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[ "The Great God Pan\nThe Great God Pan is a horror and fantasy novella by Welsh writer Arthur Machen. Machen was inspired to write The Great God Pan by his experiences at the ruins of a pagan temple in Wales. What would become the first chapter of the novella was published in the magazine The Whirlwind in 1890. Machen later extended The Great God Pan and it was published as a book alongside another story, \"The Inmost Light\", in 1894. The novella begins with an experiment to allow a woman named Mary to see the supernatural world. This is followed by an account of a series of mysterious happenings and deaths over many years surrounding a woman named Helen Vaughan. At the end, the heroes confront Helen and force her to kill herself. She undergoes a series of supernatural transformations before dying and she is revealed to be the child of Mary and the god Pan." ]

[ "Arthur Machen\nLovecraft pays tribute to the influence by directly incorporating some of Machen's creations and references, such as Nodens and Aklo, into his Cthulhu Mythos and using similar plotlines, most notably seen by a comparison of \"The Dunwich Horror\" to \"The Great God Pan\" and of \"The Whisperer in Darkness\" to \"The Novel of the Black Seal\". Other Lovecraft tales with a debt or reference to Machen include \"The Call of Cthulhu\", \"The Festival\", \"Cool Air\", \"The Descendant\", and \"The Colour Out of Space\".", "Pan (god)\nArthur Machen's 1894 novella \"The Great God Pan\" uses the god's name in a simile about the whole world being revealed as it really is: \"seeing the Great God Pan\". The novella is considered by many (including Stephen King) as being one of the greatest horror stories ever written.", "Tessa Farmer\nHer great grandfather is Arthur Machen - author of The Great God Pan, and The White People. Tessa was unfamiliar with Machen's work until a member of The Friends of Arthur Machen drew her attention to similarities between some of Machen's stories and Tessa's own work. Since then, Machen has become an influence in her artwork.", "We Are All Pan's People\nWe Are All Pan's People is an album by Julian House, under the pseudonym of The Focus Group. It was released on 26 March 2007 on the Ghost Box Music label. The title and artwork owe a simultaneous debt to the 1970s dance troupe Pan's People and the stories - the novella The Great God Pan specifically - of Arthur Machen; labelmates Eric Zann and Belbury Poly have also acknowledged a debt to the author.", "The Dunwich Horror\nLovecraft's main literary sources for \"The Dunwich Horror\" are the stories of Welsh horror writer Arthur Machen, particularly \"The Great God Pan\" (which is mentioned in the text of \"The Dunwich Horror\") and \"The Novel of the Black Seal\". Both Machen stories concern individuals whose death throes reveal them to be only half-human in their parentage. According to Robert M. Price, \"'The Dunwich Horror' is in every sense an homage to Machen and even a pastiche. There is little in Lovecraft's story that does not come directly out of Machen's fiction.\"", "The Great God Pan\nIn writing the novella, he tried to \"pass on the vague, indefinable sense of awe and mystery and terror that [he] had received\" while visiting those ruins.[1] Machen felt that he had \"transliterated [the feeling] clumsily\" in The Great God Pan, elaborating: \"I translated awe, at worst awfulness, into evil; again, I say, one dreams with fire and works in clay.\"[5] Dennis Denisoff said that Machen's decision to make Helen Vaughan the child of a Welsh woman and a pagan figure \"parallels Machen's own authorial self-identity as one arising from not only his Welsh ancestry but also pagan myth.\"[6]", "Piccadilly\nIn Arthur Machen's 1894 novella \"The Great God Pan\", Helen Vaughan, the satanic villainess and offspring of Pan, lives off Piccadilly in the pseudonymous Ashley Street. Margery Allingham's fictional detective Albert Campion has a flat at 17A Bottle Street, Piccadilly, over a police station, although Bottle Street is equally fictitious.", "The Great God Pan\nSome commentary on The Great God Pan has focused on its portrayal of women. Surridge sees the novella as expressing a fear of women even though the ultimate source of horror in the story is a male deity.[2] The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction says that Helen's \"metamorphosis...remains one of the most dramatically horrible and misogynistic in fiction\".[10] Helen never speaks in the book; according to Victoria Margree and Bryony Randall in Victorian Gothic: An Edinburgh Companion, \"The silence of the central female character is part of the text's misogyny, but also part of its narrative effect.\" Margree and Randall also view Helen's fate as a punishment for her sexual impropriety.[38] Dennis Denisoff connects Machen's tendency to make his empowered female characters \"sexually monstrous\" to his criticisms of authors who discussed the subject of women's rights.[39] James Machin defends Machen and The Great God Pan from charges from misogyny on the grounds that the male protagonist of Machen's story \"The Novel of the White Powder\" (1895) disintegrates in a manner reminiscent of Helen Vaughan[22] and on the grounds that Machen married Amy Hogg, a woman who defied the sexual boundaries of her time.[40]", "The Great God Pan\nMachen's literary reputation was re-evaluated in the 1920s[2] and The Great God Pan has since attained the reputation of a horror masterpiece.[8] In \"Supernatural Horror in Literature\" (1926; revised 1933), H. P. Lovecraft praised the story, saying: \"No one could begin to describe the cumulative suspense and ultimate horror with which every paragraph abounds\"; he added that \"the sensitive reader\" reaches the end with \"an appreciative shudder\". Lovecraft also noted, however, that \"melodrama is undeniably present, and coincidence is stretched to a length which appears absurd upon analysis\". Bennett Cerf described the story as a \"masterpiece\".[35] Brian Stableford stated that The Great God Pan is \"the archetypal Decadent horror story\" and described the story as \"highly original\".[8] Stephen King referred to it as \"one of the best horror stories ever written. Maybe the best in the English language.\" King also praised Pan for being \"more reader-friendly\" than Lovecraft's fiction.[36] The Washington Post's Elizabeth Hand deemed it \"one of the greatest supernatural tales ever written\".[37] Black Gate's Matthew David Surridge said that The Great God Pan is \"a fascinating, troubling story, and, for all its influence, not like much else than I can think of. It's not simple, and yet it's effective, more so than can easily be explained.\"[2]", "The Great God Pan\nA pair of parodies of Pan were published in 1895 – Arthur Rickett's \"A Yellow Creeper\" and Arthur Sykes's \"The Great Pan-Demon\". Both suggest that Machen is an author of \"limited imagination,\" with the latter depicting him as a mad scientist unleashing degenerate literature on an unsuspecting public.[41] The Great God Pan was brought to the stage in 2008 by the WildClaw Theatre Company in Chicago. It was adapted and directed by WildClaw artistic director Charley Sherman.[42] The novella Helen's Story (2013) by Rosanne Rabinowitz retells the story of The Great God Pan from Helen Vaughan's point of view. Helen's Story was written from a feminist perspective and nominated for a Shirley Jackson Award.[43] The Great God Pan was adapted into a chamber opera by composer Ross Crean. Unusually for a composer, Crean wrote the opera's libretto himself. A recording of the work was released in 2017.[44] The production saw its world premiere by Chicago Fringe Opera in 2018. According to the Chicago Tribune's John von Rhein, Chicago Fringe Opera's staging of The Great God Pan portrays Helen Vaughan as both a symbol of gender equality and an evil femme fatale.[45]", "Arthur Machen\nAround 1890 Machen began to publish in literary magazines, writing stories influenced by the works of Robert Louis Stevenson, some of which used gothic or fantastic themes. This led to his first major success, \"The Great God Pan\". It was published in 1894 by John Lane in the noted Keynotes Series, which was part of the growing aesthetic movement of the time. Machen's story was widely denounced for its sexual and horrific content and consequently sold well, going into a second edition.", "The Great God Pan\nWhat is now the first chapter of the novella was published in 1890 in a magazine called The Whirlwind, while what is now the third chapter of the book was published in the same magazine the following year as a standalone short story called \"The City of Resurrections\". Machen only viewed the two works as connected after they were finished. Once he decided the two stories were connected, Machen wrote the rest of The Great God Pan in a single evening save for its final chapter. Machen did not think of an ending for the tale for months, and in that time believed that the novella would remain unfinished forever. The last chapter was completed in June 1891. Machen sent the novella to the publisher Blackwood, who rejected it, deeming it a clever story that \"shrink[s]...from the central idea.\" It was accepted by John Lane and published in 1894.[7] When published as a book, The Great God Pan was accompanied by another Machen tale called \"The Inmost Light\"[8] which also features a mad scientist and elements of science fiction.[9] The book's cover was illustrated by Aubrey Beardsley.[3]", "The Great God Pan\nThe Great God Pan's implied sexuality caused a scandal upon its original release and hurt Machen's reputation as an author.[2] Reviewing the novella for the magazine Literary News, Richard Henry Stoddard criticised the story as \"too morbid to be the production of a healthy mind\".[29] The art critic Harry Quilter's review of the book, titled \"The Gospel of Intensity\", and published in The Contemporary Review in June 1895, was even more harsh.[30] Quilter declared: \"'The Great God Pan' is, I have no hesitation in saying, a perfectly abominable story, in which the author has spared no endeavor to suggest loathsomeness and horror which he describes as beyond the reach of words.\"[31][32] Quilter warned that Machen's books were a dangerous threat to the entire British public and that they would destroy readers' sanities and senses of morality.[33][31] Quilter went on to attack the story's publisher, John Lane, as well as Machen himself: \"Why should he be allowed, for the sake of a few miserable pounds, to cast into our midst these monstrous creations of his diseased brain?\"[31][34] Quilter added that works of fiction like Machen's should be unanimously condemned by literary critics and newspapers: \"If the Press was so disposed it could stamp out such art and fiction in a few months: And that disposition must be acquired, must even be enforced.\"[31] He was particularly harsh in his denunciation of sexual ambiguity and polymorphous androgyny in the book.[34] He expressed revulsion at Machen's description of Helen's sex changing immediately before her death[34] and concluded his review with a comment of distaste regarding the \"nasty little naked figure of dubious sex and humanity with which Mr. Aubrey Beardsley has prefaced the story\".[34] A positive appraisal of the novella came from Oscar Wilde, who called it \"un succès fou.\"[21]", "Pan's Labyrinth\nDel Toro has said the film has strong connections in theme to \"The Devil's Backbone\" and should be seen as an informal sequel dealing with some of the issues raised there. Fernando Tielve and Íñigo Garcés, who played the protagonists of \"The Devil's Backbone\", make cameo appearances as unnamed guerrilla soldiers in \"Pan's Labyrinth\". Some of the other works he drew on for inspiration include Lewis Carroll's \"Alice\" books, Jorge Luis Borges' \"Ficciones\", Arthur Machen's \"The Great God Pan\" and \"The White People\", Lord Dunsany's \"The Blessing of Pan\", Algernon Blackwood's \"Pan's Garden\" and Francisco Goya's works. In 2004, del Toro said: \"\"Pan\" is an original story. Some of my favourite writers (Borges, Blackwood, Machen, Dunsany) have explored the figure of the god Pan and the symbol of the labyrinth. These are things that I find very compelling and I am trying to mix them and play with them.\" It was also influenced by the illustrations of Arthur Rackham.", "Nodens (Cthulhu Mythos)\nLovecraft may have based Nodens on Arthur Machen's \"The Great God Pan\" (1890) because Machen was one of Lovecraft's favorite authors. In the novel, Machen describes a late Roman inscription hinting that Nodens is actually the titular god Pan.\nOn one side of the pillar was an inscription, of which I took a note. Some of the letters had been defaced, but I do not think there can be any doubt as to those which I supply. The inscription reads as follows:", "The Great God Pan\nBlack Gate's Matthew David Surridge said that The Great God Pan influenced Bram Stoker's Dracula (1897) as both works feature \"an introductory sequence featuring a horrified Englishman in a non-English setting; then a variety of seemingly-unconnected events in London, the metropole at the heart of Empire; then the discovery that all those events are in fact inspired by one malign and supernatural intelligence, that the rational contemporary capital is threatened by the irrational and archaic; then an equivocal conclusion. The fear of sex, women, foreignness.\"[2] John C. Tibbetts notes that both Helen Vaughan in The Great God Pan and Lucy Westenra in Dracula are \"demon women of voracious and malignant sexuality\".[23] Theodora Goss also notes similarities between the death of Helen Vaughan in Machen's novella and Lucy's death in Dracula.[27] Tibbetts also notes that Machen's portrayal of Helen Vaughan as demonic and hyper-sexual may have influenced a similar character, The Woman of Songs, in Richard Marsh's The Beetle (1897).[23]", "The Great God Pan\nIn a review of the novella for Black Gate, Matthew David Surridge hypothesized that Machen took inspiration from Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1818) in his portrayal of Dr. Raymond as a mad scientist akin to Victor Frankenstein.[2] The works of Robert Louis Stevenson, especially his 1886 novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, were among Machen's most significant influences when writing The Great God Pan.[3][19] Critic John Gawsworth also sees Machen's novella as reminiscent of the horror stories of Edgar Allan Poe and Sheridan Le Fanu.[20] Aaron Worth noted similitude between the death of Helen Vaughan and the theories of alchemist Thomas Vaughan, who is the character's namesake[21] and Helen's disintegration recalls the alchemical concept of the prima materia.[22] John C. Tibbetts observes similarities between Helen Vaughan and Ayesha, the sexually liberated demonic priestess from H. Rider Haggard's She: A History of Adventure (1886).[23] Machen wrote that several critics felt that Joris-Karl Huysmans's novels À rebours (1884) and Là-bas (1891) had inspired The Great God Pan, though he did not read either book until after Pan was published. Upon reading the two novels, Machen concluded that \"my critics had not read them either.\"[24]", "Nodens\nPerhaps inspired by the Lydney Park excavations, Arthur Machen's novella \"The Great God Pan\" (1890; revised and expanded 1894) features a Roman pillar dedicated to Nodens. The dedication is made by one Flavius Senilis \"on account of the marriage which he saw beneath the shade\", and there is a strong hint that Nodens is in fact Pan.", "Paul-Jean Toulet\nIn 1897, Toulet received a copy of \"The Great God Pan\" by Arthur Machen from a friend and he translated it the following year, as \"Le Grand Dieu Pan\". It was published in \"La Plume\" in 1901 but went unnoticed except for Maeterlinck's reaction \"...combining the traditional and scientific fantastic genres, it hits both our memories and hopes\". Toulet engaged a correspondence with Machen and visited him in London.", "The Great God Pan\nClark Ashton Smith was inspired by The Great God Pan to write his story \"The Nameless Offspring\" (1931), which also features a monstrous child born of a human and a supernatural entity.[49] It has been suggested that Michael Arlen's novel Hell! Said the Duchess (1934) is a parody of The Great God Pan, as Arlen was influenced by Machen's work.[50][51] The Great God Pan influenced Peter Straub's novel Ghost Story (1979) in its depiction of a shapeshifting monster who terrifies those it encounters.[52] Straub himself frequently credited The Great God Pan as having been a major influence on his work.[23]", "N. (novella)\nKing in interviews and in the book itself said the story was inspired by Arthur Machen’s \"The Great God Pan\" stating: \"Not Lovecraft; it’s a riff on Arthur Machen’s 'The Great God Pan,' which is one of the best horror stories ever written. Maybe the best in the English language. Mine isn’t anywhere near that good, but I loved the chance to put neurotic behavior—obsessive/compulsive disorder—together with the idea of a monster-filled macroverse.\"", "The Great God Pan\nStephen King wrote that his novella N. from his story collection Just After Sunset (2008) is \"a riff on Arthur Machen's The Great God Pan.... Mine isn't anywhere near [as] good [as the original], but I loved the chance to put neurotic behavior—obsessive/compulsive disorder—together with the idea of a monster-filled macroverse.\"[36] King has also cited Machen's novella as an influence on his novel Revival (2014).[37] Similar to Pan, Revival features an experiment on a young woman's brain which allows her to see into another world.[37]", "The Great God Pan\nThe Great God Pan was highly influential on the circle of writers around H. P. Lovecraft.[8] The structure of Machen's story influenced the structure of Lovecraft's \"The Call of Cthulhu\" (1928).[47] Pan's depiction of a monstrous half-human hybrid inspired the plot of Lovecraft’s \"The Dunwich Horror\" (1929), which refers to Machen’s novella by name. According to Lovecraft scholar Robert M. Price, \"'The Dunwich Horror' is in every sense an homage to Machen and even a pastiche. There is little in Lovecraft's wonderful story that does not come directly out of Machen's fiction.\"[46] Pan also inspired Lovecraft to create his character Nodens[2] who appears most prominently in The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath (1943).[48]", "Arthur Machen\nLiterary critics such as Wesley D. Sweetser and S. T. Joshi see Machen's works as a significant part of the late Victorian revival of the gothic novel and the decadent movement of the 1890s, bearing direct comparison to the themes found in contemporary works like Robert Louis Stevenson's \"Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde\", Bram Stoker's \"Dracula\", and Oscar Wilde's \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\". At the time authors like Wilde, William Butler Yeats, and Arthur Conan Doyle were all admirers of Machen's works. He is also usually noted in the better studies of Anglo-Welsh literature. The French writer Paul-Jean Toulet translated Machen's \"The Great God Pan\" into French and visited Machen in London. Charles Williams was also a devotee of Machen's work, which inspired Williams' own fiction.", "The Man Who Went Too Far\nThese elements - of Pan as Satanic and neopaganism as a dangerous path - place \"The Man Who Went Too Far\" in a horror tradition with \"The Great God Pan\" (1890), a novella by Arthur Machen. Frank's obsession with hearing the music of Pan (who in mythology is depicted as playing a flute) and finally seeing him, which he believes will be a transcendent moment, is similar to the work of the character Dr. Raymond in Machen's novella. Raymond conducts scientific experiments with the aim of \"seeing the great god Pan\".", "The Great God Pan\nAccording to film historians Keith McDonald and Roger Clark, Mexican film director Guillermo del Toro's portrayal of the faun in his 2006 dark fantasy film Pan's Labyrinth was inspired by the \"ambivalent and possibly dangerous\" portrayals of Pan in late Victorian and early Edwardian novels, including Machen's The Great God Pan and Pan's Garden (1912) by Algernon Blackwood.[53] Del Toro deliberately chose to imitate the darker, more sinister fauns of Machen and Blackwood rather than the \"sweetly domesticated figure\" of Mr. Tumnus from C. S. Lewis's The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (1950).[54] The original title of the film in Spanish is El Laberinto del Fauno (The Labyrinth of the Faun),[55] but the English title Pan's Labyrinth emphasizes the connection between del Toro's film and the body of late nineteenth-century writings about Pan, including The Great God Pan.[54]", "The Great God Pan\nMachen's lifelong fascination with occultism began after he read an article on alchemy in an edition of Charles Dickens's periodical Household Words belonging to his father, a clergyman.[2][3] In his 1922 autobiography, Far Off Things, Machen wrote that The Great God Pan was inspired by the times he visited the Usk, a Welsh river, and the Welsh towns of Caerleon on the Usk and Caerwent as a boy; all of these places had been settled by the Romans.[4] He wrote that \"strange relics\" were frequently found at Caerwent from the ruined temple of \"Nodens, god of the depths\".[4] Machen visited the temple, which he described as a \"lonely house between the dark forest and the silver river\".[4]", "The Great God Pan\nOn publication, it was widely denounced by the press as degenerate and horrific because of its implied sexual content, and the novella hurt Machen's reputation as an author. Beginning in the 1920s, Machen's work was critically re-evaluated and The Great God Pan has since garnered a reputation as a classic of horror. Literary critics have noted the influence of other nineteenth-century authors on The Great God Pan and offered differing opinions on whether or not it can be considered an example of Gothic fiction or science fiction. The novella has influenced the work of horror writers such as Bram Stoker, H. P. Lovecraft, and Stephen King, and has been adapted for the stage twice.", "The Great God Pan\nThis story had particular resonance with Victorian literary audiences.[15] In 1844, Elizabeth Barrett Browning wrote her poem \"The Dead Pan\", an adaption of Plutarch's story which insisted that proper Christian literature should abandon Greek mythology, with each stanza ending in the words \"Pan, Pan is dead.\"[15] As a member of the Decadent movement, Machen sought to subvert traditional themes and transgress literary boundaries,[15] an agenda which made Pan a particularly appealing figure.[15] The title of The Great God Pan appears to have been specifically derived from the Browning's later poem \"A Musical Instrument\" (1862), in which the first line of every stanza ends with the words \"the great god Pan\".[17] Machen's use of Pan in the novella may have also been influenced by Robert Louis Stevenson's essay \"Pan's Pipes\" (1878) and Algernon Charles Swinburne's poem \"A Nympholept\" (1894),[18] in which Pan is portrayed as the \"emblem of the delicious combination of ecstasy and terror.\"[19]" ]

[ "Demobilization of United States armed forces after World War II\nThe Demobilization of United States armed forces after the Second World War began with the defeat of Germany in May 1945 and continued through 1946. The United States had more than 12 million men and women in the armed forces at the end of World War II of whom 7.6 million were stationed abroad.[1] The American public demanded a rapid demobilization and soldiers protested the slowness of the process. Military personnel were returned to the United States in Operation Magic Carpet. By June 30, 1947, the number of active duty soldiers, sailors, Marines, and airmen in the armed forces had been reduced to 1,566,000." ]

[ "International public opinion on the war in Afghanistan\nThe CBS News poll conducted July 9–12, 2010 found that the majority 58% of Americans want their troops withdrawn from the war within the next one or two years, and 35% were willing to have U.S. troops stay longer than two years from now. One-third, 33%, of Americans think large numbers of U.S. troops should be withdrawn in less than a year, another 23% think that should be done within one or two years, and 2% want an immediate withdrawal. 26% of Americans think U.S. troops should remain for as long as it takes, 7% think they should stay another two to five years, and 2% think they should stay for another five to ten years.", "The Long Haul (1957 film)\nAn American ex-serviceman leaves Allied-occupied Germany after WWII and is persuaded by his English wife to settle in Liverpool' Looking for work, he becomes a lorry driver. He comes into contact with criminals involved in theft from commercial vehicles and draws close to the girlfriend of a major crime figure.", "European theatre of World War II\nSimultaneously with the fall of Rome came the long-awaited invasion of France. Operation Overlord put over 180,000 troops ashore in Normandy on June 6, 1944, creating a beachhead that would eventually result in over 3 million Allied soldiers on Germany's western front. A long grinding campaign six weeks long followed as American, British, and Canadian forces were slowly built up in the beachhead, and German forces slowly worn down. When the breakout finally did come it was spectacular, with Allied troops very quickly capturing almost all of Normandy within days. Many German forces that had been fighting in Normandy were trapped in the Falaise pocket.", "U.S.–Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement\nAmerican and Afghan officials said after Afghanistan's designation as major non-NATO that they now must turn to working out, as mandanted by the Strategic Partnership Agreement, a bilateral security arrangement that would keep a residual American force in Afghanistan to continue training Afghan National Security Forces and tracking down insurgents after 2014. Talks on the arrangement have not yet begun according to American officials. Estimates of the number of troops that could stay vary from as little as 10,000 to as many as 25,000 or 30,000. But Mrs. Clinton reiterated on 7 July 2012 that Washington did envision keeping American troops in Afghanistan, where they would provide the kind of air power and surveillance capabilities needed to give Afghan forces an edge over the Taliban.", "Internment of German Americans\nBy the time of WWII, the United States had a large population of ethnic Germans. Among residents of the United States in 1940, more than 1.2 million persons had been born in Germany, 5 million had two native-German parents, and 6 million had one native-German parent. Many more had distant German ancestry. During WWII, the United States detained at least 11,000 ethnic Germans, overwhelmingly German nationals. The government examined the cases of German nationals individually, and detained relatively few in internment camps run by the Department of Justice, as related to its responsibilities under the Alien and Sedition Acts. To a much lesser extent, some ethnic German US citizens were classified as suspect after due process and also detained. Similarly, a small proportion of Italian nationals and Italian Americans were interned in relation to their total population in the US. The United States had allowed immigrants from both Germany and Italy to become naturalized citizens, which many had done by then. In the early 21st century, Congress considered legislation to study treatment of European Americans during WWII, but it did not pass the House of Representatives. Activists and historians have identified certain injustices against these groups.", "8th Infantry Division (United States)\nThe troops who did reach France became the garrison of Brest and assisted in building huge camps for troops about to embark for return to the United States. The 8th Infantry Regiment became part of the American occupation forces in Germany until August 1919 and the remainder returned to the United States in January 1919, after which the division disbanded.", "Battle of Long Island\nThe American troops who were not killed or captured escaped behind the fortified American positions centered on Brooklyn Heights. Howe then ordered all of his troops to halt the attack, in a move considered controversial to this day, despite the protests of many officers in his command who believed that they should push on to Brooklyn Heights. Howe had decided against a direct frontal assault against the entrenched American positions, choosing instead to begin a siege and setting up lines of circumvallation around the American positions. He believed the Americans to be essentially trapped, with his troops blocking escape by land and the Royal Navy in control of the East River, which they would have to cross to reach Manhattan Island.", "Chetniks! The Fighting Guerrillas\nHal Erickson of All Movie Guide (AMG) reviewed the movie favorably also, describing how Draža Mihailović was vindicated and exonerated by events after the war. Erickson wrote that the movie portrayed Draža Mihailović as “a selfless idealist, leading his resistance troops, known as the Chetniks, on one raid after another against the Germans during WWII.”", "Picher, Germany\nPicher was part of the area initially captured or occupied by American troops at the end of World War Two. In other words, Picher was on the American side of the line of contact between American Soviet forces. Due to previous agreements by the Allied powers, this part of Germany was transferred to Soviet control some several weeks after American occupation. As a remote village Picher did not suffer war time destruction.", "William Shirley\nThe provincial forces began landing at Gabarus Bay on 30 April, and laid siege to the fortress while the British ships blockaded the harbour. The Americans began suffering battle losses, while the British naval officers, who had a low opinion of American soldiers, grew increasingly critical of the American efforts. Warren tried to exert control over the provincial troops, but Pepperrell resisted him. Louisbourg surrendered on 17 June. The Americans lost 180 men in combat, to disease or at sea during the siege, while the Royal Navy ships did not fire on the fortress, and lost just one sailor. As the victors settled into occupation of Louisbourg, friction grew between the Americans and the British. The terms of surrender guaranteed the French in all of their possessions; there was no plunder for the American troops. On the other hand, the Royal Navy had captured several rich French prizes, and British sailors on shore leave bragged to the Americans about how rich they were going to be from their shares.\nThe American troops had signed up to capture Louisbourg, and expected to go home after siege ended. The British government, who had believed that the provincial troops were incapable of capturing Louisbourg on their own, had made no plans to send British troops to take over occupation of the fortress. When it become evident that British troops would not be relieving the provincials until after winter had passed, Governor Shirley travelled to Louisbourg to raise the morale of the troops. His first speech to the troops had little effect, and some troops were close to mutiny. In a second speech Shirley promised to send home more troops immediately, and provide higher pay and better supplies for those who stayed until spring. Honors from the British government were sparse; Pepperrell was made a baronet, he and Shirley were made colonels in the British Army with the right to raise their own regiments, and Warren was promoted to rear admiral.", "Fürst-Wrede-Kaserne\nOriginally, the fully motorized 7th Anti-Tank Detachment (\"Panzerabwehrabteilung 7\") and an artillery unit used the barracks. After the war the facility was enlarged and renamed by the American troops who occupied it in 1951; the 169th Infantry Regiment, 43rd Division. The 43rd Division only stayed in Germany during the Korean War time. After that, elements of the 24th Division moved into Will Kaserne and stayed there until it was returned to the German government.", "George Washington in the American Revolution\nGeneral Howe's army, reinforced by thousands of additional troops from Europe and a fleet under the command of his brother, Admiral Richard Howe, began arriving the entrance of New York Harbor (at the Narrows), in early July, and made an unopposed landing on Staten Island. Without intelligence about Howe's intentions, Washington was forced to divide his still poorly trained forces, principally between Manhattan and Long Island. The Howes, who were politically ambivalent about the conflict, had been authorized to act as peace commissioners, and attempted to establish contact with Washington. However, they refused to address their letters to \"General George Washington\", and his representatives refused to accept them.\nIn August, the British finally launched their campaign to capture New York City. They first landed on Long Island in force, and flanked Washington's forward positions in the Battle of Long Island. General Howe refused to act on a significant tactical advantage that could have resulted in the capture of the remaining Continental troops on Long Island, but he chose instead to besiege the fortified positions to which they had retreated. Although Washington has been criticized by many historians for sending additional troops to reinforce the redoubts on Long Island, it was clear to both Washington and the Howes that the Americans had successfully blocked the East River against major shipping by sinking ships in the channel, and that he was consequently not risking the entrapment of additional men. In the face of a siege he seemed certain to lose, Washington then decided to withdraw. In what some historians call one of his greatest military feats, he executed a nighttime withdrawal from Long Island across the East River to Manhattan to save those troops and materiel.", "Tania Long\nAs war correspondents for The New York Times, Tania Long and Ray Daniell followed the Allied forces into Berlin in 1945. Ray Daniell arrived there the day the Allies entered Berlin, and Tania followed the day after. During World Wars I and II, Tania’s and her parents’ possessions, including the Long Family papers and photos, had been stored in a downtown Berlin warehouse, and although the warehouse had been bombed, by some miracle, everything they owned survived intact. With the termination of the war, Tania remained in Germany and assisted her husband in the New York Times coverage of the Nuremberg Trials. Then \"Miss Long turned her attention to conditions in conquered Germany. Her articles in the New York Times Magazine, and her news stories, attracted considerable comment for the picture she presented of the dangerous effect of fraternization by American troops in Germany on the American occupation policy.\" ", "Rethink Afghanistan\nProduced and released eight years into the war, at a time when Congress was considering sending tens of thousands of new troops to Afghanistan, the film asks the American public to reconsider basic questions about the conflict, such as how much will it cost, in lives and money? How long will Americans troops be there? How do we know if we’ve won? What is our exit strategy?", "Vorkutlag\nAnother American military serviceman detained by the USSR at around the same period of time was US Army private William Marchuk of Norristown in Pennsylvania, who was also kidnapped (either by the Soviet military or East German authorities) in East Berlin in 1949 and sent to the Soviet Union shortly afterwards. John H. Noble, a 31-year-old American civilian from Detroit Michigan who stayed in Germany as a US expatriate together with his family during WWII, was also arrested by the Soviet Red Army in Dresden in Germany at the end of the war in Europe in 1945. Not many American civilians and military personnel held by the USSR were ever repatriated back to the USA, despite constant (but reduced and downplayed) pressure from the US government, which had actually been aware of the USSR's actions.", "Soviet occupation of Romania\nAlthough with the signing of the Austrian State Treaty in 1955 the reason for the presence of Soviet troops as stated in the Paris Peace Treaties ceased to exist, Premier Gheorghiu-Dej announced that these troops would stay as long as foreign soldiers continue to be stationed in West Germany.", "Battle of Harlem Heights\nAfter scattering the Americans at Kip's Bay, Howe landed 9,000 more troops, but did not immediately cut off the American retreat from New York Town in the south of the island. Washington had all of his troops in the city on their way to north along the westside of Manhattan to Harlem Heights by 4:00 pm and they all reached the fortifications on the Heights by nightfall.", "1556 Wingolfia\nThis minor planet was named by the discoverer after Wingolf, which is one of Germany's long-standing Christian student fraternity in Heidelberg, that was prohibited during Nazi Germany, and reinstalled after WWII. The asteroid's name was announced on 17 June 1955, during the celebration of the fraternity's 104th anniversary. The discoverer's original citation reads:\nThe official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center ().", "American Revolutionary War\nAfter regrouping at Halifax, William Howe determined to take the fight to the Americans. He set sail in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island near the entrance to New York Harbor on July 2. Due to poor military intelligence, Washington split his army to positions on Manhattan Island and across the East River in western Long Island, and an informal attempt to negotiate peace was rejected by the Americans. On August 27, Howe outflanked Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights. Howe restrained his subordinates from pursuit, opting to besiege Washington instead.", "William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe\nHowe and his troops began to arrive outside New York Harbour and made an uncontested landing on Staten Island to the west in early July. Howe, whose orders from Lord George Germain, the Secretary of State responsible for directing the war from Westminster, were fairly clear that he should avoid conflict before the arrival of reinforcements, then waited until those reinforcements arrived in mid-August, along with the naval commander, his brother Richard. This delay proved to be somewhat costly, since the Americans used this time to improve fortifications on northwestern Long Island (at Brooklyn Heights along the East River shoreline) and increased the size of their Continental Army with additional militia. After moving most of his army by amphibious barges across the Verazzano Narrows to southwestern Long Island without opposition, he attacked the American positions on 27 August in what became known as the Battle of Long Island. In a well-executed manoeuvre, a large column led by Howe and Clinton passed around the American left flank, through the lightly guarded Jamaica Pass far to the east, (a ridge of hills running east to west bisected the island, with a series of lower entrances that were all guarded by Continentals except inexplicably to the farthest east at Jamaica), catching the Patriots off-guard and routing the Americans from their forward positions back into the entrenchments on Brooklyn Heights. Despite the urging of Clinton and others, Howe decided against an immediate assault on these fortifications, claiming \"the Troops had for that day done handsomely enough.\" He instead began siege operations, methodically advancing on the entrenched Americans. This decision allowed General Washington to successfully orchestrate a nighttime strategic withdrawal across the East River on the night of 29–30 August, aided by a thick morning fog. Historian George Bilias notes that had Howe attacked Brooklyn Heights, the capture of even half of Washington's army, and possibly Washington himself, might have had a significant effect on the rebellion. Some officers, notably General Clinton, were critical of Howe's decision not to storm the American works. Howe was knighted as a reward for his victory on Long Island.", "Germany–United States relations\nGermany's effort to incorporate any major military actions into the slowly progressing European Security and Defence Policy did not meet the expectations of the U.S. during the Gulf War. After the September 11 attacks, German-American political relations were strengthened in an effort to combat terrorism, and Germany sent troops to Afghanistan as part of the NATO force. Yet, discord continued over the Iraq War, when then German chancellor Gerhard Schröder and foreign minister Joschka Fischer made efforts to prevent war and consequently did not join the U.S. and UK led multinational force in Iraq. Anti-Americanism rose to the surface after the attacks of 11 September 2001 as hostile German intellectuals argued there were ugly links between globalization, Americanization, and terrorism.\nIn response to the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures, Germany cancelled the 1968 intelligence sharing agreement with the US and UK.", "Demographic history of the United States\nThe Great Migration was the movement of millions of African Americans out of the rural Southern United States from 1914 to 1960. Most moved to large industrial cities, as well as to many smaller industrial cities.African-Americans moved as individuals or small groups. There was no government assistance. They migrated because of a variety of push and pull factors:\nIn the years after WWII, the United States, as well as a number of other industrialized countries, experienced an unexpected sudden birth rate jump. During WWII birthrates had been low, as millions of men had been away fighting in WWII and this had deterred women from starting families: women also had to take the place of men in the workplace, while simultaneously fulfilling their household duties. The millions of men coming back to the US after WWII, and the couples eager to start families, led to a sharp rise in the US birth rate, and a surge in new housing construction in the suburbs and outlying areas of the cities. Since the men who came back got jobs in the workplace again, married women stayed home to take care of the house and children and let their husbands be the breadwinner of the household.", "Germany–United States relations\nWorld War I started in August 1914, and the United States insisted on neutrality neutral. President Wilson's highest priority was to broker peace talks, using his trusted aide Colonel House. Apart from an Anglophile element urging early support for Britain, American public opinion reflected that of the president: the sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong among Irish Americans, German Americans, and Scandinavian Americans, as well as poor white southern farmers, cultural leaders, Protestant churchmen, and women in general. The British argument that the Allies were defending civilization against a German militaristic onslaught gain support after reports of atrocities in Belgium in 1914 and following the sinking of the passenger liner \"RMS Lusitania\" in 1915, the American citizens increasingly came to see Germany as the aggressor who had to be stopped. former President Theodore Roosevelt and many Republicans were war hawks, and demanded rapid American armament. Wilson insisted on neutrality, and minimized wartime preparations in order to negotiate for peace. After the British ship \"Lusitania\" was sunk with over 100 American passengers drowned, Wilson demanded that German submarines must allow passengers and crew to reach their lifeboats. Germany reluctantly agreed, but in January 1917 decided that a massive infantry attack on the Western front, coupled with a full-scale attack on all food shipments to Europe, would prove decisive. It realized the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare meant war with the United States, but it calculated that American military forces would take years to arrive, by which time Germany would already be the victor. Germany reached out to Mexico with the Zimmermann Telegram, offering a military alliance against the United States, hoping the United States would diverge most of its attention to attacking Mexico. London intercepted the Zimmerman telegram, and it outraged American opinion.\nPresident Wilson called on Congress to declare war on Germany in April 1917. The United States expected to provide money, munitions, food and raw materials but did not expect to send large troop contingents until Washington realized how weak the Allies were on the Western Front. After the exit of Russia from the war in late 1917, Germany could reallocate 600,000 experienced troops to their Western Front. by the summer, American troops were arriving at the rate of 10,000 a day, every day, replacing all the Allied losses while the GermanArmy shrank day by day until it finally collapsed in November, 1918. On the homefront, the loyalty of German-Americans were frequently challenged. Any significant German cultural impact was seen with intense hostility and suspicion. Germany was portrayed as a threat to American freedom and way of life.", "Gestapo–NKVD conferences\nAfter Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 . 16 days later the USSR decided to move troops into Eastern Poland in order to prevent German troops from entering the Soviet sphere of influence. Nazi Germany crossed into the Soviet sphere of influence in Lublin but their advance was halted by Soviet forces. The USSR didn't engage the Polish troops in battle with the Germans and allowed them to retreat into Romania where they were captured. Poland and its allies France and Great Britain declared war on Germany while the USSR stayed neutral.", "Ocala Rifles\nThe unit reorganized after WWII as Company E, 124th Infantry in September 1948 in Ocala and then converted in 1955 as Company C, 187th Tank Battalion. In January 1968 the unit reorganized as Troop E, 153d Cavalry with 2d and 3d Armored Cavalry platoons stationed in Gainesville. The Gainesville platoons later became Detachment 1, Troop E. The Gainesville unit had been established post-WWII as Company G, 124th Infantry on May 10, 1948, then redesignated Company B, 187th Armor before becoming the Troop E Detachment. In October 1977, the Gainesville detachment consolidated with Troop E in Ocala. ", "John Howe (loyalist)\nIn mid-1776, the British assembled troops on Staten Island. On August 22, they crossed over to Long Island, and on August 27, they engaged and defeated the Americans at the Battle of Long Island. A series of battles continued the New York Campaign, which was concluded with the British victory of Fort Washington on November 16, 1776. On November 26, General Clinton and 6,000 troops were sent to take Newport, RI, which they succeeded in doing on December 1. After this victory, the British offered John Howe the position of Printer for the Provincial Forces. John Howe moved to Newport, RI, along with his fiancée, Martha Minns, and her brother, William Minns. He printed the first issue of the \"Newport Gazette\" on January 16, 1777, and he continued printing that newspaper until the final issue of October 6, 1779. During their stay in Newport, John Howe married Martha Minns on June 7, 1778. John Howe was named in the Massachusetts Banishment Act of 1778, possibly as a result of his work as printer for the British forces in Newport, Rhode Island. During this period, John Howe took on John Ryan, a native of Newport, as his apprentice, who later became the printer of the first newspaper in New Brunswick and then the King's Printer in Newfoundland.\nOn October 26, 1779, the British evacuated their troops and the loyalists from Newport, RI, to New York. On Christmas Day, 1779, John and Martha Howe's first child, Martha Howe, was born in New York. Sometime during 1780, John Howe and his young family, along with his brother-in-law William Minns, quit New York for Halifax, Nova Scotia. John Ryan remained in New York until 1783, becoming a partner with William Lewis in the \"New-York Mercury and General Advertiser\".", "Battle of Long Island\nAt 05:10 on August 22, an advance guard of 4,000 British troops left Staten Island under the command of Clinton and Cornwallis to land on Long Island. At 08:00, all 4,000 troops landed unopposed on the shore of Gravesend Bay. Colonel Edward Hand's Pennsylvanian riflemen had been stationed on the shore, but they did not oppose the landings and fell back, killing cattle and burning farmhouses on the way. By noon, 15,000 troops had landed on shore along with 40 pieces of artillery, as hundreds of Loyalists came to greet the British troops. Cornwallis pushed on with the advance guard, advancing six miles onto the island and establishing a camp at the village of Flatbush. He was given orders to advance no further.\nWashington received word of the landings the same day, but was informed that the number was 8,000 to 9,000 troops. This convinced him that it was the feint which he had predicted and therefore he only sent 1,500 more troops to Brooklyn, bringing the total number of troops on Long Island to 6,000. On August 24, Washington replaced Sullivan with Israel Putnam who commanded the troops on Long Island. Putnam arrived on Long Island the next day along with six battalions. Also that day, the British troops on Long Island received 5,000 Hessian reinforcements, bringing their total to 20,000. There was little fighting on the days immediately after the landing, although some small skirmishes did take place with American marksmen armed with rifles picking off British troops from time to time.", "Human zoo\nAs Ethnogenic expositions were discontinued in Germany around 1931, there were many repercussions for the performers. Many of the people brought from their homelands to work in the exhibits had created families in Germany, and there were many children that had been born in Germany. Once they no longer worked in the zoos or for performance acts these people were stuck living in Germany where they had no rights and were harshly discriminated against. During the rise of the Nazi party the foreign actors in these stage shows were typically able to stay out of concentration camps because there were so few of them that the Nazis did not see them as a real threat. Although they were able to avoid concentration camps, they were not able to participate in German life as citizens of ethnically German origin could. The Hitler Youth did not allow children of foreign parents to participate, and adults were rejected as German soldiers. Many ended up working in war industry factories or foreign laborer camps. After WWII ended, racism in Germany became more concealed or invisible but did not go away. Many people of foreign descent intended to leave after the war, but because of their German nationality, it was difficult for them to emigrate.", "Visa policy of the Schengen Area\nAlthough long-stay visas issued by Schengen countries, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus and Romania have the same uniform design, as a national visa, in general, the procedures and conditions for issue are determined by each individual country. Therefore, for example, whilst some Schengen countries (such as France) require applications for long-stay visas to be made in the applicant's home country, other Schengen countries permit applicants to lodge their applications after arrival. Some countries, such as Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands and Switzerland offer a hybrid regime, whereby third-country nationals are required to apply for long-stay visas in their home country, with the exception of a few nationalities who are permitted to apply for a residence permit directly upon arrival without having first to obtain a long-stay visa. For example, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands and Switzerland allow New Zealand nationals to apply for a residence permit upon arrival without having to apply for a long-stay visa in advance, but not South African nationals.", "Order of battle of the Battle of Long Island\nThe British forces were led by Lieutenant General William Howe, and included veterans of the Siege of Boston, new regiments from Ireland, and hired German troops from Hesse-Kassel. On August 27, 1776, Howe made a successful flanking maneuver around the American left while occupying the American right with diversionary battle. As a result, a significant portion of the American army became entrapped and surrendered after its retreat to the entrenched position was cut off. With a siege of the position looming, General Washington successfully withdrew his remaining army to Manhattan in the early hours of August 29.The British Army at the start of the campaign was drawn from three sources. The first was troops that had been in the Siege of Boston, which ended when the British evacuated their troops from the city to Halifax, Nova Scotia in March 1776. The second was new levies raised in the British Isles, including a significant number of Irish troops. The third was troops provided by several small German principalities of the Holy Roman Empire. After the war broke out in 1775, the British government realized that it would need more troops than it could raise on its own to fight the war, so it sought to hire troops from willing third parties in Europe. Only a few German rulers were willing to provide troops. The single largest contingent, with more than 12,000 arriving in North America in 1776, came from the Landgraviate of Hessen-Kassel. All of the German troops with the British at the start of the New York campaign were from Hesse-Kassel, and were under the command of Lt. Gen. Leopold Philip von Heister. A regiment from Waldeck that was also destined for the New York theater did not arrive until after Manhattan was occupied." ]

[ "Universal Declaration of Human Rights\nThe Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a historic document that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at its third session on10 December 1948 as Resolution 217 at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris, France. Of the then 58 members of the United Nations, 48 voted in favor, none against, eight abstained, and two did not vote.[1]" ]

[ "Political thought and legacy of Ruhollah Khomeini\nBefore taking power Khomeini expressed support for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, \"We would like to act according to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. We would like to be free. We would like independence.\", However once in power Khomeini took a firm line against dissent, warning opponents of theocracy for example: \"I repeat for the last time: abstain from holding meetings, from blathering, from publishing protests. Otherwise I will break your teeth.\" Khomeini believed that since Islamic government was essential for Islam, what threatened the government threatened Islam.", "Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Amendment (Data Retention) Act 2015\nAustralian Lawyers for Human Rights (ALHR) also submitted concerns that the Bill constituted a serious and unreasonable infringement of the rights of law-abiding Australians. According to the ALHR, the Bill was an ‘indiscriminate, society wide’ invasion of privacy, which rebutted the presumption of innocence. Additionally, the ALHR contended the Bill infringes other human rights not acknowledged in the \"Memorandum\", in particular, the right to be treated with dignity (Article 1, Universal Declaration of Human Rights), freedom from arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home or correspondence (Article 12, Universal Declaration of Human Rights). The ALHR also submitted the Bill was likely to chill freedom of association (Articles 21 and 22, ICCPR and Article 20, Universal Declaration of Human Rights), the right to free development of one's personality (Article 22, Universal Declaration of Human Rights), the right to take part in the conduct of public affairs (Article 25, ICCPR), and press freedoms. According to ALHR, the Bill would restrict free speech, as Australians would not know what information about them, including information about their contacts, might be shared among government (and non-government) bodies. Similarly, the Parliamentary Joint Committee on Human Rights argued that, although the data retention regime pursues a legitimate objective, the scheme's proportionality is questionable and it may have a ‘chilling’ effect on people's freedom and willingness to communicate via telecommunications services because people will ‘self-censor’ views expressed via telecommunications services. This view is also supported by the Law Council of Australia (LCA) and the Councils for Civil Liberties Australia (CCLA) .", "Human rights in Muslim-majority countries\nWhen the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1948, Saudi Arabia refused to sign it as they were of the view that sharia law had already set out the rights of men and women. To sign the UDHR was deemed unnecessary. What the UDHR did do was to start a debate on human rights in the Islamic world. Following years of deliberation, the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) adopted the Cairo Declaration of Human Rights in Islam.", "Chronicle of Current Events\nIn honor of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the United Nations declared 1968 as the \"International Year for Human Rights\". In April Natalya Gorbanevskaya compiled the first issue of the \"Chronicle of Current Events\". Its cover (dated 30 April 1968) carried the title: \"The International Year for Human Rights in the Soviet Union\" and, like every subsequent issue of the \"Chronicle\", quoted the text of Article 19 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights:", "Universal Declaration of Human Rights\nThe Commission established a special Universal Declaration of Human Rights Drafting Committee, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, to write the articles of the Declaration. The Committee met in two sessions over the course of two years.", "Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam\nThis declaration is widely acknowledged as an Islamic response to the United Nations's Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted in 1948. It guarantees many of the same rights as the UDHR and serves as a living document of human rights guidelines prescribed for all members of the OIC (Organization of Islamic Cooperation) to follow, but restricts them explicitly to the limits set by the sharia. This greatly restricts rights with respect to the Universal Declaration, since for example, women and members of other religions do not have the same rights as men under sharia, and that freedom of expression can be severely limited for religious reasons: for example, blasphemy can even now be punishable by death, in clear opposition to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.", "Universal Declaration of Human Rights\nThe Quaker United Nations Office and the American Friends Service Committee work on many human rights issues, including improving education on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They have developed a curriculum to help introduce High School students to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[68][69]", "Human Rights Watch\nPursuant to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Human Rights Watch (HRW) opposes violations of what are considered basic human rights under the UDHR. This includes capital punishment and discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. HRW advocates freedoms in connection with fundamental human rights, such as freedom of religion and freedom of the press. HRW seeks to achieve change by publicly pressuring governments and their policy makers to curb human rights abuses, and by convincing more powerful governments to use their influence on governments that violate human rights.", "Clemens Nathan\nAn edited book of essays entitled \"Contemporary Human Rights Challenges: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and its Continuing Relevance\" was published in Nathan's memory to mark the 70th Anniversary (10 December 2018) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.The book's foreword is written by UNESCO Secretary General Audrey Azoulay and contains 18 essays including ones by Lord Williams and President Jimmy Carter.", "International Foundation for Human Rights and Tolerance\nThe International Foundation for Human Rights and Tolerance is a human rights group strongly affiliated with Scientology, the stated aim of which is to \"provide easy-to-understand human rights education to adults and children so that they are able to grasp what fundamental human rights are as aligned with the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.\" The group's secondary objective is to \"effectively combat violations of human rights, focusing on the issues of children and religious freedom.\"", "Universal Declaration of Human Rights\nDuring the lead up to the World Conference on Human Rights held in 1993, ministers from Asian states adopted the Bangkok Declaration, reaffirming their governments' commitment to the principles of the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They stated their view of the interdependence and indivisibility of human rights and stressed the need for universality, objectivity, and non-selectivity of human rights. However, at the same time, they emphasized the principles of sovereignty and non-interference, calling for greater emphasis on economic, social, and cultural rights—in particular, the right to economic development over civil and political rights. The Bangkok Declaration is considered to be a landmark expression of the Asian values perspective, which offers an extended critique of human rights universalism.[63]", "International Year of Human Rights\n1968 was declared the International Year of Human Rights by UNESCO, with the principal goal of bringing attention to the state of human rights throughout the world. On its XX session on March 17-18, 1964 United Nations Commission on Human Rights considered United Nations General Assembly Eighteenth session decision to proclaim International Year of Human Rights and recommended the establishment of the committee for preparation of celebration of 20th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and organisation of an international conference on human rights.", "Criticism of Islam\nSome widely held interpretations of Islam are inconsistent with Human Rights conventions that recognize the right to change religion. In particular article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights\nstates:\nTo implement this, Article 18 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights states:\nThe right for Muslims to change their religion is not afforded by the Iranian Shari'ah law, which specifically forbids it. In 1981, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, Said Rajaie-Khorassani, articulated the position of his country regarding the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, by saying that the UDHR was \"a secular understanding of the Judeo-Christian tradition\", which could not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law. As a matter of law, on the basis of its obligations as a state party to the ICCPR, Iran is obliged to uphold the right of individuals to practice the religion of their choice and to change religions, including converting from Islam. The prosecution of converts from Islam on the basis of religious edicts that identify apostasy as an offense punishable by death is clearly at variance with this obligation. Muslim countries such as Sudan and Saudi Arabia, have the death penalty for apostasy from Islam. These countries have criticized the Universal Declaration of Human Rights for its perceived failure to take into account the cultural and religious context of non-Western countries. In 1990, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation published a separate Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam compliant with Shari'ah. Although granting many of the rights in the UN declaration, it does not grant Muslims the right to convert to other religions, and restricts freedom of speech to those expressions of it that are not in contravention of the Islamic law.", "Islamic Principlism in Iran\nIn contrast to neo-principalists, principalists accepts the ideas of democracy and UDHR. During his lifetime, Ayatollah Khomeini expressed support for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; in \"Sahifeh Nour\" (Vol.2 Page 242), he states: \"We would like to act according to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. We would like to be free. We would like independence.\" However, Iran adopted an \"alternative\" human rights declaration, the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, in 1990 (one year after Khomeini's death).", "Universal Declaration of Human Rights\nThe Declaration of Human Rights Day is commemorated every year onDecember 10, the anniversary of the adoption of the Universal Declaration, and is known as Human Rights Day or International Human Rights Day. The commemoration is observed by individuals, community and religious groups, human rights organizations, parliaments, governments, and the United Nations. Decadal commemorations are often accompanied by campaigns to promote awareness of the Declaration and human rights. 2008 marked the 60th anniversary of the Declaration, and was accompanied by year-long activities around the theme \"Dignity and justice for all of us\".[32]", "Human rights literature\nThe concept of human rights literature was first articulated in the foreword to \"Freedom\", an anthology of short stories by renowned authors from around the world published in Britain in 2010 by Mainstream Publishing in cooperation with the human rights organization Amnesty International. The stories were written in the spirit of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.", "P. C. Chang\nOn the Universal Declaration of Human Rights drafting committee, he served both as an effective Asian delegate and also as a mediator when the negotiations reached a stalemate. He served as Vice-Chairman of the original UN Commission on Human Rights and Republic of China delegate to committee and played a pivotal role in its drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948. He and fellow delegate Charles Malik, the Lebanese philosopher-diplomat, shared ideals of universal human rights, but debated what they were and how they could be described in an international document. By most accounts, Chang and Malik were the philosophical leaders of the deliberations. Chang argued that the modern world should pay heed to Chinese philosophers such as Mencius not because they were Chinese, but because their ideas had universal validity.", "Shia Rights Watch\nEach year, Shia Rights Watch publishes reports that document human rights violations committed against Shia Muslims as defined by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In 2012, SRW published five reports including one on Pakistan, Bahrain, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, and Indonesia. These reports include recommendations to the United States government with action steps for each specific country to move towards a more unbiased and peaceful government that does not exclude minorities, including religious minorities. Journalists, researchers, human rights activists and members of the United States government request to the organization, largely based on case studies and research, to obtain a copy.", "John Peters Humphrey\nHumphrey was a principal drafter of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. After consulting with the executive group of the Commission, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, Professor Humphrey prepared the first preliminary draft of what was to become the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. On the night of December 10, 1948, the General Assembly unanimously adopted the Declaration, dubbed by Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt as \"the international Magna Carta of all humankind.\"", "Cui Zhiyuan\nCui also published an paper on Zhang Pengchun’s role in drafting United Nations’ the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. Zhang Pengchun (1892-1957) studied with John Dewey and got his Ph.D. from Columbia University and was the first Provost of Tsinghua University in 1923. He was the only Vice Chairman of the Commission on Human Rights (with Eleanor Roosevelt as the Chairman) in drafting the Universal Declaration, especially in inserting the Chinese concept “Ren” (, two men). Zhang initially translated “Ren” as two men mindedness, because “two men mindedness” is considered as too awkward, thus “conscience” was used in the final text of the Preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Cui's article discusses the important implications of this discovery in the UN archive about Zhang's key role for the current Chinese political and cultural debates—transcending the dichotomy of “Western Centralism” and “Cultural Particularism”— and has been translated into French and published (, Multitudes 2013/3)", "Human rights in Tokelau\nHuman rights were not mentioned in Tokelauan legislation until the Human Rights Rules 2004. These rules were very basic and are now what is incorporated in the Constitution of Tokelau 2007. Tokelau accepts the principles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.", "Frank Van Dun\nVan Dun sees human rights as fundamentally different from the \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\". According to him when you have a right you have a right. Therefore, human rights are, e.g., the right of self-determination for one's own life, liberty and the products of one's liberty (property) and call these rights fundamental rights. This is not the case in the \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\". He sees the \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\" equivalent to \"Animal Rights\", since the rights enumerated in the \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\" are sometimes conflicting with each other and many of these rights are only valid insofar as legislation of the government is not contradicting it. Therefore, he sees rulers which are acting as masters of the \"human\" animals (i.e. \"slaves\") in the \"Universal Declaration of Human Rights\".", "American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man\nThe American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, also known as the Bogota Declaration, was the world's first international human rights instrument of a general nature, predating the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by less than a year.", "Human rights education\nToday the most influential document used to determine what qualifies as human rights and how to implement these ideas and rights into everyday life is the Universal Declaration. The declaration was adopted by the General Assembly in 1948, making December 10 annual Human Rights Day ever since. To this day the 30 article compilation is seen as “a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations”.", "Michel Forst\nDuring this period, he was involved in many human rights projects, including the organisation of the first summit on human rights defenders in Paris in 1998. This event was held as the world celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, with more than 350 human rights defenders attending the summit. The presence of Kofi Annan, then Secretary General of the United Nations, drew significant attention on the event. Jacques Chirac and Lionel Jospin, then French President and Prime Minister respectively, intervened during the closing session, reaffirming France's commitment to the protection of human rights defenders. On 9 December 1998, in New York, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, now commonly known as the Declaration on human rights defenders. That same year, human rights defenders were to receive the United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights.", "Moral universalism\nThe United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights can be read as assuming a kind of moral universalism. The drafting committee of the Universal Declaration did assume, or at least aspired to, a \"universal\" approach to articulating international human rights. Although the Declaration has undeniably come to be accepted throughout the world as a cornerstone of the international system for the protection of human rights, a belief among some that the Universal Declaration does not adequately reflect certain important worldviews has given rise to more than one supplementary declaration, such as the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam and the Bangkok Declaration.", "Human rights in the Philippines\nThe Philippines is a signatory to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) drafted by the United Nations (UN) in the 1948. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted, alongside the Genocide Convention and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, by the United Nations in response to the tragic and horrendous violations of human rights during the Second World War. The United Nations Charter, a treaty, was created in order to define what roles, powers, and duties the United Nations is allowed to practice in dealing with international relations. Article I of the UN Charter states that the UN aims: \"\"To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion;\"\"According to the Charter, the jurisdiction of the United Nations is to provide cooperation among the nations, and not act as an international government. The UN Charter paved the way for the drafting of the UDHR. The UDHR aims to promote \"universal respect for, and the observance of, human rights.\" Thus, the UDHR is merely a declaration for each signatory to adopt to its own political system. The significance of the UDHR as stated in its Preamble is: \"\"Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge.\"\"As a signatory to the UDHR, the Philippines then declares an understanding and adherence of these fundamental and inalienable rights to its population. The Philippines has adhered to the UDHR through the Bill of Rights, and continued to create laws and policies that cater to a specific sector, like the Labor Code and the Indigenous Peoples' Rights.", "The IU\nAt the Swanwick Conference in England in 1949 - as the United Nations was settling its Universal Declaration of Human Rights - the IU published a principle and policy pamphlet that later came to be known as its Declaration of Human Rights on Equal Freedom. This Declaration was translated into many languages, and subsequently amended and reaffirmed; most recently in 2001.", "Right to health\nThe Universal Declaration of Human Rights is noted as the first international declaration of fundamental human rights, both freedoms and entitlements alike. United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Navanethem Pillay writes that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights \"enshrines a vision that requires taking all human rights—civil, political, economic, social, or cultural—as an indivisible and organic whole, inseparable and interdependent.\" Likewise, Gruskin et al. contend that the interrelated nature of the rights expressed in the Universal Declaration establishes a \"responsibility [that] extends beyond the provision of essential health services to tackling the determinants of health such as, provision of adequate education, housing, food, and favourable working conditions,\" further stating that these provisions \"are human rights themselves and are necessary for health.\"", "Universal Declaration of Human Rights\nWhat needs to be pointed out to those who uphold the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to be the highest, or sole, model, of a charter of equality and liberty for all human beings, is that given the Western origin and orientation of this Declaration, the \"universality\" of the assumptions on which it is based is–at the very least–problematic and subject to questioning. Furthermore, the alleged incompatibility between the concept of human rights and religion in general, or particular religions such as Islam, needs to be examined in an unbiased way.[55]" ]

[ "DuckTales\nDuckTales is an American animated television series, produced by Walt Disney Television Animation and distributed by Buena Vista Television. The cartoon series premiered on September 18, 1987, and ran for a total of 100 episodes over four seasons, with its final episode airing on November 28, 1990. Based upon Uncle Scrooge and other Duck universe comic books created by Carl Barks, the show follows Scrooge McDuck, his three grandnephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie, and close friends of the group, on various adventures, most of which either involve seeking out treasure or thwarting the efforts of villains seeking to steal Scrooge's fortune or his Number One Dime." ]

[ "The Disney Afternoon\nSome of the early cartoon series on The Disney Afternoon came from already in-circulation cartoons, such as \"Adventures of the Gummi Bears\", which aired on NBC from 1985 to 1988 and then moved to ABC in 1989. \"DuckTales\" premiered in 1987 as Disney was focused on incorporating animated series into its portfolio in the era of cartoons; it was Disney's only syndicated cartoon series until accompanied in 1989 by \".\" These two shows had been packaged together as an hour-long cartoon block from 1989 to 1990, until both shows were incorporated into The Disney Afternoon in September 1990.", "Jameela Jamil\nShe made her first American magazine cover on the February 2018 edition of \"The Cut\". Jamil provided her voice as a guest on the animated television series \"DuckTales\". In 2018, Jamil joined the cast of Disney's Indian-inspired cartoon set in fictional Jalpur. \"Mira, Royal Detective\", is expected to air on Disney Junior channels in 2020, with Jamil playing Mira's Auntie Pushpa. In 2018, Jamil began hosting a recurring segment on \"Last Call with Carson Daly\" titled \"Wide Awake with Jameela Jamil\".", "DuckTales\nThe success of DuckTales led to the translation of the show into many languages. Featured together with Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers in a Sunday morning program titled Walt Disney Presents, the show premiered in the former Soviet Union in 1991, the first American cartoon shown in the region after the Cold War. One year later, Darkwing Duck was also added to this lineup. However, the show's theme song (written by Mark Mueller and originally sung by Jeff Pescetto) remained in English for a number of episodes. The first Russian version of the song was replaced midway through the series with an alternate rendition that contained completely different lyrics.", "DuckTales\nThe show proved an immense success for Disney, who decided to commission other cartoons with a similar level of quality, which included Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers, Darkwing Duck, and TaleSpin. In addition, DuckTales also spawned its own feature-length movie, entitled DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp, which was released to theaters on August 3, 1990,[9] along with a franchise of merchandising, including toys, comic books and video games, a spin-off series, and eventually a revival in 2017, that rebooted the series.", "List of DuckTales episodes\nOn September 10, 1990, \"The Disney Afternoon\" started airing, with \"DuckTales\" included as part of its lineup and takes place after the events of \"\". \"Ducky Mountain High\", \"The Duck Who Knew Too Much\", and \"Scrooge's Last Adventure\" were produced for season three, but did not air until season four.", "Quack Pack\nCo-producers Kevin Crosby Hopps and Toby Shelton turned to Donald Duck shorts for inspiration for \"Quack Pack\". Shelton noted that in the shorts, Donald mostly interacted with humans, and decided to incorporate humans into the world of \"Quack Pack\". This contrasted with \"DuckTales\", a previous Disney Afternoon series, where the world is inhabited by other anthropomorphic animals. Shelton considers \"Quack Pack\" as more of an extension of the original Donald Duck shorts than of \"DuckTales\". Because of this, many characters from the \"DuckTales\" cartoons and comics, including Disney characters, such as Scrooge McDuck, Launchpad McQuack, Mickey Mouse, or Goofy do not make appearances in the series.", "Tom & Jerry Kids\nIn 1994, FOX canceled the series, but it soon began airing in reruns on Cartoon Network (which Turner launched to showcase its large animation library, including the original \"Tom and Jerry\") in 1995, and ended in 2006 when the show was removed from the Cartoon Network schedule and instead moved over to its sibling network Boomerang. Cartoon Network in the UK also did reruns in 1995 but ended in November 2002. It moved to Boomerang in September 2004. Cartoon Network Too removed the show from their lineup in 2009. In certain countries, the Tom & Jerry Kids shorts have aired separately on Boomerang until 2014. Separate shorts for \"Droopy & Dripple\" and \"Spike & Tyke\" have also aired in their own half-hour shows.", "List of DuckTales episodes\nAll 100 episodes from all 4 seasons are available on DVD in Region 1. The first twenty individual episodes of season one, numbered 6 to 25 in the list below, are also available on DVD in Region 2.\nIn the wake of the first season and \"DuckTales\" first 65 episodes, Disney announced 30 additional episodes. However, during the second season, the only new \"DuckTales\" episodes to air were two television movie specials: \"Time Is Money\" in syndication (some stations airing it on November 24, others on December 9,) and \"Super DuckTales\" on NBC's \"The Magical World of Disney\". Like \"Treasure of the Golden Suns\" before them, \"Time Is Money\" and \"Super DuckTales\" premiered in the two-hour television movie format, but would repeat in the series' regular rotation as five-part serials. Specifically, \"Time Is Money\" was first serialized from February 20–24, 1989, and \"Super DuckTales\" was first serialized from October 9–13, 1989.", "DuckTales\nThe cartoon premiered worldwide between 18–20 September 1987 (the time and date varying between markets), with a television movie special entitled \"The Treasure of the Golden Suns\", which was later split up into a five-part serial in future reruns.[2] The first season, aired between 1987–88, consisted of 65 episodes, the \"magic number\" requirement needed for a show to have a weekday syndication (five days a week for thirteen weeks). Disney then commissioned three more seasons – the second season (aired between 1988–89) consisted of two television specials entitled \"Time Is Money\" and \"Super DuckTales\", with future reruns splitting them into two five-part serials; the third season (aired between 1989–90) consisted of 18 episodes, with it forming an hour-long syndicated block alongside Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers; and the fourth season (aired during late 1990) consisted of seven episodes (including three unaired episode meant for the previous season), which was used to form a two-hour long syndicated block called The Disney Afternoon, consisting of DuckTales and three other half-hour cartoons.", "Uncle Scrooge\nIts early issues by famed writer/artist (and creator of Scrooge McDuck) Carl Barks formed the inspiration for the syndicated television cartoon \"DuckTales\" in the late 1980s. Several stories written by Barks and published in \"Uncle Scrooge\" were adapted as episodes of \"DuckTales\".", "Super Friends (1980 TV series)\nIn total, 8 episodes (24 cartoons) of the \"lost episodes\" were made, but not aired in the US that season. The series did appear in Australia uninterrupted. One of these episodes were aired when \"Super Friends\" returned to Saturday morning ABC television the following year. The remainder of the episodes finally aired in syndication in 1995 as part of the \"Superman/Batman Adventures\" show on the USA Network. The series also aired on Cartoon Network.", "DuckTales\nWalt Disney Television Animation began production on DuckTales in 1986, with the intention of having it ready for a premiere in 1987, and its episodes airing within a 4-6 p.m. placement, at a time when more children would be watching television, rather than within a morning timeslot.[3] Seeking to create a cartoon with high quality animation, in comparison with other 1980s cartoons which had much lower budgets, the animation was handled by Tokyo Movie Shinsha, having previously been used on two other Disney cartoons in 1985 – The Wuzzles and Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears – both of which had demonstrated better quality cartoons on TV than in previous years.[4] Although the Japanese provided them with more available artists for the cartoon, this also increased production costs, due to the currency exchange rates between the yen and the dollar, though Disney intended to invest heavily in its DuckTales's production, with plans to recuperate its money by having it syndicated via its syndication unit, Buena Vista Television, with a 2.5/3.5 syndicator/station ad split.[3] While this was a concept that worked well with live-action TV reruns, it had only ever been used with inexpensive cartoon series in the past that either recycled theatrical shorts from decades past or only featured limited, low-budget animation, and thus had never been attempted with a high quality animated series, with the heavy investment considered a risky move.[4]", "The Disney Afternoon\nThe Disney Afternoon originally ran from September 10, 1990 to August 29, 1997. For the 1997 and 1998 television seasons, it was replaced by an unnamed block, shortened to 90 minutes, followed by its replacement by Disney's One Too for UPN in 1999. The block did not air in every market across the United States, but for those markets that did not air the block in full, individual shows featured on The Disney Afternoon could be packaged by themselves, allowing the shows to be aired any time of the day (morning or afternoon), while The Disney Afternoon only aired on weekday afternoons. Some of the shows also aired on Saturday mornings on ABC or CBS concurrently with their original syndicated runs on The Disney Afternoon. The only show to reach the 2000's was \"Goof Troop\" with the 2000 direct-to-video finale \"An Extremely Goofy Movie\", and the only show to reach the 2010's was \"DuckTales\" with a reboot also called \"DuckTales\" on Disney XD at the time.", "Magica De Spell\nMagica appears in the \"DuckTales\" video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System as the boss of the Transylvania stage, where she attacks Scrooge with lightning bolts and by transforming into a giant bird. In the remake \"DuckTales Remastered\", Magica uses an expanded set of attacks (such as launching energy beams at Scrooge and summoning mirrors to hide in) and also plays a larger role in the game's overall storyline. Just like in the cartoon, she is voiced by June Foray.", "DuckTales\nThe cartoon continued running within The Disney Afternoon until 1992,[5] and was then rerun on Disney Channel in October 1995, as part of a new two-hour programming block called \"Block Party\" that aired on weekday late afternoons,[6] with it remaining in syndication until 1999. Reruns were later shown on Toon Disney[7][8] between 1999 and late 2004.", "Donald Duck universe\nMost of the characters have appeared in the 1980s Disney cartoon series \"DuckTales\". Disney's \"Darkwing Duck\" series is nominally set in the separate \"DuckTales\" universe, in a metropolis called St. Canard, although aside from sharing the denizen Launchpad McQuack, and a few crossover episodes involving Gizmoduck, there is no interaction. Much of the \"DuckTales\" and all of the \"Darkwing Duck\" material does not appear in Barks' comics, as the two TV series was created decades after Barks's active years as a comic artist. Later, a few characters would be the main characters in the show \"Quack Pack\".", "Carl Barks\nThe animated cartoon series DuckTales was largely inspired by Barks' duck stories, with several scripts based on his original comics. Barks himself enjoyed the first season, but was disappointed in later seasons as he didn't care for what he felt were 'new made up characters'. Some of the stories became a sore spot with him too as they deviated from established storylines he had developed long ago. Mike Peraza, a key Disney artist for the original series, has stated at conventions that Barks did like the show at least in the beginning, when they discussed it over dinner at Jack Hannah's home. ", "DuckTales\nDuckTales has received a franchise of merchandise, including video games and comic books, along with an animated theatrical spin-off film entitled DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp, which was released to theaters across the United States on August 3, 1990. The series is notable for being the first Disney cartoon to be produced for weekday syndication,[1][2] with its success paving the way for future Disney cartoons, such as Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers and TaleSpin. The show's popular theme song was written by Mark Mueller. In addition, Launchpad McQuack later returned to appear in another Disney animated series, becoming a main character in Darkwing Duck.", "Toonami Jetstream\n\"Pokémon\" has aired five seasons. The first one was \"The Johto Journeys\" episodes previously aired on Kids' WB! (first run), Cartoon Network (reruns), and Toonami Jetstream (Reruns) are also available on DVD, but it actually started at the Orange League episode \"The Pokémon Water War\". They also aired \"Johto League Champions\" episodes that aired on Kids' WB! and are on DVD, but only a select few aired on Cartoon Network during the Pokémon master marathon. They have aired \"Master Quest\" episodes that aired on Kids' WB! (first run), on Cartoon Network's now-defunct Miguzi block (reruns), and are on DVD, as well as \"Battle Frontier\" episodes that aired on Cartoon Network's regular schedule (first run) with the first 14 having been rerun on Toonami. \"Original Series\" episodes aired previously on Kids' WB! (first run, though some aired in syndication first), Cartoon Network (reruns), and currently on Jetstream (also reruns). All DVDs currently released for those seasons are by The Pokémon Company International and distributed by Viz Media.", "Weekday cartoon\nIn 1987, The Walt Disney Company tried its luck at syndication, through its animation production unit Walt Disney Television Animation; \"DuckTales\" debuted that September, experiencing major success and eventually lasting for 100 episodes. The success of \"DuckTales\" paved the way for a second series two years later, \"Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers\". In 1989, the two shows aired together as part of a syndicated daily block called \"The Disney Afternoon\". In 1991, Disney added another hour to the block; \"The Disney Afternoon\" ran until August 29, 1997, when it was replaced by an unnamed block on September 1, 1997, until 1999, which was then replaced by \"Disney's One Too\" (a spinoff of ABC Saturday morning block \"Disney's One Saturday Morning\") - and \"Disney's One Too\" had only lasted for four years on UPN and syndication, until it had died in 2003. Since then, there are only a handful of local networks in the United States for ABC that broadcast children's programming. Otherwise, it has been replaced by reality shows, court shows, tabloid television, talk shows, and among other programming which are meant for adults.", "Disney Television Animation\nThe success of DuckTales also paved the way for a new wave of high-quality animated TV series, including Disney's own \"The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh\" in 1988. Later, early that spring, \"Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers\" debuted on March 4, 1989, and was paired with \"DuckTales\" in an hour-long syndicated show through the 1989-1990 television season. In the 1990-1991 season, Disney expanded the idea even further, to create \"The Disney Afternoon\", a two-hour long syndicated block of half-hour cartoons, which premiered much later on September 10, 1990. \"DuckTales\" was one of the early flagship cartoons in the block.", "Ron Jones (composer)\nIn 1987, Jones was recruited by Chris , the head of Disney Music, to compose the music for Disney's first syndicated cartoon series, DuckTales. was impressed with Jones' work during a session on a Hanna-Barbera cartoon and admired the composer's philosophy to respect the intelligence of the audience rather than creating a \"patronizing\" or \"cute\" score that would play down to them. Jones accepted Montag's request to score DuckTales, which became one of the most successful animated programs of all time. Jones worked on DuckTales through 1988, during which time he composed, conducted, arranged, and orchestrated various memorable cues and themes which were reused throughout the show's two-season run.", "Sharman DiVono\nDiVono's short stories based on the Silver Surfer character have been published in Silver Surfer anthologies. Her television writing has been of different genres altogether: comedy cartoons such as \"DuckTales\" and \"Garfield and Friends\" and the adventure cartoon series \"\".", "Crossover (fiction)\nAnother cartoon crossover would occur in 1990, \"Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue\". This cartoon featured popular characters from children's Saturday morning cartoons, banding together to promote an anti-drug message. ABC, CBS, Fox, and NBC aired this half-hour special one Saturday morning with characters from all their networks, including Huey, Dewey, and Louie (from Disney's \"DuckTales\"), Winnie the Pooh, Tigger, Slimer (from \"The Real Ghostbusters\" and \"Extreme Ghostbusters\"), Michelangelo (from \"Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles\"), Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Alvin and the Chipmunks, The Smurfs, ALF (from ), Garfield, and the trio of Baby Kermit, Baby Piggy, and Baby Gonzo (from Jim Henson's \"Muppet Babies\"). Animation companies granted unlimited, royalty-free use of their cartoon characters for this project, a feat that has been unequalled before or since then. This cartoon was also introduced by then-President George H. W. Bush and Barbara Bush, and would be distributed to schools and video stores free of charge nationwide.", "Televen\nTeleven also aired Club Disney, a block of Disney cartoons including \"Darkwing Duck\" (\"El Pato Darkwing\"), \"Ducktales\" (\"Pato Aventuras\"), \"Goof Troop\" (\"La Tropa Goofy\"), \"\" (\"101 Dalmatas\"), \"Doug\" (\"Doug de Disney\"), \"Bonkers\", and \"Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers\".", "List of DuckTales merchandise\nThe American animated television series DuckTales (1987-1990) has given rise to a variety of marketed goods, beginning with the broadcasts in the 1980s. These include video cassettes and DVDs of the original episodes, video games and toys with a DuckTales theme, and books, including comic books. Some are still being brought out in the 2010s, with a reboot animated series airing in 2017 and receiving its own merchandise.", "List of DuckTales episodes\nIn September 1989, \"Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers\" joined \"DuckTales\" in syndication as a companion series. That fall, 17 of the 20 still-expected episodes first aired. Also, \"A DuckTales Valentine (Amour or Less)\" premiered in February 1990 on NBC's \"The Magical World of Disney\".", "DuckTales\nHuey, Dewey, and Louie all appeared in the drug prevention video Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue. Scrooge and Launchpad appeared in Disney's short-lived animated series Raw Toonage (originally aired on CBS in 1992 and 1993).", "DuckTales\non IMDb at the Big Cartoon DataBase at TV.com" ]

