w do(w)ˈɾadu, - liˈɐ̃w - ] ), also known as the golden marmoset , is a small New World monkey of the family Callitrichidae . Endemic to the Atlantic coastal forests of Brazil , the golden lion tamarin is an endangered species . The range for wild individuals is spread across four places along southeastern Brazil, with a recent census estimating 3,200 individuals left in the wild and a captive population maintaining about 490 individuals among 150 zoos. The golden lion tamarin gets its name from its bright reddish orange pelage and the extra long hairs around the face and ears which give it a distinctive mane. Its face is dark and hairless. The bright orange fur of this species does not contain carotenoids , which commonly produce bright orange colors in nature. The golden lion tamarin is the largest of the callitrichines . It is typically around 261 mm (10.3 in) and weighs around 620 g (1.37 lb) . There is almost no size difference between males and females. As with all callitrichines, the golden lion tamarin has claw-like nails, instead of the flat nails found in other monkeys and apes, although callitrichines do have a flat nail on the big toe. Tegulae enable tamarins to cling to the sides of tree trunks. It may also move quadrupedally along the small branches, whether through walking, running, leaping or bounding. This gives it a locomotion more similar to squirrels than primates.The Golden Lion Tamarin has a very limited distribution range, as over time they have lost all but 2%–5% of their original habitat in Brazil rain forest. Today, this tamarin is confined to three small areas of the tropical rain forest in southeastern Brazil: Poço das Antas Biological Reserve , Fazenda União Biological Reserve , and private land through the Reintroduction Program. The first population estimate made in 1972 approximated the count at between 400 and 500. By 1981 the population was reduced to less than 200. Surveys from as recently as 1995 suggested that there may have been at most only 400 golden lion tamarins left in the wild; but the population has since recovered to some 3200 in the wild. Tamarins live along the far southeast border of the country in the municipalities of Silva Jardim , Cabo Frio , Saquarema , and Araruama . However, they have been successfully reintroduced to the municipalities of Rio das Ostras , Rio Bonito , and Casimiro de Abreu . Tamarins live in coastal lowland forests less than 300 m (984 ft) above sea level. They can be found in hilltop forests and swamp forests.The golden lion tamarin is active for a maximum of 12 hours daily. It uses different sleeping dens each day. By frequently moving their sleeping nests around, groups minimize the scent left behind, reducing the likelihood of predators finding them. The first activities of the day are traveling and feeding on fruits. As the afternoon nears, tamarins focus more on insects. By late afternoon, they move to their night dens. Tamarin groups use hollow tree cavities, dense vines or epiphytes as sleeping sites. Sites that are between 11 and 15 m (36 and 49 ft) off the ground are preferred. The golden lion tamarin tends to be active earlier and retire later in the warmer, wetter times of the year as the days are longer. During drier times, it forages for insects longer as they become scarcer. Golden lion tamarins are characterized by using manipulative foraging under tree barks and epiphytic bromeliads . Their sites of foraging are usually distributed around their home ranges, which are large territories (averaging 123 hectares) in which multiple foraging sites are located, to find sufficient resources over long periods of time. These areas are sufficient in size that even if there is overlap between the home range of two different groups, the interactions are minimal due to the distribution of the foraging sites (they spend 50% of their time in approximately 11% of their home range). The golden lion tamarin has a diverse, omnivorous diet consisting of fruits, flowers, nectar, bird eggs, insects and small vertebrates. They rely on microhabitats for foraging and other daily activities and tamarins will use bromeliads, palm crowns, palm leaf sheaths, woody crevices, lianas, vine tangles, tree bark, rotten logs, and leaf litters. The golden lion tamarin uses its fingers to extract prey from crevices, under leaves, and in dense growth; a behavior known as micromanipulation . It is made possible by elongated hands and fingers. Insects make up to 10–15% of its diet. Much of the rest is made of small, sweet, pulpy fruits. During the rainy season, the golden lion tamarin mainly eats fruit; however, during drier times, it must eat more of other foods like nectar and gums. Small vertebrates are also consumed more at these times as insects become less abundant. Golden lion tamarins are social and groups typically consist of 2-8 members. These groups usually consist of one breeding adult male and female but may also have 2–3 males and one female or the reverse. Other members include subadults, juveniles and infants of either sex. These individuals are typically the offspring of the adults. When there is more than one breeding adult in a group, one is usually dominant over the other and this is maintained through aggressive behavior. The dominance relationship between males and females depends on longevity in the group. A newly immigrated male is subordinate to the resident adult female who inherited her rank from her mother. Both males and females may leave their natal group at the age of four, however females may replace their mothers as the breeding adult, if they die, which will lead to the dispersal of the breeding male who is likely her father. This does not happen with males and their fathers. Dispersing males join groups with other males and remain in them until they find an opportunity to immigrate to a new group. The vast majority of recruits to groups are males. A male may find an opportunity to enter into a group when the resident male dies or disappears. Males may also aggressively displace resident males from their group; this is usually done by two immigrant males who are likely brothers. When this happens, only one of the new males will be able to breed and will suppress the reproduction of the other. A resident male may also leave a vacancy when his daughter becomes the breeding female and he must disperse to avoid inbreeding. Golden lion tamarins are highly territorial and groups will defend their home range boundaries and resources from other groups. Tamarins emit "whine" and "peep" calls, which are associated with alarm and alliances respectively. "Clucks" are made during foraging trips or during aggressive encounters, whether directed at conspecifics or predators. "Trills" are used to communicate over long distances to give away an individual's position. "Rasps" or "screeches" are usually associated with playful behavior. Tamarins communicate through chemicals marked throughout their territories. Reproductive males and females scent mark the most and their non-reproductive counterparts rarely do so. Dominant males use scent marking to show their social status and may suppress the reproductive abilities of the other males. The mating system of the golden lion tamarin is largely monogamous. When there are two adult males in a group only one of them will mate with the female. There are cases of a male mating with two females, usually a mother and daughter. Reproduction is seasonal and depends on rainfall. Mating is at its highest at the end of the rainy season between late March to mid-June and births peak during the September–February rains. Females are sexually mature between the ages of 15–20 months but it is not until they are 30 months old that they can reproduce. Only dominant females can reproduce and will suppress the reproduction of the other females in the group. Males may reach puberty by 28 months. Tamarins have a four-month gestation period. Golden lion tamarin groups exhibit cooperative rearing of the infants. This is due to the fact that tamarins commonly give birth to twins and, to a lesser extent, triplets and quadruplets. A mother is not able to provide for her litter and needs the help of the other members of the group. The younger members of the groups may lose breeding opportunities but they gain parental experience in helping to rear their younger siblings. In their first 4 weeks, the infants are completely dependent on their mother for nursing and carrying. By week five, the infants spend less time on their mother's back and begin to explore their surroundings. Young reach their juvenile stage at 17 weeks and will socialize other group members. The sub-adult phase is reached at 14 months, when a tamarin first displays adult behaviors. The golden lion tamarin has a mutualistic interaction with 96 species of plants found in the Atlantic Forest. This interaction is based on seed dispersal and food sources for the tamarins. The tamarins show repeat visits to those plants with abundant resources. They tend to move around their territories, and therefore, seeds are dispersed to areas far from the parent shadow, which is ideal for germination . Their seed distribution is important to forest regeneration, and genetic variability and survival of endangered plant species. A study has shown that increased predation has caused significant decreases in the population numbers. A survey conducted in 1992 found the number of wild population of golden lion tamarins to be 562 individuals in 109 groups. Currently, the average group size includes 3.6 to 5.7 individuals and densities from 0.39 groups/km to 2.35 groups/km. These predatory attacks occur at the golden lion tamarin sleeping sites. The predators make those sleeping sites, which are mainly tree holes (about 63.6%), larger in order to attack the golden lion tamarins, sometimes wiping out the entire family. The preferred sleeping sites of most golden lion tamarins are tree holes in living trees next to other larger trees with a small percentage of canopy cover. These sleeping sites not only provide a place for sleep, but also offer protection and easy access to foraging sites. Most of the tree holes are lower to the ground, so they are easier to enter. Tree holes that are located in living trees are drier, warmer, and have a lower number of insects and therefore a decreased percentage of transmitted diseases. A smaller percentage of canopy coverage allows the golden lion tamarins to detect the predators faster, and being surrounded by other large trees allows them access to escape routes. Due to degradation of their habitats, there are fewer trees that can support entire social groups and some have to resort to using bamboo (17.5%), vine tangles (9.6%), and bromeliads (4.7%) as a sleeping site, making them more susceptible to predators. Golden lion tamarins are known to use different den sites, but do not change sites often. They are more likely to reuse secure sites that will offer protection. However, the disadvantage of doing so is that predators are able to learn where these sites are located. Golden lion tamarins also scent mark their den holes, so they can quickly return to them in the afternoon time when predators are most active. While excessive scent makes it easier for golden lion tamarins to find their sleeping sites, it also helps predators locate their prey. Moreover, increased deforestation has decreased habitat space, providing predators easy access to their prey, causing a decline in the golden lion tamarin population. Golden lion tamarins are social and groups typically consist of 2-8 members. These groups usually consist of one breeding adult male and female but may also have 2–3 males and one female or the reverse. Other members include subadults, juveniles and infants of either sex. These individuals are typically the offspring of the adults. When there is more than one breeding adult in a group, one is usually dominant over the other and this is maintained through aggressive behavior. The dominance relationship between males and females depends on longevity in the group. A newly immigrated male is subordinate to the resident adult female who inherited her rank from her mother. Both males and females may leave their natal group at the age of four, however females may replace their mothers as the breeding adult, if they die, which will lead to the dispersal of the breeding male who is likely her father. This does not happen with males and their fathers. Dispersing males join groups with other males and remain in them until they find an opportunity to immigrate to a new group. The vast majority of recruits to groups are males. A male may find an opportunity to enter into a group when the resident male dies or disappears. Males may also aggressively displace resident males from their group; this is usually done by two immigrant males who are likely brothers. When this happens, only one of the new males will be able to breed and will suppress the reproduction of the other. A resident male may also leave a vacancy when his daughter becomes the breeding female and he must disperse to avoid inbreeding. Golden lion tamarins are highly territorial and groups will defend their home range boundaries and resources from other groups. Tamarins emit "whine" and "peep" calls, which are associated with alarm and alliances respectively. "Clucks" are made during foraging trips or during aggressive encounters, whether directed at conspecifics or predators. "Trills" are used to communicate over long distances to give away an individual's position. "Rasps" or "screeches" are usually associated with playful behavior. Tamarins communicate through chemicals marked throughout their territories. Reproductive males and females scent mark the most and their non-reproductive counterparts rarely do so. Dominant males use scent marking to show their social status and may suppress the reproductive abilities of the other males.The mating system of the golden lion tamarin is largely monogamous. When there are two adult males in a group only one of them will mate with the female. There are cases of a male mating with two females, usually a mother and daughter. Reproduction is seasonal and depends on rainfall. Mating is at its highest at the end of the rainy season between late March to mid-June and births peak during the September–February rains. Females are sexually mature between the ages of 15–20 months but it is not until they are 30 months old that they can reproduce. Only dominant females can reproduce and will suppress the reproduction of the other females in the group. Males may reach puberty by 28 months. Tamarins have a four-month gestation period. Golden lion tamarin groups exhibit cooperative rearing of the infants. This is due to the fact that tamarins commonly give birth to twins and, to a lesser extent, triplets and quadruplets. A mother is not able to provide for her litter and needs the help of the other members of the group. The younger members of the groups may lose breeding opportunities but they gain parental experience in helping to rear their younger siblings. In their first 4 weeks, the infants are completely dependent on their mother for nursing and carrying. By week five, the infants spend less time on their mother's back and begin to explore their surroundings. Young reach their juvenile stage at 17 weeks and will socialize other group members. The sub-adult phase is reached at 14 months, when a tamarin first displays adult behaviors.The golden lion tamarin has a mutualistic interaction with 96 species of plants found in the Atlantic Forest. This interaction is based on seed dispersal and food sources for the tamarins. The tamarins show repeat visits to those plants with abundant resources. They tend to move around their territories, and therefore, seeds are dispersed to areas far from the parent shadow, which is ideal for germination . Their seed distribution is important to forest regeneration, and genetic variability and survival of endangered plant species. A study has shown that increased predation has caused significant decreases in the population numbers. A survey conducted in 1992 found the number of wild population of golden lion tamarins to be 562 individuals in 109 groups. Currently, the average group size includes 3.6 to 5.7 individuals and densities from 0.39 groups/km to 2.35 groups/km. These predatory attacks occur at the golden lion tamarin sleeping sites. The predators make those sleeping sites, which are mainly tree holes (about 63.6%), larger in order to attack the golden lion tamarins, sometimes wiping out the entire family. The preferred sleeping sites of most golden lion tamarins are tree holes in living trees next to other larger trees with a small percentage of canopy cover. These sleeping sites not only provide a place for sleep, but also offer protection and easy access to foraging sites. Most of the tree holes are lower to the ground, so they are easier to enter. Tree holes that are located in living trees are drier, warmer, and have a lower number of insects and therefore a decreased percentage of transmitted diseases. A smaller percentage of canopy coverage allows the golden lion tamarins to detect the predators faster, and being surrounded by other large trees allows them access to escape routes. Due to degradation of their habitats, there are fewer trees that can support entire social groups and some have to resort to using bamboo (17.5%), vine tangles (9.6%), and bromeliads (4.7%) as a sleeping site, making them more susceptible to predators. Golden lion tamarins are known to use different den sites, but do not change sites often. They are more likely to reuse secure sites that will offer protection. However, the disadvantage of doing so is that predators are able to learn where these sites are located. Golden lion tamarins also scent mark their den holes, so they can quickly return to them in the afternoon time when predators are most active. While excessive scent makes it easier for golden lion tamarins to find their sleeping sites, it also helps predators locate their prey. Moreover, increased deforestation has decreased habitat space, providing predators easy access to their prey, causing a decline in the golden lion tamarin population. Threats to the golden lion tamarin population include illegal logging , poaching , mining , urbanization , deforestation, pet trading, and infrastructure development and the introduction of alien species . In 1969, the number of individuals in the Atlantic Forest was found to have dropped to a low of 150 individuals. In 1975 the golden lion tamarin was listed under Appendix I of CITES , given to animals threatened with extinction that may be or are being affected by trade. The species was listed as Endangered by the IUCN in 1982, and by 1984 the National Zoological Park in Washington, D.C. and the World Wide Fund for Nature , through the Golden Lion Tamarin Association, began a reintroduction programme from 140 zoos worldwide. Despite the success of the project, the IUCN classification rose to Critically Endangered in 1996. By 2003 the successful establishment of a new population at União Biological Reserve enabled downgrading the species to endangered, but the IUCN warns that extreme habitat fragmentation from deforestation means the wild population has little potential for any further expansion. In an attempt to curb the golden lion tamarin's precipitous decline, several conservation programs have been undertaken. The intent is to strengthen the wild population and maintain a secure captive population in zoos worldwide. The survival rate of re-introduced animals has been encouraging, but destruction of unprotected habitat continues. Because of the extensive habitat loss of the golden lion tamarin, the wild population reached endangered status in the early 1980s. Beginning in 1983, there has been a huge effort on behalf of scientists and conservationists to introduce captive-born golden lion tamarins back into the wild. With the help of the Brazilian government, conservationists established the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve and the União Biological Reserve as sites for reintroduction. The goals of the reintroduction process include increasing the size as well as the genetic diversity of the wild population, increasing the available range to better encompass the historic range of the tamarins in Brazil, and widening the scope of public awareness and education programs. The first step of reintroduction begins with zoo free ranging programs, where tamarins have access to explore the entire zoo. However, they are kept on zoo grounds by the presence of a nest box, an ice box like container where their food is kept. When the tamarins are reintroduced in Poço das Antas Biological Reserve, they require a large amount of post-release training and veterinary care. For the first 6–18 months the reintroduced groups are monitored. Additionally, 1-2 tamarins from each group are radio collared to allow careful monitoring, and all reintroduced tamarins are tattooed and dye marked for easy identification. Secondly, in an effort to save the golden lion tamarins from extinction , some of the golden lion tamarins have been removed from small, isolated unsafe forests and placed into a larger, protected forest; specifically they were moved to União Biological Reserve and Poço das Antas reserve. This effort to move the golden lion tamarins into União Biological Reserve in Brazil began in 1991. The golden lion tamarins faced the potential of getting new diseases that they had not been previously exposed to. Many were exposed to callitrichid hepatitis , and contracted the disease. Despite the challenge of illness, the forty-two translocated golden lion tamarins' population grew to over 200 in União Biological Reserve. The number of wild golden lion tamarins is now up in the thousands in all reserves and ranches combined in Brazil. These numbers were once down in the 200s in 1991. By 2025, the number of golden lion tamarins that are protected is projected to be greater than 2000. Golden lion tamarins are native to the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. Their original habitat was located from the southern part of the state of Rio de Janeiro to the southern part of the state of Espirito Santo. However, deforestation of Atlantic Forest for commercial purposes, predation, and capture of the golden lion tamarins for animal trade and sale as pets has limited their population to about five municipalities across Rio de Janeiro. Most of the population is now found in the Poco des Antas Biological Reserve in Rio de Janeiro. However, due to the deforestation and fragmentation of the Atlantic forest, their home ranges have decreased in size. The decrease in size has been reported in terms of fragmentation, and today the forest consists of thousands of fragments equaling only 8% of its former size. This directly affects their areas of foraging and subsequently, the amount of resources available. The habitat of the tamarins also affects their behavior and social interactions. For example, the type of trees present has a significant effect on the behavior of juvenile golden lion tamarins. Their juvenile behavior is characterized by social play between individuals of different ages and species. This is a key aspect of their social, cognitive and motor skill development, and it influences their behavior when facing competition and predators; how they play mirrors the way they act when facing predatory or competitive interactions. Social play is observed more in large branches (>10 cm) and vine tangles (4m above ground), which is considered safe for them, as they are less vulnerable to predators, compared to play in the dangerous areas including canopy branches and the forest floor. Therefore, deforestation affects the diversity in the forest and decreases the "safe" areas for play for the juvenile tamarins. As a result, play decreases and therefore the development of learned survivorship behaviors does as well. Also, if play is observed in the dangerous areas, the individuals are more exposed to predators, leading to a population decline; which resembles the effect of predation on their sleeping sites. The exposure to predation not only affects the juvenile tamarins but the adults as well, since it has been observed that play happens in the center of the group for protection of the young. Additionally, this deforestation and fragmentation also leads to demographic instabilities, and an increased probability of inbreeding , consequently leading to inbreeding depression and a population decline. In the case of inbreeding, the problem lies in the increase of the isolated fragments where golden lion tamarins live. Inbreeding leads to low levels of genetic diversity and has a negative effect on survivorship; inbred offspring have a lower survivorship than non-inbred offspring. Fragmentation leads to a decline in dispersal and as a result, a decline in breeding with individuals of other groups. Consequently, inbreeding depression is observed in these populations. With delay breeding, the decrease and shortage of territory puts pressure on golden lion tamarins to disperse in order to find necessary resources and areas suitable for their survival. However, dispersal is risky and requires a lot of energy that could have been used for reproduction instead. A 2016-2018 yellow fever epidemic in southeastern Brazil had a significant impact on the golden lion tamarin population, reducing it by 32% to approximately 2,516 individuals. The tamarin population faced increased losses in forest areas that were of a larger size, with fewer edge zones and greater connectivity, all of which could create conditions conducive to the presence and spread of mosquitoes that transmit yellow fever. The impact of the outbreak was particularly devastating within the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve, with the population of around 400 tamarins dropping to only 32. The cause of this decline was attributed to human activities, such as the expansion of the BR-101 highway, which brings a constant flow of traffic into the area. Researchers noted that the rapid spread of the disease across Brazil, from north to south, was due to human mobility, as infected people carried the virus with them. In response to the epidemic, Brazilian scientists created a customized yellow fever vaccine specifically for golden lion tamarins. The vaccine campaign started in 2021 and had vaccinated over 300 tamarins by February 2023, with no reported adverse effects. The efficacy of the vaccine is similar to human vaccines, with 90-95% of retested monkeys showing immunity. By February 2023, the yellow fever outbreak had subsided, and the tamarin population had stabilized. Because of the extensive habitat loss of the golden lion tamarin, the wild population reached endangered status in the early 1980s. Beginning in 1983, there has been a huge effort on behalf of scientists and conservationists to introduce captive-born golden lion tamarins back into the wild. With the help of the Brazilian government, conservationists established the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve and the União Biological Reserve as sites for reintroduction. The goals of the reintroduction process include increasing the size as well as the genetic diversity of the wild population, increasing the available range to better encompass the historic range of the tamarins in Brazil, and widening the scope of public awareness and education programs. The first step of reintroduction begins with zoo free ranging programs, where tamarins have access to explore the entire zoo. However, they are kept on zoo grounds by the presence of a nest box, an ice box like container where their food is kept. When the tamarins are reintroduced in Poço das Antas Biological Reserve, they require a large amount of post-release training and veterinary care. For the first 6–18 months the reintroduced groups are monitored. Additionally, 1-2 tamarins from each group are radio collared to allow careful monitoring, and all reintroduced tamarins are tattooed and dye marked for easy identification. Secondly, in an effort to save the golden lion tamarins from extinction , some of the golden lion tamarins have been removed from small, isolated unsafe forests and placed into a larger, protected forest; specifically they were moved to União Biological Reserve and Poço das Antas reserve. This effort to move the golden lion tamarins into União Biological Reserve in Brazil began in 1991. The golden lion tamarins faced the potential of getting new diseases that they had not been previously exposed to. Many were exposed to callitrichid hepatitis , and contracted the disease. Despite the challenge of illness, the forty-two translocated golden lion tamarins' population grew to over 200 in União Biological Reserve. The number of wild golden lion tamarins is now up in the thousands in all reserves and ranches combined in Brazil. These numbers were once down in the 200s in 1991. By 2025, the number of golden lion tamarins that are protected is projected to be greater than 2000. Golden lion tamarins are native to the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. Their original habitat was located from the southern part of the state of Rio de Janeiro to the southern part of the state of Espirito Santo. However, deforestation of Atlantic Forest for commercial purposes, predation, and capture of the golden lion tamarins for animal trade and sale as pets has limited their population to about five municipalities across Rio de Janeiro. Most of the population is now found in the Poco des Antas Biological Reserve in Rio de Janeiro. However, due to the deforestation and fragmentation of the Atlantic forest, their home ranges have decreased in size. The decrease in size has been reported in terms of fragmentation, and today the forest consists of thousands of fragments equaling only 8% of its former size. This directly affects their areas of foraging and subsequently, the amount of resources available. The habitat of the tamarins also affects their behavior and social interactions. For example, the type of trees present has a significant effect on the behavior of juvenile golden lion tamarins. Their juvenile behavior is characterized by social play between individuals of different ages and species. This is a key aspect of their social, cognitive and motor skill development, and it influences their behavior when facing competition and predators; how they play mirrors the way they act when facing predatory or competitive interactions. Social play is observed more in large branches (>10 cm) and vine tangles (4m above ground), which is considered safe for them, as they are less vulnerable to predators, compared to play in the dangerous areas including canopy branches and the forest floor. Therefore, deforestation affects the diversity in the forest and decreases the "safe" areas for play for the juvenile tamarins. As a result, play decreases and therefore the development of learned survivorship behaviors does as well. Also, if play is observed in the dangerous areas, the individuals are more exposed to predators, leading to a population decline; which resembles the effect of predation on their sleeping sites. The exposure to predation not only affects the juvenile tamarins but the adults as well, since it has been observed that play happens in the center of the group for protection of the young. Additionally, this deforestation and fragmentation also leads to demographic instabilities, and an increased probability of inbreeding , consequently leading to inbreeding depression and a population decline. In the case of inbreeding, the problem lies in the increase of the isolated fragments where golden lion tamarins live. Inbreeding leads to low levels of genetic diversity and has a negative effect on survivorship; inbred offspring have a lower survivorship than non-inbred offspring. Fragmentation leads to a decline in dispersal and as a result, a decline in breeding with individuals of other groups. Consequently, inbreeding depression is observed in these populations. With delay breeding, the decrease and shortage of territory puts pressure on golden lion tamarins to disperse in order to find necessary resources and areas suitable for their survival. However, dispersal is risky and requires a lot of energy that could have been used for reproduction instead. The habitat of the tamarins also affects their behavior and social interactions. For example, the type of trees present has a significant effect on the behavior of juvenile golden lion tamarins. Their juvenile behavior is characterized by social play between individuals of different ages and species. This is a key aspect of their social, cognitive and motor skill development, and it influences their behavior when facing competition and predators; how they play mirrors the way they act when facing predatory or competitive interactions. Social play is observed more in large branches (>10 cm) and vine tangles (4m above ground), which is considered safe for them, as they are less vulnerable to predators, compared to play in the dangerous areas including canopy branches and the forest floor. Therefore, deforestation affects the diversity in the forest and decreases the "safe" areas for play for the juvenile tamarins. As a result, play decreases and therefore the development of learned survivorship behaviors does as well. Also, if play is observed in the dangerous areas, the individuals are more exposed to predators, leading to a population decline; which resembles the effect of predation on their sleeping sites. The exposure to predation not only affects the juvenile tamarins but the adults as well, since it has been observed that play happens in the center of the group for protection of the young. Additionally, this deforestation and fragmentation also leads to demographic instabilities, and an increased probability of inbreeding , consequently leading to inbreeding depression and a population decline. In the case of inbreeding, the problem lies in the increase of the isolated fragments where golden lion tamarins live. Inbreeding leads to low levels of genetic diversity and has a negative effect on survivorship; inbred offspring have a lower survivorship than non-inbred offspring. Fragmentation leads to a decline in dispersal and as a result, a decline in breeding with individuals of other groups. Consequently, inbreeding depression is observed in these populations. With delay breeding, the decrease and shortage of territory puts pressure on golden lion tamarins to disperse in order to find necessary resources and areas suitable for their survival. However, dispersal is risky and requires a lot of energy that could have been used for reproduction instead. A 2016-2018 yellow fever epidemic in southeastern Brazil had a significant impact on the golden lion tamarin population, reducing it by 32% to approximately 2,516 individuals. The tamarin population faced increased losses in forest areas that were of a larger size, with fewer edge zones and greater connectivity, all of which could create conditions conducive to the presence and spread of mosquitoes that transmit yellow fever. The impact of the outbreak was particularly devastating within the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve, with the population of around 400 tamarins dropping to only 32. The cause of this decline was attributed to human activities, such as the expansion of the BR-101 highway, which brings a constant flow of traffic into the area. Researchers noted that the rapid spread of the disease across Brazil, from north to south, was due to human mobility, as infected people carried the virus with them. In response to the epidemic, Brazilian scientists created a customized yellow fever vaccine specifically for golden lion tamarins. The vaccine campaign started in 2021 and had vaccinated over 300 tamarins by February 2023, with no reported adverse effects. The efficacy of the vaccine is similar to human vaccines, with 90-95% of retested monkeys showing immunity. By February 2023, the yellow fever outbreak had subsided, and the tamarin population had stabilized.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/One_Fierce_Beer_Coaster/html