[ "World Wide Web\nThe World Wide Web, also known as the WWW and the Web, is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), interlinked by hypertext links, and accessible via the Internet.[1] English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989. He wrote the first web browser in 1990 while employed at CERN near Geneva, Switzerland.[2][3] The browser was released outside CERN in 1991, first to other research institutions starting in January 1991 and to the general public on the Internet in August 1991." ]

[ "Lemon (color)\nThe color \"lemon chiffon\" was formulated in 1987 as one of the X11 color names. After the invention of the world wide web in 1991, these colors became known as the X11 web colors.", "Vermilion\nDisplayed at right is the web color orange-red. It was formulated in 1987 as one of the X11 colors, which became known as the X11 web colors after the invention of the World Wide Web in 1991.", "Steel blue\nIn 1987, Steel blue was included as one of the X11 colors when that color list was formulated. After the invention of the world wide web in 1991, these colors became known as the X11 web colors. \nAt right is displayed the web color light steel blue, a light tint of steel blue. \nSports", "Digital Revolution\nTim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989.", "Web Accessibility Initiative\nThe World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)'s Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) is an effort to improve the accessibility of the World Wide Web (WWW or Web) for people with disabilities. People with disabilities may encounter difficulties when using computers generally, but also on the Web. Since people with disabilities often require non-standard devices and browsers, making websites more accessible also benefits a wide range of user agents and devices, including mobile devices, which have limited resources.", "Tab (GUI)\nHyperTIES was a \"hypermedia\" browser, a term first used by Ted Nelson in 1965. The first \"web\" browser came out later in 1990, and the term \"World Wide Web\" was not invented until 1990.", "Tim Berners-Lee\nIn 2013, he was awarded the inaugural Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering. On 4 April 2017, he received the 2016 ACM Turing Award \"for inventing the World Wide Web, the first web browser, and the fundamental protocols and algorithms allowing the Web to scale\".", "Tim Berners-Lee\nIt provided an explanation of what the World Wide Web was, and how people could use a browser and set up a web server, as well as how to get started with your own website. In a list of 80 cultural moments that shaped the world, chosen by a panel of 25 eminent scientists, academics, writers, and world leaders, the invention of the World Wide Web was ranked number one, with the entry stating, \"The fastest growing communications medium of all time, the internet has changed the shape of modern life forever. We can connect with each other instantly, all over the world\".", "Web 2.0\nWeb 2.0, otherwise known as Participative (or Participatory) and Social Web, refers to World Wide Web websites that emphasize user-generated content, usability (ease of use, even by non-experts), participatory culture and interoperability (this means that a website can work well with other products, systems, and devices) for end users. The term was invented by Darcy DiNucci in 1999 and popularized several years later by Tim O'Reilly and Dale Dougherty at the O'Reilly Media Web 2.0 Conference in late 2004. Web 2.0 does not refer to an update to any technical specifications, but to changes in the way Web pages are designed and used. The transition was progressive, therefore no precise date for when this change occurred was specified.", "Cessy\nTim Berners-Lee lived on Rue de la Mairie in Cessy when he, with Robert Cailliau, invented the World Wide Web.", "2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony\nAt the close the larger house was raised to reveal Tim Berners-Lee working at a NeXT Computer, like the one on which he invented the World Wide Web. He tweeted 'This is for everyone', instantly spelled out in LED lights around the stadium. The programme explained \"Music connects us with each other and with the most important moments in our lives. One of the things that makes those connections possible is the World Wide Web\". Boyle wanted to honour Berners-Lee for having made the World Wide Web free and available to everyone (hence the tweet), rather than seeking a commercial profit from it.", "The Virtual Revolution\nThe series was announced on 10 July 2009, under the working title of \"Digital Revolution\", to examine the impact the World Wide Web has had on society over its first 20 years. Technology journalist and academic Aleks Krotoski would present. The series was launched with an event at the BBC to mark the twentieth anniversary of the World Wide Web, which saw Tim Berners-Lee (credited with inventing the World Wide Web), Susan Greenfield, Bill Thompson and Chris Anderson discuss the World Wide Web.", "First International Conference on the World-Wide Web\nThe First International Conference on the World-Wide Web (also known as WWW1) was the first-ever conference about the World Wide Web, and the first meeting of what became the International World Wide Web Conference. It was held on May 25 to 27, 1994 in Geneva, Switzerland. The conference had 380 participants, who were accepted out of 800 applicants. It has been referred to as the \"Woodstock of the Web\".", "Marshall McLuhan\nThough the World Wide Web was invented almost thirty years after \"The Gutenberg Galaxy\", and ten years after his death, McLuhan prophesied the web technology seen today as early as 1962:", "Pronunciation of "www"\nWWW (or www) is an initialism for World Wide Web. In English, WWW is the longest possible three-letter abbreviation when spoken, requiring six to nine syllables, depending on how they pronounced it, whereas the twelve letters in \"World Wide Web\" are pronounced with three syllables. The English writer Douglas Adams once quipped:\nTim Berners-Lee rejected suggestions to change the World Wide Web name over pronunciation issues, arguing that this peculiar feature of the name would make it memorable. As his invention gradually gained ubiquity, it came to be called simply \"the Web\".", "Tim Berners-Lee\nIn 2004, Berners-Lee was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for his pioneering work. In April 2009, he was elected a foreign associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences. Named in \"Time\" magazine's list of the , Berners-Lee has received a number of other accolades for his invention. He was honoured as the \"Inventor of the World Wide Web\" during the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony, in which he appeared in person, working with a vintage NeXT Computer at the London Olympic Stadium. He tweeted \"This is for everyone\", which instantly was spelled out in LCD lights attached to the chairs of the 80,000 people in the audience. Berners-Lee received the 2016 Turing Award \"for inventing the World Wide Web, the first web browser, and the fundamental protocols and algorithms allowing the Web to scale\".", "Shades of black\nThe color name \"dim gray\" first came into use in 1987, when this color\nwas formulated as one of the colors on the X11 color list, introduced that year. After the invention of the World Wide Web in 1991, these colors became known as the \"X11 web colors\".", "History of the Internet\nEven before the World Wide Web, there were search engines that attempted to organize the Internet. The first of these was the Archie search engine from McGill University in 1990, followed in 1991 by WAIS and Gopher. All three of those systems predated the invention of the World Wide Web but all continued to index the Web and the rest of the Internet for several years after the Web appeared. There are still Gopher servers as of 2006, although there are a great many more web servers.", "Orchid (color)\nIn 1987, orchid was included as one of the X11 colors. After the invention of the world wide web in 1991, these became known as the X11 web colors.", "Iktomi\nLakota mythology is a living belief system, there is a prophecy that stated Iktomi would spread his web over the land. Today, this has been interpreted by some contemporary Native Americans to mean the telephone network, and then the internet and World Wide Web. Iktomi has been considered by the Lakota from time immemorial to be the patron of new technology, from his invention of language he gave to the people to today's modern inventions, such as the computer or robots.", "Solid (web decentralization project)\nTwo decades after Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989, he outlined the design issues of what later became the Solid project in drafts he wrote for the World Wide Web Consortium. Berners-Lee became increasingly dismayed at seeing his invention being abused, such as when Russian hackers allegedly interfered with the 2016 US elections, when the Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal became public, when Facebook in 2012 conducted psychological experiments on nearly 700,000 users in secret, and when Google and Amazon applied for patents on devices that listen for emotional changes in human voices.", "World Wide Web\nIn English, www is usually read as double-u double-u double-u.[42] Some users pronounce it dub-dub-dub, particularly in New Zealand. Stephen Fry, in his \"Podgrams\" series of podcasts, pronounces it wuh wuh wuh.[43] The English writer Douglas Adams once quipped in The Independent on Sunday (1999): \"The World Wide Web is the only thing I know of whose shortened form takes three times longer to say than what it's short for\".[44] In Mandarin Chinese, World Wide Web is commonly translated via a phono-semantic matching to wàn wéi wǎng (万维网), which satisfies www and literally means \"myriad dimensional net\",[45] a translation that reflects the design concept and proliferation of the World Wide Web. Tim Berners-Lee's web-space states that World Wide Web is officially spelled as three separate words, each capitalised, with no intervening hyphens.[46] Use of the www prefix has been declining, especially when Web 2.0 web applications sought to brand their domain names and make them easily pronounceable.[47] As the mobile Web grew in popularity, services like Gmail.com, Outlook.com, Myspace.com, Facebook.com and Twitter.com are most often mentioned without adding \"www.\" (or, indeed, \".com\") to the domain.", "Internet\nThe terms \"Internet\" and \"World Wide Web\" are often used interchangeably in everyday speech; it is common to speak of \"\"going on the Internet\"\" when using a web browser to view web pages. However, the World Wide Web or \"the Web\" is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents (web pages) and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. As another point of comparison, Hypertext Transfer Protocol, or HTTP, is the language used on the Web for information transfer, yet it is just one of many languages or protocols that can be used for communication on the Internet. The term \"Interweb\" is a portmanteau of \"Internet\" and \"World Wide Web\" typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user.", "Public key infrastructure\nAssorted cryptographic protocols were invented and analyzed within which the new cryptographic primitives could be effectively used. With the invention of the World Wide Web and its rapid spread, the need for authentication and secure communication became still more acute. Commercial reasons alone (e.g., e-commerce, online access to proprietary databases from web browsers) were sufficient. Taher Elgamal and others at Netscape developed the SSL protocol ('https' in Web URLs); it included key establishment, server authentication (prior to v3, one-way only), and so on. A PKI structure was thus created for Web users/sites wishing secure communications.", "World Wide Web topology\nWorld Wide Web topology is the network topology of the World Wide Web, as seen as a network of web pages connected by hyperlinks.", "EPIC 2014\nIn 1989, Tim Berners-Lee invents the World Wide Web.", "Web navigation\nWeb navigation came about with the introduction of the World Wide Web, in 1989 when Timothy Berners-Lee invented it. Once the world wide web was available, web navigation increasingly became a major aspect and role in jobs and everyday lives. With one-third of the world’s population now using the internet, web navigation maintains a global use in today's ever evolving international society. Web navigation is not restricted to just computers, either, as mobile phones and tablets have added avenues for access to the ever-growing information on the web today. The most recent wave of technology which has affected web navigation is the introduction and growth of the smartphone. As of January 2014, 58% of American adults owned a smart phone, and that number is on the rise from previous years. Web navigation has evolved from a restricted action, to something that many people across the world now do on a daily basis.", "Marshall McLuhan\nMcLuhan is known for coining the expression \"the medium is the message\" and the term global village, and for predicting the World Wide Web almost 30 years before it was invented. He was a fixture in media discourse in the late 1960s, though his influence began to wane in the early 1970s. In the years after his death, he continued to be a controversial figure in academic circles. With the arrival of the Internet and the World Wide Web interest was renewed in his work and perspective.", "Ted Nelson\nAs early as 1972, a demonstration iteration developed by Cal Daniels failed to reach fruition when Nelson was forced to return the project's rented Data General Nova minicomputer due to financial exigencies. Nelson has stated that some aspects of his vision are being fulfilled by Tim Berners-Lee's invention of the World Wide Web, but he dislikes the World Wide Web, XML and all embedded markup – regarding Berners-Lee's work as a gross over-simplification of his original vision: HTML is precisely what we were trying to PREVENT— ever-breaking links, links going outward only, quotes you can't follow to their origins, no version management, no rights management." ]

[ "Jellyfish\nMost jellyfish do not have specialized systems for osmoregulation, respiration and circulation, and do not have a central nervous system. Nematocysts, which deliver the sting, are located mostly on the tentacles; true jellyfish also have them around the mouth and stomach.[30] Jellyfish do not need a respiratory system because sufficient oxygen diffuses through the epidermis. They have limited control over their movement, but can navigate with the pulsations of the bell-like body; some species are active swimmers most of the time, while others largely drift.[31] The rhopalia contain rudimentary sense organs which are able to detect light, water-borne vibrations, odour and orientation.[22] A loose network of nerves called a \"nerve net\" is located in the epidermis.[32][33] Although traditionally thought not to have a central nervous system, nerve net concentration and ganglion-like structures could be considered to constitute one in most species.[34] A jellyfish detects stimuli, and transmits impulses both throughout the nerve net and around a circular nerve ring, to other nerve cells. The rhopalial ganglia contain pacemaker neurones which control swimming rate and direction.[22]" ]

[ "Fish as food\nThe neologism pescetarians covers those who eat fish and other seafood, but not mammals and birds. Pescatarians may consume fish based solely upon the idea that the fish are not factory farmed as land animals are (i.e., their problem is with the capitalist-industrial production of meat, not with the consumption of animal foods themselves). Some eat fish with the justification that fish have less sophisticated nervous systems than land-dwelling animals. Others may choose to consume only wild fish based upon the lack of confinement, while choosing to not consume fish that have been farmed.", "Fish anatomy\nVertebrates are the only chordate group to exhibit a proper brain. A slight swelling of the anterior end of the dorsal nerve cord is found in the lancelet, though it lacks the eyes and other complex sense organs comparable to those of vertebrates. Other chordates do not show any trends towards cephalisation. The central nervous system is based on a hollow nerve tube running along the length of the animal, from which the peripheral nervous system branches out to innervate the various systems. The front end of the nerve tube is expanded by a thickening of the walls and expansion of the central canal of spinal cord into three primary brain vesicles: The prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain), further differentiated in the various vertebrate groups. Two laterally placed eyes form around outgrows from the midbrain, except in hagfish, though this may be a secondary loss. The forebrain is well developed and subdivided in most tetrapods, while the midbrain dominate in many fish and some salamanders. Vesicles of the forebrain are usually paired, giving rise to hemispheres like the cerebral hemispheres in mammals. The resulting anatomy of the central nervous system, with a single, hollow ventral nerve cord topped by a series of (often paired) vesicles is unique to vertebrates.", "Pavlov's typology\nPavlov's background as a physiologist greatly influenced his psychological research. His ideas for the how the nervous system works came from his research on the brain, specifically the cortex, and conditioned and unconditioned reflexes, and spurred additional research into the nervous activity that underlies such reflexes. Pavlov introduced the ideas of strength of excitation and inhibition, as well as mobility, irradiation, and generalization in the central nervous system. \nStrength of excitation was considered to be the most important of the nervous system properties by Pavlov because we are often confronted by stimuli in the environment that grab our attention immediately. Excitation of the cells is simply their ability to do work, and this can either be very short-lived or extended and have varying intensities. This excitation can lead to the gain of conditioned responses, or the generalization of a conditioned response. Inhibition, on the other hand, is when a response that is already encoded is overcome or contained. Mobility is the ability of the nervous system to give one impulse priority over another. This can be done by having excitation before inhibition, or vice versa.\nPavlov looked at the balance between excitation and inhibition and determined that there were different types of nervous systems. These observations were made about dogs, but Pavlov believed that they could be generalized to humans as well. The different types of nervous systems were categorized by Pavlov into strong and weak nervous systems with different sub-types under the strong type. These different types of systems were categorized based on the strength of excitation or inhibition in the system of the observed individual. Those individuals with weak nervous systems were thought by Pavlov \"to have limited adaptive abilities,\" while strong nervous systems were more adaptable.\nAlthough Pavlov's typology originated as a purely conceptual idea, modern technology has helped research in the area to provide evidence for the processes of higher nervous activity that Pavlov hypothesized.", "Marine invertebrates\nSponges are animals of the phylum Porifera (Modern Latin for \"bearing pores\" ). They are multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through them, consisting of jelly-like mesohyl sandwiched between two thin layers of cells. They have unspecialized cells that can transform into other types and that often migrate between the main cell layers and the mesohyl in the process. Sponges do not have nervous, digestive or circulatory systems. Instead, most rely on maintaining a constant water flow through their bodies to obtain food and oxygen and to remove wastes.", "Neuroanatomy\nNeuroanatomy is the study of the structure and organization of the nervous system. In contrast to animals with radial symmetry, whose nervous system consists of a distributed network of cells, animals with bilateral symmetry have segregated, defined nervous systems. Their neuroanatomy is therefore better understood. In vertebrates, the nervous system is segregated into the internal structure of the brain and spinal cord (together called the central nervous system, or CNS) and the routes of the nerves that connect to the rest of the body (known as the peripheral nervous system, or PNS). The delineation of distinct structures and regions of the nervous system has been critical in investigating how it works. For example, much of what neuroscientists have learned comes from observing how damage or \"lesions\" to specific brain areas affects behavior or other neural functions.", "Neuro biomechanics\nNeuro: of or having to do with the nervous system. Nervous System: An organ system that coordinates the activities of muscles, monitors organs, constructs and processes data received from the senses and initiates actions. The human nervous system coordinates the functions of itself and all organ systems including but not limited to the cardiovascular system, respiratory system, skin, digestive system, immune system, hormonal, metabolic, musculoskeletal, endocrine system, blood and reproductive system. Optimal function of the organism as a whole depends upon the proper function of the nervous system.", "HIV Rev response element\nRecent crystal structures of Rev, the Rev-ARM/Stem IIB structure and the information on Rev-RRE stoichiometry have led to the proposal of a jelly-fish model for a functionally active complex. In this model, The RRE provides a structural scaffold to assemble a Rev hexamer, and this assembly forms the head of the jelly-fish. The NESs from the 6 Rev monomers form the jelly-fish \"tentacles\" that could interact with the host Crm1-RanGTP proteins. This entire \"jellyfish\" would then be exported to the cytoplasm (see Figure).", "Sensory systems in fish\nHair cells in fish are used to detect water movements around their bodies. These hair cells are embedded in a jelly-like protrusion called cupula. The hair cells therefore can not be seen and do not appear on the surface of skin.", "Self-harm\nEmotional pain activates the same regions of the brain as physical pain, so emotional stress can be a significantly intolerable state for some people. Some of this is environmental and some of this is due to physiological differences in responding. The autonomic nervous system is composed of two components: the sympathetic nervous system controls arousal and physical activation (e.g., the fight-or-flight response) and the parasympathetic nervous system controls physical processes that are automatic (e.g., saliva production). The sympathetic nervous system innervates (e.g., is physically connected to and regulates) many parts of the body involved in stress responses. Studies of adolescents have shown that adolescents who self-injure have greater physiological reactivity (e.g., skin conductance) to stress than adolescents who do not self-injure. This stress response persists over time, staying constant or even increasing in self-injuring adolescents, but gradually decreases in adolescents who do not self-injure.", "Deep sea fish\nThese fish have muscular bodies, ossified bones, scales, well developed gills and central nervous systems, and large hearts and kidneys. Mesopelagic plankton feeders have small mouths with fine gill rakers, while the piscivores have larger mouths and coarser gill rakers. The vertically migratory fish have swimbladders.", "Myxobolus cerebralis\n\"M. cerebralis\" infections have been reported from a wide range of salmonid species: eight species of \"Atlantic\" salmonids, \"Salmo\"; four species of \"Pacific\" salmonids, \"Oncorhynchus\"; four species of char, \"Salvelinus\"; the grayling, \"Thymallus thymallus\"; and the huchen, \"Hucho hucho\". \"M. cerebralis\" causes damage to its fish hosts through attachment of triactinomyxon spores and the migrations of various stages through tissues and along nerves, as well as by digesting cartilage. The fish's tail may darken, but aside from lesions on cartilage, internal organs generally appear healthy. Other symptoms include skeletal deformities and \"whirling\" behavior (tail-chasing) in young fish, which was thought to have been caused by a loss of equilibrium, but is actually caused by damage to the spinal cord and lower brain stem. Experiments have shown that fish can kill \"Myxobolus\" in their skin (possibly using antibodies), but that the fish do not attack the parasites once they have migrated to the central nervous system. This response varies from species to species.", "Megaphragma mymaripenne\nUniquely, by the time \"M. mymaripenne\" reaches adulthood, 95% of its nervous cells have lost their nuclei. Only 339–372 nuclei are found throughout the central nervous system, of which 179–253 are found in the brain. The nervous system of the pupae of \"M. mymaripenne\" makes up 19% of its body mass, 11% of which is the brain. Unlike in adults, cells in the pupae have nuclei. Only in the final stage of development do these undergo lysis, which greatly reduces the volume of the nervous system. While the brains of pupae are 93,600 μm, those of the adults are only 52,200 μm. Accompanying this shrinkage of brain volume is a shrinking of the occipital area of the head, with the cuticle folding into helical spirals.", "Central nervous system\nThis differentiates the central nervous system from the peripheral nervous system, which consists of neurons, axons and Schwann cells. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have similar functions in the central and peripheral nervous system respectively. Both act to add myelin sheaths to the axons, which acts as a form of insulation allowing for better and faster proliferation of electrical signals along the nerves. Axons in the central nervous system are often very short (barely a few millimeters) and do not need the same degree of isolation as peripheral nerves do. Some peripheral nerves can be over 1m in length, such as the nerves to the big toe. To ensure signals move at sufficient speed, myelination is needed.", "Global warming\nOverall, it is expected that climate change will result in the extinction of many species and reduced diversity of ecosystems. Rising temperatures have been found to push bees to their physiological limits, and could cause the extinction of bee populations. A 2012 study concluded that continued ocean uptake of CO affects the brains and central nervous system of certain fish species and this impacts their ability to hear, smell, and evade predators. The study authors note, \"We've now established it isn't simply the acidification of the oceans that is causing disruption – as is the case with shellfish and plankton with chalky skeletons – but the actual dissolved CO itself is damaging the fishes' nervous systems.\"", "Coelenterata\nCoelenterata is an obsolete term encompassing the animal phyla Cnidaria (coral animals, true jellies, sea anemones, sea pens, and their allies) and Ctenophora (comb jellies). The name comes from the Greek \"\"koilos\"\" (\"hollow\") and \"\"enteron\"\" (\"intestine\"), referring to the hollow body cavity common to these two phyla. They have very simple tissue organization, with only two layers of cells (external and internal), and radial symmetry. Some examples are corals, which are typically colonial, and hydra, jelly fish and sea anemones which are solitary. Coelenterata lack a specialized circulatory system relying instead on diffusion across the tissue layers.", "Reproduction and vocalization in midshipman fish\nMidshipman fish have two forms of males: the nest-building Type I and \"sneaker male\" or \"satellite male\" Type II. Type I males attract females to their nests with their humming, coax them to lay eggs, and guard them. In contrast, Type II males do not build nests or attract females on their own. Instead, they sneak up to the Type I's nests and deposit their eggs. These behavioral differences can be seen in the differences in the structure and function of the nervous system.", "Marine life\nSponges are animals of the phylum Porifera (Modern Latin for \"bearing pores\"). They are multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through them, consisting of jelly-like mesohyl sandwiched between two thin layers of cells. They have unspecialized cells that can transform into other types and that often migrate between the main cell layers and the mesohyl in the process. Sponges do not have nervous, digestive or circulatory systems. Instead, most rely on maintaining a constant water flow through their bodies to obtain food and oxygen and to remove wastes.", "Evolution of nervous systems\nJellyfish, comb jellies, and related animals have diffuse nerve nets rather than a central nervous system. In most jellyfish the nerve net is spread more or less evenly across the body; in comb jellies it is concentrated near the mouth. The nerve nets consist of sensory neurons that pick up chemical, tactile, and visual signals, motor neurons that can activate contractions of the body wall, and intermediate neurons that detect patterns of activity in the sensory neurons and send signals to groups of motor neurons as a result. In some cases groups of intermediate neurons are clustered into discrete ganglia.", "Autonomic nervous system\nThe autonomic nervous system has three branches: the sympathetic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system and the enteric nervous system. Some textbooks do not include the enteric nervous system as part of this system. The sympathetic nervous system is often considered the \"fight or flight\" system, while the parasympathetic nervous system is often considered the \"rest and digest\" or \"feed and breed\" system. In many cases, both of these systems have \"opposite\" actions where one system activates a physiological response and the other inhibits it. An older simplification of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems as \"excitatory\" and \"inhibitory\" was overturned due to the many exceptions found. A more modern characterization is that the sympathetic nervous system is a \"quick response mobilizing system\" and the parasympathetic is a \"more slowly activated dampening system\", but even this has exceptions, such as in sexual arousal and orgasm, wherein both play a role.", "Atolla jellyfish\nThe body of \"Atolla wyvillei\" is a bell shape and it has several moderately long tentacles along the bell. The bell is around 20–174 mm in diameter. It also has a single long tentacle called a hypertrophied tentacle. This hypertrophied tentacle has several purposes, including aid in predation and aid in reproduction. These jellyfish do not have a digestive system, a respiratory system, a circulatory system or a central nervous system. Not having a central nervous system means that it lacks a brain.", "Sponge\nLike cnidarians (jellyfish, etc.) and ctenophores (comb jellies), and unlike all other known metazoans, sponges' bodies consist of a non-living jelly-like mass (mesoglea) sandwiched between two main layers of cells. Cnidarians and ctenophores have simple nervous systems, and their cell layers are bound by internal connections and by being mounted on a basement membrane (thin fibrous mat, also known as \"basal lamina\"). Sponges have no nervous systems, their middle jelly-like layers have large and varied populations of cells, and some types of cells in their outer layers may move into the middle layer and change their functions.", "Chondrichthyes\nChondrichthyes nervous system is composed of a small brain, 8-10 pairs of cranial nerves, and a spinal chord with spinal nerves. They have several sensory organs which provide information to be processed. Ampullae of Lorenzini are a network of small jelly filled pores called electroreceptors which help the fish sense electric fields in water. This aids in finding prey, navigation, and sensing temperature. The Lateral line system has modified epithelial cells located externally which sense motion, vibration, and pressure in the water around them. Most subspecies have large well-developed eyes. Also, they have very powerful nostrils and olfactory organs. Their inner ears consist of 3 large semicircular canals which aid in balance and orientation. Their sound detecting apparatus has limited range and is typically more powerful at lower frequencies. Some subspecies have electric organs which can be used for defense and predation. They have relatively simple brains with the forebrain not greatly enlarged. The structure and formation of myelin in their nervous systems are nearly identical to that of tetrapods, which has led evolutionary biologists to believe that Chondrichthyes were a cornerstone group in the evolutionary timeline of myelin development.", "Depressant\nContrary to popular misconception, opioids are not depressants in the classical sense. They do produce central nervous system depression, however, they also excite certain areas of the central nervous system. To remain true to the term 'depressant' – opioids cannot be classified as such. For opioid agonists and opium derivatives, these are classified differently. Analgesic or narcotic correctly identifies these drugs. However, they do have depressant actions nonetheless.\nCombining multiple depressants can be very dangerous because the central nervous system's depressive properties have been proposed to increase exponentially instead of linearly. This characteristic makes depressants a common choice for deliberate overdoses in the case of suicide. The use of alcohol or benzodiazepines along with the usual dose of heroin is often the cause of overdose deaths in opiate addicts.", "Evolution of nervous systems\nSponges have no cells connected to each other by synaptic junctions, that is, no neurons, and therefore no nervous system. They do, however, have homologs of many genes that play key roles in synaptic function. Recent studies have shown that sponge cells express a group of proteins that cluster together to form a structure resembling a postsynaptic density (the signal-receiving part of a synapse). However, the function of this structure is currently unclear. Although sponge cells do not show synaptic transmission, they do communicate with each other via calcium waves and other impulses, which mediate some simple actions such as whole-body contraction.", "Pelagic fish\nThese fish have muscular bodies, ossified bones, scales, well developed gills and central nervous systems, and large hearts and kidneys. Mesopelagic plankton feeders have small mouths with fine gill rakers, while the piscivores have larger mouths and coarser gill rakers. The vertically migratory fish have swimbladders.", "Outline of the human nervous system\nPrincipal regions of the vertebrate brain:\nPeripheral nervous system (PNS) – nervous system structures that do not lie within the CNS.", "Nervous system\nNervous systems are found in most multicellular animals, but vary greatly in complexity. The only multicellular animals that have no nervous system at all are sponges, placozoans, and mesozoans, which have very simple body plans. The nervous systems of the radially symmetric organisms ctenophores (comb jellies) and cnidarians (which include anemones, hydras, corals and jellyfish) consist of a diffuse nerve net. All other animal species, with the exception of a few types of worm, have a nervous system containing a brain, a central cord (or two cords running in parallel), and nerves radiating from the brain and central cord. The size of the nervous system ranges from a few hundred cells in the simplest worms, to around 300 billion cells in African elephants.", "Nervous system\nJellyfish, comb jellies, and related animals have diffuse nerve nets rather than a central nervous system. In most jellyfish the nerve net is spread more or less evenly across the body; in comb jellies it is concentrated near the mouth. The nerve nets consist of sensory neurons, which pick up chemical, tactile, and visual signals; motor neurons, which can activate contractions of the body wall; and intermediate neurons, which detect patterns of activity in the sensory neurons and, in response, send signals to groups of motor neurons. In some cases groups of intermediate neurons are clustered into discrete ganglia.", "Nervous system\nSponges have no cells connected to each other by synaptic junctions, that is, no neurons, and therefore no nervous system. They do, however, have homologs of many genes that play key roles in synaptic function. Recent studies have shown that sponge cells express a group of proteins that cluster together to form a structure resembling a postsynaptic density (the signal-receiving part of a synapse). However, the function of this structure is currently unclear. Although sponge cells do not show synaptic transmission, they do communicate with each other via calcium waves and other impulses, which mediate some simple actions such as whole-body contraction.", "Jelly-falls\nDecomposition of jelly-falls is largely aided by these kinds of scavengers. In general, echinoderms, such as sea stars, have emerged as the primary consumer of jelly-falls, followed by crustaceans and fish. However, which scavengers find their way to jelly-falls is highly reliant on each ecosystem. For example, in an experiment in the Norwegian deep sea, hagfish were the first scavengers to find the traps of decaying jellies, followed by squat lobsters, and finally decapod shrimp. Photographs taken off the coast of Norway on natural jelly-falls also revealed caridean shrimp feeding on jelly carcasses." ]

[ "Climate of Mecca\nMecca features a hot desert climate. Mecca retains its hot temperature in winter, which can range from 18°C (64°F) at night to 30°C (86°F) in the day. Summer temperatures are extremely hot, often being over 40°C (104°F) during the day, dropping to 30°C (86°F) at night.[1] Rain usually falls in Mecca in small amounts between November and January. The rainfall, as scant as it is, also presents the threat of flooding and has been a danger since the earliest times. According to Al-Kurdī, there had been 89 historic floods by 1965, including several in the period. In the last century the most severe one occurred in 1942. Since then, dams have been constructed to ameliorate the problem." ]

[ "Dashkasan District\nIn Dashkasan locale the temperature changes from -5 C to -20 C in winter and from +20 C to +35 C in summer. The average annual temperature is 0-100 in Dashkaran. The average monthly temperature in January is -2-140, the average monthly temperature of July is + 5-200. Sometimes the absolute maximum temperature of air is higher than + 20-310, the absolute minimum temperature of air is lower than 20-300 in summer. In the middle mountain range, the average absolute minimum air temperature changes from +50 to +70 during the year. The average annual soil surface temperature is + 80, the average temperature of January is -50, the average monthly July temperature is 210. The average annual relative humidity of the air is 75% and changes between 67-82% per year. The annual rainfalls in the area are 600-900 mm. Most of the rainfalls fall in the spring. The possible evaporation is  300-800 mm from the soil surface in a year.", "Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine\nThe climate of Khmelnytskyi is moderately continental. The average temperature of Khmelnytskyi in its warmest month (July) is , and the average temperature in the coldest month (January) is . The maximum temperatures in the summer on average reaches , and the minimum temperatures in the winter on average is . Khmelnytskyi's average annual temperature is . Khmelnytskyi's average annual precipitation is .", "Vakilan Wala\nThe climate of Vakilan Wala varies to extreme limits. Summer temperature reaches 50° Celsius and winter temperature dips just around 0° Celsius. The average annual rainfall is only . Average maximum temperature in summer is 41.2 °C and average minimum temperature in winter is 6 °C.", "Table Mountain National Park Marine Protected Area\nAverage summer surface temperature of the Atlantic off the Cape Peninsula is in the range 10° to 13 °C. The bottom temperature may be a few degrees colder. Minimum temperature is about 8 °C and maximum about 17 °C. Average winter surface temperature of the Atlantic off the Cape Peninsula is in the range 13° to 15 °C. The bottom temperature inshore is much the same. Average winter surface temperature of False Bay is approximately 15 °C, and the bottom temperature much the same. Average summer surface temperature of False Bay is approximately 19 °C. The bottom temperature is 1° to 3 °C lower than it is in winter.", "Nizamabad, Telangana\nAs the city is situated at a considerable distance from the coast, the climate is tropical savanna with most rainfall from June to October.In winter there is less rainfall than in summer. In the month of May 2015, Nizamabad recorded which was highest recorded temperature in Telangana during this summer.\nThe temperature goes as low as while the average is during winter, while in summer the temperature rises as high as and the average is . Average annual temperature is .The average annual rainfall is 1108 mm.", "Barcelona\nIts average annual temperature is during the day and at night. The average annual temperature of the sea is about . In the coldest month, January, the temperature typically ranges from during the day, at night and the average sea temperature is . In the warmest month, August, the typical temperature ranges from during the day, about at night and the average sea temperature is . Generally, the summer or \"holiday\" season lasts about six months, from May to October. Two months – April and November – are transitional; sometimes the temperature exceeds , with an average temperature of during the day and at night. December, January and February are the coldest months, with average temperatures around during the day and at night. Large fluctuations in temperature are rare, particularly in the summer months. Because of the proximity to the warm sea, frosts are very rare in the city of Barcelona. In fact, only 1 day in the last 30 years was recorded with a temperature under the freezing mark, . Snow is very infrequent.", "Nepean, Ontario\nNepean has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb), with warm, humid summers and cold winters. The summers start in early June and end in late September with an average summer high temperature of . In Nepean, summers have about of rain. There is a 95% chance that all the precipitation comes by thunderstorms in the summer. There is also a small chance of cool, average rainy days in the summertime, especially in June. Nepean is also the Ottawa suburb that has the most hours of sunshine, with an average of 2,100 hours each year. In the winter, Nepean gets about of snow yearly with an average temperature of . Spring starts around late March and lasts until late May, with temperatures of about . The springtime has about of rain a year. The average temperature for fall is around . Autumn is the driest season in Nepean with only of rainfall annually. The gardening zone for this area is 6A.", "Concord, North Carolina\nThe city is located in the Piedmont area of North Carolina, which is characterized by rolling hills and forest. Land left untended will typically return to native forest land within a few years. The climate can be described as cool winter seasons with hot, humid summer seasons. The average high temperature in the winter is , and the average daily low temperature is . In the summer the average temperature is , and the average daily high temperature is . It is not unusual for summer daytime temperatures to reach in the mid to upper 90s and occasionally exceed . It is typical for winter temperatures to fall into the teens at night, but temperatures generally warm to above freezing during the day. Summer months are characterized as having cool to warm nights with very warm to hot temperatures during the day. The area receives a generous amount of rainfall at per year, with February and April being the two driest months. Rainfall in the winter is lighter but more frequent, whereas rainfall in the summer is heavier but less frequent. Thunderstorms, both light and strong, are common in the spring and summer months. The sun shines 70 percent of the time in summer and 55 percent in winter. The prevailing wind is from the southwest, with the average highest windspeed of in spring.", "Hungary\nHungary has a temperate seasonal climate, with generally warm summers with low overall humidity levels but frequent rainshowers and cold snowy winters. Average annual temperature is . Temperature extremes are on 20 July 2007 at Kiskunhalas in the summer and on 16 February 1940 Miskolc-Görömbölytapolca in the winter. Average high temperature in the summer is and average low temperature in the winter is . The average yearly rainfall is approximately . ", "Savona\nThe average yearly temperature is around during the day and at night. In the coldest months: January, February and December, the average temperature is during the day and at night. In the warmest month – July and August – the average temperature is during the day and at night. Generally, a typical summer season lasts about 4 to 6 months, from May/June to September/October. The daily temperature range is limited, with an average range of about between high and low temperatures. Rain occurs mainly in autumn, the summers being generally dry. Sunshine hours total above 2,097 per year, from an average 4 hours of sunshine duration per day in winter to average 9 hours in summer. Savona usually sees snow once or twice per year.\nSavona is twinned with:", "Environment of Svalbard\nThe climate of Svalbard is dominated by its high latitude, with the average summer temperature at to and January averages at to . The North Atlantic Current moderates Svalbard's temperatures, particularly during winter, giving it up to higher winter temperature than similar latitudes in Russia and Canada. This keeps the surrounding waters open and navigable most of the year. The interior fjord areas and valleys, sheltered by the mountains, have less temperature differences than the coast, giving about lower summer temperatures and higher winter temperatures. On the south of Spitsbergen, the temperature is slightly higher than further north and west. During winter, the temperature difference between south and north is typically , while about in summer. Bear Island has average temperatures even higher than the rest of the archipelago.", "Madora Bay, Western Australia\nSimilar to Perth and most of Mandurah, Madora Bay has a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and cold, wet winters. During summer months (December to February), the maximum temperature averages at around 27 °C (80 °F) whilst the minimum temperature averages to be about 19 °C (66 °F). The heat during summer can be quite extreme, so it is not unusual for a couple of days to exceed 40 °C (104 °F), during this season. Winter temperatures drop substantially, when being compared to summer temperatures, as the minimum temperature averages at 9 °C (48 °F) and the maximum averages at 15 °C (59 °F). Coastal temperatures, such as Madora Bay's, are preferred over inland temperatures because after travelling only a few kilometres inland, temperatures may be up to 5 °C warmer during summer days or cooler during winter nights.", "Bad River Band of the Lake Superior Tribe of Chippewa Indians\nBad River Reservation has extreme climate conditions. Winters are long and cold, while summers are short and warm. The climate is largely affected by Lake Superior. Low temperatures during the cold winter months tend to average slightly above . High temperatures during the cold winter months average above . Average low temperatures during the summer months are near . Average high temperatures during the summer months are between . Precipitation is significant as a result of the extensive forest and Lake Superior. Average yearly precipitation is around .", "Denton, Texas\nWith its hot, humid summers and cool winters, Denton's climate is characterized as humid subtropical and is within USDA hardiness zone 8a. The city's all-time high temperature is , recorded in 1954. Dry winds affect the area in the summer and can bring temperatures of over , although the average summer temperature highs range from between June and August. The all-time recorded low is , and the coolest month is January, with daily low temperatures averaging . Denton lies on the southern end of what is commonly referred to as \"Tornado Alley\"; the National Weather Service occasionally issues tornado watches, although tornadoes rarely form in the city. The city receives about of rain per year. Flash floods and severe thunderstorms are frequent occurrences during spring. Average snowfall in Denton is similar to the Dallas–Fort Worth average of per year.", "Qinyang\nQinyang City is a warm temperate continental climate with four distinct seasons, dry and windy springs, hot and rainy summers, warm and cool nights in autumn, and cold and dry in winter. The annual average temperature is . The highest temperature is , the lowest temperature is . The seasonal temperature changes obviously. The average temperature in spring is , the average temperature in summer is , the average temperature in autumn is , and the average temperature in winter is . The annual average precipitation is , of which the winter precipitation is the least, the average precipitation is , accounting for 4.9% of the whole year; the spring precipitation is slightly more, the average precipitation is , accounting for 17.3% of the whole year, and the precipitation in autumn is more, averaging , accounting for 25.6% of the whole year; the summer precipitation is the most, the average precipitation is , accounting for 52.2% of the whole year; the annual maximum precipitation is , the minimum precipitation is , and the precipitation is concentrated in seven, eight and nine. Three months, the intensity of precipitation is large, often causing floods. The average annual frost-free period is 210 days.", "Argentine Northwest\nIn Tucuman province, the eastern parts have an average annual temperature of . Summers are hot with mean temperatures averaging between while in winter, the mean temperatures are between . Easternmost parts of the province, which borders the Chaco region are home to the highest and lowest temperatures in the province where absolute maximum temperatures can exceed while absolute minimum temperatures can reach close to owing to the accumulation of cold air that descends from the mountains. At higher altitudes, the climate is cooler with summer temperatures averaging and winter temperatures averaging . The annual temperature in the higher altitudes is between at an altitude of above sea level. Within the valleys located between the mountains, temperatures are cooler with a mean annual temperature of (summers average while winters average ) in the Tafi valley.", "Haines, Alaska\nBecause of its location in the Alaska Panhandle, Haines has a hemiboreal continental (Köppen \"Dfb\") climate, with Oceanic characteristics. Winters are mild by Alaskan standards, with an average January high temperature around , and the average low around . Summers are cool to mild, with an average July high temperature of , and an average low temperature of . Various days in the summer surpass . The highest recorded temperature in Haines is on July 31, 1976. The record low temperature in the city is on January 3, 1998.", "Ashgabat\nThe Kopet-Dag mountain range is about to the south, and Ashgabat's northern boundary touches the Kara-Kum desert. Because of this Ashgabat has a cold desert climate (Köppen climate classification: \"BWk\") with hot, dry summers and cool, short winters. The average high temperature in July is . Nighttimes in the summer are warm, with an average minimum temperature in July of . The average January high temperature is , and the average low temperature is . The highest temperature ever recorded in Ashgabat is , recorded in June 2015. A low temperature of was recorded in January 1969. Snow is infrequent in the area. Annual precipitation is only ; March and April are the wettest months, and summer drought, from late June to September, is virtually absolute.", "Mecca\nMecca features a hot desert climate. Like most Saudi Arabian cities, Mecca retains warm to hot temperatures even in winter, which can range from at night to in the afternoon. Summer temperatures are extremely hot and consistently break the mark in the afternoon, dropping to in the evening. Rain usually falls in Mecca in small amounts scattered between November and January.\nMecca houses Al-Haram Mosque, the largest mosque in the world. The mosque surrounds the Kaaba, which Muslims turn towards while offering daily prayer. This mosque is also commonly known as the \"Ḥaram\" or \"Grand Mosque\".", "Howick, New Zealand\nCompared to other places on a similar latitude (paticularly those in the northern hemisphere), there are relatively small variations in temperature between summer and winter, as well as relatively small temperature variations throughout the day. This is due to the proximity and influence of the surrounding ocean curtailing any extremes in temperature. Air temperatures below and above are rare, both being recorded on average only once every 2 years. The maximum recorded temperature is and minimum . Average summer daily maximum & minimum temperatures are around and . Humidity in summer can at times be oppressive and tropical-like with Dew Point temperatures often exceeding and approaching . Average winter daily maximum & minimum temperatures are around and . Mean annual temperature is .", "Climate of Scotland\nScotland occupies the cooler northern section of Great Britain, so temperatures are generally lower than in the rest of the British Isles, with the coldest ever UK temperature of recorded at Braemar in the Grampian Mountains, on 10 January 1982 and also at Altnaharra, Highland, on 30 December 1995. Winters in Scotland have an average low of around , with summer maximum temperatures averaging . In general, the western coastal areas of Scotland are warmer than the east and inland areas, due to the influence of the Atlantic currents, and the colder surface temperatures of the North Sea. The highest official temperature recorded was at Greycrook, on 9 August 2003.\nFor the last 100 years, the coldest winter was in 1963 (average temperature ) and the mildest was in 1989 (average ). The warmest summer was in 2003 (average ) and the coolest was in 1922 (average ). Since 1991, only five winters and four summers have been below average warmth (referring to the period 1971 – 2000).", "Kuchlak\nKuchlak has a continental arid climate with great variation between summer and winter temperatures. Summer highs can reach , while winter temperatures can drop to . Summer begins in late May and continues until early September, with average temperatures ranging from . Autumn runs from late September to mid-November, with average temperatures in the range. Winter starts in late November and ends in late March, with average temperatures near and snow during the months of January and February. Spring starts in early April and ends in late May, with average temperatures close to . Unlike most of Pakistan, Kuchlak does not have a monsoon with sustained, heavy rainfall; snowfall during the winter months is the principal mode of precipitation.", "Mecca, California\nSituated within the Colorado Desert, Mecca's climate is that of an arid desert, which experiences an average 90 degree temperature. Low temperatures can reach into the 20s. The community sits at less than 150 feet below sea level on the edge of the Salton Sea, formerly the Salton Sink.", "Tucumán Province\nThe eastern parts have an average annual temperature of . Summers are hot with mean temperatures averaging between while in winter, the mean temperatures are between . Easternmost parts of the province, which borders the Chaco region are home to the highest and lowest temperatures in the province where absolute maximum temperatures can exceed while absolute minimum temperatures can reach close to owing to the accumulation of cold air that descends from the mountains. At higher altitudes, the climate is cooler with summer temperatures averaging and winter temperatures averaging . The annual temperature in the higher altitudes is at an altitude of above sea level. Within the valleys located between the mountains, temperatures are cooler with a mean annual temperature of (summers average while winters average ) in the Tafi valley.", "Meshchera Lowlands\nClimate of Meshchera is humid continental with long, cold and snowy winters, and short, warm and rainy summers. Annual average temperature is . The coldest month is February with average temperature of . During severe winters, temperatures can go as low as . Summers are warm, sometimes hot, with average July temperature of , and in extremely hot summers temperature can rise up to .", "Payson, Arizona\nOwing to its elevation of almost , Payson has what is classified as a Mediterranean climate (Köppen \"Csa\"), though atypical for this climate with its early-summer drought and late-summer rainfall. While average temperatures do reach the high 80s to mid 90s in summer, the town’s altitude usually keeps it protected from the + temperatures usually found at Arizona’s lower elevations. Monsoon storms often develop in the later afternoon, bring heavy rainfall to the area and also lower the temperature. Summer nights cool down into the 50s.", "Gold Beach, Oregon\nGold Beach has cool, very wet winters and mild, relatively dry summers. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Gold Beach has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (\"Csb\"). Between 1948 and 2014, the average maximum temperature in January was about , and the average minimum was about . The corresponding averages for July were and . Annually, there are high temperatures of on an average of only 0.1 days and there are low temperatures of or lower on an average of 9.2 days. The record high temperature was on September 10, 1973. The record low temperature was on January 21, 1962.", "Hazelton, British Columbia\nHazelton has humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification \"Dfb\"). Winters are cold but are milder than what the latitude may suggest, owing to pacific air masses. The average temperature in January is and from December to February, there are an average of 32 days where the maximum temperature reaches or surpasses freezing. However, arctic air masses can push temperatures below , occurring on 3 days per year. The average annual snowfall is . Summers are warm with a July daytime high of although nighttime temperatures are cool, with a July low of . In an average summer, there are 7 days where the temperature exceeds . The average annual precipitation is with March and April being the driest months and October through January being the wetter months. The record high was on August 20, 1977 and the record low was on January 8, 1991.", "Red Lake Indian Reservation\nRed Lake Reservation has extreme climate conditions. Winters are long and cold, while summers are short and warm. During the winter months of December, January, and February, the average low temperatures at Red Lake are 0, -8, and -3. Average high temperatures for the same winter months at Red Lake are 19, 13, and 20. Average high temperatures for the summer months of June, July, and August at Red Lake are 73, 78, and 76. Average low temperatures for the same summer months at Red Lake are 51, 57, and 54." ]

[ "Petar II Petrović-Njegoš\nPetar II Petrović-Njegoš was born Radivoje \"Rade\" Petrović on 13 November[O.S. 1 November]1813 in the mountain village of Njeguši, near Cetinje.[nb 1] His father, Tomislav \"Tomo\" Petrović (b. 1762–63), was a member of the Petrović clan of the Njeguši tribe of Katuni nahiya. Njegoš's mother, Ivana Proroković, hailed from the hamlet of Mali Zalaz and was the daughter of Njeguši captain Lazo Proroković. There is no reliable information about her exact year of birth, but it is believed that she was about ten years younger than her husband. Tomo and Ivana had five children; their eldest son was Petar (\"Pero\"), Rade was their middle son and Jovan (\"Joko\") was their youngest. The couple's daughters were named Marija and Stana; Marija was married to a Montenegrin chieftain named Andrija Perović, the serdar (count) of Cuce, while Stana was married to Filip Đurašković, the serdar of Rijeka Crnojevića.[2]" ]

[ "Berane\nDuring the First Serbian Uprising (1804) and Karađorđe's march to Novi Pazar, the people of this area revolted and met the Serbian dukes Anto Bogićević and Hadži-Prodan Gligorijević. Then, Mojsije Zečević, prior of Đurđevi stupovi, had the leading role among the Orthodox people of Budimlja. He was one of the closest allies of Petar I Petrović-Njegoš and Petar II Petrović-Njegoš, the archbishops and political leaders of Montenegro. Since the First Serbian Uprising until its final liberation, fights against Turks were constant, especially during the second part of the 19th century. Famous battles occurred from 1825, until 1862, but the most important one was Rudes battle on 7 April 1862, in which the Serbian and Montenegrin rebels won. Berane was finally liberated from Turks in 1912 and it was incorporated in Montenegro.", "Petar II Petrović-Njegoš\nAt the end of the Second World War, Yugoslavia came under communist rule. In 1952, Yugoslavia's communist authorities decided to replace Njegoš's chapel with a secular mausoleum designed by Ivan Meštrović. Wachtel suggests that this was done to \"de-Serbianize\" Njegoš and eliminate any trace of the chapel's Byzantine design. In the late 1960s the chapel was demolished, and a mausoleum was constructed by 1971. Njegoš's remains were transferred back to Mount Lovćen in 1974, and the mausoleum was officially inaugurated that year.[72]", "Petar II Petrović-Njegoš\nMost of what was written about Njegoš during his lifetime was the work of foreigners (officials, scholars or travelers).[79] One of the earliest detailed academic analyses of Njegoš's works was published by Milan Rešetar in 1890. Following the establishment of a common South Slav state in 1918, scholars reinterpreted Njegoš in a Yugoslav light, despite some of his writings being decidedly anti-Muslim and having the potential to alienate Yugoslavia's Muslim citizens, who formed about ten percent of the new country's population.[80] During the interwar period, future Nobel Prize winner Ivo Andrić wrote extensively about Njegoš and his works, and published several papers on the vladika's poetry after the war, as well. Other authors who wrote about Njegoš include Mihailo Lalić, Isidora Sekulić and Anica Savić Rebac.[81]", "Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro\nFollowing the death of Petar I, his 17-year-old nephew, Rade Petrović became Metropolitan Petar II. By historian and literary consensus, Petar II, commonly called \"Njegoš\", was the most impressive of the Prince-Bishops, having laid the foundation of the modern Montenegrin state and the subsequent Kingdom of Montenegro. He was the most acclaimed Montenegrin poet.", "Greater Serbia\nThe idea of a unification and homogenization by force was propounded by Petar II Petrović-Njegoš (1813–1851).", "Sava Petrović\nHe was succeeded as Metropolitan by Petar I Petrović-Njegoš.", "Metropolitanate of Montenegro and the Littoral\nThe Communists in 1972 seriously damaged the \"spiritual veil\" of Montenegro by destroying the church dedicated to St. Petar I Petrovic (St. Petar of Cetinje), and desecrating the tomb of the world-famous poet Metropolitan Petar II Petrović Njegoš, who built this church on top of the Lovcen mountain. Instead, they replaced the church with a secular mausoleum. This was an indication of the regime's disregard for the last will of Petar II Petrović, the ancient Christian traditions of Montenegro, and the laws that the Communists themselves had established after 1945. In these circumstances the Orthodox Church in Montenegro was marginalized by the Communist government. This period is regarded as a time of open and brutal persecution of the Church.", "Metropolitanate of Montenegro and the Littoral\nThe Metropolitans of Montenegro, all members of this family (with the exception of Arsenije Plamenac) were: Danilo I Petrović-Njegoš (1697–1735), Sava II Petrović-Njegoš (1735–1781), Arsenije Plamenac (1781–1784), Petar I Petrović-Njegoš (1784–1830), and Petar II Petrović-Njegoš (1830–1851). After the death of Petar II, the state of Montenegro was no longer ruled by the Metropolitans, since his successor, Prince Danilo Petrović-Njegoš, did not wish to become a Metropolitan.", "Petar II Petrović-Njegoš\nPetar II Petrović-Njegoš (Serbian Cyrillic: Петар II Петровић-Његош, pronounced[pêtar drûɡiː pětroʋit͡ɕ ɲêɡoʃ]; 13 November[O.S. 1 November]1813– 31 October[O.S. 19 October]1851), commonly referred to simply as Njegoš (Његош), was a Prince-Bishop (vladika) of Montenegro, poet and philosopher whose works are widely considered some of the most important in Serbian and Montenegrin literature.", "Petar II Petrović-Njegoš\nNjegoš spent his early years in Njeguši shepherding his father's flock, playing the gusle (a traditional one-stringed instrument) and attending family and church celebrations where stories of battles and past suffering were told. His education was rudimentary; he was taught how to read and write by monks at the Cetinje Monastery when he was twelve years old, studied Italian at the Savina Monastery for a year and spent eighteen months at the Topla Monastery near Herceg Novi, learning Russian and French under the tuition of reverend Josif Tropović.[7] In October 1827, the young Njegoš was taken under the tutelage of the poet and playwright Sima Milutinović (nicknamed \"Sarajlija\"), who had come to Montenegro to serve as the official secretary of Njegoš's uncle, vladika Petar I. A Sarajevan Serb, Milutinović introduced Njegoš to poetry and inspired him to write down Serb folk tales which had been passed down orally through the centuries.[8] An unconventional mentor, he also taught Njegoš sports, shooting and sword-fighting.[9]", "Petar II Petrović-Njegoš\nA severe drought struck Montenegro in late 1846, followed by a catastrophic famine in 1847. Osman Pasha took advantage of Montenegro's misfortune and promised some of the Montenegrin chieftains large amounts of wheat if they rose up against the Petrovićes. Njegoš was caught off-guard, having spent much of late 1846 in Vienna overseeing the publication of his epic poem, Gorski vijenac (The Mountain Wreath). The leaders of the rebellion were Markiša Plamenac, a captain with the Perjanici in Crmnica, and Todor Božović, a senator from the Piperi tribe. Plamenac had been one of Njegoš's close confidants. According to legend, he planned to become a member of the Petrović clan by marrying the daughter of Njegoš's brother Pero, thus increasing his own power and standing. When Pero married his daughter off to Plamenac's cousin, the son of reverend Jovan Plamenac, the once-loyal captain switched sides and became an agent of Osman Pasha. On 26 March[O.S. 14 March]1847, Plamenac led a band of rebels in an assault against lower Crmnica alongside the Turks. Fortunately for Njegoš, some members of the Plamenac tribe had remained loyal to the Petrovićes. About two weeks later, a force of about 2,000 Petrovićes, Katuni and Plamenac tribesmen forced the Turks out of Crmnica. Plamenac fled Montenegro and sought refuge with the vizier, persuading him to erect an Ottoman fortification on the island of Grmožur to keep Njegoš's forces at bay. Njegoš countered by building a defensive tower overlooking Lake Scutari.[63]", "Petar Petrović-Njegoš\nPetar Petrović-Njegoš (Cyrillic: Петар Петровић-Његош) may refer to:", "Mirko Petrović-Njegoš\nMirko was born on 19 August 1820, in Njeguši, the son of Stanko Petrović-Njegoš and Krstinja Vrbica. He was the older brother of Prince Danilo I, while his uncle was Petar II Petrović-Njegoš. He is famous for winning the Battle of Grahovac on 1 May 1858, leading the Montenegrin army against the Ottoman Empire.", "Petar I Petrović-Njegoš\nPetar I Petrović-Njegoš (; 1748–31 October 1830) was the ruler of the Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro as the Metropolitan (\"vladika\") of Cetinje, and Exarch (legate) of the Serbian Orthodox Church throne. He was the most popular spiritual and military leader from the Petrović dynasty. During his long rule, Petar strengthened the state by uniting the often quarreling tribes, consolidating his control over Montenegrin lands, introducing the first laws in Montenegro (\"Zakonik Petra I\") and a program of liberation and unification of Serbs. His rule prepared Montenegro for the subsequent introduction of modern institutions of the state: taxes, schools and larger commercial enterprises. He was canonized by the Serbian Orthodox Church as \"St. Peter of Cetinje\" ().", "Petar II Petrović-Njegoš\nThe day after Petar's death, all of Montenegro's chieftains met in Cetinje to confirm the new vladika. According to one account, there were several chieftains who did not wish to see Njegoš bestowed the title.[22] They considered him too young and inexperienced, and disliked the haste with which he was to be crowned.[23] Figures such as Milutinović, Stanko S. Petrović, iguman Mojsije Zečević, serdar Mikhail Bošković, and the headman of Čevo, Stefan Vukotić, supported Njegoš's bid and urged the council to immediately proclaim him the next vladika. The first to recognize him as such was the archimandrite of Ostrog, Josif Pavičević, followed by the guvernadur (governor) of Montenegro, Vukolaj \"Vuko\" Radonjić, and all the other chieftains. Another account holds that Radonjić hotly opposed Njegoš's succession and argued that the expatriated Đorđije was Petar I's true heir.[22] The reason behind Radonjić's opposition to Njegoš lay in the fact that his clan, the Radonjićes, were bitter enemies of Njegoš's Petrović clan. Apparently, Radonjić's opinion did not sway the chieftains and they composed a declaration proclaiming Njegoš the next vladika. According to this account, archimandrite Josif signed the declaration first and Radonjić signed it last after seeing that all of the other chieftains had done so.[22] Despite not having any formal training as a monk, the teenaged Njegoš was consecrated in 1831 an archimandrite himself in a ceremony that took place in the Kom Monastery.[23]. He adopted the ecclesiastical name Petar in honour of his late predecessor, thus becoming known as Petar II Petrović-Njegoš.[24] Following his consecration, he signed himself using his monkish name and his surname. Thus, all of Njegoš's correspondences were signed under the name Petar Petrović, though the Montenegrin people continued to refer to him by his given name and affectionately called him Bishop Rade. In most scholarly texts, he is referred to simply as Njegoš.[25]", "Montenegrin nobility\nHistorically the hereditary Metropolitans or Prince-Bishops of Montenegro (theocratic rulers) had created nobles. Petar II Petrović-Njegoš issued a decree creating Prince Alexander Karađorđević (later Alexander I, Prince of Serbia between 1842-1858), the younger son of Karađorđe, as \"Vojvoda\" (Duke). During this reign there were fourteen families with the rank of Serdar (Count), namely, Petrović-Njegoš, Vukotić, Đurašković, Martinović, Perović, Plamenatz, Drekalović, Mijušković, Bošković, Božović, Đulović, Medenica, Vlahović and Laketić.", "Petar II Petrović-Njegoš\nNjegoš's will named Danilo Petrović, the son of Njegoš's cousin, Stanko Stijepov, as his successor. Danilo had been sent to acquire a basic education in Russia the year before the vladika's death, and was not in Montenegro at the time. When Njegoš died, Đorđije disregarded the will and appeared before the Governing Senate asking that the senators proclaim Pero the new vladika. Danilo returned from Russia in 1852, bringing with him a letter authored by the Russian czar which made it clear that Saint Petersburg endorsed Danilo's accession, not Pero's. In the ensuing power struggle, Đorđije and Pero lost the support of most of the tribal chiefs, and they and their families were forced into exile. Pero sought refuge in Kotor, where his wife gave birth to a boy. In the hope of preserving his brother's memory, Pero named the newborn Rade, but the child died after only two months. Pero himself died in 1854 without having produced any male offspring, thus extinguishing the male line of Njegoš's parents. Njegoš's mother died in 1858, and his father lived into his late nineties, having survived all three of his sons.[70]", "Petar II Petrović-Njegoš\nWhile staying in Italy, Njegoš was disturbed by reports of Omar Pasha's plans to invade Montenegro.[nb 9] He planned another visit to Saint Petersburg to enlist Russian support, but the czar refused to meet him. Njegoš headed back to Montenegro in the summer, having consulted physicians in Vienna on his way back. While in Vienna, he encountered Serbian photographer Anastas Jovanović, who persuaded him to pose for a picture in his studio. Jovanović's calotype portrait is the only known photograph of Njegoš in existence. Jovanović also photographed a group of Perjanici that had accompanied Njegoš on his journey to Italy, as well as the chieftains Mirko Petrović and Petar Vukotić. Njegoš returned to Cetinje in August 1851, with his health rapidly deteriorating. He died there on 31 October[O.S. 19 October]1851, surrounded by his closest associates and just two weeks shy of his thirty-eighth birthday. Eyewitnesses reported his last words as \"love Montenegro and render justice to the poor.\"[69]", "Petar II Petrović-Njegoš\nWhile Njegoš was in Vienna and Russia in 1833, Vukotić took advantage of the vladika's prolonged absence to increase his own power. Njegoš quickly moved to push Vukotić aside, installing his own brother Pero as senate leader and their cousin Đorđije—who had recently returned from Saint Petersburg—as Pero's deputy. Vukotić and Vučićević were exiled to Russia. There, they spread countless rumours about Njegoš in an attempt to tarnish his reputation.[45] While their actions threatened to ruin his image abroad, Njegoš was far more concerned about domestic discontent with his tax policies. He reasoned that his pious and overly superstitious citizens would not protest taxation as fiercely if the Petrovićes boasted a saint who was of the same bloodline. Hence, he arranged for the canonization of the late Petar I on the fourth anniversary of his death, in October 1834. With a saint in his family, Njegoš could now threaten any Montenegrin who challenged his authority with spiritual sanctions. Most Montenegrins were greatly enthusiastic about Petar's canonization, and many flocked to his tomb in Cetinje to celebrate the event. While Njegoš was now in a more stable position than he was two years earlier, he still encountered several challenges to his rule. He was criticized for allegedly misappropriating the funds given to him by the Russians, and a tribal rebellion in Crmnica and Riječka nahiya erupted in response to the demands of tax collectors and chronic food shortages. The revolt was crushed by Njegoš's cousins Đorđije and Stanko, but the allegations of fund misappropriation further tarnished his reputation among the Russians.[46]", "Petar II Petrović-Njegoš\nIn response to the defeat at Podgorica, the Montenegrins formed tactical alliances with neighbouring Muslims tribes that were hostile to the Porte. By entering into such alliances Njegoš risked further alienating the Russians, whose support Montenegro still desperately needed. To neutralize any suspicion that Montenegro was acting against Russian interests, Njegoš cultivated a close personal friendship with vice-consul Grujić, who advised the czar that Njegoš was as dependable as ever.[34] In one of his letters to Grujić, Njegoš reported that the final advice Petar I gave him before his death was \"pray to God and hold on to Russia\".[35]", "Danilo I, Prince of Montenegro\nWhen Petar II Petrović-Njegoš died, the Senate, under the influence of Đorđije Petrović (the wealthiest Montenegrin at the time), proclaimed Petar II's elder brother Pero Tomov Petrović as Prince (not bishop, or \"Vladika\"). Nevertheless, in a brief struggle for power, Pero, who commanded the support of the Senate, lost to the much younger Danilo who had much more support among people.", "Petar II Petrović-Njegoš\nIn 1832, the nineteen-year-old Njegoš launched an attack against the Muslim tribes of Podgorica, who were helping the Ottomans subdue rebellions in Bosnia and neighbouring Albania. As in earlier times, when the vladika and guvernadur jointly led Montenegrin warriors into battle, Njegoš was joined by Vukotić and his men. The Montenegrins were also assisted by the rebellious Hoti clan of northern Albania. Njegoš and his forces were still at a disadvantage, as they lacked a concrete strategy for how to deal with the Ottomans and were not expecting them to bring cavalry onto the field. The Montenegrins' guerilla-like approach to warfare was ill-suited to taking a city such as Podgorica, whose high stone walls made it impenetrable from the surrounding flatlands. By launching the attack, Njegoš also risked falling out with the Russians, who at that time were allied with the Turks. Badly outmaneuvered, the Montenegrins were defeated and forced to retreat, taking with them many wounded. For Njegoš, the defeat would remain a lasting source of regret. Grand Vizier Reşid Mehmed Pasha seized on the opportunity and attacked a string of Montenegrin towns and villages in response to the attack, impaling and hanging all the Montenegrins that he captured. Subsequent political pressure from Russia discouraged Njegoš from seeking revenge.[33]", "Mojsije Putnik\nCustomarily, all Serb hierarchs in Montenegro went to the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć for their ordination, however, in 1766 all that changed. The Patriarch Vasilije Ivanović-Brkić whom the Turks exiled, and placed a Phanariot Greek, Kalinik II, at the head of the Serbian Orthodox Church, who went on to abolish the Patriarchate of Peć altogether. After that it became necessary for the archimandrites of Montenegro to seek to be ordained bishops far from their mountain fastness in Sremski Karlovci (in the case of Petar I Petrović-Njegoš) and Imperial Russia (in the case of Petar II Petrović Njegoš).", "Petar I Petrović-Njegoš\nHe was canonised as Saint Peter of Cetinje by his successor Petar II Petrović-Njegoš. The Serbian Orthodox Church celebrates him on October 31, Gregorian calendar, which is October 18 in the Julian calendar.", "Petar II Petrović-Njegoš\nMedia related to Screenshots of Wikipedia Main Page at Wikimedia Commons", "Petar II Petrović-Njegoš\nIt was only then that Petar entertained the possibility of extending his throne to the teenaged Njegoš and took steps to further his education. The seventeen-year-old was again sent to the Cetinje Monastery and mentored at its seminary. Petar then introduced him to state matters, trusting him with the writing of official letters and orders on his behalf. He died of old age on 30 October[O.S. 19 October]1830, without having publicly named a successor. Prior to his death, the elderly vladika had dictated his will and testament to Njegoš's old mentor, Milutinović, where he named Njegoš as his successor and granted all of his ecclesiastical and secular powers to him.[19] The will also cursed anyone who trampled over Montenegro's traditional bonds with Russia in exchange for better relations with Austria, swearing that leprosy would strike them down.[20] Some Montenegrins hostile to the Petrović clan alleged that Milutinović had fabricated the document in order to make Njegoš vladika, pointing to their close friendship as proof. Several scholars have raised the possibility that the will was indeed a forgery, though most modern historians believe that it was genuine.[21]", "Petar II Petrović-Njegoš\nPetar I's final years were defined by his deteriorating health and continuing inability to find a successor—ideally both a Petrović and a literate monk—capable of carrying on his role. Petar's first candidate was Mitar M. Petrović, the son of his eldest brother Stjepan. Within several years, the younger Petrović died and Petar was forced to find a different successor. He turned his attention to Đorđije S. Petrović, his middle brother's son. As Đorđije was illiterate, Petar sent him to Saint Petersburg to attend school. Once there, Đorđije realized that he preferred living in Russia over Montenegro. In 1828, he sent his uncle a letter from Saint Petersburg informing him that he wished to enroll into the Imperial Russian Army and asking to be relieved of succession. In 1829, Petar informed Jeremija Gagić, an ethnic Serb who served as the Russian vice-consul in Dubrovnik and was in charge of all of Russia's dealings with Montenegro, that Đorđije had his permission to enter the Russian military, depriving him of his right to the throne.[18]", "Montenegrins\nOn the substratum of folk epic poetry, poets like Petar II Petrović Njegoš, the Montenegrin icon, have created their own expression. Njegoš's epic book \"Gorski Vijenac\" (\"The Mountain Wreath\") presents the central point of Montenegrin culture.", "Musa Kesedžija\nPetar I Petrović-Njegoš (1747–1830) mentions Musa and Marko Kraljević in his song \"The Sons of Ivan-bey\" (), which was after his death published first in 1835 and then by Petar II Petrović-Njegoš in his 1845 song collection \"Serbian Mirror\" ()." ]

[ "Siri\nSiri is a spin-off from a project originally developed by the SRI International Artificial Intelligence Center. Its speech recognition engine was provided by Nuance Communications, and Siri uses advanced machine learning technologies to function. Its original American, British, and Australian voice actors recorded their respective voices around 2005, unaware of the recordings' eventual usage in Siri. The voice assistant was released as an app for iOS in February 2010, and it was acquired by Apple two months later. Siri was then players said the game could into iPhone 4S at its release in October 2011. At that time, the separate app was also removed from the iOS App Store. Siri has since become an integral part of Apple's products, having been adapted into other hardware devices over the years, including newer iPhone models, as well as iPad, iPod Touch, Mac, AirPods, Apple TV, and HomePod." ]

[ "Apple Remote\nThe Siri Remote was launched with the 4th Generation Apple TV in 2015. It uses both IR and Bluetooth to communicate with the Apple TV. The remote has a glass trackpad, dual microphones, 5 buttons for Menu, Home, Siri and Play/Pause, Volume up and down as 1 button and is the size of 2 buttons. Additionally it has an accelerometer (IMU) and a gyroscope which allows the remote to be used as a gaming controller for tvOS apps and games. The remote (unlike previous generations) uses a built-in rechargeable Lithium Polymer Battery that is charged through the lightning port at the bottom of the remote. The Siri Remote is known as the Apple TV Remote in places that don't support Siri.", "Siri\n\"What Apple didn't talk about was solving Siri's biggest, most basic flaws: it's still not very good at voice recognition, and when it gets it right, the results are often clunky. And these problems look even worse when you consider that Apple now has full-fledged competitors in this space: Amazon's Alexa, Microsoft's Cortana, and Google's Assistant.\"[66]", "List of Apple Inc. media events\nThe \"Hey Siri, give us a hint\" event was held at the 7,000-seat Bill Graham Civic Auditorium in San Francisco. Apple announced and previewed watchOS 2 with native apps; the long-anticipated Apple TV update - with App Store, Siri Remote and tvOS; iPhone 6S and iPhone 6S Plus with the Apple A9, 3D Touch, 12MP camera; iOS 9 update coming September 16; and iPad Mini 4 together with iPad Pro with 12.9\" Retina display, optional keyboard/cover, and the Apple Pencil stylus. OneRepublic performed at the event.", "Siri Remote\nThe Siri Remote is distinguished by a trackpad covering the upper third of the remote. The touch surface allows for clicking, swiping in either of four directions for navigation, and tilting the trackpad button in any direction to \"tilt\" buttons in the interface. On September 12, 2017 Apple released a modified Siri Remote with a white outline around the menu button, included with Apple TV 4K and available individually, and reduced the retail price to $59 from the original $79.", "Tom Gruber\nIn 2007 Gruber co-founded Siri Inc., which created the Siri intelligent personal assistant and knowledge navigator. Siri Inc. was acquired by Apple in 2010, and Siri is now an integral part of iOS.", "Tom Gruber\nIn 2007 Gruber co-founded Siri Inc., which created the Siri intelligent personal assistant and knowledge navigator. Siri Inc. was acquired by Apple in 2010, and Siri is now an integral part of iOS. In 2016, Siri was added to macOS in macOS Sierra.", "Conversational user interfaces\nVoice assistants are interfaces that allow a user to complete an action simply by speaking a command. Introduced in October 2011, Apple’s Siri was one of the first voice assistants widely adopted. Siri allowed users of iPhone to get information and complete actions on their device simply by asking Siri.\nFurther development has continued since Siri’s introduction to include home based devices such as Google Home or Amazon Echo (powered by Alexa) that allow users to “connect” their homes through a series of smart devices to further the options of tangible actions they can complete. Users can now turn off the lights, set reminders and call their friends all with a verbal queue. ", "TvOS\ntvOS 9 shipped with several new features on the fourth generation Apple TV. One of the major features was the ability to move through the interface with the new touchpad remote using multi-touch gestures. It introduced a new App Store in which users can download and install new applications (such as apps and games) made available from developers that develop applications for the Apple TV and tvOS. tvOS 9 adds support for Siri, which lets users do a multitude of things such as a cross-application search for a movie/TV show, rewind, fast forward, name and actor/director of the current movie, and skip back 15 seconds. tvOS added support for an application switcher on the Apple TV, more application customization options, cinematic screensavers, and control the TV using the included Siri Remote with the built-in support for HDMI-CEC in tvOS. In addition, tvOS allows the user to control the Apple TV in many different ways. These include using the included Siri Remote, pairing a third-party universal remote, pairing an MFi Gamepad to control games, using the Remote app on iOS, and pairing a Bluetooth keyboard to aid in the typing experience of the user.", "List of Apple Inc. media events\nOn October 4, 2011, Apple held a media event in which it introduced Find My Friends, refreshed the iPod Nano and iPod touch, and revealed the iPhone 4s with its all-new Siri voice assistant.", "IPad (3rd generation)\nAt the event, Apple CEO Tim Cook introduced , a Japanese version of Siri, and the third-generation Apple TV before the third-generation iPad. Cook claimed that the new product would be one of the main contributors to the emerging \"post-PC world\"—a world in which digital life would not be tied to the PC.", "Scott Forstall\nThe Siri intelligent personal voice assistant that Forstall introduced in September 2011 has received a mixed reception with some observers regarding it as a \"flop\". Forstall was vigorously criticized after the new Maps app, introduced in iOS 6, received criticism for inaccuracies that were not up to Apple standards. According to Adam Lashinsky of \"Fortune\", when Apple issued a formal apology for the errors in Maps, Forstall refused to sign it. Under long-standing practice at Apple, Forstall was the \"directly responsible individual\" for Maps, and his refusal to sign the apology convinced Cook that Forstall had to go.", "Benjamin Kunz Mejri\nIn March 2016, Mejri released another vulnerability in Siri by Apple. Siri made it possible by another, not limited function, without passcode or fingerprint to overcome the device lock without permission. Apple released a hotfix on the same day that redirected Siri's API calls to temporarily close the security issue.\nFrom August to September 2016, Mejri reported and published 4 different vulnerabilities from the rights extension for iPads & iPhones with iOS V9. x. ", "IPhone 4S\nThe introduced a new automated voice control system called Siri, that allows the user to give the iPhone commands, which it can execute and respond to. For example, iPhone commands such as \"What is the weather going to be like?\" will generate a response such as \"The weather is to be cloudy and rainy and drop to 54 degrees today.\" These commands can vary greatly and control almost every application of the phone. The commands given do not have to be specific and can be used with natural language. Siri can be accessed by holding down the home button for a short amount of time (compared to using the regular function). An impact of Siri, as shown by Apple video messages, is that it is much easier for people to use device functions while driving, exercising, or when they have their hands full. It also means people with trouble reading, seeing, or typing can access the phone more easily.", "Siri\n\"The amount of times Siri hasn't been able to understand and execute my request is astonishingly low...Just imagine what will happen when Apple partners with other services to expand Siri further. And imagine when they have an API that any developer can use. This really could alter the mobile landscape.\"[51]", "MacOS Sierra\nmacOS Sierra has received generally positive reviews. Users and critics have praised its functionality, including the addition of Siri and support for Apple Pay in Safari. Macworld gave it 4.5 stars out of 5. Engadget gave it a rating of 87 out of 100 praising the new features such as Siri integration, Universal Clipboard, and Apple Pay while criticizing the unreliability of Auto Unlock, that \"Siri isn't always smart enough\" and some of the Messages features are only available on iOS 10. Developers of apps that rely on the PDFKit library built into macOS have complained that radical changes to PDFKit introduced in Sierra are causing instability and potential data corruption.", "Siri\n\"[...] perhaps the biggest disappointment among Apple's cloud-based services is the one it needs most today, right now: Siri. Before Apple bought it, Siri was on the road to being a robust digital assistant that could do many things, and integrate with many services – even though it was being built by a startup with limited funds and people. After Apple bought Siri, the giant company seemed to treat it as a backwater, restricting it to doing only a few, slowly increasing number of tasks, like telling you the weather, sports scores, movie and restaurant listings, and controlling the device's functions. Its unhappy founders have left Apple to build a new AI service called Viv. And, on too many occasions, Siri either gets things wrong, doesn't know the answer, or can't verbalize it. Instead, it shows you a web search result, even when you're not in a position to read it.\"", "Siri\nSiri supports a wide range of user commands, including performing phone actions, checking basic information, scheduling events and reminders, handling device settings, searching the Internet, navigating areas, finding information on entertainment, and is able to engage with iOS-integrated apps. With the release of iOS 10 in 2016, Apple opened up limited third-party access to Siri, including third-party messaging apps, as well as payments, ride-sharing, and Internet calling apps. With the release of iOS 11, Apple updated Siri's voices for more clear, human voices, supports follow-up questions and language translation, and additional third-party actions.", "Apple Inc.\n\"The Wall Street Journal\" reported in June 2017 that Apple's increased reliance on Siri, its virtual personal assistant, has raised questions about how much Apple can actually accomplish in terms of functionality. Whereas Google and Amazon make use of big data and analyze customer information to personalize results, Apple has a strong pro-privacy stance, intentionally not retaining user data. \"Siri is a textbook of leading on something in tech and then losing an edge despite having all the money and the talent and sitting in Silicon Valley\", Holger Mueller, a technology analyst, told the \"Journal\". The report further claims that development on Siri has suffered due to team members and executives leaving the company for competitors, a lack of ambitious goals, and shifting strategies. Despite switching Siri's functions to machine learning and algorithms, which dramatically cut its error rate, the company reportedly still failed to anticipate the popularity of Amazon's Echo, which features the Alexa personal assistant. Improvements to Siri stalled, executives clashed, and there were disagreements over the restrictions imposed on third-party app interactions. While Apple acquired an England-based startup specializing in conversational assistants, Google's Assistant had already become capable of helping users select Wi-Fi networks by voice, and Siri was lagging in functionality.", "Siri\nIn June 2017, The Wall Street Journal published an extensive report on the lack of innovation with Siri following competitors' advancement in the field of voice assistants. Noting that Apple workers' anxiety levels \"went up a notch\" on the announcement of Amazon's Alexa, the Journal wrote: \"Today, Apple is playing catch-up in a product category it invented, increasing worries about whether the technology giant has lost some of its innovation edge.\" The report cites the primary causes as being Apple's prioritization of user privacy, including randomly-tagged six-month Siri searches, whereas Google and Amazon keep data until actively discarded by the user, and executive power struggles with some employees leaving. Apple declined to comment on the report, while Eddy Cue said: \"Apple often uses generic data rather than user data to train its systems and has the ability to improve Siri's performance for individual users with information kept on their iPhones.\"[2][70]", "Siri\nIn March 2012, Frank M. Fazio filed a class action lawsuit against Apple on behalf of the people who bought iPhone 4S and felt misled about the capabilities of Siri, alleging its failing to function as depicted in Apple's Siri commercials. Fazio filed the lawsuit in California and claimed that the iPhone 4S was merely a \"more expensive iPhone 4\" if Siri fails to function as advertised.[63][64] On July 22, 2013, U.S. District Judge Claudia Wilken in San Francisco dismissed the suit but said the plaintiffs could amend at a later time. The reason given for dismissal was that plaintiffs did not sufficiently document enough misrepresentations by Apple for the trial to proceed.[65]", "IPad (2017)\nThe iPad has a 9.7-inch (25cm) screen. Compared to the iPad Air 2, the processor is updated from the Apple A8X to the A9 with the embedded Apple M9 motion co-processor. The iPad has 2 gigabytes of RAM. It is 7.5mm thick, which is the same thickness as the iPad Air, compared to 6.1mm of the iPad Air 2. Unlike other iPad models available, this iPad's display is not fully laminated and does not have anti-reflective coating. However, this iPad has a brighter screen than the iPad Air 2 (25% brighter according to Apple). It is available in 32 and 128 gigabyte storage options. Contrasting with the iPad Pro lineup, this iPad features only two speakers (as opposed to four), has no Smart Connector support, and has no flash on the back. It is offered in silver, gold, and space grey colors. Despite its use of the Apple A9 processor and accompanying M9 motion co-processor, introduced with the iPhone 6S in 2015, the iPad does not feature support for always-on \"Hey Siri\" voice input, a feature advertised as being made possible by low-power processing in the then-new chips. The use of \"Hey Siri\" is limited to when the iPad is connected to power.", "Apple TV\nBeginning with the 4th generation Apple TV, the remote includes two microphones and a button to activate Siri. Siri on the Apple TV has all of the functions of Siri on iOS 9; it can also respond to requests specifically for the TV. For instance, the viewer can ask Siri to search for a TV show or movie and it will search across multiple different sources to tell the user where the content is available to watch. It can also do things such as Play/Pause, Rewind/Fast Forward, skip back 15 seconds and temporarily turn on captioning when asked \"what did he say?\" or \"what did she say?\", open a specific app, and more.", "Apple TV\ntvOS includes the Apple technologies of VoiceOver, Zoom, and Siri to help the blind and those with low vision. Pairing a Bluetooth keyboard with the tvOS on the Apple TV enables another accessibility feature that also is an incorporation of VoiceOver. When typing, VoiceOver mirrors with an audio voice, each character pressed on the keyboard and repeated again when it is entered. The Apple TV is designed to work with the Apple Wireless Keyboard or the Apple Magic Keyboard.", "Apple TV\nThe Remote App was updated on September 13, 2016, to take advantage of all the features of the Apple TV 4. This includes Siri, Touchpad, and Home Buttons, along with a now playing screen.\nOn September 9, 2015, Apple announced the new Siri Remote for the 4th generation Apple TV (although in some territories, Apple have kept the name Apple TV Remote, due to Siri functionality not being enabled on it in that territory). It is a completely redesigned remote that features dual microphones for Siri support and a glass touch surface for navigation around the interface by swiping or tapping and scrubbing to fast forward or rewind. Also, it has a menu and home button, a Siri button to invoke Siri, a Play/Pause button, and a Volume Up/Down button to control the volume on the TV. The Siri Remote will communicate with the Apple TV via Bluetooth rather than infrared, removing the requirement of a line-of-sight with the device. This new remote is only supported by the 4th generation Apple TV and later and will not work with earlier generations.", "Multipath TCP\nApple uses Multipath TCP to support the Siri application on IPhone. Siri sends voice samples over an HTTPS session to Apple servers. Those servers reply with the information requested by the users. According to Apple engineers, the main benefits of Multipath TCP with this application are : ", "SRI International\nIn December 2007, SRI launched a spin-off company, Siri Inc., which Apple acquired in April 2010. In October 2011, Apple announced the Siri personal assistant as an integrated feature of the Apple iPhone 4S. Siri's technology was born from SRI's work on the DARPA-funded CALO project, described by SRI as the largest artificial intelligence project ever launched. Siri was co-founded in December 2007 by Dag Kittlaus (CEO), Adam Cheyer (vice president, engineering), and Tom Gruber (CTO/vice president, design), together with Norman Winarsky (vice president of SRI Ventures). Investors included Menlo Ventures and Morgenthaler Ventures.", "Siri\nSiri was originally released as a stand-alone application for the iOS operating system in February 2010, and at the time, the developers were also intending to release Siri for Android and BlackBerry devices.[19] Two months later, Apple acquired Siri.[20][21][22] On October 4, 2011, Apple introduced the iPhone 4S with a beta version of Siri.[23][24] After the announcement, Apple removed the existing standalone Siri app from App Store.[25] TechCrunch wrote that, despite the Siri app's support for iPhone 4, its removal from App Store might also have had a financial aspect for the company, in providing an incentive for customers to upgrade devices.[25] Third-party developer Steven Troughton-Smith, however, managed to port Siri to iPhone 4, though without being able to communicate with Apple's servers.[26] A few days later, Troughton-Smith, working with an anonymous person nicknamed \"Chpwn\", managed to fully hack Siri, enabling its full functionalities on iPhone 4 and iPod Touch devices.[27] Additionally, developers were also able to successfully create and distribute legal ports of Siri to any device capable of running iOS 5, though a proxy server was required for Apple server interaction.[28]", "Siri\nThe original American voice of Siri was provided in July 2005 by Susan Bennett, unaware that it would eventually be used for the voice assistant.[11][12] A report from The Verge in September 2013 about voice actors, their work, and machine learning developments, made hints that Allison Dufty was the voice behind Siri,[13][14] though this was disproven when Dufty wrote on her website that she was \"absolutely, positively not the voice of Siri.\"[12] Citing growing pressure, Bennett revealed her role as Siri in October, and her claim was proven by Ed Primeau, an American audio forensics expert.[12] Apple has never confirmed the information.[12]", "Siri Remote\nThe Siri Remote is a remote control device released in tandem with the fourth generation Apple TV at an Apple Keynote Address by CEO Tim Cook on October 26, 2015 by Apple Inc. It is designed specifically to work with the always-on Siri capable Apple TV. The device is the successor of the original Apple Remote. " ]

[ "Satellite\nOn 4 October 1957 the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1. Since then, about 8,100 satellites from more than 40 countries have been launched. According to a 2018 estimate, some 4,900 remain in orbit, of those about 1,900 were operational; while the rest have lived out their useful lives and become space debris.[1] Approximately 500 operational satellites are in low-Earth orbit, 50 are in medium-Earth orbit (at 20,000km), and the rest are in geostationary orbit (at 36,000km).[2] A few large satellites have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Over a dozen space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, a few asteroids,[3] a comet and the Sun." ]

[ "Comparison of Asian national space programs\nPakistan started pursuing space technology on 16 September 1961, when Pakistan's space agency, SUPARCO was created, with renowned physicist Abdus Salam as its first administrator. In its early days, SUPARCO researched on the development of solid-fuel sounding rockets with assistance provided by the United States. On 7 June 1962, with the launch of the \"Rehbar-I\" (\"lit. Teller of the Way\") rocket, Pakistan became the tenth country in the world to successfully conduct the launch of an unmanned spacecraft. This rocket had been developed by a team of scientists and engineers of the Pakistan Air Force, led by Air Commodore (Brigadier-General) Władysław Józef Marian Turowicz in collaboration with NASA and was launched from Sonmiani, Pakistan's first space launch facility. SUPARCO's unmanned space program continued till 1972, with nearly 20 successful launches. SUPARCO's unmanned space program suffered setbacks during the 1970s and the 1980s, delaying the development and launch of Pakistan's first satellite, Badr-I till 1990 when it was launched from China. SUPARCO launched Pakistan's second satellite, Badr-B in 2001 from Baikonur Cosmodrome using a Ukrainian Zenit-2 rocket, followed by Paksat-1R in 2011 which was contracted and actually built and launched by China, was Pakistan's first communication satellite. On 9 July, 2018, Pakistan launched two satellites from China's Jiuquan Satellite Launch Centre with Long March 2C Rocket. The Pakistan Remote Sensing Satellite (PRSS-1) was a dual-purpose Earth observational and optical satellite. It was designed and developed by SUPARCO’s engineers. It was weight satellite which will operate at an altitude of . With the launching of PRSS-1 , Pakistan has become one of the few countries to have its own remote sensing satellite in the orbit. Another flagship satellite, Pakistan Technology Evaluation Satellite (PakTES-1A) which was also designed and developed by SUPARCO’s engineers, has also co-launched with PRSS-1 by the same launch rocket, Long March 2C. It was a weight satellite with an optical payload commensurate with national needs. It will operate at an altitude of .", "Badr-1\nOn 16 July 1990, the \"Badr-1\" was launched as a secondary payload on a Long March 2E rocket from Area No. 2 at XSLC. \"Badr-1\", a low-Earth orbit satellite, circled the Earth's orbit every 96 minutes, passing over Pakistan for 15 minutes three to four times a day. Scientists, engineers, technicians, and designers who developed the satellite watched the launch from range. They waited about 93 minutes to ensure that the satellite had made one orbit and was transmitting, before dr. M. Shafi Ahmad called Prime minister Benazir Bhutto. The downlink telemetry included data on temperatures inside and on the surface of the sphere. The satellite itself, a small but highly polished polyhedron, was barely visible at sixth magnitude, and thus more difficult to follow optically. The satellite completed its designated life successfully. On the first orbit, the Suparco globally announced the launch of the satellite, and the Science ministry confirmed the launch of the satellite. As the satellite completed its life, a new project was launched, more ambitious, advanced, and difficult than \"Badr-1\". However, even after the \"Badr-1I\" was completed, the satellite could not be able to launch until 2001.", "Orbiting Vehicle\nFive separate series of OV satellites were launched. The first satellites were OV1, which were carried on suborbital Atlas missile tests, and subsequently placed themselves into orbit by means of an Altair-2 kick motor. OV2 satellites were built using parts left over following the cancellation of the Advanced Research Environmental Test Satellite. Three OV2 spacecraft flew on Titan IIIC test flights. The OV3 satellites were the only ones in the series to be launched on dedicated rockets. Six were launched on Scout-B rockets between 1966 and 1967. OV4 satellites were launched as part of a test flight for the Manned Orbital Laboratory, with two satellites conducting a communications experiment whilst a third, OV4-3, was the primary payload, a Boilerplate mockup of the MOL space station. Two further OV4 satellites, duplicates of the first two, were built but not launched. OV5 satellites were launched as part of the ERS project, as secondary payloads on Titan IIIC rockets.", "US-K\nUS-K are the first generation of Oko satellites, the first of which was launched in 1972. The vast majority of the satellites launched (86 out of 100 as of March 2012 ) have been US-K satellites in molniya orbits. Seven first generation satellites were launched into geosynchronous orbits, called US-KS, starting in 1975. A decree of 3 September 1979 led to the creation of the second generation satellites US-KMO which had their first launch in 1991. In total, 101 satellites have been launched.", "Satellite\nUnited States tried unsuccessfully to launch its first satellite in 1957; they were successful in 1958. China tried unsuccessfully to launch its first satellite in 1969; they were successful in 1970. Iraq under Saddam Hussein fulfilled in 1989 an unconfirmed launch of warhead on orbit by developed Iraqi vehicle that intended to put later the 75kg first national satellite Al-Ta’ir, also developed.[52][53] Chile tried unsuccessfully in 1995 to launch its first satellite FASat-Alfa by foreign rocket; in 1998 they were successful.† North Korea has tried in 1998, 2009, 2012 to launch satellites, first successful launch on 12 December 2012.[54] Libya since 1996 developed its own national Libsat satellite project with the goal of providing telecommunication and remote sensing services[55] that was postponed after the fall of Gaddafi. Belarus tried unsuccessfully in 2006 to launch its first satellite BelKA by foreign rocket.†", "Salim Mehmud\nIn 1984, Salim Mehmud quickly launched the Badr satellite program. The development and the construction of Badr-1, Pakistan's first domestically-built digital communication satellite, was started. A small team of SUPARCO scientists and engineers who had studied and trained in University of Surrey were the part of the university's UO-9, UO-11 and UO-22 hamsats miniature satellite development and program, began the development of the satellite. Mehmud, then briefed the General Zia and suggested to launch the satellite from Pakistani Satellite Launch Vehicle. However, having found difficulties in SLV-required technology, the idea of Pakistani SLV was postponed and later was cancelled. Mehmud retired from SUPARCO in 1989 as a chief scientist and was transferred in DESTO. In 1990, Badr-1 was finally launched via Long March 2E rocket from Xichang Satellite Launch Center.", "Oko\nThe vast majority of the satellites launched (86 out of 100 as of March 2012 ) have been the first generation US-K satellites which operate in molniya orbits. Seven first generation satellites were launched into geosynchronous orbits, called US-KS, starting in 1975. A decree of 3 September 1979 led to the creation of the second generation satellites US-KMO which had their first launch in 1991. In total, 101 satellites have been launched.", "Japan's space development\nNASDA rockets are used for production of commercial satellite launch is much more rapid communication satellite and broadcasting satellites, meteorological satellites and the launch went. HI 9 aircraft are manufactured rockets, all of which successfully launched the satellite successfully launched multiple simultaneous first Japanese.", "Satellite Internet access\nFollowing the launch of the first satellite, Sputnik 1, by the Soviet Union in October 1957, the US successfully launched the Explorer 1 satellite in 1958. The first commercial communications satellite was Telstar 1, built by Bell Labs and launched in July 1962.", "Deimos-1\nIt was constructed by Surrey Satellite Technology for Elecnor Deimos, representing the first Spanish Earth observation satellite and the first private one in Europe. It is based on the SSTL-100 satellite bus. Deimos-1 was launched into a sun-synchronous low Earth orbit. The launch was conducted by ISC Kosmotras, who used a Dnepr carrier rocket, with DubaiSat-1 as the primary payload. Deimos-1, along with the UK-DMC 2, Nanosat 1B, AprizeSat-3 and AprizeSat-4 satellites, were launched as secondary payloads. The rocket was launched at 18:46 GMT on 29 July 2009, from Site 109/95 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.", "Galileo (satellite navigation)\nOn 7 May 2014, the first two FOC satellites landed in Guyana for their joint launch planned in summer Originally planned for launch during 2013, problems tooling and establishing the production line for assembly led to a delay of a year in serial production of Galileo satellites. These two satellites (Galileo satellites GSAT-201 and GSAT-202) were launched on 22 August 2014. The names of these satellites are Doresa and Milena named after European children who had previously won a drawing contest. On 23 August 2014, launch service provider Arianespace announced that the flight VS09 experienced anomaly and satellites were injected into an incorrect orbit.", "Satellite television by region\nThe first satellite service specifically set to the Nordic region was TV3 which launched in 1987. With the launch of Astra 1A, getting the TV3 channel got easier. The first Nordic-specific satellite, Tele-X, was launched in 1989. The services directed at Scandinavia were then scattered among several satellites. In 1993, the former BSB satellites were bought by a Swedish and a Norwegian company, respectively. These two satellites were renamed Thor 1 and Sirius 1, moved to new positions and started broadcasting services intended for people in the Nordic region. With the launch of additional Thor and Sirius satellites later in the 1990s, Astra and other satellites were abandoned by the Nordic services with almost all Nordic satellite television migrating to the Sirius and Thor satellites.", "Badr-1\nThe SUPARCO negotiated with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for the launch of the satellite and approval required from the United States Government for the launch of the \"Badr-1\". The Air Force Strategic Command decided to fly the satellite by using one of its C-130 aircraft in 1986 to Florida, United States. The \"Delta 3000\" was selected by NASA's administration as its launch vehicle. Preparation was made and its crew and satellite was stored at the aircraft, however, it was delayed due to unknown reasons. The \"Badr-1\" was never shipped to United States and its launch was delayed for until next four years. As aftermath of the Challenger disaster in 1986, the United States Government and NASA had halt all the flights of the rockets carrying spacecraft and satellite payloads until the investigations were thoroughly completed. The satellite was stored at the Instrumentation Laboratories (IL) and SUPARCO began to negotiate with other space powers. In 1990, representatives of Chinese government offered Government of Pakistan to launch the satellite on one of its Long March Rockets and its facility. SUPARCO did not want to wait any longer, therefore, the Air Force Strategic Command flew the satellite, in sub-assembly form, to People's Republic of China. The satellite was re-assembled by Air Force Strategic Command and Suparco's official who visited the Xichang Satellite Launch Center. The satellite was load at the Launch Area 2 and final preparations were made. The Chinese Government used Long March 2E, a three-stage orbital carrier rocket designed to commercial communications satellites, to launch the \"Badr-1\" who also took its first maiden flight with the launch of \"Badr-1\" on 16 July 1990.", "Satellite\nWhile Canada was the third country to build a satellite which was launched into space,[49] it was launched aboard an American rocket from an American spaceport. The same goes for Australia, who launched first satellite involved a donated U.S. Redstone rocket and American support staff as well as a joint launch facility with the United Kingdom.[50] The first Italian satellite San Marco 1 launched on 15 December 1964 on a U.S. Scout rocket from Wallops Island (Virginia, United States) with an Italian launch team trained by NASA.[51] By similar occasions, almost all further first national satellites was launched by foreign rockets.", "Satellite\nThe United States tried in 1957 to launch the first satellite using its own launcher before successfully completing a launch in 1958. Japan tried four times in 1966–1969 to launch a satellite with its own launcher before successfully completing a launch in 1970. China tried in 1969 to launch the first satellite using its own launcher before successfully completing a launch in 1970. India, after launching its first national satellite using a foreign launcher in 1975, tried in 1979 to launch the first satellite using its own launcher before succeeding in 1980. Iraq have claimed an orbital launch of a warhead in 1989, but this claim was later disproved.[30] Brazil, after launching its first national satellite using a foreign launcher in 1985, tried to launch a satellite using its own VLS 1 launcher three times in 1997, 1999, and 2003, but all attempts were unsuccessful. North Korea claimed a launch of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-1 and Kwangmyŏngsŏng-2 satellites in 1998 and 2009, but U.S., Russian and other officials and weapons experts later reported that the rockets failed to send a satellite into orbit, if that was the goal. The United States, Japan and South Korea believe this was actually a ballistic missile test, which was a claim also made after North Korea's 1998 satellite launch, and later rejected. The first (April 2012) launch of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 was unsuccessful, a fact publicly recognized by the DPRK. However, the December 2012 launch of the \"second version\" of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 was successful, putting the DPRK's first confirmed satellite into orbit. South Korea (Korea Aerospace Research Institute), after launching their first national satellite by foreign launcher in 1992, unsuccessfully tried to launch its own launcher, the KSLV (Naro)-1, (created with the assistance of Russia) in 2009 and 2010 until success was achieved in 2013 by Naro-3. The First European multi-national state organization ELDO tried to make the orbital launches at Europa I and Europa II rockets in 1968–1970 and 1971 but stopped operation after failures.", "Kosmos 5\nKosmos 5 was a 2MS satellite, the second of two to be launched, following the first which was launched as Kosmos 3 on 24 April. The 2MS was the second of two types of MS satellite to be launched, following the first 1MS spacecraft which had been launched as Kosmos 2. Kosmos 5 was the penultimate MS satellite to be launched, and the last to successfully reach orbit. The last launch attempt, of a 1MS satellite, occurred in October, and failed to reach orbit.", "PSLV-C2\nPSLV-C2 was the second operational launch and overall fifth mission of the PSLV program. This launch was also the forty-third launch by Indian Space Research Organisation since its first mission on 1 January 1962. The vehicle carried three satellites which were deployed in the Sun-synchronous low Earth orbit. The vehicle carried India's first remote sensing satellite Oceansat-1 (IRS-P4) as the main payload. It also carried South Korean satellite Kitsat-3 and German satellite DLR-Tubsat as auxiliary payloads. PSLV-C2 was the first Indian Expendable launch vehicle to carry and deploy more than one satellite in a mission. This was also India's and ISRO's first commercial spaceflight where South Korea and Germany each paid $1.0 million (equivalent to $ million in ) to ISRO for launching their satellites.", "Iridium satellite constellation\nIridium NEXT launch plans originally included launch of satellites on both Ukrainian Dnepr launch vehicles and SpaceX Falcon 9 launch vehicles, with the initial satellites launching on Dnepr in April 2016; however, in February 2016, Iridium announced a change. Due to an extended slowdown in obtaining the requisite launch licenses from Russian authorities, Iridium revamped the entire launch sequence for the 75-satellite constellation. It launched and successfully deployed 10 satellites with SpaceX on January 14, 2017, delayed due to weather from January 9, 2017, and the first of those new satellites took over the duties of an old satellite on March 11, 2017.", "Indian Space Research Organisation\nISRO has also launched a set of experimental geostationary satellites known as the GSAT series. Kalpana-1, ISRO's first dedicated meteorological satellite, was launched by the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle on 12 September 2002. The satellite was originally known as MetSat-1. In February 2003 it was renamed to Kalpana-1 by the Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in memory of Kalpana Chawla – a NASA astronaut of Indian origin who perished in the Space Shuttle \"Columbia\" disaster.", "Space programme 2040\nThe Space Programme 2040 is a satellite development and launch programme of the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (Suparco), Pakistan's supreme space research authority. The Space programme 2040 intends to replace the Badr satellite programme and geo-stationary communication satellite. On 11 August, \"Paksat-IR\" was launched from Xichang Satellite Launch Center by China, making it first satellite to be launched under this programme. According to Suparco, five GEO satellites and six low earth orbit (LEO) satellites will be launched between 2011 and 2040.", "Indian Space Research Organisation\nISRO built India's first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched by the Soviet Union on 19April 1975. It was named after the mathematician Aryabhata. In 1980, Rohini became the first satellite to be placed in orbit by an Indian-made launch vehicle, SLV-3. ISRO subsequently developed two other rockets: the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for launching satellites into polar orbits and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for placing satellites into geostationary orbits. These rockets have launched numerous communications satellites and earth observation satellites. Satellite navigation systems like GAGAN and IRNSS have been deployed. In January 2014, ISRO used an indigenous cryogenic engine in a GSLV-D5 launch of the GSAT-14.", "BeiDou Navigation Satellite System\nIn 2015, the system began its transition towards global coverage with the first launch of a new-generation of satellites, and the 17th one within the new system. On July 25, 2015, the 18th and 19th satellites were successfully launched from the Xichang Satellite Launch Center, marking the first time for China to launch two satellites at once on top of a Long March 3B/Expedition-1 carrier rocket. The Expedition-1 is an independent upper stage capable of delivering one or more spacecraft into different orbits. On September 29, 2015, the 20th satellite was launched, carrying a hydrogen maser for the first time within the system.", "Yantar (satellite)\nYantar ( meaning amber) is a series of Russian (previously Soviet) reconnaissance satellites, which supplemented and eventually replaced the Zenit spacecraft. Kosmos 2175, a Yantar-4K2 or \"Kobalt\" spacecraft, was the first satellite to be launched by the Russian Federation following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Yantar-Terilen was the first real-time digital system. Yantar satellites also formed the basis for the later Orlets, Resurs and Persona satellites. 179 have been launched, nine of which were lost in launch failures. All Yantar satellites were launched using the Soyuz-U carrier rocket until Kosmos 2480 in 2012 which was announced as the last launch of that rocket from Plesetsk. Subsequent launches used the modernized Soyuz-2.1a rocket. The last Yantar mission was Kosmos 2505, a Yantar-4K2M or \"Kobalt-M\", launched on 5 June 2015. Reconnaissance missions have been taken over by the Persona class of satellites.", "Orbcomm (satellite)\nOrbcomm Quick Launch (QL) satellites are satellites which were intended to replenish the constellation. The first five such satellites were launched in 2008, with one more planned, but never launched. The satellites are based on the CDS-3 satellite, which was launched on the same rocket as the first five QL spacecraft. The sixth will be launched as a secondary payload to a Russian Government satellite, also on a Kosmos-3M. Orbcomm holds options for two further satellites.\nThe satellites experienced a power system anomaly, and Orbcomm filed an insurance claim on the satellites for $50 million. Orbcomm reported in 2011 that the last remaining Quick Launch satellite had failed.", "Poppy (satellite)\nThe size and capabilities (in particular Radio frequency coverage) of the GRAB/POPPY satellites evolved over the course of the 19-year program. Block I POPPY satellites had a diameter of , identical to the diameter of the GRAB satellites. Two Block I satellites were launched with the first and third POPPY launch, and one with the second POPPY launch. Block II POPPY satellites had a diameter of and an increased weight. Two Block II satellites were launched on the second POPPY launch, one each on the third and fifth POPPY launch, and four on the fourth POPPY launch. Block III POPPY satellites had a diameter of and again an increased weight. Three Block III satellites were launched on the fifth POPPY launch, and four each on the sixth and seventh POPPY launches.", "Sun Jiadong\nDuring the Cultural Revolution, Sun was appointed as the chief scientist of the Chinese satellite project. On April 24, 1970, the first Chinese space satellite, Dong Fang Hong I, was successfully launched. On March 3, 1971 the satellite \"Shi Jian I\" was launched. In 1975, China's first returning satellite was successfully launched. In 1984, China's first synchronized experimental communication satellite, Dong Fang Hong II was launched. Sun was the chief designer of all of them. ", "Satish Dhawan Space Centre First Launch Pad\nThe First Launch Pad of the Satish Dhawan Space Centre is a rocket launch site in Sriharikota, India that began operation in 1993. It is currently used by two launch vehicles of the ISRO: the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV). It is one of two operational orbital launch pads at the site, the other being the Second Launch Pad, which opened in 2005. The first launch from this pad occurred on 20 September 1993, and was the maiden flight of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle carrying the IRS-1E satellite.", "GPS satellite blocks\nThe Block IIR series are \"replenishment\" (replacement) satellites developed by Lockheed Martin. Each satellite weighs at launch and once on orbit. The first attempted launch of a Block IIR satellite failed on January 17, 1997 when the Delta II rocket exploded 12 seconds into flight. The first successful launch was on July 23, 1997. Twelve satellites in the series were successfully launched.\nAt least ten satellites in this block carried an experimental S-band payload for search and rescue, known as Distress Alerting Satellite System.", "Satellite\nAfghanistan announced in April 2012 that it is planning to launch its first communications satellite to the orbital slot it has been awarded. The satellite Afghansat 1 was expected to be obtained by a Eutelsat commercial company in 2014.[56][57] Armenia in 2012 founded Armcosmos company[58] and announced an intention to have the first telecommunication satellite ArmSat. The investments estimates as $250million and country selecting the contractor for building within 4 years the satellite amongst Russia, China and Canada[59][60][61] Cambodia's Royal Group plans to purchase for $250–350million and launch in the beginning of 2013 the telecommunication satellite.[62] Cayman Islands's Global IP Cayman private company plans to launch GiSAT-1 geostationary communications satellite in 2018. Democratic Republic of the Congo ordered at November 2012 in China (Academy of Space Technology (CAST) and Great Wall Industry Corporation (CGWIC)) the first telecommunication satellite CongoSat-1 which will be built on DFH-4 satellite bus platform and will be launched in China till the end of 2015.[63] Croatia has a goal to construct a satellite by 2013–2014. Launch into Earth orbit would be done by a foreign provider.[64] Ethiopian Space Science Society[65] planning the QB50-family research CubeSat ET-SAT by help of Belgian Von Karman Institute till 2015[66] and the small (20–25kg) Earth observation and remote sensing satellite Ethosat 1 by help of Finnish Space Technology and Science Group till 2019.[67] Ireland's team of Dublin Institute of Technology intends to launch the first Irish satellite within European University program CubeSat QB50.[68] Jordan's first satellite to be the private amateur pocketqube SunewnewSat.[69][70][71] Moldova's first remote sensing satellite plans to start in 2013 by Space centre at national Technical University.[72] Myanmar plans to purchase for $200million their own telecommunication satellite.[73] Nepal stated that planning to launch of own telecommunication satellite before 2015 by help of India or China.[74][75][76] Nicaragua ordered for $254million at November 2013 in China the first telecommunication satellite Nicasat-1 (to be built at DFH-4 satellite bus platform by CAST and CGWIC), that planning to launch in China at 2016.[77] Paraguay under new Agencia Espacial del Paraguay –- AEP airspace agency plans first Eart observation satellite.[78][79] Serbia's first satellite Tesla-1 was designed, developed and assembled by nongovermental organisations in 2009 but still remains unlaunched. Slovenia's Earth observation microsatellite for the Slovenian Centre of Excellence for Space Sciences and Technologies (Space-SI) now under development for $2million since 2010 by University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies – Space Flight Laboratory (UTIAS – SFL) and planned to launch in 2015–2016.[80][81] Sri Lanka has a goal to construct two satellites beside of rent the national SupremeSAT payload in Chinese satellites. Sri Lankan Telecommunications Regulatory Commission has signed an agreement with Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd to get relevant help and resources. Launch into Earth orbit would be done by a foreign provider.[82][83] Syrian Space Research Center developing CubeSat-like small first national satellite since 2008.[84] Tunisia is developing its first satellite, ERPSat01. Consisting of a CubeSat of 1kg mass, it will be developed by the Sfax School of Engineering. ERPSat satellite is planned to be launched into orbit in 2013.[85] Uzbekistan's State Space Research Agency (UzbekCosmos) announced in 2001 about intention of launch in 2002 first remote sensing satellite.[86] Later in 2004 was stated that two satellites (remote sensing and telecommunication) will be built by Russia for $60–70million each[87]", "Globalstar\nThe first six second-generation satellites were launched on October 19, 2010, from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. The launch used a Soyuz-2 launch vehicle with a Fregat upper stage. These second-generation satellites are expected to provide Globalstar customers with satellite voice and data services until at least 2025. Six more second-generation satellites were launched in July 2011 followed by another six satellites in December 2011.\nAs of July 16, 2012, 18 of 24 new satellites had been launched. Launch of the second generation constellation was completed February 6, 2013, with the launch of the final six satellites using a Soyuz 2-1a launch vehicle. The 24 second-generation spacecraft weighed approximately each at launch, and are 3-axis stabilized." ]

[ "National Labor Relations Board\nThe National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) is an independent agency of the Federal government of the United States with responsibilities for enforcing U.S. labor law in relation to collective bargaining and unfair labor practices. Under the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 it supervises elections for labor union representation and can investigate and remedy unfair labor practices. Unfair labor practices may involve union-related situations or instances of protected concerted activity. The NLRB is governed by a five-person board and a General Counsel, all of whom are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. Board members are appointed to five-year terms and the General Counsel is appointed to a four-year term. The General Counsel acts as a prosecutor and the Board acts as an appellate quasi-judicial body from decisions of administrative law judges." ]

[ "William W. Winpisinger\nWinpisinger was active in many efforts promoting cooperation between labor, management and government. He served as a member of the AFL-CIO Executive Council; a member of the Finance Committee of the Democratic National Committee; co-chair of the Collective Bargaining and Group Relations Institute; a trustee of the National Planning Association; President of the Citizen/Labor Energy Coalition; a member of the Board of Governors of the National Space Institute; a board member of the Americans for Democratic Action; a board member of the Democratic Socialists of America; a member of the Executive Committee of the International Metalworkers' Federation; and an Executive Board member of International Guiding Eyes.", "Card check\nCard check (also called majority sign-up) is a method for employees to organize into a labor union in which a majority of employees in a bargaining unit sign authorization forms, or \"cards\", stating they wish to be represented by the union. Since the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) became law in 1935, card check has been an alternative to the National Labor Relations Board's (NLRB) election process. Card check and election are both overseen by the National Labor Relations Board. The difference is that with card sign-up, employees sign authorization cards stating they want a union, the cards are submitted to the NLRB and if more than 50% of the employees submitted cards, the NLRB requires the employer to recognize the union. The NLRA election process is an additional step with the NLRB conducting a secret ballot election after authorization cards are submitted. In both cases the employer never sees the authorization cards or any information that would disclose how individual employees voted.", "JI Case Co v National Labor Relations Board\nJI Case Co v National Labor Relations Board 321 US 332 (1944) is a US labor law case, concerning the scope of labor rights in the United States.", "National Labor Relations Board\nThe Economic Division was a critical one for the NLRB. Cause-and-effect was one of the fundamental assumptions of the National Labor Relations Act, and for the causes of labor unrest to be understood economic analysis was needed.[20] From the start, the Economic Division undertook three important tasks: 1) Gather economic data in support of cases before the courts; 2) Conduct general studies of labor relations to guide the board in formulating decisions and policies; and 3) Research the history of labor relations (the history of written agreements, whether certain issues were historically part of collective bargaining, how unions functioned internally, trends in employer activities, trends in collective bargaining, whether certain employer actions led to labor disputes, etc.) so that the board could educate itself, the courts, Congress, and the public about labor relations.[21] The first function proved critical to the survival of the NLRB. It was the Economic Division's data and analysis, more than then NLRB's legal reasoning, which proved critical in persuading the Supreme Court to sustain the Wagner Act in NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel.[22][23] The Court even cited several Economic Division studies in its decision.[24] In the wake of Jones & Laughlin Steel, many labor relations experts outside the agency concluded that economic analysis was \"an accepted fact\" essential to the proper functioning of the agency.[25] The Economic Division did, too. It asked Madden to pair an economist with an attorney in every important case,[26] and prepared outline of the economic data needed to support each case in case it went before the courts.[27]", "National Labor Board\nRoosevelt issued Executive Order 6763 on June 29, 1934. The new order abolished the NLB. In its place, it established the National Labor Relations Board. The new NLRB had only three members: Lloyd K. Garrison, dean of the University of Wisconsin Law School, was its chairman; Harry A. Millis, professor of economics at the University of Chicago, and Edwin S. Smith, Commissioner of Labor and Industry for the state of Massachusetts, were its members.", "Harry Shulman\nHe was known as an arbitrator of even temperament, common sense, good humor, and exceptional judgment. He was a temporary board member of the National Recovery Administration. He was an associate member of the National War Labor Board during World War II. He also served on the Connecticut Labor Relations Board and the Alien Enemy Hearing Board of Connecticut. He was a special counsel for the Railroad Retirement Board from 1934 to 1936, and assisted in the arguing of Railroad Retirement Board v. Alton Railroad Co. before the Supreme Court.", "Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis\nThe prospective for how the case would be resolved changed following the election of Donald Trump as President of the United States, succeeding Barack Obama. During the Obama administration, the National Labor Relations Board agency had generally favored employees and helped to defend against unfair arbitration practices. The Board continued to support employees in its petition of \"National Labor Relations Board v. Murphy Oil\", stating \"Resolving the question presented will have a direct and immediate effect on countless employees and employers throughout the nation because individual-arbitration agreements have become so widespread.\" By June 2017, the Board, now operating under the Trump administration, issued its amicus curiae for the case supportive of the employers' position. Further, following the death of Justice Antonin Scalia, Trump's nominee for the vacant seat, Neil Gorsuch, had been confirmed in April 2017. The replacement of Justice Scalia helped retain a majority of conservative justices on the Court, which was expected to likely favor employers.", "National Labor Relations Act of 1935\nThe National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (49 Stat. 449) (also known as the Wagner Act after New York Senator Robert F. Wagner) is a foundational statute of United States labor law which guarantees basic rights of private sector employees to organize into trade unions, engage in collective bargaining for better terms and conditions at work, and take collective action including strike if necessary. The act also created the National Labor Relations Board, which conducts elections that can expect employers to engage in collective bargaining with labor unions (also known as trade unions). The Act does not apply to workers who are covered by the Railway Labor Act, agricultural employees, domestic employees, supervisors, federal, state or local government workers, independent contractors and some close relatives of individual employers.", "Lloyd K. Garrison\nGarrison took a leave of absence again from Wisconsin to serve on the National War Labor Board (NWLB) during World War II. The NWLB was established on January 12, 1942, by President Roosevelt to oversee war-related labor relations for the duration of the war and ensure that war-related production was not disrupted by labor disputes. Initially, Garrison was the War Labor Board's executive director and chief counsel. He was promoted to alternative public member in January 1944. A month later, he was elevated yet again to full public member. In the NWLB's final year of existence, he was its chairman.", "Jurisdictional strike\nIn United States labor law, a jurisdictional strike is a concerted refusal to work undertaken by a union to assert its members' right to particular job assignments and to protest the assignment of disputed work to members of another union or to unorganized workers. (Labor unions use the term \"jurisdiction\" to refer to their claims to represent workers who perform a certain type of work and the right of their members to perform such work.) The Taft-Hartley amendments to the National Labor Relations Act empowered the National Labor Relations Board to resolve such jurisdictional disputes and authorized the General Counsel of the NLRB to seek an injunction barring such strikes. ", "List of Chairs of the National Labor Relations Board\nThe National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) has five Members, each of whom serves for a five-year term. Terms are staggered so that one Member's term expires each year (although delays in nominations and confirmation, as well as the use of recess appointments, can upset this schedule). Members are nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate. Traditionally, a majority of the board belongs to the President's political party. The President designates the Chair from one of the existing Members. The Chair serves at the pleasure of the President, and may be demoted without cause or warning at any time.", "National Labor Relations Act of 1935\nThe National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), which was established in NLRA 1935 sections 3 to 6 (), is the primary enforcer of the Act. Employees and unions may act themselves in support of their rights, however because of collective action problems and the costs of litigation, the National Labor Relations Board is designed to assist and bear some of the costs. Under section 3, () the NLRB has two basic functions: overseeing the process by which employees decide whether to be represented by a labor organization and prosecuting violations. Those processes are initiated in the regional offices of the NLRB. The General Counsel of the National Labor Relations Board give legal advice. Sections 4 () and 5 () set out provisions on the officers of the Board and their expenses. Section 6 () empowers the Board to issue rules interpreting the labor legislation. This will generally be binding, unless a court deems it to have acted outside its authority.", "Harry A. Millis\nFor more than two years, the NLRB had been under severe political pressure, and its chairman, J. Warren Madden, was seen as a political liability. The Board had issued three decisions (\"Fansteel Metallurgical\", 5 NLRB 930 (1938); \"Inland Steel\", 9 NLRB No. 73 (1938); and \"Republic Steel\", 9 NLRB No. 33 (1938)) in 1938 which drew widespread condemnation from businesses and certain members of Congress. The Board won (\"In re Labor Board\", 304 U.S. 486 (1938)) and then lost (\"Ford Motor Co. v. NLRB\", 305 U.S. 364 (1939)) cases before the Supreme Court regarding its internal decision-making processes. And in three cases in 1939 (\"National Labor Relations Board v. Fansteel Metallurgical Corp.\", 306 U.S. 240 (1939); \"National Labor Relations Board v. Columbian Enameling & Stamping Co.\", 306 U.S. 292 (1939); and \"National Labor Relations Board v. Sands Manufacturing Co.\", 306 U.S. 332 (1939)) the Supreme Court emasculated the Board's attempts to expansively use Section 10(g) of the NLRA to promote collective bargaining and labor peace. Media and public opinion turned strongly against what was perceived as an overreaching NLRB, and President Roosevelt announced the formation of a commission to study the Board's operations. By March 1939, 11 bills had been filed in Congress to amend the NLRA. The House of Representatives voted to create a special committee, the Special Committee to Investigate the National Labor Relations Board (popularly known as the \"Smith Committee\" after its chairman, conservative Democratic Rep. Howard W. Smith), in July 1939. The Smith Committee was substantially biased against labor unions and the NLRB, received testimony from hundreds of witnesses, conducted a nationwide survey regarding the impact of the NLRB, and questioned NLRB officials at length about the agencies alleged anti-business and anti-American Federation of Labor/pro-Congress of Industrial Organizations biases. Nathan Witt, the Board's Secretary (and highest-ranking career official), was also under fire from the Smith Committee for his communist sympathies. The Smith Committee proposed legislation to substantially alter the NLRA. The legislation easily passed the House, but was bottled up by Roosevelt's allies in the Senate and it died. The dispute over the Board's administration had even split the NLRB itself. Board members William S. Leiserson and Edwin S. Smith were at loggerheads (Leiserson having accused Smith of being biased toward labor and the CIO in particular), and Leiserson threatened to quit if Madden was reappointed. The Roosevelt administration now considered Madden a political liability, and resolved to replace him.", "Guy Otto Farmer\nThe Taft-Hartley Act required all officers and trustees of labor unions seeking the protect of the National Labor Relations Act to affirm that they were not members of the Communist Party USA. The anti-communist oath provision generated extensive controversy when it became effective on June 23, 1947. The Herzog board struggled to implement the anti-communist oath provisions, but it was the Farmer board which capped these efforts. Farmer publicly supported the Taft-Hartley Act. Although he felt it was not perfect, if properly implemented it would have a positive effect on labor relations.", "New Process Steel, L.P. v. NLRB\nThe NLRB was created by Executive Order on June 29, 1934 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to oversee labor related disputes for private companies, and later the United States Postal Service. The following year, 1935, Congress passed the National Labor Relations Act (also known as the Wagner Act or NLRA) giving the NLRB a statutory basis for labor policy. The NLRB is made up of a presidential-appointed General Counsel, who investigates and prosecutes unfair labor practices, and a quasi-judicial body known as the Board, which adjudicates unfair labor practices and representational issues involving labor organizations. At the time of its creation, the Board consisted of three members and required a two-member quorum to make decisions. In 1947, Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act, which increased the size of the Board from three to five members and required that members of the Board be confirmed by the Senate. It also raised the quorum needed for the Board to function from two to three members. Since 1993 there have been brief periods of time when the Board had only two members, but these have rarely extended beyond a few days and the two-member Board did not issue decisions.", "National Labor Relations Board\nUS labor law Federal Labor Relations Authority Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service (United States) List of Chairs of the National Labor Relations Board NLRB election procedures Subpoena ad testificandum Subpoena duces tecum Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations Union organizer USA.gov USAFacts", "Duty of fair representation\nThe NLRB recognizes a breach of the duty of fair representation as a violation of the National Labor Relations Act. However, because the duty of fair representation was originally created by judicial interpretation, rather than as an express statutory prohibition, employees covered by the National Labor Relations Act may sue their unions directly, without being required to first exhaust any administrative procedures provided under the National Labor Relations Board. The same is true for workers covered by the Railway Labor Act, which does not provide any administrative procedure for pursuing claims against a union. Employees' claims under either Act are governed by a six-month statute of limitations.", "List of Chairs of the National Labor Relations Board\nThis is a list of Chairs of the National Labor Relations Board.", "David J. Saposs\nSaposs left the Twentieth Century Fund to become Chief Economist of the newly established National Labor Relations Board in 1935. Saposs quickly built a staff, and began collecting information on the role labor unions played in interstate commerce and the social and economic impacts unions had. The research conducted under Saposs' leadership proved critical to winning over the Supreme Court of the United States, which held in \"National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation\", 301 U.S. 1 (1938) that the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) was constitutional. However, Saposs' tenure at the NLRB proved short. Although it had once supported the NLRA, the American Federation of Labor (AFL; which supported craft unionism) became convinced that the Board and its staff (including Saposs) were more supportive of the industrial unionism of its competitor, the Congress of Industrial Organizations. The AFL allied with anti-union Democratic Representative Howard W. Smith to attack the National Labor Relations Board. Saposs was a leader among anti-communist leftists. He had even been surreptitiously assessed by members of the Communist Party USA for membership, and rejected as a prospect. He had also tried to expose those individuals at the Board who he felt were communists. But Smith and others attacked Saposs as a communist, and the United States Congress defunded his division and his job on October 11, 1940.", "The Neutral Thousands\nAfter the organization shutdown due to the charges brought by the Justice Department, many of its members formed together, along with members from other California-based anti-union organizations, to form the Employees Advisory Service in April 1939. In the case of NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD v. SUN TENT-LUEBBERT CO. et al., it is stated that the aforementioned organization worked to carry on much of the work promoted by TNT. The organization was later sued for partnering with TNT to create an employer-dominated union, which violated the National Labor Relations Act.", "National Labor Relations Board\nFischer, Fredric H.; Brent, Garren; and Truesdale, John C., eds. How to Take A Case Before the NLRB. 8th ed. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of National Affairs, 2008. Gould IV, William B. Labored Relations: Law, Politics, and the NLRB. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001.", "Ted Lindsay\nThe confusion worried both employer and employee. The situation was exacerbated by the certification process. The OLRB was taking time, and no one knew how this transnational association would work, or how it would be recognized by the US National Labor Relations Board. In fact, the NLRB asked the NHLPA to withdraw its unfair labor practices charge on November 20, 1957, arguing it did not have jurisdiction. This was followed by the Montreal Canadiens players rejection of the association in early January, 1958.", "National Labor Relations Board\nThe NLB, too, proved ineffective. Congress passed Public Resolution No. 44 on June 19, 1934, which empowered the president to appoint a new labor board with authority to issue subpoenas, hold elections, and mediate labor disputes.[8][9] On June 29, President Roosevelt abolished the NLB and in Executive Order 6763 established a new, three-member National Labor Relations Board.[10][11]", "National Labor Board\nMany of the legal doctrines established by the National Labor Board deeply influenced American labor relations. The Board's exclusive representation doctrine was \"a major landmark in American labor history\". The doctrine was later enacted into law as part of the NLRA, and the NLRB continues to apply it today.", "International Hat Company\nUnionization never proved popular with the employees or the culture of the company. In 1976, the Oran factory voted to unionize with the Retail Clerks Union but the motion failed. In 1985, the National Labor Relations Board ruled against International Hat Company for allegedly violating elements of the National Labor Relations Act. The company was claimed to have infringed upon the right of Tex Barnes, a cutter at the International Hat factory in Piedmont, Missouri to organize a union. Barnes led the efforts for certification in April 1980 and was also a member the union's negotiating committee. However, as in previous instances, the union lost the election when put to an employee vote. The union was formally decertified on March 4, 1982. Barnes filed an unfair labor practice charge against the company nine months later. Although the National Labor Relations Board ruled in Barnes' favor, the United States Court of Appeals Eighth Circuit vacated and remanded the earlier decision.", "Harry A. Millis\nIn 1934, Millis was named a member of the \"first\" National Labor Relations Board. On June 16, 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) into law. Title I, Section 7(a) of the Act guaranteed the right of workers to form unions, and it set off a massive wave of union organizing punctuated by employer and union violence, general strikes, and recognition strikes. Although it was felt Section 7(a) would be self-policing, that assumption failed almost immediately. On August 5, 1933, President Roosevelt announced that the National Recovery Administration was being instructed to establish a National Labor Board (NLB) to administer Section 7(a). (Millis served as the vice-chair of the NLB's Chicago office.) But the NLB provided ineffective without any statutory or regulatory powers, so Roosevelt issued Executive Order 6511 on December 16, 1933, to strengthen the NLB and give it the force of executive authority. But this, too, proved too little to deal with the tremendous labor relations problems facing the country. Finally, threatened with a major strike in the steel industry and a Senate labor relations bill moving forward without presidential input, Roosevelt personally drafted Public Resolution No. 44, a bill which authorized the president to create one or more new labor boards to enforce Section 7(a) by conducting investigations, subpoenaing evidence and witnesses, holding elections, and issuing orders. It passed both houses of Congress on June 16, and Roosevelt signed it into law on June 19, 1934. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 6073 on June 29, 1934, which abolished the NLB and established the National Labor Relations Board. The three-person board was empowered to hold hearings and make findings of fact, investigate violations of Section 7(a), and hold union organizing elections to resolve labor disputes. Millis expressed no interest in serving on the NLRB. Nonetheless, he was asked to join the new board based on his national reputation as an arbitrator, and agreed to do so. Millis was sworn in as a member of the \"first\" NLRB on July 9, 1934.", "James A. Gross\nHis three-volume history of the National Labor Relations Board has been called \"authoritative\" and \"exhaustive\". The second volume in the trilogy, \"The Reshaping of the National Labor Relations Board: National Labor Policy in Transition, 1937-1947\", won the prestigious Philip Taft Labor History Book Award in 1983.", "Bubba Gump Shrimp Company\nIn 2013, a former Bubba Gump employee claimed that the social media policy in the company's employee handbook had a restrictive effect on employees’ rights by prohibiting them from discussing their jobs online. In 2015, a National Labor Relations Board administrative law judge ruled that Bubba Gump did not violate employees’ rights as they did not explicitly prohibit employees from discussing job-related subjects, but only expected them to do so in a civil manner. There have been many cases in the last few years in which the National Labor Relations Board found companies social media policies to be overboard, and ruled in favor of the employee(s).", "NLRB v. Truck Drivers Local 449\nBut the Teamsters filed an unfair labor practice (ULP) charge against the seven employers alleging that the lockout violated Section 8(a)(1) and 8(a)(3) of the National Labor Relations Act. The trial examiner, now called administrative law judge, concluded that a ULP had been committed; but, the five-member National Labor Relations Board (Board) overruled the examiner. The Board concluded the lockout was defensive, not retaliatory, and therefore lawful." ]

[ "St. Joseph's Church (Fall River, Massachusetts)\nThe church is a large and handsome structure of brick with stone trimmings, 170 feet in length, 78 feet wide and surmounted by two golden crosses. The walls are 30 feet high, while from the loftiest point of the roof to the floor the distance is 73 feet. There is a seating capacity of about a thousand. Built without galleries, it is well lighted by several large stained glass windows on the north and south sides, and its cheerfulness is one of the things for which the church is noted. The pictures on the windows are emblematic of episodes in the life of our Blessed Lord. Among the donors of the original set of windows were Mr. and Mrs. James Hayden, Cornelius L. Kelly and Family, Mrs. David Sheedy and Family, Mr. and Mrs. John Collins, In Memory of Reverend Father Bric, In Memory of Reverend Father Brady and a number of the church societies." ]

[ "St. Joseph's Church (Fall River, Massachusetts)\nNational Register of Historic Places listings in Fall River, Massachusetts", "Roman Catholic Diocese of Fall River\nIn addition to St. Mary's Cathedral, two other major churches in the diocese are St. Anthony of Padua in New Bedford, Santo Christo Church and Shrine, and St. Anne's both in Fall River.", "St. Joseph's Church (Fall River, Massachusetts)\nSt. Joseph's Church is a historic church located at 1355 North Main Street in Fall River, Massachusetts. It was built in 1880 in the Gothic Revival style and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. It was designed by notable church architect Patrick C. Keely.", "St. Joseph Cathedral (Sioux Falls, South Dakota)\nThe Cathedral of St. Joseph traces its history to the establishment of St. Michael's Church, Sioux Falls' first Catholic parish. It was founded in 1881 and a wooden building was constructed for a church. Two years later a larger brick church was built. It became the Pro-Cathedral when Bishop Martin Marty, who was Vicar Apostolic of the Dakota Territory, arrived in Sioux Falls in 1889. On November 12, of the same year Pope Leo XIII established the Diocese of Sioux Falls, and St. Michael's become the cathedral for the new diocese.", "List of churches in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York\nChapel of Our Lady of the Way (Hyde Park) Located on the Hyde Park campus of the Culinary Institute of America.† Church of the Holy Trinity (Poughkeepsie) – Established in 1921. Church of Immaculate Conception (Amenia) – Established in 1866. Church of St. Anthony (Pine Plains) – Established in 1958; mission of Immaculate Conception in Amenia (1913–1958). Merged with Immaculate Conception, Amenia in 2015. Chapel of St. Patrick (Millerton) – Established in 1867; desacralized November 30, 2017.[14] Church of Our Lady of Mount Carmel (Poughkeepsie, New York) (Poughkeepsie) Church of Regina Coeli (Hyde Park) – Established in 1877. Chapel of St. Paul (Staatsburg) – Established in 1887. Church of St. Charles Borromeo (Dover Plains) – Established in 1936; formerly a mission of Immaculate Conception in Amenia (1866–1885) and St. John the Evangelist in Pawling (1885–1936). Church of St. Columba (Hopewell Junction) – Established in 1992; former mission of Hopewell Junction in Hopewell Junction. Church of St. Denis (Hopewell Junction) – Established in 1899; formerly a mission of St. Mary in Wappingers Falls (1874–1899). Church of St. Joachim and St. John the Evangelist (Beacon) Church of St. John the Evangelist (Pawling) – Established in 1885; formerly a mission of Immaculate Conception in Amenia (1869–1885). Church of St. Joseph (Millbrook) – Established in 1890; formerly a mission of Immaculate Conception in Amenia (1870–1890). Immaculate Conception Church (Bangall, New York) - merged with St. Joseph, Millbrook 2015. St. Joseph's Chapel, Clinton Corners merged with St. Joseph's, Millbrook 2015. Church of St. Kateri Tekakwitha (LaGrangeville) – Established in 2002; mission of St. Columba in Hopewell Junction (1998–2002). Church of St. Martin de Porres (Poughkeepsie) – Established in 1852; formerly known as Church of the Nativity (1852–1962). Church of St. Mary, Mother of the Church (Fishkill) [15] – Established in 1953; mission of St. Joachim in Beacon (1861–1953). Church of St. Mary (Wappingers Falls) [16] – Established in 1845. Church of St. Peter (Hyde Park) – Established in 1837. Church of St. Stanislaus (Pleasant Valley) – Established in 1903; formerly staffed by the Society of Jesus. St. Mary - St. Joseph Church (Poughkeepsie, New York) - Established 2015. Parish of Good Shepherd and St. Joseph (Rhinebeck, New York)[17] Parish of St. Christopher and St. Sylvia (Red Hook, New York) - Established 2015.[18]", "List of churches in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York\nChurch of Our Lady of Loretto (Cold Spring) – Established in 1834. Chapel of St. Joseph (Garrison) – Established in 1871. Church of St. James the Apostle (Carmel) – Established in 1909. Chapel of Our Lady of the Lake (Lake Carmel) – Established in 1936; former mission of St. John the Evangelist in Mahopac (1936–1947). Church of St. John the Evangelist (Mahopac) – Established in 1889; formerly a mission of St. Joseph in Croton Falls (1866–1889). Chapel of Our Lady Queen of Angels (Mahopac) Church of St. Lawrence O'Toole (Brewster) – Established in 1877; formerly a mission of St. Joseph in Croton Falls (1871–1877). Church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus (Patterson) – Established in 1957; formerly a mission of St. Lawrence O'Toole in Brewster (1934–1957).", "St. John's Church, Kolkata\nBuilt by architect James Agg, the St John's church is built with a combination of brick and stone and was commonly known as the \"Pathure Girja\" (Stone Church). Stone was a rare material in the late 18th century Kolkata. The stones came from the medieval ruins of Gour, and were shipped down the Hooghly River. The minutes book in the church office tell in detail the story of how the ruins of Gaur were robbed to build St John's church.\nThe church is a large square structure in the Neoclassical architectural style. A stone spire 174 ft tall is its most distinctive feature. The spire holds a giant clock, which is wound every day.", "St. Anne's Church and Parish Complex (Fall River, Massachusetts)\nSt. Anne's Church and Parish Complex is a shuttered historic church complex located at 818 Middle Street Fall River, Massachusetts. It was a parish in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Fall River. In addition to the church, the complex also includes the former rectory as well as the former Dominican Academy, constructed in 1894. The complex was formally dedicated in 1906 and closed in 2018. The Administrator at the time of its closure was Rev. David C. Deston Jr.", "St. Patrick's Church (Fall River, Massachusetts)\nSt. Patrick's Church is a historic church building at 1588 South Main Street in Fall River, Massachusetts. It was built in 1881 from local Fall River granite, and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983.", "Notre Dame School (Fall River, Massachusetts)\nNotre Dame School is a historic former school building located at 34 St. Joseph's Street in Fall River, Massachusetts. It was built in 1899, and designed by local architect and parish member Louis G. Destremps, who also designed the nearby St. Joseph's Orphanage and Notre Dame de Lourdes Church.", "St. Louis Church (Fall River, Massachusetts)\nSt. Louis Church was a historic former Roman Catholic church, located at 440 Bradford Avenue in Fall River, Massachusetts. The Gothic Revival church was built in 1885 to the designs of James Murphy. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. The Diocese of Fall River closed the parish in 2001, and the records were transferred to St. Mary's Cathedral (Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption).", "Sisters of St. Joseph\nIn 1902 nine Sisters of St. Joseph from the mother-house at Le Puy took charge of the school in the French parish of St-Roch, Fall River, Massachusetts. The accession of other members from the mother-house enabled the community to take charge of three other schools in the city attached to French parishes. In 1906 St. Theresa's Convent was formally opened as the provincial house of the community, which was legally incorporated in the same year, and a novitiate was established. In the mid 1970s, the Sisters of St. Joseph of Fall River merged with the Springfield Congregation.[80]", "Belfast's Sailortown\nThe maritime-themed Sinclair Seamen's Presbyterian Church and St. Joseph's Chapel, a Roman Catholic church served as the places of worship for the Sailortown populace. Sinclair Seamen's church is still standing on Corporation Street as is St Joseph's, built in 1880 on Princes Dock Street. St Joseph's however is no longer in use, having been closed by the Diocese of Down and Connor in 2001, due to falling attendances and the lack of a local community. Plans for a restoration of the church have been mooted, albeit without any concrete details revealed.", "St. Joseph's Church (Fall River, Massachusetts)\nThe end came on Ash Wednesday, February 18, l885, and the last words that he gave utterance to were these: \"I'm tired; I want to go home!\" On the Friday of that week, February 20, the funeral ceremonies were held with the first religious service in the new church, the officers of the Solemn High Mass of Requiem being: Celebrant, Reverend Father McCabe of Fall River; Deacon, Reverend Father Roach of Taunton; Sub-Deacon, Reverend Father Grace of Fall River; Master of Ceremonies, Reverend Father Briscoe of Fall River. The eulogy was ably delivered by Reverend Father Kinnerney of Pawtucket, R.I., with the absolution and the final blessing by the head of the diocese, Right Reverend Bishop Hendricken. As in the death of the founder of the parish, the body of Reverend Father Brady was laid at rest in a vault in the basement of the church.", "St. Joseph's Catholic Church (Springfield, Ohio)\nSt. Joseph's Church is a historic Catholic church in the city of Springfield, Ohio, United States. Established in the 1880s to serve southeastern Springfield's growing Catholic population, it uses a tall Romanesque Revival church building, which was designed by a leading city architect; the building has been named a historic site.", "Fall River granite\nMany of the cotton textile mills in the city were built from this native stone, and it was highly regarded as a building material for many public buildings and private homes alike. Examples of the stones use within Fall River include St. Mary's Cathedral, The Fall River Historical Society Mansion and the base of St. Anne's Church. The first floor of the former B.M.C. Durfee High School building in Fall River is also constructed of native granite. Another fine example of the use of this material was the Notre Dame de Lourdes Church, Fall River Massachusetts. The entire lower portion of this structure below the roof and steeples was constructed of Fall River granite. Unfortunately this building was destroyed by fire on May 11, 1982.", "St. Joseph's Orphanage (Fall River, Massachusetts)\nSt. Joseph's Orphanage is an historic former orphanage and school located at 56 St. Joseph Street in Fall River, Massachusetts.", "Church of St. Joseph in Greenwich Village\nSt. Joseph's Parish was founded by Bishop John Dubois in 1829. At the time St. Joseph's Parish began, the population of New York, numbering 203,000, was concentrated in the southern half of Manhattan. The parish boundaries stretched from Canal Street to 20th Street, and from Broadway to the Hudson River. Early church records indicate that St. Joseph's first congregants were predominantly Irish-Americans.", "St. Francis de Sales Oratory (St. Louis)\nThe sanctuary contains an altarpiece featuring a polychrome sculpture of the Crucifixion in its upper register. Side altars are located in two subsidiary apses and dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary and Saint Joseph. There are altars as well in honor of Our Mother of Perpetual Help and the Infant of Prague. It is a German “hall church\", with side aisles almost as tall as the 70-foot-high nave. The hall church plan permits exceptionally tall windows; the stained glass is the work of the eminent St. Louis glazier Emil Frei, Sr., at that time recently arrived from Munich. German saints include St. Henry, St. Boniface, St. Elizabeth, and the Blessed Herman Joseph Steinfeld. The Winkle Terra Cotta Company of St. Louis produced much of the window tracery. The interior frescos were painted by German immigrant Fridolin Fuchs in 1916; the rose shade of the ceiling decorations are particularly characteristic of German churches.", "James Edwin Cassidy\nCassidy served as professor of science at St. Joseph's Seminary in Yonkers, New York, where he also served as treasurer for three years. He then served in Attleboro, Massachusetts, and later became chancellor of the Diocese of Fall River. From 1908 to 1913, he served as rector of St. Mary's Cathedral. He was named vicar general (1909) and a domestic prelate (1912) before becoming pastor of St. Patrick's Church in Fall River in 1913.", "Jesus Marie Convent (Fall River, Massachusetts)\nThe Jesus Marie Convent is a historic former convent located at 138 St. Joseph's Street in Fall River, Massachusetts. It was built in 1887 and designed by local architect and parish member Louis G. Destremps, who also designed the nearby orphanage, school and church.", "St. Joseph's Church (Fall River, Massachusetts)\nThe trustees of the church are Henry J. Whalen and James H. O'Neil.", "Notre Dame de Lourdes Church (Fall River, Massachusetts)\nNotre Dame de Lourdes, then known as St. Bernadette Parish, is a former Roman Catholic parish in Fall River, Massachusetts. The parish was established in 1874 to serve the growing French-Canadian population located in the city's Flint Village section. Since its founding, the parish has occupied three different church buildings; a wooden structure (1874–1893), a spectacular granite church (1906–1982) and the current modern church (1986-2018). The parish complex over time has also consisted of other multiple buildings, including St. Joseph's Orphanage, The Jesus Marie Convent, a school, the church rectory, the Brothers' residence, and the former Msgr. Prevost High School. The parish also includes Notre Dame Cemetery, located in the city's south end.", "St. Joseph's Church (Fall River, Massachusetts)\nThe church's pipe organ was built in 1883 by W.K. Adams & Sons in Providence RI.[2] It is one of the largest built by them. It was once run by water and then by bellows.", "St. Joseph's Catholic Church (Egypt, Ohio)\nAlthough it was seen as doomed to closure, St. Joseph's Church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 because of its well-preserved historic architecture; the rectory was also included in the nomination. These buildings were part of a collection of nearly thirty churches and various other church-related buildings, designated the \"Cross-Tipped Churches Thematic Resources,\" a multiple property submission of properties in western Ohio related to the Missionaries of the Precious Blood. Architectural historians have divided these churches into four generations; St. Joseph's is a member of the second generation, which are generally simple rectangular brick buildings without tall spires. Many churches from this generation, such as St. Joseph's and St. Anthony's in Padua, were later expanded by the addition of a single tower at the front of the building, due to the prevalence of such towers at the construction of newer churches. Few churches from before this period survive; only St. John's in Fryburg to the northwest and St. Augustine's in Minster remain churches, and St. Augustine's has been greatly modified by the addition of twin towers. Because most churches in this region are tall Gothic Revival structures with large towers, the region has become known as the \"Land of the Cross-Tipped Churches.\"", "St. Joseph's Catholic Church (Davenport, Iowa)\nDavenport architect Victor Huot designed St. Joseph's in the High Victorian Gothic style. Huot had previously designed St. Mary's Church. The building is a Basilica-plan church with its main entrance at the base of the gable-end tower. It is constructed in brick on a stone foundation. The decorative brickwork, especially the corbel table at the eaves, is one of its most distinguished features. Its verticality is achieved by way of the exaggerated pendant corbelling and the tall, pointed-arch windows. The windows on the main facade, along the side walls and in the apse are all paired lancet windows that are filled with stained glass. There is also a tracery rose window in the tower. The tower itself features a tall, slender spire that rises above sharply-drawn gables on the bell-chamber.", "St. Joseph's Church (Fall River, Massachusetts)\nRight Reverend Bishop Hendricken presided over the lengthy ceremonial of dedication, and this was followed by a Solemn High Mass with these officers: Celebrant, Reverend Father James F. Roach of Taunton; Deacon, Reverend Father Michael P. Cassidy of Fall River; Sub-Deacon, Reverend Father Patrick McLaughlin of Woonsocket, R.I.; Master of Ceremonies, Reverend Father Michael O'Hare of Fall River. The sermon was by Reverend Father R.J. Barry of Hyde Park, who spoke in English and French from the text: \"How goodly are thy tents, O Jacob, and thy tabernacles, O Israel.\" After paying deserved tribute to the three clergymen who had initiated, carried on and finished the erection of the noble building, he entered into an explanation of the meaning conveyed to the faithful in the dedication of a church and of the great power for good it would be in the community. A score of priests were in the sanctuary, and the congregation that filled every seat in the edifice followed his words with a rare degree of interest.", "List of churches in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York\nChurch of Our Lady of Fatima (Plattekill) – Established in 1960; mission of St. Joseph in New Paltz. Formerly staffed by the Theatine Fathers. Church of St. Augustine (Highland) – Formerly a mission of St. James in Milton (1899–??) Church of St. Charles Borromeo (Gardiner) – Established in 1882 and suppressed in 1885; reestablished in 1892 and suppressed in 1929; reestablished in 1976. Formerly a mission of St. James in Milton (1885–1892) and a mission of St. Joseph in New Windsor (1929–1976). Church of St. Francis de Sales (Phoenicia) – Established in 1902; formerly staffed by the La Salette Fathers (1902–2004). Church of St. John (West Hurley) – Established in 1860. Chapel of St. Augustine (West Shokan) Church of St. John the Evangelist (Saugerties) Church of St. Joseph (Kingston)[24] – Established in 1868. Church of St. Joseph (New Paltz) – Established in 1929; formerly a mission of St. Charles Borromeo in Gardiner (1892–1929). Staffed by the Capuchin Friars. Church of St. Mary and St. Andrew (Ellenville) – Established in 1956 from the merger of St. Mary & St. Andrew Churches. Chapel of Our Lady of Lourdes (Kerhonkson) – Established in 1957. Church of St. Peter (Rosendale) – Established in 1860. Chapel of Our Lady Help of Christians (High Falls) Church of the Immaculate Conception (Kingston) – Established in 1896. St. Mary of the Snow - St. Joseph Church (Saugerties, New York) - Established 2015. Parish of St. Catherine Labouré - St. Colman (Lake Katrine)[25] Chapel of St. Anne (Sawkill) – Established in 1905 and suppressed in 1972; formerly a mission of St. Joseph in Kingston. Parish of the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin Mary and of the Sacred Heart (Port Ewen) – Established in 2015; staffed by the Redemptorist Fathers (1913–present).[26] Parish of St. Mary and of Saint James (Marlboro) – Established in 2015; formerly a mission of the Presentation of the B.V.M. in Port Ewen and of St. James in Milton (1867–1900). Chapel of Our Lady of Mercy (Roseton) – Established in 1887; formerly a mission of St. James in Milton (1887–1900). Parish of St. Mary/Holy Name of Jesus and of Saint Peter (Kingston) – Established in 2015.", "St. Joseph's Orphanage (Fall River, Massachusetts)\nIn 1989, the building was converted into residential apartments, with a large addition to the north side. A statue of Saint Joseph was removed from the alcove atop the front of the building and placed on the nearby grounds of Notre Dame Church.", "St. Joseph's Catholic Church (Wapakoneta, Ohio)\nArchitectural historians have divided the Precious Blood-related churches of western Ohio into multiple generations. Only a few buildings remain from the first generation, which consisted primarily of small wooden churches, and only St. John's Church in Fryburg remains essentially unchanged. Replacing these wooden buildings were the churches of the second generation, which were generally small brick buildings without tall spires. The churches of the third generation are mostly High Gothic Revival structures with tall towers, but the final generation of churches includes a wide range of styles. As a Romanesque Revival church built in 1910, St. Joseph's is one of the newest churches in the region, and it plainly is a part of the final generation." ]