One Fierce Beer Coaster

One Fierce Beer Coaster is the second studio album by American band Bloodhound Gang , released on December 3, 1996. Produced by Jimmy Pop , it was the band's first release on Geffen Records , and the first to feature "Evil" Jared Hasselhoff on bass guitar, and DJ Q-Ball on the turntables . The music of One Fierce Beer Coaster encompasses a number of genres and its lyrics are rife with toilet humor . One Fierce Beer Coaster was initially released by the independent label Republic Records before being re-released by Geffen Records due to underground popularity. The album has received mixed to moderately favorable reviews. Three singles were released from the album including " Fire Water Burn ", " I Wish I Was Queer So I Could Get Chicks " and " Why's Everybody Always Pickin' on Me? " The first single, "Fire Water Burn", was a modern rock hit, landing on nine national charts.The Bloodhound Gang began as a small alternative band from King of Prussia, Pennsylvania . The band took its name from "The Bloodhound Gang" , a segment on the 1980s PBS kids' show 3-2-1 Contact that featured three young detectives solving mysteries and fighting crime. The band comprised Jimmy Pop , Daddy Long Legs , M.S.G., Lupus Thunder, and Skip O'Pot2Mus. In April 1994, the band released their second demo tape, The Original Motion Picture Soundtrack to Hitler's Handicapped Helpers (1994). This earned the band a record deal with Cheese Factory Records , which was later renamed Republic Records. Later that year, the Bloodhound Gang released their first EP , Dingleberry Haze (1994). In March 1995 the group signed to Columbia Records and released their first full-length album, titled Use Your Fingers (1995), but were subsequently dropped by the label. At this time Daddy Long Legs and M.S.G., who were angry with Columbia Records, left the band to form another rap group, Wolfpac . Bass player Evil Jared Hasselhoff, drummer Spanky G and turntablist D.J. Q-Ball joined Bloodhound Gang as replacements. In addition, Skip O'Pot2Mus eventually left to pursue a career outside of the music industry. The Bloodhound Gang entered Dome Sound/Ultra Psyche Studios with engineer Rich Gavalis in March 1996 to record One Fierce Beer Coaster . All of the songs were produced by Jimmy Pop, who also mixed most of the musical tracks on his personal Macintosh . The album was later mastered by Joe Palmaccio at Sterling Sound Studios in New York City . While the album's predecessor, Use Your Fingers , was written and recorded in a more hip hop -oriented style, featuring distinct rap beats, One Fierce Beer Coaster featured a more alternative -oriented sound. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic described The Bloodhound Gang's sound as, "smarmy, smirky alternative funk-metal, complete with junk culture references and "ironic" musical allusions." Former Bloodhound Gang guitarist Lupus Thunder credits Weezer as an inspiration for "Fire Water Burn" and Lemonade and Brownies -era Sugar Ray for "Kiss Me Where It Smells Funny." To create the hip-hop and rock fusions on the album, Jimmy Pop utilized the standard hip hop technique of sampling . The chorus for " Fire Water Burn " is taken from " The Roof Is on Fire " by Rock Master Scott & the Dynamic Three and also features the lyrics 'I am white like Frank Black is / So if man is five and the devil is six then that must make me seven / This honkey's gone to heaven,' a direct reference to the post-1993 stage name of Black Francis who wrote the Pixies song " Monkey Gone to Heaven " to which the lyrics allude. " Why's Everybody Always Pickin' on Me? " is built around a re-recorded sample of " Spooky ", by Mike Sharpe as performed by Classics IV and also features a small lift from the Bill Cosby track " Greasy Kid Stuff ." Finally, the track "Your Only Friends Are Make Believe" features a chorus melody lifted from the Duran Duran song " Hungry Like the Wolf ." "Lift Your Head Up High (And Blow Your Brains Out)" is built around a sample from "Get Up and Boogie" by the Silver Convention . The lyrics for One Fierce Beer Coaster utilize over-the-top parody and toilet humor as means for comedy. For instance, the album opener, " Kiss Me Where It Smells Funny ", is a song about a man and his new girlfriend and their adventures in cunnilingus . It was written by Jimmy Pop about his then-girlfriend; the next two albums would each have one song about said girlfriend - "Three Point One Four" and "No Hard Feelings". "Lift Your Head Up High (And Blow Your Brains Out)" spoofs people who have considered suicide to go through with it, asserting that their lives are not worth the unhappiness. Three minutes into the song, Jimmy Pop says "Rewind and let me reverse it backwards like Judas Priest first did ." Immediately after this, a four-second segment of backwards vocals repeats four times. When played in reverse, this segment says, "Devil shall wake up and eat Chef Boyardee Beefaroni." The album's best-known single, " Fire Water Burn ", is a diatribe against a white boy who attempts, and fails, to act like a black thug. " I Wish I Was Queer So I Could Get Chicks " parodies the belief that girls only like gay men, playing on the stereotype that gay men are often better looking and more sensitive than straight men. " Why's Everybody Always Pickin' on Me? " is mainly about how Jimmy Pop was constantly picked on in high school and has since developed extreme katagelophobia , an intense fear of being ridiculed. The album also includes a cover of Run-DMC 's " It's Tricky " and "Boom", which features an appearance by Vanilla Ice . While the album's predecessor, Use Your Fingers , was written and recorded in a more hip hop -oriented style, featuring distinct rap beats, One Fierce Beer Coaster featured a more alternative -oriented sound. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic described The Bloodhound Gang's sound as, "smarmy, smirky alternative funk-metal, complete with junk culture references and "ironic" musical allusions." Former Bloodhound Gang guitarist Lupus Thunder credits Weezer as an inspiration for "Fire Water Burn" and Lemonade and Brownies -era Sugar Ray for "Kiss Me Where It Smells Funny." To create the hip-hop and rock fusions on the album, Jimmy Pop utilized the standard hip hop technique of sampling . The chorus for " Fire Water Burn " is taken from " The Roof Is on Fire " by Rock Master Scott & the Dynamic Three and also features the lyrics 'I am white like Frank Black is / So if man is five and the devil is six then that must make me seven / This honkey's gone to heaven,' a direct reference to the post-1993 stage name of Black Francis who wrote the Pixies song " Monkey Gone to Heaven " to which the lyrics allude. " Why's Everybody Always Pickin' on Me? " is built around a re-recorded sample of " Spooky ", by Mike Sharpe as performed by Classics IV and also features a small lift from the Bill Cosby track " Greasy Kid Stuff ." Finally, the track "Your Only Friends Are Make Believe" features a chorus melody lifted from the Duran Duran song " Hungry Like the Wolf ." "Lift Your Head Up High (And Blow Your Brains Out)" is built around a sample from "Get Up and Boogie" by the Silver Convention . The lyrics for One Fierce Beer Coaster utilize over-the-top parody and toilet humor as means for comedy. For instance, the album opener, " Kiss Me Where It Smells Funny ", is a song about a man and his new girlfriend and their adventures in cunnilingus . It was written by Jimmy Pop about his then-girlfriend; the next two albums would each have one song about said girlfriend - "Three Point One Four" and "No Hard Feelings". "Lift Your Head Up High (And Blow Your Brains Out)" spoofs people who have considered suicide to go through with it, asserting that their lives are not worth the unhappiness. Three minutes into the song, Jimmy Pop says "Rewind and let me reverse it backwards like Judas Priest first did ." Immediately after this, a four-second segment of backwards vocals repeats four times. When played in reverse, this segment says, "Devil shall wake up and eat Chef Boyardee Beefaroni." The album's best-known single, " Fire Water Burn ", is a diatribe against a white boy who attempts, and fails, to act like a black thug. " I Wish I Was Queer So I Could Get Chicks " parodies the belief that girls only like gay men, playing on the stereotype that gay men are often better looking and more sensitive than straight men. " Why's Everybody Always Pickin' on Me? " is mainly about how Jimmy Pop was constantly picked on in high school and has since developed extreme katagelophobia , an intense fear of being ridiculed. The album also includes a cover of Run-DMC 's " It's Tricky " and "Boom", which features an appearance by Vanilla Ice . "[Maverick] really wanted to sign the band in the worst possible way, even to the point where I had to tell Madonna that I couldn't put her on the phone with Jimmy Pop." —Brett Alperowitz One Fierce Beer Coaster was originally released on Republic Records , which, under its earlier name, Cheese Factory Records, had previously released material by the band. As word-of-mouth praise for the album spread, however, Geffen Records signed the band after two months. The original release contained a song called "Yellow Fever", which was about having sex with Asian women, as well as a hidden track on track number 69 on the original release. It consisted of an audio collage featuring Howard Stern talking about peanut butter , a televangelist, a news broadcast on the disease Lupus (a reference to Lüpüs Thünder ), a phone call from a drunk friend of Jimmy's, and other assorted oddities. The Geffen re-release omitted this track. "Yellow Fever" and the hidden track were later released on an EP called One Censored Beer Coaster . "Fire Water Burn" played a major role in the slow build of interest that ultimately led to the band's mainstream breakthrough. Because the band could not afford financially solvent national tours, they promoted themselves by sending their music to alternative rock-based radio stations across the country. Eventually, an intern brought the band to the attention of the music director of 107.7 The End in Seattle. The director, liking what he heard, played "Fire Water Burn" on his Friday night show. After airing, the station was flooded with phone calls asking about the song and the band and the director passed the song onto the music director at KROQ-FM in Los Angeles . This snowball effect eventually overwhelmed the band with demands for their new record. After hearing of the underground success One Fierce Beer Coaster was receiving, many record labels began courting the band. According to manager Brett Alperowitz in an interview with HitQuarters , Madonna 's label Maverick "really wanted to sign the band in the worst possible way, even to the point where I had to tell Madonna that I couldn't put her on the phone with Jimmy Pop." The band eventually signed a record deal with Geffen Records . When Geffen Records re-released the album, the label refused to release the song "Yellow Fever" because of its racial lyrical content. As such, the song was removed from Geffen pressings of the album. In response, Jimmy Pop told Yahoo! Launch that his band's music and lyrics were simply meant to be humorous: I think on the first record there's stuff that [offended people]… Really we're not trying to shock anybody, we're just saying things that we laugh at," he explained. "That was always the idea. The same things that we talk about on the bus are the same things we put on our records. On the first record we had lyrics like, 'There's little children unattended, let me get some poison candy,' which to me, that isn't very good. In 2000, the song was the subject of further controversy when students at the University of Maryland , including members of the ECAASU and the LGBT Alliance , demanded the band be removed from a concert lineup. The album has been released on vinyl three times. The first vinyl release was released on Republic Records and included "Yellow Fever" and the hidden track. In 2013, it was repressed again and did not include either "Yellow Fever" or the hidden track. A second reissue came out on 23 September 2016 through MVD Audio, using the same track list as the MOV issue. When Geffen Records re-released the album, the label refused to release the song "Yellow Fever" because of its racial lyrical content. As such, the song was removed from Geffen pressings of the album. In response, Jimmy Pop told Yahoo! Launch that his band's music and lyrics were simply meant to be humorous: I think on the first record there's stuff that [offended people]… Really we're not trying to shock anybody, we're just saying things that we laugh at," he explained. "That was always the idea. The same things that we talk about on the bus are the same things we put on our records. On the first record we had lyrics like, 'There's little children unattended, let me get some poison candy,' which to me, that isn't very good. In 2000, the song was the subject of further controversy when students at the University of Maryland , including members of the ECAASU and the LGBT Alliance , demanded the band be removed from a concert lineup. The album has been released on vinyl three times. The first vinyl release was released on Republic Records and included "Yellow Fever" and the hidden track. In 2013, it was repressed again and did not include either "Yellow Fever" or the hidden track. A second reissue came out on 23 September 2016 through MVD Audio, using the same track list as the MOV issue. One Fierce Beer Coaster has received mixed reviews. Officially reviewing the album for Amazon.com , Roni Sarig argued that while the band was "offensive, rude, stoopid [ sic ] , and vigorously gutter-minded", the album was "full of smart lines, great hooks, and creative arranging". In a three-out-of-five star review, AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that, " One Fierce Beer Coaster was picked up by DGC about two months after its release [...] And, listening to the single, "Fire Water Burn," it's possible to hear why." However, Earlewine also wrote that "what really sinks the album is the revolting, sophomoric humor that passes for lyrics." In his review of the lead single "Fire Water Burn", Entertainment Weekly reviewer Matt Diehl referred to the band's music as "mumbling hip-hop slang with self-conscious Caucasian stiffness." Robert Christgau awarded the album two stars and identified it as an "honorable mention" (i.e., a "likable effort consumers attuned to [the record's] overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well enjoy"), writing that the album was " fighting for [the band's] right to show you their underpants". On January 18, 1997, One Fierce Beer Coaster debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 132; it peaked at number 57 less than a month later. On October 16, 1998, the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), meaning that it had shipped 500,000 copies in the United States. One Fierce Beer Coaster has received mixed reviews. Officially reviewing the album for Amazon.com , Roni Sarig argued that while the band was "offensive, rude, stoopid [ sic ] , and vigorously gutter-minded", the album was "full of smart lines, great hooks, and creative arranging". In a three-out-of-five star review, AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that, " One Fierce Beer Coaster was picked up by DGC about two months after its release [...] And, listening to the single, "Fire Water Burn," it's possible to hear why." However, Earlewine also wrote that "what really sinks the album is the revolting, sophomoric humor that passes for lyrics." In his review of the lead single "Fire Water Burn", Entertainment Weekly reviewer Matt Diehl referred to the band's music as "mumbling hip-hop slang with self-conscious Caucasian stiffness." Robert Christgau awarded the album two stars and identified it as an "honorable mention" (i.e., a "likable effort consumers attuned to [the record's] overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well enjoy"), writing that the album was " fighting for [the band's] right to show you their underpants". On January 18, 1997, One Fierce Beer Coaster debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 132; it peaked at number 57 less than a month later. On October 16, 1998, the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), meaning that it had shipped 500,000 copies in the United States. All tracks are written by Jimmy Pop except when notedAdapted from the album booklet. Band members Jimmy Pop – lead vocals, guitar, samples, production Lüpüs Thünder – backing vocals, guitar Spanky G – drums Evil Jared – bass DJ Q-Ball – backing vocals, turntables, keys, programming Guest musicians Production Avery Lipman – executive producer Monte Lipman – executive producer Joseph M. Palmaccio – mastering Rich Gavalis – engineer, editing, mixing^ Shipments figures based on certification alone. ^ Shipments figures based on certification alone.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Visa_requirements_for_Pakistani_citizens/html

Visa requirements for Pakistani citizens

Visa requirements for Pakistani citizens are the requirements by other countries to obtain a visa before entry on an ordinary Pakistani Passport. As of March 2024, Pakistani citizens had Visa free, visa-on-arrival and eVisa access to 77 countries and territories. All of the updated links and visa-related requirements can be found listed in the chart below. Pakistani passport holders that hold multi-entry visas or permanent residency permits in certain European countries, Canada, USA, GCC states or Australia (for example) may grant the ability to apply for eVisas to certain nations, as well as Visa on Arrival access that they would not have without visas to these nations. The Pakistani passport is currently ranked 106th in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley Passport Index in the First Quarter of 2024. The chart below outlines the visa requirements for Pakistani Ordinary passport holders. eVisa or Online visa indicates that a visa may be granted online electronic visas universally to all applicants who are accepted, without needing to attend an interview or Embassy to collect the visa before travel. The information is collected using the instructions on official Embassy / Consulate websites, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of these nations, as well as data from the International Air Transport Association (IATA) Timatic database containing documentation requirements for passengers traveling internationally via air, e.g. passport and visa requirements. It is important that all travelers double-check with the references, secondary sources and/or their airline before departing on a journey for additional requirements. eVisa can be obtained at https://e-visa.al/ . Passengers must have a printed eVisa confirmation. Visa not required for passengers with a valid multiple entry Schengen visa, or residency permit with the condition that the visa must have been used previously in one of the countries of the Schengen area. Visa not required for passengers with a valid 10-year UAE residence permit or holders of a multiple entry visa or residency permit for the United States or the United Kingdom. eVisa available at https://evisa.gov.ai/ Visa on arrival for Pakistani nationals who have a valid residence permit for UK, US or Canada. eVisa can be obtained at https://evisa.immigration.gov.ag/agEvisa-app/ 30 day Visa on arrival (100 USD) if holding valid visa Schengen Visa or residency. 30 day Visa on arrival (100 USD) if holding valid visa or Permanent residency to UK, US or Canada. Pakistan does not recognize Armenia. Visas are granted by invitation only by authorities, foreign diplomatic representations, international organizations or their representatives accredited in the Republic of Armenia. Must apply for an Aruba visa at the Netherlands Embassy in person. Visa not required for Permanent residence holders for Canada, USA, UK, Ireland, and Overseas France. Visa not required for Schengen country residence or multi-entry Schengen visa holders. Visa not required for transit in certain cases see website for more details https://www.netherlandsworldwide.nl/caribbean-visa/visa-needed-caribbean Passengers must complete "Embarkation/Disembarkation Card (ED Card)" before departure at www.edcardaruba.aw . They will receive a "Travel Authorization" which must be presented before boarding. eVisa can be obtained at https://www.evisa.gov.bh/ Visa on arrival (Cost BD 5.000) for those in possession of a valid visit visa to UAE, UK, USA, KSA (excluding Hajj & Umrah visa), Schengen or USA Green Card Visa free entry for Permanent residents and holders of multiple entry visa to USA and Canada Visa free entry for visa holders of a Schengen Member State 90 days. eVisa can be acquired at https://evisa.bj/ Must have an international vaccination certificate for Yellow fever. Visa application can be submitted online via Portal at https://visas.cancilleria.gob.bo The applicant must attend the nearest Embassy or consulate to collect the sticker visa. Yellow fever vaccination certificate required Criminal and/or police record, issued by the competent authority in the country of origin or last residence required Visa not required if holding two or multiple entry short-stay visa issued by a Schengen member state for stays that of no more than 90 days eVisa can be obtained at https://evisa.gov.bw/ Both Single entry and Multi entry eVisa (3 months) available online. Polio vaccination certification required Visa not required if holding two or multiple entry short-stay visa issued by a Schengen member state for stays that of no more than 90 days. eVisa can be obtained at https://applicant.visaburkina.bf/#/ Transit through Burkina Faso, for less than 24 hours, does not need a transit visa if they are continuing their journey by the same or first connecting aircraft and they do not leave the airport. Yellow fever vaccination required Visa on arrival for United States Permanent residence (Green card) holders. All visitors to Canada must submit Electronic Travel Authorization (eTA) when entering Canada via air. Visa on Arrival costs 50 USD. 30 day Visa free access for Permanent residents or Multi entry visa holders to United States or Canada. 30 day Visa free access for Permanent residents, Students or those in possession of a work visa from EU countries, United Kingdom, Switzerland, Norway or Iceland. Visa free entry for holders of a valid multi-entry visa or residence permit of Bulgaria, Cyprus or Romania. Travelers require an Advanced travel information form (D'VIAJEROS) at https://dviajeros.mitrans.gob.cu/inicio , 48 hours before entry into Cuba. Medical travel insurance required All travelers are required to complete the Digital Immigration Card (DI card) online up to 7 days prior to departure. https://dicardcuracao.com/portal Yellow fever vaccine certificate required Valid Travel Medical insurance required Visa not required if holding two or multiple entry short-stay visa issued by a Schengen member state for stays that of no more than 90 days. Visas will NOT be granted to travelers with evidence of past travel (Visa stamps) to the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, or if their itineraries include illegal entries from ports and airports. eVisa can be obtained at https://www.evisa.gouv.dj/ eVisa fees vary by visa type; A transit visa (from 1–14 days) costs 12 USD and a short stay visa (from 15 to 90 days) will cost 23 USD. Transit visa is not required if you do not leave the airport. Visa on arrival (30 days) for passengers with a valid and used visa issued by Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, USA, United Kingdom or a Schengen Member State. A "Courtesy visa" on arrival may be available to wives of Egyptian nationals, however, this is subject to approval by the immigration authorities and is not guaranteed. It is highly recommended to obtain a visa or confirmation before embarking. eVisa can be obtained at https://egonline.vfsevisa.com/gnq/en/on-boarding Proof of vaccination for Yellow fever is required. Visa not required if in possession of a long-stay visa or hold a valid residence permit issued by a Schengen member state. Visa not required if holding a residence permit for Andorra or Monaco. All other tourist visa applications can be done online in certain cases after submitting the required documents. https://france-visas.gouv.fr/ Visa not required if in possession of a long-stay visa or hold a valid residence permit issued by a Schengen member state Visa not required if holding a residence permit for Andorra or Monaco. All other tourist visa applications can be done online in certain cases after submitting the required documents. https://france-visas.gouv.fr/ eVisa can be obtained at https://evisa.dgdi.ga/ eVisas are valid only for those entering Gabon by air via Leon Mba International Airport in Libreville. Visitors are required to hold a hotel voucher or letter of invitation issued by the sponsor. Yellow Fever Vaccination certificate required Visas will NOT be granted to travelers with evidence of past travel (Visa stamps) to the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Visa not required for those who hold permanent residency in the United Kingdom and have not been absent from the UK for more than 2 years. Visa not required for those who hold family visas to EU nations. Visa not required for those who hold residency permits to the United Kingdom for a period of 12 months or more. Visa not required if in possession of a long-stay visa or hold a valid residence permit issued by a Schengen member state Visa not required for those who hold a residence permit for Andorra or Monaco. All other tourist visa applications can be done online in certain cases after submitting the required documents. https://france-visas.gouv.fr/ eVisa can be obtained at https://www.paf.gov.gn/visa Yellow fever vaccine certificate required. Visa on arrival (90 days) may be available, however prior arrangements and an authorization letter from the Migration Office of Guinea Bissau is required. Yellow fever vaccine certificate required. Visa on arrival (30 days) available for those who hold an approval letter issued by Ministry of Home Affairs (Immigration Section) of Guyana. 10 USD Tourist fee to be collected upon arrival at the Airport. There are NO Tourist visas for Pakistanis. Due to high political tensions, there are extra requirements, a limited amount of purposes that entry can be granted and scrutiny Pakistani/Pakistani origin applicants go through while applying. The Visa process for Pakistani/Pakistan origin nationals is a 100 percent prior reference process and prior clearance from the Ministry of Home Affairs of India is mandatory. Pakistani nationals with dual nationality must ONLY apply on their Pakistani passport. People of Pakistani origin, Spouses of Pakistanis or whose parents or grandparents have held a Pakistani passport in the past must submit a copy of a Pakistan Overseas Card (NICOP) or a Citizenship Renunciation Letter issued by the Ministry of Interior of Pakistan. Polio vaccine certificate is required. Pakistan does not recognize Israel. Under Pakistani national law, Pakistani passports are explicitly invalid for travel to Israel. Pakistani Dual nationals who attempt to travel to Israel from Pakistan on a Foreign passport, without prior arrangement and permission will be stopped by the Civil Aviation Authority at the Airport. Israel does not have diplomatic ties with Pakistan, under Israeli law nations that are considered "hostile" require special invitations by an official party or company that needs to be submitted at the Israeli Ministry of Interior. Pakistani nationals seeking entry to Jordan for Tourism, require a sponsor for a "Visit visa" Pakistani nationals without a sponsor can only obtain a "Tourism visa" through a Jordanian tourist agency officially registered and certified in the Ministry of Tourism. All visa applications can be completed online at https://eservices.moi.gov.jo and receive an Electronic visa within 0-14 business days. eVisa is available for Pakistani nationals that hold at least a 6-month residency permit for Canada, Australia, UK, South Korea, Japan, EU countries or GCC countries. Invitation registered with the Ministry of Internal Affairs is required. Applications can be submitted up to 90 days prior to travel and must be submitted at least 3 days in advance. eTA fee is USD 32.50. Proof of reservation at the hotel where visitors plan to stay is required (if staying with friends, an invitation letter is also acceptable). Yellow fever vaccination certificate is required if coming from endemic countries. eVisa can be obtained online, however currently the website appears to be hacked or not functioning properly. Travel medical health insurance is required. Invitation letter is required. Yellow fever vaccine certificate required. Must complete a traveler declaration within 96 hours before arrival at https://imuga.immigration.gov.mv/ethd Must have a booking at a registered tourist facility. Visa not required if in possession of a long-stay visa or hold a valid residence permit issued by a Schengen member state, Visa not required if holding a residence permit for Andorra or Monaco. All other tourist visa applications can be done online in certain cases after submitting the required documents. https://france-visas.gouv.fr/ Visa not required if in possession of a long-stay visa or hold a valid residence permit issued by a Schengen member state Visa not required if holding a residence permit for Andorra or Monaco. All other tourist visa applications can be done online in certain cases after submitting the required documents. https://france-visas.gouv.fr/ Visa not required for those in possession of a used Multi entry visa or residency for Canada, Japan, United Kingdom or a Schengen Member State. Visa not required if holding two or multiple entry short-stay visa issued by a Schengen member state for stays that of no more than 90 days. Visa no required if holding valid USA or UK permanent residence or multi-entry visa. Visa not required if in possession of a long-stay visa or hold a valid residence permit issued by a Schengen member state, Visa not required if holding a residence permit for Andorra or Monaco. All other tourist visa applications can be done online in certain cases after submitting the required documents. https://france-visas.gouv.fr/ Visa on arrival if holding valid visas of US, Canada, or Schengen Member state. Yellow fever vaccine certificate required. Online visa for those holding GCC residency. Online visa available for spouses or children of G1 nationals that hold 26B or 26M visa subtype (Must travel with them) Online visa available for spouses or children of Brunei, New Zealand and South Korea holding (Must travel with them) Only a marriage certificate, proof of relationship (birth certificate) and proof that the spouse has received a visa are required for the online visa application. "Tourist - Own Itinerary" category. Yellow fever vaccine certificate is required. Visa on arrival only if holding a hotel reservation made via the website Discover Qatar Must have POLIO vaccine certificate Must have travel health insurance from an APPROVED provider on https://www.moph.gov.qa/english/derpartments/policyaffairs/hfid/hirs/insurancecompanies/Pages/default.aspx When arriving at Doha (Hamad International Airport), before proceeding to immigration the required documents will be verified at the Discover Qatar counter. The name(s) on the hotel reservation MUST match the name(s) of the person(s) requesting the visa on arrival. Visa on arrival is free of charge. All foreign nationals can transit without a visa Visa not required if in possession of a long-stay visa or hold a valid residence permit issued by a Schengen member state, Visa not required if in possession of a residence permit for Andorra or Monaco. All other tourist visa applications can be done online in certain cases after submitting the required documents. https://france-visas.gouv.fr/ Visa on arrival may be available for tour groups entering from the Russian-Abkhaz for a period of less than 24 hours. Upon arrival to Abkhazia, you have to appear in the Consular Department within 3 working days for receiving a visa of the Republic of Abkhazia. Georgia does not recognize Abkhazia. Under Georgian law, it is considered illegal to enter Abkhazia through the Russian border. Evidence of an Abkhazian visa, Abkhaz stamps or a stamp of Russian checkpoints on the border with Abkhazia in your passport, may result in you being fined, visa cancellation, deportation or being banned/rejected a visa from Georgia. Yellow fever vaccine certificate required Visa application can be started online at https://eviza.mae.ro , then the applicant must attend the diplomatic mission/consular post of Romania to receive the visa. Polio vaccination certificate is required. Visa not required if holding multi-entry visa or residency issued by a Schengen member state. Visa not required if holding multi-entry visa or residency issued by Bulgaria, Cyprus or Croatia. Visa not required if in possession of a long-stay visa or hold a valid residence permit issued by a Schengen member state Visa not required if holding a residence permit for Andorra or Monaco. All other tourist visa applications can be done online in certain cases after submitting the required documents. https://france-visas.gouv.fr/ Visa not required if in possession of a long-stay visa or hold a valid residence permit issued by a Schengen member state, Visa not required if in possession of a residence permit for Andorra or Monaco. All other tourist visa applications can be done online in certain cases after submitting the required documents. https://france-visas.gouv.fr/ Visa not required if in possession of a long-stay visa or hold a valid residence permit issued by a Schengen member state. Visa not required if holding a residence permit for Andorra or Monaco. All other tourist visa applications can be done online in certain cases after submitting the required documents. https://france-visas.gouv.fr/ For those traveling to Saint Pierre and Miquelon directly from Canada directly, a Canadian Permanent residence card may be used to enter Will be given a 90-day Visitors Permit upon arrival if they meet the conditions of entry. Must have a valid visa or permit for entry into the country to which they will travel from Samoa Must have no deportation record for any other country. eVisa can be obtained at http://www.smf.st/evisa/index.php Yellow fever vaccination certificate is required. Yellow fever vaccine certificate is required. Visa on arrival available for Pakistani nationals who have received a "visa préalable" letter before traveling to Senegal. Visa will be stamped on their passport upon arriving at Dakar Blaise Diagne airport. Visa not required for passengers with a visa issued by Switzerland, United Kingdom, USA or an EEA Member State for a maximum stay of 90 days. Application can be submitted up to 30 days before travel. Visitors must upload a reservation confirmation(s) for each visitor's location of stay in Seychelles. Yellow fever vaccination certificate is required if coming from endemic countries. Payment of the fee (EUR 10) by credit or debit card. Valid for one journey only and it expires once exit the country. Pre-arranged visa can be picked up on arrival. eVisa can be obtained at https://apply.visa.gov.so/ Visa on arrival is available at Bosaso (BSA), Galcaio (GLK), Garowe (GGR), Kisimayu (KMU) and Mogadishu (MGQ) airports. Due to armed civil conflict that broke out April 15, 2023 the Airports, Airspace and land borders are currently closed at this time. eVisa can be obtained at https://voyage.gouv.tg Yellow fever vaccine certificate is required. Yellow fever vaccine certificate is required. Minors under 18 years of age without parents, require a certified copy of their parents national ID and a letter giving permission for them to travel. Will be given a 30-day Visitors Permit upon arrival if they meet the conditions of entry. Countries not separately listed in Schedule 1 of the Visa Regulations must pay 100 USD upon entry. eVisa can be obtained at https://visas.immigration.go.ug/ . Yellow fever vaccine certificate is required. All types of Visas for UAE is issued online and not at the embassy. Various types of Visas can be obtained online using "smart service" at https://smartservices.icp.gov.ae eVisa can be obtained (30 days) at Etihad website https://uaevisas.etihad.com/echannels/web/client/etihad/index.html#/dashboard , regardless of which Airline(s) you have booked with, as long as you have a return flight booked with entry and exit through the same city. eVisa can be obtained online if holding a booking from Emirates Airlines, Air Arabia or Fly Dubai tickets. Visa can also be obtained through a licensed agent, which often allows for faster processing time. For visa options that do not involve a flight booking (Land) and agent will be required to apply for a visa online. Transit visa is not required. eVisa can be obtained at https://evisa.xuatnhapcanh.gov.vn eVisa is valid for 90 days and multiple entry. eVisa can be obtained at https://eservices.zambiaimmigration.gov.zm/ Must be 16 or older to apply for an eVisa. eVisa can be obtained at https://www.evisa.gov.zw/ Host invitation and proof of host residence is required if not staying at a hotel.External territories, Restricted territories or destinations, and Autonomous zones may have separate entry protocols or require permits for Pakistani citizens to enter. These destinations are part of and governed by other nations and mostly require a visa for the nation that they are attributed to. Some of these external territories have different laws or are geographically located far away from the nation that they are governed by so they may require more than 1 entry permit or they may have special visa waiver agreements. It is important that visitors check any possible restrictions with the relevant authorities before travel plan confirmation. Bonaire is governed by the Netherlands and is considered a public body, similar to municipalities. Visitors are required to pay a Tourist Tax online https://tourismtax.bonairegov.com/form and print out proof of payment to present upon arrival. Must hold a valid United States visa. Pakistan is not part of the Guam-CNMI Visa Waiver Program, which allows citizens of certain nationalities to enter Guam without a US visa, as long as they enter directly from any nation except for the United States. Guam is a part of the United States, but they do have border controls and customs offices. Pakistani citizens will need to obtain a United States visa before they can enter Guam. If transiting through the United States, a COVID-19 vaccine certificate is required. Special visa for Kurdistan Region of Iraq required. eVisa is available for those who have a sponsor code at https://visit.gov.krd/ Pakistani nationals require a sponsor. Visa exempt for those who were born in Iraq. Visa for Australia is required. Australian residents travelling from Australia do not need a visa or passport. Must hold a valid United Kingdom visa. A Hong Kong visa is required. eVisa for Hong Kong can be obtained at https://www.immd.gov.hk/eng/services/index.html#tab_f_1 Separate visa is required for those who wish to visit Mainland China. If you are traveling from Taiwan to Hong Kong, a separate entry permit is required. Must hold a valid United States visa. Pakistan is not part of the Guam-CNMI Visa Waiver Program, which allows citizens of certain nationalities to enter Northern Mariana Islands without a US visa, as long as they enter directly from any nation except for the United States. Northern Mariana Islands is a part of the United States, but they do have border controls and customs offices. Pakistani citizens will need to obtain a United States visa before they can enter Northern Mariana Islands. A COVID-19 double-dose vaccine certificate is required. United States tourist visa is required. Saba is governed by the Netherlands and is considered a public body, similar to municipalities. Must hold a valid United Kingdom visa. Sint Eustatius is governed by the Netherlands and is considered a public body, similar to municipalities. Visa for Tanzania required. eVisa can be obtained at https://visa.immigration.go.tz Applicants are advised to submit their applications at least 2 months before their travel date. Having an invitation letter or a request letter for visa from the Host is an added credibility of their application. If an applicant wishes to visit both Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar, he/she is advised to select his first destination while filling the form. Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages to be available in the passport being presented, typically one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being valid or available. Many African countries, including Angola , Benin , Burkina Faso , Burundi , Cameroon , Central African Republic , Chad , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Republic of the Congo , Côte d'Ivoire , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , Gambia , Ghana , Guinea-Bissau , Kenya , Liberia , Mali , Mauritania , Niger , Rwanda , Senegal , Sierra Leone and Togo , South Sudan , Uganda , and Zambia , require all incoming passengers older than nine months to one year to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis , as does the South American territory of French Guiana . Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has visited one recently or has transited for 12 hours in those countries: Algeria, Botswana, Cabo Verde, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Lesotho, Libya, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tunisia, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Very few countries, such as Paraguay, just require a valid passport on arrival. However many countries and groupings now require only an identity card – especially from their neighbours. Other countries may have special bilateral arrangements that depart from the generality of their passport validity length policies to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled). Some countries, such as Japan, Ireland and the United Kingdom, require a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid for at least 6 more months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Turkey, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, and Vietnam. Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia. Countries requiring passports with a validity of at least 3 months beyond the date of intended departure include Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Honduras, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova and New Zealand. Similarly, the EEA countries of Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, all European Union countries (except Ireland) together with Switzerland also require 3 months validity beyond the date of the bearer's intended departure unless the bearer is an EEA or Swiss national. Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include Albania, North Macedonia, Panama, and Senegal. Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry. Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the date of intended departure include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macau, the Maldives and South Africa. Some countries, including Australia, Canada, Fiji, New Zealand and the United States, routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record while others impose restrictions depending on the type of conviction and the length of the sentence. The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata , banning entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Syria, and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt. To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel , the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel (unless the entry is for some work-related purposes). Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport . Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017 [ update ] ) stamped at Erez when passing into and out of Gaza . [ citation needed ] Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old. Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest travellers who refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to change planes rather than go landside . Fingerprinting countries/regions include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, India, Japan, Kenya (both fingerprints and a photo are taken), Malaysia upon entry and departure, Mongolia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Uganda, the United Arab Emirates and the United States. Many countries also require a photo be taken of people entering the country. The United States, which does not fully implement exit control formalities at its land frontiers (although long mandated by domestic legislation), intends to implement facial recognition for passengers departing from international airports to identify people who overstay their visa. Together with fingerprint and face recognition, iris scanning is one of three biometric identification technologies internationally standardised since 2006 by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) for use in e-passports and the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors who need to apply for a visa. The United States Department of Homeland Security has announced plans to greatly increase the biometric data it collects at US borders. In 2018, Singapore began trials of iris scanning at three land and maritime immigration checkpoints. Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages to be available in the passport being presented, typically one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being valid or available.Many African countries, including Angola , Benin , Burkina Faso , Burundi , Cameroon , Central African Republic , Chad , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Republic of the Congo , Côte d'Ivoire , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , Gambia , Ghana , Guinea-Bissau , Kenya , Liberia , Mali , Mauritania , Niger , Rwanda , Senegal , Sierra Leone and Togo , South Sudan , Uganda , and Zambia , require all incoming passengers older than nine months to one year to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis , as does the South American territory of French Guiana . Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has visited one recently or has transited for 12 hours in those countries: Algeria, Botswana, Cabo Verde, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Lesotho, Libya, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tunisia, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Very few countries, such as Paraguay, just require a valid passport on arrival. However many countries and groupings now require only an identity card – especially from their neighbours. Other countries may have special bilateral arrangements that depart from the generality of their passport validity length policies to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled). Some countries, such as Japan, Ireland and the United Kingdom, require a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid for at least 6 more months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Turkey, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, and Vietnam. Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia. Countries requiring passports with a validity of at least 3 months beyond the date of intended departure include Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Honduras, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova and New Zealand. Similarly, the EEA countries of Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, all European Union countries (except Ireland) together with Switzerland also require 3 months validity beyond the date of the bearer's intended departure unless the bearer is an EEA or Swiss national. Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include Albania, North Macedonia, Panama, and Senegal. Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry. Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the date of intended departure include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macau, the Maldives and South Africa.Some countries, including Australia, Canada, Fiji, New Zealand and the United States, routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record while others impose restrictions depending on the type of conviction and the length of the sentence.The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata , banning entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Syria, and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt. To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel , the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel (unless the entry is for some work-related purposes). Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport . Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017 [ update ] ) stamped at Erez when passing into and out of Gaza . [ citation needed ] Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest travellers who refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to change planes rather than go landside . Fingerprinting countries/regions include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, India, Japan, Kenya (both fingerprints and a photo are taken), Malaysia upon entry and departure, Mongolia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Uganda, the United Arab Emirates and the United States. Many countries also require a photo be taken of people entering the country. The United States, which does not fully implement exit control formalities at its land frontiers (although long mandated by domestic legislation), intends to implement facial recognition for passengers departing from international airports to identify people who overstay their visa. Together with fingerprint and face recognition, iris scanning is one of three biometric identification technologies internationally standardised since 2006 by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) for use in e-passports and the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors who need to apply for a visa. The United States Department of Homeland Security has announced plans to greatly increase the biometric data it collects at US borders. In 2018, Singapore began trials of iris scanning at three land and maritime immigration checkpoints.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/List_of_diseases_spread_by_arthropods/html