[ "Institutional Revolutionary Party\nThe Institutional Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Institucional, PRI) is a Mexican political party founded in 1929 that held uninterrupted power in the country for 71 years from 1929 to 2000, first as the National Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Nacional Revolucionario, PNR), then as the Party of the Mexican Revolution (Spanish: Partido de la Revolución Mexicana, PRM), and finally renaming itself as the Institutional Revolutionary Party in 1946." ]

[ "Defective democracy\nDelegative democracies commonly happen when there is just one ruling party in a nation. Mexico prior to 1997 is a perfect example. Mexico's ruling party, the Institutional Revolutionary Party, ruled supreme unchecked by any competition and ruled the nation as they saw fit. Having a majority in Congress while also controlling the executive branch gave them supreme power over the land, ruling completely unchecked. The IRP's goal was simple, rule with undisputed power. During the IRP's political dominance in Mexico, the nation was a delegative democracy with the executive branch ruling supreme.", "Workers' Revolutionary Party (Mexico)\nFrom their base in the 1968 student movement, the PRT grew quickly, soon gaining bases of support among some telephone, electrical, nuclear, and hospital workers. By the 1980s, it was the largest far-left party to challenge the ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). In 1981, the federal government recognized the PRT as an official nationwide party. In the 1982 general elections, it was also the first Mexican party to raise gay rights as a campaign issue; the party fielded several openly gay candidates for the Chamber of Deputies. It also entered informal alliances with the other main party on the far left, the United Socialist Party of Mexico (PSUM).", "1929 Mexican general election\nThe National Revolutionary Party, founded in 1928 by Mexico's most powerful leader at the time, Plutarco Elías Calles, made its debut in these elections. The 1929 elections marked the beginning of 71 uninterrupted years of rule by that party, which was later renamed Party of the Mexican Revolution in 1938 and finally, Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) in 1946. No opposition party would win a Presidential election until the 2000 elections.", "Tijuana\nAt present the parties with greater presence in Tijuana are the National Action Party (PAN), Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), and Ecologist Green Party of Mexico (PVEM). The PAN has been the dominant party in the city for 20 years. Historically the PRI had been the dominant party in regional politics, until 1989 when the PAN began to dominate the city, until yet again, in 2004, PRI began regaining prominence and won the Mayor's Office.", "Pedro Pablo Treviño Villarreal\nHe has twice been nominated by the Institutional Revolutionary Party for public election, first in 2006 when he sought to be Federal Deputy by Nuevo León’s 6th Federal District, and the second in the 2012’s federal elections when he ran for Federal Deputy nominated by the \"Compromiso por Mexico\" coalition, made up of the Institutional Revolutionary Party and the Ecologist Green Party, by Nuevo León’s 12th Federal District.", "Politics of Mexico\nThe NRP was later renamed the Mexican Revolution Party and finally the Institutional Revolutionary Party. The social institutions created by the party itself provided it with the necessary strength to stay in power. In time, the system gradually became, as some political scientists have labeled it, an \"electoral authoritarianism\", in that the party resorted to any means necessary, except that of the dissolution of the constitutional and electoral system itself, to remain in power. In fact, Mexico was considered a bastion of continued constitutional government in times where coup d'états and military dictatorships were the norm in Latin America, in that the institutions were renovated electorally, even if only in appearance and with little participation of the opposition parties at the local level.", "Mexican Revolution\nThe PRI, or Institutional Revolutionary Party is one of the major lasting legacies of the Mexican Revolution; its first iteration was the Partido Nacional Revolucionario founded in 1929 under Northern revolutionary general and president of Mexico (1924–1928) Plutarco Elías Calles, following the assassination of president-elect (and former president) Álvaro Obregón in 1928. The establishment of the party created an enduring structure that managed not only presidential succession but also groups with competing interests. Initially, Calles remained the power behind the presidency during a period known as the Maximato, but his hand-picked presidential candidate, Lázaro Cárdenas, won a power struggle with Calles, expelling him from the country. Cárdenas reorganized the party that Calles founded, creating formal sectors for interest groups, including one for the Mexican military. The reorganized party was named Party of the Mexican Revolution. In 1946, the party again changed its name to the Institutional Revolutionary Party. The party under its various names held the presidency uninterruptedly from 1929 to 2000, and again from 2012 to 2018 under President Enrique Peña Nieto.", "Elections in Mexico\nMexico has a multi-party system, with three dominant political parties, prior to 2000 Mexico had a Dominant-party system dominated by the Institutional Revolutionary Party, and a number of smaller ones. Alliances and coalitions are common; normally, they are local (state) affairs and involve one of the big three and any number of minor parties; on extraordinary occasions, two of the big three will ally themselves against the third (see, for example, 2003 Colima state election or 2004 Chihuahua state election).", "Progressive Constitutionalist Party (Mexico)\nThe Progressive Constitutionalist Party () was a liberal political party in Mexico. The party was founded by Francisco I. Madero in 1910. The party supported Madero, and later General Venustiano Carranza. In 1929 the PCP merged into the National Revolutionary Party now known as the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI).", "Revolutionary Nationalist Movement\nAt the time of its establishment it was a leftist/reformist party, along the lines of similar Latin American parties such as the Dominican Revolutionary Party, Democratic Action in Venezuela, the Mexican Institutional Revolutionary Party and the Peruvian Aprista Party. The MNR first came to power in 1943, as supporters of the reformist military regime of Gualberto Villarroel.", "Institutional Revolutionary Party\nCárdenas's successor Manuel Ávila Camacho gave the party its present name in 1946.[22] The party, under its three different names, held every political position until 1946 when the PAN started winning posts for municipal president and federal deputies and senators, starting in 1946, after the party changed its name to its current name, the Institutional Revolutionary Party. By then, the party had acquired a reputation for corruption, and while this was admitted (to a degree) by some of its affiliates, its supporters maintained that the role of the party was crucial in the modernization and stabilization of Mexico.", "Politics of Mexico\nThe politics of Mexico are dominated by three political parties: National Action Party (PAN), the National Regeneration Movement (MORENA) and Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). In 2018, The Freedom House, Freedom in the World Rankings, rated Mexico as \"Partly Free\" country.", "Politics of Mexico\nHistorically, there were important high-profile defections from the Institutional Revolutionary Party, like the ones of Juan Andreu Almazán, Ezequiel Padilla, Miguel Henríquez Guzmán, and Cuahtémoc Cárdenas, son of President Lázaro Cárdenas. These departures happened mainly because they opposed the presidential candidate nominations; however, only Cárdenas departure in 1988 resulted in the establishment of another political party (Party of the Democratic Revolution).", "Bloc party (politics)\nIn Mexico during the rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI, 1929–2000), partidos paleros (satellite parties) included the Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution and the Socialist Popular Party. These helped the PRI government give the superficial appearance of a competitive democratic system. In fact, both satellite parties fully supported the government and co-nominated the PRI candidates for the Presidency of Mexico until 1988.", "2006 Oaxaca protests\nAt the heart of the continuing conflict are attitudes towards the state's governor, Ulises Ruiz, a member of the Institutional Revolutionary Party which governed Mexico for most of the 20th century, but which now is a minority in a nation where political power resides in 3 main parties. However, the main power struggle is between the rightist National Action Party and the leftist Democratic Revolutionary Party, leaving the Institutional Revolutionary Party free to form coalitions with one of the two parties. Ruiz is a polemical figure whom opponents accuse of stealing his 2004 election, suppressing the freedom of the press, destruction of public spaces and historical monuments in the city, and repression of political opponents. Protestors argue that the constitution gives the central government the power under certain circumstances to remove a sitting governor; the Senate of the Republic, voted on the issue and decided that those \"special circumstances\" are not to be found in Oaxaca.", "Koenkai\nThe centrist Mexican political party Institutional Revolutionary Party (Spanish: \"Partido Revolucionario Institucional,\" PRI\")\" has in the past employed clientelistic tactics, similar to those found in Japan. During the party's rule of Mexico from 1929 to 2000, the party established a network of local civil and political organisations which were loyal to the party. Through this, political powers and benefits, and state resources were predominantly directed to regions in which the party had large support bases.", "José Murat Casab\nNelson José Murat Casab (; born October 18, 1947) is a Mexican politician and a member of the Institutional Revolutionary Party. He was Governor of Oaxaca and is a Diputado Federal elected from the ranks of Alliance for Mexico of Institutional Revolutionary Party-Ecologist Green Party of Mexico. He is of Assyrian descent, born to an Assyrian family from the village of Tel Keppe, Iraq.", "President of the Institutional Revolutionary Party\nThis is a list of Presidents of the Institutional Revolutionary Party of Mexico.", "History of Mexico\nSome scholars consider the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 as its end point. \"Economic and social conditions improved in accordance with revolutionary policies, so that the new society took shape within a framework of official revolutionary institutions,\" with the constitution providing that framework.[50] Organized labor gained significant power, as seen in Article 123 of the Constitution of 1917. Land reform in Mexico was enabled by Article 27. Economic nationalism was also enabled by Article 27, restricting ownership of enterprises by foreigners. The Constitution also further restricted the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico; implementing the restrictions in the late 1920s resulted in major violence in the Cristero War. A ban on re-election of the president was enshrined in the Constitution and in practice. Political succession was achieved in 1929 with the creation of the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), the political party that has dominated Mexico since its creation, now called the Institutional Revolutionary Party.", "President of Mexico\nThe history of Mexico has not been a peaceful one. After the fall of dictator Porfirio Díaz in 1910 because of the Mexican Revolution, there was no stable government until 1929, when all the revolutionary leaders united in one political party: the National Revolutionary Party, which later changed its name to the Party of the Mexican Revolution, and is now the Institutional Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Institucional). From then until 1988, the PRI ruled Mexico as a virtual one-party state.", "Institutional Revolutionary Party\nThe National Revolutionary Party was founded in 1929 by Plutarco Elías Calles, Mexico's paramount leader at the time and self-proclaimed \"Jefe Máximo\" (Supreme Chief) of the Mexican Revolution. The party was created with the intent of providing a political space in which all the surviving leaders and combatants of the Mexican Revolution could participate, and to solve the grave political crisis caused by the assassination of president-elect Álvaro Obregón in 1928. Although Calles himself fell into political disgrace and was exiled in 1936, the party continued ruling Mexico until 2000, changing names twice until it became the Institutional Revolutionary Party.", "Institutional Revolutionary Party\nMontiel won the right to run against Madrazo for the candidacy but withdrew when it was made public that he and his French wife had multi-million properties in Europe.[43] Madrazo and Everardo Moreno contended in the primaries which was won by the first.[44] Madrazo then represented the PRI and the Ecologist Green Party of Mexico (PVEM) in the Alliance for Mexico coalition.", "Institutional Revolutionary Party\nEven though the armed phase of the Mexican Revolution had ended in 1920, Mexico continued to encounter political unrest. A grave political crisis caused by the 1928 assassination of president-elect Álvaro Obregón led to the founding in 1929 of the National Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Nacional Revolucionario, PNR) by Plutarco Elías Calles, Mexico's president from 1924 to 1928.", "Mexican labor law\nMexican labor law governs the process by which workers in Mexico may organize labor unions, engage in collective bargaining, and strike. Current labor law reflects the historic interrelation between the state and the Confederation of Mexican Workers, the labor confederation officially aligned with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (the Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI), which ruled Mexico under various names for more than seventy years. ", "List of current state governors in Mexico\nIncluding the Head of Government of Mexico City, 13 governorships are held by the Institutional Revolutionary Party, 10 are members of the National Action Party, 4 are members of the National Regeneration Movement, 2 are members of the Party of the Democratic Revolution, 1 is a member of the Social Encounter Party, 1 is a member of the Citizens' Movement and 1 is an Independent.", "Radio in Mexico\nThe National Revolutionary Party, predecessor to the Institutional Revolutionary Party, launched station XEFO (originally known as \"XE-PNR\") 940 kHz in Mexico City on January 1, 1931. The station served as a method of disseminating party ideology and propaganda and was the primary news and propaganda source for the party during the 1934 presidential elections that brought Lázaro Cárdenas into power. The station was sold in 1941 and was succeeded by two separate outlets: XEQR on 1030, owned by Francisco Aguirre Jiménez, and XERCN 1110, owned by Rafael Cutberto Navarro and his Radio Cadena Nacional.", "History of Panama (1964–77)\nIn late 1969 a close associate of Torrijos announced the formation of the New Panama Movement. This movement was originally intended to organize peasants, workers, and other social groups and was patterned after that of Mexico's Institutional Revolutionary Party. No organizational structure was established, however, and by 1971 the idea had been abandoned. The government party was revived under a different name, the Democratic Revolutionary Party (\"Partido Revolucionario Democrático\", PRD) in the late 1970s.", "Pact for Mexico\nThe Pact for Mexico is a national political agreement signed on December 2, 2012 in the Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City by the president of Mexico, Enrique Peña Nieto, as well as Gustavo Madero Muñoz, the president of the National Action Party; Cristina Díaz, the acting chair of the Institutional Revolutionary Party; and Jesús Zambrano Grijalva, chair of the Party of the Democratic Revolution. The Green Party of Mexico joined as a signatory to the agreement on January 28, 2013. The pact's framework is composed of 95 public policy proposals based on three guiding principles:", "Ecologist Green Party of Mexico\nThe Ecological Green Party of Mexico (, PVEM or PVE) is a green-conservative political party in Mexico. In the 2012 Legislative elections, the party took 34 seats in the Chamber of Deputies (out of 500) and nine seats in the Senate (out of 128). During the 2012 Presidential election, PVEM supported Enrique Peña Nieto (EPN), the candidate from the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), who was elected. In 2018, PVEM supported Todos por México Everyone for Mexico coalition, along with PRI and Panal. José Antonio Meade, the coalition's candidate, came in third in a four-way race, with 16.43% of the vote.", "José Manzur Quiroga\nJosé Manzur Quiroga was born on January 25, 1955, in Aculco, State of Mexico. He’s a Certified Public Accountant and a Lawyer. Since 1976 Manzur has been affiliated to the Institutional Revolutionary Party.\nA year after José Manzur was affiliated to the Institutional Revolutionary Party, he was named the leader of the Revolutionary Youth Movement; on 1986 he became organizational secretary in the Municipal Committee of the Party; on 1987 he became district chief on Ixtapan de la Sal and on 1988 special chief in Huixquilucan." ]

[ "Royal Observer Corps\nThe Royal Observer Corps (ROC) was a civil defence organisation intended for the visual detection, identification, tracking and reporting of aircraft over Great Britain. It operated in the United Kingdom between 29 October 1925 and 31 December 1995, when the Corps' civilian volunteers were stood down. (ROC headquarters staff at RAF Bentley Priory stood down on 31 March 1996). Composed mainly of civilian spare-time volunteers, ROC personnel wore a Royal Air Force (RAF) style uniform and latterly came under the administrative control of RAF Strike Command and the operational control of the Home Office. Civilian volunteers were trained and administered by a small cadre of professional full-time officers under the command of the Commandant Royal Observer Corps; latterly a serving RAF Air Commodore." ]

[ "Royal Observer Corps\nTo help ex-Corps members and their dependants who are in need, to obtain assistance from the Royal Observer Corps Benevolent Fund.[13]", "RAF Bentley Priory\nWhen the Corps' first Commandant Air Commodore Edward Masterman CB CBE AFC RAF(R’td) had stood down in April 1936, Air Commodore Alfred Warrington-Morris CB CMG OBE AFC MiD RAF(R’td) replaced him and took control of the Observer Corps during the important period immediately prior to the Second World War. He oversaw the move of HQ Observer Corps to Bentley Priory and the Corps’ adoption by RAF Fighter Command. He also controlled the Corps during the memorable events of the Battle of Britain and was still at the helm when the Observer Corps was granted the title Royal to become the Royal Observer Corps and became a uniformed branch of the RAF. Warrington-Morris was Mentioned in Despatches in July 1940.", "Black beret\nWhen uniforms were issued to the Royal Observer Corps there was a surplus of Royal Armoured Corps black berets that were given to the unit.", "Royal Observer Corps\nTo raise money for the Royal Observer Corps Benevolent Fund.", "Derek Wood (author)\nA lifelong and keen aircraft spotter, Derek was a sparetime volunteer member of the Royal Observer Corps for nearly fifty years and wrote the history of the Corps in his 1975 book \"Attack Warning Red : The Royal Observer Corps and the Defence of Britain, 1925 to 1975\", later updated in 1992 when the Corps was stood down. Derek joined the Royal Observer Corps in 1947 and served on posts near Chichester, London, and at Cuckfield (north of Brighton) after moving there in the 1960s. As a journalist and aerospace expert he did his utmost to further the Corps' standing in both military and civil areas. ", "Alfred Warrington-Morris\nIn 1934 on leaving the Royal Air Force he was employed as the Deputy Commandant of the Observer Corps under Air Commodore Edward Masterman CB CBE AFC RAF (Rtd) at RAF Uxbridge. Between 1935 and 1936 he was appointed Commandant of Southern Area of the Observer Corps during the massive and crucial expansion and development of the Corps during the inter war years.\nWhen Air Commodore Masterman stood down as Commandant ROC in April 1936 Warrington-Morris replaced him and took control of the Observer Corps during the important period immediately prior to the Second World War. He oversaw the move of HQ Observer Corps to RAF Bentley Priory and the Corps' adoption by RAF Fighter Command. He also controlled the Corps during the memorable events of the Battle of Britain and was still at the helm when the Observer Corps was granted the title \"Royal\" to become the Royal Observer Corps and became a uniformed branch of the RAF. He was Mentioned in Despatches in July 1940.", "Royal Observer Corps Medal\nThe Royal Observer Corps Medal is a long service medal awarded in the United Kingdom to members of the Royal Observer Corps (ROC) relating to service between 1941 and December 1995, when the ROC was stood down. The medal was initiated in 1950 by HM King George Vl.", "Royal Observer Corps\nAt this time the only uniform items issued to Observer Corps personnel were steel helmets bearing the stenciled letters 'O C', together with blue/white (vertically striped) armbands bearing the same. Both items of equipment were similar in style to those issued to members of the civil defence emergency services, including the Auxiliary Fire Service ('AFS') and Air Raid Precautions ('ARP'). With their status having previously been that of Special Constable, it was ironic that the initial batch of helmets issued to Observer Corps members were the same as those issued to Police forces; black in colour with the word 'POLICE' stencilled in white. (This led some Observer Corps members to simply scratch off the stencilled letters P, L, I, and E, to leave letters O and C remaining). High quality Royal Navy-issue binoculars were issued to observers, whose observation posts often consisted of nothing more than a wooden garden shed located next to a telegraph pole, this arrangement enabling a telecommunications link to be established with a control centre, often via a manual switchboard at local telephone exchange.", "Royal Observer Corps\nOrganisations similar to the ROC were formed elsewhere during the Second World War, including the Ground Observer Corps, (USA), the Aircraft Identity Corps, (Canada), and the Volunteer Air Observers Corps, (Australia). However, unlike the Royal Observer Corps, most of these organisations had been disbanded by the end of the 1950s.", "Commandant Royal Observer Corps\nThe Commandant of the Royal Observer Corps (CROC) was the Royal Air Force commander of the Royal Observer Corps. All the holders of the post were RAF officers in the rank of Air Commodore, initially retired reserve officers then Auxiliary officers and, since the end of World War II, serving officers. The ROC was a uniformed civilian branch initially under the control of the Air Defence of Great Britain organization, then Fighter Command and latterly Strike Command. The Royal Observer Corps existed from 1925 until it was stood down in 1995. Most of the commandants, with only three exceptions, were qualified RAF pilots, two being air navigators and the other a General Duties (Ground) Supply Branch officer. If a Royal Observer Corps officer had ever held the appointment, they would have held the rank of \"Observer Commodore\".", "Edward Masterman\nFollowing his retirement as Commandant, Air Commodore Masterman immediately rejoined the Royal Observer Corps as a civilian part-time volunteer with the rank of Observer Captain and served as the ROC's Western Area Commandant between 1937 and 1942, although by special permission of Warrington-Morris, he was permitted to wear his RAF Air Commodore's uniform and rank braid after April 1941 when the Observer Corps became the Royal Observer Corps and part of RAF Fighter Command.", "Royal Observer Corps\nList of Royal Observer Corps / United Kingdom Warning and Monitoring Organisation Posts List of ROC Group Headquarters and UKWMO Sector controls AWDREY Commandant Royal Observer Corps Operational instruments of the Royal Observer Corps RAF Bentley Priory Royal Observer Corps Medal Royal Observer Corps Monitoring Post Skywatch march United Kingdom Warning and Monitoring Organisation", "Aircraft recognition\nThe Royal Observer Corps established an annual four-man recognition team, with keen competition amongst observers for selection. The team continued to compete annually in the UK's \"Joint Services Aircraft Recognition Competition\" and in international competitions with other NATO countries until 1991, despite aircraft recognition being dropped as an operational role for the Corps in 1957. There was also a hard-fought annual competition with the Luftmeldekorpsett, the Danish Ground Observer Corps.", "Museum of Army Flying\nThe Museum covers the history of Army aviation from the Balloon sections of the Royal Engineers, through the establishment of the Royal Flying Corps in 1912 and Air Observation Post (AOP)Squadrons. It brings the story up to date with the establishment of the Army Air Corps in 1957, from the merger of the Glider Pilot Regiment and the AOP Squadrons.", "Royal Flying Corps\nThe Royal Flying Corps Canada was established by the RFC in 1917 to train aircrew in Canada. Air Stations were established in southern Ontario at the following locations:The RFC was also responsible for the manning and operation of observation balloons on the Western front. When the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) arrived in France in August 1914, it had no observation balloons and it was not until April 1915 that the first balloon company was on strength, albeit on loan from the French Aérostiers. The first British unit arrived 8 May 1915, and commenced operations during the Battle of Aubers Ridge. Operations from balloons thereafter continued throughout the war. Highly hazardous in operation, a balloon could only be expected to last a fortnight before damage or destruction. Results were also highly dependent on the expertise of the observer and was subject to the weather conditions.\nTo keep the balloon out of the range of artillery fire, it was necessary to locate the balloons some distance away from the front line or area of military operations. However, the stable platform offered by a kite-balloon made it more suitable for the cameras of the day than an aircraft.", "George Evatt\nEvatt's obituary in the \"British Medical Journal\" observed that he would be \"chiefly remembered for his persistent advocacy of the formation of the medical officers of the army into a Corps\". His efforts in that regard began at least as early as 1884, when he read a paper to the Royal United Services Institute calling for a series of reforms. The Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC) was eventually established in 1898. When the Royal Army Medical College opened in 1907, Evatt was one of four officers whose names were placed on a memorial dedicated to those who had been instrumental in the creation of the RAMC.", "Royal Observer Corps Medal\nIn July 1961 the Commandant ROC Air Commodore Wight-Boycott presented a Royal Observer Corps Medal to the Battle of Britain Class locomotive no.34050 \"Royal Observer Corps\", which had commenced service with the Southern Railway company in December 1946; the ceremony taking place at Waterloo station. The medal was mounted in a glass fronted cabinet in the driver's cab and the locomotive's side was repainted with a representation of the medal and its ribbon. These were displayed until the engine was retired from service and scrapped in the late 1960s. However, the original nameplate and front badge were recovered and displayed in the entrance hall of RAF Bentley Priory, (HQ ROC), until 1996 when they were transferred to the RAF Museum, Hendon.", "Royal Observer Corps Orlit Post\nThe Royal Observer Corps Orlit Post is an observation post used by the Royal Observer Corps during the Cold War to recognise enemy aircraft. Many Orlit Posts can be found near ROC Monitoring Posts.", "Royal Observer Corps\nThe work of the Royal Observer Corps is quite often unjustly overlooked, and receives little recognition, and I therefore wish that the service they rendered on this occasion be as widely advertised as possible, and all units of the Air Defence of Great Britain are therefore to be informed of the success of this latest venture of the Royal Observer Corps.", "Royal Flying Corps\nWith the growing recognition of the potential for aircraft as a cost-effective method of reconnaissance and artillery observation, the Committee of Imperial Defence established a sub-committee to examine the question of military aviation in November 1911. On 28 February 1912 the sub-committee reported its findings which recommended that a flying corps be formed and that it consist of a naval wing, a military wing, a central flying school and an aircraft factory. The recommendations of the committee were accepted and on 13 April 1912 King George V signed a royal warrant establishing the Royal Flying Corps. The Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers became the Military Wing of the Royal Flying Corps a month later on 13 May.", "Royal Observer Corps\nAircraft Detection Corps Newfoundland Aircraft Identity Corps (Canada) Civil Air Patrol (USA) Ground Observer Corps (USA) Luftmeldekorpset Volunteer Air Observers Corps (Australia)", "Royal Observer Corps\nIn 1929 the control of the Observer Corps passed from the county police forces to the Air Ministry, although Chief Constables retained responsibility for personnel and recruitment matters. 1 March 1929 saw the establishment of the new Headquarters of the Observer Corps at Hillingdon House, RAF Uxbridge in the west of London, and Air Commodore Edward A D Masterman CB CMG CBE AFC RAF (Rtd) was appointed as the first commandant of the Observer Corps. Air Cdre Masterman held this appointment until his retirement on 1 March 1936, and was succeeded by Air Commodore Alfred Warrington-Morris CG CMG OBE AFC RAF (Rtd), who would lead the Observer Corps through the critical period during the Second World War which saw the RAF emerge bruised but victorious following the Battle of Britain of 1940.", "Royal Observer Corps\nIn 1986 the Royal Observer Corps Association (ROCA) was established[11] with membership open to members of the ROC to provide close and continuing links between former ROC members. The association is organised on a regional basis with representation in each of the twenty five groups. Each group produces and distributes a magazine several times a year to keep the membership informed of developments and both local or national news.[12]", "750 Naval Air Squadron\nThe Royal Navy established HM Naval Seaplane Training School on 30 July 1917 at Lee-on-Solent; the unit was responsible for the training of seaplane pilots and observers. When the Royal Naval Air Service and the Royal Flying Corps merged on 1 April 1918 to form the Royal Air Force, the school was renamed No. 209 Training Depot.\nThroughout the early 1920s pilots and observers of seaplanes were trained at Lee-on-Solent under a variety of names; from 1921 the base was renamed the RAF Seaplane Training School, and from 1923, the RAF School of Naval Co-operation. Although the school now concentrated on observer training, from 1925 all naval aircrew were provided by the RAF, and training of naval officers as observers ceased. During this period the primary training aircraft was the Fairey IIID.", "Volunteer Air Observers Corps (Australia)\nThe Volunteer Air Observers Corps (VAOC) was an Australian air defence organisation of World War II. The VAOC was formed on 31 December 1941 to support the Royal Australian Air Force by sighting and observing aircraft over Australia. The VAOC swiftly established observation posts across Australia and provided information to the RAAF's regional air control posts. As the threat to Australia declined the VAOC's role was expanded to include coast watching, assisting air traffic control and weather reporting. The VAOC was staffed by civilian volunteers and reached a peak strength of 24,000 personnel and 2,656 observation posts in 1944. After the end of the war the VAOC was reduced to a cadre in December 1945 and was disbanded on 10 April 1946. The VAOC was similar to the British Royal Observer Corps.", "Royal Observer Corps\nTo give support to any future re-establishment of the Royal Observer Corps as a voluntary organisation.", "Operational instruments of the Royal Observer Corps\nThe Royal Observer Corps (ROC) was a civil defence organisation operating in the United Kingdom between October 1925 and 31 December 1995, when the Corps' civilian volunteers were stood down. (ROC headquarters staff at RAF Bentley Priory stood down on 31 March 1996). Composed mainly of civilian spare-time volunteers, ROC personnel wore a Royal Air Force (RAF) style uniform and latterly came under the administrative control of RAF Strike Command and the operational control of the Home Office. Civilian volunteers were trained and administered by a small cadre of professional full-time officers under the command of the Commandant Royal Observer Corps; a serving RAF Air Commodore.", "Pakistan Army Corps of Signals\nInitially part of Indian Army Corps of Signals which was established by Royal Engineers in 1911, its members and officers closely allied itself with Royal Corps of Signals, actively participated shoulder-to-shoulder in World War II, at a time when Germany invaded Great Britain. It came to existence on 14 August 1947, when Indian Army Corps of Signals was divided into two parts by the British Government, with one part remaining in India while other units formed what is now known as Corps of Signals in Pakistan. It was the brain-child of British Army's intelligence officer Major-General R. Cawthome who also founded and established the premier \"ISI\" in 1948. The Corps was supplemented with Royal Corps of Signals officers to assist into building the Corps to working strength. As soon as the Pakistan Army's signal officer were trained, the officer quickly replaced the British signal officers and closely allied the Corps with U.S. Army Signal Corps where the U.S. Signal Corps furthered privded advanced military training to Corps of Signals.", "Edward Masterman\nBetween 1 March 1929 when he retired from the RAF and 1 April 1936, Masterman was the Commandant of the Observer Corps and was the first former RAF officer to hold this appointment. Headquarters Royal Observer Corps was located at Hillingdon House, RAF Uxbridge, only relocating to RAF Bentley Priory after Masterman retired. He was succeeded as Commandant Observer Corps by Air Commodore Alfred Warrington-Morris." ]

[ "Caraga\nCaraga, officially known as the Caraga Administrative Region[1] or simply Caraga Region and designated as Region XIII, is an administrative region in the Philippines occupying the northeastern section of the island of Mindanao. The Caraga Region was created through Republic Act No. 7901 on February 23, 1995.[1] The region comprises five provinces: Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur and Dinagat Islands;[2] six cities: Bayugan, Bislig, Butuan, Cabadbaran, Surigao and Tandag; 67 municipalities and 1,311 barangays. Butuan is the regional administrative center." ]

[ "Mines and Geosciences Bureau Region 13 (Philippines)\nCaraga Region is located at northeastern part of Mindanao. It has five (5) provinces, namely: Dinagat Province, Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur, Agusan del Norte and Agusan del Sur. Caraga Region is now hosting several mining projects producing various mineral commodities particularly but not limited to gold, copper, chrome, nickel, iron and limestone for concrete cement production. This makes the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Mines and Geosciences Bureau, Regional Office No. 13 with Office located in Surigao City plays important role in the region's economy, job generation, social and environmental enhancement and protection and ensuring government shares through royalties and taxes.", "Saint Paul University Surigao\nSPUS became the first university in the Caraga region and is identified as the center for development in teacher education and the regional center for Gender and Development, it being the seat of CARAGA Women's resources center established in 1906.", "Butuan Polysports Complex\nButuan Polysports Complex, is a national sports complex of the Philippines located at Barangay Tiniwisan, Butuan City and is the venue of athletic events of both Agusan del Norte and Caraga region. There are only 3 sport venues which was completed. They are: Polysports Basketball Arena, Polysports Football Stadium, and the Polysports Baseball Park prior to the 19th Caraga Regional Athletic Meet (or CRAM 2016). ", "Caraga Regional Science High School\nCaraga Regional Science High School is offering the following strands under the Academic Track of the Senior High School program:", "Miss Philippines Earth 2003\nThe candidates whose age ranges from 18 to 24 at the time of the pageant, were winners of the regional pageants held in the Cordillera Administrative Region, Ilocos Region, Central Luzon, Southern Tagalog, Bicol Region, Western Visayas, Central Visayas, Eastern Visayas, Western Mindanao, Northern Mindanao and Southern Mindanao, and the Caraga Region, plus 12 candidates from the National Capital Region.", "Nasipit, Agusan del Norte\nNasipit was identified by the Caraga Regional Development Council (Caraga RDC) through \"Resolution Number 44 Series of 1996\", as the Regional Agri-Industrial Growth Center (RAGC) of the Caraga Region. The municipality's identification as the RAGC and its inclusion in the Agusan Norte Special Economic Zone (ANSEZ) can be attributed to the establishment of the Nasipit Agusan del Norte Industrial Estate (NANIE). Covering a total of and located within barangays Camagong and Talisay, the proposed estate is envisaged to be an industrial nucleus or manufacturing center in the province where industrial plants, bonded warehouses, container yards and other industrial facilities will be located and made available to investors.", "List of historical markers of the Philippines in Caraga\nThis list of historical markers installed by the National Historical Commission of the Philippines (NHCP) in Caraga is an annotated list of people, places, or events in the region that have been commemorated by cast-iron plaques issued by the said commission. The plaques themselves are permanent signs installed in publicly visible locations on buildings, monuments, or in special locations.", "Caraga Regional Science High School\nThe birth of the DepEd Caraga Administrative Region or Region XIII on February 23, 1995 by virtue of the Republic Act No. 7901, required the establishment of a Regional Science High School with a permanent site.", "DXAJ-TV\nDXAJ-TV is a television station of Philippine television network ABS-CBN Corporation, operating as a CARAGA semi-satellite of the network's North Mindanao super region, opting out master control from Cagayan de Oro City with local advertising. Its offices and CARAGA news gathering base are located at the 3/F BayanTel Building, Marcos Calo Street, Butuan City.", "Caraga\nInvestments in the region fell by 25.4% from PhP 6.3 billion in 2002 to PhP 4.6 billion in 2003. All provinces in the region posted a negative growth rate in investments, with Agusan del Sur posting the biggest year-on-year decline of 62.6% for the 2002-2003 period. Agusan del Norte's percentage share on investments increased from 64.8% to 79.5% despite an 8.5% decline. Per DTI Caraga's advise, the data on investments are partial at best and is not reflective of the whole investment level in the region. DTI Caraga's data does not include public investment figures.", "Agusan del Sur\nLocated in Brgy. New Tubigon, Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, a newly discovered untouched hidden paradise. According to Caraga Backpackers Group, Pinandagatan Falls could be the best waterfalls they saw in the entire Caraga Region", "Caraga\nOn a national and Mindanao-wide perspective, Caraga Region is one of the most impoverished regions in the country. The region has the fourth highest poverty incidence level of families among all the regions in the country for years 1997 and 2000 while among Mindanao regions, Caraga has the third highest poverty incidence (in terms of incidence of families).[10]", "Caraga\nThe region performed fairly well in terms of regional output contributing 8.01% in 1998, 8.25% in 1999 and 8.29% in 2000 to the Mindanao GRDP. The region contributed 1.44% in 1998, 1.48% in 1999 and 1.50% in 2000, to the Philippine economy. In terms of growth rate, the region accelerated faster and outpaced the other regions in Mindanao from 1998 to 2000, except for the Southern Mindanao Region which posted a 6.06% increase in 1999-2000. Caraga Region recorded a 5.42% increase during the same period.", "Caraga\nOn February 23, 1995, the Caraga region was created through the issue of Republic Act No. 7901 during the administration of President Fidel Ramos. The provinces of Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur and Surigao del Norte (of the former Northern Mindanao region) and Surigao del Sur (of the former Southern Mindanao region) were annexed as part of the newly-created region.", "Caraga candy poisonings\nOn July 11, 2015, the Department of Health in the Caraga declared a food poisoning outbreak in the region. Hospitals across the Caraga Region were put into white alert in response to the poisoning incident.", "Caraga Regional Science High School\nCaraga Regional Science High School is a public school in San Juan, Surigao City, Philippines. Caraga RSHS is the leading school in the Division of Surigao City with high MPS during the annual National Achievement Tests (NAT), and has been consistent in making its name in Division, Regional, National and International level contests.", "Caraga Regional Hospital\nCaraga Regional Hospital is located in Surigao City, on the northeastern tip of the Philippine island of Mindanao. The hospital is one of at least three hospitals serving the area. The three (Caraga, Miranda Hospital and Surigao Medical Center) all are located within of each other on National Road, which leads from the city proper south to the city airport.", "Philippine Science High School Caraga Region Campus\nThe Philippine Science High School - Caraga Region Campus (PSHS-CRC) is the 13th campus of the Philippine Science High School System located at Brgy. Ampayon, Butuan City. The school admits and grants scholarships to students who are gifted in science and mathematics. It caters to scholars from Caraga which covers the provinces of Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur, Agusan del Norte, and Agusan del Sur. The PSHS-CRC formally opened on June 2014.", "Caraga State University\nCaraga State University serves the Caraga Region through the delivery of accredited programs and diploma, associate, undergraduate and graduate courses. The university offers undergraduate and graduate degree programs in addition to some technical and vocational courses.", "Caraga Regional Hospital\nToday Caraga Regional provides many in-patient and out-patient services to the residents of the Surigao area.", "Caraga Regional Science High School\nThe two publications of Caraga Regional Science High School have been maintaining their spots as one of the multi-awarded school papers in Journalism competitions.", "Caraga Regional Science High School\nThe Caraga Regional Science High School made Matilde J. Manliguis, appointed by Director Matugas, as head of the school aside from her designation as the principal of the SJNHS.", "Caraga\nThe region's contribution to Mindanao's domestic product is 7.58% in 2003. Caraga has the second lowest per capital income among Mindanao regions and nationwide. In 2003, the region accounted for 1.35% of the country's GNP.", "Caraga\nThe agriculture, fishery and forestry (AFF) sector is Caraga's banner economic sector, exhibiting an increasing growth trend of 3.8% and 6.8% growth rates in 2001 and 2003 respectively. Despite the decreasing growth trend of the agriculture and fishery subsectors, the sizeable growth rate of the forestry subsector more than compensated for the decrease. The forestry subsector grew by 36.3% in 2003, the highest growth rate for any subsector in the region. It is also important to note that Caraga Region has the highest GVA in the forestry subsector among all regions in the Philippines.", "Caraga\nFrom 2001 to 2003, Caraga Region consistently maintained its performance vis-à-vis other regions in Mindanao. Caraga posted a 0.9% growth rate compared to the 9.5% growth rate of Region 12 and the 2.6% growth rate of the Autonomous Region for Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). Caraga's growth rate in 2001-2002 and the 2002-2003 period was the same (0.9%). This was much less than the growth of the population. This performance was better however than the region's performance in the 2000-2001 period, where the region's economy declined by 1.4%.", "Caraga\nMedia related to Caraga Region at Wikimedia Commons", "Administrative divisions of Mindanao\nCaraga (Region XIII) is located in the northeastern part of Mindanao. It consists of Butuan City and the provinces of Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur and Dinagat Islands. The administrative center is Butuan City. The region also covers the outlying islands of Surigao del Norte such as Siargao Island and Bucas Grande Island and the island of Dinagat of the Dinagat Islands province.", "Caraga\nCaraga Region has Type II climate, with no pronounced wet and dry season. During the months of November to February, heavy rains are usually experienced in the region.", "Caraga\nCaraga is said to have originated from the native word Kalaga which means \"spirit of soul\". Hence, the whole Provincia de Caraga of AD 1622 was called region de gente animosa, that is \"region of spirited men\". Another fictional etymology of the name flows from a local legend as coming from the word Cagang, a numerous small crabs matting the beach of Caraga, which is also known as katang to the native inhabitants. Legend goes that the town was named as such because the first Spanish missionaries who came in the early years of 1600 found numerous small crabs matting the beach." ]

[ "Cullinan Diamond\nThe Cullinan Diamond is the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found,[2] weighing 3,106.75 carats (621.35g), discovered at the Premier No. 2 mine in Cullinan, South Africa, on 26 January 1905. It was named after Thomas Cullinan, the mine's chairman." ]

[ "Restless (Starpoint album)\nRestless is the seventh full-length studio release from Maryland-based soul band Starpoint. It was released in 1985 and was produced by the team of Keith Diamond & Lionel Job (Diamond is also credited for writing two and co-writing four more of the eight selections here). It featured their biggest pop chart hit in the song \"Object of My Desire,\" which peaked at number 25 in 1985. Follow-up singles included \"What You Been Missin',\" which cracked the R&B top ten, and the title track, which nearly became another R&B top ten hit.", "The Diamond Troupe\nThe Diamond Troupe was one of a small number of concert parties to achieve considerable notoriety, both on the battlefield and at home. Its success was due to a combination of factors, not the least of which were the fame of the Division itself and the exceptional performances of many troupe members, especially by what historian Larry J Collins described as \"the show-stopper\": the female impersonator. The troupe's music director, Robert James Stannard, wrote in his diary that \"…the biggest hits were [Alec] Hill with his fine singing, Queenie [the troupe’s female impersonator], who deceived a great many of the audience and Larry Nicol, the trick cyclist…\"", "Sure Gonna Miss Her\nGary Lewis told interviewer Ray Shasho in 2013 that \"You know what's funny though, the largest selling internet tune of mine is \"Sure Gonna Miss Her,\" even above \"This Diamond Ring\" and \"She's Just My Style.\" It's the biggest selling record of mine on the internet. It's a great song, but I would never figure that one above the others.\"", "Martin Rapaport\nThis view of diamonds also carries over to the discussion of synthetic diamonds. While he does not believe they will be as valuable as diamonds mined from the earth, he believes that synthetics are yet another commodity that jewelers can sell for whatever value the marketplace deems their worth, but that consumers are always going to want full disclosure that a diamond they are buying is coming from a lab, rather than mined from the ground\nThe concern in the industry today is what if, just what if there is a way to synthesise diamonds that are non-detectable from natural diamonds? What if technology uses the ability to make this synthetic diamond and no one knows this is synthetic?\"", "Mining industry of South Africa\nGold was discovered in the area known as Witwatersrand, triggering what would become the Witwatersrand Gold Rush of 1886. Like the diamond discoveries before, the gold rush caused thousands of foreign expatriates to flock to the region. This heightened political tensions in the area ultimately contributing to the Second Boer War in 1899. Ownership of the diamond and gold mines became concentrated in the hands of a few entrepreneurs, largely of European origin, known as the Randlords. South Africa's and the world's biggest diamond miner, De Beers, was funded by baron Nathaniel Mayer Rothschild in 1887, and Cecil Rhodes became the Founding Chairman of the board of directors in 1888. Cecil Rhodes' place was later taken by sir Ernest Oppenheimer, co-founder of the Anglo-American Corporation with J.P. Morgan.", "Recycled diamond\nDe Beers CEO stated in 2014 that one of the biggest issues to the diamond industry was the diamond trade-ins market or recycling. He stated when consumers receive low prices for their recycled gems, it can lead to a low opinion of the product. Following that statement, De Beers were responsible for launching the International Institute of Diamond Valuation.", "Diamond (gemstone)\nToday, annual global rough diamond production is estimated to be about , of which 92% is cut and polished in India, mostly in the city of Surat. Some 85% of the world's rough diamonds, 50% of cut diamonds, and 40% of industrial diamonds are traded in Antwerp, Belgium—the diamond center of the world. The city of Antwerp also hosts the Antwerpsche Diamantkring, created in 1929 to become the first and biggest diamond bourse dedicated to rough diamonds. Antwerp's association with diamonds began in the late 15th century when a new technique to polish and shape the gems evolved in this city. The diamond cutters of Antwerp are world renowned for their skill. More than 12,000 expert cutters and polishers are at work in the Diamond District, at 380 workshops, serving 1,500 firms and 3,500 brokers and merchants.", "Diamond Plaza (Mandalay)\nDiamond Plaza (), the biggest shopping centre in Mandalay, was officially opened in August 15,2012. It is located in downtown of Mandalay near the Mandalay Railway Station. The site has two towers A and B, Diamond Plaza and Yadanarbon Super centre.", "Northwest Territories\nThe NWT's geological resources include gold, diamonds, natural gas and petroleum. BP is the only oil company currently producing oil in the Territory. NWT diamonds are promoted as an alternative to purchasing blood diamonds. Two of the biggest mineral resource companies in the world, BHP Billiton and Rio Tinto mine many of their diamonds from the NWT. In 2010, NWT accounted for 28.5% of Rio Tinto's total diamond production (3.9 million carats, 17% more than in 2009, from the Diavik Diamond Mine) and 100% of BHP's (3.05 million carats from the EKATI mine).", "Pigot Diamond\nThe Pigot Diamond, also sometimes called the Pigott Diamond, the Lottery Diamond, or the Great Lottery Diamond, was a large diamond that originated in India in the 18th century and was brought to England where at the time it was the largest diamond in Europe. It remained in Europe for half a century, changing hands several times until it was sold to the ruler of Egypt in the 1820s. What happened to it after that is unknown, inspiring a two-century mystery.", "Diamond industry in Israel\nThe Diamond industry of Israel is an important world player in producing cut diamonds for wholesale. In 2010, Israel became the chair of the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme. , cut diamonds constituted 23.2% of Israel's total exports and they were the country's biggest export product, amounting to 12% of the world's production.", "Amy Deasismont discography\nThe discography of Swedish recording artist Amy Deasismont, consists of five studio albums, one compilation album, eighteen official singles and counting. Singer became popular in 2005, when she released her platinum-certificated single \"What's In It for Me\". The song is Diamond's biggest hit to date remaining in the top ten in Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Poland. \"This Is Me Now\", singer's first studio album was released after huge success of \"What's In It for Me\" in 2005 in several European countries - it gained popular in Scandinavian countries being certificated as Platinum plate by International Federation of the Phonographic Industry in Sweden. Next albums and singles were not as popular as debut releases gaining currency only in Diamond's homeland.", "Israel–European Union relations\nTrade between the EU and Israel is conducted on the basis of the Association Agreement. The European Union is Israel’s biggest trading partner. In 2013 the total volume of bilateral trade (excluding diamonds) came to over €27 billion. In 2013, 32% of Israel’s exports (excluding diamonds) went to the EU, and 34% of its imports (excluding diamonds) came from the EU.", "Premier Mine\nIn September 2009, a diamond was found, and is ranked as one of the 20 biggest high quality diamonds ever discovered. Petra Diamonds sold it for $35.3 million on 26 February 2010, breaking a record as the highest price ever paid for a rough diamond.", "Lichtenburg, North West\nThe theme of the museum is the alluvial diamant diggings of this region 1925–1935, then the richest public diggings in the world. The biggest pure red diamond (flawless) (\"pigeon blood red\") in the world was found here in 1927. The stone was of . It was sold for 66 pounds and was later valued at $150,000. The stone would be worth more than $6 million today and is the purest red diamond in the world.\nThe biggest diamond rush in history took place in March 1927 on the farm Grasfontein near Lichtenburg, when 25,000 runners took part to peg their claims.\nThe town accommodates a Social-historical museum and an Agricultural museum with a big collection of antique tractors and many other interesting objects, and the new Digging Museum.", "Tereshchenko diamond\nThe Tereshchenko Diamond, sometimes known as the Tereshchenko Blue, is a 42.92 carat diamond of blue colour that is cut in the pear shape. The diamond is rare, belonging to the Type IIb diamond, and believed to originate from India. The Tereshchenko diamond is the second biggest blue diamond in the world. Shaped by Cartier for a private order by the Tereshchenko family, the diamond is in the rare Type IIb diamond.", "16 Biggest Hits (Diamond Rio album)\n16 Biggest Hits is a compilation album from the country music band Diamond Rio. It was released on February 23, 2008 by Arista Nashville after the group left the label.", "Life (Diamonds in the Dark)\n\"'Life (Diamonds in the Dark)\" is a song by Swedish DJ and producer John Dahlbäck featuring Swedish recording artist Agnes. Dahlbäck originally released the instrumental version of the song called \"Life\" in February 2012, but later got Swedish singer Agnes to sing the vocals on the re-release. In an interview with American magazine \"Billboard\" Dahlbäck commented on the co-operation with Agnes; \"“\"She’s one of the biggest pop stars in Sweden, so for me it was a big honor to have her on the track. This may not be what she’d do normally, but she’s very happy with the result.\"”", "Diamond\nThe production and distribution of diamonds is largely consolidated in the hands of a few key players, and concentrated in traditional diamond trading centers, the most important being Antwerp, where 80% of all rough diamonds, 50% of all cut diamonds and more than 50% of all rough, cut and industrial diamonds combined are handled.[68] This makes Antwerp a de facto \"world diamond capital\".[69] The city of Antwerp also hosts the Antwerpsche Diamantkring, created in 1929 to become the first and biggest diamond bourse dedicated to rough diamonds.[70] Another important diamond center is New York City, where almost 80% of the world's diamonds are sold, including auction sales.[68]", "Ratanga Junction\nThe park opened in December 1998 as part of the development of the Century City area, adjacent to Cape Town's biggest shopping centre, Canal Walk. Its biggest ride was the Cobra rollercoaster. Part of Ratanga Junction was closed in 2014 to make way for the Century City Square development, with the Diamond Devil Run and Crocodile Gorge rides decommissioned. Diamond Devil Run was reopened as Tren Minero at the Fantasilandia park in Chile. ", "Venetia Diamond Mine\nThe open-pit mine is one of De Beers’ six remaining diamond mines in South Africa and the only major diamond mine to be developed in the country during the past 25 years. As such, the mine represents one of De Beers’ single biggest investments in South Africa. The mine was opened in 1992 by Harry Oppenheimer, a former De Beers chairman.", "Kimberlite Diamond (brand)\nKimberlite Diamond's diamond industrial park in Pudong, Shanghai covers an area of 22,000 square meters, covering the embryo import sorting, cutting, diamond designing, gold production mosaic, and all aspects of the diamond supply chain with design processing capacity up to 150,000 carats. The Kimberlite Diamond Industrial Park which was completed on October 9, 2008, is the first diamond industrial park in Shanghai built by Kimberlite Diamond and is also the biggest in China.", "Legs Diamond\nDiamond was known for leading a rather flamboyant lifestyle. He was a very energetic individual; his nickname \"Legs\" derived either from his being a good dancer or from how fast he could escape his enemies. His wife Alice was never supportive of his lifestyle, but did not do much to dissuade him from it. Diamond was a womanizer; his best known mistress was showgirl and dancer Marion \"Kiki\" Roberts. The public loved Diamond; he was Upstate New York's biggest celebrity at the time.", "16 Biggest Hits (Diamond Rio album)\n\"16 Biggest Hits\" peaked at #63 on the U.S. \"Billboard\" Top Country Albums chart the week of August 25, 2007.", "1998–99 in English football\n13 January 1999 – Leeds United avoid what would have been one of the biggest FA Cup upsets of modern times and beat Rushden and Diamonds 3–1 in the third round replay at Elland Road.", "Hisham Mackie\nHisham Mackie (born 1969) is a Sierra Leonean businessman. He is by far the biggest diamond exporter from Sierra Leone, accounting for 51% of all official Sierra Leone diamond exports Mackie runs H.M Diamond, a company which accounted for 40% of all diamond exports in 2005.", "Petra Diamonds\nThe Cullinan mine continues to produce large stones. The Cullinan Heritage, a white diamond, was discovered in September 2009. This stone was the 19th biggest uncut diamond ever found and was sold in February 2010 to Chow Tai Fook Jewellery for $35.5m, the highest price ever paid for an uncut diamond. The previous record was held by Gem Diamonds' Leseli La Letšeng, which was bought for $18.4m by Graff Diamonds in December 2008.", "The Diamonds\nThe Diamonds' biggest hits were 1957's \"Little Darlin'\" (originally recorded by The Gladiolas, written by Maurice Williams) and \"The Stroll\" (1957), an original song written for the group by Clyde Otis, from an idea by Dick Clark.", "John Milius\nNever compromise excellence. To write for someone else is the biggest mistake that any writer makes. You should be your biggest competitor, your biggest critic, your biggest fan, because you don't know what anybody else thinks. How arrogant it is to assume that you know the market, that you know what's popular today—only Steven Spielberg knows what's popular today. Only Steven Spielberg will ever know what's popular. So leave it to him. He's the only one in the history of man who has ever figured that out. Write what you want to see. Because if you don't, you're not going to have any true passion in it, and it's not going to be done with any true artistry.", "Marange diamond fields\nIn August 2010 Zimbabwe resumed the sale of diamonds from the Marange fields. On August 11, buyers flew into the country's capital, Harare, from all over the world, including Israel, India, Lebanon and Russia to capitalise on the sale of over US$1.5 billion worth of diamonds. Press Reports describe the Marange find as, 'the biggest in southern Africa since diamonds were discovered in South Africa a century ago'." ]

[ "List of current champions in WWE\nAt the top of WWE's championship hierarchy are the WWE Universal Championship on Raw and the WWE Championship on SmackDown. The Universal Championship is held by record two-time champion Brock Lesnar, who won the vacant title by defeating Braun Strowman at Crown Jewel on November 2, 2018; previous champion Roman Reigns had to relinquish the title due to illness (leukemia). The WWE Champion is Daniel Bryan, who is in his fourth reign. He won the title on the November 13, 2018, episode of SmackDown Live by defeating AJ Styles." ]

[ "WWE United Kingdom Championship\nThe WWE United Kingdom Championship is a professional wrestling championship created and promoted by the American professional wrestling promotion WWE for their NXT UK brand. It is the brand's top championship. The current champion is Pete Dunne, who is in his first reign and is the longest reigning champion.", "Cyber Sunday (2006)\nThe main event was the \"Champion of Champions\" match, between WWE's three top champions. The three champions in the match were WWE Champion John Cena, World Heavyweight Champion King Booker, and ECW World Champion The Big Show. The fans could vote for who would defend their championship in this match. Booker won the match by pinning Cena following interference from Kevin Federline. The predominant match on the card was D-Generation X (Triple H and Shawn Michaels) versus Rated-RKO (Edge and Randy Orton). Rated-RKO won the match after Orton pinned Triple H following an RKO onto a steel chair. The featured matches on the undercard were Jeff Hardy versus Carlito for the WWE Intercontinental Championship and Lita versus Mickie James in a Diva Lumberjack match for the WWE Women's Championship.", "WWE Championship\nAfter the 2016 brand extension where the championship became exclusive to SmackDown, the similarly designed WWE Universal Championship was introduced for the Raw brand.[50] The WWE World Heavyweight Championship was briefly renamed WWE Championship;[51] the digitized belt in the pre-match graphic read \"WWE Champion\" below the WWE logo.[52] It was then renamed WWE World Championship in July 2016[53] and the pre-match graphic was updated to read \"WWE World Champion\".[54] In December 2016, the title was again reverted to WWE Championship;[55] the pre-match graphic no longer includes the title's name.[56] The physical belt, however, retains \"World Heavyweight Champion\" below the logo.", "WWE Championship\nThe WWE Championship is a world heavyweight championship created and promoted by the American professional wrestling promotion WWE on the SmackDown brand. It is one of two world titles for WWE's main roster, alongside the WWE Universal Championship that was created for the Raw brand as a result of the 2016 WWE draft. The current champion is Daniel Bryan, who is in his fourth reign.", "Seth Rollins\nAfter signing with WWE in 2010, Lopez was sent to its developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW) where he was renamed Seth Rollins and became the inaugural FCW Grand Slam Champion. After WWE rebranded FCW into NXT, he became the inaugural NXT Champion. Alongside fellow wrestlers Dean Ambrose and Roman Reigns, he debuted on WWE's main roster at the 2012 Survivor Series as part of a faction called The Shield. He won his first main roster championship while with the group, the WWE Tag Team Championship with Reigns. Following the team's first breakup in June 2014, Rollins went on to become a two-time WWE World Heavyweight Champion, two-time Intercontinental Champion, a one-time United States Champion, a four-time WWE/Raw Tag Team Champion (with Reigns, Ambrose, and Jason Jordan), the 2014 Money in the Bank winner, the 2015 Superstar of the Year and the 2019 Men's Royal Rumble winner. Upon capturing his first WWE Championship (then known as the WWE World Heavyweight Championship), he became the first wrestler of Armenian descent to hold the title and after winning his first Intercontinental Championship, he became the 29th Triple Crown Champion and the 18th Grand Slam Champion. On January 27th, 2019, Seth Rollins became the first WWE superstar to win the Royal Rumble from the number 10 spot. ", "Women's professional wrestling\nThe women's division of professional wrestling has maintained a recognized world champion since 1937, when Mildred Burke won the original World Women's title. She then formed the World Women's Wrestling Association in the early 1950s and recognized herself as the first champion, although the championship would be vacated upon her retirement in 1956. The NWA however, ceased to acknowledge Burke as Women's World champion in 1954, and instead acknowledged June Byers as champion after a controversial finish to a high-profile match between Burke and Byers that year. Upon Byers' retirement in 1964, The Fabulous Moolah, who won a junior heavyweight version of the NWA World Women's Championship (the predecessor to the original WWE Women's Championship) in a tournament back in 1958, was recognized by most NWA promoters as champion by default.\nWWE has four active women's championships: two for their main roster's brands, the WWE Raw Women's Championship and WWE SmackDown Women's Championship, and two for their developmental brands, the NXT Women's Championship and the NXT UK Women's Championship. The Fabulous Moolah is recognized as WWE's first Women's Champion, with her reign beginning in 1956. In 2002, WWE began what was called the WWE brand extension, where wrestlers and championships became exclusive to one of WWE's brands. At first, the Women's Championship could be defended on any brand, but later that year, it became exclusive to the Raw brand. In 2008, WWE created the WWE Divas Championship as a counterpart title for the SmackDown brand. The two titles were eventually unified in September 2010. The Women's Championship was then retired in favor of keeping the Divas Championship, which became briefly known as the Unified WWE Divas Championship. The brand extension ended in 2011. In April 2016 at WrestleMania 32, the Divas Championship was retired and subsequently replaced with a new WWE Women's Championship, which has a separate title history from the original. WWE then reintroduced the brand extension in July 2016 and the Women's Championship (now Raw Women's Championship) became exclusive to Raw. In August 2016, SmackDown created the SmackDown Women's Championship as a counterpart title. On WWE's developmental brand NXT, women compete for the NXT Women's Championship, which was established in 2013 and later NXT UK franchise, which created its counterpart, the NXT UK Women's Championship, in 2018.", "List of current champions in WWE\nThe WWE Raw Women's Championship is held by Ronda Rousey, who is in her first reign. She defeated Alexa Bliss on August 19, 2018, at SummerSlam. The WWE SmackDown Women's Championship is held by Asuka, who is in her first reign. She won the title by defeating previous champion Becky Lynch and Charlotte Flair in a Triple Threat Tables, Ladders and Chairs match at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs.", "Big E (wrestler)\nPrior to signing with WWE in 2009, Ewen was a powerlifter and became USA Powerlifting champion. In WWE, he is a one-time Intercontinental Champion, two-time Raw Tag Team Champion, a three-time SmackDown Tag Team Champion, and a one-time NXT Champion (while in WWE's developmental system, NXT). As a part of The New Day, he holds the record for the longest tag team championship reign in WWE history.", "List of WWE European Champions\nThe WWE European Championship is a former professional wrestling title competed for in World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). The title was created on February 26, 1997. The first champion was The British Bulldog who defeated Owen Hart in a tournament final. The title was retired briefly in April 1999 by then-champion Shane McMahon, who wanted to retire as an \"undefeated champion\". McMahon reintroduced the championship two months later and gave it to Mideon, who saw the title belt in Shane's travel bag and asked if he could have it. The title was finally retired on July 22, 2002 when WWE Intercontinental Champion Rob Van Dam defeated European Champion Jeff Hardy to unify the European title into the Intercontinental title. There have been a total of 27 recognized champions who have had a combined 37 official reigns. This is a chronological list of wrestlers that have been WWE European Champion by ring name.", "List of WWE Champions\nWhen WWE Champion Randy Orton defeated World Heavyweight Champion John Cena at the pay-per-view event on December 15, 2013, the World Heavyweight Championship was unified with the WWE Championship, resulting in the retiring of the former and the renaming of the latter to the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. On June 27, 2016, the name was shortened back to the WWE Championship before assuming the WWE World Championship name on July 26, when the brand extension returned. It became designated to the SmackDown brand and WWE again established an alternate world title known as the WWE Universal Championship for the Raw brand. In December 2016, WWE again shortened the title's name back to WWE Championship.", "Raw (WWE brand)\nThe 2005 draft was held on the June 6 episode of Raw. The first draft lottery pick was then WWE Champion John Cena, thus moving the WWE Championship to Raw and having two titles on the brand. Eventually, then World Heavyweight Champion Batista was deafted to SmackDown as the last draft pick, leaving only the WWE Championship on Raw. On the 2008 draft lottery, CM Punk got drafted to Raw and then won the World Heavyweight Championship from Edge, who was a SmackDown wrestler. Triple H, who was the WWE Champion at the time, got drafted to SmackDown while Kane, who was the then ECW Champion, got drafted to Raw. After the draft lottery in 2009, the WWE Championship was brought back to Raw when Triple H was drafted from SmackDown while the World Heavyweight Championship was brought back to SmackDown when Edge defeated John Cena to win the title at Backlash.", "List of current champions in WWE\nSecondary titles in WWE include the WWE Intercontinental Championship for Raw and the WWE United States Championship for SmackDown. The Intercontinental Championship is held by Bobby Lashley, who is in his first reign. He won the title by defeating previous champion Dean Ambrose and Seth Rollins in a triple threat match on the January 14 episode of Raw. The United States Championship is held by R-Truth, who is in his second reign. He won the title by defeating Shinsuke Nakamura on the January 29 episode of SmackDown Live.", "List of WWE Women's Champions\nThe WWE Women's Championship was a women's professional wrestling championship in the World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) promotion. The championship was generally contested in professional wrestling matches, in which participants execute scripted finishes rather than contend in direct competition. There have been a total of 30 recognized champions who have had a combined 59 official reigns. The title became vacant only twice in history for a total of 65 days and deactivated twice for a combined 1398 days. The following is a chronological list of wrestlers that have been WWE Women's Champion by ring name.", "List of WWE tournaments\nThe WWE Women's Championship Tournament was a tournament to crown a new WWE Women's Champion after champion Trish Stratus retired from her wrestling career. The first round started on September 25, 2006 and ended at Cyber Sunday when Lita, who Stratus defeated in her retirement match, defeated Mickie James.", "WWE Clash of Champions\nWWE Clash of Champions was a professional wrestling event produced annually by WWE, a Connecticut–based professional wrestling promotion, and broadcast live and available only through pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network. The event was established in 2016 for Raw brand, replacing WWE Night of Champions in the late September slot of WWE's pay-per-view calendar. However, the 2017 edition of the event was held on the December slot, and became a SmackDown-branded event. In 2018, it was announced that Clash of Champions would be a dual branded event, but it was later canceled; the December PPV slot Clash of Champions intended to fill was replaced with .", "List of WWE Women's Champions\nAs recognized by the WWE, the inaugural champion was The Fabulous Moolah, who won the title on September 18, 1956, which at that time was the NWA World Women's Championship (which still exists today). While she was still champion, it became the WWF Women's Championship in 1984. In May 2002, after the WWF was renamed to WWE, the championship became the WWE Women's Championship. At the start of the brand extension that began in March 2002, the Women's Championship was defended on any brand until it became exclusive to Raw in September that year. It was the only women's championship in the WWE until SmackDown created the WWE Divas Championship as a counterpart title in July 2008. The titles switched brands in April 2009. On September 19, 2010, at Night of Champions, the Women's Championship was unified with the WWE Divas Championship, retiring the Women's Championship.", "List of WWE Divas Champions\nThe creation of the championship was announced on June 6, 2008, by then SmackDown General Manager Vickie Guerrero as a counterpart to the Raw brand's WWE Women's Championship. The inaugural champion was Michelle McCool, who defeated Natalya on July 20, 2008, at The Great American Bash. On April 13, 2009, the title was moved from SmackDown to Raw as a result of then Divas Champion Maryse being drafted to Raw in the 2009 WWE draft. On September 19, 2010, at the Night of Champions pay-per-view event, Michelle McCool (defending the Women's Championship on behalf of tag team partner and official champion, Layla) defeated Divas Champion Melina, retiring the Women's Championship and unifying it with the Divas Championship.", "WWE Divas Championship\nThe WWE Divas Championship was a women's professional wrestling championship in WWE. The championship was created by WWE in 2008, and was introduced as part of the WWE brand extension via a storyline by then SmackDown General Manager Vickie Guerrero as an alternative to Raw's WWE Women's Championship. Michelle McCool became the inaugural champion on July 20, 2008, when she defeated Natalya at The Great American Bash. After then-WWE Divas Champion Maryse was drafted to Raw as part of the 2009 WWE draft, she took the title with her. McCool won a match against Melina to unify the WWE Divas and Women's titles at the Night of Champions pay-per-view on September 19, 2010, creating the Unified WWE Divas Championship; it eventually dropped the \"Unified\" moniker.", "Melina Perez\nIn 2000, Perez began training to be a professional wrestler at Jesse Hernandez's School of Hard Knocks, and made her debut in 2002. In late 2002, Perez auditioned for WWE's reality show \"Tough Enough III\", but was eliminated in first round, and was inspired by Al Snow to continue pursuing her wrestling career. In March 2004, Perez signed a contract with WWE, and was assigned to OVW, WWE's developmental territory, where she began managing Johnny Nitro and Joey Mercury, dubbed MNM, to three reigns as WWE Tag Team Champions, as well as Nitro to two reigns as WWE Intercontinental Champion. Perez is a three-time WWE Women's Champion, and a two-time WWE Divas Champion. After winning her second WWE Divas Championship, Perez became the first woman in WWE history to become a multiple-time champion with both the Women's and Divas titles. Famed for her flexibility, utilized during her entrance and in her in-ring maneuvers, Perez was called \"one of the best wrestlers in the world\" by Bret Hart, and cited by WWE as having \"perhaps the most impressive arsenal of offensive maneuvers in WWE history.\"", "WWE Raw Women's Championship\nOn April 3, 2016, WWE Hall of Famer Lita appeared during the WrestleMania 32 pre-show and, after recapping the history of women's professional wrestling in WWE, unveiled the brand-new championship and declared that WWE's women would no longer be referred to as WWE Divas, but as \"WWE Superstars\" just as their male counterparts are. This came after the term \"Diva\" was scrutinized by some commentators, fans, and several past and present WWE female performers, including then-Divas Champion Charlotte, who were in favor of changing the championship to the Women's Championship. It was also changed because some WWE female wrestlers felt it diminished their athletic abilities in the ring and relegated them to \"eye candy\". Lita then announced that the winner of the Divas Championship triple threat match between Charlotte, Becky Lynch, and Sasha Banks later that night would become the first-ever WWE Women's Champion, subsequently retiring the Divas Championship. Charlotte, the final Divas Champion, became the inaugural WWE Women's Champion when she defeated Sasha Banks and Becky Lynch. ", "List of World Heavyweight Champions (WWE)\nWWE's original world title, the WWE Championship, with which the WCW World Heavyweight Championship had been unified in 2001, was designated to the SmackDown! brand; as a result the World Heavyweight Championship was established for the Raw brand. The World Heavyweight Championship is not a continuation of the WCW World Heavyweight Championship, but rather its indirect successor. For a list of champions who have held those titles, see the list of WCW World Heavyweight Champions and list of NWA World Heavyweight Champions respectively.", "Undisputed championship\nImmediately following Summerslam 2011, the brand extension officially ended, meaning that both the WWE Champion and the World Heavyweight Champion could appear on both \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\". In November 2013, then World Heavyweight Champion John Cena made a challenge to then WWE Champion Randy Orton to determine an undisputed world champion; the match would take place at the pay-per-view the following month. Randy Orton defeated John Cena in a TLC match and unified the titles. Subsequently, the World Heavyweight Championship was retired and the WWE Championship was renamed the WWE World Heavyweight Championship and retained its lineage. Like the WWE Undisputed Championship, the WWE World Heavyweight Championship was represented by the belts of its two predecessors until a singular belt design was commissioned in August 2014. In June 2016, the championship was reverted to being called the WWE Championship before WWE reintroduced the brand extension the following month. The WWE Champion was drafted to SmackDown and it was renamed the WWE World Championship though reverted to WWE Championship in December 2016. In response, Raw created their own world championship, the WWE Universal Championship. With this, WWE no longer has an undisputed world champion as there are two world championships in the promotion again.", "List of WWE Cruiserweight Champions (1991–2007)\nThe WWE Cruiserweight Championship was a professional wrestling championship in World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and was originally a World Championship Wrestling (WCW) title. It was challenged by cruiserweights at a maximum weight of 225lbs. During the WWE brand extension, it was the only title to be exclusive to the SmackDown! brand during its entire tenure. There were a total of 40 recognized champions who had a combined 79 official reigns. This is a chronological list of wrestlers that held the original WWE Cruiserweight Championship, listed by ring name, with the longest reign being 385 days by Gregory Helms, and the most reigns by Rey Mysterio with 8.", "WWE Championship\nFollowing the end of the first brand extension in August 2011, both the WWE Champion and World Heavyweight Champion could appear on both Raw and SmackDown. In November 2013, the night after Survivor Series, then-World Heavyweight Champion John Cena made a challenge to then-WWE Champion Randy Orton to determine an undisputed WWE world champion. Orton defeated Cena in a TLC match at the TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs pay-per-view on December 15, 2013, to unify the titles. Subsequently, the unified championship was renamed WWE World Heavyweight Championship and retained the lineage of the WWE Championship; the World Heavyweight Championship was retired.[23] Orton and subsequent champions held both championship belts until a single championship belt was given to then-champion Brock Lesnar in 2014.[24]", "World Heavyweight Championship (WWE)\nFollowing the end of the first brand extension in 2011, both the World Heavyweight Champion and WWE Champion could appear on both \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\". In 2013, the night after Survivor Series, then-World Heavyweight Champion John Cena made a challenge to then-WWE Champion Randy Orton to determine an undisputed WWE world champion. Randy Orton defeated John Cena in a TLC match at the pay-per-view on December 15, 2013, to unify the titles. Subsequently, the WWE Championship was renamed WWE World Heavyweight Championship. The unified championship retained the lineage of the WWE Championship, and the World Heavyweight Championship was retired. With his victory over John Cena, Randy Orton became the final World Heavyweight Champion. Like with the Undisputed Championship, the Big Gold Belt was used in tandem with the WWE Championship belt to represent the WWE World Heavyweight Championship until a single belt was presented to then champion Brock Lesnar in August 2014. ", "WWE Raw 1000\nThe show featured five professional wrestling matches, a wedding ceremony and appearances from past WWE performers. The wedding between AJ Lee and Daniel Bryan ended with AJ leaving Bryan after being announced as the new General Manager of Raw by WWE chairman Vince McMahon. The Miz defeated Christian to become the WWE Intercontinental Champion. In the main event, John Cena won by disqualification in a WWE Championship match against defending champion CM Punk, who proceeded to turn heel (villainous) by attacking The Rock.", "WWE Night of Champions\nWWE Night of Champions was a professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event and WWE Network event produced by professional wrestling promotion WWE. The took place on June 24, 2007 and was a crossover with Vengeance. In 2008, Vengeance was dropped in favor of Night of Champions and it took over the June pay-per-view event slot. Night of Champions moved to July in 2009 and to September in 2010. In 2016, Night of Champions was replaced on the PPV schedule by Clash of Champions. Though the concept of Clash of Champions is similar, it is not a direct continuation of Night of Champions.", "Professional wrestling tournament\nAfter CM Punk won the WWE Championship by defeating John Cena at WWE Money in the Bank and walked out of the company with the title, Vince McMahon set up a tournament to decide a new champion the following night on Raw. A week later in the final, Rey Mysterio defeated The Miz in the opening match of the broadcast to become WWE Champion. However, he would lose the title to Cena later that night, who would win the title for a WWE record ninth time. CM Punk then returned to the WWE with the title he won, meaning that for the first time in WWE history, two men had a claim to the title. The issue was settled at SummerSlam where Punk won a controversial rematch with Cena to become Undisputed Champion though he would lose the title to Raw Money In The Bank winner Alberto Del Rio seconds later.", "Money in the Bank ladder match\nIn WWE storyline, the concept for the Money in the Bank match was introduced in March 2005 by Chris Jericho. Jericho then pitched the idea to Raw general manager Eric Bischoff, who liked it and promptly began to book the match for WrestleMania 21. Edge won the inaugural match and held the contract until New Year's Revolution in January 2006. There, he cashed in his Money in the Bank contract against WWE Champion John Cena, who had just successfully defended the title in an Elimination Chamber match. Edge defeated Cena to become WWE Champion and quickly establishing the precedent of \"cashing in\" on a vulnerable champion." ]

[ "Velocity\nSpeed describes only how fast an object is moving, whereas velocity gives both how fast it is and in which direction the object is moving.[1] If a car is said to travel at 60km/h, its speed has been specified. However, if the car is said to move at 60km/h to the north, its velocity has now been specified." ]

[ "High-shear mixer\nFluid undergoes shear when one area of fluid travels with a different velocity relative to an adjacent area. A high-shear mixer uses a rotating impeller or high-speed rotor, or a series of such impellers or inline rotors, usually powered by an electric motor, to \"work\" the fluid, creating flow and shear. The tip velocity, or speed of the fluid at the outside diameter of the rotor, will be higher than the velocity at the center of the rotor, and it is this velocity difference that creates shear.", "Comoving and proper distances\nIf one divides a change in proper distance by the interval of cosmological time where the change was measured (or takes the derivative of proper distance with respect to cosmological time) and calls this a \"velocity\", then the resulting \"velocities\" of galaxies or quasars can be above the speed of light, \"c\". This apparent superluminal expansion is not in conflict with special or general relativity, and is a consequence of the particular definitions used in physical cosmology. Even light itself does not have a \"velocity\" of \"c\" in this sense; the total velocity of any object can be expressed as the sum formula_15 where formula_16 is the recession velocity due to the expansion of the universe (the velocity given by Hubble's law) and formula_17 is the \"peculiar velocity\" measured by local observers (with formula_18 and formula_19, the dots indicating a first derivative), so for light formula_17 is equal to \"c\" (−\"c\" if the light is emitted towards our position at the origin and +\"c\" if emitted away from us) but the total velocity formula_21 is generally different from \"c\". Even in special relativity the coordinate speed of light is only guaranteed to be \"c\" in an inertial frame; in a non-inertial frame the coordinate speed may be different from \"c\". In general relativity no coordinate system on a large region of curved spacetime is \"inertial\", but in the local neighborhood of any point in curved spacetime we can define a \"local inertial frame\" in which the local speed of light is \"c\" and in which massive objects such as stars and galaxies always have a local speed smaller than \"c\". The cosmological definitions used to define the velocities of distant objects are coordinate-dependent – there is no general coordinate-independent definition of velocity between distant objects in general relativity. The issue of how best to describe and popularize the apparent superluminal expansion of the universe has caused a minor amount of controversy. One viewpoint is presented in Davis and Lineweaver, 2004.", "Specific impulse\nFor air-breathing jet engines, particularly turbofans, the actual exhaust velocity and the effective exhaust velocity are different by orders of magnitude. This is because a good deal of additional momentum is obtained by using air as reaction mass. This allows a better match between the airspeed and the exhaust speed, which saves energy/propellant and enormously increases the effective exhaust velocity while reducing the actual exhaust velocity.", "Velocity\nThe big difference can be noticed when we consider movement around a circle. When something moves in a circular path (at a constant speed, see above) and returns to its starting point, its average velocity is zero but its average speed is found by dividing the circumference of the circle by the time taken to move around the circle. This is because the average velocity is calculated by only considering the displacement between the starting and the end points while the average speed considers only the total distance traveled.", "Relativistic rocket\nRelativistic rocket refers to any spacecraft that travels at a velocity close enough to light speed for relativistic effects to become significant. The meaning of \"significant\" is a matter of context, but often a threshold velocity of 30% to 50% of the speed of light (0.3\"c\" to 0.5\"c\") is used. At 30% of c, the difference between relativistic mass and rest mass is only about 5%, while at 50% it is 15%, (at 0.75\"c\" the difference is over 50%) so that above this range of speeds special relativity is required to accurately describe motion, whereas below this range sufficient accuracy is usually provided by Newtonian physics and the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation.", "Traffic flow\nThe Optimal Velocity Model (OVM) is introduced by Bando et al. in 1995 based on the assumption that each driver tries to reach to the optimal velocity according to the inter-vehicle difference and velocity difference between preceding vehicle. In OVM, the acceleration/deceleration of vehicle \"n\" is a function of inter-vehicle distance formula_235, speed of preceding vehicle formula_236 formula_237, and sensitivity coefficient formula_238 (which represents driver's sensitivity towards acceleration, large value indicates an aggressive driver while small value means a cautious driver):", "Hypocenter\nComputing the hypocenters of foreshocks, main shock, and aftershocks of earthquakes allows the three-dimensional plotting of the fault along which movement is occurring. The expanding wavefront from the earthquake's rupture propagates at a speed of several kilometers per second, this seismic wave is what is measured at various surface points in order to geometrically determine an initial guess as to the hypocenter. The wave reaches each station based upon how far away it was from the hypocenter. A number of things need to be taken into account, most importantly variations in the waves speed based upon the materials that it is passing through. With adjustments for velocity changes, the initial estimate of the hypocenter is made, then a series of linear equations is set up, one for each station. The equations express the difference between the observed arrival times and those calculated from the initial estimated hypocenter. These equations are solved by the method of least squares which minimizes the sum of the squares of the differences between the observed and calculated arrival times, and a new estimated hypocenter is computed. The system iterates until the location is pinpointed within the margin of error for the velocity computations.", "Slip ratio\nWhen accelerating or braking a vehicle equipped with tires, the observed angular velocity of the tire does not match the expected velocity for pure rolling motion, which means there appears to be apparent sliding between outer surface of the rim and the road in addition to rolling due to deformation of the part of tire above the area in contact with the road. When driving on dry pavement the fraction of slip that is caused by actual sliding taking place between road and tire contact patch is negligible in magnitude and thus does not in practice make slip ratio dependent on speed. It is only relevant in soft or slippery surfaces, like snow, mud, ice, etc and results constant speed difference in same road and load conditions independently of speed, and thus fraction of slip ratio due to that cause is inversely related to speed of the vehicle. The difference between theoretically calculated forward speed based on angular speed of the rim and rolling radius, and actual speed of the vehicle, expressed as a percentage of the latter, is called ‘slip ratio’. This slippage is caused by the forces at the contact patch of the tire, not the opposite way, and is thus of fundamental importance to determine the accelerations a vehicle can produce.", "Lift (force)\nExplanations based on increased flow speed and Bernoulli's principle first try to establish that there is higher flow speed over the upper surface, but they fail to explain correctly what causes the flow to speed up:Bernoulli-only explanations imply that a speed difference arises from causes other than a pressure difference, and that the speed difference then leads to a pressure difference by Bernoulli’s principle. This implied one-way causation is a misconception. The real cause-and-effect relationship between pressure and velocity is reciprocal. Finally, Bernoulli-only explanations don't explain how the pressure differences in the vertical direction are sustained. That is, they leave out the downward-turning part of the interaction.", "Buys Ballot's law\nThe underlying principles of Buys Ballot's law state that for anyone ashore in the Northern Hemisphere and in the path of a hurricane, the most dangerous place to be is in the right front quadrant of the storm. There, the observed wind speed of the storm is the sum of the speed of wind in the storm circulation plus the velocity of the storm's forward movement. Buys Ballot's law calls this the \"Dangerous Quadrant\". Likewise, in the left front quadrant of the storm the observed wind is the \"difference\" between the storm's wind velocity and its forward speed. This is called the \"Safe Quadrant\" due to the lower observed wind speeds.", "Premixed flame\nVariations in local propagation speed of a laminar flame arise due to what is called flame stretch. Flame stretch can happen due to the straining by outer flow velocity field or the curvature of flame; the difference in the propagation speed from the corresponding laminar speed is a function of these effects and may be written as:", "Refractive index\nThe refractive index \"n\" of an optical medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum, \"c\" = , and the phase velocity \"v\" of light in the medium,\nThe phase velocity is the speed at which the crests or the phase of the wave moves, which may be different from the group velocity, the speed at which the pulse of light or the envelope of the wave moves.", "Known Space\nSeveral limitations to stepping disks are mentioned in the Ringworld novels. If there is a difference in velocity between two disks, any matter transferred between them must be accelerated by the disk accordingly. If there is not enough energy to do so, the transfer cannot take place. This becomes a problem with disks that are a significant distance apart on the Ringworld surface, as they will have different velocities: same speed, different direction.", "Refraction\nThe relevant wave speed in the discussion above is the phase velocity of the wave. This is typically close to the group velocity which can be seen as the truer speed of a wave, but when they differ it is important to use the phase velocity in all calculations relating to refraction.", "Flight dynamics (spacecraft)\nThe required hyperbolic excess velocity \"v\" (sometimes called \"characteristic velocity\") is the difference between the transfer orbit's departure speed and the departure planet's heliocentric orbital speed. Once this is determined, the injection velocity relative to the departure planet at periapsis is:", "Coriolis force\nThe second is the change of velocity in space. Different positions in a rotating frame of reference have different velocities (as seen from an inertial frame of reference). For an object to move in a straight line, it must accelerate so that its velocity changes from point to point by the same amount as the velocities of the frame of reference. The force is proportional to the angular velocity (which determines the relative speed of two different points in the rotating frame of reference), and to the component of the velocity of the object in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation (which determines how quickly it moves between those points). This also gives a term formula_17.", "External ballistics\nSince different projectile shapes will respond differently to changes in velocity (particularly between supersonic and subsonic velocities), a BC provided by a bullet manufacturer will be an average BC that represents the common range of velocities for that bullet. For rifle bullets, this will probably be a supersonic velocity, for pistol bullets it will probably be subsonic. For projectiles that travel through the supersonic, transonic and subsonic flight regimes BC is not well approximated by a single constant, but is considered to be a function \"BC(M)\" of the Mach number M; here M equals the projectile velocity divided by the speed of sound. During the flight of the projectile the M will decrease, and therefore (in most cases) the BC will also decrease.", "Kennedy–Thorndike experiment\nIn order to obtain a negative result, we should have Δ\"L\"−Δ\"L\"=0. However, it can be seen that both formulas only cancel each other as long as the velocities are the same (\"v\"=\"v\"). But if the velocities are different, then Δ\"L\" and Δ\"L\" are no longer equal. (The Michelson–Morley experiment isn't affected by velocity changes since the difference between \"L\" and \"L\" is zero. Therefore, the MM experiment only tests whether the speed of light depends on the \"orientation\" of the apparatus.) But in the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment, the lengths \"L\" and \"L\" are different from the outset, so it is also capable of measuring the dependence of the speed of light on the \"velocity\" of the apparatus.", "Collision\nCollision is short-duration interaction between two bodies or more than two bodies simultaneously causing change in motion of bodies involved due to internal forces acted between them during this. Collisions involve forces (there is a change in velocity). The magnitude of the velocity difference just before impact is called the closing speed. All collisions conserve momentum. What distinguishes different types of collisions is whether they also conserve kinetic energy. The Line of impact is the line which is colinear to the common normal of the surfaces that are closest or in contact during impact. This is the line along which internal force of collision acts during impact, and Newton's coefficient of restitution is defined only along this line. Collisions are of three types. They are: 1.perfectly elastic collision 2.inelastic collision 3.perfectly inelastic collision.", "Relative velocity\nFully legitimate expressions for \"the velocity of A relative to B\" include \"the velocity of A with respect to B\" and \"the velocity of A in the coordinate system where B is always at rest\". The violation of special relativity occurs because this equation for relative velocity falsely predicts that different observers will measure different speeds when observing the motion of light. ", "Front velocity\nAssociated with propagation of a disturbance are several different velocities. For definiteness, consider an amplitude modulated electromagnetic carrier wave. The phase velocity is the speed of the underlying carrier wave. The group velocity is the speed of the modulation or envelope. Initially it was thought that the group velocity coincided with the speed at which \"information\" traveled. However, it turns out that this speed can exceed the speed of light in some circumstances, causing confusion by an apparent conflict with the theory of relativity. That observation led to consideration of what constitutes a \"signal\".", "Pitometer log\nEquation 2 can be solved for the velocity of water in terms of the difference in pressure between the two legs of the manometer. Equation 3 shows that velocity is a function of the square root of the pressure difference. \nBecause the speed computed by the pitometer is a function of the difference between pressure readings, the pitometer does not produce an accurate result when the ship's velocity is low and the two pressure readings are nearly the same.", "Escape velocity\nTo escape the gravity of the second body once it has escaped the first body the rocket will need to be travelling at the escape velocity for the second body (formula_27) (at the orbital distance of the first body). However, when the rocket escapes the first body it will still have the same orbital speed around the second body that the first body has (formula_28). So its excess velocity as it escapes the first body will need to be the difference between the orbital velocity and the escape velocity. With a circular orbit, escape velocity is times the orbital speed. Thus the total escape velocity formula_29 when leaving one body orbiting a second and seeking to escape them both is, under simplified assumptions:", "Breaststroke\nA fit adult creates a wake. Drag due to a wake is Newtonian drag, increasing with the square of the velocity. For example, if the relative speed between the water and the leg is twice as high on the thrust phase than on the recovery phase, the thrust is four times as high as the drag. Assuming the legs are recovered with a relative speed between leg and body which amounts to the same as the relative speed between water and body, the legs must be kicked back with five times the mean velocity of the swimmer. This limits the top speed. Both effects together, velocity and frontal area, yield a thrust-to-drag ratio of 8 for the legs.", "Light-gas gun\nThe muzzle velocity of an airgun, firearm, or light-gas gun is limited by, but not limited to, the speed of sound in the working fluid—the air, burning gunpowder, or a light gas. Up to the speed of sound, thermodynamics provides a simple, approximate calculation approach: the projectile is accelerated by the pressure difference between its ends, and since such a pressure wave cannot propagate any faster than the speed of sound in the medium, thermodynamic analysis suggests that the muzzle velocity is limited to the speed of sound. However, beyond the speed of sound, the kinetic theory of gases, which determines the speed of sound, provides a more detailed analysis in terms of the gas particles that comprise the working fluid. Kinetic theory indicates that the velocity of the gas particles is Maxwell-Boltzmann distributed, with the velocity of a large fraction of the particles exceeding the speed of sound in the gas. That fraction of the gas can continue to apply pressure to and therefore accelerate the projectile beyond the speed of sound in diminishing amounts as the projectiles speed increases. ", "Structure of the Earth\nThe layering of Earth has been inferred indirectly using the time of travel of refracted and reflected seismic waves created by earthquakes. The core does not allow shear waves to pass through it, while the speed of travel (seismic velocity) is different in other layers. The changes in seismic velocity between different layers causes refraction owing to Snell's law, like light bending as it passes through a prism. Likewise, reflections are caused by a large increase in seismic velocity and are similar to light reflecting from a mirror.", "Modern searches for Lorentz violation\nSince the discovery of neutrino oscillations, it is assumed that their speed is slightly below the speed of light. Direct velocity measurements indicated an upper limit for relative speed differences between light and neutrinos of formula_23 < , see measurements of neutrino speed.", "Surface wave inversion\nThe usefulness of surface waves in determining subsurface elastic properties arises from the way in which they disperse. Dispersion (geology) is the way in which surface waves spread out as they travel across the surface of the earth. Basically, if ten waves travel along the surface of the earth at the same speed, there is no dispersion. If several of the waves start to travel faster than the others, dispersion is occurring. Surface waves of varying wavelengths penetrate to different depths (Figure 2) and travel at the velocity of the mediums they are travelling through. Figure 2 was generated by plotting the amplitude of surface waves against depth. This was done for two different wavelengths. Both waves have the same total energy, but the longer wavelength has its energy spread out over a larger interval. If earth materials’ elastic parameters yield higher velocities with depth, longer wavelength surface waves will travel faster than those with shorter wavelengths. The variation of velocities with wavelength makes it possible to infer critical information about the subsurface. Dobrin (1951) uses a water disturbance example to illustrate the phenomenon that longer wavelengths tend to travel faster. This increase in speed with wavelength is seen for both group velocities and phase velocities. A wave group consists of waves at varying wavelengths and frequencies. Individual waves of a wave group are usually generated at the same time, but tend to spread out within the group because each wavelet travels at a different speed. A group velocity is basically the speed at which a wave group travels. A phase velocity is the speed at which an individual wave travels, having its own characteristic wavelength and frequency. Fourier theory tells us that a sharp impulse is made up of infinite frequency content in phase at one point. If each frequency travels at the same speed, that peak will remain intact. If each frequency travels at a different speed, that peak will spread out (Figure 3). This spreading out is dispersion. Phase and group velocity are both dependent on wavelength and are related by the equation", "Faster-than-light\nThe expansion of the universe causes distant galaxies to recede from us faster than the speed of light, if proper distance and cosmological time are used to calculate the speeds of these galaxies. However, in general relativity, velocity is a local notion, so velocity calculated using comoving coordinates does not have any simple relation to velocity calculated locally. (See comoving distance for a discussion of different notions of 'velocity' in cosmology.) Rules that apply to relative velocities in special relativity, such as the rule that relative velocities cannot increase past the speed of light, do not apply to relative velocities in comoving coordinates, which are often described in terms of the \"expansion of space\" between galaxies. This expansion rate is thought to have been at its peak during the inflationary epoch thought to have occurred in a tiny fraction of the second after the Big Bang (models suggest the period would have been from around 10 seconds after the Big Bang to around 10 seconds), when the universe may have rapidly expanded by a factor of around 10 to 10.", "Gas meter\nThe most elaborate types of ultrasonic flow meters average speed of sound over multiple paths in the pipe. The length of each path is precisely measured in the factory. Each path consists of an ultrasonic transducer at one end and a sensor at the other. The meter creates a 'ping' with the transducer and measures the time elapsed before the sensor receives the sonic pulse. Some of these paths point upstream so that the sum of the times of flight of the sonic pulses can be divided by the sum of the flight lengths to provide an average speed of sound in the upstream direction. This speed differs from the speed of sound in the gas by the velocity at which the gas is moving in the pipe. The other paths may be identical or similar, except that the sound pulses travel downstream. The meter then compares the difference between the upstream and downstream speeds to calculate the velocity of gas flow." ]

[ "Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan\nAbd al-Malik ibn Marwan (Arabic: عبد الملك ابن مروان‎ ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwān, 646–8 October 705) was the 5th Umayyad caliph. He was born in Medina, Hejaz.[1][3] Abd al-Malik was a well-educated man and capable ruler who was able to solve many political problems that impeded his rule. The 14th-century Arab historian and philosopher Ibn Khaldun stated that \"`Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan was one of the greatest Arab and Muslim Caliphs. He followed in the footsteps of `Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Commander of the Believers, in regulating state affairs\".[4]" ]

[ "Qira'at\nQirâʾa from Madinah: The reading of Madinah known as the reading of Nâfiʿ Ibn Abî Naʿîm (more precisely Abû ʿAbd ar-Raḥmân Nâfiʿ Ibn ʿAbd ar-Raḥmân).\nNâfiʿ died in 169 H. He reported from Yazîd Ibn al-Qaʿqâʿ and ʿAbd ar-Raḥmân Ibn Hurmuz al-'Araj and Muslim Ibn Jundub al-Hudhalî and Yazîd Ibn Român and Shaybah Ibn Nisâʾ. All of them reported from Abû Hurayrah and Ibn ʿAbbâs and ʿAbdallâh Ibn 'Ayyâsh Ibn Abî Rabî'ah al-Makhzûmî and the last three reported from Ubayy Ibn Kaʿb from the Prophet.[14]", "Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab\nAfter his return home, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab began to attract followers, including the ruler of 'Uyayna, Uthman ibn Mu'ammar. With Ibn Mu'ammar, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab came to an agreement to support Ibn Mu'ammar's political ambitions to expand his rule \"over Najd and possibly beyond\", in exchange for the ruler's support for Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's religious teachings. Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab began to implement some of his ideas for reform. First, he persuaded Ibn Mu'ammar to help him level the grave of Zayd ibn al-Khattab, a companion of Muhammad, whose grave was revered by locals. Secondly, he ordered the cutting down of trees considered sacred by locals, cutting down \"the most glorified of all of the trees\" himself. Third, he organised the stoning of a woman who confessed to having committed adultery.", "Ibn Zuhr\nHis full name is Abū-Marwān ʻAbd al-Malik ibn Abī al-ʻAlāʼ Ibn Zuhr (). His name was Latinized as Avenzoar, Abumeron, Abhomeron, Alomehَn or Abhomjeron.", "Marwan I\nMarwān ibn al-Ḥakam ibn Abiʾl-ʿAs ibn Umayya ibn ʿAbd Shams (), commonly known as Marwan I (ca. 623–626 — April/May 685) was the fourth caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate, ruling for less than a year in 684–685, and founder of its Marwanid ruling house, which remained in power until 750. Marwan had known the Islamic prophet Muhammad and is thus considered a \"sahabi\" (companion). He served as the secretary and right-hand man of his kinsman Caliph Uthman (r. 644–656) and participated in the defense of his house during a rebel siege. Uthman was, nonetheless, killed by the rebels, prompting Marwan to kill Talha ibn Ubayd Allah, whom he held culpable, during the Battle of the Camel in 656. He subsequently paid allegiance to Caliph Ali (r. 656–661) and later served as governor of Medina under his kinsman Caliph Mu'awiya I (r. 661–680), founder of the Umayyad Caliphate.", "Abū Jaʿfar Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Malik Ibn Saʿīd\nAbū Jaʿfar Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Malik Ibn Saʿīd (died 1163) is best known as a poet, and lover of Ḥafṣa bint al-Ḥājj ar-Rakūniyya (c. 1135-1191).", "Ibn al-Kardabūs\nAbū Marwān ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Abī l-Qāsim ibn Muḥammad ibn al-Kardabūs al-Tawzarī (\"floruit\" 12th–13th century) was a Tunisian historian, perhaps of Andalusian origin. He was born in Tozeur and studied the \"hadith\" and jurisprudence under Abū Ṭāhir al-Silafī at Alexandria. His best-known work is \"Taʾrīkh al-Andalus\", a history of Muslim Spain. He died in Tunis.", "Bishr ibn Marwan\nAbū Marwān Bishr ibn Marwān ibn al-Ḥakam (died 694) was an Umayyad prince and governor of Iraq during the reign of his brother, Caliph Abd al-Malik. Bishr fought at Marj Rahit with his father, Caliph Marwan I (r. 684–685). The latter later posted Bishr to Egypt to keep his brother Abd al-Aziz company. In 690/91, Bishr was made governor of Kufa and about one year later, Basra was added to his governorship, giving him full control of Iraq.", "Khālid ibn ʿAbd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrūdhī\nKhālid ibn ʿAbd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrūdhī () was a Zanji slave who was taken to Persia in the 9th century.", "Abd al-Rahman al-Shaghouri\nSayyid ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muṣṭafā ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Zayn al-ʿAbidīn al-Shāghūrī al-Ḥusaynī () was a Syrian Sufi master of the Hashimi-Darqawi branch of the Shadhili tariqa, as well as poet, textile worker, and trade unionist.", "Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan\nʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn Marwān (; died 705) was the Umayyad governor and \"de facto\" viceroy of Egypt between 685 and his death. He was appointed by his father, Caliph Marwan I (r. 684–685). Abd al-Aziz's reign was marked by stability and prosperity, partly due to his close relations and reliance on the Arab military settlers of Fustat. Under his direction and supervision, an army led by Musa ibn Nusayr completed the Muslim conquest of North Africa. He was removed from the line of succession to the caliphal throne and, in any case, died before his brother, Caliph Abd al-Malik. However, one of Abd al-Aziz's sons, Umar II, would become caliph in 717–720.", "Muhammad ibn al-Qasim al-Thaqafi\nOn the accession of Sulaymān ibn ʿAbd al-Malik 715 CE, however, Ibn al-Qāsim, like other supporters of al-Malik's predecessor, was imprisoned and tortured to death. In the account of the \"Chach Nama\", however, this was because Dāhir's daughters, 'seeking vengeance for their father’s death, falsely accused him of indecency towards them while they were in his custody before being sent to the court of the caliph'.", "Abu Awn Abd al-Malik ibn Yazid\nAbū ʿAwn ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Yazīd al-Khurasānī () was an early supporter of the Abbasids from Jurjan, who participated in the campaigns of the Abbasid Revolution and served as governor of Egypt and Khurasan.", "Aban ibn Marwan\nAbū ʿUthmān Abān ibn Marwān ibn al-Ḥakam was an Umayyad prince and governor. He was the son of the Umayyad caliph Marwan I and Umm Aban, a daughter the third caliph, Uthman. Aban’s half-brother, Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705) appointed him, for an unknown period, governor of Palestine and the Balqa of the Damascus district. According to historian Moshe Gil, Aban was later made governor of Jund al-Urdunn. Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, one of the most powerful figures in the Umayyad Caliphate, who ultimately became viceroy of Iraq and the eastern provinces, started his career in the \"shurta\" (security forces) of Aban.", "Marwan II\nMarwan ibn Muhammad ibn Marwan, also called Marwan II (691 – 6 August 750; Arabic: مروان بن محمد بن مروان بن الحكم / ALA-LC: \"Marwān bin Muḥammad bin Marwān bin al-Ḥakam\"), was an Umayyad caliph who ruled from 744 until 750 when he was killed. Much of his reign was dominated by the Third Fitna, and he was the last Umayyad ruler to rule the united Caliphate before the Abbasid Revolution toppled the Umayyad dynasty.", "Ghālib ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān\nGhālib ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Nāṣirī (c. 900 – 10 July 981), called al-Ṣiḳlabī, was a military commander in the ʿUmayyad caliphate of Córdoba, serving the caliphs ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III \"al-Nāṣir\", al-Ḥakam II and Hishām II on both land and sea. For his military prowess, he was granted the honorific \"Dhu ʾl-Sayfayn\" (Lord of the Two Swords).", "Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam\nʿAbd ar-Raḥman ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥakam was, strictly speaking, a traditionist rather than a pure historian. He was interested mainly in historical incidents which illustrated early Muslim customs which he could use to teach Islamic law. His sources were books compiled by very early traditionists and now lost, and oral sources such as his own father.", "Malik ibn al-Murahhal\nMalik ibn al-Murahhal or Abu l-Hakam/Abu l-Mayd Malik ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Ali ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn (al-)Faray ibn (al-)Azraq ibb Saad/Munir ibn Salim ibn (al-)Faray al-Masmudi al-Malaqi al-Sabti (13 August 1207, in Málaga – 10 April 1299, in Fez) is considered to be one of the greatest Moroccan poets. He belonged to a Masmudi family and was born in Malaga, but grew up in Ceuta and was the chancellor of Marinid sultans like Abu Yusuf Yaqub. He is the author of 24 books among which a panegyric of the Prophet in popular form.", "Muhammad ibn al-Zayyat\nMuḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Malik, better known as Ibn al-Zayyāt (), was a wealthy merchant who became a court official and served as vizier of the Abbasid caliphs al-Mu'tasim, al-Wathiq, and al-Mutawakkil, from 836 until his downfall and death by torture in 847.", "Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah\nIn a letter sent to the Ismāʿīlī community in Yemen by Abd Allah al-Mahdi Billah, which was reproduced by Ja'far bin Mansūr al-Yemen, ʿAbd Allāh al-Aftah ibn Jaʿfar al-Sadiq was referred as \"Sāhib al-Haqq\" or the legitimate successor of Imām Jaʿfar al-Sadiq. According to ʿAbd Allāh al-Mahdi bi'l-Lāh, ʿAbd Allāh ibn Ja'far had called himself Ismāʿīl ibn Jaʿfar for the sake of taqiyya, and each of his successors had assumed the name Muhammad. ʿAbd Allāh al-Mahdi Billah explains the genealogy of the Fatimid caliphs and he claims Fatimid ancestry by declaring himself to be ʿAli ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn Aḥmad ibn ʿAbadullāh ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Jaʿfar al-Sadiq. But the Imamah (Ismaili doctrine) had later been formulated in a different manner since ʿAbd Allāh's explanation of his ancestry was not accepted by his successors.", "Abdallah ibn Abd al-Malik\nʿAbdallāh ibn ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān (in Greek sources , \"Abdelas\") was an Umayyad prince, the son of Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (r. 685–705), a general and governor of Egypt.", "Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab\nUpon his expulsion from 'Uyayna, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was invited to settle in neighboring Diriyah by its ruler Muhammad bin Saud. After some time in Diriyah, Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab concluded his second and more successful agreement with a ruler. Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud agreed that, together, they would bring the Arabs of the peninsula back to the \"true\" principles of Islam as they saw it. According to one source, when they first met, bin Saud declared:", "Sa'id ibn Abd al-Malik\nSaʿīd ibn ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān ibn al-Ḥakam, also known as Saʿīd al-Khayr (died 750), was an Umayyad prince and governor. He served as governor of Mosul for a undetermined period under his father Caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705) and was responsible for a number of building and infrastructural works. He also played a role in the construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. He was later granted property in Mosul’s vicinity by Caliph al-Walid I (r. 705–715) or Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (r. 717–720), which he turned into an agricultural tract with a canal. He later led a summer campaign against the Byzantines in Anatolia. During the brief rule of Caliph al-Walid II (r. 743–744), Sa’id served as governor of Palestine, but was expelled by rebels in the district after al-Walid’s death. Sa’id was ultimately killed during the massacre of the Umayyad family near Ramla after the Abbasid victory over the dynasty in 750. \nSa’id was the son of the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik and one of the latter’s concubines. He became known as Sa’id al-Khayr, which translates as “Sa’id the Good”, because of his piety and charitable works. The 9th-century historian al-Tabari notes that he was “man of good character”, while the historian al-Baladhuri claimed he practiced asceticism. Between 688 and 692, Sa’id was the supervisory representative of Abd al-Malik for the construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.", "Ibn Taymiyyah\nIbn Taymiyyah's full name is \"Taqī ad-Dīn Abu 'l-`Abbās Ahmad ibn `Abd al-Ḥalīm ibn `Abd as-Salām ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Khidr ibn Muhammad ibn al-Khidr ibn `Ali ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Taymiyyah al-Ḥarrānī\" ().", "Muhammad ibn Marwan\nMuḥammad ibn Marwān ibn al-Ḥakam (died 719/720) was an Umayyad prince and one of the most important generals of the Caliphate in the period 690–710, and the one who completed the Arab conquest of Armenia. He defeated the Byzantines and conquered their Armenian territories, crushed an Armenian rebellion in 704–705 and made the country into an Umayyad province.", "Yahya ibn al-Hakam\nYahyā ibn al-Ḥakam ibn Abīʿl-ʿĀs was an Umayyad statesman during the caliphate of Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705). Yahya was a son of al-Hakam ibn Abi al-As and brother to Abd al-Malik’s father, Caliph Marwan I (r. 684–685). In 694/95, Yahya was appointed governor of Medina. At some point prior, he had served as governor of Palestine. Yahya was mentioned in an inscription on a milestone found near Samakh that credited him for supervising the paving of a road through the Fiq pass in the Golan Heights. A daughter of Yahya named Umm Hakim married Abd al-Malik’s son and future caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik and bore him five sons, including Mu'awiya ibn Hisham.", "Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam\nAbu'l Qāsim ʿAbd ar-Raḥman bin ʿAbdullah bin ʿAbd al-Ḥakam bin Aʿyan al-Qurashī al-Mașrī (), generally known simply as Ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥakam (born : 187 A.H/ 803 A.D- died 257 A.H/ 871 A.D at al-Fustat near Cairo) was an Egyptian Muslim historian who wrote a work generally known as \"The Conquest of Egypt and North Africa and Spain\" (, \"Futūḥ mișr wa'l maghrab wa'l andalus\"). This work is considered one of the earliest Arabic Islamic histories to have survived to the present day.", "Ibn Ishaq\nBorn in Medina circa A.H. 85 (704 A.D), ibn Isḥaq's grandfather was Yasār, a christian of Kufa (in southern Iraq). Yasār had been captured from a monastery in Ayn al-Tamr in one of Khalid ibn al-Walid's campaigns, taken to Medina and enslaved to Qays ibn Makhrama ibn al-Muṭṭalib ibn ʿAbd Manāf ibn Quṣayy. On his conversion to Islam, Yasār was manumitted as \"mawlā\" (client), thus acquiring the surname, or \"nisbat\", al-Muṭṭalibī. Yasār's three sons, Mūsā, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, and Isḥāq, were transmitters of \"akhbār\", ie they collected and recounted written and oral testaments of the past. Isḥāq married the daughter of another mawlā and from this marriage ibn Isḥāq was born.", "Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab\nThese actions gained the attention of Sulaiman ibn Muhammad ibn Ghurayr of the tribe of Bani Khalid, the chief of Al-Hasa and Qatif, who held substantial influence in Najd. Ibn Ghurayr threatened Ibn Mu'ammar with denying him the ability to collect a land tax for some properties that Ibn Mu'ammar owned in Al-Hasa if he did not kill or drive away Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. Consequently, Ibn Mu'ammar forced Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab to leave.", "Abdullah al-Aftah\nIn a letter sent to the Ismāʿīlī community in Yemen by Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah, which was reproduced by Ja'far bin Mansūr al-Yemen, \"ʿAbd Allāh al-Aftah ibn Jaʿfar al-Sadiq\" was referred as \"Sāhib al-Haqq\" or the legitimate successor of Imām Jaʿfar al-Sadiq by AbdAllāh in an attempt to explain the genealogy of his ancestors. Instead of tracing his descent to Ismā‘il b. Jaʿfar and his son Muhammad b. Ismāʿīl, the first Fatimid Caliph Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah designates Jaʿfar's eldest son \"ʿAbd Allāh\" as his forefather. According to ʿAbdallah al-Mahdi Billah, ʿAbd Allāh ibn Ja'far had called himself Ismāʿīl ibn Jaʿfar for the sake of taqiyya, and each of his successors had assumed the name Muhammad. ʿAbdallah al-Mahdi Billah explains the genealogy of the Fatimid Caliphs and he claims Fatimid ancestry by declaring himself to be ʿAli ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn Aḥmad ibn ʿAbadullāh ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Jaʿfar al-Sadiq. But the Imamah (Ismaili doctrine) was later formulated in a different manner since ʿAbdallah al-Mahdi Billah's explanation of his ancestry was not accepted by his successors." ]

[ "Christian von Ehrenfels\nChristian von Ehrenfels was born on 20 June 1859 in Rodaun near Vienna and grew up at his father's castle Brunn am Walde in Lower Austria. He joined secondary school in Krems and first studied at the Hochschule für Bodenkultur in Vienna and then changed to the Universität Wien." ]

[ "Christian von Ehrenfels\nThe idea of Gestalt has its roots in theories by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Ernst Mach. Max Wertheimer is to be credited as the founder of the movement of Gestalt psychology. The concept of Gestalt itself was first introduced in contemporary philosophy and psychology by Ehrenfels in his famous work Über Gestaltqualitäten (On the Qualities of Form, 1890). Both he and Edmund Husserl seem to have been inspired by Mach's work Beiträge zur Analyse der Empfindungen (Contributions to the Analysis of the Sensations, 1886) to formulate their very similar concepts of Gestalt and Figural Moment respectively.", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nEhrenfels argued in numerous cultural-scientific and sexual-political writings against the cultural harmfulness of monogamy and for the utopia of a polygynian social order. He defended the opinion that monogamy would hinder a Darwinistic reproduction-logic and procreation-selection, which would have a devastating effect on society in a cultural-biological way and therefore monogamy should be combated. With those theories, Ehrenfels exposed himself to massive criticism, because he offered with his theories unimaginable thoughts to contemporary Western conventions. The basis of Ehrenfels's thinking about a new sexual order were expressed in a series of essays published in several academic journals in Germany and Austria between 1902-1910.[4] In his essays, Ehrenfels began with the argument that men are not naturally monogamous, and that monogamy was something that had come to Europe with Christianity.[5] Ehrenfels's starting point was that with many species of animals such as whales, walruses, elephants, lions, etc, the strongest male has a harem, which for him was sufficient proof that this was what nature had intended for humanity.[6] Ehrenfels stated through monogamy had some useful functions such as the \"iron discipline\" it imposed on European men, on the whole Europeans had suffered terribly from the unnatural condition of monogamy, which had seriously interfered with the Darwinian progress of ensuring the survival of the fittest (Ehrenfels was an avid Social Darwinist).[5] Ehrenfels believed polygamy was what nature had intended for men as it allowed the \"fittest\" men to father as many children as possible with as many women as possible in a process of \"virile selection\".[7]", "Gestalt psychology\nThe concept of gestalt was first introduced in philosophy and psychology in 1890 by Christian von Ehrenfels (a member of the School of Brentano). The idea of gestalt has its roots in theories by David Hume, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. Max Wertheimer's unique contribution was to insist that the \"gestalt\" is perceptually primary, defining the parts it was composed from, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts, as von Ehrenfels's earlier \"Gestalt-Qualität\" had been.", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nFor men who were \"social losers\", a certain number of the genetically less fit women would be sterilized and turned into the \"courtesan class\" who would be set aside for the sexual use of the \"loser\" men in brothels.[17] Since in Ehrenfels's viewpoint, all that men really wanted from women was sex, not love, in this new society men would not suffer the psychological problems caused by monogamy, thus ending the \"splitting\". Since this new society would be meritocratic, this would solve the entire \"Social Question\" as there would no more inherited wealth and privilege.[17] Furthermore, in this new society, women living in their communal barracks would help each other with raising children, so women would have more time for leisure, and as such Ehrenfels believed that women would come to see this new society as a huge improvement over the previous monogamist society.[17] Their husbands now free of monogamy would treat them better, and so the entire \"Women's Question\" would dissolve as women would lose interest in feminism (which Enrenfels saw as very unnatural).[17] To end the \"Yellow Peril\" once and for all, Ehrenfels suggested that the \"white nations\" band together to conquer all the Asian nations before it was too late, and create a new world racial order with a hereditary, racially determined \"caste system\".[18] In Ehrenfels's vision, whites would serve as the oligarchic \"Aryan\" military and intellectual castes and the Asians and blacks as the slave castes supporting the whites.[18] Ehrenfels in essays published in 1903 and 1904 that in this industrial age, where the majority of humanity was doomed to spent their lives in \"mindless, indeed mind-numbing mechanical labor\", that this sort of work was best done by \"regressive types\" of people instead of \"human types of higher value\".[18] Ehrenfels argued that Asians and blacks were the \"regressive types\" born for lives of mindless labor while whites were the types of \"higher value\" meant for creative thinking, so the division of labor he proposed for his caste system was the one that best suited the intellectual capabilities of the different races that would create the \"proper relationship\" between them.[18] To prevent Miscegenation, interracial sex would be a capital crime with offenders to be publicly hanged.[18] The American historian Richard Weikart wrote Ehrenfels was typical of the \"progress through racial extermination\" school of thought that characterized much of the academia in the German-speaking world in the first part of the 20th century, writing that: \"Through Ehrenfels was not explicit on this point, presumably the elevation of the Europeans he desired would lead to the annihilation of the East Asians, as well as the other races, whom Ehrenfels considered far inferior to the Europeans.[19]", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nDickinson noted that many of Ehrenfels's ideas seem to anticipate National Socialism, but this was not the case. Within the first decade of the 20th century some of the more radical members of the eugenics-Social Darwinist movement in Germany were already advocating killing the physically and/or mentally disabled as the best way of improving the Aryan race.[48] Ehrenfels was deeply horrified by these ideas, and made it clear that in his proposed new society, the mentally and physically disabled would be prevented from marrying, and this was enough.[49] Had Ehrenfels lived long enough, he would have been appalled by the Action T4 program launched by the German government in January 1939 to exterminate all physically and mentally disabled people in the Reich (which by that included Austria). Likewise, Ehrenfels was opposed to antisemitism, writing there was no \"Jewish bogey\" threatening the \"Aryan race\"; called antisemitism \"silly\" and argued that the Jews would be very useful allies for the Aryans in the coming war with the Asians.[48] In this, Ehrenfels parted company with his friend Houston Stewart Chamberlain who believed in the coming great \"race war\" that the Asians together with the blacks would fight under the leadership of the Jews against the Aryans.", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nDickinson noted Ehrenfels's vision of humanity was a simplistic one, in which men fought and struggled to pass on their genes by impregnating as many women as possible.[40] The existence of homosexuality and bi-sexuality posed a major problem for Ehrenfels's view of humanity.[41] In 1897, the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, the first gay rights group in not only Germany, but also the world was founded. One of the founders of the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, Magnus Hirschfeld, the German sexologist and gay rights advocate, was a well known figure in the German-speaking world in the early 20th century and his theories were much debated.[42] In 1899, Hirschfeld had argued in an essay: \"that in all mental and physical characteristics there are only gradual, quantitative differences between men and women, that between them, in every respect, there are all sorts of mixed forms in extraordinary diversity\".[43] Hirschfeld's theories about varieties of human sexuality ranging from heterosexual to bisexual to homosexual and all of which were equally valid, posed a major for Ehrenfels.[44] Ehrenfels simply dismissed everything Hirschfeld had to say out of hand, saying that homosexuality was a case of moral degeneration caused by a few \"biologically degenerate homosexuals\" who seduced otherwise \"healthy boys\" into their lifestyle.[45] Ehrenfels could not accept Hirschfeld's theory that some people were born gay as it contradicted his view of male sexuality as an aggressive drive to pass on one's genes too much.[46]", "Baron Omar Rolf von Ehrenfels\nRolf Ehrenfels was an Austrian citizen all his life. Lichtenau near Krems and Gföhl in Lower Austria was his home parish. Since 1813 the Ehrenfels family were settled in Schloss Lichtenau. Also the castles Brunn im Walde and Rastbach were family properties. Rolf's eldest sister \"Elfi\" Elfriede Hartmann married a widower with three children and had her own home from the early 1920s. His sister Imma Ehrenfels married Wilhelm \"Willy\" (von) Bodmershof (Schuster)and they settled at Rastbach castle for life. In 1925 there was a double wedding as Rolf Ehrenfels married Willy's sister Fridl who became Elfriede Ehrenfels. She was born in Trieste, Austria.", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nChristian von Ehrenfels (also Maria Christian Julius Leopold Freiherr von Ehrenfels; 20 June 1859 – 8 September 1932)[2] was an Austrian philosopher, and is known as one of the founders and precursors of Gestalt psychology.", "Baron Omar Rolf von Ehrenfels\nBaron Omar Rolf von Ehrenfels (born 28 April 1901 in Prague - died 7 February 1980 in Neckargemünd, Heidelberg, Germany) was a prominent Muslim of Austrian origin.", "Ali and Nino\nAustrian Baroness Elfriede Ehrenfels (1894–1982) registered the novel \"Ali and Nino\" with German authorities, and her niece Leela Ehrenfels (in association with the Baron Omar Rolf von Ehrenfel's second wife, the Baroness Mireille Ehrenfels-Abeille) has claimed that the pseudonym Kurban Said belonged to her aunt Elfriede, and that she wrote both Kurban Said novels, \"Ali and Nino\" and \"The Girl from the Golden Horn\". No one has offered any robust contextual comparison between \"Ali and Nino\" and other known writings by Elfriede Ehrenfels, but Leela Ehrenfels has noted several coincidences between her aunt's and father's lives and writings that suggest their, or at least Elfriede's, authorship of the novel. One is that the April 20, 1937 working title of the novel was \"The Dying Orient\", and her father and aunt (the Baron and Baroness Ehrenfels) had previously written an article together entitled \"The Dying Istanbul.\" Another is that the Ehrenfels made a film entitled \"The Great Longing\", which is \"about a man who is disappointed with the world. And he is looking for true love or truth.\" (The unspoken implication may be that this is similar to \"Ali and Nino\".) Third, Baron Omar Rolf von Ehrenfels set up the \"Orient Bund\" for Muslim students in Berlin \"in order to bring Europeans and Muslims closer together.\" Leela Ehrenfels and Mireille Ehrenfels-Abeille have also said it is possible that Elfriede had an affair with Lev Nussimbaum. Fourth, according to the April 20, 1937 contract with E.P. Tal & Co., Baroness Elfriede was the author behind the pseudonym Kurban Said, and Leela has said, \"that makes it obvious to me that she wrote both books. But it is possible that Essad Bey supplied some of the material. And that there are certain parts on which they worked together.\" Fifth, Leela Ehrenfels cites a September 14, 1938 letter from \"Essad Bey\" to Baroness Ehrenfels, written in Positano, Italy, in which he again refers to her as \"Mrs. Kurban Said\" and congratulates her on something unmentioned – Leela Ehrenfels interprets this as a reference to \"The Girl From the Golden Horn\".", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nMoreover, Ehrenfels was obsessed with the fear of the \"Yellow Peril\", and believed that Asian peoples were a deadly threat to European civilization.[10] Ehrenfels wrote if nothing was done to stop the rise of China, that \"if there is no change in current practice, this will lead to the annihilation of the white race by the yellow race\".[11]", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nDickinson wrote that when Ehrenfels wrote about men suffering from what he called the \"tortuously shackled animal personality\" created by monogamy, he was almost certainly writing about himself.[31] Dickinson suggested that based upon a reading of Ehrenfels's private letters, that his concerns about psychological \"splitting\" within men were based upon his own visits to prostitutes, where he saw johns abusing the prostitutes, and that he may himself had badly treated the prostitutes he had sex with (his letters are somewhat ambiguous on this point).[32] The frequently which Ehrenfels brought up the example of how psychological \"splitting\" was causing men to abuse prostitutes may very well had reflected a guilty conscience on his part about past abuse that he had inflicted on the prostitutes whose services he had used.[32] In a 1908 essay entitled \"The Yellow Peril\", Ehrenfels wrote that 13 years earlier in 1895, he \"arrived, on the basis of personal experience, which it would be superfluous to recount here, at the following two alternatives: 'Either I am an individual of totally corrupt sex instincts, or our monogamous sexual order is an institution with completely corrupting tendencies.'\"[32]", "Ehrenfels Castle (Grisons)\nThe castle was probably built in the first half of the 13th century. The first mention of the Lord of Ehrenfels is in 1257. In 1320 it was owned by Burkhard and Rudolf von Schauenstein, who also used the name Ehrenfels or Herrenfels. They probably expanded the simple bergfried with residential space and a ring wall around that time. The castle was first mentioned in 1423 with Hermann von Ehrenfels as the owner. Toward the end of the 15th century or in the early 16th century it was given to Cazis Monastery, but the Schauenstein-Ehrenfels family continued to occupy it. During the 16th century the castle was renovated and rebuilt into a more comfortable palas.", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nThe American historian Edward Ross Dickinson wrote the \"pieces\" of Ehrenfels's thinking were all mainstream, but the way he brought them together was \"idiosyncratic\".[30] Dickinson suggested that these ideas were rooted in Ehrenfels's own tormented sexuality as he was both fascinated/repulsed by sex.[30] Ehrenfels had been brought up in an extremely conservative, sexually repressive Roman Catholic family, and from his teenage years onwards, always felt deep shame and guilt about his sexual desires.[30] Despite his obsession with sex, Ehrenfels was enraged by pornography (which he wanted to see ruthlessly stamped out) and by the \"indecent\" popular culture of Vienna, which he saw as far too sexualized.[31] Ehrenfels was especially offended by the Animierkneipen (\"hostess bar\"), a type of popular bar in Austria where the buxom waitresses wore very low-cut dresses and were encouraged to flirt with the male customers in order to get them to buy more drinks; in the Animierkneipen, the waitresses were paid commissions based on their nightly sales of alcohol.[30] Ehrenfels was deeply disgusted by the sight of women flaunting their sexuality to manipulate men, and wanted the Animierkneipen banned.[30] Besides for that, Ehrenfels complained constantly about \"indecent puns\" used by ordinary people, the \"courtesan style\" in modern fashion and by the \"pornography of the humorous weeklies, in comic songs, farces and operettas\".[30]", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nHis analysis of the transition of a melody to another key became famous. Ehrenfels explained that a melody consists of individual sounds, but that it is considerably more than the sum of these notes. The individual notes would be able to join themselves for completely different melodies, while the melody would remain the same, if transposed into another key and containing single tones. This new opinion, that came up to a “perception of the whole” compared to its “parts” Ehrenfels called Gestaltqualitäten (Figure qualities).", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nReinhard Fabian (Hg.) - Philosophische Schriften -, Philosophia-Verlag, München & Wien 1990 (4 volumes: 1. Werttheorie. (1982), 2. Ästhetik. (1986), 3. Psychologie, Ethik, Erkenntnistheorie. (1988), 4. Metaphysik. (1990)) Reinhard Fabian - Christian von Ehrenfels: Leben und Werk -, Editions Rodopi, Amsterdam 1986, ISBN978-90-6203-856-5 Petra Gehring: Viriler Faktor. Die Sexualwissenschaft des Christian von Ehrenfels. In: Zeitschrift für Ideengeschichte (III, 2, page 40-51), 2009 Richard Meister - Ehrenfels, Christian Freiherr von. In: Neue Deutsche Biographie, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1959, (Volume 4, page 352f.) Barry Smith - , Chicago: Open Court, 1996, (Chapters 8 and 9, pp.255f.) Barry Smith - In: Axiomathes, 8 (1997), 83–104 Volkmar Sigusch: Geschichte der Sexualwissenschaft -, Campus, Frankfurt / New York 2008, ISBN978-3-593-38575-4, (Page 327-343) Volkmar Sigusch & Günter Grau (Hg.) - Personenlexikon der Sexualforschung -, Campus Frankfurt / New York: 2009, ISBN978-3-593-39049-9, (Page 119-125) Ehrenfels Christian Frh. von - In: Österreichisches Biographisches Lexikon 1815–1950, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 1957, (Volume 1, page 226f.)", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nEhrenfels's wife Emma was befriended by Houston Stewart Chamberlain. His daughter was the author Imma von Bodmershof and his son Rolf, a professor of anthropology who converted to Islam in 1927 and assumed the name Omar. Omar Rolf's wife, Elfriede von Bodmershof, was a literary person. As well, she registered the pseudonym \"Kurban Said\" as belonging to her for the novels \"Ali and Nino\" as well as \"Girl from the Golden Horn.\"[50] However, Lucy Tal whose company E.P. Tal had published \"Ali and Nino\" wrote her lawyer saying, \"I had never heard of the Baroness... Also my late husband's right hand and secretary knew nothing of the Baroness. Only much later, when for some reason, we looked at Buchhaendler Boersenblatt, we discovered the Baroness as Kurban Said. Of course, under the Nazis pseudonyms were born, people unrightful had themselves as authors ...\"[51]", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nDickinson noted that Ehrenfels's intense bouts of depression together with periods of manic activity suggested a degree of emotional instability on his part, adding:", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nEhrenfels projected feminine qualities onto the Chinese, always using feminine verbs when writing about the Chinese, and always compared China to a woman after 1904.[39] The German language has three sorts of verbs: masculine, feminine and neutral. Ehrenfels's fear of the Chinese reflected his fear of the feminine which might overwhelm the masculine through the powers of love and sex.[39] By contrast, Ehrenfels always used masculine verbs when writing about the Japanese, and he often compared the Japanese to a rival male that was seeking to dominate the \"woman China\" in competition to the European powers that were also compared to males.[39] Dickison argued that Ehrenfels's constant use of this sort of sexualized language of power, aggression and domination when writing about China reflected his own fear of sex, love, sexual dependence, his sexual adequacy as a man, and most of all, emotional dependence.[39] Dickinson further noted the great irony of Ehrenfels's life, namely that his own biography disapproved his theories about men as sex-crazed animals incapable of love for either the women in their lives or their children.[39] By all accounts, Ehrenfels did indeed deeply love his wife and his two children.[39]", "Baron Omar Rolf von Ehrenfels\nOmar, or as he later chose, Umar Rolf Ehrenfels was born 28 April 1901 in Prague, Austria. He was baptised Rolf Werner Leopold von Ehrenfels. His father was Roman Catholic Baron Christian von Ehrenfels (1859–1932) professor of philosophy at the German part of Prague University. He is known as the founder of the Gestalt theory. His mother was Emma von Ehrenfels (1862–1946) born André, in Bratislava (Pressburg). In her parental home both German and Hungarian was spoken. During World War I she worked for the Red Cross caring for Hungarian wounded soldiers. Widowed of her first marriage she brought her daughter Elfriede (Elfi) Hartmann into their home. The second daughter, known as the author Imma von Bodmershof (1895–1983), was born in Graz. Rolf as the only son of Christian Freiherr von Ehrenfels inherited the title but he had to discard it according to new Austrian laws in 1920. As a convert to Islam he took on the name Omar or Umar, kept Rolf and omitted the others. 1932–37 he was a student of social anthropology (Völkerkunde) at Vienna University and got a doctorate there. At the Nazi occupation of Austria, Anschluss, 13 March 1938, he emigrated to India. There he lived until 1961, since 1949 as lecturer, later professor of social anthropology at the University of Madras. Umar Rolf Ehrenfels died 7 February 1980 in Neckargemuend, Germany having been guest professor at Heidelberg University and co- founder of its South Asia Institute 1961-71. Elfriede von Bodmershof (1894–1982) was his wife 1925–1948. The couple was separated due to the Nazi occupation of 1938. Later Ehrenfels married the French social scientist Mireille Abeille (1924–2007).", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nIn the 1890s, Ehrenfels-who was a passionate fan of Richard Wagner-befriended a fellow Wagnerite, the British born German völkisch thinker Houston Stewart Chamberlain, \"the Evangelist of Race\".[52] Ehrenfels, who despite being a Wagnerite and a friend of Chamberlain's did not generally associate himself with the more extreme racist and anti-Semitic wing of the Wagner movement that Chamberlain came to be the leader of.[53] Ehrenfels never accepted Chamberlain's anti-Semitism, but he was influenced by Chamberlain's theory that the Aryan race was the greatest and best race of them all. Chamberlain was later to have an affair with Ehrenfels's wife, Baroness Emma von Ehrenfels.[54]", "Ali and Nino\nAnother testimonial is by Baron Omar Rolf von Ehrenfels in his foreword to a 1973 Swiss edition of the second Kurban Said novel, \"The Girl From the Golden Horn\". Omar Rolf von Ehrenfels was the husband of Baroness Elfriede Ehrenfels von Bodmershof and coincidentally the father of Leela Ehrenfels, the current copyright holder. The complicated story is told by Leela Ehrenfels in \"'Ali and Nino'. Identifying \"Kurban Said\" with the man he would have known in the 1930s as Nussimbaum/Bey, the baron writes: \"As a young man I founded the ‘Orient-Bund’ for Afro-Asian students in Vienna and through it I became friends with the quietly observing Azerbaijani Kurban Said... My way brought me shortly after that to India, from where I returned to Europe for the first time in 1954 and immediately went to visit the traditional Muslim grave of my then apparently forgotten friend which stood outside the wall of the cemetery in Positano.\"", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nEhrenfels wrote with disgust that monogamy was \"that type of sexual life...that corresponded to the needs and capacities of women, at the cost of men\".[8] By contrast, Ehrenfels believed that women were naturally monogamous, and that all that women desired was one good husband to look after them.[8] Ehrenfels further believed that all social problems were caused by unnatural state of Christian monogamy, which caused a \"splitting\" between a man's \"day consciousness\" when he professed to believe in Christian marriage, and his \"night consciousness\", when a man's naturally aggressive, animistic sex drive come into play.[9] Ehrenfels argued that this \"splitting\" within men between their \"day consciousness\" and \"night consciousness\" caused men all sorts of psychological trauma, and led to men acting in irrational, often violent ways.[10] The specific example of the sort of male irrationality brought up by Enrenfels concerning this \"splitting\" was that of men abusing the prostitutes they visited.[10]", "Baron Omar Rolf von Ehrenfels\nFor a period Rolf lived in Berlin. His first wife Ellen Feld can be seen as she has a part in a film, Das grosse Sehnen , for which Rolf wrote the manuscript. Rolf and his friend Willy Bodmershof worked on it together and shot it partly in a studio in Berlin, partly on location in Istanbul in 1923. On this trip, partly by bicycle, Rolf's interest in Islam was kindled. Also Christian von Ehrenfels appears in it, as a wise man. There are still photos in Ehrenfels archive, Lichtenau. The film is now in the Austrian Film Museum in Vienna. The film was reviewed by Kurt Bauchwitz as press clippings in the Ehrenfels archive show. Kurt was one of the intellectual Jews in the Berlin Wilmersdorf area. With him Rolf Ehrenfels developed a friendship for life. Kurt called himself Roy C Bates when he had escaped to the US after 1933. Their relationship is documented in the Roy C Bates papers in the Grenander Collections at Albany University, USA.", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nThe Czech Zionist, philosopher and friend of Kafka Felix Weltsch wrote many essays and memos about Ehrenfels, who himself was of partly Jewish descent.[55][56] Weltsch was one of Ehrenfels's most important pupils.", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nHowever, Ehrenfels's ideas did meet with disagreement. In December 1908, Sigmund Freud invited Ehrenfels to give a lecture on his proposed new society.[28] The audience generally offered polite dissent from Ehrenfels with one participant calling his new society an \"adolescent sexual fantasy\".[28] Ehrenfels's proposed new society earned him criticism from the Catholic Church which objected to his attacks on Christian monogamy; from feminists who were offended by his idea that women should be kept essentially as chattels and treated as sex objects by men; and from the romantic everywhere who were upset about his plans to abolish romantic love. The German feminist Helene Stöcker protested against Ehrenfels's plans, albeit from the same social Darwinian viewpoint, writing: \"A sexual ethic that does not rest on the development of women as a personality, but instead regards her merely as an object of male lust, is absolutely counter-evolutionary\".[29]", "Imma von Bodmershof\nImma was the daughter of Baron Christian von Ehrenfels, the founder of the modern structural Gestalt psychology in Austria. She was also the sister of Umar Rolf Baron Ehrenfels, an orientalist and anthropologist who converted to Islam.", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nAdditionally, Ehrenfels argued this psychological \"splitting\" led to men to treat their wives badly as men were forced into the unnatural condition of monogamy, and that the feminist movement and the entire \"Women's Question\" had arose as a response; Enrenfels believed the \"Women's Question\" would naturally resolve itself if only husbands would learn to treat their wives better.[10] Finally, Ehrenfels argued that the monogamy was at the root to the \"Social Question\" (by which meant Ehrenfels meant the rise of the Austrian Social Democratic Party) as it encouraged men to leave their fortunes to their children, something that Ehrenfels believed to be natural, but also something that \"very often contradicts the demands of social justice\".[10] As a result of wealth being spread by \"privilegistic\" means as opposed to \"meritocratic\" means, the poor felt resentment and were voting for socialist parties, which promised to abolish inequality.[10] Ehrenfels believed that humanity was naturally unequal, and the demand for universal human equality had to be fought as it totally unnatural.[10] In a 1908 essay, the proud aristocrat Baron von Enrenfels called the demand for universal equality in the Austrian Empire being made by the Social Democrats \"preposterous\".[10]", "Christian von Ehrenfels\nEhrenfels believed that Asians were especially dangerous enemies of the Europeans because in East Asia, polygamy was accepted as a natural part of the social order. Ehrenfels warned that this process of \"socially victorious\" Chinese men taking as many wives as possible was ultimately a grave threat to the West.[10] As a result of polygamy, genetically superior Asian men were fathering as many children as possible with as many women as possible while genetically superior European men were fathering children by only one woman.[14] As a result of European monogamy and Asian polygamy, the Europeans were losing out to the Asians, and it was only a matter of time before this genetic edge allowed the Asians to destroy European civilization.[14] As a Social Darwinist and a philosopher thereof, Ehrenfels saw all history as an endless racial struggle with the fittest \"races\" surviving.[14] Ehrenfels took it for granted that the whites and Asians were natural enemies, and always would be. In Ehrenfels's viewpoint, the fact that Chinese were capable of working hard while eating less than Europeans were an important sign that the Asian \"race\" was thanks to polygamy was starting become the stronger \"tougher race\".[15] Ehrenfels wrote with alarm that: \"the average constitutional strength of the Chinese, their resistance to overwork and...noxious and prejudicial influences of all kinds...exceeds that of the civilized peoples of the West to an astonishing degree\".[14] Ehrenfels warned that it this progress was allowed to continue, then the \"beautiful Aryan race\" to whom Ehrenfels compared to \"clear mountain streams\" and \"purest white milk\" would be swept away by the Asian \"torrents of mud\".[15] Ehrenfels stated that racist anti-Asian immigrant laws like the Chinese Exclusion Act in the United States were a good first step, but were insufficient to stop the rise of the \"tough, fecund Mongol race\".[15]>" ]

[ "New France\nNew France (French: Nouvelle-France) was the area colonized by France in North America during a period beginning with the exploration of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with the cession of New France to Great Britain and Spain in 1763 under the Treaty of Paris (1763)." ]