List of diseases spread by arthropods

Arthropods are common vectors of disease . A vector is an organism which spreads disease-causing parasites or pathogens from one host to another. Invertebrates spread bacterial, viral and protozoan pathogens by two main mechanisms. Either via their bite, as in the case of malaria spread by mosquitoes, or via their faeces, as in the case of Chagas' Disease spread by Triatoma bugs or epidemic typhus spread by human body lice. Many invertebrates are responsible for transmitting diseases. Mosquitoes are perhaps the best known invertebrate vector and transmit a wide range of tropical diseases including malaria, dengue fever and yellow fever. Another large group of vectors are flies. Sandfly species transmit the disease leishmaniasis, by acting as vectors for protozoan Leishmania species, and tsetse flies transmit protozoan trypansomes ( Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypansoma brucei rhodesiense ) which cause African Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness). Ticks and lice form another large group of invertebrate vectors. The bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi , which causes Lyme Disease, is transmitted by ticks and members of the bacterial genus Rickettsia are transmitted by lice. For example, the human body louse transmits the bacterium Rickettsia prowazekii which causes epidemic typhus. Although invertebrate-transmitted diseases pose a particular threat on the continents of Africa, Asia and South America, there is one way of controlling invertebrate-borne diseases, which is by controlling the invertebrate vector. For example, one way of controlling malaria is to control the mosquito vector through the use of mosquito nets, which prevent mosquitoes from coming into contact with humans.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Max_Theiler/html

Max Theiler

Max Theiler (30 January 1899 – 11 August 1972) was a South African-American virologist and physician. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1951 for developing a vaccine against yellow fever in 1937, becoming the first African-born Nobel laureate. Born in Pretoria , Theiler was educated in South Africa through completion of his degree in medical school. He went to London for postgraduate work at St Thomas's Hospital Medical School , King's College London , and at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine , earning a 1922 diploma in tropical medicine and hygiene. That year, he moved to the United States to do research at the Harvard University School of Tropical Medicine. He lived and worked in that nation the rest of his life. In 1930, he moved to the Rockefeller Foundation in New York, becoming director of the Virus Laboratory. Theiler was born in Pretoria, then the capital of the South African Republic (now South Africa ); his father Arnold Theiler was a veterinary bacteriologist . He attended Pretoria Boys High School , Rhodes University College , and University of Cape Town Medical School, graduating in 1918. He left South Africa for London to study at St Thomas's Hospital Medical School, King's College London, and at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. In 1922, he was awarded a diploma in tropical medicine and hygiene; he became a licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians of London and a member of the Royal College of Surgeons of England . Theiler wanted to pursue a career in research, so in 1922, he took a position at the Harvard University School of Tropical Medicine in Cambridge, Massachusetts . He spent several years investigating amoebic dysentery and trying to develop a vaccine for rat-bite fever . After becoming assistant to Andrew Sellards, he started working on yellow fever. In 1926, they disproved Hideyo Noguchi 's hypothesis that yellow fever was caused by the bacterium Leptospira icteroides. In 1928, the year after the disease was identified conclusively as being caused by a virus , they showed that the African and South American viruses are immunologically identical. (This followed Adrian Stokes' inducing yellow fever in rhesus macaques from India). In the course of this research, Theiler contracted yellow fever, but survived and developed immunity. In 1930, Theiler moved to the Rockefeller Foundation in New York, where he later became director of the Virus Laboratory. He was professor of epidemiology and public health at the Yale School of Medicine and the School of Public Health from 1964 to 1967. After passing the yellow fever virus through laboratory mice, Theiler found that the weakened virus conferred immunity on rhesus macaques. The stage was set for Theiler to develop a vaccine against the disease. Theiler first devised a test for the efficacy of experimental vaccines. In his test, sera from vaccinated human subjects were injected into mice to see if they protected the mice against yellow fever virus. This "mouse protection test" was used with variations as a measure of immunity until after World War II. Subculturing the particularly virulent Asibi strain from West Africa in chicken embryos, a technique pioneered by Ernest Goodpasture , the Rockefeller team sought to obtain an attenuated strain of the virus that would not kill mice when injected into their brains. It took until 1937, and more than 100 subcultures in chicken embryos, for Theiler and his colleague Hugh Smith to obtain an attenuated strain, which they named "17D". Animal tests showed the attenuated 17D mutant was safe and immunizing. Theiler's team rapidly completed the development of a 17D vaccine, and the Rockefeller Foundation began human trials in South America. Between 1940 and 1947, the Rockefeller Foundation produced more than 28 million doses of the vaccine and finally ended yellow fever as a major disease. For this work, Theiler received the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . Theiler also was awarded the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 's Chalmers Medal in 1939, Harvard University's Flattery Medal in 1945, and the American Public Health Association 's Lasker Award in 1949. In 1937, Max Theiler discovered a filterable agent that was a known cause for paralysis in mice. He found the virus was not transmittable to rhesus macaques, and that only some mice developed symptoms. The virus is now referred to as Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus . The virus has been well characterized, and now serves as a standard model for studying multiple sclerosis .He married Lillian Graham (1895–1977) in 1928, and they had one daughter. He died on 11 August 1972 in New Haven, Connecticut . Max Theiler contributed to three books: Theiler wrote numerous papers, published in The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology .

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Arbovirus/html

Arbovirus

Arbovirus is an informal name for any virus that is transmitted by arthropod vectors . The term arbovirus is a portmanteau word ( ar thropod- bo rne virus ). Tibovirus ( ti ck- bo rne virus ) is sometimes used to more specifically describe viruses transmitted by ticks , a superorder within the arthropods. Arboviruses can affect both animals (including humans) and plants. In humans, symptoms of arbovirus infection generally occur 3–15 days after exposure to the virus and last three or four days. The most common clinical features of infection are fever , headache , and malaise , but encephalitis and viral hemorrhagic fever may also occur. The incubation period – the time between when infection occurs and when symptoms appear – varies from virus to virus, but is usually limited between 2 and 15 days for arboviruses. The majority of infections, however, are asymptomatic. Among cases in which symptoms do appear, symptoms tend to be non-specific, resembling a flu-like illness , and are not indicative of a specific causative agent. These symptoms include fever, headache, malaise, rash and fatigue. Rarely, vomiting and hemorrhagic fever may occur. The central nervous system can also be affected by infection, as encephalitis and meningitis are sometimes observed. Prognosis is good for most people, but is poor in those who develop severe symptoms, with up to a 20% mortality rate in this population depending on the virus. The very young, elderly, pregnant women, and people with immune deficiencies are more likely to develop severe symptoms. [ citation needed ]Arboviruses maintain themselves in nature by going through a cycle between a host , an organism that carries the virus, and a vector , an organism that carries and transmits the virus to other organisms. For arboviruses, vectors are commonly mosquitoes, ticks, sandflies and other arthropods that consume the blood of vertebrates for nutritious or developmental purposes. Vertebrates which have their blood consumed act as the hosts, with each vector generally having an affinity for the blood of specific species, making those species the hosts. Transmission between the vector and the host occurs when the vector feeds on the blood of the vertebrate, wherein the virus that has established an infection in the salivary glands of the vector comes into contact with the host's blood. While the virus is inside the host, it undergoes a process called amplification, where the virus replicates at sufficient levels to induce viremia , a condition in which there are large numbers of virions present in the blood. The abundance of virions in the host's blood allows the host to transmit the virus to other organisms if its blood is consumed by them. When uninfected vectors become infected from feeding, they are then capable of transmitting the virus to uninfected hosts, resuming amplification of virus populations. If viremia is not achieved in a vertebrate, the species can be called a "dead-end host", as the virus cannot be transmitted back to the vector. An example of this vector-host relationship can be observed in the transmission of the West Nile virus. Female mosquitoes of the genus Culex prefer to consume the blood of passerine birds, making them the hosts of the virus. When these birds are infected, the virus amplifies, potentially infecting multiple mosquitoes that feed on its blood. These infected mosquitoes may go on to further transmit the virus to more birds. If the mosquito is unable to find its preferred food source, it will choose another. Human blood is sometimes consumed, but since the West Nile virus does not replicate that well in mammals , humans are considered a dead-end host. Person-to-person transmission of arboviruses is not common, but can occur. Blood transfusions , organ transplantation , and the use of blood products can transmit arboviruses if the virus is present in the donor's blood or organs. Because of this, blood and organs are often screened for viruses before being administered. Rarely, vertical transmission , or mother-to-child transmission, has been observed in infected pregnant and breastfeeding women. Exposure to used needles may also transmit arboviruses if they have been used by an infected person or animal. This puts intravenous drug users and healthcare workers at risk for infection in regions where the arbovirus may be spreading in human populations. Arboviruses are a polyphyletic group , belonging to various viral genera and therefore exhibiting different virologic characteristics.Arboviruses maintain themselves in nature by going through a cycle between a host , an organism that carries the virus, and a vector , an organism that carries and transmits the virus to other organisms. For arboviruses, vectors are commonly mosquitoes, ticks, sandflies and other arthropods that consume the blood of vertebrates for nutritious or developmental purposes. Vertebrates which have their blood consumed act as the hosts, with each vector generally having an affinity for the blood of specific species, making those species the hosts. Transmission between the vector and the host occurs when the vector feeds on the blood of the vertebrate, wherein the virus that has established an infection in the salivary glands of the vector comes into contact with the host's blood. While the virus is inside the host, it undergoes a process called amplification, where the virus replicates at sufficient levels to induce viremia , a condition in which there are large numbers of virions present in the blood. The abundance of virions in the host's blood allows the host to transmit the virus to other organisms if its blood is consumed by them. When uninfected vectors become infected from feeding, they are then capable of transmitting the virus to uninfected hosts, resuming amplification of virus populations. If viremia is not achieved in a vertebrate, the species can be called a "dead-end host", as the virus cannot be transmitted back to the vector. An example of this vector-host relationship can be observed in the transmission of the West Nile virus. Female mosquitoes of the genus Culex prefer to consume the blood of passerine birds, making them the hosts of the virus. When these birds are infected, the virus amplifies, potentially infecting multiple mosquitoes that feed on its blood. These infected mosquitoes may go on to further transmit the virus to more birds. If the mosquito is unable to find its preferred food source, it will choose another. Human blood is sometimes consumed, but since the West Nile virus does not replicate that well in mammals , humans are considered a dead-end host. Person-to-person transmission of arboviruses is not common, but can occur. Blood transfusions , organ transplantation , and the use of blood products can transmit arboviruses if the virus is present in the donor's blood or organs. Because of this, blood and organs are often screened for viruses before being administered. Rarely, vertical transmission , or mother-to-child transmission, has been observed in infected pregnant and breastfeeding women. Exposure to used needles may also transmit arboviruses if they have been used by an infected person or animal. This puts intravenous drug users and healthcare workers at risk for infection in regions where the arbovirus may be spreading in human populations. Arboviruses are a polyphyletic group , belonging to various viral genera and therefore exhibiting different virologic characteristics.Preliminary diagnosis of arbovirus infection is usually based on clinical presentations of symptoms, places and dates of travel, activities, and epidemiological history of the location where infection occurred. Definitive diagnosis is typically made in a laboratory by employing some combination of blood tests , particularly immunologic , serologic and/or virologic techniques such as ELISA , complement fixation , polymerase chain reaction , neutralization test , and hemagglutination-inhibition test . In the past, arboviruses were organized into one of four groups: A, B, C, and D. Group A denoted members of the genus Alphavirus , Group B were members of the genus Flavivirus , and Group C remains as the Group C serogroup of the genus Orthobunyavirus . Group D was renamed in the mid-1950s to the Guama group and is currently the Guama serogroup in the genus Orthobunyavirus . Currently, viruses are jointly classified according to Baltimore classification and a virus-specific system based on standard biological classification . With the exception of the African swine fever virus , which belongs to the Asfarviridae family of viruses, all major clinically important arboviruses belong to one of the following four groups: [ citation needed ]In the past, arboviruses were organized into one of four groups: A, B, C, and D. Group A denoted members of the genus Alphavirus , Group B were members of the genus Flavivirus , and Group C remains as the Group C serogroup of the genus Orthobunyavirus . Group D was renamed in the mid-1950s to the Guama group and is currently the Guama serogroup in the genus Orthobunyavirus . Currently, viruses are jointly classified according to Baltimore classification and a virus-specific system based on standard biological classification . With the exception of the African swine fever virus , which belongs to the Asfarviridae family of viruses, all major clinically important arboviruses belong to one of the following four groups: [ citation needed ]Vector control measures, especially mosquito control , are essential to reducing the transmission of disease by arboviruses. Habitat control involves draining swamps and removal of other pools of stagnant water (such as old tires, large outdoor potted plants, empty cans, etc.) that often serve as breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Insecticides can be applied in rural and urban areas, inside houses and other buildings, or in outdoor environments. They are often quite effective for controlling arthropod populations, though use of some of these chemicals is controversial, and some organophosphates and organochlorides (such as DDT ) have been banned in many countries. Infertile male mosquitoes have been introduced in some areas in order to reduce the breeding rate of relevant mosquito species. Larvicides are also used worldwide in mosquito abatement programs. Temefos is a common mosquito larvicide. People can also reduce the risk of getting bitten by arthropods by employing personal protective measures such as sleeping under mosquito nets , wearing protective clothing , applying insect repellents such as permethrin and DEET to clothing and exposed skin, and (where possible) avoiding areas known to harbor high arthropod populations. Arboviral encephalitis can be prevented in two major ways: personal protective measures and public health measures to reduce the population of infected mosquitoes. Personal measures include reducing time outdoors particularly in early evening hours, wearing long pants and long sleeved shirts and applying mosquito repellent to exposed skin areas. Public health measures often require spraying of insecticides to kill juvenile (larvae) and adult mosquitoes. Vaccines are available for the following arboviral diseases: Vaccines are in development for the following arboviral diseases:Vaccines are available for the following arboviral diseases: Vaccines are in development for the following arboviral diseases:Because the arboviral encephalitides are viral diseases, antibiotics are not an effective form of treatment and no effective antiviral drugs have yet been discovered. Treatment is supportive, attempting to deal with problems such as swelling of the brain, loss of the automatic breathing activity of the brain and other treatable complications like bacterial pneumonia . The WHO caution against the use of aspirin and ibuprofen as they can increase the risk of bleeding. Most arboviruses are located in tropical areas, however as a group they have a global distribution. The warm climate conditions found in tropical areas allows for year-round transmission by the arthropod vectors. Other important factors determining geographic distribution of arthropod vectors include rainfall, humidity, and vegetation. Mapping methods such as GIS and GPS have allowed for spatial and temporal analyses of arboviruses. Tagging cases or breeding sites geographically has allowed for deeper examination of vector transmission. To see the epidemiology of specific arboviruses, the following resources hold maps, fact sheets, and reports on arboviruses and arboviral epidemics. The WHO also hosts DengueNet, a database which can be queried about Dengue cases. Arboviruses were not known to exist until the rise of modern medicine , with the germ theory and an understanding that viruses were distinct from other microorganisms . The connection between arthropods and disease was not postulated until 1881 when Cuban doctor and scientist Carlos Finlay proposed that yellow fever may be transmitted by mosquitoes instead of human contact, a reality that was verified by Major Walter Reed in 1901. The primary vector, Aedes aegypti , had spread globally from the 15th to the 19th centuries as a result of globalization and the slave trade . This geographic spreading caused dengue fever epidemics throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, and later, in 1906, transmission by the Aedes mosquitoes was confirmed, making yellow fever and dengue fever the first two diseases known to be caused by viruses. Thomas Milton Rivers published the first clear description of a virus as distinct from a bacterium in 1927. The discovery of the West Nile virus came in 1937, and has since been found in Culex populations causing epidemics throughout Africa , the Middle East , and Europe . The virus was introduced into the Western Hemisphere in 1999, sparking a series of epidemics. During the latter half of the 20th century, Dengue fever reemerged as a global disease, with the virus spreading geographically due to urbanization , population growth , increased international travel, and global warming , and continues to cause at least 50 million infections per year, making Dengue fever the most common and clinically important arboviral disease. Yellow fever , alongside malaria , was a major obstacle in the construction of the Panama Canal . French supervision of the project in the 1880s was unsuccessful because of these diseases, forcing the abandonment of the project in 1889. During the American effort to construct the canal in the early 1900s, William C. Gorgas , the Chief Sanitary Officer of Havana , was tasked with overseeing the health of the workers. He had past success in eradicating the disease in Florida and Havana by reducing mosquito populations through draining nearby pools of water, cutting grass, applying oil to the edges of ponds and swamps to kill larvae , and capturing adult mosquitoes that remained indoors during the daytime. Joseph Augustin LePrince , the Chief Sanitary Inspector of the Canal Zone , invented the first commercial larvicide , a mixture of carbolic acid , resin , and caustic soda , to be used throughout the Canal Zone . The combined implementation of these sanitation measures led to a dramatic decline in the number of workers dying and the eventual eradication of yellow fever in the Canal Zone as well as the containment of malaria during the 10-year construction period. Because of the success of these methods at preventing disease, they were adopted and improved upon in other regions of the world.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Visa_requirements_for_Singapore_citizens/html