[ "Disney Channel (France)\nWhen launched in 1997, Disney Channel France adopted the same logo and idents as Disney Channel UK. It adopted the Disney Channel UK new Circles logo and idents on 4 September 1999. In March 2000, Disney Channel France opened a contest called the Les Grands Prix De L'imagination, where animators from all around France create idents for Disney Channel International, and two winners will have their idents shown on the French channel. The winners were Marc du Pontavice, the producer of Oggy and the Cockroaches (who did the \"Glass Charger/Laboratory\" ID for the 1999 line-up), and Eric Berthier (who did the \"Alien\" ID for the 1997 package). On 21 June 2003, Disney Channel France also adopted Disney Channel US' new logo and idents. In 2011, Disney Channel International adopted the new cellphone app-shaped logo and idents.", "Patriottentijd\nThe Patriot Revolt did not take place in a diplomatic vacuum. The Dutch Republic had from its inception been a battlefield of Great Power diplomacy in which the Holland \"regenten\" (lately in the guise of the States Party) had been sympathetic to France, and the Orangists usually favored England and later Great Britain. Since the days of the 1688 invasion of England followed by the 1689 naval treaty with England, the Dutch had been in nominal alliance with the British, and the diplomatic relations with France had been cool since the end of the War of the Spanish Succession and the latest French invasion in 1747, but they had markedly improved during the era of the American Revolutionary War, when the Dutch at first profited from their \"neutral-flag\" trade of contraband goods with the French and Americans, and later were the victims of British aggression in the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, that had so recently ended. Franco-Dutch relations became even better when France offered its good offices, both to obtain the 1784 treaty of Paris with Great Britain that ended the war, and subsequently to obtain peace with emperor Joseph II, that ended the \"Kettle War\" with the Treaty of Fontainebleau. Shortly after that, special envoy Gerard Brantsen, a moderate Patriot, crowned this with the treaty of amity and commerce with France of October 1785.", "Henri Nouvel\nNouvel was already a priest when he entered the Jesuit order in August 1648, and performed religious functions in France until 1662. He sailed for New France in 1662 as a missionary, arriving in Quebec in August 1662. During his first year in North America, he devoted himself to learning Indian languages. At the end of 1663, he established his first mission in the Rimouski area. Between 1664 and 1669, he did missionary work in the Montagnais territory at Lake Manicouagan.", "History of Pennsylvania\nFollowing the voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano and Jacques Cartier, the French established a permanent colony in New France in the 17th century to exploit the North American fur trade. During the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, the French expanded New France across present day Eastern Canada into the Great Lakes region, and colonized the areas around the Mississippi River as well. New France expanded into western Pennsylvania by the 18th century, as the French built Fort Duquesne to defend the Ohio River valley. With the end of the Swedish and Dutch colonies, the French were the last rivals to the British for control of the region that would become Pennsylvania. France was often allied with Spain, the only other remaining European power with holdings in continental North America. Beginning in 1688 with King William's War (part of the Nine Years' War), France and England engaged in a series of wars for dominance over Northern America. The wars continued until the end of the French and Indian War in 1763, when France lost New France.", "Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation\nUntil the 1970s, almost all Holocaust studies emanating from France came from the CDJC and its historians, and no serious works appeared from French universities or other historical scholarship from within France. When serious studies finally did come out in the 1970s and 1980s outside the CDJC, they came from abroad, including the United States, Canada, and Germany, such as Robert Paxton's seminal \"Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940-1944 \" which hit France like a hurricane and sparked the \"Paxtonian revolution\", as it was known in France, in Vichy historiography. Attacked vehemently at first by French historians and others, he ended up being awarded the Legion of Honor in 2009.", "Remington Rand strike of 1936–37\nOn March 11, 1937, United States Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins attempted to mediate an end to the strike. When Perkins attempted to reach Rand by telephone, his aides claimed to not know where he was. When Perkins sent him telegrams and letters, company staff said they did not know how to reach him. Perkins was forced to publish an open letter in newspapers in Connecticut, New York and Ohio, asking Rand to speak to her. He did so the next day, but refused to discuss the strike with her. The incident embarrassed and angered Perkins, but Rand's rudeness further eroded the company's public standing.", "Philip II of France\nPope Innocent III declared Philip Augustus' marriage to Agnes of Merania null and void, as he was still married to Ingeborg. He ordered the king to part from Agnes, and when he did not, the pope placed France under an interdict in 1199. This continued until 7 September 1200. Due to pressure from the pope and from Ingeborg's brother King Valdemar II of Denmark, Philip finally took Isambour back as his wife in 1201, but it would not be until 1213 that she would be recognized at court as queen.When Pope Innocent III called for a crusade against the \"Albigensians,\" or Cathars, in Languedoc in 1208, Philip did nothing to support it, though he did not stop his nobles from joining in. The war against the Cathars did not end until 1244, when their last strongholds were finally captured. The fruits of the victory, the submission of the south of France to the crown, were to be reaped by Philip's son Louis VIII and grandson Louis IX. From 1216 to 1222, Philip also arbitrated in the War of the Succession of Champagne and finally helped the military efforts of Eudes III, Duke of Burgundy, and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II to bring it to an end.", "New France\nIn 1650, New France had seven hundred colonists and Montreal had only a few dozen settlers. Because the First Nations people did most of the work of beaver hunting, the company needed few French employees. The severely underpopulated New France almost fell completely to hostile Iroquois forces. In 1660, settler Adam Dollard des Ormeaux led a Canadian and Huron militia against a much larger Iroquois force; none of the Canadians survived, but they succeeded in turning back the Iroquois invasion. In 1627, Quebec had only eighty-five French colonists and was easily overwhelmed two years later when three English privateers plundered the settlement. In 1663, New France finally became more secure when Louis XIV made it a royal province, taking control away from the Company of One Hundred Associates. In the same year the Société Notre-Dame de Montréal ceded its possessions to the Seminaire de Saint-Sulpice.[20] The crown stimulated emigration to New France by paying for transatlantic passages and offering other incentives to those willing to move, and the population of New France grew to three thousand.[21]", "Fort Frances Lakers\nThe Fort Frances Jr. Sabres are the first Junior \"A\" team to play in Fort Frances since the Fort Frances Borderland Thunder left the league in 2005. The Borderland Thunder wanted to play in the Manitoba Junior Hockey League, but chose to go into hiatus when they did not receive clearance for the transfer. The Sabres have a new ownership group and are the seventh member of the Superior International Junior Hockey League.", "New France\nBy the end of French rule in New France in 1763, the fur trade had significantly lost its importance as the key stable good that supported much of New France's economy for more than the last century. Even so, it did serve as the fundamental force behind the establishment and vast growth of Montreal and the French colony.", "Wright Flyer III\nLater that day, Wilbur was flying solo when he moved one of the new control levers the wrong way and crashed into the sand, suffering bruises. The Flyer's front elevator was wrecked and the practice flights ended. Due to deadlines for their upcoming public demonstration flights in France and Virginia, the Wrights did not repair the airplane and it never flew again.", "Muckhart\nMiss Christie did her part in the Great War. In 1916, she was offered the Directorship of a canteen in Bar-sur-Aube, France by the Committee, which she accepted. The canteen was called in French, \"Cantine des Dames Anglaises\". She did this for a year and then returned to Cowden. In 1918, she once again went to France to direct a canteen at Mulhouse, Alsace until 1919, when the need for a canteen ended.", "Battle of Neuville\nAt the Battle of Quiberon Bay, just off the coast of France the Royal Navy destroyed the French fleet, having meant that France could not send a significant reserve force to save New France. A small French relief fleet commanded by François-Chenard Giraudais, did manage to get through the British blockade but did not attempt to go up the Saint Lawrence River when he learned that the British had preceded him. Giraudais would later be defeated in the Bay of Chaleur at the Battle of Restigouche.", "Carignan-Salières Regiment\nThe \"Compagnie des Cent-Associés\" barely hung on against the Iroquois onslaught, with Iroquois war parties intercepting canoes carrying furs to Montreal, cutting off French forts, raiding French settlements along the banks of the St. Lawrence river to carry off captives, and sometimes laying out iron chains they had obtained from the Dutch to blockade the St. Lawrence to prevent ships from using the river. By 1660, the total population of New France was 3, 035 with about 1, 928 being French. There were about 900 people living in Quebec City and about 200 each in Montreal and Trois-Rivères, and the rest spread out in small settlements along the St. Lawrence. The white population of New France was 63% male and most were engaged in someway in the fur trade. The \"Compagnie des Cent-Associés\" fulfilled the terms of its royal charter to bring settlers to New France, but most were indentured laborers who left New France at the end of their five-year contracts. The harsh winters, the shortage of women, and the threat of being carried off by the Iroquois led to very few Frenchmen wanting to stay, and unable to build the population, the \"Compagnie des Cent-Associés\" simply lacked the manpower to counter the Iroquois. Throughout the struggle, the authorities in New France sent desperate appeals for help to Paris, only to be informed France was fully engaged in a war with Spain that did not end until 1659 and there were no soldiers to spare to send to New France. Additionally, France was caught in a series of civil wars known as the \"Fronde\" in the 1650s, and with Frenchmen busy killing each other, it was inconceivable to send a force across the Atlantic. But even after the Peace of the Pyrenees ended the war with Spain in 1659, the Crown remained indifferent to New France. In 1661, Pierre Boucher, the governor of Trois-Rivères, visited Paris to beg for help, saying that people in Trois-Rivères were afraid to go outside without a weapon lest they be carried off by the Iroquois, only to be politely told that the responsibility of the defense of New France rested with the \"Compagnie des Cent-Associés\", not the Crown. Unable to turn a profit with the \"Beaver Wars\" raging, the \"Compagnie des Cent-Associés\" went bankrupt in 1663 and New France became a Crown colony ruled directly by the French state. The immediate concern of King Louis XIV was to make the new Crown colony turn a profit, which would require ending the Iroquois threat.", "CFP franc\nThe new highest denomination 10,000 CFP franc banknote (€83.80) issued on 1 October 1986, was the first one that was not overprinted with a city name. The 500 franc banknote, issued in 1992, and the 1000 and 5000 franc banknotes, issued in 1995, are also without the overprint. The designs of the 500, 1000, 5000 franc banknotes did not change till 2014, when new designs and sizes were introduced.", "Action of 17 July 1628\nThe surrender of the French fleet yielded a great deal of plunder for Kirke, and this alone made his expedition a tremendous success, despite the failure to capture Quebec. King Charles commissioned him to make a return trip the next year in order to fulfill that goal. Champlain and the residents of Quebec faced a winter deprived of much needed supplies and reinforcements, and when Kirke returned in the spring of 1629 surrender was the only option. All the residents of New France were deported back to the mother country and Quebec became an English post. Upon his return to France Champlain learned that the war had ended before Kirke took Quebec, making the seizure illegal. Champlain lobbied for the return of New France, but did not succeed until the signing of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1632. He would return to New France the next year and oversee the establishment of substantial French settlement in Canada before his death in 1635. Kirke would later become Governor of Newfoundland.", "New France\nPeace lasted in Canada until 1744, when news of the outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession (King George's War in North America) reached Fort Louisbourg. The French forces went on the attack first in a failed attempt to capture Annapolis Royal, the capital of the British Nova Scotia. In 1745, William Shirley, governor of Massachusetts, led a counterattack on Louisbourg. Both France and New France were unable to relieve the siege, and Louisbourg fell to the British. With the famed Duc d'Anville Expedition, France attempted to retake Acadia and the fortress in 1746 but failed. The fortress was returned to France under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, but the peace treaty, which restored all colonial borders to their pre-war status, did little to end the lingering enmity between France, Britain, and their respective colonies, nor did it resolve any territorial disputes.", "History of rugby union matches between France and New Zealand\nIn 1968, following their first Five Nations Grand Slam, France toured Australia and New Zealand.\nThey were defeated in their Test against Australia and in all three against the All Blacks. The All Blacks' side was particularly strong and won all its Tests between 1965 and 1970. France's touring losses presaged a string of defeats that did not end until they drew against Wales in the 1969 Five Nations (in which France finished last).", "Grand Isle County, Vermont\nGrand Isle County is one of several Vermont counties created from land ceded by the state of New York on January 15, 1777 when Vermont declared itself to be a distinct state from New York. The land originally was contested by Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New France and New Netherland, but it remained undelineated until July 20, 1764 when King George III established the boundary between New Hampshire and New York along the west bank of the Connecticut River, north of Massachusetts and south of the parallel of 45 degrees north latitude. New York assigned the land gained to Albany County. On March 12, 1772 Albany County was partitioned to create Charlotte County, and this situation remained until Vermont's independence from New York and Britain, which, however, did not end the contest.", "County of Toulouse\nIn 877, Charles the Bald had to give in: he signed the Capitulary of Quierzy, which allowed counts to be succeeded by their sons when they died. This was the founding stone of feudalism in western Europe. Charles the Bald died four months later. The new king of France was his son Louis the Stammerer, formally king of Aquitaine. Louis the Stammerer did not choose any of his sons to become the new king of Aquitaine, thus in effect putting an end to the kingdom of Aquitaine, which would never be revived again. Louis the Stammerer died shortly after in 879 and was succeeded by his two sons, Louis III and Carloman. Louis III inherited northwest France, while Carloman inherited Burgundy and Aquitaine. However, in practice, during the years 870–890 the central power was so weakened that the counts in southern France achieved complete autonomy. The dynasties they established ruled independently. The central state in Paris would not be able to reassert its authority over the south of France for the next four centuries.", "Réunion franc\nThe French franc circulated on Réunion alone (except for a single coin issue) until 1874, when distinct issues of currency commenced. Initially, notes of the Banque de la Réunion and the Colonial Treasury circulated alongside French currency. In 1896, coins were issued, followed by bank tokens in 1920. In 1945, the CFA franc was created and was adopted in Réunion, with distinct coins introduced in 1948. Although Réunion's paper money was stamped with the equivalent value in new francs from 1960, the new franc did not replace the Réunion franc until 1975, when French currency replaced Réunion's at a rate of 1 French (new) franc = 50 Réunion (CFA) francs.", "Aquitaine\nThe title \"Duke of Aquitaine\" was held by the counts of Poitiers from the 10th to the 12th century.\nAquitaine passed to France in 1137 when the duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine married Louis VII of France, but their marriage was annulled in 1152. When Eleanor's new husband became King Henry II of England in 1154, the area became an English possession, and the cornerstone of the so-called Angevin Empire. Aquitaine remained English until the end of the Hundred Years' War in 1453, when it was annexed by France. ", "France in the American Revolutionary War\nSilas Deane, appointed by the Americans and helped by French animosity towards Britain, obtained unofficial aid, starting in early 1776. However, the goal was the total involvement of France in the war. A new delegation composed of Franklin, Deane, and Arthur Lee, was appointed to lobby for the involvement of European nations. Franklin, age 70 and already well known in French intellectual circles for his scientific discoveries, served as the chief diplomat with the title of \"minister\" (the term \"ambassador\" was not used). He dressed in rough frontier clothes rather than formal court dress, and met with many leading diplomats, aristocrats, intellectuals, scientists and financiers. Franklin's image and writings caught the French imagination – there were many images of him sold on the market – and he became the image of the archetypal new American and a hero for aspirations for a new order inside France. When the international climate at the end of 1777 had become tenser, Habsburg Austria requested the support of France in the War of the Bavarian Succession against the Prussia in line with the Franco-Austrian Alliance. France refused, causing the relationship with Austria to turn sour. Under these conditions, asking Austria to assist France in a war against the British was impossible. Attempts to rally Spain also failed: Spain did not immediately recognize potential gains, and the American revolutionary spirit was seen as threatening the legitimacy of the Spanish Crown in its own American colonies.", "Château de Suscinio\nThe castle was fortified and enlarged, at the end of the 14th century, when the heirs of the duchy had to fight to keep their assets (Brittany was not yet fully united to France and did not become so until 1514), after the castle was taken by Bertrand du Guesclin, the infamous Constable of France.\nJohn V and John VI constructed a new seigniorial residence block with a large, new corner tower known as the \"Tour Neuve\". A casemate was added at the end of 15th century to protect artillery pieces.", "Jean-Philippe Grandclaude\nHe made his Test debut for France in 2005 when he came on as a substitute against England in France's 18-17 victory. He played once more during the 2005 Six Nations Championship, and did not receive his third cap until 2007 when he faced the All Blacks in New Zealand.", "Résistancialisme\nGeorges Pompidou who had not been part of the résistance, succeeded de Gaulle to the French Presidency in 1969. In a desire to formally end \"this time when french people did not love each other\", he abandoned the resistancialist tradition. Concomitantly, a new generation affirmed itself after the May 1968 events in France, greatly liberalizing french society.", "Régiment de Berry\nThe regiment was recruited from the Berry region of France. In the beginning, the second and third battalions of the regiment were supposed to be sent to India. However, at the request of reinforcements asked by Louis-Joseph de Montcalm and New France's Governor Vaudreuil, the regiment was instead sent to New France. The regiment arrived at the end of July 1757. The two battalions were initially posted in Quebec City. In 1758, the whole regiment was sent to Fort Carillon, and contributed in the victory in the Battle of Carillon. At the end of August, the regiment, which had 908 soldiers, now only has 723 men because of the consecutive battles which ensued and were fatal for many of them. The regiment was not sent to Quebec for the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, but remained at Fort Carillon in 1759. They did however participate at the Battle of Sainte-Foy in 1760.", "Treaty of Tours\nA diplomatic problem for the English was created when Francis I, Duke of Brittany, paid homage to Charles VII of France on 16 March 1446. Brittany had been at least nominally attached to the English cause since 1427, when Francis I's father John V, recognized Henry VI of England as king of France. Francis I did not share his father's commitment to the dual monarchy of England and France, and was enraged when Breton town of La Guerche was plundered in 1443 by an army led by the English Duke of Somerset. His homage to Charles VII formally ended any Breton support for the English, and left them diplomatically isolated, also leaving Normandy vulnerable to an attack from all sides.", "Cardinal Richelieu\nTowards the end of his life, Richelieu alienated many people, including Pope Urban VIII. Richelieu was displeased by the Pope's refusal to name him the papal legate in France; in turn, the Pope did not approve of the administration of the French church, or of French foreign policy. However, the conflict was largely healed when the Pope granted a cardinalate to Jules Mazarin, one of Richelieu's foremost political allies, in 1641. Despite troubled relations with the Roman Catholic Church, Richelieu did not support the complete repudiation of papal authority in France, as was advocated by the Gallicanists.", "Early modern France\nThe disasters of the war (accompanied by another famine) were so great that France was on the verge of collapse by 1709. In desperation, the king appealed to the French people to save their country, and in doing so gained thousands of new army recruits. Afterwards, his general Marshal Villars managed to drive back the allied forces. In 1714, the war ended with the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt. France did not lose any territory, and there was no discussion of returning Flanders or Alsace to the Habsburgs. While the Duke of Anjou was accepted as King Philip V of Spain, this was done under the condition that the French and Spanish thrones never be united. Finally, France agreed to stop supporting Jacobite pretenders to the English throne. Just after the war ended, Louis died, having ruled France for 72 years." ]

[ "Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations\nThe Commonwealth was first officially formed in 1931 when the Statute of Westminster gave legal recognition to the sovereignty of dominions. Known as the \"British Commonwealth\", the original members were the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Irish Free State, and Newfoundland, although Australia and New Zealand did not adopt the statute until 1942 and 1947 respectively.[4] In 1949, the London Declaration was signed and marked the birth of the modern Commonwealth and the adoption of its present name.[5] The newest member is Rwanda, which joined on 29 November 2009.[6] The most recent departure was the Maldives, which severed its connection with the Commonwealth on 13 October 2016." ]

[ "Looting\nLooting by a victorious army during war has been common practice throughout recorded history. Foot soldiers viewed plunder as a way to supplement an often meagre income and transferred wealth became part of the celebration of victory. On higher levels, the proud exhibition of loot formed an integral part of the typical Roman triumph, and Genghis Khan was not unusual in proclaiming that the greatest happiness was \"to vanquish your enemies ... to rob them of their wealth\".", "Servus Credit Union\nOn November 1, 2008, it became Canada’s first province-wide credit union when it amalgamated with Community Savings and Common Wealth Credit Union.", "Common Wealth Party election results\nThis article lists the Common Wealth Party's election results in UK parliamentary elections.", "RBC Dominion Securities\nRBC Dominion Securities is the brand used by Royal Bank of Canada for full service brokerage services, primarily in Canada, and forms part of RBC's Wealth Management division.", "Care work\nToday, there are four parts of the economy: Business, Household, Public, and Non-profit. Typically, we only think that the business sector creates any wealth, and that the other three serve the business sector and alongside it. The truth is that all four parts of the economy generate wealth, and that wealth flows over into other sections of the economy as well. Part of the reason that unpaid care work is largely ignored is because of this belief that the household does not form wealth. In reality, the household prepares children for the other parts of the economy, and without that, none of the other sectors would flourish.", "Red Tory\nRed Toryism derives largely from a classical conservative tradition that maintained that the unequal division of wealth and political privilege among social classes can be justified if members of the privileged class practiced \"noblesse oblige\" and contributed to the common good. Red Tories supported traditional institutions such as religion and the monarchy, and maintenance of the social order. This position was later manifest in their support for some aspects of the welfare state. This belief in a common good, as expanded on in Colin Campbell and William Christian's \"Political Parties and Ideologies in Canada\", is at the root of Red Toryism.", "Common-law marriage\nCanada does not have true common-law marriage (as in parts of the US), although common-law \"relationships\" are recognized for certain purposes across Canada. In Canada, the legal definition and many implications of marriage-like relationships fall under provincial jurisdiction. The term \"common law\" appears informally in documents from the federal government.", "Common Wealth Award of Distinguished Service\nThe Common Wealth Awards of Distinguished Service (or Common Wealth Awards) were created under the will of the late Ralph Hayes, an influential American business executive and philanthropist. Hayes conceived the awards to reward and encourage the best of human performance worldwide. Hayes served on the board of directors of PNC Bank, Delaware's predecessor banks from 1935 to 1965. Through the Common Wealth Awards, he sought to recognize outstanding achievement in eight disciplines: dramatic arts, literature, science, invention, mass communications, public service, government and sociology. The awards also provide an incentive for people to make future contributions to the world community.", "Compound empowerment\nCompound empowerment refers to the way in which public infrastructure is used to radically increase the accumulation of private wealth. The term denotes how common wealth—tax supported resources such as public education, financial and legal infrastructure, etc. -- is translated into private or corporate profit. While wealth might be generated in part by intangible or personal qualities such as intelligence or a strong work ethic, this wealth is \"compounded\" by \"empowering\" structures such as access to stable markets, consistent law enforcement, and the use of resources held in common, such as public roads. The greater the wealth of an individual or corporation, the more they use common wealth in order to increase and sustain their earnings", "Common Wealth Party\nThe Common Wealth Party (CW) was a socialist political party in the United Kingdom in the Second World War. Thereafter, it continued in being, essentially as a pressure group, until 1993.", "Carlo Cafiero\n\"The common wealth being scattered right across the planet, while belonging to the whole of humanity, those who happen to be within reach of that wealth and in a position to make use of it will utilise it in common. . . . As part of humanity, they will exercise here, in fact and directly, their rights over a portion of mankind's wealth. But should an inhabitant of Peking visit this country, he would enjoy the same rights as the rest, in common with the others, he would enjoy all the wealth of the country, just as he would have in Peking.\" [From \"Anarchy and Communism\", a report given by Cafiero to the Congress of the Jura Federation of the IWMA in 1880. In Daniel Guérin, \"No Gods, No Masters\", Book 1, p. 250]", "Common Wealth Party\nFollowing the electoral success of Tom Driberg with this support in 1942, there was a move to form the Committee into a political party, through a merger with Forward March, though many disliked the idea of being a Party rather than a social movement, and through pressure from Priestley and Wintringham, the word 'Party' was never formally part of Common Wealth's name. Led by Sir Richard Acland, Vernon Bartlett, J.B. Priestley, and Tom Wintringham the group called for common ownership, \"vital democracy\" and morality in politics. Its programme of common ownership echoed that of the Labour Party but stemmed from a more idealistic perspective, later termed \"libertarian socialist\". It came to reject the State-dominated form of socialism adopted by Labour under the influence of Sidney and Beatrice Webb, increasingly aligning itself instead with co-operative, syndicalist and guild socialist traditions. One party proposal was that all incomes should be subjected to an absolute upper limit.", "Common Wealth Award of Distinguished Service\nSince 2000, more than sixty Delaware high school students have met and talked to the winning world leaders through the Common Wealth Award Writing Contest. Four winners of the writing contest and their parents or guardians are invited each year to the Common Wealth Awards ceremony, where the honorees are recognized for their lifetime achievement. As time allows, students are often able to talk directly with the winners.", "Common Wealth Award of Distinguished Service\nEach recipient of the Common Wealth Award receives a $50,000 prize. It is presented at an annual, invitation-only, black-tie dinner hosted at the Hotel DuPont in Wilmington, Delaware.", "Wealth One Bank of Canada\nWealth One Bank of Canada (WOBC) is a Canadian Schedule I bank opened in 2016 with a focus on providing services to Chinese-Canadians. It provides banking services online and through retail offices in Toronto and Markham, Ontario, and in Vancouver, British Columbia.", "Common Wealth Party\nCommon Wealth stood for three principles: Common Ownership, Morality in Politics and Vital Democracy. Disagreeing with the electoral pact established with other parties in the wartime coalition, key figures in the 1941 Committee began sponsoring independent candidates in by-elections under the banner of the Nine Point Group. ", "Obesity\nObesity is still seen as a sign of wealth and well-being in many parts of Africa. This has become particularly common since the HIV epidemic began.", "Common Wealth Award of Distinguished Service\nContest winners are publicly acknowledged at the Common Wealth Awards ceremony and receive a framed picture of themselves taken with the honorees.", "Barnes, London\nBarnes Common is an important open space and a local nature reserve. Its dominate the south of Barnes, providing a rural setting to the village and a wealth of habitats including acid grassland, scrub, woodland and wetland. Beverley Brook passes through part of the common before meeting the Thames at Putney.", "Conservatism in Canada\nHistorically, Canadian conservatism has been derived from the Tory tradition, with a distinctive concern for a balance between individual rights and collectivism, as mediated through a traditional pre-industrial standard of morality – which has never been as evident in American conservatism. Red Toryism derives largely from a classical conservative tradition that maintained that the unequal division of wealth and political privilege among social classes can be justified if members of the privileged class practiced \"noblesse oblige\" and contributed to the common good. Red Tories supported traditional institutions such as religion and the monarchy, and maintenance of the social order. This position was later manifest in their support for some aspects of the welfare state. This belief in a common good, as expanded on in Colin Campbell and William Christian's \"Political Parties and Ideologies in Canada\", is at the root of Red Toryism.", "Paper wealth\nIn accounting, tangible assets and intangible assets are distinguished. In wealth management, liquid financial assets (roughly corresponding to common understanding of paper wealth, ignoring value of housing) is a key metric.", "Andrew Carnegie\nIn 1889, Carnegie published \"Wealth\" in the June issue of the \"North American Review\". After reading it, Gladstone requested its publication in England, where it appeared as \"The Gospel of Wealth\" in the \"Pall Mall Gazette\". Carnegie argued that the life of a wealthy industrialist should comprise two parts. The first part was the gathering and the accumulation of wealth. The second part was for the subsequent distribution of this wealth to benevolent causes. Philanthropy was key to making life worthwhile.", "Louis-Honoré Fréchette\nSoon after he returned home in 1874, he was elected Member of Parliament in Ottawa. He served in the House of Commons of Canada from 1874 to 1878 as the Liberal Party of Canada member from Lévis.He was not re-elected in 1878. After that, he moved to Montreal where he began writing full-time, having inherited the wealth of his aunt when she died.", "Distribution of wealth\nThere are many ways in which the distribution of wealth can be analyzed. One common-used example is to compare the amount of the wealth of individual at say 99 percentile relative to the wealth of the median (or 50th) percentile. This is P99/P50, which is one of the potential Kuznets ratios. Another common measure is the ratio of total amount of wealth in the hand of top say 1% of the wealth distribution over the total wealth in the economy. In many societies, the richest ten percent control more than half of the total wealth.", "Wealth One Bank of Canada\nWealth One Bank of Canada received the Letters Patent on July 22, 2015 from Canada's Minister of Finance, is a federally chartered Schedule I Bank under the Bank Act, and is regulated by the Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions (OSFI).", "Nandita Saha\nNandita Saha is an Indian table-tennis player. She was a part of Indian trio who defeated Canada in Common wealth 2006 at Melbourne and won Bronze medal for India.", "Oath of the Honourable Men\n'Ye shall not enter into this our Pilgrimage of Grace for the common wealth but only for the love ye bear to God's faith and church militant and the maintenance thereof, the preservation of the king's person, his issue, and the purifying of the nobility and to expulse all villein blood and evil counsellors against the common wealth of the same. And that ye shall not enter into our said pilgrimage for no peculiar private profit to no private person but by counsel of the common wealth nor slay nor murder for no envy but in your hearts to put away all fear for the common wealth. And to take before you the cross of Christ and your heart's faith to the restitution of the church and to the suppression of heretics' opinions by the holy content of this book.'", "Common Wealth Party\nOther influences during this era included humanistic psychology. Noted psychologists Dr Don Bannister and Dr James Hemming were CW members, and via Hemming and Wintringham so did their friend Ernst Schumacher make contributions to party thought. CW enthusiastically adopted the 'executive-sensory nexus' model of organisation, derived from left/right brain theory. Under this model, the Executive Committee, responsible for current decision-making, is shadowed by a scrutiny panel, known in CW as the Sensory Committee, whose role is monitoring and review, research and longer-term development. CW's interest in optimising social organisation consistent with its principles also led it to develop close links with the School of Integrative Social Research at Braziers Park, Oxfordshire.Left 1942-1947\nTown and Country Review 1943-44\nCommon Wealth Review 1944-49\nCommon Wealth News 1949\nThe Libertarian 1950-1988\nCommon Wealth Journal 1989-1990", "History of wealth taxes in Canada\nAs a consequence, it was imposed by the Parliament of Canada later that year as part of the \"Income War Tax Act\".", "Common Wealth Award of Distinguished Service\nIn their 39-year history, the Common Wealth Awards have conferred $6 million in prize money to 201 honorees of international renown. The awards are funded by the Common Wealth Trust." ]

[ "Equal Pay Act of 1963\nThe Equal Pay Act of 1963 is a United States labor law amending the Fair Labor Standards Act, aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex (see Gender pay gap). It was signed into law on June 10, 1963, by John F. Kennedy as part of his New Frontier Program.[1] In passing the bill, Congress stated that sex discrimination:[2]" ]

[ "Equal Pay Act 1970\nThe Equal Pay Act was repealed but its substantive provisions were replicated in the Equality Act 2010.", "Equal pay for equal work\nThe first attempt at equal pay legislation in the United States, H.R. 5056, \"Prohibiting Discrimination in Pay on Account of Sex,\" was introduced by Congresswoman Winifred C. Stanley of Buffalo, N.Y. on June 19, 1944. Twenty years later, legislation passed by the federal government in 1963 made it illegal to pay men and women different wage rates for equal work on jobs that require equal skill, effort, and responsibility, and are performed under similar working conditions. One year after passing the Equal Pay Act, Congress passed the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Title VII of this act makes it unlawful to discriminate based on a person's race, religion, color, or sex. Title VII attacks sex discrimination more broadly than the Equal Pay Act extending not only to wages but to compensation, terms, conditions or privileges of employment. Thus with the Equal Pay Act and Title VII, an employer cannot deny women equal pay for equal work; deny women transfers, promotions, or wage increases; manipulate job evaluations to relegate women’s pay; or intentionally segregate men and women into jobs according to their gender.", "Equal Pay Act 1970\nThe Equal Pay Act 1970 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that prohibited any less favourable treatment between men and women in terms of pay and conditions of employment. It was based on the Equal Pay Act of 1963 of the United States. It has now been mostly superseded by Part 5, chapter 3, of the Equality Act 2010.", "Heather Steans\nSteans sponsored Illinois' Equal Pay Act of 2012, which holds individuals liable for wage discrimination on the basis of gender.\nSteans has led the fight to have Illinois ratify the Equal Rights Amendment, which passed the Illinois State Senate. On the subject, Steans said, \"From equal pay to equal health care access \nto fair treatment on college campuses, women's rights are at risk as long as they are not protected in the Constitution.\"", "Emily Thornberry\nIn March 2015, Thornberry launched a campaign for a new Equal Pay Act. She said that, 45 years after the original Equal Pay Act was passed in 1970, women still earned 19% less than men on average. She called for \"a profound culture change and radical legislation\" to close the pay gap, and recommended measures to require companies where women make a successful complaint of pay discrimination to audit their practices and implement plans to ensure that men and women are paid equally for equal work. She further argued for measures to make it easier to negotiate settlements in equal pay cases, for improved access to justice by waiving tribunal fees for a limited period, and to close loopholes whereby outsourcing and insecure working conditions often lead to unequal pay for women.", "Employment discrimination\nThe correlation of Civil Rights Act and decrease in discrimination suggests the Act served its purpose. Therefore, it is correct to say leaving discrimination to diminish to the competitive markets is wrong, as Becker had claimed. In 1961, Kennedy issued an executive order calling for a presidential commission on the status of women. In 1963, Equal Pay Act, which required the employers to pay the wages to men and women for the same work qualifications, was passed. In 1964, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act with the exception \"bona fide\" occupational qualifications (BFOQ) was accepted while the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) responsible to check whether the Equal Pay Act and Title VII were followed. The Title VII of the Civil Rights Act was first written to forbid employment discrimination. Initially it prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, religion and national origin. However, inclusion of the sex accepted last minute. The Title VII addresses both the disparate impact and disparate treatment. In 1965, Executive Order 11246 was passed and in 1967, it was changed to include sex, which prohibited employment discrimination by all employers with federal contracts and subcontracts. In addition, it makes sure affirmative action takes place. In 1986, sexual harassment was accepted as illegal with Supreme Court’s decision. In 1998, the largest sexual harassment settlement was negotiated with $34 million to be paid to female workers of Mitsubishi.", "Pink-collar worker\nIn 1963 the Equal Pay Act was passed making it the first federal law against sex discrimination, equal pay for equal work, and made employers hire women workers if they qualified from the start.", "Equal Pay Act 1970\nBrian Harrison says polls in 1968–69 showed public opinion was moving strongly in favour of equal pay for equal work; nearly three-quarters of those polled favoured the principle. A trigger cause for the introduction of the legislation was the 1968 Ford sewing machinists strike, though the legislation also paved the way for the UK's entry to the European Community, helping to bring it towards conformity with Article 141 of the Treaty of Rome, which says that 'each Member State shall ensure that the principle of equal pay for male and female workers for equal work or work of equal value is applied.'. The Act came into force on 29 December 1975. The term \"pay\" is interpreted in a broad sense to include, on top of wages, things like holidays, pension rights, company perks and some kinds of bonuses. The legislation has been amended on a number of recent occasions to incorporate a simplified approach under European Union law that is common to all member states. The 1970 Act only dealt with equal pay for the same work but in 1975 the EU directive on Equal Pay was passed based on article 119.", "James Frank\nFrank voted against House Bill 950, which would have required Texas to establish state standards of equal pay for equal work regardless of sex. Such requirements were passed nationally through the Equal Pay Act of 1963. The House vote for passage was 78 to 61, but the bill, after approval in the Texas Senate, was vetoed by Governor Rick Perry.", "History of Canadian women\nOntario's Fair Employment Practices Act combatted racist and religious discrimination after the Second World War, but it did not cover gender issues. Indeed, most human rights activists did not raise the issue before the 1970s, because they were family oriented and subscribed to the deeply embedded ideology of the family wage, whereby the husband should be paid enough so the wife could be a full-time housewife. After lobbying by women, labor unions, and the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF), the Conservative government passed the Female Employees Fair Remuneration Act in 1951. It required equal pay for women who did the same work as men. Feminists in the 1950s and 1960s were unsuccessful in calling for a law that would prohibit other forms of sex discrimination, such as discrimination in hiring and promotion. The enforcement of both acts was constrained by their conciliatory framework. Provincial officials interpreted the equal pay act quite narrowly and were significantly more diligent in tackling racist and religious employment discrimination.", "War on Women\nIn April 2012, Governor Scott Walker's repeal of Wisconsin's \"Equal Pay Enforcement Act\" was described by opponents as furthering the \"War on Women\", which became a big issue in his recall election. The \"Equal Pay Enforcement Act\" was passed in 2009 in response to the large gap between the wages of men and women in Wisconsin. Among other provisions, it allowed workplace discrimination victims redress in the less costly and more accessible state court system, rather than in federal court. Defending the repeal, Walker stated that the Act had essentially been nothing but a boon for trial lawyers, incentivizing them to sue job creators, including female business owners, and that the law was being used to clog up the legal system in his state. While it is still illegal in Wisconsin to pay women less on the basis of their sex, the repeal was criticized for reinforcing the gender pay gap, a recurrent theme in the struggle for women's rights. Republican State Senator Glenn Grothman said of the repeal, \"You could argue that money is more important for men. I think a guy in their first job, maybe because they expect to be a breadwinner someday, may be a little more money-conscious.\" Law student Sandra Fluke, criticized Grothman's comment, highlighting legislation that supports equal pay for equal work, such as the federal \"Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009\".", "Ford sewing machinists strike of 1968\nThe movement ultimately resulted in the passing of the Equal Pay Act 1970, which came into force in 1975 and which did, for the first time, aim to prohibit inequality of treatment between men and women in Britain in terms of pay and conditions of employment. In the second reading debate of the bill, MP Shirley Summerskill spoke of the machinists playing a \"very significant part in the history of the struggle for equal pay\". Once the UK joined the European Union in 1973, it also became subject to Article 119 of the 1957 Treaty of Rome, which specified that men and women should receive equal pay for equal work.", "National Council of Women of New Zealand\nThe post war period was a relatively quiet time for the Council but a period of rapid growth. It was marked by one very important issue – equal pay for equal work. In 1957 The Council for Equal Pay and Opportunity was formed, which NCWNZ became a part of. Equal pay became a reality in the public sector in 1960 but the private sector was not forced to follow suit until 1972 with the passing of the Equal Pay Act, NCWNZ was pivotal in both campaigns. Another major issue of the post war era was jury service on the same terms for men as for women, this was achieved in 1962 but until 1976 women could still opt out on the grounds of gender.", "Social history of the United Kingdom (1945–present)\nEqual pay entered the agenda at the 1959 general election, when the Labour Party's Manifesto proposed a charter of rights including: \"the right to equal pay for equal work\". Polls in 1968-9 showed public opinion moving in favour of equal pay for equal work; nearly three-quarters of those polled favoured the principle. The Equal Pay Act 1970 was passed by a Labour government with support from the Conservatives; it took effect in 1975. Women's wages for like work rose sharply from 64% in 1970 to 74% by 1980, then stalled because of high unemployment, and public-sector cuts that hit women working part-time.", "Equal Pay Act and Prior Salary\nPrior Salary Information is one of the factors involved in the implementation of the Equal Pay Act and Prior Salary legislation in the United States. \nThe Equal Pay Act forbids employers from paying men and women different wages for equal jobs that require equal skill, effort, and responsibility, performed under similar conditions. However, employers can rebut Equal Pay Act challenges by showing that the contested pay differential is based on seniority, merit, quantity or quality of work produced or “any other factor other than sex.” Courts disagree about whether an employee’s prior salary information counts as “any other factor other than sex.”\nIn the 9th Circuit, prior salary information no longer counts as a factor other than sex, according to a recent case, \"Rizo v. Yovino\". Specifically, employers can no longer justify the wage differential between male and female employees by relying on their prior salaries, either alone or in combination with other factors. The 9th Circuit reasoned that prior salary is not a legitimate measure of work experience, and that “it may well operate to perpetuate the wage disparities prohibited under the [Equal Pay] Act.”", "24th Manitoba Legislature\nIn 1957, the \"Employment Standards Act\" was passed; it was intended to standardize conditions of employment such as hours of work and termination of employment. In the same year, the \"Equal Pay Act\" was also passed, which provided for equal pay for equal work within the same organization.", "Employment discrimination law in the United States\nThe Equal Pay Act amended the Fair Labor Standards Act in 1963. It is enforced by the Wage and Hour Division of the Department of Labor. [12] The Equal Pay Act prohibits employers and unions from paying different wages based on sex. It does not prohibit other discriminatory practices in hiring. It provides that where workers perform equal work in the corner requiring \"equal skill, effort, and responsibility and performed under similar working conditions,\" they should be provided equal pay.[2] The Fair Labor Standards Act applies to employers engaged in some aspect of interstate commerce, or all of an employer's workers if the enterprise is engaged as a whole in a significant amount of interstate commerce.", "Equal pay for equal work\nCertain Canadian jurisdictions have \"pay equity\" legislation while others do not, hence the necessity of distinguishing between \"pay equity\" and \"pay equality\" in Canadian usage. For example, in Ontario, \"pay equality\" is guaranteed through the Ontario Employment Standards Act while \"pay equity\" is guaranteed through the Ontario Pay Equity Act. On the other hand, the three westernmost provinces (British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan) have \"pay equality\" legislation but no \"pay equity\" legislation. Some provinces (for example, Manitoba) have legislation that requires \"pay equity\" for public sector employers but not for private sector employers; meanwhile, \"pay equality\" legislation applies to everyone.", "Katharine St. George\nA proponent of pay equity, St. George was a supporter of the Equal Pay Act of 1963. In 1962, St. George proposed that legislation be passed to ensure that women received equal pay for equal work. Her proposals were drafted into a bill and introduced by Congresswoman Edith Green, an Oregon Democrat. During a debate regarding the bill, St. George stated that opposing the bill was comparable to \"being against motherhood\".", "Equal Pay Act of 1963\nUS labor law Economic inequality Equal pay for equal work Equal Pay Act 1970, the United Kingdom legislation which was influenced by the Act, now recast in the Equality Act 2010", "Women Employed\nIn 2003, WE helped pass the Illinois Equal Pay Act, which guarantees protection of equal pay for equal work to hundreds of thousands of workers not covered under the federal law. In 2006, WE helped win $34.4 million in funding for the Monetary Award Program (MAP) grant, making college more accessible to more than 150,000 low-income students in Illinois.", "Bennett Amendment\nThe Bennett Amendment is a US labor law provision in the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VII, §703(h) passed to limit sex discrimination claims regarding pay to the rules in the Equal Pay Act of 1963. It says an employer can \"differentiate upon the basis of sex\" when it compensates employees \"if such differentiation is authorized by\" the Equal Pay Act. ", "Equal Pay Act of 1963\nIn 1942, Republican congresswoman Winifred C. Stanley from Buffalo, N.Y. introduced H.R. 5056, Prohibiting Discrimination in Pay on Account of Sex, which did not pass at the time.[3] The issue languished until 10 June 1963, when Congress passed the Equal Pay Act[4] (\"EPA\" or the \"Act\")[5] as an amendment to the Fair Labor Standards Act,[6] to \"prohibit discrimination on account of sex in the payment of wages by employers.\"", "Equal Pay Act of 1963\nThe Congress did not ignore the EPA’s economic consequences on the salaries and employment opportunities for both men and women.[16] First, as an amendment of the FLSA, the EPA is part of the same legislative structure that houses the federal minimum wage laws.[17] The EPA acts as a wage equalizer between men and women for equal jobs, and has the potential of acting as a price floor on the salaries of men or women for particular jobs.[18] Economists, such as Thomas Sowell have asserted the EPA causes unemployment, and additional discrimination against women by excluding them from the labor market.[19] Second, several Representatives voiced their concerns that the negative impact of setting price floors on the wages paid to women would reduce the availability of jobs for women.[20] With the possible side effects of the Act noted on the Congressional record, the Act passed with little opposition, and no indication that any of the four affirmative defenses were intended to remedy or limit its negative consequences.", "Equal Pay Act of 1963\nSecond, Congress expanded the EPA’s coverage to professionals and other white-collar employees.[15] For the first nine years of the EPA, the requirement of equal pay for equal work did not extend to persons employed in an executive, administrative or professional capacity, or as an outside salesperson. Therefore, the EPA exempted white-collar women from the protection of equal pay for equal work. In 1972, Congress enacted the Education Amendments of 1972, which amended the FLSA to expand the coverage of the EPA to these employees, by excluding the EPA from the professional workers exemption of the FLSA.", "Equal pay for equal work\nFor federally regulated employers, pay equality is guaranteed under the Canadian Human Rights Act. In Ontario, pay equality is required under the Ontario Employment Standards Act. Every Canadian jurisdiction has similar legislation, although the name of the law will vary.", "History of Ontario\nOntario's Fair Employment Practices Act combatted racist and religious discrimination after the Second World War, but it did not cover gender issues. Most human rights activists did not raise the issue before the 1970s, because they were family oriented and subscribed to the deeply embedded ideology of the family wage, whereby the husband should be paid enough so the wife could be a full-time housewife. After lobbying by women, labour unions, and the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF), the Conservative government passed the Female Employees Fair Remuneration Act in 1951. It required equal pay for women who did the same work as men. Feminists in the 1950s and 1960s were unsuccessful trying to gain passage of a law to prohibit other forms of sex discrimination, such as in hiring and promotion. The enforcement of both acts was constrained by their conciliatory framework. Provincial officials interpreted the equal pay act quite narrowly, and were significantly more diligent in tackling racist and religious employment discrimination.[55][56][57]", "Bennett Amendment\nWhile not reviewing the first finding, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals held with respect to the latter that \"claims for sex-based wage discrimination can also be brought under Title VII even though no member of the opposite sex holds an equal but higher paying job, provided that the challenged wage rate is not exempted under the Equal Pay Act's affirmative defenses as to wage differentials attributable to seniority, merit, quantity or quality of production, or any other factor other than sex.\" It interpreted the intention of the Amendment as incorporating \"into Title VII only the affirmative defenses of the Equal Pay Act, not its prohibitory language requiring equal pay for equal work.\" With this finding, by a narrow margin, the US Supreme Court concurred. Justice Brennan, speaking for the Court, indicated that the Bennett Amendment did not preclude comparison of differences in pay, but only those attributable to those four specific factors.", "Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938\nThe Equal Pay Act of 1963 was passed to amend the FLSA and make it illegal to pay some workers lower wages than others strictly on the basis on their sex. It is often summed up with the phrase \"equal pay for equal work.\" The Equal Pay Act allows unequal pay for equal work only when the employer sets wages pursuant to a seniority system, a merit system, a system that measures earnings by quantity or quality of production or other factors outside of sex. For the first nine years of the EPA, the requirement of equal pay for equal work did not extend to persons employed in an executive, administrative or professional capacity, or as an outside salesperson. Therefore, the EPA exempted white-collar women from the protection of equal pay for equal work. In 1972, Congress enacted the Education Amendments of 1972, which amended the FLSA to expand the coverage of the EPA to these employees, by excluding the EPA from the professional workers exemption of the FLSA." ]

[ "Henna\nHenna (Arabic: حِنَّاء‎) also known as Mehndi (Hindi: मेंहदी) is a dye prepared from the plant Lawsonia inermis, also known as hina, the henna tree, the mignonette tree, and the Egyptian privet,[1] the sole species of the genus Lawsonia." ]

[ "Tamr Henna\nThe movie takes place in Egypt 1957 where gypsies still roamed and had designated living areas where they could go about their lives. In this particular gypsy living area there is a carnival where Tamr Henna, the main character, works along with the Hassan, the carnivals strong man and her love interest in the beginning of the movie. During the first part of the movie we see Tamr Henna working as a belly dancer and being coveted by all sorts of men be them rich or poor, and we simultaneously see Hassan’s strong sense of jealousy. During one of Tamr Henna’s belly dancing performances a rich man by the name of Ahmed sees here and sparks up a conversation. Hassan is then not pleased and vows to kill him so Tamr Henna goes to Ahmed’s mansion to warn him but gets caught by Ahmed’s father who sees her as nothing but a useless gypsy. Tamr Henna manages to escape the make shift prison Ahmed’s dad locks her up in and warns Ahmed. The two then start meeting up and Ahmed convinces Tamr Henna to live with him in his mansion and promises to transform her into a socialite. He changes her name to Yasmine and buys her new clothes and in the process convinces his father that she is of a very wealthy family. Meanwhile, Hassan searches for Tamr Henna but is unable to find her. As the movie progresses Ahmed’s father starts coveting Tamr Henna for himself, because of the money he thinks she possess, and so he hosts a party in which he will propose to her in. During this glamorous party hosted for Tamr Henna, Hassan manages to find her, thanks to the help of Ahmed’s ex-fiancé and socialite Maysa, and vows that he will kill her. She finds out and outs herself as a fake and tells everyone her true occupation and origin, and flees to try to find Ahmed only to over hear him talking about the bet that he has made with his neighbor in order to fool his father. Tamr Henna feels devastated and runs to her room only to find Hassan waiting for her with a knife in hand. She professes her love to him but he manages to stab her and while she is bleeding she tells him that she still loves him and he carries her back to the carnival, and it is implied that Tamr Henna heals and ends up marrying Hassan.", "Moroccan Jews\nTraditional Henna parties usually take place within the week before a special occasion, such as a wedding, Bar and Bat Mitzvah, or baby showers. During pre-wedding Henna parties, the Matriarch of the family (often the grandmother) smudges henna in the palm of the bride and groom to symbolically bestow the new couple with good health, fertility, wisdom, and security. The henna is believed in Moroccan tradition to protect the couple from demons. The grandmother covers the henna, a dough-like paste produced by mixing crushed henna plant leaves with water, in order to lock in body heat and generate a richer color. Normally, the henna will dye skin orange for up to 2 weeks. In Moroccan folklore, the bride is exempt of her household duties until the henna completely fades. After the bride and groom are blessed with the henna, the guests also spread henna on their palms to bring good luck.", "Henna\nThe name arose from imports of plant-based hair dyes into the West in the late 19th century. Partly fermented, dried indigo was called black henna because it could be used in combination with henna to dye hair black. This gave rise to the belief that there was such a thing as black henna which could dye skin black. Indigo will not dye skin black. Pictures of indigenous people with black body art (either alkalized henna or from some other source) also fed the belief that there was such a thing as black henna.", "Henna\nBody art quality henna is often more finely sifted than henna powders for hair.", "Afghan wedding\nHistorically, little incisions were cut into the bride and groom's palms so that they could be joined in blood. As time progressed it was replaced with henna (also spelled as hennah). Henna is a plant and which is use for dying hair, fingernails, leather, and wool. Henna is considered more sanitary and less messy. At this moment a girl dressed in traditional Afghan clothes would come through the door with a silver tray with candles and an assortment of fresh flowers with little containers of henna dancing and twirling all the way to the bride and groom. The mother of the groom would place a teaspoon full of henna onto the bride's palm and cover it with a triangular cloth made of fine and shiny fabric. The bride's mother would place the henna on the pinkie finger of the groom and likewise cover it with the fabric.", "Custom and traditions in Azerbaijan\nGirls gather in one of the rooms. One of bride relatives takes henna and starts dancing in the middle of the room. Then she brings a tray and an empty box and puts them in front of the one of groom relatives. This relative put money into the empty box and takes the henna. She comes to the bride with dancing then the bride's fingers and feet are smeared in henna. Then henna is brought in front of everybody. Everybody smears henna and gives namar. Then the jewelry that the groom's relatives brought was presented to everybody.", "Henna\nNatural henna produces a rich red-brown stain which can darken in the days after it is first applied. It is sometimes referred to as \"red henna\" to differentiate it from products sold as \"black henna\" or \"neutral henna,\" which may not actually contain henna, but are instead made from other plants or dyes.", "Henna\nCommercially packaged henna, intended for use as a cosmetic hair dye, is available in many countries, and is now popular in India, as well as the Middle East, Europe, Australia, Canada, and the United States. The color that results from dying with henna depends on the original color of the hair, as well as the quality of the henna, and can range from orange to auburn to burgundy. Henna can be mixed with other natural hair dyes including Cassia obovata for lighter shades of red or even blond, or with indigo to achieve brown and black shades. Some products sold as \"henna\" include these other natural dyes. Others may include metal salts that can interact with other chemical treatments, or oils and waxes that may inhibit the dye, or dyes which may be allergens.", "Henna\nIn Morocco, henna is applied symbolically when individuals go through life cycle events.[24] Moroccans refer to the paste as henna and the designs as naqsh, which means painting or inscription.[24] In Morocco, there are two types of henna artists: non-specialists, who traditionally partake in wedding rituals, and specialists, who partake in tourism and decorative henna.[25] Nqaasha, the low-end Henna specialists, are known for attracting tourists, which they refer to as gazelles or international tourists, in artisan slang.[26]", "Roman hairstyles\nDying hair was popular among women, although the frequency that hair was coloured often made it weaker. Tertullian discusses how hair dye burnt the scalp and was harmful for the head. Artificial dyes could be applied through powders, gels and bleach. Henna, a temporary dye, or even animal fat, could be applied to make the hair more manageable. Aside from henna, more common permanent dyes were based on natural substances and perhaps more unorthodox mixtures. To prevent graying some Romans wore a paste at night made from herbs and earthworms and pigeon dung was used to lighten hair. For example, to dye hair black, Pliny the Elder suggests applying leeches that have rotted in red wine for 40 days.", "Assyrian culture\nHenna is mud-like material that is prepared on the day before the wedding. On night for the wedding, in the old days all the ladies would gather at the house of the bride (but nowadays it's mixed, also male relatives and family friends are invited.) A bowl is filled with henna. Henna is celebrated differently throughout the Assyrian community.\nIn some areas, whoever holds the bowl with the henna will dance with it around the others. \nThe groom and bride put in the bowl their little finger and their little finger will be wrapped and connected to each other by a ribbon.\nIn other areas, everyone is given a turn to wrap his finger with henna, and after everyone, the person that is getting henna in his hand starts the chant of praise for the future couple, as everyone else follows him.", "Henna\nThe Night of the Henna was celebrated by most groups in the areas where henna grew naturally: Jews,[12] Muslims,[13] Sikhs, Hindus and Zoroastrians, among others, all celebrated marriages and weddings by adorning the bride, and often the groom, with henna.", "Sojat\nHenna of this region has a high content of lawsone (the dyeing agent in henna powder) of 0.5–2.5% in dry henna leaves. It attaches itself strongly to proteins, and as a result the dye is very fast. The higher the lawsone content in henna powder, the better the quality.", "Henna\nIn the 1990s, henna artists in Africa, India, Bali, the Arabian Peninsula and the West began to experiment with PPD-based black hair dye, applying it as a thick paste as they would apply henna, in an effort to find something that would quickly make jet-black temporary body art. PPD can cause severe allergic reactions, with blistering, intense itching, permanent scarring, and permanent chemical sensitivities.[53][54] Estimates of allergic reactions range between 3% and 15%. Henna does not cause these injuries.[55] Black henna made with PPD can cause lifelong sensitization to coal tar derivatives[56] while black henna made with gasoline, kerosene, lighter fluid, paint thinner, and benzene has been linked to adult leukemia.[57]", "Tattoo\nAnother tattoo alternative is henna-based tattoos, which generally contain no additives. Henna is a plant-derived substance which is painted on the skin, staining it a reddish-orange-to-brown color. Because of the semi-permanent nature of henna, they lack the realistic colors typical of decal temporary tattoos. Due to the time-consuming application process, it is a relatively poor option for children. Dermatological publications report that allergic reactions to natural henna are very rare and the product is generally considered safe for skin application. Serious problems can occur, however, from the use of henna with certain additives. The FDA and medical journals report that painted black henna temporary tattoos are especially dangerous.", "Sojat\nSojat, also called Henna City (Mehandi Nagri), is India's largest henna cultivating and producing city.\nHenna produced in this region has popularity all over the world as \"Rajasthani Henna\". It imparts rich dark reddish stains on hands and feet and also acts as a good natural conditioner for hair.", "Vasl\nHashim (Adnan Siddiqui) and Henna (Ayesha Khan) are a married couple living in U.S.A with their children Soni and Naeel. Henna is a perfect wife and a caring mother but misses her family living in Pakistan. One day Hashim hands over airplane tickets to Henna and asks her to visit her family in Pakistan with Soni and Naeel. Henna gets happy and visits her family. Her family includes her parents, two brothers, a sister-in-law and a niece. After few days, Hashim calls his kids back as he doesn't want them to miss their school. Within few days, Henna receives divorce papers and is devastated. As she doesn't have a green card she can't go back to US. Meanwhile, Hashim is having an extramarital affair with his best friend Nabeel's (Imran Abbas Naqvi) wife Kamla (Tooba Siddiqui). Hashim marries Kamla but his children don't accept Kamla as their new mother. Henna is desperate to meet her kids and meets Nabeel who proposes to Henna to take revenge from Hashim. Henna rejects his proposal. Kids find it difficult to stay with Kamla. Kamla too feels that it would be better if the children go to her mother i.e. Henna. She sets up a plan to send Soni and Naeel to Henna but is caught by Hashim. Hashim divorces Kamla. Henna's younger brother Adeel (Ahsan Khan) has a friend Marina (Juggan Kazim) who sets up her maternal uncle (Mamu) Salman's (Faisal Rehman) marriage with Henna. Henna doesn't want a second marriage but marries him as he promises her that he would take her to US where she can actually meet her kids and get them. Adeel on the other hand, likes a girl Roma and takes Marina's help. Marina secretly loves Adeel but is in an inferiority complex of being an overweight. Adeel soon realises his love for Marina and proposes her. Salman is suffering from impotency and Henna feels cheated for not being known about this she even calls him gay. Salman tells her that she is treating him the way Hashim treated her. Henna apologizes and visits a doctor with Salman. Marina loses weight and surprises Adeel and his family on the day of their marriage. Salman offers a job to Adeel in U.S.A. Henna soon conceives, Salman is extremely happy but denies his promise as he doesn't want Henna to neglect herself being pregnant. Salman, Henna, Adeel and Marina arrives U.S.A. Henna keeps on insisting but is denied to meet her kids. Salman again promises her that as soon as the baby would be born, she would be taken by him to meet Soni and Naeel. Marina applies for her master's in a university. Adeel opposes her decision but is later convinced by Henna. A baby girl is born and is named Zarlina (Zee). Meanwhile, Hashim arrives Pakistan with his kids to meet Henna and is informed about Henna's second marriage. He calls Salman in order so that the kids could meet Henna but is denied. Henna is eager to meet her kids but is denied by Salman as he thinks Henna would forget about Zee as soon as she meets Soni and Naeel. Henna neglects Zarlina and insist Salman but soon realises her duty of being Zee's mother. After few years, when Zee grows Henna shows Zee her children's picture, Zee too demands for her older siblings. Marina gets a job which saddens Adeel as he wants a baby now. One day, Henna meets Hashim and demands to see her kids she goes with him to Hashim's House and is devastated to see Soni being so spoilt drug addict and Naeel being always alone. She finds that her kids hate her for not showing up as Hashim had lied them that it was all Henna's fault. Henna stays there in order to get the things done but still hates Hashim. Salman is furious and goes with Zee to Hashim's place. Henna blames him that because of him, her kids are so spoilt and hates her. Salman in guilt, leaves Zee with her. Soni hates Zee and warns Henna to leave her house or else she would cause a trouble. Naeel likes Zee and even plays with her. Soni kidnaps Zee and ask Henna to leave the house. Henna readily accepts which hurts Soni as she thinks Henna only loves Zee. She doesn't agree. Salman comes to meet Zee but is surprised by Soni's set up. Zee, who lives at Soni's friend's house still loves her elder sister. Soni exploits Zee but also takes care of her at her friend's house. Soni's friend calls up Henna one day and apologizes. Henna takes Zee with her and is leaving Hashim's house. Before leaving, she tells Soni that she isn't aware of the truth. Hashim confronts Soni about all he had done. Henna decides to leave alone as Salman didn't kept his promise. Soni talks to Henna and tells her not to leave Zee alone. Marina decides to leave Adeel thinking him as a male chauvinist but Salman tells her that it is she who is a problem in living with and must not leave Adeel as he truly loves her. Marina apologizes to Adeel for her headstrong behavior and lives a happy life with him and even plans for a child. Soni and Naeel refuse to stay with Hashim and stay with Henna and often meet Zee. Soni tells Henna to get back with Salman as he is a nice person. Henna forgives Salman and gets back to him with her children.", "Henna\nHenna can also refer to the temporary body art resulting from the staining of the skin from the dyes (see also mehndi). Henna has been used since antiquity to dye skin, hair and fingernails, as well as fabrics including silk, wool and leather. Historically, henna was used in the Arabian Peninsula, Indian Subcontinent, near and Middle East, Carthage, other parts of North Africa and the Horn of Africa. The name is used in other skin and hair dyes, such as black henna and neutral henna, neither of which is derived from the henna plant.[2][3]", "Henna\nFor Moroccan Jews, a wedding festival can last up to 5 days, with 2 days involving henna art.[27] One of these days is referred to as azmomeg (meaning unknown), and is the Thursday before the wedding where guests are invited to apply henna to the bride.[27] The other henna ceremony occurs after the wedding ceremony, called the Day of Henna.[27] On this day, typically an older woman applies henna to the bride after she dips in the mikveh to ward off evil spirits who may be jealous of the newlyweds.[28] The groom is also painted with henna after the wedding.[28] During the groom's henna painting, he commonly wears black clothing, this tradition emerged from the Pact of Umar as the Jews were not permitted to dress similar to colorful Muslim dress in Morocco.[28]", "Henna\nThough traditional henna artists were Nai caste in India, and barbering castes in other countries (lower social classes), talented contemporary henna artists can command high fees for their work. Women in countries where women are discouraged from working outside the home can find socially acceptable, lucrative work doing henna.[17] Morocco, Mauritania,[18] Yemen, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, the United Arab Emirates India and many other countries have thriving women's henna businesses. These businesses are often open all night for Eid, Diwali and Karva Chauth. Many women may work together during a large wedding, wherein hundreds of guests have henna applied to their body parts. This particular event at a marriage is known as the Mehndi Celebration or Mehndi Night, and is mainly held for the bride and groom.", "Henna\nWhole, unbroken henna leaves will not stain the skin. Henna will not stain skin until the lawsone molecules are made available (released) from the henna leaf. However, dried henna leaves will stain the skin if they are mashed into a paste. The lawsone will gradually migrate from the henna paste into the outer layer of the skin and bind to the proteins in it, creating a stain.", "Mehndi\nThe person who applied the henna was always someone who was already known to be happily married; that person would apply the henna onto the bride's palms, fingers, and toes. The henna was made from died henna leaves, and the process of application took a long time. For this reason, it was suggested that it be applied between thirty-two and forty-eight hours before the wedding so that it may have enough time to stain the skin. In addition to the bride, all unmarried persons at the henna party would also apply the henna to their hands, believing that it would allow them to be married soon as well.", "Body painting\nAs for Mehndi, natural brown henna dyes are safe to use when mixed with ingredients such as lemon juice. However, a commonly marketed product called \"black henna\", is not safe to use because the product has been made by mixing natural henna with synthetic black dyes containing PPD, which can cause serious skin allergies, and should be avoided due to the substantial risk of serious injury. Another option is Jagua, a dark indigo plant-based dye that is safe to use on the skin and is approved for cosmetic use in the EU.", "Henna\nSince it is difficult to form intricate patterns from coarsely crushed leaves, henna is commonly traded as a powder[4] made by drying, milling and sifting the leaves. The dry powder is mixed with one of a number of liquids, including water, lemon juice, strong tea, and other ingredients, depending on the tradition. Many artists use sugar or molasses in the paste to improve consistency to keep it stuck to the skin better. The henna mix must rest between 1 to 48 hours before use in order to release the lawsone from the leaf matter. The timing depends on the crop of henna being used. Essential oils with high levels of monoterpene alcohols, such as tea tree, cajeput, or lavender, will improve skin stain characteristics. Other essential oils, such as eucalyptus and clove, are also useful but are too irritating and should not be used on skin.", "Henna\nAcross the henna-growing region, Purim,[12] Eid,[14] Diwali,[15] Karva Chauth, Passover, Nowruz, Mawlid, and most saints' days were celebrated with some henna. Favorite horses, donkeys, and salukis had their hooves, paws, and tails hennaed. Battle victories, births, circumcision, birthdays, Zār, as well as weddings, usually included some henna as part of the celebration. Bridal henna nights remain an important custom in many of these areas, particularly among traditional families.", "Somaliland\nAn important form of art in Somali culture is henna art. The custom of applying henna dates back to antiquity. During special occasions, a Somali woman's hands and feet are expected to be covered in decorative mendhi. Girls and women usually apply or decorate their hands and feet in henna on festive celebrations like Eid or weddings. The henna designs vary from very simple to highly intricate. Somali designs vary, with some more modern and simple while others are traditional and intricate. Traditionally, only women apply it as body art, as it is considered a feminine custom. Henna is not only applied on the hands and feet but is also used as a dye. Somali men and women alike use henna as a dye to change their hair colour. Women are free to apply henna on their hair as most of the time they are wearing a hijab.", "Henna\nPPD black henna use is widespread, particularly in tourist areas.[64] Because the blistering reaction appears 3 to 12 days after the application, most tourists have left and do not return to show how much damage the artist has done. This permits the artists to continue injuring others, unaware they are causing severe injuries. The high-profit margins of black henna and the demand for body art that emulates \"tribal tattoos\" further encourage artists to deny the dangers.[65][66]", "Henna\nHenna has been used to adorn young women's bodies as part of social and holiday celebrations since the late Bronze Age in the eastern Mediterranean. The earliest text mentioning henna in the context of marriage and fertility celebrations comes from the Ugaritic legend of Baal and Anath,[10] which has references to women marking themselves with henna in preparation to meet their husbands, and Anath adorning herself with henna to celebrate a victory over the enemies of Baal. Wall paintings excavated at Akrotiri (dating prior to the eruption of Thera in 1680BCE) show women with markings consistent with henna on their nails, palms and soles, in a tableau consistent with the henna bridal description from Ugarit.[11] Many statuettes of young women dating between 1500 and 500BCE along the Mediterranean coastline have raised hands with markings consistent with henna. This early connection between young, fertile women and henna seems to be the origin of the Night of the Henna, which is now celebrated worldwide.", "Henna\nIn Tunisia, the Jewish wedding custom acts to clean the bride by bathing her, removing her body hair and painting her with henna.[34] The procession begins 8 days before the wedding ceremony when a basket is delivered to the bride, which contains henna.[35] The mother of the groom supervises the procession in order to ensure all is being done correctly.[34] Today, the groom accompanies the bride in the ritual at the henna party, but the majority of henna painting is done on the bride's body.[35]", "Henna (name)\nHenna (حنّا) is an Arabic male name for John. It is a common given name as well as a surname particularly among Arab Christians. The Arabic female name Hannah (حَنَّة meaning \"blessed\") is rarely also anglicized as Henna. Henna is also a Finnish female given name (different root). Notable persons with the name include:" ]

[ "Publication of Darwin's theory\nDarwin made attempts to open discussions about his theory with his close scientific colleagues. In January 1842 Darwin sent a tentative description of his ideas in a letter to Lyell, then prepared a \"Pencil Sketch\" of his theory. He worked up his \"Sketch\" into an \"Essay\" in 1844, and eventually persuaded Hooker to read a copy in January 1847. His geology books and publication of Beagle findings were completed in 1846, when he began what became eight years of research into classification of barnacle species, exploring the immense amount of variation in nature." ]

[ "University of Jena\nIn the latter 19th century, the department of zoology taught evolutionary theory, with Carl Gegenbaur, Ernst Haeckel and others publishing detailed theories at the time of Darwin's \"\"Origin of Species\"\" (1858). The later fame of Ernst Haeckel eclipsed Darwin in some European countries, as the term \"Haeckelism\" was more common than Darwinism. ", "George Romanes\nWhen Charles Darwin died, Romanes defended Darwin's theories by attempting to rebut criticisms and attacks levied by other psychologists against the Darwinian school of thought. Romanes expanded on Darwin's theories of evolution and natural selection by advancing a theory of behaviour based on comparative psychology. In \"Animal Intelligence,\" Romanes demonstrated similarities and dissimilarities between cognitive and physical functions of various animals. In \"Mental Evolution in Animals,\" Romanes illustrated the evolution of the cognitive and physical functions associated with animal life. Romanes believed that animal intelligence evolves through behavioural conditioning, or positive reinforcement. Romanes then published \"Mental Evolution in Man,\" which focused on the evolution of human cognitive and physical functions.", "The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication\nDarwin had been mulling for many years on a theory of heredity. In May 1865 he sent a manuscript to his friend Thomas Huxley outlining his theory which he called pangenesis and asking whether he should publish it. In his accompanying letter Darwin wrote \"It is a very rash & crude hypothesis yet it has been a considerable relief to my mind, & I can hang on it a good many groups of facts.\" Huxley pointed out the similarities of pangenesis to the theories of Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, and the Swiss naturalist Charles Bonnet but eventually wrote encouraging Darwin to publish: \"Somebody rummaging among your papers half a century hence will find Pangenesis & say 'See this wonderful anticipation of our modern Theories—and that stupid ass, Huxley, prevented his publishing them'\".", "Asa Gray\nWhen Darwin received Alfred Russel Wallace's paper that described natural selection, Hooker and Charles Lyell arranged for a joint reading of papers by Darwin and Wallace to the Linnean Society on July 1, 1858. Since Darwin had nothing prepared, the reading included excerpts from his 1844 \"Essay\" and from a letter he had sent to Asa Gray in July 1857 outlining his theory on the origin of species. By that time, Darwin had begun writing his book \"On the Origin of Species\". The correspondence with Gray was thus a key piece of evidence in establishing Darwin's intellectual priority with respect to the theory of evolution by natural selection. Neither Darwin nor Wallace attended the meeting. The papers were published by the society as \"On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection\". By summer 1859 it was obvious to Gray and others working with Darwin that \"On the Origin of Species\" would be a ground-breaking book.", "Human condition\nEver since 1859, when Charles Darwin published \"On the Origin of Species\", the biological theory of evolution has been significant. The theory posits that the human species is related to all others, living and extinct, and that natural selection is the primary survival factor. This has provided a basis for new beliefs, e.g. social Darwinism, and for new technology, e.g. antibiotics.", "Development of Darwin's theory\nFollowing the inception of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection in 1838, the development of Darwin's theory to explain the \"mystery of mysteries\" of how new species originated was his \"prime hobby\" in the background to his main occupation of publishing the scientific results of the \"Beagle\" voyage. He was settling into married life, but suffered from bouts of illness and after his first child was born the family moved to rural Down House as a family home away from the pressures of London.", "Thomas Bell (zoologist)\nBell was at the heart of the scientific establishment and when Charles Darwin returned to London from the \"Beagle\" expedition on 2 December 1836, Bell was quick to take on the task of describing the reptile specimens. He was also entrusted with the specimens of Crustacea collected on the voyage. He was the authority in this field; his book \"British Stalke-eyed Crustacea\" is a masterwork. He played a significant part in the inception of Darwin's theory of natural selection in March 1837 when he confirmed that the giant Galápagos tortoises were native to the islands, not brought in by buccaneers for food as Darwin had thought. He supported the arrangements for publication of \"Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle\", but then was very slow to make progress on the work, and though the first parts of work were published in 1838, Bell's contribution on reptiles (\"Part 5\") was published in two numbers, in 1842 and 1843, and he subsequently failed to take any action on the Crustacea.", "Giovanni Canestrini\nCanestrini made contributions in several biological disciplines, performing important research in the field of acarology. He was an advocate of Darwinism, and was responsible for translating Darwin's works. In 1864, he was the first to translate Darwin's \"On the Origin of Species\" into Italian. Through these translations, Canestrini was a principal factor concerning the popularity of Darwinism in 19th century Italy. He wrote \"Origine dell’uomo\" (\"The Origin of Man\", 1866) which advocated common ancestry and defended Darwin from criticisms of Giovanni Giuseppe Bianconi and others, this work was published five years before Darwin's \"The Descent of Man\". However, although Canestrini was a supporter of many of Darwin's ideas, he rejected his theories of pangenesis and sexual selection.", "Influences on Karl Marx\nNonetheless, it is evident that Marx had a strong liking for Darwin's theory and a clear influence on his thought. Furthermore, when the second German edition of \"Das Capital\", was published (two years after the publication of Darwin's \"Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex\"), Marx sent Darwin a copy of his book with the following words: ", "Nikolay Danilevsky\nDanilevsky's \"Darwinism: Critical research,\" which brings together more than 1200 pages of arguments against Darwin's theory, mostly assembled from the literature that already existed at the time, was published in 1885. It was meant to be the first volume of a longer work, the second volume containing Danilevsky's own theories, which he characterised as \"natural theology\", but it was unfinished at his death. When it was published posthumously, it contained only preliminary studies.", "Caricatures of Charles Darwin and his evolutionary theory in 19th-century England\nThis caricature offers various starting points for an art-historical analysis. It was published three years after Darwin's work \"The Descent of Man\" (1871). Here, Darwin finally takes a stand and argues that humans and monkeys share a common ancestor. In the caricature, however, this view is put into question. Moreover, it goes back on the widespread assumption that humans exhibit certain animal features – the ape as a mirror for humankind so to speak. In this respect the caricature stands also in the tradition of vanitas which is symbolised by the hand mirror reflecting human vanity. The fact that the ape-like Darwin is holding the mirror and not the real ape shows that Darwin and his theory should be ridiculed. Darwin himself has acknowledged that \"[he] has given man a pedigree of prodigious length, but not, it may be said, of noble quality.\" Consequently, the ape is not enhanced in status through his kinship with man.\nAfter the publication of \"The Descent of Man\" Darwin was increasingly identified with the theory of evolution although his friend Thomas Henry Huxley was the first to put it forward. As a result, Darwin himself was considered more and more as a suitable object to caricature. The cover of the French satirical magazine \"La Petite Lune\" is a telling example of the paradigmatic representation of Darwin in contemporary cartoons and caricatures. ", "John van Wyhe\nA new edition of his 2008 biography of Darwin, \"Darwin: The Man, his great voyage, and his Theory of Evolution\", has appeared under the banner of the Natural History Museum. (2018) \nFor the Darwin bicentenary year of 2009 van Wyhe published four books on Darwin: \"Darwin's shorter publications, Darwin's notebooks from the voyage of the Beagle, Darwin in Cambridge\" and an accessible biography: \"Darwin\".", "Invertebrate zoology\nIn 1859, Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published. In this book, he described his theory of evolution by natural selection. Both the work of Darwin and his contemporary, Alfred Russel Wallace —who was also working on the theory of evolution—were informed by the careful study of insects. In addition, Darwin collected many species of invertebrate during his time aboard the HMS \"Beagle\"; many of the specimens collected were insects. Using these collections, he was able to study sexual dimorphism, geographic distribution of species, and mimicry; all of these concepts influenced Darwin's theory of evolution. Unfortunately, a firm popular belief in the immutability of species was a major hurdle in the acceptance of the theory.", "Samuel Haughton\n\"Haughton has the dubious honour of being the first person to comment on Darwin's theory when the joint papers of Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace were read to the Linnaean Society of London in 1858. They were presented by Darwin's close allies, the geologist Charles Lyell and the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker. Haughton presumably saw the printed version of the papers and attacked the theory briefly in remarks made to the Geological Society of Dublin on 9 February 1859. These were reported in the society's journal, and a clipping of this found its way into Darwin's possession. Haughton wrote:", "Neural Darwinism\nNeural Darwinism, a large scale theory of brain function by Gerald Edelman, was initially published in 1978, in a book called \"The Mindful Brain\" (MIT Press). It was extended and published in the 1987 book \"Neural Darwinism – The Theory of Neuronal Group Selection\".", "Survival of the fittest\nIt has been claimed that \"the survival of the fittest\" theory in biology was interpreted by late 19th century capitalists as \"an ethical precept that sanctioned cut-throat economic competition\" and led to the advent of the theory of \"social Darwinism\" which was used to justify laissez-faire economics, war and racism. However, these ideas predate and commonly contradict Darwin's ideas, and indeed their proponents rarely invoked Darwin in support. The term \"social Darwinism\" referring to capitalist ideologies was introduced as a term of abuse by Richard Hofstadter's \"Social Darwinism in American Thought\" published in 1944.", "Darwinism\nHowever, \"Darwinism\" is also used neutrally within the scientific community to distinguish the modern evolutionary synthesis, sometimes called \"neo-Darwinism\", from those first proposed by Darwin. \"Darwinism\" also is used neutrally by historians to differentiate his theory from other evolutionary theories current around the same period. For example, \"Darwinism\" may be used to refer to Darwin's proposed mechanism of natural selection, in comparison to more recent mechanisms such as genetic drift and gene flow. It may also refer specifically to the role of Charles Darwin as opposed to others in the history of evolutionary thought—particularly contrasting Darwin's results with those of earlier theories such as Lamarckism or later ones such as the modern evolutionary synthesis.", "William Charles Wells\nCharles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace were not aware of this work when they published their theory in 1858, but later Darwin acknowledged:", "Pangenesis\nDarwin had debated whether to publish a theory of heredity for an extended period of time due to its highly speculative nature. He decided to include pangenesis in \"Variation\" after sending a 30 page manuscript to his close friend and supporter Thomas Huxley in May 1865, which was met by significant criticism from Huxley that made Darwin even more hesitant. However, Huxley eventually advised Darwin to publish, writing: \"Somebody rummaging among your papers half a century hence will find Pangenesis & say 'See this wonderful anticipation of our modern Theories—and that stupid ass, Huxley, prevented his publishing them'\" Darwin's initial version of pangenesis appeared in the first edition of \"Variation\" in 1868, and was later reworked for the publication of a second edition in 1875.", "Whitwell Elwin\nThe \"Quarterly Review\" was published by John Murray, who on 1 April 1859 agreed to publish Charles Darwin's book \"An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection\", without even seeing the manuscript. When the first three chapters were sent to Murray, he cautiously asked Elwin to review them. Elwin was initially opposed to publication of this book on evolution, but after consulting Darwin's colleague Charles Lyell, Elwin felt that for Darwin \"to put forth the theory without the evidence would do grievous injustice to his views, & to his twenty years of observation & experiment. At every page I was tantalised by the absence of the proofs. All kinds of objections, & possibilities rose up in the mind, & it was fretting to think that the author had a whole array of facts, & inferences from the facts, absolutely essential to the decision of the question which were not before the reader.\" He recommended Lyell's suggestion that, to gain public agreement, rather than \"put forth the theory without the evidence\", the book should focus on observations upon pigeons, briefly stating how these illustrated Darwin's general principles and preparing the way for Darwin's larger work \"Natural Selection\" which was expected to follow soon: \"Every body is interested in pigeons.\" Darwin responded that this was impractical, and his book retitled as \"On the Origin of Species\" was published on Thursday 24 November 1859.", "Social Darwinism\n\"Social Darwinism\" was first described by Eduard Oscar Schmidt of the University of Strasbourg, reporting at a scientific and medical conference held in Munich in 1877. He \"noted\" how socialists, although opponents of Darwin's theory, used it to add force to their political arguments. Schmidt's essay first appeared in English in \"Popular Science\" in March 1879. There followed an anarchist tract published in Paris in 1880 entitled \"Le darwinisme social\" by Émile Gautier. However, the use of the term was very rare—at least in the English-speaking world (Hodgson, 2004)—until the American historian Richard Hofstadter published his influential \"Social Darwinism in American Thought\" (1944) during World War II.", "Darwin Industry\nOne of the most significant projects of the Darwin Industry has been the systematic publication of all of Darwin's unpublished writings. Two volumes of the \"Life and Letters of Charles Darwin\" were published in 1887 along with \"The Autobiography of Charles Darwin\", edited by Francis Darwin; two volumes of \"More Letters of Charles Darwin\" were published in 1902. Francis Darwin edited 1909 editions of Darwin's notebooks related to the inception of his theory. Darwin's granddaughter Nora Barlow pieced together the 1930 \"Diary of the Beagle\" from Darwin's unpublished notebooks. A flood of Darwiniana was published in the mid-twentieth century, especially by Darwin's descendants, leading up to the 1959 Darwin Centennial, including an un-redacted edition of Darwin's autobiography edited by Barlow. However, all this made up only a fraction of Darwin's correspondence and other unpublished writings, and much of what was published was incomplete. By the 1990s there were two different versions of \"The Works of Charles Darwin\", an 18 volume edition by AMS Press and a more scholarly 29 volume edition by William Pickering, along with an annotated scholarly volume of \"Charles Darwin 's Notebooks, 1836-1844\".", "Religious views of Charles Darwin\nDarwin continued to avoid public controversy and to accumulate evidence supporting his theory against the anticipated arguments. In 1858 the information that Alfred Russel Wallace now had a similar theory forced an early joint publication of Darwin's theory. The reaction to Darwin's theory, even after publication of \"On the Origin of Species\" in 1859, was more muted than he had feared. One of the first responses to review copies came from Charles Kingsley, a Christian socialist country rector and novelist, who wrote that it was \"just as noble a conception of Deity, to believe that He created primal forms capable of self development... as to believe that He required a fresh act of intervention to supply the lacunas which He Himself had made.\" For the second edition, Darwin added these lines to the last chapter, with attribution to \"a celebrated author and divine\".\nIn 1860 seven liberal Anglican theologians caused a much greater furore by publishing a manifesto titled \"Essays and Reviews\" in which they sought to make textual criticism of the Bible available to the ordinary reader, as well as supporting Darwin. Their new \"higher criticism\" represented \"the triumph of the rational discourse of logos over myth.\" It argued that the Bible should not be read in an entirely literal manner, thus and would in the future become \"a bogey of Christian fundamentalists ... but this was only because Western people had lost the original sense of the mythical.\" The traditional Christians were just as vocal.", "Søren Løvtrup\nSoren Løvtrup (1922–2002) was a Danish embryologist and historian of science in the Department of Animal Physiology at the Umeå University, Sweden. Løvtrup was known for his macromutation theory of evolution, which was in opposition to traditional neo-Darwinism. In 1987 Løvtrup published his controversial book \"Darwinism: The Refutation of a Myth\" which challenged Charles Darwin's role as the intellectual founder of evolutionary theory and accused Darwin of plagiarism.", "Darwinism\nDarwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce. Also called Darwinian theory, it originally included the broad concepts of transmutation of species or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance after Darwin published \"On the Origin of Species\" in 1859, including concepts which predated Darwin's theories. It subsequently referred to the specific concepts of natural selection, the Weismann barrier, or the central dogma of molecular biology. Though the term usually refers strictly to biological evolution, creationists have appropriated it to refer to the origin of life, and it has even been applied to concepts of cosmic evolution, both of which have no connection to Darwin's work. It is therefore considered the belief and acceptance of Darwin's and of his predecessors' work—in place of other theories, including divine design and extraterrestrial origins.", "Alfred Russel Wallace\nIn many accounts of the development of evolutionary theory, Wallace is mentioned only in passing as simply being the stimulus to the publication of Darwin's own theory. In reality, Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's, and was considered by many (especially Darwin) to be a leading thinker on evolution in his day, whose ideas could not be ignored. One historian of science has pointed out that, through both private correspondence and published works, Darwin and Wallace exchanged knowledge and stimulated each other's ideas and theories over an extended period. Wallace is the most-cited naturalist in Darwin's \"Descent of Man\", occasionally in strong disagreement.", "Inception of Darwin's theory\nOn 12 November Darwin visited his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall and they encouraged him to publish a book of his travels based on his diary, an idea his sisters picked up when he visited his home.", "The Life of Erasmus Darwin\nBefore publication however 16% of the work was cut out by Charles' daughter Henrietta Litchfield — mostly the most provocative parts. It was also published in German as \"Erasmus Darwin und seine Stellung in der Geschichte der Descendenz-Theorie von Ernst Krause. Mit seinem Lebens- und Charakterbilde von Charles Darwin\" (\"Erasmus Darwin and his place in the history of the theory of descent by Ernst Krause. With his life and character by Charles Darwin\"). A second (English) edition, edited by Charles Darwin's son Francis was published in 1887. An unabridged edition edited by Desmond King-Hele was published in 2003 to mark the 200th anniversary since Erasmus' death.", "Publication of Darwin's theory\nHe was writing up his theory in 1858 when he received an essay from Alfred Russel Wallace who was in Borneo, describing Wallace's own theory of natural selection, prompting immediate joint publication of extracts from Darwin's 1844 essay together with Wallace's paper as On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection in a presentation to the Linnaean Society on 1 July 1858. This attracted little notice,[2] but spurred Darwin to write an \"abstract\" of his work which was published in 1859 as his book On the Origin of Species.[3]", "The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs\nWhen the \"Beagle\" returned on 2 October 1836, Darwin was already a celebrity in scientific circles, as in December 1835 University of Cambridge Professor of Botany John Stevens Henslow had fostered his former pupil's reputation by giving selected naturalists a pamphlet of Darwin's geological letters. Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October, enthusiastic about the support this gave to his uniformitarianism, and in May wrote to John Herschel that he was \"very full of Darwin's new theory of Coral Islands, and have urged Whewell to make him read it at our next meeting. I must give up my volcanic crater theory for ever, though it cost me a pang at first, for it accounted for so much... the whole theory is knocked on the head, and the annular shape and central lagoon have nothing to do with volcanoes, nor even with a crateriform bottom... Coral islands are the last efforts of drowning continents to lift their heads above water. Regions of elevation and subsidence in the ocean may be traced by the state of the coral reefs.\" Darwin presented his findings and theory in a paper which he read to the Geological Society of London on 31 May 1837." ]

[ "Agnosia\nFor all practical purposes, there is no direct cure. Patients may improve if information is presented in other modalities than the damaged one. Different types of therapies can help to reverse the effects of agnosia. In some cases, occupational therapy or speech therapy can improve agnosia, depending on its cause." ]

[ "Auditory verbal agnosia\nAuditory verbal agnosia (AVA) is not the same as auditory agnosia; patients with (nonverbal) auditory agnosia have a relatively more intact speech comprehension system despite their impaired recognition of nonspeech sounds.", "Auditory agnosia\nSince the early days of aphasia research, the relationship between auditory agnosia and speech perception has been debated. Lichtheim (1885) proposed that auditory agnosia is the result of damage to a brain area dedicated to the perception of spoken words, and consequently renamed this disorder from ‘word deafness’ to ‘pure word deafness’. The description of word deafness as being exclusively for words was adopted by the scientific community despite the patient reported by Lichtheim’s who also had more general auditory deficits. Some researchers who surveyed the literature, however, argued against labeling this disorder as pure word deafness on the account that all patients reported impaired at perceiving spoken words were also noted with other auditory deficits or aphasic symptoms. In one review of the literature, Ulrich (1978) presented evidence for separation of word deafness from more general auditory agnosia, and suggested naming this disorder “linguistic auditory agnosia” (this name was later rephrased into “verbal auditory agnosia”). To contrast this disorder with auditory agnosia in which speech repetition is intact (word meaning deafness), the name “word sound deafness” and “phonemic deafness” (Kleist, 1962) were also proposed. Although some researchers argued against the purity of word deafness, some anecdotal cases with exclusive impaired perception of speech were documented. On several occasions, patients were reported to gradually transition from pure word deafness to general auditory agnosia/cerebral deafness or recovery from general auditory agnosia/cerebral deafness to pure word deafness.", "Agnosia\nIn contrast, individuals with associative visual agnosia experience difficulty when asked to name objects. Associative agnosia is associated with damage to both the right and left hemispheres at the occipitotemporal border.[22] A specific form of associative visual agnosia is known as prosopagnosia. Prosopagnosia is the inability to recognize faces. For example, these individuals have difficulty recognizing friends, family and coworkers.[22] However, individuals with prosopagnosia can recognize all other types of visual stimuli.[23]", "Apperceptive agnosia\nIn addition to verbal and nonverbal auditory agnosia, there are cases of auditory apperceptive agnosia where patients are unable to recognize music in the absence of sensory, intellectual, and verbal impairments. In these cases there may be a melodic or a memory basis established in the brain and damage to those areas lead to music agnosia. Agnosia occurs because of failure to re-encode melodic information properly. This tends to be associated with right-sided lesions interrupting the melodic route in the brain.", "Agnosia\nIn order to assess an individual for agnosia, it must be verified that the individual is not suffering from a loss of sensation, and that both their language abilities and intelligence are intact. In order for an individual to be diagnosed with agnosia, they must only be experiencing a sensory deficit in a single modality. To make a diagnosis, the distinction between apperceptive and associative agnosia must be made. This distinction can be made by having the individual complete copying and matching tasks. If the individual is suffering from a form of apperceptive agnosia they will not be able to match two stimuli that are identical in appearance. In contrast, if an individual is suffering from a form of associative agnosia, they will not be able to match different examples of a stimulus. For example, an individual who has been diagnosed with associative agnosia in the visual modality would not be able to match pictures of a laptop that is open with a laptop that is closed.[3]", "Integrative agnosia\nWhen determining whether a patient has form agnosia or integrative agnosia, an Efron shape test can be performed. A poor score on the Efron shape test will indicate form agnosia, as opposed to integrative agnosia. A good score on the Efron shape test, but a poor score on a figure-ground segmentation test and an overlapping figures test will indicate integrative agnosia. A patient with integrative agnosia will find it hard to group and segment shapes, especially if there are overlapping animate items or they can over segment objects with high internal detail. However, the patient should have and understand basic coding of shape.", "Finger agnosia\nAs in many other agnosias, those with the disorder have difficulty recognizing their errors and often do not correct themselves.\nThere is no known treatment for finger agnosia. Typically, finger agnosia does not present difficulties in daily life. In most cases, visual guidance can help with any difficulty in distinguishing or moving the appropriate finger.", "Phonagnosia\nPhonagnosia (from Ancient Greek φωνή \"phone\", \"voice\" and γνῶσις \"gnosis\", \"knowledge\") is a type of agnosia, or loss of knowledge, that involves a disturbance in the recognition of familiar voices and the impairment of voice discrimination abilities in which the affected individual does not suffer from comprehension deficits. Phonagnosia is an auditory agnosia, an acquired auditory processing disorder resulting from brain damage, other auditory agnosias include cortical deafness and auditory verbal agnosia also known as pure word deafness.", "Finger agnosia\nFinger agnosia, first defined in 1924 by Josef Gerstmann, is the loss in the ability to distinguish, name, or recognize the fingers—not only the patient's own fingers, but also the fingers of others, and drawings and other representations of fingers. It is one of a tetrad of symptoms in Gerstmann syndrome, although it is also possible for finger agnosia to exist on its own without any other disorders. Usually, lesions to the left angular gyrus and posterior parietal areas can lead to finger agnosia.", "Cognitive neuroscience of visual object recognition\nAgnosia is a rare occurrence and can be the result of a stroke, dementia, head injury, brain infection, or hereditary.\nApperceptive agnosia is a deficit in object perception creating an inability to understand the significance of objects.\nSimilarly, associative visual agnosia is the inability to understand the significance of objects; however, this time the deficit is in semantic memory. Both of these agnosias can affect the pathway to object recognition, like Marr's Theory of Vision. More specifically unlike apperceptive agnosia, associative agnosic patients are more successful at drawing, copying, and matching tasks; however, these patients demonstrate that they can perceive but not recognize.\nIntegrative agnosia(a subtype of associative agnosia) is the inability to integrate separate parts to form a whole image. With these types of agnosias there is damage to the ventral (what) stream of the visual processing pathway.\nObject orientation agnosia is the inability to extract the orientation of an object despite adequate object recognition. With this type of agnosia there is damage to the dorsal (where) stream of the visual processing pathway.\nThis can affect object recognition in terms of familiarity and even more so in unfamiliar objects and viewpoints.\nA difficulty in recognizing faces can be explained by prosopagnosia. Someone with prosopagnosia cannot identify the face but is still able to perceive age, gender, and emotional expression. The brain region that specifies in facial recognition is the fusiform face area. Prosopagnosia can also be divided into apperceptive and associative subtypes. Recognition of individual chairs, cars, animals can also be impaired; therefore, these object share similar perceptual features with the face that are recognized in the fusiform face area.", "Social-emotional agnosia\nSocial-emotional agnosia, also known as emotional agnosia or expressive agnosia, is the inability to perceive facial expressions, body language, and voice intonation. A person with this disorder is unable to non-verbally perceive others' emotions in social situations, limiting normal social interactions. The condition causes a functional blindness to subtle non-verbal social-emotional cues in voice, gesture, and facial expression. People with this form of agnosia have difficulty in determining and identifying the motivational and emotional significance of external social events, and may appear emotionless or agnostic (uncertainty or general indecisiveness about a particular thing). Symptoms of this agnosia can vary depending on the area of the brain affected. Social-emotional agnosia often occurs in individuals with schizophrenia and autism. It is difficult to distinguish from, and has been found to co-occur with, alexithymia.", "Auditory agnosia\nAuerbach et al considered word deafness and general auditory agnosia as two separate disorders, and labelled general auditory agnosia as pre-phonemic auditory agnosia and word deafness as post-phonemic auditory agnosia. They suggested that pre-phonemic auditory agnosia manifests because of general damage to the auditory cortex of both hemispheres, and that post-phonemic auditory agnosia manifests because of damage to a spoken word recognition center in the left hemisphere. Recent evidence, possibly verified Auerbach hypothesis, since an epileptic patient who undergone electro-stimulation to the anterior superior temporal gyrus was demonstrated a transient loss of speech comprehension, but with intact perception of environmental sounds and music.", "Auditory agnosia\nThe term auditory agnosia was originally coined by Freud (1891) to describe patients with selective impairment of environmental sounds. In a review of the auditory agnosia literature, Ulrich re-named this disorder as non-verbal auditory agnosia (although sound auditory agnosia and environmental sound auditory agnosia are also commonly used). This disorder is very rare and only 18 cases have been documented. In contradiction to pure word deafness and general auditory agnosia, this disorder is likely under-diagnosed because patients are often not aware of their disorder, and thus don’t seek medical intervention.", "Music-specific disorders\nThe term \"agnosia\" refers to a loss of knowledge. Acquired music agnosia is the \"inability to recognize music in the absence of sensory, intellectual, verbal, and mnesic impairments\". Music agnosia is most commonly acquired; in most cases it is a result of bilateral infarction of the right temporal lobes. In his article, Satoh states \"when pure word deafness, auditory sound agnosia, and receptive amusia occur simultaneously, the state is called auditory agnosia\" (Satoh 2007). However, one must understand the subtle difference between auditory and music agnosia; the former refers to the inability to recognize environmental sounds while the latter refers to the inability to recognize music.", "Auditory agnosia\nAuditory agnosia is a form of agnosia that manifests itself primarily in the inability to recognize or differentiate between sounds. It is not a defect of the ear or \"hearing\", but rather a neurological inability of the brain to process sound meaning. It is caused by bilateral damage to the anterior superior temporal gyrus, which is part of the auditory pathway responsible for sound recognition, the auditory \"what\" pathway . Persons with auditory agnosia can physically hear the sounds and describe them using unrelated terms, but are unable to recognize them. They might describe the sound of some environmental sounds, such as a motor starting, as resembling a lion roaring, but would not be able to associate the sound with \"car\" or \"engine\", nor would they say that it \"was\" a lion creating the noise. All auditory agnosia patients read lips in order to enhance the speech comprehension. It is yet unclear whether auditory agnosia (also called general auditory agnosia) is a combination of milder disorders, such auditory verbal agnosia (pure word deafness), non-verbal auditory agnosia, amusia and word meaning deafness), or a mild case of the more severe disorder, cerebral deafness. So far, 203 patients with auditory perceptual deficits due to CNS damage were reported in the medical literature, of which 183 diagnosed with general auditory agnosia or word deafness, 34 with cerebral deafness, 51 with non-verbal auditory agnosia-amusia and 8 word meaning deafness (for a list of patients see).", "Agnosia\nVisual agnosia is a broad category that refers to a deficiency in the ability to recognize visual objects. Visual agnosia can be further subdivided into two different subtypes: apperceptive visual agnosia and associative visual agnosia.[22]", "Apperceptive agnosia\nApperceptive agnosia is a failure in recognition that is due to a failure of perception. In contrast, associative agnosia is a type of agnosia where perception occurs but recognition still does not occur. When referring to apperceptive agnosia, visual and object agnosia are most commonly discussed; This occurs because apperceptive agnosia is most likely to present visual impairments. However, in addition to visual apperceptive agnosia there are also cases of apperceptive agnosia in other sensory areas.", "Associative visual agnosia\nAn agnosia that affects hearing, \"auditory sound agnosia\", is broken into subdivisions based on level of processing impaired, and a \"semantic-associative\" form is investigated within the auditory agnosias.", "Neuroscience of music\nMusical agnosias may be categorized based on the process which is impaired in the individual. Apperceptive music agnosia involves an impairment at the level of perceptual analysis involving an inability to encode musical information correctly. Associative music agnosia reflects an impaired representational system which disrupts music recognition. Many of the cases of music agnosia have resulted from surgery involving the middle cerebral artery. Patient studies have surmounted a large amount of evidence demonstrating that the left side of the brain is more suitable for holding long-term memory representations of music and that the right side is important for controlling access to these representations. Associative music agnosias tend to be produced by damage to the left hemisphere, while apperceptive music agnosia reflects damage to the right hemisphere.", "Visual agnosia\nAlthough visual agnosia can be general, there exist many variants that impair recognition of specific types. These variants of visual agnosia include prosopagnosia (inability to recognize faces), pure word blindness (inability to recognize words, often called \"agnosic alexia\" or \"pure alexia\"), agnosias for colors (inability to differentiate colors), agnosias for the environment (inability to recognize landmarks or difficult with spatial layout of an environment, i.e. topographagnosia) and simultanagosia (inability to sort out multiple objects in a visual scene).", "Associative visual agnosia\nAgnosias are sensory modality specific, usually classified as visual, auditory, or tactile. Associative visual agnosia refers to a subtype of visual agnosia, which was labeled by Lissauer (1890), as an inability to connect the visual percept (mental representation of something being perceived through the senses) with its related semantic information stored in memory, such as, its name, use, and description. This is distinguished from the visual apperceptive form of visual agnosia, \"apperceptive visual agnosia\", which is an inability to produce a complete percept, and is associated with a failure in higher order perceptual processing where feature integration is impaired, though individual features can be distinguished. In reality, patients often fall between both distinctions, with some degree of perceptual disturbances exhibited in most cases, and in some cases, patients may be labeled as integrative agnostics when they fit the criteria for both forms. Associative visual agnosias are often category-specific, where recognition of particular categories of items are differentially impaired, which can affect selective classes of stimuli, larger generalized groups or multiple intersecting categories. For example, deficits in recognizing stimuli can be as specific as familiar human faces or as diffuse as living things or non-living things.", "Visual agnosia\nVisual agnosia is an impairment in recognition of visually presented objects. It is not due to a deficit in vision (acuity, visual field, and scanning), language, memory, or intellect. While cortical blindness results from lesions to primary visual cortex, visual agnosia is often due to damage to more anterior cortex such as the posterior occipital and/or temporal lobe(s) in the brain. There are two types of visual agnosia: apperceptive agnosia and associative agnosia.", "Auditory agnosia\nIn a review of the auditory agnosia literature, Phillips and Farmer showed that patients with word deafness are impaired in their ability to discriminate gaps between click sounds as long as 15-50 milliseconds, which is consistent with the duration of phonemes. They also showed that patients with general auditory agnosia are impaired in their ability to discriminate gaps between click sounds as long as 100-300 milliseconds. The authors further showed that word deafness patients liken their auditory experience to hearing foreign language, whereas general auditory agnosia described speech as incomprehensible noise. Based on these findings, and because both word deafness and general auditory agnosia patients were reported to have very similar neuroanatomical damage (bilateral damage to the auditory cortices), the authors concluded that word deafness and general auditory agnosia is the same disorder, but with a different degree of severity.", "Auditory agnosia\nCerebral deafness (also known as cortical deafness or central deafness) is a disorder characterized by complete deafness that is the result of damage to the central nervous system. The primary distinction between auditory agnosia and cerebral deafness is the ability to detect pure tones, as measured with pure tone audiometry. Using this test, auditory agnosia patients were often reported capable of detecting pure tones almost as good as healthy individuals, whereas cerebral deafness patients found this task almost impossible or they required very loud presentations of sounds (above 100 dB). In all reported cases, cerebral deafness was associated with bilateral temporal lobe lesions. A study that compared the lesions of two cerebral deafness patients to an auditory agnosia patient concluded that cerebral deafness is the result of complete de-afferentation of the auditory cortices, whereas in auditory agnosia some thalamo-cortical fibers are spared. In most cases the disorder is transient and the symptoms mitigate into auditory agnosia (although chronic cases were reported). Similarly, a monkey study that ablated both auditory cortices of monkeys reported of deafness that lasted 1 week in all cases, and that was gradually mitigated into auditory agnosia in a period of 3–7 weeks.", "Memory disorder\nAgnosia is the inability to recognize certain objects, persons or sounds. Agnosia is typically caused by damage to the brain (most commonly in the occipital or parietal lobes) or from a neurological disorder. Treatments vary depending on the location and cause of the damage. Recovery is possible depending on the severity of the disorder and the severity of the damage to the brain. Many more specific types of agnosia diagnoses exist, including: associative visual agnosia, astereognosis, auditory agnosia, auditory verbal agnosia, prosopagnosia, simultanagnosia, topographical disorientation, visual agnosia etc.", "Agnosia\nAgnosia can result from strokes, dementia, or other neurological disorders. It may also be trauma-induced by a head injury, brain infection, or hereditary. Additionally, some forms of agnosia may be the result of developmental disorders.[4] Damage causing agnosia usually occurs in either the occipital or parietal lobes of the brain. Although one modality may be affected, cognitive abilities in other areas are preserved.[4]", "Auditory agnosia\nIn 1928, Kleist suggested that the etiology of word deafness could be due either to impaired perception of the sound (apperceptive auditory agnosia), or to impaired extraction of meaning from a sound (associative auditory agnosia). This hypothesis was first tested by Vignolo et al (1969), who examined unilateral stroke patients. They reported that patients with left hemisphere damage were impaired in matching environmental sounds with their corresponding pictures, whereas patients with right hemisphere damage were impaired in the discrimination of meaningless noise segments. The researchers then concluded that left hemispheric damage results in associative auditory agnosia, and right hemisphere damage results in apperceptive auditory agnosia. Although the conclusion reached by this study could be considered over-reaching, associative auditory agnosia could correspond with the disorder word meaning deafness.", "Visual agnosia\nBroadly, visual agnosia is divided into apperceptive and associative visual agnosia.", "Apperceptive agnosia\nVisual agnosia (both apperceptive and associative) is prevalent in Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) patients. Visual agnosia may be present in early stages of AD and can often act as an indicator of AD. Apperceptive agnosia results from diffuse cortical pathology of AD. There is early involvement in the hippocampus and the entorhinal cortex followed by a spread to adjacent areas with neurofibrillary tangles (NFT). Gradual extension of NFT throughout the occipital, parietal, and temporal regions devoted to vision occur resulting in visual agnosia." ]

[ "Romanian leu\nThe Romanian leu (Romanian pronunciation:[lew], plural lei [lej]; sign: L; ISO 4217 code: RON; numeric code: 946) is the currency of Romania. It is subdivided into 100 bani (Romanian pronunciation:[banʲ], singular: ban [ban]), a word that is also used for \"money\" in the Romanian language." ]

[ "Balkans\nOn political, social and economic criteria the divisions are as follows: Territories members of the European Union: Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Romania and Slovenia Territories currently in negotiation process for EU membership: Montenegro, Serbia and Turkey Territories official candidates for EU membership: Albania and Macedonia Territories with \"potential candidates\" status for EU membership: Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo On border control and trade criteria the divisions are as follows: Territories in the Schengen Area: Greece and Slovenia Territories that are legally bound to join the Schengen Area: Bulgaria, Croatia and Romania Territories in a customs union with the EU: Turkey Territories members of the Central European Free Trade Agreement: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia. On currency criteria the divisions are as follows: Territories members of the Eurozone: Greece and Slovenia Territories using the Euro without authorization by the EU: Kosovo and Montenegro Territories using national currencies and are candidates for the Eurozone: Bulgaria (lev), Croatia (kuna), Romania (leu) Territories using national currencies: Albania (lek), Bosnia and Herzegovina (convertible mark), Macedonia (denar), Serbia (dinar) and Turkey (lira). On military criteria the divisions are as follows: Member territories of NATO: Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Montenegro, Romania, Slovenia and Turkey Member territories of the Partnership for Peace with Individual Partnership Action Plan and Membership Action Plan for joining NATO: Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia Member territories of the Partnership for Peace: Serbia On the recent political, social and economic criteria there are two groups of countries: Former communist territories: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia Territories with capitalist past: Greece and Turkey During the Cold War the Balkans were disputed between the two blocks. Greece and Turkey were members of NATO, Bulgaria and Romania of the Warsaw Pact, while Yugoslavia was proponent of a third way and was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement. After the dissolution of Yugoslavia, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina kept an observer status within the organisation.", "Moldovan leu\nBetween 1918 and 1940 and again between 1941 and 1944, when Moldova was part of Romania, the Romanian leu was used in what was then the eastern part of the broader Romanian region of Moldavia (\"Moldova\" in Romanian). The Moldovan leu was established on 29 November 1993, following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the creation of the independent republic of Moldova. It replaced the temporary cupon currency at a rate of 1 leu = 1000 cupon.", "Complementary currency\nWhen speaking about complementary currencies, a number of overlapping and often interchangeable terms are in use: local or community currencies are complementary currencies used within a locality or other form of community (such as business-based or online communities); regional currencies are similar to local currencies but used within a larger geographical region; and sectoral currencies are complementary currencies used within a single economic sector, such as education or health care. Many private currencies are complementary currencies issued by private businesses or organizations. Other terms include alternative currency, auxiliary currency, and microcurrency. Mutual credit is a form of alternative currency, and thus any form of lending that does not go through the banking system can be considered a form of alternative currency. Barters are another type of alternative currency. These are actually exchange systems, which only trade items; thus without the use of any currency whatsoever. Finally, LETS is a special form of barter which trades points for items. One point stands for one worker-hour of work.", "Construction industry of Romania\nConstruction activity (about 10% of GDP) has increased due to recent tax incentives. Romania is becoming an increasingly popular choice for British property investors, according to recent research from Currencies Direct. The latest Global Emerging Markets Index from the foreign exchange company shows that Romania has made the top ten for the first time, reaching number nine. The monthly index is based on the number of foreign exchange transfers undertaken by the firm to emerging market regions for property purchases. According to Currencies Direct, Romania has seen significant increases in house prices in recent years and its interest rate has dropped from a level of 154 per cent in 1997 to 8.9 per cent in 2005.", "Economy of Romania\nAccording to Bloomberg, the Romanian currency is the third-best performer against the euro in 2016 among currencies in CEE area, gaining 1.4 percent.", "Economy of Venezuela\nThe following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017. Inflation under 5% is in green.\nThe parallel exchange rate is what Venezuelans believe the Venezuelan currency is worth compared to the US$. In the first few years of Chávez's office, his newly created social programs required large payments in order to make the desired changes. On 5 February 2003, the government created CADIVI, a currency control board charged with handling foreign exchange procedures. Its creation was to control capital flight by placing limits on individuals and only offering them so much of a foreign currency. This limit to foreign currency led to a creation of a currency black market economy since Venezuelan merchants rely on foreign goods that require payments with reliable foreign currencies. As Venezuela printed more money for their social programs, the bolívar continued to devalue for Venezuelan citizens and merchants since the government held the majority of the more reliable currencies.", "Enlargement of the eurozone\nAs of April 2015, the Romanian government concluded it was still on track to attain its target for euro adoption in 2019, both in regards of ensuring full compliance with all nominal convergence criteria and in regards of ensuring a prior satisfying degree of \"real convergence\". The Romanian target for \"real convergence\" ahead of euro adoption, is for its GDP per capita (in purchasing power standards) to be above 60% of the same average figure for the entire European Union, and according to the latest outlook, this relative figure was now forecast to reach 65% in 2018 and 71% in 2020, after having risen at the same pace from 29% in 2002 to 54% in 2014. However, in September 2015 Romania's central bank governor Mugur Isarescu said that the 2019 target was no longer realistic. The target date was initially 2022, as Teodor Meleșcanu, the foreign minister of Romania declared on 28 August 2017 that, as they \"meet all formal requirements\", Romania \"could join the currency union even tomorrow\". However, he thought Romania \"will adopt the euro in five years.\" In March 2018, however, members of the ruling Party of Social Democrats (PSD) voted at an extraordinary congress to back a 2024 target year to adopt the euro as Romania's currency.", "Tremulous\nIn addition to requiring a certain stage, each human item or alien class must be purchased using currency earned in game. The aliens are awarded \"frags\" for killing their foes which may be used to evolve (these points are commonly called \"evolution points\" or \"evos\" by players). The Humans gain \"credits\". Players earn currency by killing enemy players or by destroying enemy spawn or power structures (\"Reactor\" and \"Overmind\"); the amount of received currency depends on what class the opponent was (or what structure was destroyed) and how much of the target's total damage was dealt by the killing player. As a mechanism to encourage builders, who naturally don't engage in combat, players are also rewarded currency every two minutes by simply staying alive.", "Foreign debt of the Socialist Republic of Romania\nThe foreign debt of the Socialist Republic of Romania were loans made by Socialist Republic of Romania under Nicolae Ceaușescu from international creditors denominated in hard currencies. These loans were used to buy technology, equipment and raw materials needed for the industrialization of the country. ", "International Convention for the Suppression of Counterfeiting Currency\nStates that ratify the Convention agree to criminalise the creation, use, and exportation or importation of counterfeit currency. Under the agreement, no distinction is to be made as to what currency is the subject of the crime. Under the treaty, currency counterfeiting is an extraditable offence. States also agree to establish a central office that will forward to all other state parties cancelled specimens of their state's currency and notify the other states when changes to their currency are implemented.", "Complementary currency\nComplementary currencies describe a wide group of exchange systems, currencies or scrips designed to be used in combination with standard currencies or other complementary currencies. They can be valued and exchanged in relationship to national currencies but also function as media of exchange on their own. Complementary currencies lie outside the nationally defined legal realm of legal tender and are not used as such. Rate of exchange, scope of circulation and use in combination with other currencies differs greatly between complementary currency systems, as is the case with national currency systems.\nSome complementary currencies incorporate value scales based on time or the backing of real resources (gold, oil, services, etc.). A time-based currency is valued by the time required to perform a service in hours, notwithstanding the potential market value of the service. Another type of complementary monetary systems is the barter, an exchange of specific goods or services is performed without the use of any currency.", "Ghanaian cedi\nThe word \"cedi\" is the Akan word for cowry shell which were formerly used as currency in what is now Ghana. The \"Monetaria moneta\" or money cowry is not native to West African waters but is a common species in the Indian Ocean. The porcelain-like shells came to West Africa, beginning in the 14th century, through trade with Arab merchants. The shells became an important currency in the slave trade. The first modern coins exclusively used at the Gold Coast was produced in 1796 but cowries was used alongside coins and gold dust as currency until 1901.", "Romania and the euro\nEIU analysts suggested in May 2012, that 2016-2017 would be the earliest realistic dates for Romania's adoption of the euro. However, in October 2012, Valentin Lazea, the NBR chief economist, said that \"the adherence of Romania to euro currency in 2015 is difficult for Romania\". The governor of the National Bank of Romania confirmed in November 2012, that Romania would not meet its previous target of joining the eurozone in 2015. He mentioned that it had been a financial benefit for Romania to not be a part of the euro area during the European debt-crisis, but that the country in the years ahead would strive to comply with all the convergence criteria. Concerns about its workforce productivity were also been cited for the delay.", "Ten bani\nIn the Socialist Republic of Romania (proclaimed 1965) ten-bani coins were replaced with fifteen-bani coins. Following the return of democracy to Romania in 1990, hyperinflation took place which made bani coins obsolete. However, on 1 July 2005, Romania redenominated its currency at 10,000 old lei to 1 new leu. The 1,000 lei coin, in use since 2000, was replaced by the new ten-bani. Early issues of the coin, from its first year 2005, have a diameter 0.1mm narrower than the official measurements.", "Cucuteni–Trypillia culture\nToday, the finds from both Romania and Ukraine, as well as those from Moldova, are recognised as belonging to the same cultural complex. It is generally called the Cucuteni culture in Romania and the Trypillia culture in Ukraine. In English, \"Cucuteni–Tripolye culture\" is most commonly used to refer to the whole culture, with the Ukrainian-derived term \"Cucuteni–Trypillia culture\" gaining currency following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.", "Eastern Bloc\nMany farmers concealed actual output from purchasing agencies to sell it illicitly to urban consumers. Hard foreign currencies were highly sought after, while highly valued Western items functioned as a medium of exchange or bribery in Stalinist countries, such as in Romania, where Kent cigarettes served as an unofficial extensively used currency to buy goods and services. Some service workers moonlighted illegally providing services directly to customers for payment.", "List of motifs on banknotes\nThe official currency of Romania is the Romanian leu (RON). The motifs used are:", "Romania and the euro\nRomanian euro coins have not yet been designed. Romanian law requires that the coat of arms of the country be used on coin designs. In Romanian, the currency is called \"euro\" , and its subunit \"eurocent\" .", "Black market\nA government may officially set the rate of exchange of its currency with that of other currencies, typically the US dollar. When it does, the peg often overvalues the local currency relative to what its market value would be if it were a floating currency. Those in possession of the \"harder\" currency, for example expatriate workers, may be able to use the black market to buy the local currency at better exchange rates than they can get officially.", "Industry of Romania\nConstruction activity (about 10% of GDP) has increased due to recent tax incentives. Romania is becoming an increasingly popular choice for British property investors, according to recent research from Currencies Direct. The latest Global Emerging Markets Index from the foreign exchange company shows that Romania has made the top ten for the first time, reaching number nine. The monthly index is based on the number of foreign exchange transfers undertaken by the firm to emerging market regions for property purchases. According to Currencies Direct, Romania has seen significant increases in house prices in recent years and its interest rate has dropped from a level of 154 per cent in 1997 to 8.9 per cent in 2005.", "Contaminated currency\nThe levels of contamination and the overall \"dirtyness\" of bills led Australia to introduce a plastic currency in 1988. These notes are less prone to contamination due to lack of the fabric that can hold crystalline structures that illicit drugs often take. Australia now also prints polymer currency for almost two dozen other countries, including Israel, Malaysia, Mexico and Romania.", "Currency-counting machine\nCurrency counters are commonly used in vending machines to determine what amount of money has been deposited by customers.", "Postage stamps and postal history of Romania\nIn 1896, Romanian stamps were overprinted in Turkish currency for use on ships passing between Constanța and Constantinople.", "Currency pair\nCurrency pairs are generally written by concatenating the ISO currency codes (ISO 4217) of the base currency and the counter currency, and then separating the two codes with a slash. Alternatively the slash may be omitted, or replaced by either a dot or a dash. A widely traded currency pair is the relation of the euro against the US dollar, designated as EUR/USD. The quotation \"EUR/USD 1.2500\" means that one euro is exchanged for 1.2500 US dollars. Here, EUR is the base currency and USD is the quote currency(counter currency). This means that 1 Euro can be exchangeable to 1.25 US Dollars. ", "Economy of Romania\nThe leu (pronounced ), plural: lei (); (ISO 4217 code RON; numeric code 946), \"leo\" (lion) in English is the currency of Romania. It is subdivided into 100 \"bani\" (singular: \"ban\"). On 1 July 2005, Romania underwent a currency reform, switching from the previous leu (ROL) to a new leu (RON). 1 RON is equal to 10,000 ROL. Romania joined the European Union on 1 January 2007 and initially hoped to adopt the euro in 2014, but with the deepening of the Euro crisis and with its own problems, such as a low workforce productivity, postponed its adoption plans indefinitely.", "National Bank of Romania\nThe National Bank of Romania is responsible for the issue of the Romanian leu and as such it sets the monetary policy, holds the currency reserves and manages the exchange rate.", "Currency strength\nCurrency strength expresses the value of currency. For economists, it is often calculated as purchasing power, while for financial traders, it can be described as an indicator, reflecting many factors related to the currency; for example, fundamental data, overall economic performance or interest rates. It can also be calculated from currency in relation to other currencies, usually using a pre-defined currency basket. A typical example of this method is the U.S. Dollar Index. The current trend in currency strength indicators is to combine more currency indexes in order to make forex movements easily visible. For the calculation of indexes of this kind, major currencies are usually used because they represent up to 90% of the whole forex market volume.\nCurrency strength is calculated from the U.S. Dollar Index, which is used as a reference for other currency indexes.", "Economy of Romania\nRomania, as a member state of the European Union, is required to adopt the common European currency, the Euro. For this reason Romania must fulfil the five Maastricht criteria, of which it met two as of May 2018.", "Indonesian rupiah\nDuring colonial times, the currency used in what is now Indonesia was the Netherlands Indies gulden.[7] The country was invaded in 1942 by Japan, which began printing its own version of the gulden, which remained in use until March 1946.[8][9] The Netherlands authorities and the Indonesian nationalists, who were fighting for independence, both introduced rival currencies in 1946 with the Dutch printing a new gulden, and the Indonesians issuing the first version of the rupiah on 3 October 1946.[10][9] Between 1946 and 1950 a large number of currencies circulated in Indonesia, with the Japanese gulden still remaining prevalent alongside the two new currencies and various local variants.[9] This situation ended when the federal government, now in complete control following the Dutch recognition of its independence, initiated currency reforms between 1950 and 1951.[9] The rupiah was declared the sole legal currency, with other currencies being exchanged for rupiah at rates which were often unfavourable to the holders.[9]", "Romanian leu\nEconomy of Romania History of coins in Romania Banknotes of the Romanian leu Romania and the euro List of currencies in Europe" ]

[ "Kaiser Permanente\nAs of October 2017, Kaiser Permanente had 11.7 million health plan members, 208,975 employees, 21,275 physicians, 54,072 nurses, 39 medical centers, and 720 medical facilities.[2] As of December 31, 2017, the non-profit Kaiser Foundation Health Plan and Kaiser Foundation Hospitals entities reported a combined $3.8 billion in net income on $72.7 billion in operating revenues.[1] Each Permanente Medical Group operates as a separate for-profit partnership or professional corporation in its individual territory, and while none publicly reports its financial results, each is primarily funded by reimbursements from its respective regional Kaiser Foundation Health Plan entity. KFHP is one of the largest not-for-profit organizations in the United States." ]

[ "Kaiser Permanente\nIn 1948, Kaiser established the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, (also known as Kaiser Family Foundation), a U.S.-based, non-profit, private operating foundation focusing on the major health care issues facing the nation.[24] The Foundation, not associated with Kaiser Permanente or Kaiser Industries, is an independent voice and source of facts and analysis for policymakers, the media, the health care community, and the general public.[24]", "Sidney Garfield\nThe Kaiser Richmond Field Hospital for the Kaiser Shipyards, financed by the United States Maritime Commission, opened on August 10, 1942. It was sponsored by Henry J. Kaiser's Permanente Foundation and Garfield was the Medical Director. The field hospital served as the mid-level component of a three-tier medical care system that also included six well-equipped first aid stations at the individual shipyards, and the main Kaiser Permanente hospital in Oakland, California, where the most critical cases were treated. Together, these facilities served the employees of the Kaiser shipyards who had signed up for the Permanente Health Plan (commonly referred to as the \"Kaiser Plan\"), one of the country's first voluntary pre-paid medical plans, and a direct precursor to the Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs) defined by the federal Health Maintenance Organization Act of 1973.", "Kaiser Permanente\nUnlike the workers on Garfield's first project, many workers at Grand Coulee Dam had brought dependents with them. The unions soon forced the Kaiser Company to expand its plan to cover dependents, which resulted in a dramatic shift from industrial medicine into family practice and enabled Garfield to formulate some of the basic principles of Kaiser Permanente. It was also during this time that Henry Kaiser personally became acquainted with Garfield and forged a friendship which lasted until Kaiser's death.[15]", "Systemness\nThe term was the centerpoint on August 20, 2007 at The Kaiser Permanente Institute for Health Policy's roundtable on “Improving Health Care ‘Systemness’: A Look at the Evidence and Policy Implications.\" The conference applied the term to describe how the Kaiser Permanente consortium can consolidate medical resources to achieve higher-quality output for all parties involved.", "Permanente Metals\nPermanente Metals Corporation (PMC) is best known for having managed the Richmond Shipyards in Richmond, California, owned by one of industrialist Henry J. Kaiser's many corporations, and also engaged in related corporate activities. These four of the seven west coast Kaiser Shipyards were known for their construction of Liberty ships.", "Kaiser Permanente\nDuring this period, a substantial amount of growth came from union members; the unions saw Kaiser Permanente care as more affordable and comprehensive than what was available at the time from private physicians under the fee-for-service system. For example, Fortune magazine had reported in 1944 that 90% of the U.S. population could not afford fee-for-service healthcare. Kaiser Permanente membership soared to 154,000 in 1950, 283,000 in 1952, 470,000 in 1954, 556,000 in 1956, and 618,000 in 1958.[27]", "Kaiser Permanente\nHaving overseen Kaiser Permanente's successful transformation from Henry Kaiser's healthcare experiment into a large-scale self-sustaining enterprise, Keene retired in 1975.[37] By 1976, membership reached three million. In 1977, all six of Kaiser Permanente's regions had become federally qualified health maintenance organizations. Historians [who?] now believe then-President Richard Nixon specifically had Kaiser Permanente in mind when he signed the Health Maintenance Organization Act of 1973, as the organization was mentioned in an Oval Office discussion of the Act, where John Ehrlichman characterized Kaiser's philosophy thus: \"All the incentives are toward less medical care, because the less care they give them, the more money they make.\"[38] In 1980, Kaiser acquired a non-profit group practice to create its Mid-Atlantic region, encompassing the District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia. In 1985, Kaiser Permanente expanded to Georgia.", "Warner Center, Los Angeles\nKaiser Permanente Woodland Hills Medical Center is a general medical and surgical hospital in Warner Center. Kaiser Permanente Medical Center consists of a 175-bed hospital and serves 2 million residents of the San Fernando Valley. Kaiser Permanente Woodland Hills Hospital, a non-profit general medical and surgical facility, is operated by Kaiser Foundation Hospital.", "Kaiser Permanente\nIn July, the Permanente Foundation formed to operate Northern California hospitals that would be linked to the outpatient health plans, followed shortly thereafter by the creation of Northern Permanente Foundation for Oregon and Washington and Southern Permanente Foundation for California. The name Permanente came from Permanente Creek, which flowed past Henry Kaiser's Kaiser Permanente Cement Plant on Black Mountain in Cupertino, California. Kaiser's first wife, Bess Fosburgh, liked the name. An abandoned Oakland facility was modernized as the 170-bed Permanente Hospital opened on August 1, 1942. Three weeks later, the 71-bed Richmond Field Hospital opened. Six first aid stations were set up in the shipyards to treat industrial accidents and minor illness. Each first aid station had an ambulance ready to rush patients to the surgical field hospital if required. Stabilized patients could be moved to the larger hospital for recuperative care.[21] The Northern Permanente Hospital opened two weeks later to serve workers at the Kaiser shipyard in Vancouver, Washington.[22] Shipyard workers paid seven cents per day for comprehensive health care coverage; and within a year the shipyard health plan employed sixty physicians with salaries between $450 and $1,000 per month. These physicians established California Physicians Service to offer similar health coverage to the families of shipyard workers.[21] In 1944, Kaiser decided to continue the program after the war and to open it up to the general public.[18]", "Kaiser Permanente\nIn addition, Kaiser Foundation Hospitals operates medical centers in California, Oregon, Washington and Hawaii, and outpatient facilities in the remaining Kaiser Permanente regions. The hospital foundations are not-for-profit and rely on the Kaiser Foundation Health Plans for funding. They also provide infrastructure and facilities that benefit the for-profit medical groups.", "Kaiser Permanente\nIn addition to the regional entities, in 1996, the then-twelve Permanente Medical Groups created The Permanente Federation, a separate entity, which focuses on standardizing patient care and performance under one name and system of policies. Around the same time, The Permanente Company was also chartered as a vehicle to provide investment opportunities for the for-profit Permanente Medical Groups.[9] One of the ventures of the Permanente Company is Kaiser Permanente Ventures, a venture capital firm that invests in emerging medical technologies.[10]", "Kaiser Permanente\nKaiser Permanente (/ˈkaɪzər pɜːrməˈnɛnteɪ/; KP) is an American integrated managed care consortium, based in Oakland, California, United States, founded in 1945 by industrialist Henry J. Kaiser and physician Sidney Garfield. Kaiser Permanente is made up of three distinct but interdependent groups of entities: the Kaiser Foundation Health Plan, Inc. (KFHP) and its regional operating subsidiaries; Kaiser Foundation Hospitals; and the regional Permanente Medical Groups. As of 2017, Kaiser Permanente operates in eight states (Hawaii, Washington, Oregon, California, Colorado, Maryland, Virginia, Georgia) and the District of Columbia, and is the largest managed care organization in the United States.", "Marlen Garcia\nMarlen was selected as the 57th Assembly District Woman of the Year in 2005 and currently serves on the Board of Directors for the Independent Cities Association. Marlen is a manager at the Kaiser Permanente Baldwin Park Medical Center and has achieved 25 years of service to the organization. She was selected by Kaiser Permanente to be the recipient of the 1999 and 2001 YWCA Woman of Achievement for her contributions to Kaiser Permanente.", "Kaiser Permanente\nWhile it was in operation, the Kaiser program had a 100% survival rate, which is better than other transplant centers. However, patients who needed a kidney were less likely to be offered one.[58] Northern California Kaiser performed 56 transplants in 2005, and twice that many patients died while waiting for a kidney. At other California transplant centers, more than twice as many people received kidneys than died during the same period. Unlike other centers, the Kaiser program did not perform riskier transplants or use donated organs from elderly or other higher-risk people, which have worse outcomes. Northern California Kaiser closed the kidney transplant program in May 2006. As before, Northern California Kaiser now pays for pre-transplant care and transplants at other hospitals. This change affected approximately 2,000 patients.[59][60]", "Kaiser Permanente\nIn the fall of 2018, Kaiser Permanente and the reached a Tentative Agreement on a national, 3-year collective bargaining agreement that covers nearly 48,000 unionized Kaiser Permanente health care workers in 22 union locals. The negotiations, which began in May, were among the largest private-sector contract talks in the United States this year. The deputy director and commissioners of the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service attended the sessions. This agreement went far beyond the traditional contract issues of wages and benefits to include provisions to strengthen the groundbreaking between Kaiser Permanente and the Alliance, at the senior leadership level as well as the front-line level. This includes 3,600 unit-based teams — jointly led by pairs of managers and union-represented employees — that are delivering significant improvements in the areas of quality, affordability, service and work environment on behalf of Kaiser Permanente members and patients.", "Kaiser Permanente\nVarious legal entities serve the areas of the US where Kaiser operates: California (the largest two), Colorado, Georgia, Hawaii, mid-Atlantic, Pacific Northwest, and Washington. Northern California, 3,351,449 members[8] Kaiser Foundation Health Plan, Inc. (KFHP) Kaiser Foundation Hospitals (KFH) The Permanente Medical Group, Inc. (TPMG) Southern California, 3,499,035 members Kaiser Foundation Health Plan, Inc. (KFHP) Kaiser Foundation Hospitals (KFH) Southern California Permanente Medical Group (SCPMG) Colorado, 531,908 members Kaiser Foundation Health Plan of Colorado (KFHPCO) Colorado Permanente Medical Group, P.C. (CPMG) Georgia, 222,074 members Kaiser Foundation Health Plan of Georgia, Inc. (KFHPGA) The Southeast Permanente Medical Group, Inc. (TSPMG) Hawaii, 226,900 members Kaiser Foundation Health Plan, Inc. (KFHP) Kaiser Foundation Hospitals (KFH) Hawaii Permanente Medical Group, Inc. (HPMG) Mid-Atlantic (vicinity of Washington, D.C., including Maryland and Virginia), 581,000 members Kaiser Foundation Health Plan of the Mid-Atlantic States Inc. (KFHPMA) Mid-Atlantic Permanente Medical Group, P.C. (MAPMG) Northwest (Northwest Oregon and Southwest Washington), 480,386 members Kaiser Foundation Health Plan of the Northwest (KFHPNW) Kaiser Foundation Hospitals (KFH) Northwest Permanente, P.C. Physicians and Surgeons (NWP) Washington (except Southwest Washington), 681,386 members Kaiser Foundation Health Plan of Washington Washington Permanente Medical Group", "Kaiser Permanente\nState insurance regulations require that insurers maintain certain minimum amounts of cash reserves to ensure that they are able to meet their obligations; the amount varies by insurer, based on its risk factors, such as its investments, how many people it insures, and other factors; a few states also have caps on how large the reserves can be.[75]", "Kaiser Permanente\n, which represents the Permanente Medical Groups A project by OSHPD Report on successful Kaiser Permanente initiatives including declaration by Louise Liang falsely attributing Vioxx discovery to KP HealthConnect even though it was not yet in production use in Northern California Home page of a group scrutinizing managed care and its failures, contains links to several pages about issues involving Kaiser Permanente", "Kaiser Permanente\nKaiser Permanente provides care throughout eight regions in the United States. Two or three (four, in the case of California) distinct but interdependent legal entities form the Kaiser system within each region. This structure was adopted by Kaiser Permanente physicians and leaders in 1955.", "Kaiser Permanente\nHowever, even with Garfield relieved of day-to-day management duties, the underlying problem of Henry Kaiser's authoritarian management style continued to persist. After several tense confrontations between Kaiser and Permanente Medical Group physicians, the doctors met with Kaiser's top adviser, Eugene Trefethen, at Kaiser's personal estate near Lake Tahoe on July 12, 1955. Trefethen came up with the idea of a contract between the medical groups and the health plans and hospital foundations which would set out roles, responsibilities, and financial distribution.[34] Trefethen, already a successful attorney, went on to a successful career with Kaiser Permanente and in retirement became a famous vintner.", "Black Mountain (near Los Altos, California)\nPermanente Creek, named \"Río Permanente\" by early Spanish explorers because of its perennial flow, descends the east flank of Black Mountain then courses north to the Bay at the Mountain View Slough. Permanente Creek is also the namesake for Kaiser Permanente. Bess Kaiser and her spouse, industrialist Henry Kaiser, had a lodge on the creek's headwaters above the large Permanente Quarry and Cement Plant, and, in 1945, Bess felt that the name of their attractive and dependable stream would be a good name for their medical program at the shipyards. That medical program became Kaiser Permanente.", "Kaiser Permanente\nElsewhere, Kaiser Permanente did not do as well, and its geographic footprint changed significantly in the 1990s. The organization spun off or closed outposts in Texas, North Carolina, and the Northeast. In 1998, Kaiser Permanente sold its Texas operations, where reported problems had become so severe that the organization directed its lawyers to attempt to block the release of a Texas Department of Insurance report. This prompted the state attorney general to threaten to revoke the organization's license.[40] Kaiser Permanente closed health plans in Charlotte and Raleigh-Durham[41] in North Carolina four years later. The organization also sold its unprofitable Northeast division in 2000. The Ohio division was sold to Catholic Health Partners in 2013.[42]", "Henry J. Kaiser\nKaiser's Richmond Field Hospital served as the mid-level component of a three-tier medical care system that included six well-equipped First Aid Stations at the shipyards, and the main Permanente Hospital in Oakland, where the most critical cases were treated. By August 1944, 92.2 percent of all Richmond shipyard employees had joined Kaiser Permanente, the first voluntary group plan in the country to feature group medical practice, prepayment, and substantial medical facilities on such a large scale. After the war ended, the Health Plan was expanded to include workers' families. To serve employees at his diverse businesses, Kaiser opened Permanente facilities in Walnut Creek, California, in Hawaii, in Southern California, and eventually in many other locations. Since then, locations have opened in Dublin, California, Livermore, California, Pleasanton, California, Martinez, California, Santa Clara, California, and Antioch, California.", "Kaiser Permanente\nHenry Kaiser became fascinated with the healthcare system created for him by Garfield and began to directly manage Kaiser Permanente and Garfield. This resulted in a financial disaster when Kaiser splurged on the new Walnut Creek hospital; his constant intermeddling led to significant friction at every level of the organization. The situation was not helped by Kaiser's marriage to Garfield's head administrative nurse (who had helped care for Kaiser's first wife on her deathbed), convincing Garfield to marry the sister of that nurse, and then having Garfield move in next door to him. Clifford Keene (who would eventually serve as president of Kaiser Permanente) later recalled that this arrangement resulted in a rather dysfunctional and combative family in charge of Kaiser Permanente.[32]", "Kaiser Permanente\nKaiser Foundation Health Plans (KFHP) work with employers, employees, and individual members to offer prepaid health plans and insurance. The health plans are not-for-profit and provide infrastructure for and invest in Kaiser Foundation Hospitals and provide a tax-exempt shelter for the for-profit medical groups. Permanente Medical Groups are physician-owned organizations, which provide and arrange for medical care for Kaiser Foundation Health Plan members in each respective region. The medical groups are for-profit partnerships or professional corporations and receive nearly all of their funding from Kaiser Foundation Health Plans. The first medical group, The Permanente Medical Group (TPMG), formed in 1948 in Northern California. Permanente physicians become stockholders in TPMG after three years at the company.[7]", "George Halvorson\nHalvorson is a long-time American healthcare executive who served as Kaiser Permanente CEO and chairman from 2002–2014 before retiring as CEO in 2013 and chair in January 2014. The Kaiser Permanente board of directors elected Bernard Tyson to the CEO role upon Halvorson's retirement. Halvorson was CEO of HealthPartners in Minnesota for 17 years before going to Kaiser Permanente.", "Permanente Quarry\nThe quarry was founded by Henry J. Kaiser as the Kaiser Permanente Cement Plant in 1939, taking the name of the business from the Permanente Creek in whose valley it lies. Kaiser intended to use the quarry to provide the majority of the cement used in the construction of the Shasta Dam, supplying the of cement . Additionally, Kaiser Cement Company built Highway 101, Highway 85 and other major Northern California landmarks from the quarry. The cement plant is the primary reason for the lone railroad line that runs through the city. Hanson Cement acquired Kaiser Cement for $200 million in 1986. The cement company was renamed Hanson Permanente Cement in 1999. At the time of sale, Kaiser Cement was the 5th largest producer of cement in the entire United States.", "Kaiser Permanente\nIn 1951, the organization acquired its current name when Henry Kaiser unilaterally directed the trustees of the health plans, hospital foundations, and medical groups to add his name before Permanente.[29] However, the physicians in the Permanente Medical Group deeply resented the implication that they were directly controlled by Kaiser, and successfully forced him to back off with respect to their part of the organization. That same year, Kaiser Permanente also began experiments with large-scale multiphasic screening to identify unknown conditions and to facilitate treatment of known ones.[30] Simultaneously, although no one questioned his medical competence, Garfield's deficiencies as an executive were becoming apparent as the organization expanded far beyond his ability to manage it properly.[31]", "Permanente Creek\nPermanente Creek is also the namesake for Kaiser Permanente. Bess Kaiser and her spouse, industrialist Henry J. Kaiser, had a lodge on the creek's headwaters above the large Permanente Quarry and Cement Plant, and, in 1945, Bess felt that the name of their attractive and dependable stream would be a good name for their medical program at the shipyards. That medical program became Kaiser Permanente.", "Health informatics\nDuring the 1960s, Morris Collen, a physician working for Kaiser Permanente's Division of Research, developed computerized systems to automate many aspects of multi-phased health checkups. These systems became the basis the larger medical databases Kaiser Permanente developed during the 1970s and 1980s. The American College of Medical Informatics (ACMI) has since 1993 annually bestowed the Morris F. Collen, MD Medal for Outstanding Contributions to the Field of Medical Informatics.\nKaiser permanente" ]

[ "Term of office\nIn the United States, the president of the United States is elected indirectly through the United States Electoral College to a four-year term, with a term limit of two terms (totaling eight years) or a maximum of ten years if the president acted as president for two years or less in a term where another was elected as president, imposed by the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1951." ]

[ "List of established military terms\nThese terms are used for talking about how armed forces are used.\nMany of the terms below can be applied to combat in other environments although most often used in reference to land warfare.These terms concern identification of means of combat to inflict damage on the opponent.", "United States presidential election\nPresidential elections are held on the same date as those for all the seats in the United States House of Representatives, the full terms for 33 or 34 of the 100 seats in the United States Senate, the governorships in several U.S. states, and many state and local elections. Presidential candidates tend to bring out supporters who then vote for their party's candidates for those other offices. These other candidates are said to ride on the presidential candidates' coattails. Voter turnout is also generally higher during presidential election years than either midterm election years or odd-numbered election years.Statistical forecasts:", "Government shutdowns in the United States\nSome of the most significant shutdowns in US history have included: three major shutdowns in the 1980s during the Presidential term of Ronald Reagan over opposition to proposal against his political beliefs; the 21-day shutdown of 1995-1996 during the Presidential term of Bill Clinton over opposition to major spending cuts; the 16-day shutdown in 2013 during the Presidential term of Barack Obama caused by an argument between Democrats and Republicans over measures concerning the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act; and the 35-day shutdown of 2018-2019 during the Presidential term of Donald Trump, the longest shutdown in US history, caused by a refusal from Democrats to approve funding a new US–Mexico border wall.", "Urho Kekkonen\nSome of Kekkonen's actions remain controversial in modern Finland, and disputes continue about how to interpret many of his policies and actions. He often used what was termed the \"Moscow card\" when his authority was threatened, but he was not the only Finnish politician with close relations to Soviet representatives. Kekkonen's authoritarian behavior during his presidential term was one of the main reasons for the reforms of the Finnish Constitution in 1984–2003. Under these, the powers of Parliament and the Prime Minister were increased at the expense of Presidential power. Several of the changes were initiated by Kekkonen's successors.Although controversial, his policy of neutrality allowed trade with both the Communist and Western blocs. The bilateral trade policy with the Soviet Union was lucrative for many Finnish businesses. His term saw a period of high sustained economic growth and increasing integration with the West. He negotiated entrance into EFTA and thus was an early beginner for Finnish participation in European integration, which later culminated in full membership in the EU and the euro. He remained highly popular during his term, even though such a profile approached that of a personality cult towards the end of his term. He is still popular among many of his contemporaries, particularly in his own Centre Party.\nThis is an incomplete list, which may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.\nFormer socialist states:\nFormer (now-defunct) states:", "Cultural and political image of John McCain\nIn the 2000 Presidential race, McCain stated that \"I hate the gooks,\" and that \"I will hate them as long as I live.\" Until the year 2000, McCain used the ethnic slur \"gook\" in reference to the individuals who had tortured him in Vietnam, and reaction among Vietnamese Americans to McCain's use of this term was mixed, but they were generally supportive of McCain's candidacy, for example as shown in exit polls in the primary in California. During his presidential campaign that year, he at first refused to apologize for his continued use of the term, stating that he reserved its reference only to his captors; then after continued criticism from some in the Asian American community, McCain vowed to no longer use the term, saying, \"I will continue to condemn those who unfairly mistreated us. But out of respect to a great number of people for whom I hold in very high regard, I will no longer use the term that has caused such discomfort.\"", "Baizuo\nThe term \"baizuo\" was apparently coined in a 2010 article published on Renren Network, entitled \"The Fake Morality of the Western White Left and the Chinese Patriotic Scientists\" ().\nNo further use of the term is known until 2013, with only isolated use during 2013–2015. \nSubstantial use in Chinese internet culture begins in early 2016, at first at MIT BBS, a bulletin board system used by many Chinese in US, during the United States presidential election of 2016.\nBaizuo was here used to criticize to the policies of the Democratic Party with regard to \"minorities\", perceived as granting advantages to African-Americans and Mexicans, but not Asians.\nEnglish-language reception of the term begins in 2017, with a definition posted on Urban Dictionary in May of that year. ", "United States Constitution\nThe Twenty-second Amendment (1951) limits an elected president to two terms in office, a total of eight years. However, under some circumstances it is possible for an individual to serve more than eight years. Although nothing in the original frame of government limited how many presidential terms one could serve, the nation's first president, George Washington, declined to run for a third term, suggesting that two terms of four years were enough for any president. This precedent remained an unwritten rule of the presidency until broken by Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was elected to a third term as president 1940 and in 1944 to a fourth.", "Representation class\nThe term \"representation class\" has been used in metadata registry standards for many years. Today it has a combination of meanings and now goes well beyond how a data element is represented in a computer system. In practice this term is used to shed light on the semantics or meaning of the data element.", "President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science\nAAAS presidents serve a one-year term, beginning in mid-February at the close of the AAAS Annual Meeting. In accordance with the convention used by the AAAS, presidents are referenced based on the year in which they left office. The presidential term is preceded by a one-year term as president-elect, and followed by a one-year term as chair of the AAAS Board of Directors.", "1995 French presidential election\nLionel Jospin won the first round, in what appeared to be an electoral recovery for the Socialist Party. His right-wing challenger for the runoff vote on 7 May was Jacques Chirac and not Edouard Balladur. Defeated, Balladur endorsed the RPR candidate. Jean-Marie Le Pen repeated his good result of the previous presidential election.\nDuring the TV debate between the two finalists, they disagreed about the presidential term. Jospin wanted to reduce it to five years whereas Chirac was in favour of the seven-year term. The PS candidate responded: \"The choice is five years with me or seven years with Jacques Chirac, which will be very long\". Eventually, the presidential term was reduced to five years after the 2002 election.", "Corrupt bargain\nThe term corrupt bargain refers to three historic incidents in American history in which political agreement was determined by congressional or presidential actions that many viewed to be corrupt from different standpoints. Two of these involved the resolution of indeterminate or disputed electoral votes from the United States presidential election process, and the third involved the disputed use of a presidential pardon. In all three cases, the president so elevated served a single term, or singular vacancy, and either did not run again, or was not reelected when he ran. ", "List of American federal politicians convicted of crimes\nAlthough the convicted politicians are arranged by presidential terms starting with the most recent, many of the crimes have little or no connection to who is president. Since the passage of 20th Amendment on January 23, 1933, presidential terms have begun on January 20 of the year following the presidential election; prior to that, they began on March 4.The Harding administration was marred by scandals stemming from his appointment of men in his administration whom he had known in Ohio. They came to be known as the Ohio Gang. They include;", "Skin in the Game (book)\nThe term was picked up and used late in the 2016 U.S. presidential election by Newt Gingrich when he criticized the negative response Trump received after the first presidential debate stating that \"The Intellectual Yet Idiot class is so out of touch with America that they don't even realize how badly they are doing and how well Trump is doing.\" Gingrich has mentioned the term multiple times in interviews and speeches since then and has included in his book \"Understanding Trump\" a chapter called \"The Rise of the IYI\".", "Term (time)\nIt is also used as part of a calendar year, especially one of the three parts of an academic term and working year in the United Kingdom: Michaelmas term, Hilary term / Lent term or Trinity term / Easter term, the equivalent to the American semester. In America there is a midterm election held in the middle of the four-year presidential term, there are also academic midterm exams.", "Lame duck (politics)\nA president elected to a second term is sometimes seen as a lame duck from early in the second term, because presidents are barred from contesting a term four years later, and are thus freer to take politically unpopular actions. Nonetheless, as the de facto leader of their political party, the president's actions affect how the party performs in the midterm elections two years into the second term, and, to some extent, the success of that party's nominee in the next presidential election four years in the future. For this reason, it can be argued that a president in their second term is not a lame duck at all, because this increased freedom makes them more powerful than they were in their first term.", "2017 Turkmen presidential election\nIn September 2012, the constitution was changed to remove term limits and the 70 year-old age limit for presidential candidates, as well as extending the presidential term from five to seven years.", "List of heads of government of Mexico City\nOn July 6, 1997, with a 47.7% share of the vote in an eight-horse race, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas won the first direct Head of Government election (this first term was to last only three years, to bring the office into line with the presidential succession). Cárdenas, a former presidential candidate who was, according to many, cheated out of victory in the closely fought 1988 presidential election, later resigned to compete in the 2000 presidential campaign and left in his place Rosario Robles, who served out the remainder of his term as the first person to govern Mexico City.", "Odessa, Missouri\nThe City of Odessa is governed by six-member Board of Aldermen (City Council) who represent a total of three different Wards. Aldermen serve alternating two year terms with no limits on how many terms they can serve. Adam Couch is the Mayor and at age 29, he is the youngest Mayor in the history of Odessa. The Mayor serves 2 year terms with no limits on how many terms.", "President of Chile\nUnder the 1828 constitution, the President served for four years, without the possibility of immediate reelection for one more term. In 1833, the presidential period was changed to five years, with a possibility of immediate reelection for one more term, limited to two consecutive terms. Then by a constitutional reform in 1878, possibility for reelection became disallowed. Under the 1925 constitution, the President served for a six-year term, without the possibility of immediate reelection only.\nIn the original text of the 1980 constitution, the President served for an eight-year term without the possibility of immediate reelection. Some transitory disposals, fixed during the government of the general Augusto Pinochet, allowed the exceptional possibility of his reelection in the 1988 plebiscite. Then, in the transition to democracy the 1989 referendum established a first transitional four-year presidential term (1990–1994), followed by common eight-year terms, without the possibility of immediate reelection. However, in 4 March 1994 (a week before Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle took office) the presidential period was reduced to a six-year term, without an immediate reelection.", "2016 Djiboutian presidential election\nThe President of Djibouti was elected using the two-round system. After a modification of the constitution in 2010, six year terms were shortened to five year terms and term limits were abolished.", "President of Croatia\nThe President is elected on the basis of universal suffrage, through a secret ballot, for a five-year term. If no candidate in the elections secures more than 50% of \"all\" votes cast (including blank and spoilt ballots), a runoff election is held. The Constitution of Croatia sets a limit of a maximum of two terms in office. The president-elect is required to take an oath of office before the judges of the Constitutional Court. Franjo Tuđman won the first Croatian presidential elections in 1992 and 1997. During his time in office, the constitution adopted in 1990 provided for a semi-presidential system, which was in the coming years further strengthened by laws specifically aimed at providing Tuđman with sweeping powers (e.g. naming and dismissing numerous government officials, confirming county prefects), as his HDZ party held a supermajority in parliament throughout the 1990s. After his death in 1999, the constitution was amended and many presidential powers were transferred to parliament, the prime minister and the government. Stjepan Mesić won two consecutive terms, in 2000 and in 2005 and served as president until 2010. Ivo Josipović won the presidential elections held in 2009–2010 and left office in 2015 after losing his reelection bid for a second term. The winner of the most recent presidential elections, held in December 2014 and January 2015, was Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović. She succeeded Josipović on 19 February 2015 for a term lasting until 18 February 2020.", "List of Mexican state legislatures\nMexico is a federal republic consisting of 31 states and Mexico City. Each state has their own legislature whereby laws affecting the state are made. All states, including Mexico City, use the presidential system form of government. Individual states determine when and how frequent elections occur. The longest legislative term is in the State of Puebla, which lasts 4 years. The shortest legislative term lasts 2 years and applies in 11 states.", "Brazilian presidential line of succession\nIn Brazil, when the Vice President dies, resigns or is removed from office, or when a Vice President succeeds to the Presidency, the Vice Presidency remains vacant until the inauguration of the Vice President chosen in the next election. That election is usually the presidential election held in the last year of the presidential term to choose the President and Vice President that will serve in the next four-year presidential term. Only when both the Presidency and the Vice Presidency become vacant at the same time are special elections summoned to elect a new President and Vice President to complete the pending presidential term.", "Brazilian presidential inauguration\nWhen Vargas were deposed, new elections were summoned for a Constituent Assembly and a president, both chosen by direct popular ballot. The first presidential term subsequent to the deposition of the Estado Novo dictatorship began on 31 January 1946, and the Constitution adopted on 18 September 1946 established five-year presidential terms, but did not change the Inauguration Day. Accordingly, the subsequent five-year presidential terms also started on 31 January.", "2011 Kazakh presidential election\nOn 31 January the Constitutional Council rejected the referendum proposal for a Constitutional amendment aimed at extending Nazarbayev's term till 2020, on the ground that the amendment did not specify for how long and how many times the Presidential term could be extended. The Court therefore referred the matter to the President himself, as required by the Constitution of Kazakhstan. Nazarbayev agreed on putting aside the Constitutional referendum and immediately called for an early presidential election. According to analysts, Nazarbayev may have stepped back from the plan of term extension due to negative reactions by both USA, EU and OSCE, and in order to buy five years time to settle succession issues.", "William Henry Harrison 1840 presidential campaign\nThe carnival atmosphere attracted many voters at a time when there was little public entertainment, and the Whig ticket won easy majorities in both the popular and electoral vote. Harrison was inaugurated in March 1841; his death a month later marked the first time an American president had failed to complete his term. While some historians view Harrison's victorious campaign askance because of the role emotion played in it, others note how it originated techniques used in later presidential races. The unofficial campaign motto, \"Tippecanoe and Tyler Too\", has been called the most famous presidential campaign slogan in American history.", "French presidential debates\nIn 1995 Chirac faced off against Socialist candidate Lionel Jospin. The 135-minute encounter, which took place on May 2, was described as \"probably the least dramatic French Presidential debate since the first one in 1974.\" During the debate, they disagreed about the presidential term. Jospin wanted to reduce it to five years whereas Chirac was in favour of the seven-year term. The PS candidate responded: \"The choice is five years with me or seven years with Jacques Chirac, which will be very long\". Eventually, the presidential term was reduced to five years after the 2002 election.", "Constitutions of El Salvador\nThat same year, Barrios replaced the 1841 constitution with one that, not surprisingly, increased the presidential term to four years and allowed for one reelection. This issue of presidential tenure proved to be a major point of contention for the next two decades. The 1871 constitution, drafted by resurgent liberal forces, restored the two-year term, prohibited immediate reelection, and strengthened the power of the legislative branch. This document too, however, fell victim to individual ambition when President Santiago González replaced it with the constitution of 1872, which restored the four-year term. Similarly, the constitution of 1880 was used to extend the term of President Rafael Zaldivar. The four-year term was retained in the constitution of 1883, but presidential tenure was reduced to three years in the constitution of 1885. The latter document, although it never formally came into force, owing to the overthrow of Zaldivar by Francisco Menendez, was nonetheless an influential piece of work, primarily because it formed the basis for the constitution of 1886, the most durable in Salvadoran history.", "Mid-major\nTypically, the term is used to refer to teams that are members of a conference other than the Power Five. Others believe the term uses an arbitrary litmus test, based on how many teams from a given conference qualify for the NCAA tournament in a \"good\" year, or how much success a given conference has had in the NCAA tournament, or even conference revenue and attendance. The Big East Conference is not in the Power Five, but is almost always considered high major conferences. Also sometimes branded as high majors are the American Athletic Conference, Atlantic-10 Conference, and the Mountain West Conference.", "Politics of Russia\nThe constitution sets few requirements for presidential elections, deferring in many matters to other provisions established by law. The presidential term is set at six years, and the president may only serve two consecutive terms. A candidate for president must be a citizen of Russia, at least 35 years of age, and a resident of the country for at least ten years. If a president becomes unable to continue in office because of health problems, resignation, impeachment, or death, a presidential election is to be held not more than three months later. In such a situation, the Federation Council is empowered to set the election date." ]

[ "Iliad\nThe Iliad is paired with something of a sequel, the Odyssey, also attributed to Homer. Along with the Odyssey, the Iliad is among the oldest extant works of Western literature, and its written version is usually dated to around the 8th century BC.[2] In the modern vulgate (the standard accepted version), the Iliad contains 15,693 lines; it is written in Homeric Greek, a literary amalgam of Ionic Greek and other dialects. According to Michael N. Nagler, the Iliad is a more complicated epic poem than the Odyssey.[3]" ]