Visa requirements for Singapore citizens

Visa requirements for Singapore citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states which are imposed on citizens of Singapore. As of 2024, Singapore passports offer its holders visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to a total of 194 countries and territories, ranking the Singapore passport 1st in the world as per the Henley Passport Index , maintaining its most powerful passport streak since 2018 despite a drop in one destination at its peak. Visa requirements for Singapore citizens were recently lifted by Tajikistan (1 January 2022), Guyana (1 October 2023) and Iran (4 February 2024). Visa requirements for holders of normal passports travelling for tourist purposes: For a maximum total stay of 90 days within year period. Must have an international vaccination certificate. 90 days within any year period. Holders of a pre-arranged approval issued by "Le Delegue General de la Surete" can obtain a visa on arrival. 90 days – extendable up to 180-day stay within a one-year period. Except Passengers with VIP invitation. 90 days within any 180-day period. 15 days within any 6-month period. Applications can be submitted up to 90 days prior to travel and must be submitted at least 3 days in advance. eTA fee is USD 32.50. Proof of reservation at the hotel where visitors plan to stay is required (if staying with friends, an invitation letter is also acceptable). Yellow fever vaccination certificate is required if coming from endemic countries. e-Visa is also available online. 1 month extendable for 2 additional months. Granted free of charge at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if there is no Israeli visa or stamp in the passport, and in possession of phone number & address to be visited in Lebanon, and a non-refundable onward or round trip ticket. 90 days within any 180-day period. Travelers must register on the e-Visa platform at least 48 hours prior to travel and pay a processing fee of 650 MT. Holders of written e-visa approval issued by Immigration Authority Headquarters in Abuja, can obtain a visa on arrival. A visa is issued free of charge upon arrival at any port of entries. Holders of an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) travelling on business do not require a visa. 90 days within 6-month period. Application can be submitted up to 30 days before travel. Visitors must upload a reservation confirmation(s) for each visitor's location of stay in Seychelles. Yellow fever vaccination certificate is required if coming from endemic countries. Payment of the fee (EUR 10) by credit or debit card. Valid for one journey only and it expires once exit the country. 3 months within any year period. Visa issued on arrival is available at Bosaso (BSA), Galcaio (GLK) and Mogadishu (MGQ) airports for a maximum stay of 30 days. Obtainable online. Printed visa authorization must be presented at the time of travel. Pre-Approved Visa can be obtained on arrival. Not available at all entry points but obtainable at Presidente Nicolau Lobato International Airport or at Dili Sea Port. Fee : transit 20 USD; tourist 30 USD; business 50 USD. Visa on Arrival is issued free of charge for stays not exceeding 30 Days. Extension is possible for a fee.Pre-approved visas can be picked up on arrival in the following countries instead in embassy or consulate.Visa requirements for Singapore citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognised countries and restricted zones: 3 months within any year periodHolders of an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) travelling on business do not require a visa to the following countries: 1 - Up to 180 days 2 - Up to 90 days 3 - Up to 90 days in a period of 180 days 4 - Up to 60 days The card must be used in conjunction with a passport and has the following advantages: Singapore citizens aged 6 and older are eligible to use the automated clearance lanes at the ICA Checkpoints run by the Immigration and Checkpoints Authority , provided that their biometric identifiers (iris / facial / fingerprints) have been enrolled with ICA. In addition, for young Singapore citizens who wish to use the automated lanes but had collected their passports before turning six, they may enrol their biometrics at the staffed immigration counters (with the supervision of their parent / guardian). In addition, Singapore citizens who intend to travel as tourists , are eligible to use the automated border control systems (eGates) when arriving in (or departing from) the following countries: * - Automated system enrollment eligibility is limited only to certain categories of travellers. 1 - First-time visitors are required to enrol on their first visit and can only use the automated gates on their subsequent visits. 2 - Use of the E-Gates are only valid when departing from the country and that the traveler is aged 16 & above. Many countries have entry restrictions on foreigners that go beyond the common requirement of having either a valid visa or a visa exemption. Such restrictions may be health related or impose additional documentation requirements on certain classes of people for diplomatic or political purposes. Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages to be available in the passport being presented, typically one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being valid or available. Many African countries, including Angola , Benin , Burkina Faso , Burundi , Cameroon , Central African Republic , Chad , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Republic of the Congo , Côte d'Ivoire , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , Gambia , Ghana , Guinea-Bissau , Kenya , Liberia , Mali , Mauritania , Niger , Rwanda , Senegal , Sierra Leone and Togo , South Sudan , Uganda , and Zambia , require all incoming passengers older than nine months to one year to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis , as does the South American territory of French Guiana . Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has visited one recently or has transited for 12 hours in those countries: Algeria, Botswana, Cabo Verde, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Lesotho, Libya, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tunisia, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Very few countries, such as Paraguay, just require a valid passport on arrival. However many countries and groupings now require only an identity card – especially from their neighbours. Other countries may have special bilateral arrangements that depart from the generality of their passport validity length policies to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled). Some countries, such as Japan, Ireland and the United Kingdom, require a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid for at least 6 more months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Turkey, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, and Vietnam. Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia. Countries requiring passports with a validity of at least 3 months beyond the date of intended departure include Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Honduras, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova and New Zealand. Similarly, the EEA countries of Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, all European Union countries (except Ireland) together with Switzerland also require 3 months validity beyond the date of the bearer's intended departure unless the bearer is an EEA or Swiss national. Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include Albania, North Macedonia, Panama, and Senegal. Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry. Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the date of intended departure include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macau, the Maldives and South Africa. Some countries, including Australia, Canada, Fiji, New Zealand and the United States, routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record while others impose restrictions depending on the type of conviction and the length of the sentence. The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata , banning entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Syria, and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt. To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel , the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel (unless the entry is for some work-related purposes). Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport . Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017 [ update ] ) stamped at Erez when passing into and out of Gaza . [ citation needed ] Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old. Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest travellers who refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to change planes rather than go landside . Fingerprinting countries/regions include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, India, Japan, Kenya (both fingerprints and a photo are taken), Malaysia upon entry and departure, Mongolia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Uganda, the United Arab Emirates and the United States. Many countries also require a photo be taken of people entering the country. The United States, which does not fully implement exit control formalities at its land frontiers (although long mandated by domestic legislation), intends to implement facial recognition for passengers departing from international airports to identify people who overstay their visa. Together with fingerprint and face recognition, iris scanning is one of three biometric identification technologies internationally standardised since 2006 by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) for use in e-passports and the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors who need to apply for a visa. Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages to be available in the passport being presented, typically one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being valid or available.Many African countries, including Angola , Benin , Burkina Faso , Burundi , Cameroon , Central African Republic , Chad , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Republic of the Congo , Côte d'Ivoire , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , Gambia , Ghana , Guinea-Bissau , Kenya , Liberia , Mali , Mauritania , Niger , Rwanda , Senegal , Sierra Leone and Togo , South Sudan , Uganda , and Zambia , require all incoming passengers older than nine months to one year to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis , as does the South American territory of French Guiana . Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has visited one recently or has transited for 12 hours in those countries: Algeria, Botswana, Cabo Verde, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Lesotho, Libya, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tunisia, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Very few countries, such as Paraguay, just require a valid passport on arrival. However many countries and groupings now require only an identity card – especially from their neighbours. Other countries may have special bilateral arrangements that depart from the generality of their passport validity length policies to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled). Some countries, such as Japan, Ireland and the United Kingdom, require a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid for at least 6 more months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Turkey, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, and Vietnam. Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia. Countries requiring passports with a validity of at least 3 months beyond the date of intended departure include Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Honduras, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova and New Zealand. Similarly, the EEA countries of Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, all European Union countries (except Ireland) together with Switzerland also require 3 months validity beyond the date of the bearer's intended departure unless the bearer is an EEA or Swiss national. Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include Albania, North Macedonia, Panama, and Senegal. Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry. Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the date of intended departure include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macau, the Maldives and South Africa.Some countries, including Australia, Canada, Fiji, New Zealand and the United States, routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record while others impose restrictions depending on the type of conviction and the length of the sentence.The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata , banning entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Syria, and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt. To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel , the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel (unless the entry is for some work-related purposes). Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport . Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017 [ update ] ) stamped at Erez when passing into and out of Gaza . [ citation needed ] Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest travellers who refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to change planes rather than go landside . Fingerprinting countries/regions include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, India, Japan, Kenya (both fingerprints and a photo are taken), Malaysia upon entry and departure, Mongolia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Uganda, the United Arab Emirates and the United States. Many countries also require a photo be taken of people entering the country. The United States, which does not fully implement exit control formalities at its land frontiers (although long mandated by domestic legislation), intends to implement facial recognition for passengers departing from international airports to identify people who overstay their visa. Together with fingerprint and face recognition, iris scanning is one of three biometric identification technologies internationally standardised since 2006 by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) for use in e-passports and the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors who need to apply for a visa.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Visa_policy_of_Singapore/html

Visa policy of Singapore

The visa policy of Singapore deals with the requirements a traveller must meet to enter Singapore . A foreign national, depending on their country of origin, must meet certain requirements to obtain a visa , which is a permit to travel, to enter and remain in the country. A visa may also entitle the visa holder to other privileges, such as a right to work, study, etc. and may be subject to conditions. Citizens of most countries and territories can enter Singapore without a visa. A citizen of one of the visa waiver eligible countries and territories can temporarily enter the country for a period of 30 or 90 days without a visa depending on their nationality. However, nationals of some countries must first obtain a visa in advance before being allowed to enter Singapore . In recent years, applications of work permits, study permits and certain types of permanent residency are submitted online. However, such applicants must provide their biometrics (photograph and fingerprints) as a part of their application process. Depending on the country by which the passport was issued, a visa application may have to be submitted at a visa application centre at a Singaporean diplomatic mission. All visitors to Singapore must: Before entering Singapore, all travellers (including Singapore citizens) are required to submit an SG Arrival Card online, which provides personal information, trip details and health declaration, to Singapore immigration. Singapore citizens are exempt from the requirement to submit an SG Arrival Card if entering Singapore by land. The electronic SG Arrival Card must be submitted within three days before the date of arrival in Singapore, to avoid unnecessary delays during immigration clearance. Travellers can submit their personal information and trip details via an official link or via the "SG Arrival Card" mobile application from either the App Store (iOS) or Google Play (Android). The Electronic Arrival Card is free of charge. The Electronic Arrival Card is not a substitute for a visa. The paper-based Disembarkation Card (colloquially known as the "White Card") has been discontinued since 2020. Before entering Singapore, all travellers (including Singapore citizens) are required to submit an SG Arrival Card online, which provides personal information, trip details and health declaration, to Singapore immigration. Singapore citizens are exempt from the requirement to submit an SG Arrival Card if entering Singapore by land. The electronic SG Arrival Card must be submitted within three days before the date of arrival in Singapore, to avoid unnecessary delays during immigration clearance. Travellers can submit their personal information and trip details via an official link or via the "SG Arrival Card" mobile application from either the App Store (iOS) or Google Play (Android). The Electronic Arrival Card is free of charge. The Electronic Arrival Card is not a substitute for a visa. The paper-based Disembarkation Card (colloquially known as the "White Card") has been discontinued since 2020. Citizens of the following 162 jurisdictions may enter Singapore without a visa for stays up to the duration listed below, depending on nationality: Indefinite stay (1) 90 days (35) 1 - Visa-free entry for British passport holders without proof of right of abode in the United Kingdom is shortened to 30 days. 30 days (126) 1 - For Chinese citizens with People's Republic of China passports , Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passports or Macao Special Administrative Region passports only. 2 - Holders of Taiwan passports who do not have the right of abode in Taiwan must hold a valid Taiwan re-entry permit. 3 - Holders of United Arab Emirates temporary passports are not eligible for visa exemption and must obtain a visa. Holders of passports issued by the following jurisdictions who also possess an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) containing the "SGP" code on the reverse, which indicates that it is valid for travel to Singapore, can enter Singapore without a visa for business trips of up to 60 days. They are also eligible for enrollment into the Automated Clearance Initiative . ABTC holders are eligible to use automated immigration clearance lanes upon arrival and departure. ABTCs are issued to nationals of: Holders of passports issued by the following jurisdictions who also possess an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) containing the "SGP" code on the reverse, which indicates that it is valid for travel to Singapore, can enter Singapore without a visa for business trips of up to 60 days. They are also eligible for enrollment into the Automated Clearance Initiative . ABTC holders are eligible to use automated immigration clearance lanes upon arrival and departure. ABTCs are issued to nationals of: Singapore categorises countries whose citizens require a visa to enter into two groups – Assessment Level I and Assessment Level II countries. Holders of normal passports or travel documents issued by Assessment Level I countries and territories may obtain an e-visa from the Immigration and Checkpoints Authority (ICA)'s online portal through a local Singaporean contact or a strategic partner in Singapore; if successful, the applicant can enter Singapore with a printout of the e-visa. Applicants may alternatively obtain a visa at the nearest Singaporean diplomatic mission or from one of its authorized visa agents outside Singapore, in which case a local Singaporean contact is not required. e-Visa and regular visa applications lodged by holders of the following three travel documents are processed in 1 working day, excluding the day the application was submitted. e-Visa and regular visa applications lodged by nationals of the following countries are processed in 3 working days, excluding the day the application was submitted. Visa requirement does not apply to holders of non-ordinary passports of these countries, with the exception of North Korea. Holders of all passports or travel documents issued by Assessment Level II countries and territories may obtain an e-visa from the Immigration and Checkpoints Authority (ICA)'s online portal through a local Singaporean contact or a strategic partner in Singapore; if successful, the applicant can enter Singapore with a printout of the e-visa. Applicants may alternatively obtain a visa at the nearest Singaporean diplomatic mission or from one of its authorized visa agents outside Singapore – however, a "Letter of Introduction for Visa Application" to support the visa application is required, which can be issued by a local Singaporean contact or a Singaporean diplomatic mission. e-Visa and regular visa applications lodged by nationals of the following countries and territories are processed in 3 working days, excluding the day the application was submitted. Visa requirements also apply to non-ordinary passport holders of these countries, unless otherwise noted. DOS - Holders of diplomatic, official and service passports are exempt from visa requirements. D - Holders of diplomatic passports are exempt from visa requirements.Holders of normal passports or travel documents issued by Assessment Level I countries and territories may obtain an e-visa from the Immigration and Checkpoints Authority (ICA)'s online portal through a local Singaporean contact or a strategic partner in Singapore; if successful, the applicant can enter Singapore with a printout of the e-visa. Applicants may alternatively obtain a visa at the nearest Singaporean diplomatic mission or from one of its authorized visa agents outside Singapore, in which case a local Singaporean contact is not required. e-Visa and regular visa applications lodged by holders of the following three travel documents are processed in 1 working day, excluding the day the application was submitted. e-Visa and regular visa applications lodged by nationals of the following countries are processed in 3 working days, excluding the day the application was submitted. Visa requirement does not apply to holders of non-ordinary passports of these countries, with the exception of North Korea. e-Visa and regular visa applications lodged by holders of the following three travel documents are processed in 1 working day, excluding the day the application was submitted. e-Visa and regular visa applications lodged by nationals of the following countries are processed in 3 working days, excluding the day the application was submitted. Visa requirement does not apply to holders of non-ordinary passports of these countries, with the exception of North Korea. Holders of all passports or travel documents issued by Assessment Level II countries and territories may obtain an e-visa from the Immigration and Checkpoints Authority (ICA)'s online portal through a local Singaporean contact or a strategic partner in Singapore; if successful, the applicant can enter Singapore with a printout of the e-visa. Applicants may alternatively obtain a visa at the nearest Singaporean diplomatic mission or from one of its authorized visa agents outside Singapore – however, a "Letter of Introduction for Visa Application" to support the visa application is required, which can be issued by a local Singaporean contact or a Singaporean diplomatic mission. e-Visa and regular visa applications lodged by nationals of the following countries and territories are processed in 3 working days, excluding the day the application was submitted. Visa requirements also apply to non-ordinary passport holders of these countries, unless otherwise noted. DOS - Holders of diplomatic, official and service passports are exempt from visa requirements. D - Holders of diplomatic passports are exempt from visa requirements.Under the Immigration & Checkpoints Authority (ICA)'s Automated Clearance Initiative (ACI), eligible foreign visitors, including those visiting Singapore for the first time, can use automated lanes for both arrival and departure immigration clearance without the need for prior enrolment. As of April 2023, the ACI was deployed to 130 automated lanes at Changi Airport and 40 automated lanes at the land checkpoints. Travellers are required to provide a valid email address within their SG Arrival card submissions in order to receive their Electronic Visit Pass (e-Pass) when using the automated lanes; travellers will not be issued an arrival immigration endorsement in their passports. Under the ACI, eligible arriving foreign visitors are directed to the automated lanes for immigration clearance. a) Their biometrics (iris, facial and fingerprint images) are automatically enrolled during the arrival clearance process (if not already enrolled during a previous trip to Singapore). b) Information on their enrolment is included in the electronic visit pass (e-Pass) which is emailed to them after immigration clearance. c) Enrolled foreign visitors will then be able to use any automated lane during departure and on subsequent visits to Singapore. ACI is a critical component of ICA's New Clearance Concept (NCC), which aimed to make automated immigration clearance the norm at the checkpoints. Automated immigration lanes leverage multi-modal biometric scanning technology to provide travellers with a more secure, efficient, and seamless immigration clearance experience. 95% of all arrivals at Changi Airport are expected to be cleared through the automated lanes, by the first quarter of 2024. Through the use of automated lanes which take up less physical space and require less manpower than manual counters, ICA would be able to increase its clearance throughput and meet the growing traveller volume, which was expected to reach 300 million travellers per year by 2025. As of January 2024, ACI eligibility was extended to the passport holders of 60 jurisdictions. Holders of the APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) are also able to use the automated lanes under ACI. The Automated Clearance Initiative (ACI) is available for enrolment, for the following nationals (aged 6 and over): 1 - For British passport holders, only British citizens are eligible for enrolment into the ACI. The other classes of British nationality are eligible when departure.Nationals of Assessment Level I and II countries do not require a visa to transit through Changi Airport as long as they fulfill the following requirements: Nationals of certain Assessment Level I countries may clear immigration to enter Singapore under the Visa Free Transit Facility. Nationals of China 1 and India may enter Singapore without a visa for 96 hours if they are in transit to or from any third country by air, and possess a valid visa or long-term residence permit with validity of at least one month issued by Australia , Canada , Germany , Japan , New Zealand , Switzerland , United Kingdom or United States . Schengen visas are also accepted if the visa allows entry into Germany or Switzerland. Single-journey visas issued by these eight countries are also acceptable for transit, but if using the VFTF on the return journey (i.e. after the single journey visa has been used) the traveller must travel directly from the visa-issuing country and directly back to the home country, and the traveller must have not returned to their home country since the single journey visa was last used. They may enter Singapore by any mode of transport but must depart by air or sea. They must have a valid onward air/ferry/cruise ticket departing Singapore within 96 hours. 1- Chinese citizens who hold Chinese passports are visa exempt in general, while holders of other travel documents who require a visa may use this policy. Nationals of the following countries may enter Singapore without a visa for 96 hours if they are in transit to or from any third country. These nationals may use the VFTF on both the forward and the return journey. They may enter Singapore by any mode of transport but must depart by air. Nationals of Assessment Level I and II countries do not require a visa to transit through Changi Airport as long as they fulfill the following requirements: Nationals of certain Assessment Level I countries may clear immigration to enter Singapore under the Visa Free Transit Facility.Nationals of China 1 and India may enter Singapore without a visa for 96 hours if they are in transit to or from any third country by air, and possess a valid visa or long-term residence permit with validity of at least one month issued by Australia , Canada , Germany , Japan , New Zealand , Switzerland , United Kingdom or United States . Schengen visas are also accepted if the visa allows entry into Germany or Switzerland. Single-journey visas issued by these eight countries are also acceptable for transit, but if using the VFTF on the return journey (i.e. after the single journey visa has been used) the traveller must travel directly from the visa-issuing country and directly back to the home country, and the traveller must have not returned to their home country since the single journey visa was last used. They may enter Singapore by any mode of transport but must depart by air or sea. They must have a valid onward air/ferry/cruise ticket departing Singapore within 96 hours. 1- Chinese citizens who hold Chinese passports are visa exempt in general, while holders of other travel documents who require a visa may use this policy. Nationals of the following countries may enter Singapore without a visa for 96 hours if they are in transit to or from any third country. These nationals may use the VFTF on both the forward and the return journey. They may enter Singapore by any mode of transport but must depart by air. Nationals of China 1 and India may enter Singapore without a visa for 96 hours if they are in transit to or from any third country by air, and possess a valid visa or long-term residence permit with validity of at least one month issued by Australia , Canada , Germany , Japan , New Zealand , Switzerland , United Kingdom or United States . Schengen visas are also accepted if the visa allows entry into Germany or Switzerland. Single-journey visas issued by these eight countries are also acceptable for transit, but if using the VFTF on the return journey (i.e. after the single journey visa has been used) the traveller must travel directly from the visa-issuing country and directly back to the home country, and the traveller must have not returned to their home country since the single journey visa was last used. They may enter Singapore by any mode of transport but must depart by air or sea. They must have a valid onward air/ferry/cruise ticket departing Singapore within 96 hours. 1- Chinese citizens who hold Chinese passports are visa exempt in general, while holders of other travel documents who require a visa may use this policy.Nationals of the following countries may enter Singapore without a visa for 96 hours if they are in transit to or from any third country. These nationals may use the VFTF on both the forward and the return journey. They may enter Singapore by any mode of transport but must depart by air. All travellers, including Singapore residents, who arrive in Singapore from countries with risk of yellow fever transmission (listed below) require an International Certificate of Vaccination in order to enter Singapore . Failure to provide a valid yellow fever vaccination certificate, would result in the traveller being quarantined under Section 31 of the Infectious Disease Act, for a maximum of six days upon arrival in Singapore. Non-residents who object to the quarantine, will be denied entry and returned to his/her place of origin or last port of embarkation. The vaccination requirement is imposed by this country for protection against Yellow Fever since the principal mosquito vector Aedes aegypti is present in its territory. According to Timatic , nationals of North Korea are required to be escorted to the Immigration and Checkpoints Authority upon entering or transiting Singapore. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic , all short-term visitors were not allowed to enter or transit through Singapore effective 23 March 2020, 2359 hours. From 29 March 2020, 2359 hours, all Singapore long-term pass holders, as well as those granted in-principle approval for long-term passes, were required to obtain an entry approval from the relevant government agency ( Immigration and Checkpoints Authority , Ministry of Education or Ministry of Manpower ) before commencing their journey to Singapore. All travellers will need to submit a health and travel declaration online before arrival, and will be issued a 14-day stay home notice upon arrival. All COVID-19 related border measures were lifted starting 13 February 2023. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic , all short-term visitors were not allowed to enter or transit through Singapore effective 23 March 2020, 2359 hours. From 29 March 2020, 2359 hours, all Singapore long-term pass holders, as well as those granted in-principle approval for long-term passes, were required to obtain an entry approval from the relevant government agency ( Immigration and Checkpoints Authority , Ministry of Education or Ministry of Manpower ) before commencing their journey to Singapore. All travellers will need to submit a health and travel declaration online before arrival, and will be issued a 14-day stay home notice upon arrival. All COVID-19 related border measures were lifted starting 13 February 2023. Most visitors arriving to Singapore on short-term basis were from the following countries of nationality: Source: Singapore Tourism Analytics Network 8,550

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Stephen_Girard/html

Stephen Girard

Stephen Girard (born Étienne Girard , May 20, 1750 – December 26, 1831) was a French-born American banker, philanthropist and slave owner. Born in Bordeaux , Girard subsequently immigrated to the United States where he established himself in the American banking industry . During the War of 1812 , Girard single-handedly saved the federal government of the United States from bankruptcy by personally financing the American war effort. Eventually accumulating a large estate which included a slave plantation in Louisiana , a 2007 article in Fortune Magazine estimated that he was the fourth-richest American in history . Having no children, Girard devoted much of his fortune to philanthropy , in particular the education and welfare of orphans, and his estate continues to fund philanthropic endeavors in the present day. Girard was born in Bordeaux , France on May 20, 1750, the son of a sea captain. : 767 He lost the sight in his right eye at the age of eight and had little education. In 1760, he travelled to the colony of New York as a cabin boy and stayed there, working in the coastal trader system along the east coast and as far south as the Caribbean . : 766 He was licensed as a captain in 1773, visited New York in 1774, and with the assistance of a New York merchant began to trade to and from New Orleans and Port au Prince . In May 1776, after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War , Girard sailed into the port of Philadelphia to avoid a group of Royal Navy warships and settled there, running a grocery and liquor shop. In 1783, Stephen's brother John Girard left him with a slave, a woman in her twenties named Hannah, during a visit from Saint-Domingue . :89-91 Pennsylvania's 1780 Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery had many loopholes and although it was amended throughout Girard's life, Hannah remained his slave until his death in 1831. An 1828 listing of taxable inhabitants reported that she was the only enslaved person in Philadelphia at that time. By 1790, Girard had a fortune of $6,000 and a small fleet of trading vessels. In 1791, his merchantmen in the former colony of Saint-Domingue were involved in salvaging goods owned by French planters during the Haitian Revolution . He was left with $10,000 of goods stowed on his ships, the owners of which were likely massacred . Because the owners of the goods were not found, Girard added the goods to his possessions. : 767 He also participated in the Old China Trade , financing voyages to Canton. These voyages profited Girard through the sale of legitimate goods as well as opium , which was smuggled into China . Girard's business ventures in China ended in 1824 following an incident between one of his ships, the Terranova , and Chinese authorities. In 1776, Girard met Mary Lum , a Philadelphia native nine years his junior. They married soon afterwards, and Girard purchased a home at 211 Mill Street in Mount Holly Township, New Jersey . Mary was the daughter of John Lum, a shipbuilder who died three months before the marriage. In 1778 Girard became a resident of Pennsylvania. By 1785 Mary had begun succumbing to sudden, erratic emotional outbursts. Mental instability and violent rages ensued, leading to a diagnosis of incurable mental instability. Though Girard was initially devastated, by 1787 he took a mistress, Sally Bickham. In August 1790 Girard committed his wife to the Pennsylvania Hospital (today part of the University of Pennsylvania ) as an incurable lunatic, providing her every luxury for comfort. During this time she gave birth to a girl whose sire is not entirely certain. The child, baptized with the name Mary, died a few months later while under the care of Mrs. John Hatcher, who had been hired by Girard as a nurse. Girard spent the remainder of his life with mistresses. In 1793, there was an outbreak of yellow fever in Philadelphia. Although many other well-to-do citizens chose to leave the city, Girard stayed to care for the sick and dying. He supervised the conversion of a mansion outside the city limits into a hospital and recruited volunteers to nurse victims, and personally cared for patients. For his efforts, Girard was feted as a hero after the outbreak subsided. : 121–133 Again during the yellow fever epidemic of 1797-1798 he took the lead in relieving the poor and caring for the sick. After the charter for the First Bank of the United States expired in 1811, Girard purchased most of its stock and its facilities on South Third Street in Philadelphia, and reestablished it under his direct personal ownership. He hired George Simpson, the cashier of the First Bank, as cashier of the new bank, and with seven other employees opened for business on May 18, 1812. He allowed the Trustees of the First Bank of the United States to use some offices and space in the vaults to continue the process of winding down the affairs of the closed bank at a very nominal rent. : 249 Although Pennsylvania law prohibited an association of individuals from banking without a charter, it made no such prohibition on a single individual doing so. : 249–250 Philadelphia banks balked at accepting the notes that Girard issued on his personal credit and lobbied the state to force him to incorporate, without success. Girard's Bank was the principal source of government credit during the War of 1812 , worth an outstanding $1 million. Towards the end of the war, when the financial credit of the U.S. government was at its lowest, Girard placed nearly all of his personal resources at the disposal of the government and underwrote up to 95 percent of the war loan issue, which enabled the United States to carry on the war. After the war, he became a large stockholder in and one of the directors of the Second Bank of the United States . Girard's Bank ceased operations upon his death in 1831, but Philadelphia businessmen, eager to cash in on Girard's reputation, opened a bank called the Girard Trust Company , and later Girard Bank . It merged with Mellon Bank in 1983, and was largely sold to Citizens Bank two decades later. Its monumental headquarters building still stands at Broad and Chestnut Streets in Philadelphia.On December 22, 1830, Stephen Girard was seriously injured while crossing the street near Second and Market Streets in Philadelphia. He was knocked down by a horse and wagon, and one of its wheels ran over the left side of his face, lacerating his cheek and ear as well as damaging his good (left) eye. Despite his advanced age of 80 years old, he got up unassisted and returned to his nearby home, where a doctor dressed his wound. He threw himself back into his banking business, although he remained out of sight for two months. Nevertheless, Girard never fully recovered and he died on December 26, 1831. He was buried in the vault he built for his nephew in the Holy Trinity Catholic cemetery, then at Sixth and Spruce Streets. Twenty years later, his remains were re-interred in the Founder's Hall vestibule at Girard College behind a statue by Nicholas Gevelot, a French sculptor living in Philadelphia. At the time of his death, Girard was the wealthiest man in America. : 329–333 Michael Klepper and Robert Gunther, in their book The Wealthy 100 , : 26 posit that, with adjustment for inflation, Girard was the fifth-wealthiest American of all time as of 1996, behind John D. Rockefeller , Andrew Carnegie , Cornelius Vanderbilt , and John Jacob Astor . He was worth around $7.5 million at the time of his death, : xi equal to $255.9 million today. Girard was an atheist throughout his life, and he included his views on religion in his last testament. Girard's will was contested by his family in France but was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in a landmark case, Vidal et al. vs Girard's Executors , 43 U.S. 127 (1844). He bequeathed nearly his entire fortune to charitable and municipal institutions of Philadelphia and New Orleans, including an estimated $6 million (approximately $ 171 million in 2023 ) for establishing a boarding school for "poor, male, white orphans" in Philadelphia, primarily those who were the children of coal miners, which opened as Girard College in 1848. : 28 Girard also made a bequest of $10,000 to the public schools of Philadelphia, with the income from its investment to be used for the purchase of books for the school libraries, and a bequest for the establishment of funds to procure medals for deserving pupils. To his friend the judge Henry Bree, he bequeathed the plantation he owned in Louisiana, including thirty slaves . When Girard's former counting house on 22 North Water Street near the corner of Front and Market Streets was demolished in 1907, a set of underground cells were uncovered. At the time of discovery, it was alleged that the cells were used to incarcerate slaves. Although no longer in common use, people used to use the phrase "Stephen Girard work" or "Stephen Girard job" to refer to useless work. Girard did not believe in idleness, and in a time when people were loath to take handouts, he instead would pay for useless work. An example is paying workers to move bricks from one side of a yard to another (and then back again). A number of places are named after Stephen Girard:

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Zika_virus/html

Zika virus

Zika virus ( ZIKV ; pronounced / ˈ z iː k ə / or / ˈ z ɪ k ə / ) is a member of the virus family Flaviviridae . It is spread by daytime-active Aedes mosquitoes, such as A. aegypti and A. albopictus . Its name comes from the Ziika Forest of Uganda , where the virus was first isolated in 1947. Zika virus shares a genus with the dengue , yellow fever , Japanese encephalitis , and West Nile viruses. Since the 1950s, it has been known to occur within a narrow equatorial belt from Africa to Asia. From 2007 to 2016 [ update ] , the virus spread eastward, across the Pacific Ocean to the Americas, leading to the 2015–2016 Zika virus epidemic . The infection, known as Zika fever or Zika virus disease, often causes no or only mild symptoms, similar to a very mild form of dengue fever . While there is no specific treatment, paracetamol (acetaminophen) and rest may help with the symptoms. As of April 2019, no vaccines have been approved for clinical use, however a number of vaccines are currently in clinical trials. Zika can spread from a pregnant woman to her baby. This can result in microcephaly , severe brain malformations , and other birth defects. Zika infections in adults may result rarely in Guillain–Barré syndrome . In January 2016, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued travel guidance on affected countries, including the use of enhanced precautions, and guidelines for pregnant women including considering postponing travel. Other governments or health agencies also issued similar travel warnings, while Colombia , the Dominican Republic , Puerto Rico , Ecuador , El Salvador , and Jamaica advised women to postpone getting pregnant until more is known about the risks. Zika virus belongs to the family Flaviviridae and the genus Flavivirus , thus is related to the dengue , yellow fever , Japanese encephalitis , and West Nile viruses. Like other flaviviruses, Zika virus is enveloped and icosahedral and has a nonsegmented, single-stranded, 10 kilobase , positive-sense RNA genome . It is most closely related to the Spondweni virus and is one of the two known viruses in the Spondweni virus clade . A positive-sense RNA genome can be directly translated into viral proteins. As in other flaviviruses, such as the similarly sized West Nile virus, the RNA genome encodes seven nonstructural proteins and three structural proteins in the form of a single polyprotein ( Q32ZE1 ). One of the structural proteins encapsulates the virus. This protein is the flavivirus envelope glycoprotein, that binds to the endosomal membrane of the host cell to initiate endocytosis. The RNA genome forms a nucleocapsid along with copies of the 12-kDa capsid protein. The nucleocapsid, in turn, is enveloped within a host-derived membrane modified with two viral glycoproteins . Viral genome replication depends on the making of double-stranded RNA from the single-stranded, positive-sense RNA (ssRNA(+)) genome followed by transcription and replication to provide viral mRNAs and new ssRNA(+) genomes. A longitudinal study shows that 6 hours after cells are infected with Zika virus , the vacuoles and mitochondria in the cells begin to swell. This swelling becomes so severe, it results in cell death, also known as paraptosis. This form of programmed cell death requires gene expression. IFITM3 is a trans-membrane protein in a cell that is able to protect it from viral infection by blocking virus attachment. Cells are most susceptible to Zika infection when levels of IFITM3 are low. Once the cell has been infected, the virus restructures the endoplasmic reticulum, forming the large vacuoles, resulting in cell death. There are two Zika lineages: the African lineage and the Asian lineage. Phylogenetic studies indicate that the virus spreading in the Americas is 89% identical to African genotypes, but is most closely related to the Asian strain that circulated in French Polynesia during the 2013 – 2014 outbreak . The Asian strain appears to have first evolved around 1928. The vertebrate hosts of the virus were primarily monkeys in a so-called enzootic mosquito-monkey-mosquito cycle, with only occasional transmission to humans. Before 2007, Zika "rarely caused recognized 'spillover' infections in humans, even in highly enzootic areas". Infrequently, however, other arboviruses have become established as a human disease and spread in a mosquito–human–mosquito cycle, like the yellow fever virus and the dengue fever virus (both flaviviruses), and the chikungunya virus (a togavirus ). Though the reason for the pandemic is unknown, dengue, a related arbovirus that infects the same species of mosquito vectors , is known in particular to be intensified by urbanization and globalization . Zika is primarily spread by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, and can also be transmitted through sexual contact or blood transfusions . The basic reproduction number ( R 0 , a measure of transmissibility) of Zika virus has been estimated to be between 1.4 and 6.6 . In 2015, news reports drew attention to the rapid spread of Zika in Latin America and the Caribbean. At that time, the Pan American Health Organization published a list of countries and territories that experienced "local Zika virus transmission" comprising Barbados, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Martinique, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Puerto Rico, Saint Martin, Suriname, and Venezuela. By August 2016, more than 50 countries had experienced active (local) transmission of Zika virus . Zika is primarily spread by the female Aedes aegypti mosquito, which is active mostly in the daytime. The mosquitos must feed on blood to lay eggs. : 2 The virus has also been isolated from a number of arboreal mosquito species in the genus Aedes , such as A. africanus , A. apicoargenteus , A. furcifer , A. hensilli , A. luteocephalus , and A. vittatus , with an extrinsic incubation period in mosquitoes around 10 days. The true extent of the vectors is still unknown. Zika has been detected in many more species of Aedes , along with Anopheles coustani, Mansonia uniformis , and Culex perfuscus , although this alone does not incriminate them as vectors. To detect the presence of the virus usually requires genetic material to be analysed in a lab using the technique RT-PCR . A much cheaper and faster method involves shining a light at the head and thorax of the mosquito, and detecting chemical compounds characteristic of the virus using near-infrared spectroscopy . Transmission by A. albopictus , the tiger mosquito, was reported from a 2007 urban outbreak in Gabon, where it had newly invaded the country and become the primary vector for the concomitant chikungunya and dengue virus outbreaks. New outbreaks can occur if a person carrying the virus travels to another region where A. albopictus is common. The potential societal risk of Zika can be delimited by the distribution of the mosquito species that transmit it. The global distribution of the most cited carrier of Zika, A. aegypti , is expanding due to global trade and travel. A. aegypti distribution is now the most extensive ever recorded – on parts of all continents except Antarctica, including North America and even the European periphery ( Madeira , the Netherlands, and the northeastern Black Sea coast). A mosquito population capable of carrying Zika has been found in a Capitol Hill neighborhood of Washington, DC, and genetic evidence suggests they survived at least four consecutive winters in the region. The study authors conclude that mosquitos are adapting for persistence in a northern climate. Zika virus appears to be contagious via mosquitoes for around a week after infection. The virus is thought to be infectious for a longer period of time after infection (at least 2 weeks) when transmitted via semen . Research into its ecological niche suggests that Zika may be influenced to a greater degree by changes in precipitation and temperature than dengue, making it more likely to be confined to tropical areas. However, rising global temperatures would allow for the disease vector to expand its range further north, allowing Zika to follow. Zika can be transmitted from men and women to their sexual partners; most known cases involve transmission from symptomatic men to women. As of April 2016, sexual transmission of Zika has been documented in six countries – Argentina, Australia, France, Italy, New Zealand, and the United States – during the 2015 outbreak. ZIKV can persist in semen for several months, with viral RNA detected up to one year. The virus replicates in the human testis, where it infects several cell types including testicular macrophages, peritubular cells and germ cells, the spermatozoa precursors. Semen parameters can be altered in patients for several weeks post-symptoms onset, and spermatozoa can be infectious. Since October 2016, the CDC has advised men who have traveled to an area with Zika should use condoms or not have sex for at least six months after their return as the virus is still transmissible even if symptoms never develop. Zika virus can spread by vertical (or "mother-to-child") transmission , during pregnancy or at delivery. An infection during pregnancy has been linked to changes in neuronal development of the unborn child. Severe progressions of infection have been linked to the development of microcephaly in the unborn child, while mild infections potentially can lead to neurocognitive disorders later in life. Congenital brain abnormalities other than microcephaly have also been reported after a Zika outbreak. Studies in mice have suggested that maternal immunity to dengue virus may enhance fetal infection with Zika, worsen the microcephaly phenotype and/or enhance damage during pregnancy, but it is unknown whether this occurs in humans. As of April 2016 [ update ] , two cases of Zika transmission through blood transfusions have been reported globally, both from Brazil, after which the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommended screening blood donors and deferring high-risk donors for 4 weeks. A potential risk had been suspected based on a blood-donor screening study during the French Polynesian Zika outbreak, in which 2.8% (42) of donors from November 2013 and February 2014 tested positive for Zika RNA and were all asymptomatic at the time of blood donation. Eleven of the positive donors reported symptoms of Zika fever after their donation, but only three of 34 samples grew in culture. Zika is primarily spread by the female Aedes aegypti mosquito, which is active mostly in the daytime. The mosquitos must feed on blood to lay eggs. : 2 The virus has also been isolated from a number of arboreal mosquito species in the genus Aedes , such as A. africanus , A. apicoargenteus , A. furcifer , A. hensilli , A. luteocephalus , and A. vittatus , with an extrinsic incubation period in mosquitoes around 10 days. The true extent of the vectors is still unknown. Zika has been detected in many more species of Aedes , along with Anopheles coustani, Mansonia uniformis , and Culex perfuscus , although this alone does not incriminate them as vectors. To detect the presence of the virus usually requires genetic material to be analysed in a lab using the technique RT-PCR . A much cheaper and faster method involves shining a light at the head and thorax of the mosquito, and detecting chemical compounds characteristic of the virus using near-infrared spectroscopy . Transmission by A. albopictus , the tiger mosquito, was reported from a 2007 urban outbreak in Gabon, where it had newly invaded the country and become the primary vector for the concomitant chikungunya and dengue virus outbreaks. New outbreaks can occur if a person carrying the virus travels to another region where A. albopictus is common. The potential societal risk of Zika can be delimited by the distribution of the mosquito species that transmit it. The global distribution of the most cited carrier of Zika, A. aegypti , is expanding due to global trade and travel. A. aegypti distribution is now the most extensive ever recorded – on parts of all continents except Antarctica, including North America and even the European periphery ( Madeira , the Netherlands, and the northeastern Black Sea coast). A mosquito population capable of carrying Zika has been found in a Capitol Hill neighborhood of Washington, DC, and genetic evidence suggests they survived at least four consecutive winters in the region. The study authors conclude that mosquitos are adapting for persistence in a northern climate. Zika virus appears to be contagious via mosquitoes for around a week after infection. The virus is thought to be infectious for a longer period of time after infection (at least 2 weeks) when transmitted via semen . Research into its ecological niche suggests that Zika may be influenced to a greater degree by changes in precipitation and temperature than dengue, making it more likely to be confined to tropical areas. However, rising global temperatures would allow for the disease vector to expand its range further north, allowing Zika to follow. Zika can be transmitted from men and women to their sexual partners; most known cases involve transmission from symptomatic men to women. As of April 2016, sexual transmission of Zika has been documented in six countries – Argentina, Australia, France, Italy, New Zealand, and the United States – during the 2015 outbreak. ZIKV can persist in semen for several months, with viral RNA detected up to one year. The virus replicates in the human testis, where it infects several cell types including testicular macrophages, peritubular cells and germ cells, the spermatozoa precursors. Semen parameters can be altered in patients for several weeks post-symptoms onset, and spermatozoa can be infectious. Since October 2016, the CDC has advised men who have traveled to an area with Zika should use condoms or not have sex for at least six months after their return as the virus is still transmissible even if symptoms never develop. Zika virus can spread by vertical (or "mother-to-child") transmission , during pregnancy or at delivery. An infection during pregnancy has been linked to changes in neuronal development of the unborn child. Severe progressions of infection have been linked to the development of microcephaly in the unborn child, while mild infections potentially can lead to neurocognitive disorders later in life. Congenital brain abnormalities other than microcephaly have also been reported after a Zika outbreak. Studies in mice have suggested that maternal immunity to dengue virus may enhance fetal infection with Zika, worsen the microcephaly phenotype and/or enhance damage during pregnancy, but it is unknown whether this occurs in humans. As of April 2016 [ update ] , two cases of Zika transmission through blood transfusions have been reported globally, both from Brazil, after which the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommended screening blood donors and deferring high-risk donors for 4 weeks. A potential risk had been suspected based on a blood-donor screening study during the French Polynesian Zika outbreak, in which 2.8% (42) of donors from November 2013 and February 2014 tested positive for Zika RNA and were all asymptomatic at the time of blood donation. Eleven of the positive donors reported symptoms of Zika fever after their donation, but only three of 34 samples grew in culture. Zika virus replicates in the mosquito's midgut epithelial cells and then its salivary gland cells. After 5–10 days, the virus can be found in the mosquito's saliva. If the mosquito's saliva is inoculated into human skin, the virus can infect epidermal keratinocytes, skin fibroblasts in the skin and the Langerhans cells . The pathogenesis of the virus is hypothesized to continue with a spread to lymph nodes and the bloodstream. Flaviviruses replicate in the cytoplasm , but Zika antigens have been found in infected cell nuclei. The viral protein numbered NS4A can lead to small head size ( microcephaly ) because it disrupts brain growth by hijacking a pathway which regulates growth of new neurons. In fruit flies, both NS4A and the neighboring NS4B restrict eye growth. Zika fever (also known as Zika virus disease) is an illness caused by Zika virus . Around 80% of cases are estimated to be asymptomatic, though the accuracy of this figure is hindered by the wide variance in data quality, and figures from different outbreaks can vary significantly. Symptomatic cases are usually mild and can resemble dengue fever . Symptoms may include fever , red eyes , joint pain , headache, and a maculopapular rash . Symptoms generally last less than seven days. It has not caused any reported deaths during the initial infection. Infection during pregnancy causes microcephaly and other brain malformations in some babies. Infection in adults has been linked to Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS) and Zika virus has been shown to infect human Schwann cells . Diagnosis is by testing the blood, urine, or saliva for the presence of Zika virus RNA when the person is sick. In 2019, an improved diagnostic test, based on research from Washington University in St. Louis , that detects Zika infection in serum was granted market authorization by the FDA . Prevention involves decreasing mosquito bites in areas where the disease occurs, and proper use of condoms. Efforts to prevent bites include the use of DEET or picaridin - based insect repellent , covering much of the body with clothing, mosquito nets , and getting rid of standing water where mosquitoes reproduce. There is no vaccine . Health officials recommended that women in areas affected by the 2015–2016 Zika outbreak consider putting off pregnancy and that pregnant women not travel to these areas. While no specific treatment exists, paracetamol (acetaminophen) and rest may help with the symptoms. Admission to a hospital is rarely necessary. It is advised, for an affected person with the zika virus, to drink a lot of water to stay hydrated, to lie down, and to treat the fever and agony with liquid solutions; taking drugs like acetaminophen or paracetamol helps to relieve fever and pain. [ according to whom? ] Referring to the US CDC it is not recommended to take anti-inflammatory and non-steroid drugs like aspirin for example. If the patient affected is already taking treatment for another medical condition it is advisable to inform your attending physician before taking any other drug or additional treatment; The World Health Organization has suggested that priority should be to develop inactivated vaccines and other nonlive vaccines, which are safe to use in pregnant women. As of March 2016 [ update ] , 18 companies and institutions were developing vaccines against Zika, but they state a vaccine is unlikely to be widely available for about 10 years. In June 2016, the FDA granted the first approval for a human clinical trial for a Zika vaccine. In March 2017, a DNA vaccine was approved for phase-2 clinical trials. This vaccine consists of a small, circular piece of DNA, known as a plasmid, that expresses the genes for the Zika virus envelope proteins. As the vaccine does not contain the full sequence of the virus, it cannot cause infection. As of April 2017, both subunit and inactivated vaccines have entered clinical trials. It is advised, for an affected person with the zika virus, to drink a lot of water to stay hydrated, to lie down, and to treat the fever and agony with liquid solutions; taking drugs like acetaminophen or paracetamol helps to relieve fever and pain. [ according to whom? ] Referring to the US CDC it is not recommended to take anti-inflammatory and non-steroid drugs like aspirin for example. If the patient affected is already taking treatment for another medical condition it is advisable to inform your attending physician before taking any other drug or additional treatment; The World Health Organization has suggested that priority should be to develop inactivated vaccines and other nonlive vaccines, which are safe to use in pregnant women. As of March 2016 [ update ] , 18 companies and institutions were developing vaccines against Zika, but they state a vaccine is unlikely to be widely available for about 10 years. In June 2016, the FDA granted the first approval for a human clinical trial for a Zika vaccine. In March 2017, a DNA vaccine was approved for phase-2 clinical trials. This vaccine consists of a small, circular piece of DNA, known as a plasmid, that expresses the genes for the Zika virus envelope proteins. As the vaccine does not contain the full sequence of the virus, it cannot cause infection. As of April 2017, both subunit and inactivated vaccines have entered clinical trials. The virus was first isolated in April 1947 from a rhesus macaque monkey placed in a cage in the Ziika Forest of Uganda , near Lake Victoria , by the scientists of the Yellow Fever Research Institute . A second isolation from the mosquito A. africanus followed at the same site in January 1948. When the monkey developed a fever, researchers isolated from its serum a "filterable transmissible agent" which was named Zika in 1948. Zika was first known to infect humans from the results of a serological survey in Uganda, published in 1952. Of 99 human blood samples tested, 6.1% had neutralizing antibodies. As part of a 1954 outbreak investigation of jaundice suspected to be yellow fever, researchers reported isolation of the virus from a patient, but the pathogen was later shown to be the closely related Spondweni virus . Spondweni was also determined to be the cause of a self-inflicted infection in a researcher reported in 1956. Subsequent serological studies in several African and Asian countries indicated the virus had been widespread within human populations in these regions. The first true case of human infection was identified by Simpson in 1964, who was himself infected while isolating the virus from mosquitoes. From then until 2007, there were only 13 further confirmed human cases of Zika infection from Africa and Southeast Asia. A study published in 2017 showed that the Zika virus, despite only a few cases were reported, has been silently circulated in West Africa for the last two decades when blood samples collected between 1992 and 2016 were tested for the ZIKV IgM antibodies. In 2017, Angola reported two cases of Zika fever. Zika was also occurring in Tanzania as of 2016. In April 2007, the first outbreak outside of Africa and Asia occurred on the island of Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia, characterized by rash, conjunctivitis, and arthralgia, which was initially thought to be dengue, chikungunya , or Ross River disease . Serum samples from patients in the acute phase of illness contained RNA of Zika. There were 49 confirmed cases, 59 unconfirmed cases, no hospitalizations, and no deaths. After October 2013 Oceania's first outbreak showed an estimated 11% population infected for French Polynesia that also presented with Guillain–Barre syndrome (GBS). The spread of ZIKV continued to New Caledonia, Easter Island, and the Cook Islands and where 1385 cases were confirmed by January 2014. During the same year, Easter Island acknowledged 51 cases. Australia began seeing cases in 2012. Research showed it was brought by travelers returning from Indonesia and other infected countries. New Zealand also experienced infections rate increases through returning foreign travelers. Oceania countries experiencing Zika today are New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Marshall Islands, American Samoa, Samoa, and Tonga. Between 2013 and 2014, further epidemics occurred in French Polynesia , Easter Island , the Cook Islands , and New Caledonia . There was an epidemic in 2015 and 2016 in the Americas . The outbreak began in April 2015 in Brazil , and spread to other countries in South America , Central America , North America , and the Caribbean . In January 2016, the WHO said the virus was likely to spread throughout most of the Americas by the end of the year; and in February 2016, the WHO declared the cluster of microcephaly and Guillain–Barré syndrome cases reported in Brazil – strongly suspected to be associated with the Zika outbreak – a Public Health Emergency of International Concern . It was estimated that 1.5 million people were infected by Zika in Brazil, with over 3,500 cases of microcephaly reported between October 2015 and January 2016. A number of countries issued travel warnings , and the outbreak was expected to significantly impact the tourism industry. Several countries have taken the unusual step of advising their citizens to delay pregnancy until more is known about the virus and its impact on fetal development. With the 2016 Summer Olympics hosted in Rio de Janeiro , health officials worldwide voiced concerns over a potential crisis, both in Brazil and when international athletes and tourists returned home and possibly would spread the virus. Some researchers speculated that only one or two tourists might be infected during the three-week period, or approximately 3.2 infections per 100,000 tourists. In November 2016, the World Health Organization declared that Zika virus was no longer a global emergency while noting that the virus still represents "a highly significant and a long-term problem". As of August 2017 the number of new Zika virus cases in the Americas had fallen dramatically. On May 15, 2017, three cases of Zika virus infection in India were reported in the state of Gujarat . By late 2018, there had been at least 159 cases in Rajasthan and 127 in Madhya Pradesh . In July 2021, the first case of Zika virus infection in the Indian state of Kerala was reported. After the first confirmed case, 19 other people who had previously presented symptoms were tested, and 13 of those had positive results, showing that Zika had been circulating in Kerala since at least May 2021. By August 6th 2021, there had been 65 reported cases in Kerala. On October 22, 2021, an officer in the Indian Air Force in Kanpur tested positive for Zika virus, making it the first reported case in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh . On 22 March 2016, Reuters reported that Zika was isolated from a 2014 blood sample of an elderly man in Chittagong in Bangladesh as part of a retrospective study . Between August and November 2016, 455 cases of Zika virus infection were confirmed in Singapore . In 2023, 722 Zika virus cases were reported in Thailand. From 2019-2022 the Robert Koch-Institut reported 29 imported Zikavirus cases imported into Germany. Of the altogether 16 imported Zika virus cases in 2023, 10 were diagnosed after a trip to Thailand with 62% of all Zika virus cases a significant relative and absolute increase. The virus was first isolated in April 1947 from a rhesus macaque monkey placed in a cage in the Ziika Forest of Uganda , near Lake Victoria , by the scientists of the Yellow Fever Research Institute . A second isolation from the mosquito A. africanus followed at the same site in January 1948. When the monkey developed a fever, researchers isolated from its serum a "filterable transmissible agent" which was named Zika in 1948. Zika was first known to infect humans from the results of a serological survey in Uganda, published in 1952. Of 99 human blood samples tested, 6.1% had neutralizing antibodies. As part of a 1954 outbreak investigation of jaundice suspected to be yellow fever, researchers reported isolation of the virus from a patient, but the pathogen was later shown to be the closely related Spondweni virus . Spondweni was also determined to be the cause of a self-inflicted infection in a researcher reported in 1956. Subsequent serological studies in several African and Asian countries indicated the virus had been widespread within human populations in these regions. The first true case of human infection was identified by Simpson in 1964, who was himself infected while isolating the virus from mosquitoes. From then until 2007, there were only 13 further confirmed human cases of Zika infection from Africa and Southeast Asia. A study published in 2017 showed that the Zika virus, despite only a few cases were reported, has been silently circulated in West Africa for the last two decades when blood samples collected between 1992 and 2016 were tested for the ZIKV IgM antibodies. In 2017, Angola reported two cases of Zika fever. Zika was also occurring in Tanzania as of 2016. In April 2007, the first outbreak outside of Africa and Asia occurred on the island of Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia, characterized by rash, conjunctivitis, and arthralgia, which was initially thought to be dengue, chikungunya , or Ross River disease . Serum samples from patients in the acute phase of illness contained RNA of Zika. There were 49 confirmed cases, 59 unconfirmed cases, no hospitalizations, and no deaths. After October 2013 Oceania's first outbreak showed an estimated 11% population infected for French Polynesia that also presented with Guillain–Barre syndrome (GBS). The spread of ZIKV continued to New Caledonia, Easter Island, and the Cook Islands and where 1385 cases were confirmed by January 2014. During the same year, Easter Island acknowledged 51 cases. Australia began seeing cases in 2012. Research showed it was brought by travelers returning from Indonesia and other infected countries. New Zealand also experienced infections rate increases through returning foreign travelers. Oceania countries experiencing Zika today are New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Marshall Islands, American Samoa, Samoa, and Tonga. Between 2013 and 2014, further epidemics occurred in French Polynesia , Easter Island , the Cook Islands , and New Caledonia . There was an epidemic in 2015 and 2016 in the Americas . The outbreak began in April 2015 in Brazil , and spread to other countries in South America , Central America , North America , and the Caribbean . In January 2016, the WHO said the virus was likely to spread throughout most of the Americas by the end of the year; and in February 2016, the WHO declared the cluster of microcephaly and Guillain–Barré syndrome cases reported in Brazil – strongly suspected to be associated with the Zika outbreak – a Public Health Emergency of International Concern . It was estimated that 1.5 million people were infected by Zika in Brazil, with over 3,500 cases of microcephaly reported between October 2015 and January 2016. A number of countries issued travel warnings , and the outbreak was expected to significantly impact the tourism industry. Several countries have taken the unusual step of advising their citizens to delay pregnancy until more is known about the virus and its impact on fetal development. With the 2016 Summer Olympics hosted in Rio de Janeiro , health officials worldwide voiced concerns over a potential crisis, both in Brazil and when international athletes and tourists returned home and possibly would spread the virus. Some researchers speculated that only one or two tourists might be infected during the three-week period, or approximately 3.2 infections per 100,000 tourists. In November 2016, the World Health Organization declared that Zika virus was no longer a global emergency while noting that the virus still represents "a highly significant and a long-term problem". As of August 2017 the number of new Zika virus cases in the Americas had fallen dramatically. On May 15, 2017, three cases of Zika virus infection in India were reported in the state of Gujarat . By late 2018, there had been at least 159 cases in Rajasthan and 127 in Madhya Pradesh . In July 2021, the first case of Zika virus infection in the Indian state of Kerala was reported. After the first confirmed case, 19 other people who had previously presented symptoms were tested, and 13 of those had positive results, showing that Zika had been circulating in Kerala since at least May 2021. By August 6th 2021, there had been 65 reported cases in Kerala. On October 22, 2021, an officer in the Indian Air Force in Kanpur tested positive for Zika virus, making it the first reported case in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh . On 22 March 2016, Reuters reported that Zika was isolated from a 2014 blood sample of an elderly man in Chittagong in Bangladesh as part of a retrospective study . Between August and November 2016, 455 cases of Zika virus infection were confirmed in Singapore . In 2023, 722 Zika virus cases were reported in Thailand. From 2019-2022 the Robert Koch-Institut reported 29 imported Zikavirus cases imported into Germany. Of the altogether 16 imported Zika virus cases in 2023, 10 were diagnosed after a trip to Thailand with 62% of all Zika virus cases a significant relative and absolute increase.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Faget_sign/html

Faget sign

In medicine , the Faget sign —sometimes called sphygmothermic dissociation —is the unusual pairing of fever with bradycardia (slow pulse ). (Fever is usually accompanied by tachycardia (rapid pulse), an association known by the eponym " Liebermeister's rule ".) The Faget sign is named after Louisiana physician Jean Charles Faget , who studied yellow fever in Louisiana. Faget sign is often seen in: Of note, the Faget sign in bacterial infections is consistently associated with bacteria that have an intracellular life cycle.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Yellowman/html

Yellowman

Musician songwriter deejay Winston Foster OD , (1956 or 15 January 1959 ) better known by the stage name Yellowman and also known as King Yellowman , is a Jamaican reggae and dancehall deejay . He first became popular in Jamaica in the 1980s, rising to prominence with a series of singles that established his reputation. Yellowman is considered to be one of the genre's pioneers and has been credited with "almost single-handedly [creating] the coarse, crude and fearlessly direct sound of today's dancehall." Spearheading the first generation of dancehall deejays, he brought the genre to an international audience. Winston Foster was abandoned by his parents and grew up in the Maxfield Children's Home and the Catholic orphanage Alpha Boys School in Kingston , the latter known for its musical alumni. He was shunned due to having albinism , which was not typically socially accepted in Jamaica. In the late 1970s Yellowman first gained wide attention when he finished second to Nadine Sutherland in the 1978 Tastee Talent Contest, a competition he would go on to win in the following year's edition, launching his professional career. Like many Jamaican deejays, he honed his talents by frequently performing at outdoor sound-system dances, prominently with Aces International. He had success as a recording artist, working with producer Henry "Junjo" Lawes during the early 1980s. In 1981, after becoming popular throughout Jamaica, Yellowman became the first dancehall artist to be signed to a major American label ( Columbia Records ). His first studio album release was in 1982 entitled Mister Yellowman followed by Zungguzungguguzungguzeng in 1983 earning instant success. Yellowman's sexually explicit lyrics in popular songs such as "Mad Over Me", boasting, like other reggae singers/deejays, of his sexual prowess, earned Yellowman criticism in the mid-1980s. In response he has proclaimed: "I never know why they call it slackness . I talk about sex, but it's just what happens behind closed doors. What I talk is reality." During his time at Aces, Yellowman would often perform at live shows with Vernon "Fathead" Rainford, whom which he would collaborate in some studio releases over the following years. Overall, the 1980s were Yellowman's most productive decade, going on to release around twenty albums under different labels, such as Mister Yellowman , Duppy or Gunman , Bad Boy Skanking , Zungguzungguguzungguzeng , among others. Yellowman appeared in Jamaican Dancehall Volcano Hi-power 1983 which featured other major dancehall musicians such as Massive Dread , Josey Wales , Burro Banton and Eek-A-Mouse . His 1984 release and debut under the Columbia label proper, Mister Yellowman , was met with negative reception and proved a commercial failure. Yellowman was persuaded to incorporate elements from rhythm and blues and disco which did not please international dancehall fans. Ultimately, CBS dropped Yellowman, who returned to his classic riddims and slackness, and his career quickly recovered. He had success in 1987 with a version of " Blueberry Hill ", that topped the charts for several weeks in Jamaica. Yellowman had met Fats Domino when the American performed on the island earlier in the decade, and Domino had presented him with a copy of his version. By the mid-1990s, Yellowman released socially conscious material, rising to international fame along with singers such as Buju Banton . Yellowman became the island's most popular deejay. During the early 1980s, Yellowman had over 40 singles and produced up to five albums per year. Foster re-invented himself with his 1994 album Prayer , which stepped away from the slackness that gave him his initial fame in favour of a more religious theme as a way to thank God for his success in music as well as in surviving cancer. His latest albums are New York (2003), Round 1 (2005), and No More War (2019). Yellowman was also a featured guest vocalist on the Run-DMC track "Roots Rap Reggae". Yellowman continues to perform internationally with his Sagittarius Band, and has toured through places such as Nigeria where he retains a following of fans, as well as Spain, Peru, Sweden, Italy, Germany, Britain, France, Kenya, the United States and Canada. He also featured on OPM 's 2004 album, Forthemasses . [ citation needed ] Yellowman was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album in two occasions; in 1985 for King Yellowman , and in 1998 for Freedom of Speech . He was the first dancehall artist to be nominated for this category. In 2018, it was announced that he would be awarded the Order of Distinction (Officer Class) by the Jamaican government. Yellowman and his wife Rosie have been together since the very beginning of his musical career. Together, they have raised multiple children. Yellowman is a fan of the NBA and attended some games in the mid-1980s. He named one of his sons after Kareem Abdul-Jabbar . Foster's daughter Kareema followed him into a career in music, and has collaborated with her father in live shows and studio productions. He has spoken against violence. In the Montreal Mirror in 2005 he said, "Now it's not your entertainment or teaching. If you notice the hip hop and dancehall artists today, all they do they sing about drugs, clothes, car, house—when they can't get it, they start get violent. I know what violence is like and what it contain and what it can do. I'm glad that the roots is coming back." The slackness style with which Yellowman is associated sometimes has homophobic lyrics. However, in the same Montreal Mirror article he spoke against it: "Everybody listen to me... I don't do songs against gay people, I don't do violent lyric against gay people. If you don't like a person or you don't like a thing, you don't talk about it. You don't come on stage and say kill them or burn them because everybody have a right to live." In 1982, Yellowman was diagnosed with skin cancer . After several surgeries, Yellowman was able to continue his career. The cancer went into apparent remission during this time. Between late 1984 and 1986 it was diagnosed that the cancer had spread to his jaw; Yellowman underwent very invasive jaw surgery to remove a malignant tumor. This surgery permanently disfigured Yellowman's face, as a large portion of the left side of his lower jaw had to be removed to successfully remove the tumor. He spent some time in convalescence before returning to music and performing live shows again in 1987. He has spoken against violence. In the Montreal Mirror in 2005 he said, "Now it's not your entertainment or teaching. If you notice the hip hop and dancehall artists today, all they do they sing about drugs, clothes, car, house—when they can't get it, they start get violent. I know what violence is like and what it contain and what it can do. I'm glad that the roots is coming back." The slackness style with which Yellowman is associated sometimes has homophobic lyrics. However, in the same Montreal Mirror article he spoke against it: "Everybody listen to me... I don't do songs against gay people, I don't do violent lyric against gay people. If you don't like a person or you don't like a thing, you don't talk about it. You don't come on stage and say kill them or burn them because everybody have a right to live." In 1982, Yellowman was diagnosed with skin cancer . After several surgeries, Yellowman was able to continue his career. The cancer went into apparent remission during this time. Between late 1984 and 1986 it was diagnosed that the cancer had spread to his jaw; Yellowman underwent very invasive jaw surgery to remove a malignant tumor. This surgery permanently disfigured Yellowman's face, as a large portion of the left side of his lower jaw had to be removed to successfully remove the tumor. He spent some time in convalescence before returning to music and performing live shows again in 1987. The instrumental for Yellowman's 1982 "Zungguzungguguzungguzeng", the "Diseases" riddim by "Junjo" Lawes, has been sampled and imitated repeatedly since its original release. The original version of this riddim was performed by Alton Ellis for a song called "Mad, Mad, Mad" produced by Coxsone Dodd in 1967. Coxsone Dodd had already released two dub cuts, "Talking Dub" and "Lusaka", plus a 1980 cut by Jennifer Lara, "Hurt So Good." This riddim came to be known as the 'Diseases' riddim after Michigan and Smiley recorded their song, Diseases , with Henry Junjo Lawes in 1981. "Zungguzungguguzungguzeng" was remade by Beenie Man and released on 3 July 2020. Yellowman said of the release, "I wish somebody else did do Zungguzungguguzungguzeng, maybe Shaggy or Sean Paul ….Me nuh even hear it." The vocal melody of "Zungguzungguguzungguzeng" has also been sampled heavily in various reggae and hip hop songs. Timeline :

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/1853_yellow_fever_epidemic/html

1853 yellow fever epidemic

The 1853 yellow fever epidemic of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean islands resulted in thousands of fatalities. Over 9,000 people died of yellow fever in New Orleans alone, around eight percent of the total population. Many of the dead in New Orleans were recent Irish immigrants living in difficult conditions and without any acquired immunity. There was a stark racial disparity in mortality rates: "7.4 percent of whites who contracted yellow fever died, while only 0.2 percent of blacks perished from the disease." As historian Kathryn Olivarius observed in Necropolis: Disease, Power, and Capitalism in the Cotton Kingdom , "For enslaved Blacks, the story was different. Immunity protected them from yellow fever, but as embodied capital, they saw the social and monetary value of their acclimation accrued to their white owners." The epidemic was an international news story. A newspaper in Cambridge, England published this evocative description of the scene in the Crescent City: The most deplorable havoc is being made in New Orleans by the yellow fever. Thousands have been carried off by its ravages, and every day adds 200 more to the ghastly record. The dead are buried in trenches by chain gangs of negroes, hired at a guinea an hour. The New Orleans Crescent , after describing the horrible system of burial adopted adds, "The stoical negroes, too, who are hired at five dollars per hour to assist in the work of interment, stagger under the stifling fumes, and can only be kept at their work by deep and continuous potations of the fire 'water.'...And thus, what with the songs and the obscene jests of the gravediggers, the buzzing of the flies, the sing-song cries of the huxter-women vending their confections, the hoarse oaths of the men who drive the dead carts, the merry whistle of the boys, and the stifling reek from the scores of blackened corpses, the day wears apace, the work of sepulture is done, and night draws the curtain." In the meantime, amusements, regattas, balls, &c. are preceding as usual, as if no such appalling pestilence was in the doomed city. Apparently one of the most popular treatments in New Orleans was by Marie Laveau , whose practice of voodoo and/or the healing arts in regard to yellow fever was so esteemed that "a committee of citizens was appointed to wait upon her, and beg her to lend her aid to the feversmitten, numbers of whom she saved." In addition to death toll in New Orleans: Multiple books were written by contemporary doctors and public health officials about the epidemic; the New Orleans city directory of 1854 included a long essay on the series of major epidemics suffered by the city since before the Louisiana Purchase . The fall preceding the 1853 outbreak there were a small number of cases in the Caribbean; the Jamaican cases were documented, in part, in The Lancet by a surgeon of the Royal Navy .

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Flavivirus/html

Flavivirus

See text Flavivirus , renamed Orthoflavivirus in 2023, is a genus of positive-strand RNA viruses in the family Flaviviridae . The genus includes the West Nile virus , dengue virus , tick-borne encephalitis virus , yellow fever virus , Zika virus and several other viruses which may cause encephalitis , as well as insect-specific flaviviruses (ISFs) such as cell fusing agent virus (CFAV), Palm Creek virus (PCV), and Parramatta River virus (PaRV). While dual-host flaviviruses can infect vertebrates as well as arthropods, insect-specific flaviviruses are restricted to their competent arthropods. The means by which flaviviruses establish persistent infection in their competent vectors and cause disease in humans depends upon several virus-host interactions, including the intricate interplay between flavivirus-encoded immune antagonists and the host antiviral innate immune effector molecules. Flaviviruses are named for the yellow fever virus; the word flavus means 'yellow' in Latin , and yellow fever in turn is named from its propensity to cause yellow jaundice in victims. Flaviviruses share several common aspects: common size (40–65 nm), symmetry ( enveloped , icosahedral nucleocapsid ), nucleic acid ( positive-sense , single-stranded RNA around 10,000–11,000 bases), and appearance under the electron microscope . [ citation needed ] Most of these viruses are primarily transmitted by the bite from an infected arthropod (mosquito or tick), and hence are classified as arboviruses . Human infections with most of these arboviruses are incidental, as humans are unable to replicate the virus to high enough titers to reinfect the arthropods needed to continue the virus life-cycle – humans are then a dead end host . The exceptions to this are the yellow fever virus , dengue virus and zika virus . These three viruses still require mosquito vectors but are well-enough adapted to humans as to not necessarily depend upon animal hosts (although they continue to have important animal transmission routes, as well). Other virus transmission routes for arboviruses include handling infected animal carcasses, blood transfusion, sex, childbirth and consumption of unpasteurised milk products. Transmission from nonhuman vertebrates to humans without an intermediate vector arthropod however mostly occurs with low probability. For example, early tests with yellow fever showed that the disease is not contagious . The known non-arboviruses of the flavivirus family reproduce in either arthropods or vertebrates, but not both, with one odd member of the genus affecting a nematode . Flaviviruses are enveloped and spherical and have icosahedral geometries with a pseudo T=3 symmetry. The virus particle diameter is around 50 nm. Flaviviruses have positive-sense , single-stranded RNA genomes which are non-segmented and around 10–11 kbp in length. In general, the genome encodes three structural proteins (Capsid, prM, and Envelope) and seven non-structural proteins (NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, NS5). The genomic RNA is modified at the 5′ end of positive-strand genomic RNA with a cap-1 structure (me 7 -GpppA-me 2 ). Flaviviruses replicate in the cytoplasm of the host cells. The genome mimics the cellular mRNA molecule in all aspects except for the absence of the poly-adenylated (poly-A) tail . This feature allows the virus to exploit cellular apparatuses to synthesize both structural and non-structural proteins, during replication . The cellular ribosome is crucial to the replication of the flavivirus, as it translates the RNA, in a similar fashion to cellular mRNA, resulting in the synthesis of a single polyprotein . Cellular RNA cap structures are formed via the action of an RNA triphosphatase , with guanylyltransferase , N7- methyltransferase and 2′-O methyltransferase. The virus encodes these activities in its non-structural proteins. The NS3 protein encodes a RNA triphosphatase within its helicase domain. It uses the helicase ATP hydrolysis site to remove the γ-phosphate from the 5′ end of the RNA. The N-terminal domain of the non-structural protein 5 (NS5) has both the N7-methyltransferase and guanylyltransferase activities necessary for forming mature RNA cap structures. RNA binding affinity is reduced by the presence of ATP or GTP and enhanced by S-adenosyl methionine . This protein also encodes a 2′-O methyltransferase. Once translated , the polyprotein is cleaved by a combination of viral and host proteases to release mature polypeptide products. Nevertheless, cellular post-translational modification is dependent on the presence of a poly-A tail; therefore this process is not host-dependent. Instead, the poly-protein contains an autocatalytic feature which automatically releases the first peptide, a virus specific enzyme. This enzyme is then able to cleave the remaining poly-protein into the individual products. One of the products cleaved is a RNA-dependent RNA polymerase , responsible for the synthesis of a negative-sense RNA molecule. Consequently, this molecule acts as the template for the synthesis of the genomic progeny RNA. [ citation needed ] Flavivirus genomic RNA replication occurs on rough endoplasmic reticulum membranes in membranous compartments. New viral particles are subsequently assembled. This occurs during the budding process which is also responsible for the accumulation of the envelope and cell lysis . [ citation needed ] A G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (also known as ADRBK1) appears to be important in entry and replication for several viruses in Flaviviridae . Humans, mammals, mosquitoes, and ticks serve as the natural host. Transmission routes are zoonosis and bite. The positive sense RNA genome of Flavivirus contains 5' and 3' untranslated regions (UTRs). The 5'UTRs are 95–101 nucleotides long in Dengue virus . There are two conserved structural elements in the Flavivirus 5'UTR, a large stem loop (SLA) and a short stem loop (SLB). SLA folds into a Y-shaped structure with a side stem loop and a small top loop. SLA is likely to act as a promoter, and is essential for viral RNA synthesis. SLB is involved in interactions between the 5'UTR and 3'UTR which result in the cyclisation of the viral RNA, which is essential for viral replication. The 3'UTRs are typically 0.3–0.5 kb in length and contain a number of highly conserved secondary structures which are conserved and restricted to the flavivirus family. The majority of analysis has been carried out using West Nile virus (WNV) to study the function the 3'UTR. [ citation needed ] Currently 8 secondary structures have been identified within the 3'UTR of WNV and are (in the order in which they are found with the 3'UTR) SL-I, SL-II, SL-III, SL-IV, DB1, DB2 and CRE. Some of these secondary structures have been characterised and are important in facilitating viral replication and protecting the 3'UTR from 5' endonuclease digestion. Nuclease resistance protects the downstream 3' UTR RNA fragment from degradation and is essential for virus-induced cytopathicity and pathogenicity. [ citation needed ] SL-II SL-II has been suggested to contribute to nuclease resistance. It may be related to another hairpin loop identified in the 5'UTR of the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) genome. The JEV hairpin is significantly over-represented upon host cell infection and it has been suggested that the hairpin structure may play a role in regulating RNA synthesis. [ citation needed ] SL-IV This secondary structure is located within the 3'UTR of the genome of Flavivirus upstream of the DB elements. The function of this conserved structure is unknown but is thought to contribute to ribonuclease resistance. [ citation needed ] DB1/DB2 These two conserved secondary structures are also known as pseudo-repeat elements. They were originally identified within the genome of Dengue virus and are found adjacent to each other within the 3'UTR. They appear to be widely conserved across the Flaviviradae. These DB elements have a secondary structure consisting of three helices and they play a role in ensuring efficient translation. Deletion of DB1 has a small but significant reduction in translation but deletion of DB2 has little effect. Deleting both DB1 and DB2 reduced translation efficiency of the viral genome to 25%. CRE CRE is the Cis-acting replication element, also known as the 3'SL RNA elements, and is thought to be essential in viral replication by facilitating the formation of a "replication complex". Although evidence has been presented for an existence of a pseudoknot structure in this RNA, it does not appear to be well conserved across flaviviruses. Deletions of the 3' UTR of flaviviruses have been shown to be lethal for infectious clones. A conserved hairpin (cHP) structure was later found in several Flavivirus genomes and is thought to direct translation of capsid proteins. It is located just downstream of the AUG start codon . The 5'UTRs are 95–101 nucleotides long in Dengue virus . There are two conserved structural elements in the Flavivirus 5'UTR, a large stem loop (SLA) and a short stem loop (SLB). SLA folds into a Y-shaped structure with a side stem loop and a small top loop. SLA is likely to act as a promoter, and is essential for viral RNA synthesis. SLB is involved in interactions between the 5'UTR and 3'UTR which result in the cyclisation of the viral RNA, which is essential for viral replication. The 3'UTRs are typically 0.3–0.5 kb in length and contain a number of highly conserved secondary structures which are conserved and restricted to the flavivirus family. The majority of analysis has been carried out using West Nile virus (WNV) to study the function the 3'UTR. [ citation needed ] Currently 8 secondary structures have been identified within the 3'UTR of WNV and are (in the order in which they are found with the 3'UTR) SL-I, SL-II, SL-III, SL-IV, DB1, DB2 and CRE. Some of these secondary structures have been characterised and are important in facilitating viral replication and protecting the 3'UTR from 5' endonuclease digestion. Nuclease resistance protects the downstream 3' UTR RNA fragment from degradation and is essential for virus-induced cytopathicity and pathogenicity. [ citation needed ] SL-II SL-II has been suggested to contribute to nuclease resistance. It may be related to another hairpin loop identified in the 5'UTR of the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) genome. The JEV hairpin is significantly over-represented upon host cell infection and it has been suggested that the hairpin structure may play a role in regulating RNA synthesis. [ citation needed ] SL-IV This secondary structure is located within the 3'UTR of the genome of Flavivirus upstream of the DB elements. The function of this conserved structure is unknown but is thought to contribute to ribonuclease resistance. [ citation needed ] DB1/DB2 These two conserved secondary structures are also known as pseudo-repeat elements. They were originally identified within the genome of Dengue virus and are found adjacent to each other within the 3'UTR. They appear to be widely conserved across the Flaviviradae. These DB elements have a secondary structure consisting of three helices and they play a role in ensuring efficient translation. Deletion of DB1 has a small but significant reduction in translation but deletion of DB2 has little effect. Deleting both DB1 and DB2 reduced translation efficiency of the viral genome to 25%. CRE CRE is the Cis-acting replication element, also known as the 3'SL RNA elements, and is thought to be essential in viral replication by facilitating the formation of a "replication complex". Although evidence has been presented for an existence of a pseudoknot structure in this RNA, it does not appear to be well conserved across flaviviruses. Deletions of the 3' UTR of flaviviruses have been shown to be lethal for infectious clones.A conserved hairpin (cHP) structure was later found in several Flavivirus genomes and is thought to direct translation of capsid proteins. It is located just downstream of the AUG start codon . Subgenomic flavivirus RNA (sfRNA) is an extension of the 3' UTR and has been demonstrated to play a role in flavivirus replication and pathogenesis. sfRNA is produced by incomplete degradation of genomic viral RNA by the host cells 5'-3' exoribonuclease 1 (XRN1). As the XRN1 degrades viral RNA, it stalls at stemloops formed by the secondary structure of the 5' and 3' UTR. This pause results in an undigested fragment of genome RNA known as sfRNA. sfRNA influences the life cycle of the flavivirus in a concentration dependent manner. Accumulation of sfRNA causes (1) antagonization of the cell's innate immune response, thus decreasing host defense against the virus (2) inhibition of XRN1 and Dicer activity to modify RNAi pathways that destroy viral RNA (3) modification of the viral replication complex to increase viral reproduction. Overall, sfRNA is implied in multiple pathways that compromise host defenses and promote infection by flaviviruses. [ citation needed ]The flaviviruses can be divided into two clades: one with vector-borne viruses and the other with no known vector. The vector clade, in turn, can be subdivided into a mosquito-borne clade and a tick-borne clade. These groups can be divided again. The mosquito group can be divided into two branches: one branch contains neurotropic viruses, often associated with encephalitic disease in humans or livestock. This branch tends to be spread by Culex species and to have bird reservoirs. The second branch is the non-neurotropic viruses associated with human haemorrhagic disease. These tend to have Aedes species as vectors and primate hosts. [ citation needed ] The tick-borne viruses also form two distinct groups: one is associated with seabirds and the other – the tick-borne encephalitis complex viruses – is associated primarily with rodents . [ citation needed ] The viruses that lack a known vector can be divided into three groups: one closely related to the mosquito-borne viruses, which is associated with bats ; a second, genetically more distant, is also associated with bats; and a third group is associated with rodents. [ citation needed ] Evolutionary relationships between endogenised viral elements of Flaviviruses and contemporary flaviviruses using maximum likelihood approaches have identified that arthropod-vectored flaviviruses likely emerged from an arachnid source. This contradicts earlier work with a smaller number of extant viruses showing that the tick-borne viruses emerged from a mosquito-borne group. Several partial and complete genomes of flaviviruses have been found in aquatic invertebrates such as the sea spider Endeis spinosa and several crustaceans and cephalopods. These sequences appear to be related to those in the insect-specific flaviviruses and also the Tamana bat virus groupings. While it is not presently clear how aquatic flaviviruses fit into the evolution of this group of viruses, there is some evidence that one of these viruses, Wenzhou shark flavivirus, infects both a crustacean ( Portunus trituberculatus ) Pacific spadenose shark ( Scoliodon macrorhynchos ) shark host, indicating an aquatic arbovirus life cycle. Estimates of divergence times have been made for several of these viruses. The origin of these viruses appears to be at least 9400 to 14,000 years ago. The Old World and New World dengue strains diverged between 150 and 450 years ago. The European and Far Eastern tick-borne encephalitis strains diverged about 1087 (1610–649) years ago. European tick-borne encephalitis and louping ill viruses diverged about 572 (844–328) years ago. This latter estimate is consistent with historical records. Kunjin virus diverged from West Nile virus approximately 277 (475–137) years ago. This time corresponds to the settlement of Australia from Europe. The Japanese encephalitis group appears to have evolved in Africa 2000–3000 years ago and then spread initially to South East Asia before migrating to the rest of Asia. Phylogenetic studies of the West Nile virus has shown that it emerged as a distinct virus around 1000 years ago. This initial virus developed into two distinct lineages, lineage 1 and its multiple profiles is the source of the epidemic transmission in Africa and throughout the world. Lineage 2 was considered an Africa zoonosis . However, in 2008, lineage 2, previously only seen in horses in sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar, began to appear in horses in Europe, where the first known outbreak affected 18 animals in Hungary in 2008. Lineage 1 West Nile virus was detected in South Africa in 2010 in a mare and her aborted fetus ; previously, only lineage 2 West Nile virus had been detected in horses and humans in South Africa. A 2007 fatal case in a killer whale in Texas broadened the known host range of West Nile virus to include cetaceans . Omsk haemorrhagic fever virus appears to have evolved within the last 1000 years. The viral genomes can be divided into 2 clades — A and B. Clade A has five genotypes, and clade B has one. These clades separated about 700 years ago. This separation appears to have occurred in the Kurgan province. Clade A subsequently underwent division into clade C, D and E 230 years ago. Clade C and E appear to have originated in the Novosibirsk and Omsk Provinces, respectively. The muskrat Ondatra zibethicus , which is highly susceptible to this virus, was introduced into this area in the 1930s.In the genus Flavivirus there are 53 defined species: Species and strains sorted by vectors: Mammalian tick-borne virus group Seabird tick-borne virus groupIn the genus Flavivirus there are 53 defined species: Species and strains sorted by vectors: Mammalian tick-borne virus group Seabird tick-borne virus groupMammalian tick-borne virus group Seabird tick-borne virus groupThe very successful yellow fever 17D vaccine , introduced in 1937, produced dramatic reductions in epidemic activity. [ citation needed ] Effective inactivated Japanese encephalitis and Tick-borne encephalitis vaccines were introduced in the middle of the 20th century. Unacceptable adverse events have prompted change from a mouse-brain inactivated Japanese encephalitis vaccine to safer and more effective second generation Japanese encephalitis vaccines. These may come into wide use to effectively prevent this severe disease in the huge populations of Asia—North, South and Southeast. [ citation needed ] The dengue viruses produce many millions of infections annually due to transmission by a successful global mosquito vector. As mosquito control has failed, several dengue vaccines are in varying stages of development. CYD-TDV, sold under the trade name Dengvaxia, is a tetravalent chimeric vaccine that splices structural genes of the four dengue viruses onto a 17D yellow fever backbone. Dengvaxia is approved in five countries. An alternate approach to the development of flavivirus vaccine vectors is based on the use of viruses that infect insects. Insect-specific flaviviruses, such as Binjari virus, are unable to replicate in vertebrate cells. Nevertheless, recombinant viruses in which structural protein genes (prME) of Binjari virus are exchanged with those of dengue virus, Zika virus, West Nile virus, yellow fever virus, or Japanese encephalitis virus replicate efficiently in insect cells where high titers of infectious virus particles are produced. Immunization of mice with a Binjari vaccine bearing the Zika virus structural proteins protected mice from disease after challenge . A similar approach employs the insect-specific alphavirus Eilat virus as a vaccine platform . ... These new vaccine platforms generated from insect-specific flaviviruses and alphaviruses represent affordable, efficient, and safe approaches to rapid development of infectious, attenuated vaccines against pathogens from these two virus families.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Flaviviridae/html

Flaviviridae

Flaviviridae is a family of enveloped positive-strand RNA viruses which mainly infect mammals and birds . They are primarily spread through arthropod vectors (mainly ticks and mosquitoes ). The family gets its name from the yellow fever virus; flavus is Latin for "yellow", and yellow fever in turn was named because of its propensity to cause jaundice in victims. There are 89 species in the family divided among four genera. Diseases associated with the group include: hepatitis ( hepaciviruses ), hemorrhagic syndromes , fatal mucosal disease ( pestiviruses ), hemorrhagic fever , encephalitis , and the birth defect microcephaly ( flaviviruses ). Virus particles are enveloped and spherical with icosahedral-like geometries that have pseudo T=3 symmetry. They are about 40–60 nm in diameter. Members of the family Flaviviridae have monopartite, linear, single-stranded RNA genomes of positive polarity, and 9.6 to 12.3 kilobase in total length. The 5'-termini of flaviviruses carry a methylated nucleotide cap, while other members of this family are uncapped and encode an internal ribosome entry site. The genome encodes a single polyprotein with multiple transmembrane domains that is cleaved, by both host and viral proteases, into structural and non-structural proteins. Among the non-structural protein products (NS), the locations and sequences of NS3 and NS5, which contain motifs essential for polyprotein processing and RNA replication respectively, are relatively well conserved across the family and may be useful for phylogenetic analysis.Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by attachment of the viral envelope protein E to host receptors, which mediates clathrin -mediated endocytosis. Replication follows the positive-stranded RNA virus replication model. Positive-stranded RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription. Translation takes place by viral initiation. The virus exits the host cell by budding. Humans and mammals serve as the natural hosts. The virus is transmitted via vectors (ticks and mosquitoes). The family has four genera: Other Orthoflaviviruses are known that have yet to be classified. These include Wenling shark virus. Jingmenvirus is a group of unclassified viruses in the family which includes Alongshan virus , Guaico Culex virus, Jingmen tick virus and Mogiana tick virus. These viruses have a segmented genome of 4 or 5 pieces. Two of these segments are derived from flaviviruses. A number of viruses may be related to the flaviviruses, but have features that are atypical of the flaviviruses. These include citrus Jingmen-like virus, soybean cyst nematode virus 5, Toxocara canis larva agent, Wuhan cricket virus, and possibly Gentian Kobu-sho-associated virus.Major diseases caused by members of the family Flaviviridae include:

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Mosquito/html

Mosquito

Mosquitoes , the Culicidae , are a family of small flies consisting of 3,600 species . The word mosquito (formed by mosca and diminutive -ito ) is Spanish and Portuguese for little fly . Mosquitoes have a slender segmented body , one pair of wings, three pairs of long hair-like legs, and specialized, highly elongated, piercing-sucking mouthparts . All mosquitoes drink nectar from flowers ; females of some species have in addition adapted to drink blood. Evolutionary biologists view mosquitoes as micropredators , small animals that parasitise larger ones by drinking their blood without immediately killing them. Medical parasitologists view mosquitoes instead as vectors of disease , carrying protozoan parasites or bacterial or viral pathogens from one host to another. The mosquito life cycle consists of four stages: egg , larva , pupa , and adult . Eggs are laid on the water surface; they hatch into motile larvae that feed on aquatic algae and organic material . These larvae are important food sources for many freshwater animals, such as dragonfly nymphs , many fish, and some birds. Adult females of many species have mouthparts adapted to pierce the skin of a host and feed on blood of a wide range of vertebrate hosts, and some invertebrates , primarily other arthropods . Some species only produce eggs after a blood meal. The mosquito's saliva is transferred to the host during the bite, and can cause an itchy rash . In addition, blood-feeding species can ingest pathogens while biting, and transmit them to other hosts. Those species include vectors of parasitic diseases such as malaria and filariasis , and arboviral diseases such as yellow fever and dengue fever . By transmitting diseases, mosquitoes cause the deaths of over 725,000 people each year.Like all flies, mosquitoes go through four stages in their life cycles: egg , larva , pupa , and adult . The first three stages—egg, larva, and pupa—are largely aquatic, the eggs usually being laid in stagnant water. They hatch to become larvae , which feed, grow, and molt until they change into pupae . The adult mosquito emerges from the mature pupa as it floats at the water surface. Mosquitoes have adult lifespans ranging from as short as a week to around a month. Some species overwinter as adults in diapause . Mosquitoes have one pair of wings, with distinct scales on the surface. Their wings are long and narrow, while the legs are long and thin. The body, usually grey or black, is slender, and typically 3–6 mm long. When at rest, mosquitoes hold their first pair of legs outwards, whereas the somewhat similar Chironomid midges hold these legs forwards. Anopheles mosquitoes can fly for up to four hours continuously at 1 to 2 km/h (0.62 to 1.24 mph) , traveling up to 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) in a night. Males beat their wings between 450 and 600 times per second, driven indirectly by muscles which vibrate the thorax. Mosquitoes are mainly small flies; the largest are in the genus Toxorhynchites , at up to 18 mm (0.71 in) in length and 24 mm (0.94 in) in wingspan. Those in the genus Aedes are much smaller, with a wingspan of 2.8 to 4.4 mm (0.11 to 0.17 in) . Mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in hot weather in as few as five days, but it may take up to a month. At dawn or dusk, within days of pupating, males assemble in swarms , mating when females fly in. The female mates only once in her lifetime, attracted by the pheromones emitted by the male. In species that need blood for the eggs to develop, the female finds a host and drinks a full meal of blood. She then rests for two or three days to digest the meal and allow her eggs to develop. She is then ready to lay the eggs and repeat the cycle of feeding and laying. Females can live for up to three weeks in the wild, depending on temperature, humidity, their ability to obtain a blood meal, and avoiding being killed by their vertebrate hosts. The eggs of most mosquitoes are laid in stagnant water, which may be a pond, a marsh, a temporary puddle, a water-filled hole in a tree, or the water-trapping leaf axils of a bromeliad . Some lay near the water's edge while others attach their eggs to aquatic plants. A few, like Opifex fuscus , can breed in salt-marshes. Wyeomyia smithii breeds in the pitchers of pitcher plants , its larvae feeding on decaying insects that have drowned there. Oviposition , egg-laying, varies between species. Anopheles females fly over the water, touching down or dapping to place eggs on the surface one at a time; their eggs are roughly cigar-shaped and have floats down their sides. A female can lay 100–200 eggs in her lifetime. Aedes females drop their eggs singly, on damp mud or other surfaces near water; their eggs hatch only when they are flooded. Females in genera such as Culex , Culiseta , and Uranotaenia lay their eggs in floating rafts. Mansonia females in contrast lay their eggs in arrays, attached usually to the under-surfaces of waterlily pads. Clutches of eggs of most mosquito species hatch simultaneously, but Aedes eggs in diapause hatch irregularly over an extended period. The mosquito larva's head has prominent mouth brushes used for feeding, a large thorax with no legs, and a segmented abdomen . It breathes air through a siphon on its abdomen, so must come to the surface frequently. It spends most of its time feeding on algae , bacteria, and other microbes in the water's surface layer. It dives below the surface when disturbed. It swims either by propelling itself with its mouth brushes, or by jerkily wriggling its body. It develops through several stages, or instars , molting each time, after which it metamorphoses into a pupa . Aedes larvae, except when very young, can withstand drying; they go into diapause for several months if their pond dries out. The head and thorax of the pupa are merged into a cephalothorax , with the abdomen curving around beneath it. The pupa or "tumbler" can swim actively by flipping its abdomen. Like the larva, the pupa of most species must come to the surface frequently to breathe, which they do through a pair of respiratory trumpets on their cephalothoraxes. They do not feed; they pass much of their time hanging from the surface of the water by their respiratory trumpets. If alarmed, they swim downwards by flipping their abdomens in much the same way as the larvae. If undisturbed, they soon float up again. The adult emerges from the pupa at the surface of the water and flies off. Mosquitoes have one pair of wings, with distinct scales on the surface. Their wings are long and narrow, while the legs are long and thin. The body, usually grey or black, is slender, and typically 3–6 mm long. When at rest, mosquitoes hold their first pair of legs outwards, whereas the somewhat similar Chironomid midges hold these legs forwards. Anopheles mosquitoes can fly for up to four hours continuously at 1 to 2 km/h (0.62 to 1.24 mph) , traveling up to 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) in a night. Males beat their wings between 450 and 600 times per second, driven indirectly by muscles which vibrate the thorax. Mosquitoes are mainly small flies; the largest are in the genus Toxorhynchites , at up to 18 mm (0.71 in) in length and 24 mm (0.94 in) in wingspan. Those in the genus Aedes are much smaller, with a wingspan of 2.8 to 4.4 mm (0.11 to 0.17 in) . Mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in hot weather in as few as five days, but it may take up to a month. At dawn or dusk, within days of pupating, males assemble in swarms , mating when females fly in. The female mates only once in her lifetime, attracted by the pheromones emitted by the male. In species that need blood for the eggs to develop, the female finds a host and drinks a full meal of blood. She then rests for two or three days to digest the meal and allow her eggs to develop. She is then ready to lay the eggs and repeat the cycle of feeding and laying. Females can live for up to three weeks in the wild, depending on temperature, humidity, their ability to obtain a blood meal, and avoiding being killed by their vertebrate hosts. The eggs of most mosquitoes are laid in stagnant water, which may be a pond, a marsh, a temporary puddle, a water-filled hole in a tree, or the water-trapping leaf axils of a bromeliad . Some lay near the water's edge while others attach their eggs to aquatic plants. A few, like Opifex fuscus , can breed in salt-marshes. Wyeomyia smithii breeds in the pitchers of pitcher plants , its larvae feeding on decaying insects that have drowned there. Oviposition , egg-laying, varies between species. Anopheles females fly over the water, touching down or dapping to place eggs on the surface one at a time; their eggs are roughly cigar-shaped and have floats down their sides. A female can lay 100–200 eggs in her lifetime. Aedes females drop their eggs singly, on damp mud or other surfaces near water; their eggs hatch only when they are flooded. Females in genera such as Culex , Culiseta , and Uranotaenia lay their eggs in floating rafts. Mansonia females in contrast lay their eggs in arrays, attached usually to the under-surfaces of waterlily pads. Clutches of eggs of most mosquito species hatch simultaneously, but Aedes eggs in diapause hatch irregularly over an extended period. The mosquito larva's head has prominent mouth brushes used for feeding, a large thorax with no legs, and a segmented abdomen . It breathes air through a siphon on its abdomen, so must come to the surface frequently. It spends most of its time feeding on algae , bacteria, and other microbes in the water's surface layer. It dives below the surface when disturbed. It swims either by propelling itself with its mouth brushes, or by jerkily wriggling its body. It develops through several stages, or instars , molting each time, after which it metamorphoses into a pupa . Aedes larvae, except when very young, can withstand drying; they go into diapause for several months if their pond dries out. The head and thorax of the pupa are merged into a cephalothorax , with the abdomen curving around beneath it. The pupa or "tumbler" can swim actively by flipping its abdomen. Like the larva, the pupa of most species must come to the surface frequently to breathe, which they do through a pair of respiratory trumpets on their cephalothoraxes. They do not feed; they pass much of their time hanging from the surface of the water by their respiratory trumpets. If alarmed, they swim downwards by flipping their abdomens in much the same way as the larvae. If undisturbed, they soon float up again. The adult emerges from the pupa at the surface of the water and flies off. Both male and female mosquitoes feed on nectar , aphid honeydew, and plant juices, but in many species the females are also blood-sucking ectoparasites . In some of those species, a blood meal is essential for egg production; in others, it just enables the female to lay more eggs. Both plant materials and blood are useful sources of energy in the form of sugars. Blood supplies more concentrated nutrients, such as lipids , but the main function of blood meals is to obtain proteins for egg production. Mosquitoes like Toxorhynchites reproduce autogenously, not needing blood meals. Disease vector mosquitoes like Anopheles and Aedes are anautogenous , requiring blood to lay eggs. Many Culex species are partially anautogenous, needing blood only for their second and subsequent clutches of eggs. Blood-sucking mosquitoes favour particular host species, though they are less selective when food is short. Different mosquito species favor amphibians , reptiles including snakes , birds , and mammals . For example, Culiseta melanura sucks the blood of passerine birds, but as mosquito numbers rise they attack mammals including horses and humans, causing epidemics of Eastern equine encephalitis virus in North America. Loss of blood from many bites can add up to a large volume, occasionally causing the death of livestock as large as cattle and horses . Malaria -transmitting mosquitoes seek out caterpillars and feed on their haemolymph, impeding their development. Most mosquito species are crepuscular , feeding at dawn or dusk, and resting in a cool place through the heat of the day. Some species, such as the Asian tiger mosquito , are known to fly and feed during daytime. Female mosquitoes hunt for hosts by smelling substances such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and 1-octen-3-ol ( mushroom alcohol , found in exhaled breath) produced from the host, and through visual recognition. The semiochemical that most strongly attracts Culex quinquefasciatus is nonanal . Another attractant is sulcatone . A large part of the mosquito's sense of smell, or olfactory system, is devoted to sniffing out blood sources. Of 72 types of odor receptors on its antennae, at least 27 are tuned to detect chemicals found in perspiration. In Aedes , the search for a host takes place in two phases. First, the mosquito flies about until it detects a host's odorants; then it flies towards them, using the concentration of odorants as its guide. Mosquitoes prefer to feed on people with type O blood , an abundance of skin bacteria, high body heat, and pregnant women. Individuals' attractiveness to mosquitoes has a heritable , genetically controlled component. Female mosquito mouthparts are highly adapted to piercing skin and sucking blood. Males only drink sugary fluids, and have less specialized mouthparts. Externally, the most obvious feeding structure of the mosquito is the proboscis, composed of the labium , U-shaped in section like a rain gutter , which sheaths a bundle (fascicle) of six piercing mouthparts or stylets. These are two mandibles , two maxillae , the hypopharynx , and the labrum . The labium bends back into a bow when the mosquito begins to bite, staying in contact with the skin and guiding the stylets downwards. The extremely sharp tips of the labrum and maxillae are moved backwards and forwards to saw their way into the skin, with just one thousandth of the force that would be needed to penetrate the skin with a needle, resulting in a painless insertion. Mosquito saliva contains enzymes that aid in sugar feeding, and antimicrobial agents that control bacterial growth in the sugar meal. For a mosquito to obtain a blood meal, it must circumvent its vertebrate host's physiological responses. Mosquito saliva blocks the host's hemostasis system, with proteins that reduce vascular constriction , blood clotting , and platelet aggregation, to ensure the blood keeps flowing. It modulates the host's immune response via a mixture of proteins which lower angiogenesis and immunity ; create inflammation ; suppress tumor necrosis factor release from activated mast cells ; suppress interleukin (IL)-2 and IFN-γ production; suppress T cell populations; decrease expression of interferon −α/β, making virus infections more severe; increase natural killer T cells in the blood; and decrease cytokine production. Females of many blood-feeding species need a blood meal to begin the process of egg development. A sufficiently large blood meal triggers a hormonal cascade that leads to egg development. Upon completion of feeding, the mosquito withdraws her proboscis , and as the gut fills up, the stomach lining secretes a peritrophic membrane that surrounds the blood. This keeps the blood separate from anything else in the stomach. Like many Hemiptera that survive on dilute liquid diets, many adult mosquitoes excrete surplus liquid even when feeding. This permits females to accumulate a full meal of nutrient solids. The blood meal is digested over a period of several days. Once blood is in the stomach, the midgut synthesizes protease enzymes, primarily trypsin assisted by aminopeptidase , that hydrolyze the blood proteins into free amino acids . These are used in the synthesis of vitellogenin , which in turn is made into egg yolk protein. Both male and female mosquitoes feed on nectar , aphid honeydew, and plant juices, but in many species the females are also blood-sucking ectoparasites . In some of those species, a blood meal is essential for egg production; in others, it just enables the female to lay more eggs. Both plant materials and blood are useful sources of energy in the form of sugars. Blood supplies more concentrated nutrients, such as lipids , but the main function of blood meals is to obtain proteins for egg production. Mosquitoes like Toxorhynchites reproduce autogenously, not needing blood meals. Disease vector mosquitoes like Anopheles and Aedes are anautogenous , requiring blood to lay eggs. Many Culex species are partially anautogenous, needing blood only for their second and subsequent clutches of eggs. Blood-sucking mosquitoes favour particular host species, though they are less selective when food is short. Different mosquito species favor amphibians , reptiles including snakes , birds , and mammals . For example, Culiseta melanura sucks the blood of passerine birds, but as mosquito numbers rise they attack mammals including horses and humans, causing epidemics of Eastern equine encephalitis virus in North America. Loss of blood from many bites can add up to a large volume, occasionally causing the death of livestock as large as cattle and horses . Malaria -transmitting mosquitoes seek out caterpillars and feed on their haemolymph, impeding their development. Most mosquito species are crepuscular , feeding at dawn or dusk, and resting in a cool place through the heat of the day. Some species, such as the Asian tiger mosquito , are known to fly and feed during daytime. Female mosquitoes hunt for hosts by smelling substances such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and 1-octen-3-ol ( mushroom alcohol , found in exhaled breath) produced from the host, and through visual recognition. The semiochemical that most strongly attracts Culex quinquefasciatus is nonanal . Another attractant is sulcatone . A large part of the mosquito's sense of smell, or olfactory system, is devoted to sniffing out blood sources. Of 72 types of odor receptors on its antennae, at least 27 are tuned to detect chemicals found in perspiration. In Aedes , the search for a host takes place in two phases. First, the mosquito flies about until it detects a host's odorants; then it flies towards them, using the concentration of odorants as its guide. Mosquitoes prefer to feed on people with type O blood , an abundance of skin bacteria, high body heat, and pregnant women. Individuals' attractiveness to mosquitoes has a heritable , genetically controlled component. Female mosquito mouthparts are highly adapted to piercing skin and sucking blood. Males only drink sugary fluids, and have less specialized mouthparts. Externally, the most obvious feeding structure of the mosquito is the proboscis, composed of the labium , U-shaped in section like a rain gutter , which sheaths a bundle (fascicle) of six piercing mouthparts or stylets. These are two mandibles , two maxillae , the hypopharynx , and the labrum . The labium bends back into a bow when the mosquito begins to bite, staying in contact with the skin and guiding the stylets downwards. The extremely sharp tips of the labrum and maxillae are moved backwards and forwards to saw their way into the skin, with just one thousandth of the force that would be needed to penetrate the skin with a needle, resulting in a painless insertion. Mosquito saliva contains enzymes that aid in sugar feeding, and antimicrobial agents that control bacterial growth in the sugar meal. For a mosquito to obtain a blood meal, it must circumvent its vertebrate host's physiological responses. Mosquito saliva blocks the host's hemostasis system, with proteins that reduce vascular constriction , blood clotting , and platelet aggregation, to ensure the blood keeps flowing. It modulates the host's immune response via a mixture of proteins which lower angiogenesis and immunity ; create inflammation ; suppress tumor necrosis factor release from activated mast cells ; suppress interleukin (IL)-2 and IFN-γ production; suppress T cell populations; decrease expression of interferon −α/β, making virus infections more severe; increase natural killer T cells in the blood; and decrease cytokine production. Females of many blood-feeding species need a blood meal to begin the process of egg development. A sufficiently large blood meal triggers a hormonal cascade that leads to egg development. Upon completion of feeding, the mosquito withdraws her proboscis , and as the gut fills up, the stomach lining secretes a peritrophic membrane that surrounds the blood. This keeps the blood separate from anything else in the stomach. Like many Hemiptera that survive on dilute liquid diets, many adult mosquitoes excrete surplus liquid even when feeding. This permits females to accumulate a full meal of nutrient solids. The blood meal is digested over a period of several days. Once blood is in the stomach, the midgut synthesizes protease enzymes, primarily trypsin assisted by aminopeptidase , that hydrolyze the blood proteins into free amino acids . These are used in the synthesis of vitellogenin , which in turn is made into egg yolk protein. Mosquitoes have a cosmopolitan distribution , occurring in every land region except Antarctica and a few islands with polar or subpolar climates , such as Iceland , which is essentially free of mosquitoes. This absence is probably caused by Iceland's climate. Its weather is unpredictable, freezing but often warming suddenly in mid-winter, making mosquitoes emerge from pupae in diapause, and then freezing again before they can complete their life cycle. Eggs of temperate zone mosquitoes are more tolerant of cold than the eggs of species indigenous to warmer regions. Many can tolerate subzero temperatures, while adults of some species can survive winter by sheltering in microhabitats such as buildings or hollow trees. In warm and humid tropical regions, some mosquito species are active for the entire year, but in temperate and cold regions they hibernate or enter diapause . Arctic or subarctic mosquitoes, like some other arctic midges in families such as Simuliidae and Ceratopogonidae may be active for only a few weeks annually as melt-water pools form on the permafrost. During that time, though, they emerge in huge numbers in some regions and may take up to 300 ml of blood per day from each animal in a caribou herd. For a mosquito to transmit disease, there must be favorable seasonal conditions, primarily humidity, temperature, and precipitation. El Niño affects the location and number of outbreaks in East Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia and India . Climate change impacts the seasonal factors and in turn the dispersal of mosquitoes. Climate models can use historic data to recreate past outbreaks and to predict the risk of vector-borne disease, based on an area's forecasted climate. Mosquito-borne diseases have long been most prevalent in East Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia, and India . An emergence in Europe was observed early in the 21st century. It is predicted that by 2030, the climate of southern Great Britain will be suitable for transmission of Plasmodium vivax malaria for two months of the year, and that by 2080, the same will be true for southern Scotland. Mosquito larvae are among the commonest animals in ponds, and they form an important food source for freshwater predators . Among the many aquatic insects that catch mosquito larvae are dragonfly and damselfly nymphs, whirligig beetles , and water striders . Vertebrate predators include fish such as catfish and the mosquitofish , amphibians including the spadefoot toad and the giant tree frog , freshwater turtles such as the red-eared slider , and birds such as ducks. Emerging adults are consumed at the pond surface by predatory flies including Empididae and Dolichopodidae , and by spiders . Flying adults are captured by dragonflies and damselflies, by birds such as swifts and swallows , and by vertebrates including bats . Mosquitoes are parasitised by hydrachnid mites, ciliates such as Glaucoma , microsporidians such as Thelania , and fungi including species of Saprolegniaceae and Entomophthoraceae . Several flowers including members of the Asteraceae , Rosaceae and Orchidaceae are pollinated by mosquitoes, which visit to obtain sugar-rich nectar . They are attracted to flowers by a range of semiochemicals such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and terpenes. Mosquitoes have visited and pollinated flowers since the Cretaceous period. It is possible that plant-sucking preadapted mosquitoes to blood-sucking. Ecologically, blood-feeding mosquitoes are micropredators , small animals that feed on larger animals without immediately killing them. Evolutionary biologists see this as a form of parasitism ; in Edward O. Wilson 's phrase "Parasites ... are predators that eat prey in units of less than one." Micropredation is one of six major evolutionarily stable strategies within parasitism. It is distinguished by leaving the host still able to reproduce, unlike the activity of parasitic castrators or parasitoids ; and having multiple hosts, unlike conventional parasites. From this perspective, mosquitoes are ectoparasites , feeding on blood from the outside of their hosts, using their piercing mouthparts, rather than entering their bodies. Unlike some other ectoparasites such as fleas and lice , mosquitoes do not remain constantly on the body of the host, but visit only to feed. Mosquitoes have a cosmopolitan distribution , occurring in every land region except Antarctica and a few islands with polar or subpolar climates , such as Iceland , which is essentially free of mosquitoes. This absence is probably caused by Iceland's climate. Its weather is unpredictable, freezing but often warming suddenly in mid-winter, making mosquitoes emerge from pupae in diapause, and then freezing again before they can complete their life cycle. Eggs of temperate zone mosquitoes are more tolerant of cold than the eggs of species indigenous to warmer regions. Many can tolerate subzero temperatures, while adults of some species can survive winter by sheltering in microhabitats such as buildings or hollow trees. In warm and humid tropical regions, some mosquito species are active for the entire year, but in temperate and cold regions they hibernate or enter diapause . Arctic or subarctic mosquitoes, like some other arctic midges in families such as Simuliidae and Ceratopogonidae may be active for only a few weeks annually as melt-water pools form on the permafrost. During that time, though, they emerge in huge numbers in some regions and may take up to 300 ml of blood per day from each animal in a caribou herd. For a mosquito to transmit disease, there must be favorable seasonal conditions, primarily humidity, temperature, and precipitation. El Niño affects the location and number of outbreaks in East Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia and India . Climate change impacts the seasonal factors and in turn the dispersal of mosquitoes. Climate models can use historic data to recreate past outbreaks and to predict the risk of vector-borne disease, based on an area's forecasted climate. Mosquito-borne diseases have long been most prevalent in East Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia, and India . An emergence in Europe was observed early in the 21st century. It is predicted that by 2030, the climate of southern Great Britain will be suitable for transmission of Plasmodium vivax malaria for two months of the year, and that by 2080, the same will be true for southern Scotland. Mosquito larvae are among the commonest animals in ponds, and they form an important food source for freshwater predators . Among the many aquatic insects that catch mosquito larvae are dragonfly and damselfly nymphs, whirligig beetles , and water striders . Vertebrate predators include fish such as catfish and the mosquitofish , amphibians including the spadefoot toad and the giant tree frog , freshwater turtles such as the red-eared slider , and birds such as ducks. Emerging adults are consumed at the pond surface by predatory flies including Empididae and Dolichopodidae , and by spiders . Flying adults are captured by dragonflies and damselflies, by birds such as swifts and swallows , and by vertebrates including bats . Mosquitoes are parasitised by hydrachnid mites, ciliates such as Glaucoma , microsporidians such as Thelania , and fungi including species of Saprolegniaceae and Entomophthoraceae . Several flowers including members of the Asteraceae , Rosaceae and Orchidaceae are pollinated by mosquitoes, which visit to obtain sugar-rich nectar . They are attracted to flowers by a range of semiochemicals such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and terpenes. Mosquitoes have visited and pollinated flowers since the Cretaceous period. It is possible that plant-sucking preadapted mosquitoes to blood-sucking. Ecologically, blood-feeding mosquitoes are micropredators , small animals that feed on larger animals without immediately killing them. Evolutionary biologists see this as a form of parasitism ; in Edward O. Wilson 's phrase "Parasites ... are predators that eat prey in units of less than one." Micropredation is one of six major evolutionarily stable strategies within parasitism. It is distinguished by leaving the host still able to reproduce, unlike the activity of parasitic castrators or parasitoids ; and having multiple hosts, unlike conventional parasites. From this perspective, mosquitoes are ectoparasites , feeding on blood from the outside of their hosts, using their piercing mouthparts, rather than entering their bodies. Unlike some other ectoparasites such as fleas and lice , mosquitoes do not remain constantly on the body of the host, but visit only to feed. The oldest known mosquitoes are Libanoculex intermedius found in Lebanese amber , dating to the Barremian stage of the Early Cretaceous, around 125 million years ago. The mouthparts of male individuals of this species are similar to living female mosquitoes, indicating that they consumed blood, unlike living male mosquitoes. Three other species of Cretaceous mosquito are known. Burmaculex antiquus and Priscoculex burmanicus are known from Burmese amber from Myanmar, which dates to the earliest part of the Cenomanian stage of the Late Cretaceous, around 99 million years ago. Paleoculicis minutus , is known from Canadian amber from Alberta, Canada, which dates to the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous, around 79 million years ago. P. burmanicus has been assigned to the Anophelinae , indicating that the split between this subfamily and the Culicinae took place over 99 million years ago. Molecular estimates suggest that this split occurred 197.5 million years ago, during the Early Jurassic , but that major diversification did not take place until the Cretaceous. Over 3,600 species of mosquitoes in 112 genera have been described . They are traditionally divided into two subfamilies, the Anophelinae and the Culicinae , which carry different diseases. Roughly speaking, protozoal diseases like malaria are transmitted by anophelines, while viral diseases such as yellow fever and dengue fever are transmitted by culicines. The name Culicidae was introduced by the German entomologist Johann Wilhelm Meigen in his seven-volume classification published in 1818–1838. Mosquito taxonomy was advanced in 1901 when the English entomologist Frederick Vincent Theobald published his 5-volume monograph on the Culicidae. He had been provided with mosquito specimens sent in to the British Museum (Natural History) from around the world, on the 1898 instruction of the Secretary of State for the Colonies , Joseph Chamberlain , who had written that "in view of the possible connection of Malaria with mosquitoes, it is desirable to obtain exact knowledge of the different species of mosquitoes and allied insects in the various tropical colonies. I will therefore ask you ... to have collections made of the winged insects in the Colony which bite men or animals." Mosquitoes are members of a family of true flies (Diptera) : the Culicidae (from the Latin culex , genitive culicis , meaning "midge" or "gnat"). The phylogenetic tree is based on the FLYTREE project. Ptychopteromorpha (phantom and primitive crane-flies) Chironomidae (non-biting midges) Simulioidea (blackflies and biting midges) Dixidae (meniscus midges) Corethrellidae (frog-biting midges) Chaoboridae (phantom midges) Culicidae other midges and gnats all other flies, inc. Brachycera Kyanne Reidenbach and colleagues analysed mosquito phylogenetics in 2009, using both nuclear DNA and morphology of 26 species. They note that Anophelinae is confirmed to be rather basal, but that the deeper parts of the tree are not well resolved. basal spp. other spp. Aedini other spp. SabethiniThe oldest known mosquitoes are Libanoculex intermedius found in Lebanese amber , dating to the Barremian stage of the Early Cretaceous, around 125 million years ago. The mouthparts of male individuals of this species are similar to living female mosquitoes, indicating that they consumed blood, unlike living male mosquitoes. Three other species of Cretaceous mosquito are known. Burmaculex antiquus and Priscoculex burmanicus are known from Burmese amber from Myanmar, which dates to the earliest part of the Cenomanian stage of the Late Cretaceous, around 99 million years ago. Paleoculicis minutus , is known from Canadian amber from Alberta, Canada, which dates to the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous, around 79 million years ago. P. burmanicus has been assigned to the Anophelinae , indicating that the split between this subfamily and the Culicinae took place over 99 million years ago. Molecular estimates suggest that this split occurred 197.5 million years ago, during the Early Jurassic , but that major diversification did not take place until the Cretaceous. Over 3,600 species of mosquitoes in 112 genera have been described . They are traditionally divided into two subfamilies, the Anophelinae and the Culicinae , which carry different diseases. Roughly speaking, protozoal diseases like malaria are transmitted by anophelines, while viral diseases such as yellow fever and dengue fever are transmitted by culicines. The name Culicidae was introduced by the German entomologist Johann Wilhelm Meigen in his seven-volume classification published in 1818–1838. Mosquito taxonomy was advanced in 1901 when the English entomologist Frederick Vincent Theobald published his 5-volume monograph on the Culicidae. He had been provided with mosquito specimens sent in to the British Museum (Natural History) from around the world, on the 1898 instruction of the Secretary of State for the Colonies , Joseph Chamberlain , who had written that "in view of the possible connection of Malaria with mosquitoes, it is desirable to obtain exact knowledge of the different species of mosquitoes and allied insects in the various tropical colonies. I will therefore ask you ... to have collections made of the winged insects in the Colony which bite men or animals." Mosquitoes are members of a family of true flies (Diptera) : the Culicidae (from the Latin culex , genitive culicis , meaning "midge" or "gnat"). The phylogenetic tree is based on the FLYTREE project. Ptychopteromorpha (phantom and primitive crane-flies) Chironomidae (non-biting midges) Simulioidea (blackflies and biting midges) Dixidae (meniscus midges) Corethrellidae (frog-biting midges) Chaoboridae (phantom midges) Culicidae other midges and gnats all other flies, inc. Brachycera Kyanne Reidenbach and colleagues analysed mosquito phylogenetics in 2009, using both nuclear DNA and morphology of 26 species. They note that Anophelinae is confirmed to be rather basal, but that the deeper parts of the tree are not well resolved. basal spp. other spp. Aedini other spp. SabethiniMosquitoes are members of a family of true flies (Diptera) : the Culicidae (from the Latin culex , genitive culicis , meaning "midge" or "gnat"). The phylogenetic tree is based on the FLYTREE project. Ptychopteromorpha (phantom and primitive crane-flies) Chironomidae (non-biting midges) Simulioidea (blackflies and biting midges) Dixidae (meniscus midges) Corethrellidae (frog-biting midges) Chaoboridae (phantom midges) Culicidae other midges and gnats all other flies, inc. BrachyceraKyanne Reidenbach and colleagues analysed mosquito phylogenetics in 2009, using both nuclear DNA and morphology of 26 species. They note that Anophelinae is confirmed to be rather basal, but that the deeper parts of the tree are not well resolved. basal spp. other spp. Aedini other spp. SabethiniMosquitoes are vectors for many disease-causing microorganisms including bacteria , viruses , and protozoan parasites. Nearly 700 million people acquire a mosquito-borne illness each year, resulting in over 725,000 deaths. Common mosquito-borne viral diseases include yellow fever and dengue fever transmitted mostly by Aedes aegypti . Parasitic diseases transmitted by mosquitoes include malaria and lymphatic filariasis . The Plasmodium parasites that cause malaria are carried by female Anopheles mosquitoes. Lymphatic filariasis, the main cause of elephantiasis , is spread by a wide variety of mosquitoes. A bacterial disease spread by Culex and Culiseta mosquitoes is tularemia . Many measures have been tried for mosquito control , including the elimination of breeding places, exclusion via window screens and mosquito nets , biological control with parasites such as fungi and nematodes, or predators such as fish, copepods , dragonfly nymphs and adults, and some species of lizard and gecko . Another approach is to introduce large numbers of sterile males . Genetic modification methods including cytoplasmic incompatibility, chromosomal translocations, sex distortion and gene replacement, solutions seen as inexpensive and not subject to vector resistance, have been explored. Control of disease-carrying mosquitoes using gene drives has been proposed. Insect repellents are applied on skin and give short-term protection against mosquito bites. The chemical DEET repels some mosquitoes and other insects. Some CDC -recommended repellents are picaridin , eucalyptus oil ( PMD ), and ethyl butylacetylaminopropionate (IR3535). Pyrethrum (from Chrysanthemum species, particularly C. cinerariifolium and C. coccineum ) is an effective plant-based repellent. Electronic insect repellent devices that produce ultrasounds intended to keep away insects (and mosquitoes) are marketed. No EPA or university study has shown that these devices prevent humans from being bitten by a mosquito. Mosquito bites lead to a variety of skin reactions and more seriously to mosquito bite allergies . Such hypersensitivity to mosquito bites is an excessive reaction to mosquito saliva proteins. Numerous species of mosquito can trigger such reactions, including Aedes aegypti , A. vexans , A. albopictus , Anopheles sinensis , Culex pipiens , Aedes communis , Anopheles stephensi , C. quinquefasciatus , C. tritaeniorhynchus , and Ochlerotatus triseriatus . Cross-reactivity between salivary proteins of different mosquitoes implies that allergic responses may be caused by virtually any mosquito species. Treatment can be with anti-itch medications include some taken orally, such as diphenhydramine , or applied to the skin like antihistamines or corticosteroids such as hydrocortisone . Aqueous ammonia (3.6%) also provides relief. Both topical heat and cold may be useful as treatments. Mosquitoes are vectors for many disease-causing microorganisms including bacteria , viruses , and protozoan parasites. Nearly 700 million people acquire a mosquito-borne illness each year, resulting in over 725,000 deaths. Common mosquito-borne viral diseases include yellow fever and dengue fever transmitted mostly by Aedes aegypti . Parasitic diseases transmitted by mosquitoes include malaria and lymphatic filariasis . The Plasmodium parasites that cause malaria are carried by female Anopheles mosquitoes. Lymphatic filariasis, the main cause of elephantiasis , is spread by a wide variety of mosquitoes. A bacterial disease spread by Culex and Culiseta mosquitoes is tularemia . Many measures have been tried for mosquito control , including the elimination of breeding places, exclusion via window screens and mosquito nets , biological control with parasites such as fungi and nematodes, or predators such as fish, copepods , dragonfly nymphs and adults, and some species of lizard and gecko . Another approach is to introduce large numbers of sterile males . Genetic modification methods including cytoplasmic incompatibility, chromosomal translocations, sex distortion and gene replacement, solutions seen as inexpensive and not subject to vector resistance, have been explored. Control of disease-carrying mosquitoes using gene drives has been proposed. Insect repellents are applied on skin and give short-term protection against mosquito bites. The chemical DEET repels some mosquitoes and other insects. Some CDC -recommended repellents are picaridin , eucalyptus oil ( PMD ), and ethyl butylacetylaminopropionate (IR3535). Pyrethrum (from Chrysanthemum species, particularly C. cinerariifolium and C. coccineum ) is an effective plant-based repellent. Electronic insect repellent devices that produce ultrasounds intended to keep away insects (and mosquitoes) are marketed. No EPA or university study has shown that these devices prevent humans from being bitten by a mosquito. Mosquito bites lead to a variety of skin reactions and more seriously to mosquito bite allergies . Such hypersensitivity to mosquito bites is an excessive reaction to mosquito saliva proteins. Numerous species of mosquito can trigger such reactions, including Aedes aegypti , A. vexans , A. albopictus , Anopheles sinensis , Culex pipiens , Aedes communis , Anopheles stephensi , C. quinquefasciatus , C. tritaeniorhynchus , and Ochlerotatus triseriatus . Cross-reactivity between salivary proteins of different mosquitoes implies that allergic responses may be caused by virtually any mosquito species. Treatment can be with anti-itch medications include some taken orally, such as diphenhydramine , or applied to the skin like antihistamines or corticosteroids such as hydrocortisone . Aqueous ammonia (3.6%) also provides relief. Both topical heat and cold may be useful as treatments. Ancient Greek beast fables including "The Elephant and the Mosquito" and " The Bull and the Mosquito ", with the general moral that the large beast does not even notice the small one, derive ultimately from Mesopotamia . The peoples of Siberia have origin myths surrounding the mosquito. One Ostiak myth tells of a man-eating giant, Punegusse , who is killed by a hero but will not stay dead. The hero eventually burns the giant, but the ashes of the fire become mosquitoes that continue to plague mankind. Other myths from the Yakuts , Goldes ( Nanai people ), and Samoyed have the insect arising from the ashes or fragments of some giant creature or demon. Similar tales found in Native North American myth, with the mosquito arising from the ashes of a man-eater, suggest a common origin. The Tatars of the Altai had a variant of the same myth, involving the fragments of the dead giant, Andalma-Muus , becoming mosquitoes and other insects. Lafcadio Hearn tells that in Japan, mosquitoes are seen as reincarnations of the dead, condemned by the errors of their former lives to the condition of Jiki-ketsu-gaki , or "blood-drinking pretas ". Winsor McCay 's 1912 film How a Mosquito Operates was one of the earliest works of animation. It has been described as far ahead of its time in technical quality. It depicts a giant mosquito tormenting a sleeping man. Twelve ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Mosquito or the archaic form of the name, HMS Musquito . The de Havilland Mosquito was a high-speed aircraft manufactured between 1940 and 1950, and used in many roles. Ancient Greek beast fables including "The Elephant and the Mosquito" and " The Bull and the Mosquito ", with the general moral that the large beast does not even notice the small one, derive ultimately from Mesopotamia . The peoples of Siberia have origin myths surrounding the mosquito. One Ostiak myth tells of a man-eating giant, Punegusse , who is killed by a hero but will not stay dead. The hero eventually burns the giant, but the ashes of the fire become mosquitoes that continue to plague mankind. Other myths from the Yakuts , Goldes ( Nanai people ), and Samoyed have the insect arising from the ashes or fragments of some giant creature or demon. Similar tales found in Native North American myth, with the mosquito arising from the ashes of a man-eater, suggest a common origin. The Tatars of the Altai had a variant of the same myth, involving the fragments of the dead giant, Andalma-Muus , becoming mosquitoes and other insects. Lafcadio Hearn tells that in Japan, mosquitoes are seen as reincarnations of the dead, condemned by the errors of their former lives to the condition of Jiki-ketsu-gaki , or "blood-drinking pretas ". Winsor McCay 's 1912 film How a Mosquito Operates was one of the earliest works of animation. It has been described as far ahead of its time in technical quality. It depicts a giant mosquito tormenting a sleeping man. Twelve ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Mosquito or the archaic form of the name, HMS Musquito . The de Havilland Mosquito was a high-speed aircraft manufactured between 1940 and 1950, and used in many roles.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Visa_policy_of_Malaysia/html

Visa policy of Malaysia

Race and politics The visa policy of Malaysia consists of the requirements for foreign nationals to travel to, enter, and remain in Malaysia. Most visitors to Malaysia are granted visa-free entry for a period of 90, 30, or 14 days respectively. However, nationals from some countries must first obtain a visa from one of the Malaysian Diplomatic Missions before being allowed into the country. All visitors must hold a passport valid for at least 6 months. According to Timatic , holders of passports issued by the following jurisdictions can enter Malaysia without a visa for up to the duration listed below. Holders of passports issued by the following jurisdictions are granted visa-free entry to Malaysia for 90 days: Holders of passports issued by the following jurisdictions are granted visa-free entry to Malaysia for 30 days: T - Temporary measure until 31 December 2024. Holders of passports issued by the following jurisdictions are granted visa-free entry to Malaysia for 14 days: In addition, holders of Macao Special Administrative Region Travel Permits are granted visa-free entry for 14 days regardless of their nationality. Holders of diplomatic or official / service passports of Andorra , Albania (90 days), Algeria (90 days), Armenia , Azerbaijan , Bangladesh , Bahrain , Belarus (90 days), Barbados (90 days), Belize (90 days), Botswana , China , Dominican Republic , India , Iran (15 days), Jordan (90 days), Kazakhstan , Libya (14 days), Moldova , Nicaragua , Pakistan , Saudi Arabia (90 days), Tajikistan , Taiwan , Timor-Leste , United Arab Emirates , Uruguay and United Kingdom (90 days) do not require a visa for up to 30 days (unless otherwise stated), however they must first request for entry permission at any port of entry in order to enter Malaysia. In addition, holders of diplomatic or official / service passports of Brunei and Singapore do not require a visa for up to 90 days while all other ASEAN member states do not require a visa for up to 30 days but do not require entry permission as part of ASEAN-wide Regional Visa-exemption agreements.Holders of passports issued by the following jurisdictions are granted visa-free entry to Malaysia for 90 days: Holders of passports issued by the following jurisdictions are granted visa-free entry to Malaysia for 30 days: T - Temporary measure until 31 December 2024. Holders of passports issued by the following jurisdictions are granted visa-free entry to Malaysia for 14 days: In addition, holders of Macao Special Administrative Region Travel Permits are granted visa-free entry for 14 days regardless of their nationality.Holders of diplomatic or official / service passports of Andorra , Albania (90 days), Algeria (90 days), Armenia , Azerbaijan , Bangladesh , Bahrain , Belarus (90 days), Barbados (90 days), Belize (90 days), Botswana , China , Dominican Republic , India , Iran (15 days), Jordan (90 days), Kazakhstan , Libya (14 days), Moldova , Nicaragua , Pakistan , Saudi Arabia (90 days), Tajikistan , Taiwan , Timor-Leste , United Arab Emirates , Uruguay and United Kingdom (90 days) do not require a visa for up to 30 days (unless otherwise stated), however they must first request for entry permission at any port of entry in order to enter Malaysia. In addition, holders of diplomatic or official / service passports of Brunei and Singapore do not require a visa for up to 90 days while all other ASEAN member states do not require a visa for up to 30 days but do not require entry permission as part of ASEAN-wide Regional Visa-exemption agreements.On 1 March 2017, Malaysian government set up a new online application system to accept applications for Electronic Visa (eVISA) and Electronic Travel Registration and Information (ENTRI) to facilitate tourism. eNTRI program is good for Chinese and Indian passport holders and lasts until 31 December 2020 while e-Visa is good for citizens of more countries and is still available so far. E-Visa application also applies to those seeking student or expatriate visas for entering Malaysia, although they must report to immigration authorities upon arrival in Malaysia in order to obtain their immigration passes. Citizens of the following countries can apply for an e-Visa: E - Already visa-exempt in general. In addition, holders of Hong Kong Document of Identity for Visa Purposes are eligible for applying e-Visa regardless of their nationality.Holders of passports issued by the following countries who possess an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) containing the "MYS" code on the reverse, which indicates that it is valid for travel to Malaysia, can enter Malaysia visa-free for business trips for up to 60 days. ABTCs are issued to nationals of: Nationals of non-visa-exempt countries can transit through Kuala Lumpur International Airport for a maximum of 24 hours in the transit area; however, they are not permitted to switch between the terminals of the airport unless they hold a valid visa. Nationals of the following countries require an International Certificate of Vaccination in order to enter Malaysia: The vaccination requirement is imposed by this country for protection against Yellow Fever since the principal mosquito vector Aedes aegypti is present in its territory. In 2016, Malaysia recorded 26,757,392 tourist arrivals, a growth of 4.0% compared to 25,721,251 in 2015. The table lists the top 15 arrivals to Malaysia by their origin countries.In 2016, Malaysia recorded 26,757,392 tourist arrivals, a growth of 4.0% compared to 25,721,251 in 2015. The table lists the top 15 arrivals to Malaysia by their origin countries.

Wiki

Yellow fever

https://api.wikimedia.org/core/v1/wikipedia/en/page/Walter_Reed/html

Walter Reed

Walter Reed (September 13, 1851 – November 22, 1902) was a U.S. Army physician who in 1901 led the team that confirmed the theory of Cuban doctor Carlos Finlay that yellow fever is transmitted by a particular mosquito species rather than by direct contact. This insight gave impetus to the new fields of epidemiology and biomedicine , and most immediately allowed the resumption and completion of work on the Panama Canal (1904–1914) by the United States. Reed followed work started by Finlay and directed by George Miller Sternberg , who has been called the "first U.S. bacteriologist".Walter Reed was born in Gloucester, Virginia , the fifth child of Lemuel Sutton Reed (a traveling Methodist minister) and his first wife, Pharaba White. During his youth, the family resided at Murfreesboro, North Carolina with his mother's family during his father's preaching tours. Two of his elder brothers later achieved distinction: J.C. became a minister in Virginia like their father, and Christopher a judge in Wichita, Kansas and later St. Louis, Missouri. Their childhood home is included in the Murfreesboro Historic District . After the American Civil War in December 1866, Rev. Reed remarried, to Mrs. Mary C. Byrd Kyle of Harrisonburg, Virginia , with whom he had a daughter. Young Walter enrolled at the University of Virginia . After two years, Reed completed the M.D. degree in 1869, two months before he turned 18. He was the youngest-ever recipient of an M.D. from the university. Reed then enrolled at the New York University 's Bellevue Hospital Medical College in Manhattan, New York, where he obtained a second M.D. in 1870, as his brother Christopher attempted to set up a legal practice. After interning at several New York City hospitals, Walter Reed worked for the New York Board of Health until 1875. [ citation needed ] He married Emily Blackwell Lawrence (1856–1950) of North Carolina on April 26, 1876, and took her West with him. Later, Emily gave birth to a son, Walter Lawrence Reed (1877–1956) and a daughter, Emily Lawrence Reed (1883–1964). While posted at frontier camps, the couple also adopted a Native American girl named Susie. Finding his youth limited his influence, and dissatisfied with urban life, Reed joined the U.S. Army Medical Corps . This allowed him both professional opportunities and modest financial security to establish and support a family. After Reed passed a grueling thirty-hour examination in 1875, the army medical corps enlisted him as an assistant surgeon. By this time, two of his brothers were working in Kansas, and Walter soon was assigned postings in the American West. Over the next sixteen years, the Army assigned the career officer to different outposts, where he was responsible not only for American military and their dependents, but also various Native American tribes, at one point looking after several hundred Apaches , including Geronimo . Reed noticed the devastation epidemics could wreak and maintained his concerns about sanitary conditions. During one of his last tours, he completed advanced coursework in pathology and bacteriology in the Johns Hopkins University Hospital Pathology Laboratory . [ citation needed ] While stationed at Fort Robinson , Nebraska, Reed treated the ankle of Swiss immigrant Jules Sandoz, broken by a fall into a well. Reed wanted to amputate Sandoz's foot, but Sandoz refused his consent, and Reed succeeded in saving the foot by an extensive course of treatment. A photograph of a letter from Reed to Sandoz's father is reproduced in the first edition of Old Jules , the 1935 biography of Sandoz by his daughter Mari Sandoz . [ citation needed ] In 1893, Reed joined the faculty of George Washington University School of Medicine & Health Sciences and the newly opened Army Medical School in Washington, D.C., where he held the professorship of Bacteriology and Clinical Microscopy. In addition to his teaching responsibilities, he actively pursued medical research projects and served as the curator of the Army Medical Museum, which later became the National Museum of Health and Medicine (NMHM). These positions also allowed Reed to break free from the fringes of the medical world. [ citation needed ] In 1896, Reed first distinguished himself as a medical investigator. He proved that yellow fever among enlisted men stationed near the Potomac River was not a result of drinking the river water. He showed officials that the enlisted men who got yellow fever had a habit of taking trails through the local swampy woods at night. Their fellow officers without yellow fever did not do so. Reed also proved that the local civilians drinking from the Potomac River had no relation to the incidence of the disease. Reed traveled to Cuba to study diseases in U.S. Army encampments there during the Spanish–American War . Appointed chairman of a panel formed in 1898 to investigate an epidemic of typhoid fever , Reed and his colleagues showed that contact with fecal matter and food or drink contaminated by flies caused that epidemic. Yellow fever also became a problem for the Army during this time, felling thousands of soldiers in Cuba. In May 1900, Major Reed returned to Cuba when he was appointed head of an investigative board charged by Army Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg to study tropical diseases, particularly yellow fever. Sternberg was an early expert in bacteriology during a time of great advances due to widespread acceptance of the germ theory of disease and new methods for studying microbial infections. During Reed's leadership of the U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission in Cuba, the Board demonstrated that yellow fever was transmitted by mosquitoes and disproved the common belief that it was transmitted by fomites (clothing and bedding soiled by the body fluids and excrement of yellow fever victims). These points were demonstrated in a dramatic series of experiments at the US Army's Camp Lazear, named in November 1900 for Reed's assistant and friend Jesse William Lazear , who had died of yellow fever while working on the project. This dangerous research was done using human volunteers, including some of the medical personnel, who allowed themselves to be bitten by mosquitos infected with yellow fever. The conclusions from this research were soon applied in Panama, where mosquito eradication was largely responsible for stemming the incidence of yellow fever during the construction of the Panama Canal . Epidemics of yellow fever in Panama had confounded French attempts to build a canal across the Isthmus of Panama only 20 years earlier. Although Reed received much of the credit for "beating" yellow fever, Reed himself credited Cuban medical scientist Carlos Finlay with identifying a mosquito as the vector of yellow fever and proposing how the disease might be controlled. Reed often cited Finlay in his own articles and gave him credit for the idea in his personal correspondence. The Cuban physician was a persistent advocate of the hypothesis that mosquitos were the vector of yellow fever and correctly identified the species that transmits the disease. His experiments to prove the hypothesis were discounted by many medical experts, but served as the basis for Reed's research. More recently, the politics and ethics of using medical and military personnel as research subjects have been questioned. Reed returned from Cuba in 1901, continuing to speak and publish on the topic of yellow fever. In recognition of his research, Reed received honorary degrees from Harvard and the University of Michigan . In November 1902, Reed suffered a ruptured appendix . He died on November 23, 1902, of the resulting peritonitis , at age 51. He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery . Reed's breakthrough in yellow fever research is widely considered a milestone in biomedicine, opening new vistas of research and humanitarianism. It was largely an extension of Carlos J. Finlay's work, carried out during the 1870s in Cuba, which finally came to prominence in 1900. Finlay was the first to theorize, in 1881, that a mosquito was a carrier, now known as a disease vector, of the organism causing yellow fever: a mosquito that bites a victim of the disease could subsequently bite and thereby infect a healthy person. He presented this theory at the 1881 International Sanitary Conference, where it was well received. A year later Finlay identified a mosquito of the genus Aedes as the organism transmitting yellow fever. His theory was followed by the recommendation to control the mosquito population as a way to control the spread of the disease. This discovery helped William C. Gorgas reduce the incidence and prevalence of mosquito-borne diseases in Panama during the American campaign, from 1903 onwards, to construct the Panama Canal. Prior to this, about 10% of the workforce had died each year from malaria and yellow fever. In 1912, he posthumously received what came to be known as the Walter Reed Medal in recognition of his work to combat yellow fever. A tropical medicine course is also named after him, Walter Reed Tropical Medicine Course . The National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland holds a collection of his papers regarding typhoid fever studies. Philip Showalter Hench , a Nobel Prize winner for Physiology or Medicine in 1950, maintained a long interest in Walter Reed and yellow fever. His collection of thousands of items—documents, photographs, and artifacts—is at the University of Virginia in the Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection. More than 7,500 of these items, including several hundred letters written by Reed himself, are accessible online at the web exhibit devoted to this Collection. In addition to that medal, course, and a stamp issued in his honor (shown), locations and institutions named after the medical pioneer include: John Miltern portrayed Reed in the 1934 Broadway play, Yellow Jack, written by Pulitzer Prize winner Sidney Howard , in collaboration with Paul de Kuif . Harcourt Brace and Co. published the play in book form, titled Yellow Jack : A History , in 1934. Lewis Stone took the part in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer 's 1938 film adaptation of the play, Yellow Jack . The play and screenplay were adapted for television in episodes (both titled "Yellow Jack") of Celanese Theatre (1952) and of Producers' Showcase (1955). In the latter, Reed was portrayed by Broderick Crawford . Jeffrey Hunter played Reed in a 1962 episode of the anthology show Death Valley Days , titled "Suzie". In 2006, PBS 's American Experience television series broadcast, "The Great Fever" , a program exploring Reed's yellow fever campaign. The PBS website contains a great deal of additional information, including links to primary sources. Reed's name is featured on the frieze of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine . Twenty-three names of public health and tropical medicine pioneers were originally chosen to be displayed on the School building in Keppel Street when it was constructed in 1926.

Wiki