[ "Warren County High School (Virginia)\nOn November 19, 2011, the WCHS theater troupe (Maroon Masque), competed in the VHSL Region II Theater Festival at Tuscarora High School and placed first with the play \"‘The Greek Mythology Olympiaganza! (Iliad! Iliad! Iliad!)’\" By Don Zolidis.", "Ambrosian Iliad\nThe Ambrosian Iliad or Ilias Picta (Milan, Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Cod. F. 205 Inf.) is a 5th-century illuminated manuscript on vellum, and depicts the entirety of Homer's \"Iliad\", including battle scenes and noble scenes. The Ambrosian Iliad is considered unique due to being the only set of ancient illustrations that depict scenes from the Iliad, and it is seen as an example of the transition from Greek oral tradition to the written word. The Ambrosian Iliad consists of 52 miniatures that are estimated to have been cut from their original manuscript before the 13th Century, each labeled numerically. Comparisons of texts per page to other late antique manuscripts (Vatican Vergil, Vienna Genesis) has led some to speculate these miniatures were originally part of a large manuscript. This manuscript is unlike other illuminated manuscripts in its lack of gilding. Instead, the author(s) chose yellow ochre to represent gold within the individual images, i.e. the gold cuirasses of noble figures, and the halo of Zeus (\"folios\" XXXIV).", "Ajax (play)\nSophocles' Ajax, or Aias ( or ; , gen. ), is a Greek tragedy written in the 5th century BCE. \"Ajax\" may be the earliest of Sophocles' seven tragedies to have survived, though it is probable that he had been composing plays for a quarter of a century already when it was first staged. It appears to belong to the same period as his \"Antigone\", which was probably performed in 442 or 441 BCE, when he was 55 years old. The play depicts the fate of the warrior Ajax, after the events of the \"Iliad\" but before the end of the Trojan War.", "Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 221\nThis papyrus was unique at the time of its discovery in being datable by both physical evidence and textual evidence. Thus Grenfell and Hunt state that \"we have here for the first time an almost contemporary specimen of a first century commentary on the \"Iliad\".\" The point, then, is that the quotations from Homer in the text must accurately reflect the state of available manuscripts of the \"Iliad\" in the first century, unlike previously known collections of scholia, whose manuscripts were copied many centuries after the texts were written, which makes it impossible to know whether the Homeric quotations were corrupt.", "Iliad\nHans van Wees argues that the period that the descriptions of warfare relate can be pinned down fairly specifically—to the first half of the 7th century BC.[63]", "The Iliad or the Poem of Force\n\"The Iliad, or The Poem of Force\" () is a 24-page essay written in 1939 by Simone Weil.\nThe essay is about Homer's epic poem the \"Iliad\" and contains reflections on the conclusions one can draw from the epic regarding the nature of force in human affairs.", "Lexis (Aristotle)\nAccording to Plato, lexis is the manner of speaking. Plato said that lexis can be divided into mimesis (imitation properly speaking) and diegesis (simple narrative). Gerard Genette states: \"Plato's theoretical division, opposing the two pure and heterogeneous modes of narrative and imitation, within poetic diction, elicits and establishes a practical classification of genres, which includes the two distinct modes...and a mixed mode, for example the Iliad\".\nIn the \"Iliad\", a Greek epic written by Homer, the mixed mode is very prevalent. According to Gerald Prince, diegesis in the \"Iliad\" is the fictional storytelling associated with the fictional world and the enacting/re-telling of the story. Mimesis in the\" Iliad\" is the imitation of everyday, yet fantastical life in the ancient Greek world. Diegesis and mimesis combined represent the fullest extent of lexis; both forms of speech, narrating and re-enacting.\nIn conclusion, lexis is the larger overview of literature. Within lexis the two areas of differentiation of mimesis (imitation) are diegesis (narrative) and the \"direct representation of the actors speaking to the public.\"", "Historicity of the Homeric epics\nLikewise, in the Mycenaean Greek Linear B tablets, some Homeric names appear, including Achilles (Linear B: , \"a-ki-re-u\"), a name which was also common in the classical period, noted on tablets from both Knossos and Pylos. The Achilles of the Linear B tablet is a shepherd, not a king or warrior, but the very fact that the name is an authentic Bronze Age name is significant. These names in the Homeric poems presumably remember, if not necessarily specific people, at least an older time when people's names were not the same as they were when the Homeric epics were written down. Some story elements from the tablets appear in the \"Iliad\".", "Homer\nFriedrich August Wolf's Prolegomena ad Homerum, published in 1795, argued that much of the material later incorporated into the Iliad and the Odyssey was originally composed in the tenth century BC in the form of short, separate oral songs,[25][26][20] which passed through oral tradition for roughly four hundred years before being assembled into prototypical versions of the Iliad and the Odyssey the sixth century BC by literate authors.[25][26][20] After being written down, Wolf maintained that the two poems were extensively edited, modernized, and eventually shaped into their present state as artistic unities.[25][26][20] Wolf and the \"Analyst\" school, which led the field in the nineteenth century, sought to recover the original, authentic poems which were thought to be concealed by later excrescences.[25][26][20][27] Within the Analyst school were two camps: proponents of the \"lay theory,\" which held that the Iliad and the Odyssey were put together from a large number of short, independent songs,[20] and proponents of the \"nucleus theory\", which held that Homer had originally composed shorter versions of the Iliad and the Odyssey, which later poets expanded and revised.[20] A small group of scholars opposed to the Analysts, dubbed \"Unitarians\", saw the later additions as superior, the work of a single inspired poet.[25][26][20] By around 1830, the central preoccupations of Homeric scholars, dealing with whether or not \"Homer\" actually existed, when and how the Homeric poems originated, how they were transmitted, when and how they were finally written down, and their overall unity, had been dubbed \"the Homeric Question\".[20]", "Iliad Italia\nOn 16 January 2018 the name of the Italian administrator of Iliad Italia, Benedetto Levi, was officially announced, together with the presentation of the new logo and the institutional website. As part of the implementation of the infrastructures required to cover the Italian territory with its own network, on 16 February 2018, an agreement was reached with the Spanish group Cellnex, which provides Iliad Italia with over 7700 cellular antennas in Italy. Finally, on 29 May 2018, the official launch of the operator takes place, in conjunction with the presentation of the commercial offer and the start of the sale of SIM cards with new numbers or to carry out the number portability from other phone operators. On 18 July 2018, just under two months after its launch, Iliad Italia officially announced that it had reached one million customers between requests for portability and new subscriptions. On 4 September 2018, the Iliad group releases the results of the first half of 2018, reporting the achievement – by early August – of one and a half million customers in Italy; actually, on 6 September 2018, Iliad Italia issues a press release confirming the achievement of two million customers.", "Homeric scholarship\nScholia are ancient commentaries, initially written in the margins of manuscripts, not necessarily at the bottom, as are their modern equivalents, the notes. The term marginalia includes them. Some are interlinear, written in very small characters. Over time the scholia were copied along with the work. When the copyist ran out of free text space, he listed them on separate pages or in separate works. Today's equivalents are the chapter notes or the notes section at the end of the book. Notes are merely a continuation of the practice of creating or copying scholia in printed works, although the incunabula, the first printed works, duplicated some scholia. The works of Homer have been heavily annotated from their written beginnings. The total number of notes on manuscripts and printed editions of the Iliad and Odyssey are for practical purposes innumerable.", "Gusle\nGusle are also indirectly important to the whole of Western civilization. The Homeric Iliad and the Odyssey are the generally considered foundational works of literature of Western civilization along with the Torah and the Christian Bible. As the verses pertain to a war and events long before the abjad script was known to the Greeks, it was proposed that Homeric hymns were sung, not written, and were passed down through generations of singing epic bards, who were, like Homer, often blind. This was finally proven as probable in the 19th century when the German classicist Heinrich Schliemann discovered the gusle tradition not far from Greece after observing a Serbian bard reciting a lengthy poem in a similar style.", "Iliad\nThere Telamonian Ajax struck down the son of Anthemion, Simoeisios in his stripling's beauty, whom once his mother descending from Ida bore beside the banks of Simoeis when she had followed her father and mother to tend the sheepflocks. Therefore they called him Simoeisios; but he could not render again the care of his dear parents; he was short-lived, beaten down beneath the spear of high-hearted Ajax, who struck him as he first came forward beside the nipple of the right breast, and the bronze spearhead drove clean through the shoulder.[57]", "Men in Aida\nMen in Aida is a homophonic translation of Book One of Homer's Iliad into a farcical bathhouse scenario, perhaps alluding to the homoerotic aspects of ancient Greek culture. It was written by the language poet David Melnick, and is an example of poetic postmodernism. In 2015, all three books of the \"Iliad\" translated by Melnick were published by independent publishing house Uitgeverij under the title \"Men in Aïda\".", "George Chapman\nFrom 1598 he published his translation of the \"Iliad\" in installments. In 1616 the complete \"Iliad\" and \"Odyssey\" appeared in \"The Whole Works of Homer\", the first complete English translation, which until Pope's was the most popular in the English language and was the way most English speakers encountered these poems. The endeavour was to have been profitable: his patron, Prince Henry, had promised him £300 on its completion plus a pension. However, Henry died in 1612 and his household neglected the commitment, leaving Chapman without either a patron or an income. In an extant letter, Chapman petitions for the money owed him; his petition was ineffective. Chapman's translation of the \"Odyssey\" is written in iambic pentameter, whereas his \"Iliad\" is written in iambic heptameter. (The Greek original is in dactylic hexameter.) Chapman often extends and elaborates on Homer's original contents to add descriptive detail or moral and philosophical interpretation and emphasis. Chapman's translation of Homer was much admired by John Keats, notably in his famous poem \"On First Looking into Chapman's Homer,\" and also drew attention from Samuel Taylor Coleridge and T. S. Eliot.", "Iliad\nWhile the Homeric poems (the Iliad in particular) were not necessarily revered scripture of the ancient Greeks, they were most certainly seen as guides that were important to the intellectual understanding of any educated Greek citizen. This is evidenced by the fact that in the late fifth century BC, \"it was the sign of a man of standing to be able to recite the Iliad and Odyssey by heart.\"[55] Moreover, it can be argued that the warfare shown in the Iliad, and the way in which it was depicted, had a profound and very traceable effect on Greek warfare in general. In particular, the effect of epic literature can be broken down into three categories: tactics, ideology, and the mindset of commanders. In order to discern these effects, it is necessary to take a look at a few examples from each of these categories.", "ILiad\nThe iLiad was an electronic handheld device, or e-Reader, which could be used for document reading and editing. Like the Barnes and Noble nook, Sony Reader or Amazon Kindle, the iLiad made use of an electronic paper display. In 2010, sales of the iLiad ended when its parent company, iRex Technologies, filed for bankruptcy. ", "Penthesilea\nIn the five book epic \"Aethiopis\", which was part of the Epic Cycle (or Cycle of Troy) on the Trojan War, the coming to Troy of Penthesilea and Memnon was described in detail. The \"Aethiopis\" was published in the 8th century BC and is attributed to Arctinus of Miletus. The main character of the epic is Achilles, who fights Penthesilea and Memnon before he is himself killed. Although \"Aethiopis\" has been lost, the Epic Cycle has been adapted and recycled in different periods of the classical age. The tradition of retelling the epic fall of Troy is indebted to Homer's \"Iliad\" and \"Odyssey\", which were grounded in oral storytelling and were only written down when the Greek alphabet was adopted in ancient Greece.", "Os Lusíadas\nWritten in Homeric fashion, the poem focuses mainly on a fantastical interpretation of the Portuguese voyages of discovery during the 15th and 16th centuries. \"Os Lusíadas\" is often regarded as Portugal's national epic, much as Virgil's \"Aeneid\" was for the Ancient Romans, or Homer's \"Iliad\" and \"Odyssey\" for the Ancient Greeks. It was written when Camões was an exile in Macau and was first printed in 1572, three years after the author returned from the Indies.", "Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 223\nThe document was written by an unknown copyist. It contains the text of the fifth book of the \"Iliad.\" It is written on the verso side of the \"Petition of Dionysia\". Before it was utilised for the \"Iliad\" roll, it had to be patched and strengthened. The original roll was of great length.", "The Iliad or the Poem of Force\n\"The New York Review of Books\" says the essay is one of Weil's most celebrated works. \"The Atlantic Monthly\" has written that, along with Rachel Bespaloff's \"On the Iliad\", Weil's essay \"remains the twentieth century's most beloved, tortured, and profound responses to the world's greatest and most disturbing poem.\"", "Aegis\nWhen the Olympian shakes the aegis, Mount Ida is wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are struck down with fear. \"Aegis-bearing Zeus\", as he is in the \"Iliad\", sometimes lends the fearsome aegis to Athena. In the \"Iliad\" when Zeus sends Apollo to revive the wounded Hector, Apollo, holding the aegis, charges the Achaeans, pushing them back to their ships drawn up on the shore. According to Edith Hamilton's \"Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes\", the Aegis is the breastplate of Zeus, and was \"awful to behold\". However, Zeus is normally portrayed in classical sculpture holding a thunderbolt or lightning, bearing neither a shield nor a breastplate.", "Nisus and Euryalus\nAlthough the night raid of Nisus and Euryalus has a discrete narrative unity, it is closely related to major themes of the epic, such as the transition from boyhood to manhood, also present in the characters of Ascanius, Pallas, and Lausus, and the waste of young lives in war. Nisus and Euryalus's killing spree through the camp of the Rutuli is one of Virgil's most brutal descriptions of combat (especially when Nisus beheads the chief Remus with his warriors Lamyrus, Lamus and Serranus). The poetry of Euryalus's death—\"as when a richly hued flower is cut down by the plough and withers as it dies, or when the rains beat down the poppy's head, weighed down on slack neck\" — is a replay of the death of Gorgytion in the Iliad.", "Elm\nThe first reference in literature to elms occurs in the \"Iliad\". When Eetion, father of Andromache, is killed by Achilles during the Trojan War, the Mountain Nymphs plant elms on his tomb (\"περὶ δὲ πτελέoι εφύτεψαν νύμφαι ὀρεστιάδες, κoῦραι Διὸς αἰγιόχoιo\").\nAlso in the Iliad, when the River Scamander, indignant at the sight of so many corpses in his water, overflows and threatens to drown Achilles, the latter grasps a branch of a great elm in an attempt to save himself (\"ὁ δὲ πτελέην ἕλε χερσὶν εὐφυέα μεγάλην\".", "De bello Troiano\nDaretis Phrygii Ilias De bello Troiano (\"The Iliad of Dares the Phrygian: On the Trojan War\") is an epic poem in Latin, written around 1183 by the English poet Joseph of Exeter. It tells the story of the ten year Trojan War as it was known in medieval western Europe. The ancient Greek epic on the subject, the \"Iliad\", was inaccessible; instead, the sources available included the fictional \"diaries\" of Dictys of Crete and Dares of Phrygia. When Joseph's text was printed for the first time in 1541, it was actually erroneously attributed to Dares of Phrygia, announced as the long-lost verse version of his story (\"quibus multis seculis caruimus\" – which we lacked for many centuries) supposedly put into Latin hexameters by Nepos.", "Ilium (novel)\nThe novel centers on three character groups: that of Hockenberry (a resurrected twentieth-century Homeric scholar whose duty is to compare the events of the \"Iliad\" to the reenacted events of the Trojan War), Greek and Trojan warriors, and Greek gods from the \"Iliad\"; Daeman, Harman, Ada, and other humans of an Earth thousands of years after the twentieth century; and the \"moravec\" robots (named for scientist and futurist Hans Moravec) Mahnmut the Europan and Orphu of Io, also thousands of years in the future, but originating in the Jovian system. The novel is written in first-person, present-tense when centered on Hockenberry's character, but features third-person, past-tense narrative in all other instances. Much like Simmons' \"Hyperion\", where the actual events serve as a frame, the three groups of characters' stories are told over the course of the novel and begin to converge as the climax nears.", "Stichometry\nThe length of each line in the \"Iliad\" and \"Odyssey\", which may have been among the first long, Greek texts written down, became the standard unit for ancient stichometry. This standard line (\"Normalzeile\", in German) was thus as long as an epic hexameter and contained about 15 syllables or 35 Greek letters.", "Iliad\nIn terms of the ideology of commanders in later Greek history, the Iliad has an interesting effect. The Iliad expresses a definite disdain for tactical trickery, when Hector says, before he challenges the great Ajax:", "Iliad\nVenetus A, copied in the 10th century AD, is the oldest fully extant manuscript of the Iliad.[41] The first edition of the \"Iliad\", editio princeps, edited by Demetrius Chalcondyles and published by Bernardus Nerlius, and Demetrius Damilas in Florence in 1488/89.[42]" ]

[ "Louis Plack Hammett\nLouis Plack Hammett (April 7, 1894 – February 9, 1987) was an American physical chemist. He is known for the Hammett equation, which relates reaction rates to equilibrium constants for certain classes of organic reactions involving substituted aromatic compounds. He is also known for his research into superacids and his development of a scheme for comparing their acidities based on what is now known as the Hammett acidity function. The Curtin–Hammett principle bears his name." ]

[ "Kirk Hammett\nHammett wanted to have guitar solos on Metallica's 2003 album, \"St. Anger\", but drummer Lars Ulrich and producer Bob Rock thought that the solos did not sound right in the songs. He later admitted himself, \"We tried to put in solos but they sounded like an afterthought so we left them out\". Recording for \"St. Anger\" was halted in 2001; so that Metallica front-man James Hetfield could enter rehab for alcohol abuse. Due to tensions within the band (which were well-documented in the Metallica documentary \"Some Kind of Monster\") at the time, Hammett expressed interest in working on a solo album. According to Hammett, if he ever worked on a solo album, it wouldn't be \"super-duty\" heavy metal, and may include some classical guitarists. When he was asked about his experiences of recording \"St. Anger\", Hammett said:", "The Glass Key\nHammett felt that the finished book was his best work, nonetheless because \"the clues were nicely placed... although nobody seemed to notice\". Reviewers were less sanguine. David T. Bazelon, writing for \"Commentary\", thought that Hammett had attempted a conventional novel, in which characters act for reasons of loyalty, passion or power. Even on those generous grounds, he found the novel unsatisfactory: \"We never know whether [the] motive in solving the murder is loyalty, job-doing or love... this ambiguity reflects, I think, Hammett's difficulty in writing an unformularized novel-- one in which an analysis of motives is fundamental\". Other critics wrote that the novel was \"Hammett’s least satisfactory\" and that the hero was \"mechanical and his emotions were not there\". Robert Edenbaum, for basically the same reasons, called \"The Glass Key\" Hammett's \"least satisfactory novel... [in Hemingway] the mask is lifted every time the character is alone; he admits his misery to himself...exposes his inner life. The Hammett mask is never lifted; the Hammett character never lets you inside. Instead of the potential despair of Hemingway, Hammett gives you unimpaired control and machinelike efficiency\".", "Seth Hammett\nHammett did not seek reelection in 2010. Following his retirement, Hammett was selected by Republican Governor Robert Bentley to serve as Director of the Alabama Development Office, now known as the Alabama Department of Commerce. Hammett later served as Governor Bentley's chief of staff from 2014 to 2015.", "Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon\nIn April 1725, the seven-year-old \"infanta\" was sent back to Madrid — Louis did not even say goodbye to her. A new candidate was sought urgently because, should Louis die with no heir, and assuming Philippe V of Spain did not seize the throne, then it would pass to the new duc d'Orléans, son of the deceased regent; the House of Orléans and the House of Condé were rivals, so this would cast \"Monsieur le Duc\" into the political wastelands.", "Secret Agent X-9\nIn 1976, Nostalgia Press published a trade paperback reprinting many of the early Hammett/Raymond strips, with an introduction by Bill Blackbeard. In 1983, International Polygonics published a trade paperback edition () of the original Dashiell Hammett/Alex Raymond strips that included an additional story scripted by Leslie Charteris and a foreword by William F. Nolan, author of \"Hammett: A Life on the Edge.\" In 1990, Kitchen Sink Press did a single volume reprint () of the Hammett/Raymond work on the strip.", "Kirk Hammett\nHammett has a well-known passion for horror movies; that stretches back to the late Sixties. After spraining his arm in a fight with his sister at the age of five, Hammett's parents placed him in front of the television. It was during this time that he first watched \"The Day of the Triffids\". After that, Hammett found himself drawn to his brother's Frankenstein figures, and it wasn't long before he was spending his milk money on horror magazines. For the better part of the next decade, Hammett dove deep into the horror scene.", "Kirk Hammett\nAt one point in his life, Hammett spent a \"lot of money\" on drugs. Hammett has said that he used drugs because he thought they would be fun. During the Damaged Justice tour, he had a cocaine addiction. Hammett eventually pulled out of the addiction because cocaine made him feel depressed, but relapsed during the \"Load\" era. One of the reasons that Hammett spends a lot of money on comic books, is because he finds them to be a more enjoyable (and healthier) alternative to drugs. Hammett has also smoked heroin a few times, but \"didn't like it\".", "Frederic Forrest\nHe is known for his roles as Chef in \"Apocalypse Now\", \"When The Legends Die\", \"It Lives Again\", the neo-Nazi surplus store owner in \"Falling Down\", \"Right to Kill?\" and for playing the writer Dashiell Hammett twice in film — in \"Hammett\" (1982) and in \"Citizen Cohn\" (1992 TV movie). He had a role as the notorious Mexican/Indian bandit Blue Duck in the 1989 miniseries, \"Lonesome Dove\". He was Academy Award-nominated in the Supporting Actor category for his role in \"The Rose\". He was married to Marilu Henner from 1980 to 1982.", "Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse\nErnest Louis grew up in a loving household, with parents who demonstrated their affection for their children, something not typical for that social stratum in those days. He grew much attached to his parents and siblings, and it was his misfortune that he was fated to witness several deaths among them during his childhood. When he was five, his only brother Prince Friedrich died. The two boys had been playing a game when the younger boy, who suffered from haemophilia, fell through a window onto the balcony twenty feet below. Ernest Louis was inconsolable. \"When I die, you must die too, and all the others. Why can't we all die together? I don't want to die alone, like Frittie,\" he told his nurse. To his mother he said, \"I dreamt that I was dead and was gone up to Heaven, and there I asked God to let me have Frittie again and he came to me and took my hand.\"", "Dashiell Hammett\nHammett was first published in 1922 in the magazine \"The Smart Set\". Known for the authenticity and realism of his writing, he drew on his experiences as a Pinkerton operative. Hammett wrote most of his detective fiction while he was living in San Francisco in the 1920s; streets and other locations in San Francisco are frequently mentioned in his stories. He said that \"All my characters were based on people I've known personally, or known about.\"\nHis novels were some of the first to use dialogue that sounded authentic to the era. \"I distrust a man that says when. If he's got to be careful not to drink too much, it's because he's not to be trusted when he does\".", "Metallica\nIn May 1983, Metallica traveled to Rochester, New York to record its debut album, \"Metal Up Your Ass\", which was produced by Paul Curcio. The other members decided to eject Mustaine from the band because of his drug and alcohol abuse, and violent behavior just before the recording sessions on April 11, 1983. Exodus guitarist Kirk Hammett replaced Mustaine the same afternoon.\nMustaine, who went on to found Megadeth, has expressed his dislike for Hammett in interviews, saying Hammett \"stole\" his job. Mustaine was \"pissed off\" because he believes Hammett became popular by playing guitar leads that Mustaine himself had written. In a 1985 interview with \"Metal Forces\", Mustaine said, \"it's real funny how Kirk Hammett ripped off every lead break I'd played on that \"No Life 'til Leather\" tape and got voted No. 1 guitarist in your magazine\". On Megadeth's debut album \"Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!\" (1985), Mustaine included the song \"Mechanix\", which Metallica had previously reworked and retitled \"The Four Horsemen\" on \"Kill 'Em All\". Mustaine said he did this to \"straighten Metallica up\" because Metallica referred to Mustaine as a drunk and said he could not play guitar. Metallica's first live performance with Hammett was on April 16, 1983, at a nightclub in Dover, New Jersey called The Showplace; the support act was Anthrax's original line-up, which included Dan Lilker and Neil Turbin. This was the first time the two bands performed live together.", "Hammett equation\nThe Hammett equation in organic chemistry describes a linear free-energy relationship relating reaction rates and equilibrium constants for many reactions involving benzoic acid derivatives with meta- and para-substituents to each other with just two parameters: a substituent constant and a reaction constant. This equation was developed and published by Louis Plack Hammett in 1937 as a follow-up to qualitative observations in a 1935 publication.", "Death Magnetic\nKirk Hammett played a role in inspiring the album title by bringing a photograph of deceased Alice in Chains singer Layne Staley to the studio where Metallica was recording. \"That picture was there for a long time\", said Hammett, \"I think it pervaded James' psyche.\" Wondering why someone with Staley's talent would choose to use drugs so heavily and die so young, Hetfield started writing a song based on his questions (the song \"Rebel of Babylon\").", "Bianca Hammett\nBianca Hammett (born 12 September 1990) is an Australian synchronized swimmer. Taking up the sport at the age of eight and joining Australia's National Team in 2006, Hammett has represented Australia internationally in synchronised swimming since 2007. Hammett is a dual Olympian, having competed for Australia at the 2012 Summer Olympics, held in London, and the 2016 Summer Olympics, held in Rio de Janeiro. Hammett has also competed for Australia at the 2007, 2011, 2013 and 2015 World Aquatics Championships.", "Hammett acidity function\nThe Hammett acidity function (H) is a measure of acidity that is used for very concentrated solutions of strong acids, including superacids. It was proposed by the physical organic chemist Louis Plack Hammett and is the best-known acidity function used to extend the measure of Brønsted–Lowry acidity beyond the dilute aqueous solutions for which the pH scale is useful.", "Bryant Hammett\nHammett and his wife, the former Susan Cotton (also born 1956), originally from Jonesville in Catahoula Parish, are elders at the First Presbyterian Church of Ferriday. The couple has three daughters, Virginia L. \"Ginny\" Hammett Martinez (born 1981), Dorothy Elizabeth Hammett (born 1983), and Laura Danielle Hammett (born 1986).", "Mark Hammett\nTwo years after his playing career ended with the Crusaders, Hammett was back with the Crusaders, working as a forwards coaching adviser for the 2006 Super 14 season. He went on to fulfill the same role for Canterbury in the 2006 Air New Zealand Cup. He was later appointed as the new Crusaders assistant coach in November 2006 as a replacement for Vern Cotter who departed to France. Hammett remained as assistant coach from 2007 to 2010, and was not appointed as Crusaders' head coach when Robbie Deans left to coach Australia in 2008; Todd Blackadder was given the head coach role instead. During his time at the Crusaders, he helped guide the team to the semi-finals of every single season he was at the franchise, before securing their sixth and seventh title in 2006 and 2008. In later 2010, he was appointed coach of the Wellington-based Hurricanes ahead of the 2011 Super Rugby season. After the 2011 Super Rugby season – his first season in charge – Hammett decided controversially not to renew the contracts of All Blacks Ma'a Nonu and then Hurricanes' captain Andrew Hore. In the three years at the helm in Wellington, the Hurricanes failed to progress to the knock-out phase of the competition, only getting as high as seventh on the table; in 2014 Super Rugby season. In April 2014 Hammett indicated he would not be seeking to renew his contract when it expired at the end of the 2014 season.", "Dashiell Hammett\nHammett devoted much of his life to left-wing activism. He was a strong antifascist throughout the 1930s, and in 1937 joined the Communist Party. On May 1, 1935, Hammett joined the League of American Writers (1935-1943), whose members included Lillian Hellman, Alexander Trachtenberg of International Publishers, Frank Folsom, Louis Untermeyer, I.F. Stone, Myra Page, Millen Brand, and Arthur Miller. (Members were largely either Communist Party members or fellow travelers.) He suspended his antifascist activities when, as a member (and in 1941 president) of the League of American Writers, he served on its Keep America Out of War Committee in January 1940 during the period of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.", "Kirk Hammett\nOn April 4, 2009, Hammett, along with Metallica bandmates Lars Ulrich, James Hetfield, and Robert Trujillo and former Metallica bandmates Jason Newsted and the deceased Cliff Burton, were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 2009, Hammett provided the foreword to British author Joel McIver's book \"To Live Is to Die: The Life and Death of Metallica's Cliff Burton\".", "Louis Plack Hammett\nHammett grew up in Portland, Maine, and studied in Harvard and Switzerland. He earned his Ph.D. at Columbia University. He authored an influential textbook on physical organic chemistry,[2] and is credited with coining the term.", "Bianca Hammett\nHammett is a synchronised swimmer, taking up the sport after she read an advertisement for it in a newspaper when she was eight years old. She is a member of the Gold Coast Mermaids. Hammett is currently coached by Lilian Grenier and Marina Kholod.", "Hammett equation\nwhere \"ρ\" and \"ρ\"* are the Hammett reaction constants for the reaction of the neutral molecule and core ionized molecule, respectively. ΔCEBEs of ring carbons in p-F-C6H4-Z were calculated with density functional theory to see how they correlate with Hammett σ-constants. Linear plots were obtained when the calculated CEBE shifts at the ortho, meta and para Carbon were plotted against Hammett \"σ, σ\" and \"σ\" constants respectively.", "Curtin–Hammett principle\nThe Curtin–Hammett principle is a principle in chemical kinetics proposed by David Yarrow Curtin and Louis Plack Hammett. It states that, for a reaction that has a pair of reactive intermediates or reactants that interconvert rapidly (as is usually the case for conformational isomers), each going irreversibly to a different product, the product ratio will depend both on the difference in energy between the two conformers \"and\" the energy barriers from each of the rapidly equilibrating isomers to their respective products. Stated another way, the product distribution reflects the difference in energy between the two rate-limiting transition states. As a result, the product distribution will not necessarily reflect the equilibrium distribution of the two intermediates. The Curtin–Hammett principle has been invoked to explain selectivity in a variety of stereo- and regioselective reactions. The relationship between the (apparent) rate constants and equilibrium constant is known as the Winstein-Holness equation.", "Kirk Hammett\nIn 2014, Hammett purchased the 1959 Les Paul formerly used by Gary Moore and Peter Green; using it on tour when playing the Thin Lizzy cover: \"Whiskey in the Jar\".", "Frank Westheimer\nIn 1935 and 1936, as a National Research Council Fellow, Westheimer worked with physical chemist Louis P. Hammett at Columbia University. Hammett was a founder of the field of physical organic chemistry.", "Otto Theodor Benfey\nDuring his Ph.D. work, Benfey studied the effects of salts on alkyl halide hydrolysis reaction rates. He showed that \"two salts could have inverse effects depending on the leaving group of the alkyl halide,\" the opposite of a prediction made by Louis Plack Hammett. On the basis of this work, Benfey obtained a London University postdoctoral traveling fellowship, enabling him to work with Hammett at Columbia University.", "Neil Riser\nIn 2007, State Senator Noble Ellington, then a Democrat, did not seek reelection to the Senate. Riser hence ran for the Louisiana Senate's 32nd district, based in the northeast portion of the state. In the open nonpartisan blanket primary, Riser ranked first with 49 percent of the vote and fell just short of an outright victory. Riser attributed his success to \"a good grassroots system that helped us. We did it one vote at a time...We truly were able to win against an embedded political system.\" In the November general election, Riser defeated former State Representative Bryant Hammett, a Democrat from Concordia Parish. Hammett, a former chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, was the outgoing secretary of the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries under Governor Kathleen Babineaux Blanco. Riser defeated Hammett 55-45 percent.", "Hammett, Idaho\nHammett is an unincorporated community in Elmore County, Idaho, United States. Hammett is located on Idaho State Highway 78 west of Glenns Ferry. Hammett has a post office with ZIP code 83627.", "Physical organic chemistry\nThe term \"physical organic chemistry\" was itself coined by Louis Hammett in 1940 when he used the phrase as a title for his textbook." ]

[ "Sacramento River\nThe Sacramento River is the principal river of Northern California in the United States, and is the largest river in California.[9] Rising in the Klamath Mountains, the river flows south for 400 miles (640km) before reaching the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta and San Francisco Bay. The river drains about 26,500 square miles (69,000km2) in 19 California counties, mostly within the fertile agricultural region bounded by the Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada known as the Sacramento Valley, but also extending as far as the volcanic plateaus of Northeastern California. Historically, its watershed has reached as far north as south-central Oregon where the now, primarily, endorheic (closed) Goose Lake rarely experiences southerly outflow into the Pit River, the most northerly tributary of the Sacramento." ]

[ "Sacramento River\nAs the river continues south it approaches the Sacramento metro area, the largest population center in the watershed. Sacramento International Airport is located on the east bank of the river near Fremont. Near downtown Sacramento it receives the American River from the east, then passes under the historic Tower Bridge and Interstate 80. The California State Capitol sits less than half a mile (0.8km) east of the river where the Tower Bridge crosses it. Shortly downstream, the Port of Sacramento is located on the west side of the Sacramento, connected to the river by a lock. The Sacramento River Deep Water Ship Channel provides access to the port from the Pacific, bypassing about 42 miles (68km) of the winding lower Sacramento. The channel runs parallel to the Sacramento several miles to the west, and also forms the eastern boundary of the Yolo Bypass.[10] The manually operated Sacramento Weir, located across from downtown Sacramento on the west side of the river, serves to relieve floodwater pressure from the American River by allowing it to drain west into the Yolo Bypass instead of continuing down the Sacramento River.", "Transportation in California\nCalifornia also has several important seaports. The giant seaport complex formed by the Port of Los Angeles and the Port of Long Beach in Southern California is the largest in the country and responsible for handling about a fourth of all container cargo traffic in the United States. The Port of Oakland handles most of the ocean containers passing through Northern California. The Port of Redwood City, the Port of Richmond, and the Port of San Diego are also significant ports for freight shipments. The Port of Sacramento and the Port of Stockton are two major inland deepwater ports located in the Central Valley, and thus only accessible via the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta. Instead of dredging the Sacramento River, the Sacramento Deep Water Ship Channel was built in 1963 to accommodate large ships traveling from the delta to Sacramento.", "History of Sacramento, California\nThe area that would become the city of Sacramento was initially observed by many European and American mapmakers as home to Great Plains-based rivers that stretched across the Rocky Mountains and emptied into the Pacific Ocean. Speculation at the time placed the fabled St. Bonaventura River where the American-Sacramento River complex was; mountain man Jedediah Smith mistook the American and Sacramento Rivers for the St. Bonaventura in his 1827 venture into the region, and named the Sacramento Valley the \"Valley of the Bonadventure\" before trekking southwards along the Stanislaus River.", "Power Inn station\nPower Inn is a side platformed Sacramento RT light rail station in the East Sacramento neighborhood of Sacramento, California, United States. The station was opened on September 5, 1987, and is operated by the Sacramento Regional Transit District. As part of the Gold Line, it has service to Downtown Sacramento, California State University, Sacramento, Rancho Cordova, Gold River and Folsom. The station is located near the intersection of Power Inn Road/Howe Avenue and Folsom Boulevard, adjacent to the U.S. 50 freeway and a major residential area, the station serves a commuter facility, via its park and ride lot.", "Dry Creek (Sacramento River tributary)\nDry Creek (formerly called Linda Creek) is a long stream in Placer County, California, tributary to the Sacramento River. Its watershed lies within the Sacramento Valley. Because suburban development borders much of its length, the stream is noted for its capacity to cause local flooding and as a recreational attraction. ", "Feather River\nThe Feather River is the principal tributary of the Sacramento River, in the Sacramento Valley of Northern California. The river's main stem is about long. Its length to its most distant headwater tributary is just over . The main stem Feather River begins in Lake Oroville, where its four long tributary forks join together—the South Fork, Middle Fork, North Fork, and West Branch Feather Rivers. These and other tributaries drain part of the northern Sierra Nevada, and the extreme southern Cascades, as well as a small portion of the Sacramento Valley. The total drainage basin is about , with approximately above Lake Oroville.", "Stony Creek (Sacramento River tributary)\nStony Creek is a -long seasonal river in Northern California. It is a tributary of the Sacramento River, draining a watershed of more than on the west side of the Sacramento Valley in Glenn, Colusa, Lake and Tehama Counties. ", "Cow Creek (Sacramento River tributary)\nCow Creek is a tributary of the Sacramento River in Shasta County, California. About long measured to its longest source, it drains a hilly, rural region at the northern end of the Sacramento Valley east of Redding. The creek begins at Millville at the confluence of Old Cow and South Cow Creek and flows west to Junction, where it turns south, joining the Sacramento near Anderson. Despite its name, Cow Creek is closer in size to a river, especially in winter when it is prone to large flash floods, accounting for up to 21 percent of the Sacramento's peak flows at Red Bluff.", "Slough (hydrology)\nIn the Sacramento River, Steamboat Slough was an alternate branch of the river, a preferred shortcut route for steamboats passing between Sacramento and San Francisco. Georgiana Slough was a steamboat route through the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, from the Sacramento River to the San Joaquin River and Stockton.", "Salt Creek (Sacramento River tributary)\nSalt Creek is a stream in the U.S. state of California. The long stream is a tributary to the Sacramento River.", "Sacramento Deep Water Ship Channel\nThe Sacramento Deep Water Ship Channel (also known as Sacramento River Deep Water Ship Channel or SRDWSC) is a canal from the Port of Sacramento in West Sacramento, California, to the Sacramento River, which flows into San Francisco Bay. It was completed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers in 1963. The channel is about 30 feet (9 m) deep, 200 feet (61 m) wide and 43 miles (69 km) long.", "Red Bank Creek\nRed Bank Creek is a major stream in Tehama County, California and a tributary of the Sacramento River. About long, it originates in the foothills of the Coast Ranges, near the boundary of the Mendocino National Forest, and flows east across the Sacramento Valley to join the Sacramento River near Red Bluff. Red Bank Creek, like the other streams draining this part of the western Sacramento Valley, is a highly seasonal stream that flows only during the winter and spring. Old Red Bank Creek Bridge at Red Bluff was built by the Pacific Bridge Company in 1894", "Jedediah Smith Memorial Trail\nThe Jedediah Smith Memorial Trail (or American River Bike Trail) is a paved multi-use pathway that runs between the confluence of the Sacramento River with the American River, just north of downtown Sacramento, CA, and Beal's Point at Folsom Lake, north of Folsom, CA. The trail is long, and is used as a major recreational destination, as well as a commuter artery for cyclists. The trail is considered one of the longest paved purpose-built bike trails in the country. The trail is maintained by the County of Sacramento and is painted with mile markers placed at every half-mile increment.", "Downtown Sacramento\nDowntown Sacramento is the central business district of the City of Sacramento. Downtown is generally defined as the area south of the American River, east of the Sacramento River, north of Broadway, and west of 16th Street. The central business district is generally defined as north of R Street, south of H Street, east of the Sacramento River, and west of 16th Street. Downtown Sacramento is currently undergoing a major revitalization project.", "Pit River\nThe longest tributary of the Sacramento River, it contributes as much as eighty percent of their combined water volume into the Shasta Lake reservoir; the junction of their Shasta Lake arms is northeast of Shasta Dam. The main stem of the Pit River is long, and some water in the system flows to the Sacramento River measuring from the Pit River's longest source.\nThe Pit River drains a sparsely populated volcanic highlands area, passing through the south end of the Cascade Range in a deep canyon northeast of Redding. The river is so named because of the pits the Achumawi dug to trap game that came to water at the river.", "McCloud River\nThe McCloud River is a long river that flows east of and parallel to the upper Sacramento River, in Siskiyou County and Shasta County in northern California in the United States. It drains a scenic mountainous area of the Cascade Range, including part of Mount Shasta. It is a tributary of the Pit River, which in turn flows into the Sacramento River. The three rivers join in Shasta Lake, formed by Shasta Dam north of Redding.", "American River\nThe American River (Río de los Americanos during the period before 1847 ruled by Mexico) is a 120-mile-long river in California that runs from the Sierra Nevada mountain range to its confluence with the Sacramento River in the Sacramento Valley. Via the Sacramento River, it is part of the San Francisco Bay watershed. This river is fed by the melting snowpack of the Sierra Nevada and its many headwaters and tributaries, including the North Fork American River, the Middle Fork American River, and the South Fork American River.", "Sacramento River\nMarine animals such as whales and sea lions are occasionally found far inland after navigating the river for food or refuge and then losing track of how to get back to the Pacific Ocean. In October 1985 a humpback whale affectionately named \"Humphrey the humpbacked whale\" by television media traveled 69 miles (111km) up the Sacramento River before being rescued. Rescuers downstream broadcast sounds of humpback whales feeding to draw the whale back to the ocean.[107]", "Cosumnes River College station\nCosumnes River College is a side platformed Sacramento RT light rail station in Sacramento, California, United States. The station was opened on August 24, 2015, and is operated by the Sacramento Regional Transit District. As the southern terminus of the Blue Line, it has service to Downtown Sacramento, North Sacramento, California State University, Sacramento, Rancho Cordova, Gold River and Folsom. The station is located on the east side of Cosumnes River College, near the intersection of Bruceville Road and Cosumnes River Boulevard in South Sacramento. It is attached to a 2,016-stall paid parking garage and is served by several bus routes at a dedicated bus station to the west of the platforms.", "Sacramento River\nIt was not long after Sacramento surpassed a population of 10,000, then the Great Flood of 1862 swept away much of it (and almost everything else along the Sacramento River) and put the rest under water. The flood waters were exacerbated by the sediments washed down by the millions of tons by hydraulic mining, which filled the beds of the Sacramento, Feather and American rivers up to 7 feet (2.1m) in Sacramento and also covered thousands of acres of Central Valley lands.[68][69] A flood in 1875 covered the city of Marysville and when it subsided the town's streets were filled with debris and rocks washed down from the \"hydraulicking\" going on upstream.[68][70]", "Clear Creek (Sacramento River tributary)\nThe creek is long, flowing in southern Siskiyou County and northern Shasta County. Clear Creek is the first major Sacramento River tributary downstream of the Shasta Dam.", "Steamboats of California\nThe first steamboats operating above Sacramento on the Sacramento River were the 52-ton \"Linda\" and the 36.5-ton \"Lawrence\". Also steamboats operated on the American River, tributary to the Sacramento River, up to Norristown, smaller boats as far as Coloma. On the Feather River they steamed up to Yuba City, and on the Yuba River to Marysville, both also tributaries of the Sacramento. Others steamed farther up the Sacramento river as far north as Red Bluff and the 42-ton steamboat \"Jack Hays\" reached Redding the head of navigation on the Sacramento, during the spring flood on May 8, 1850. It then began regular service up river: ", "History of California 1900–present\nThe Sacramento Deep Water Ship Channel (also known as the \"Sacramento River Deep Water Ship Channel\" or \"SRDWSC\") is a canal from the Port of Sacramento to the Sacramento River, which flows into San Francisco Bay. It was completed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers in 1963. The channel is about deep, wide, and long.", "Dry Creek (Sacramento River tributary)\nAfter crossing into Sacramento County, Dry Creek flows south-southwest between Gibson Ranch County Park (to the west) and the city of Antelope (to the east). Then it flows southwest through the community of Rio Linda, mostly split into two parallel branches that enclose a long narrow strip of land called Cherry Island. Finally, Dry Creek enters the City of Sacramento northwest of Robla, flows west-southwest (forming a small delta) and merges with Steelhead Creek (Natomas East Main Drainage Canal). Steelhead Creek flows south into Discovery Park in American River Parkway and then west (parallel with American River) into Sacramento River.", "Sacramento pikeminnow\nThe Sacramento pikeminnow (\"Ptychocheilus grandis\") (also known as Sacramento squawfish) is a large cyprinid fish of California. It is native to the Los Angeles River, Sacramento-San Joaquin, Pajaro-Salinas, Russian River, Clear Lake and upper Pit River river basins.", "Sacramento River\nAbout 20 miles (32km) further downstream, the Sacramento River reaches the Tisdale Weir. During floods, water overtops the weir and flows east into the Sutter Bypass, the first of two major bypass channels that temporarily store and move floodwaters downstream to reduce pressure on the main channel of the Sacramento. The Sacramento River and the Sutter Bypass flow parallel for over 40 miles (64km), rejoining on the border of Sutter County and Yolo County near Knights Landing. The Feather River, the largest tributary of the Sacramento, joins from the east at Verona directly below the Sutter Bypass. A second flood control structure, the Fremont Weir, diverts flood waters from both the Sacramento and Feather Rivers into the Yolo Bypass, which parallels the Sacramento River down the west side of the valley. Cache Creek and Putah Creek, two major tributaries which formerly joined the Sacramento River from the west, are now intercepted by the Yolo Bypass via man-made channels.[10] The main channel of the Sacramento flows south, forming the Yolo–Sacramento County line.", "Cottonwood Creek (Sacramento River tributary)\nCottonwood Creek is a major stream and tributary of the Sacramento River in Northern California. About long measured to its uppermost tributaries, the creek drains a large rural area bounded by the crest of the Coast Ranges, traversing the northwestern Sacramento Valley before emptying into the Sacramento River near the town of Cottonwood. For its entire length, it defines the boundary of Shasta and Tehama counties. Because Cottonwood Creek is the largest undammed tributary of the Sacramento River, it is known for its Chinook salmon and steelhead runs.", "Hydrological code\nThe Goose Lake example illustrates how USGS hydrologic units do not always conform strictly to drainage basins. Despite being part of the Upper Sacramento River basin (or accounting unit), HUC 180200, and the Sacramento River subregion, HUC 1802, the Goose Lake subbasin (or cataloging unit), HUC 18020001, was defined as a closed basin during the watershed and subwatershed delineation process. Therefore, the area of the Sacramento River subregion and the Upper Sacramento River basin, as published by the USGS ( and respectively), are too large by at least the size of the Goose Lake subbasin/cataloging unit, .", "Sacramento River\nIn the 19th century, gold was discovered on a tributary of the Sacramento River, starting the California Gold Rush and an enormous population influx to the state. Overland trails such as the California Trail and Siskiyou Trail guided hundreds of thousands of people to the gold fields. By the late part of the century mining had ceased to be a major part of the economy, and many immigrants turned to farming and ranching. Many populous communities were established along the Sacramento River, including the state capital of Sacramento. Intensive agriculture and mining contributed to pollution in the Sacramento River, and significant changes to the river's hydrology and environment.", "Sacramento River\nThe Sacramento River Deep Water Ship Channel was completed in 1963, and was built to facilitate navigation of large oceangoing ships from the Delta to the port of Sacramento. The channel bypasses the winding lower part of the Sacramento River between the state capital and the Delta thus reducing water travel times. It also serves to discharge floodwaters from the lower end of the Yolo Bypass. Built by the Army Corps of Engineers, the canal is 43 miles (69km) long and is maintained to a depth of 30 feet (9.1m).[88]" ]

[ "Augustus\nAugustus (Latin: Imperator Caesar Divi filius Augustus;[nb 1] 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) was a Roman statesman and military leader who was the first Emperor of the Roman Empire, controlling Imperial Rome from 27 BC until his death in AD 14.[nb 2] His status as the founder of the Roman Principate has consolidated an enduring legacy as one of the most effective and controversial leaders in human history.[1][2]" ]

[ "Constitution of the Roman Empire\nAfter the fall of the Roman Republic, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the Roman Senate to the Roman Emperor. Beginning with the first emperor, Augustus, the emperor and the senate were technically two co-equal branches of government. In practice, however the actual authority of the imperial senate was negligible, as the emperor held the true power of the state. As such, membership in the senate became sought after by individuals seeking prestige and social standing, rather than actual authority. During the reigns of the first emperors, legislative, judicial, and electoral powers were all transferred from the Roman assemblies to the senate. However, since the control that the emperor held over the senate was absolute, the senate acted as a vehicle through which the emperor exercised his autocratic powers.\nThe first emperor, Augustus, inherited a senate whose membership had been increased to 900 senators by his predecessor, the Roman Dictator Julius Caesar. Augustus reduced the size of the senate to 600 members, and after this point, the size of the senate was never again drastically altered. One could become a senator by being elected Quaestor (a magistrate with financial duties). However, one could only stand for election to the Quaestorship if one was of senatorial rank, and to be of senatorial rank, one had to be the son of a senator. If an individual was not of senatorial rank, there were two ways for that individual to become a senator. Under the first method, the emperor granted that individual the authority to stand for election to the Quaestorship, while under the second method, the emperor appointed that individual to the senate.", "Temple of Juno Moneta\nThe temple stored the Libri Lintei, the records of annually elected consuls, dating from 444 BC to 428 BC. From 273 BC, Roman silver mint and its workshops were attached to the temple. Moneta's guardianship of Roman coinage encouraged Roman moneyers to use this means as a true record for glorifying their families by commemorating heroic family legends.\nAccording to legend, it was here that the Roman sibyl foretold the coming of Christ to the emperor Augustus, who was granted a heavenly vision of the Virgin Mary standing on an altar holding the Christ child. Augustus supposedly built an altar on the spot — the altar of heaven or \"ara coeli\" - and the church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli rose around it. The original structure cannot possibly date back to the time of Augustus (Rome did not become officially Christian until the 4th century), but by the 6th century the existing church was already considered old. It was later rebuilt, with the present structure dating from the 13th century.", "Cappadocia (Roman province)\nWhen Octavian became \"Augustus\" as the first Roman Emperor in 27 BC, Cappadocia become an important and trusted Eastern client kingdom, maintaining its tributary independence under the reorganized Roman Empire. Archelaus became an important client king for Augustus' Eastern policy. Augustus considered Archelaus as a loyal ruler, making no commitment to convert Cappadocia into a direct province. As a reward for his loyalty, in 25 BC, Augustus assigned to Archelaus the territories of Cilicia along the eastern Mediterranean Sea and Lesser Armenia along the Black Sea. Augustus gave Archelaus these additional territories in order to eliminate piracy in the Eastern Mediterranean and to build a buffer between Rome and the Parthian Empire.", "Roman emperor\nThe Romans considered the office of emperor to be distinct from that of a king. The first emperor, Augustus, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch. Although Augustus could claim that his power was authentically republican, his successor, Tiberius, could not convincingly make the same claim. Nonetheless, for the first three hundred years of Roman emperors, from Augustus until Diocletian, efforts were made to portray the emperors as leaders of a republic.", "African military systems to 1800\nA decisive clash did not take place however but negotiations instead- with final outcomes that saw major concessions being granted to an enemy of Rome. The Meroitic diplomats were invited to confer with the Roman emperor Augustus himself on the Greek island of Samos where he was headquartered temporarily. That the Kushites did not appear as beaten supplicants is suggested by the aggressive message brought to the Romans by the envoys of Meroe. A bundle of golden arrows was presented with the envoys reputedly saying: \"\"The Candace sends you these arrows. If you want peace, they are a token of her friendship and warmth. If you want war, you are going to need them.\"\" Roman interests appeared focused on maintaining a quiet southern border in Egypt, and during negotiations, Augustus granted the Kushite envoys all they asked for, and also cancelled the tribute earlier demanded by Rome. Premmis (Qasr Ibrim), and areas north of Qasr Ibrim in the southern portion of the \"Thirty-Mile Strip\"] were ceded to the Kushites, the Dodekaschoinos was established as a buffer zone, and Roman forces were pulled back to the old Greek Ptolemaic border at Maharraqa. Roman emperor Augustus signed the treaty with the Kushites on Samos. The settlement bought Rome peace and quiet on its Egyptian frontier, and increased the prestige of Roman Emperor Augustus, demonstrating his skill and ability to do business with the distant Kushites, who a short time earlier had been fighting his troops. The respect accorded the emperor by the Kushite envoys as the deal was signed also created a favorable impression with other foreign ambassadors present on Samos, including envoys from India, and strengthened Augustus' hand in upcoming negotiations with the powerful Parthians.The settlement ushered in a period of peace between the two empires for around three centuries. Inscriptions erected by Queen Amanirenas on an ancient temple at Hamadab, south of Meroe, record the war and the favorable outcome for the Kushites. Along with his signature on the official treaty, Roman emperor Augustus marked the agreement by directing his administrators to collaborate with regional priests in the erection of a temple at Dendur, and inscriptions depict the emperor himself celebrating local deities. ", "Augustus (title)\nAugustus (plural augusti; ; , Latin for \"majestic\", \"the increaser\" or \"venerable\") was an ancient Roman title given as both name and title to Gaius Octavius (often referred to simply as Augustus), Rome's first Emperor. On his death, it became an official title of his successor, and was so used by Roman emperors thereafter. The feminine form \"Augusta\" was used for Roman empresses and other females of the Imperial family. The masculine and feminine forms originated in the time of the Roman Republic, in connection with things considered divine or sacred in traditional Roman religion. Their use as titles for major and minor Roman deities of the Empire associated the Imperial system and Imperial family with traditional Roman virtues and the divine will, and may be considered a feature of the Roman Imperial cult.", "Coronations in antiquity\nThe original status of the Roman emperors was in contrast to the kings of Rome who were expelled in the early years of the city, paving the way for a republic. Therefore, the Emperors were traditionally acclaimed by the Senate or by a legion speaking for the armies as a whole, and were subsequently confirmed without any special ritual. \nThe Eastern diadem was later introduced by Aurelian, but did not truly become part of the \"imperator's\" regalia until the reign of Constantine. Prior to this, Roman sovereigns wore the purple paludamentum, and sometimes a laurel wreath as emblems of their office.\nAurelian strengthened the position of Sol Invictus, whose \"corona radiata\" or \"radiant crown\" had become popular in depictions of emperors earlier in the 3rd century (Gordian III) with the development of the imperial cult. Emperor Diocletian (r. 285-305) greatly developed the ceremony surrounding the Roman Emperor; the quasi-republican ideals of Augustus' \"primus inter pares\" were abandoned for all but the Tetrarchs themselves. Diocletian took to wearing a gold crown and jewels, and forbade the use of purple cloth to all but the Emperors.", "Roman law\nThe constitution of the Roman Republic was not formal or even official. Its constitution was largely unwritten, and was constantly evolving throughout the life of the Republic. Throughout the 1st century BC, the power and legitimacy of the Roman constitution was progressively eroding. Even Roman constitutionalists, such as the senator Cicero, lost a willingness to remain faithful to it towards the end of the republic. When the Roman Republic ultimately fell in the years following the Battle of Actium and Mark Antony's suicide, what was left of the Roman constitution died along with the Republic. The first Roman Emperor, Augustus, attempted to manufacture the appearance of a constitution that still governed the Empire, by utilising that constitution's institutions to lend legitimacy to the Principate, e.g. reusing prior grants of greater imperium to substantiate Augustus' greater imperium over the Imperial provinces and the prorogation of different magistracies to justify Augustus' receipt of tribunician power. The belief in a surviving constitution lasted well into the life of the Roman Empire.", "Regnal name\nThe Roman Emperors usually had the titles of Imperator Caesar Augustus in their names. (which made their regnal names) Caesar came from the cognomen of Gaius Julius Caesar, Imperator meant Commander and Augustus meant venerable or majestic. The name usually went in two ways, Imperator (Praenomen, Nomen and Cognomen) Caesar Augustus or Imperator Caesar (Praenomen, Nomen and Cognomen) Augustus. Also Imperator became a Praenomen of Roman Emperors, Augustus and Caesar became a cognomen of theirs.", "Constitutional reforms of Augustus\nThe Constitutional reforms of Augustus were a series of laws that were enacted by the Roman Emperor Augustus between 30 BC and 2 BC, which transformed the Constitution of the Roman Republic into the Constitution of the Roman Empire. The era that began when Augustus (then named Imp. Caesar Divi Filius, but often called Octavian by historians) defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the final war of the Roman Republic in 30 BC, and ended when the Roman Senate granted Augustus the title \"\"Pater Patriae\"\" in 2 BC.", "1711 Imperial election\nOn December 17, 1692, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor created the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg and the Lutheran Ernest Augustus, Elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg, prince of Calenberg, duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and prince-bishop of Osnabrück its prince-elector. The Imperial Diet did not immediately ratify his choice. Ernest Augustus would die on January 23, 1698 and be succeeded by his son George I of Great Britain.", "Holy Roman Emperor\nThe standard designation of the Holy Roman Emperor was \"August Emperor of the Romans\" (Romanorum Imperator Augustus). When Charlemagne was crowned in800, he was styled as \"most serene Augustus, crowned by God, great and pacific emperor, governing the Roman Empire,\" thus constituting the elements of \"Holy\" and \"Roman\" in the imperial title.[6]", "History of Hanover (region)\nIn 1692, the Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold I, elevated George's son, Duke Ernest Augustus to the rank of Elector of the Empire as a reward for aid given in the War of the Grand Alliance. There were protests against the addition of a new Elector, and the elevation did not become official (with the approval of the Imperial Diet) until 1708, in the person of Ernest Augustus's son, George Louis. Though the Elector's titles were properly \"Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg\" and \"Elector of the Holy Roman Empire\", he is commonly referred to as the \"Elector of Hanover\" after his residence.", "History of the Roman Empire\nDiocletian saw that the vast Roman Empire was ungovernable by a single emperor in the face of internal pressures and military threats on two fronts. He therefore split the Empire in half along a northwest axis just east of Italy, and created two equal Emperors to rule under the title of \"Augustus\". Diocletian himself was the \"Augustus\" of the eastern half, and he made his long-time friend Maximian \"Augustus\" of the western half. In doing so, he effectively created what would become the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire.", "Constantine the Great\nConstantine the Great (Latin: Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus; Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος ὁ Μέγας; 27 February c. 272 AD[1] – 22 May 337 AD), also known as Constantine I, was a Roman Emperor who ruled between 306 and 337 AD. Born on the territory now known as Niš (Serbian Cyrillic: Ниш, located in Serbia), he was the son of Flavius Valerius Constantius, a Roman Army officer. His mother was Empress Helena. His father became Caesar, the deputy emperor in the west, in 293AD. Constantine was sent east, where he rose through the ranks to become a military tribune under Emperors Diocletian and Galerius. In 305, Constantius was raised to the rank of Augustus, senior western emperor, and Constantine was recalled west to campaign under his father in Britannia (Britain). Constantine was acclaimed as emperor by the army at Eboracum (modern-day York) after his father's death in 306 AD. He emerged victorious in a series of civil wars against Emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become sole ruler of both west and east by 324AD.", "Roman emperor\nIn 38 BC Agrippa refused a triumph for his victories under Octavian's command, and this precedent established the rule that the \"princeps\" should assume both the salutation and title of \"imperator\". It seems that from then on Octavian (later the first emperor Augustus) used \"imperator\" as a first name (\"praenomen\"): \"Imperator Caesar\" not \"Caesar imperator\". From this the title came to denote the supreme power and was commonly used in that sense. Otho was the first to imitate Augustus, but only with Vespasian did \"imperator\" (emperor) become the official title by which the ruler of the Roman Empire was known.", "Roman emperor\nThe Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period (starting in 27 BC). The emperors used a variety of different titles throughout history. Often when a given Roman is described as becoming \"emperor\" in English, it reflects his taking of the title \"Augustus\" or \"Caesar\". Another title often used was \"imperator\", originally a military honorific. Early Emperors also used the title \"princeps\" (first citizen). Emperors frequently amassed republican titles, notably \"princeps senatus\", \"consul\" and \"pontifex maximus\".", "Eresos\nIt is unclear what role Eresos played in the Mithridatic Wars against Rome (88-63 BCE) and whether, like Mytilene, it subsequently suffered for its anti-Roman stance following victory over Mithridates VI of Pontus. However, by the reign of Augustus the elites of Eresos had become fiercely pro-Roman. There were cults to the Emperor Augustus, his wife Livia, and his heirs Lucius and Gaius Caesar, and the people of Eresos further honoured Gaius Caesar and Claudius Nero, later the Emperor Tiberius, by electing them honorary \"prytanis\" in certain years, the most important magistracy at Eresos. Prominent Eresian aristocrats won Roman citizenship for their descendants by participating in the Imperial cult, dedicating altars and temples to the Imperial family, and arranging festivals in their honour. A fragmentary inscription indicates that Eresos successfully petitioned Augustus in 12 BCE on an unknown matter, while in c. 7-4 BCE Publius Quinctilius Varus, the Roman senator and friend of Augustus later defeated at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 CE, may have visited Eresos on his way to Syria and conferred Roman citizenship on one of the city's prominent families. In addition, numerous funerary epitaphs and other monuments indicate the existence of a permanently resident Roman population form the 1st century BCE onwards.", "Tamuda\nUnder the Emperor Augustus Romans occupied the city. Around 42 AD, Roman garrisons leveled Tamuda during an insurrection and in its stead erected a fortified settlement. The Emperor Augustus' successors later rebuilt the city as a Roman castrum.", "Mark Antony\nThrough his daughters by Octavia, he would become the paternal great grandfather of Roman Emperor Caligula, the maternal grandfather of Emperor Claudius, and both maternal great-great-grandfather and paternal great-great uncle of the Emperor Nero of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the very family, as represented by Octavian Augustus, that he had fought to defeat. Through his eldest daughter, he would become ancestor to the long line of kings and co-rulers of the Bosporan Kingdom, the longest-living Roman client kingdom, as well as the rulers and royalty of several other Roman client states. Through his daughter by Cleopatra, Antony would become ancestor to the royal family of Mauretania, another Roman client kingdom, while through his sole surviving son Iullus, he would be ancestor to several famous Roman statesmen.", "Tiberius Claudius Nero (praetor 42 BC)\nTiberius Claudius Nero, often known as Tiberius Nero and Nero (85–33 BC) was a politician who lived in the last century of the Roman Republic. He was the first husband of Livia, but was forced to divorce her in 38 BC so that she could marry the future emperor Augustus. Nero was the father of the second Roman emperor Tiberius, (who became the stepson of the emperor Augustus and was adopted by Augustus as his heir), and Roman general Nero Claudius Drusus. He was also the paternal grandfather of Emperor Claudius, General Germanicus, and Consul Drusus Julius Caesar, paternal great-grandfather of Emperor Caligula and Empresses Agrippina the Younger and Claudia Octavia and maternal great-great-grandfather of Emperor Nero.", "Roman economy\nTrade in the early Roman Empire allowed Rome to become as vast and great as it did. Emperor Augustus, despite his intense public and private spending, took control of trade from the government and expanded Roman influence by opening new trading markets in overseas areas such as Britain, Germany, and Africa. Rome dominated trade and influence over the world in the age of the Roman Empire but could not advance in their industrial and manufacturing processes. This ultimately threatened the expanding trading and commerce industries that Augustus brought about, as well as the strong standing of the Empire in the eyes of the Romans and the world.", "Germanicus\nGermanicus was born in Rome on 24 May 15 BC to Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor, and had two younger siblings: a sister, Livilla; and a brother, Claudius. His paternal grandmother was Livia, who had divorced his grandfather, Tiberius Claudius Nero around 24 years before Germanicus birth, and was married to the emperor Augustus. His maternal grandparents were the triumvir Mark Antony and Augustus's sister Octavia Minor. Germanicus was a key figure in Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire. As well as being the great-nephew of Augustus, he was the nephew of the second emperor, Tiberius, his son Gaius would become the third emperor, Caligula, who would be succeeded by Germanicus's brother Claudius, and his grandson would become the fifth emperor, Nero.", "Julio-Claudian family tree\nOctavianus, becoming Augustus the first Roman emperor, married Scribonia who gave him a daughter (Julia the Elder). His last marriage was with Livia, a Claudia who had been married to a Claudius. Their son Tiberius, by birth a Claudius, was later adopted by Augustus, thus, like his stepfather Augustus, becoming one of the Julii Caesares by adoption.", "Aufidia\nShe married the future praetor, Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus. They had at least one child: a daughter Livia Drusilla (58 BC-29). Her husband also adopted Marcus Livius Drusus Libo, who served as a Roman consul. Livia was to become the first Roman Empress and third wife of the first Roman Emperor Augustus. Aufidia would be the maternal grandmother to Roman emperor Tiberius Claudius Nero and Roman General Nero Claudius Drusus. The Roman emperors Caligula, Claudius and Nero were her direct descendants.", "List of Roman emperors\nThe Roman emperors were rulers of the Roman Empire, wielding power over its citizens and military, dating from the granting of the title of Augustus to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus by the Roman Senate in 27 BC. Augustus maintained a façade of republican rule, rejecting monarchical titles but calling himself princeps senatus (first man of the senate)[1] and princeps civitatis (first citizen of the state). The title of Augustus was conferred on his successors to the imperial position. The style of government instituted by Augustus is called the Principate and continued until reforms by Diocletian. The modern word 'emperor' derives from the title imperator, which was granted by an army to a successful general; during the initial phase of the empire, it still had to be earned by the princeps.", "Caligula\nCaligula (; Latin: \"Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus\"; 31 August 12 – 24 January 41 AD) was Roman emperor from AD 37 to AD 41. The son of the popular Roman general Germanicus and Augustus' granddaughter Agrippina the Elder, Caligula was born into the first ruling family of the Roman Empire, conventionally known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Germanicus' uncle and adoptive father, Tiberius, succeeded Augustus as emperor of Rome in AD 14.", "Claudia Pulchra (great-niece of Augustus)\nClaudia Pulchra (\"PIR\" C 1116, 14 BC-AD 26) was a Patrician woman of Ancient Rome who lived during the reigns of the Roman emperors Augustus and Tiberius. She was a daughter of Claudia Marcella Minor and the Roman consul of 12 BC, Marcus Valerius Messalla Appianus. Her younger brother was Marcus Valerius Messalla Barbatus, the father of Valeria Messalina who was her niece and would become the wife of the Roman emperor Claudius. Her maternal grandparents were the consul Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor and Octavia the Younger, sister of Augustus. Hence she was a grand-niece of Augustus.", "History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire\nWhen Augustus died in 14 AD, the Principate legally ended. While Augustus had granted Tiberius the legal standing that he needed in order to become \"Princeps\" (i.e., Roman Emperor), Augustus could not legally make Tiberius \"Princeps\". However, Tiberius' legal powers, as well as his status as the chosen heir of Augustus, gave him an opportunity that his ambition could not refuse. Tiberius knew that if he secured the support of the army, the rest of the government would soon follow. Therefore, Tiberius assumed command of the Praetorian Guard, and used his Proconsular \"imperium\" to force the armies to swear allegiance to him. As soon as this occurred, the senate and the magistrates acquiesced. Tiberius' efforts were so successful, that when the senate declared him \"Princeps\", he made his acceptance appear to be a concession to the demands of the senators. Under Tiberius, the power to elect magistrates was transferred from the assemblies to the senate. Now, the assemblies were only used to hear the results of magisterial elections. In addition, they did retain some theoretical legislative powers. When Tiberius died, Caligula was proclaimed emperor by the senate. Caligula transferred the electoral powers back to the assemblies, but then quickly returned those powers to the senate. In 41 Caligula was assassinated, and for two days following his assassination, the senate debated the merits of restoring the republic. Due to the demands of the army, however, Claudius was ultimately declared emperor. Claudius' antiquarian interests resulted in his attempts to revive the old Censorship, and to return some degree of independence back to the senate. Ultimately, Claudius was killed, and Nero was declared emperor.\nArguably, the most significant flaw in the constitution left by Augustus concerned the matter of succession. This deadly flaw was violently exposed in the year 69. Augustus had established a standing army, where individual soldiers served under the same military governors in the same provinces over an extended period of time. The consequence was that the soldiers in the provinces developed a degree of loyalty to their commanders, which they did not have for the emperor. Thus the empire was, in a sense, a union of inchoate principalities, which could have disintegrated at any time. The first indication of a nationalist movement appeared in Gaul (modern France) in 68, but this movement ended when its leader, C. Julius Vindex, was defeated by an army under L. Verginius Rufus. Rufus was the governor of Upper Germany, and while he was declared \"imperator\" by his soldiers, he decided not to use his support to march on Rome and make himself emperor. He did not decline this opportunity because he was loyal to the emperor Nero, but rather because of his own low birth, and his belief that his low birth might make it difficult for him to accomplish anything as emperor. Shortly after Rufus had been declared \"imperator\", Ser. Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, was proclaimed emperor by his troops. In Rome, the emperor Nero quickly lost his supporters and committed suicide. Galba, however, did not prove to be a wise leader. He chose to punish Rufus' troops, and to antagonize the Praetorian Guard by not fulfilling promises which had been made to them.", "Adoption in ancient Rome\nIn the Roman Empire, adoption was the most common way of acceding to the throne without use of force. The second emperor, Tiberius, was the adopted son of Augustus, beginning a general tradition that the Emperor adopt his successor. During the Roman Empire's first 200 years, this tradition was common, with Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Verus all becoming Emperor through adoption." ]

[ "Satellite television\nBy 1980, satellite television was well established in the USA and Europe. On 26 April 1982, the first satellite channel in the UK, Satellite Television Ltd. (later Sky1), was launched.[71] Its signals were transmitted from the ESA's Orbital Test Satellites.[71] Between 1981 and 1985, TVRO systems' sales rates increased as prices fell. Advances in receiver technology and the use of gallium arsenide FET technology enabled the use of smaller dishes. Five hundred thousand systems, some costing as little as $2000, were sold in the US in 1984.[68][72] Dishes pointing to one satellite were even cheaper.[73] People in areas without local broadcast stations or cable television service could obtain good-quality reception with no monthly fees.[68][70] The large dishes were a subject of much consternation, as many people considered them eyesores, and in the US most condominiums, neighborhoods, and other homeowner associations tightly restricted their use, except in areas where such restrictions were illegal.[3] These restrictions were altered in 1986 when the Federal Communications Commission ruled all of them illegal.[65] A municipality could require a property owner to relocate the dish if it violated other zoning restrictions, such as a setback requirement, but could not outlaw their use.[65] The necessity of these restrictions would slowly decline as the dishes got smaller.[65]" ]

[ "Orbita (TV system)\nThe Orbita system is based on communication satellites in highly elliptical Molniya orbits, as well as on many ground downlink TV stations for reception and relaying TV signals to antennas of TV sets of many local areas. The full deployment of the Orbita satellite system took place on 25 October 1967 when ground downlink stations of some cities of Soviet Siberia and the Far East began to receive regular TV programmes from Moscow-based uplink stations via a constellation of Molniya satellites.", "Dream Satellite TV\nAt the time when the first DVB-version of Nagravision is not yet introduced, Dream Satellite used Conax CAS3 for the main broadcast until they switch to Nagravision 2 and Conax CAS7 encryption on 2006. In 2009, following the Dish Network anti-piracy upgrade, a conditional access swap to the smart card has been completed. This also made the smart card system transitioned to Nagravision Merlin and Conax CAS7.5. ", "Hyderabad\nTelevision broadcasting in Hyderabad began in 1974 with the launch of \"Doordarshan\", the Government of India's public service broadcaster, which transmits two free-to-air terrestrial television channels and one satellite channel. Private satellite channels started in July 1992 with the launch of Star TV. Satellite TV channels are accessible via cable subscription, direct-broadcast satellite services or internet-based television. Hyderabad's first dial-up internet access became available in the early 1990s and was limited to software development companies. The first public internet access service began in 1995, with the first private sector internet service provider (ISP) starting operations in 1998. In 2015, high-speed public WiFi was introduced in parts of the city.", "Orange Belgium\nIn October 2010 Mobistar launched a €55/month hybrid satellite/internet TV package, Starpack to provide phone customers with multi-channel TV. Mobistar TV combines DTH satellite TV with ADSL Internet to provide over 500 satellite TV and radio channels, along with interactive services, catch-up TV and content-on-demand via the Internet, and programme recording management via a smart phone. The satellite TV package includes Flemish national channels, HD and 3D channels, and a range of European free-to-air channels, all transmitted from Astra satellites. Mobistar has announced that this service will end on September 15, 2013.", "TV and FM DX\nAlthough not by strict definition terrestrial TV DX, satellite UHF TVRO reception is related in certain aspects. For example, reception of satellite signals requires sensitive receiving systems and large outdoor antenna systems. However, unlike terrestrial TV DX, satellite UHF TV reception is far easier to predict. The geosynchronous satellite at height is a line of sight reception source. If the satellite is above the horizon, it can be generally received, if it is below the horizon, reception is not possible.Digital radio and digital television can also be received; however, there is much greater difficulty with reception of weak signals due to the cliff effect, particularly with the ATSC TV standard mandated in the U.S. However, when the signal is strong enough to be decoded identification is much easier than with analog TV as the picture is guaranteed to be noise-free when present. For DVB-T, hierarchical modulation may allow a lower-definition signal to be received even if the details of the full signal cannot be decoded. In reality, though, it's actually much more difficult to get DVB-T E-skip reception as the lowest channel DVB-T transmissions operate on is channel E5 which is 178 MHz. A unique issue observed on analog TV at the end of the DTV transition in the United States was that very distant analog stations were viewable in the hours after the permanent shutdown of local analog transmitters in June 2009. This was particularly pronounced because June is one of the strongest months for DX reception on VHF, and most digital stations were assigned to UHF.", "SES Broadband\nAn upgrade was introduced in 2008 to enable an SES Broadband dish to be used for simultaneous reception of normal satellite TV from satellites at the Astra 19.2°E or the Astra 28.2°E positions.", "Tricolor TV\nAt May 2007 Tricolor TV introduced commercial pack of channels. To this end, the satellite Eutelsat W4 was rented another transponder. The package includes 10 channels (later package Optimum). 10 December 2007 the company began broadcasting in Siberia from satellite Bonum-1. 1 March 2008 Tricolor TV began commercial broadcasting. Technology partners of Tricolor TV Siberia became Russian Satellite Communications Company and Harmonic Inc.", "Television in Ethiopia\nTelevision in Ethiopia was introduced in 1946 with the government owned ETV. Color television was introduced in 1964 in order to commemorate the founding of Workers' Party of Ethiopia (WPE). Ethiopia got its first private channel in 2008 with EBS TV, a US based satellite TV channel mostly focused on infotainment.", "Bell TV\nThe ExpressVu name was retired in August 2008 along with the Today Just Got Better advertising campaign. Bell's television services as a whole are now simply called Bell TV. When disambiguation is required, the satellite service is called Bell Satellite TV.", "What Satellite and Digital TV\nThe magazine was originally launched as What Satellite by WV Publications in May 1986, as an eight page monthly supplement with What Video magazine\nIt became a monthly magazine in May 1989, following the launch of the first Astra satellite and Sky TV, and changed its name to What Satellite TV for the October 1992 issue. WV Publications was purchased by Highbury House Communications plc in 1998, which published the title until Summer 2005 when Future Publishing acquired What Satellite TV along with the majority of the Highbury House specialist consumer titles for £30.5 million. What Satellite TV focused exclusively on satellite television, including the Astra and Eutelsat satellites and the Sky Digital platform until June 2002 when it also started to cover digital terrestrial television, including ITV Digital, Freeview and Top Up TV and renamed itself to its current name. It thereafter covered all aspects of digital TV, including broadband and internet-delivered services such as Virgin Media, BT Vision, TalkTalk TV, the BBC iPlayer and 4oD, and digital radio. The magazine incorporated listings for many years, and did so since early editions. It also included features on upcoming TV shows, film reviews and interviews.", "Media of Greece\nPay-TV was introduced by Multichoice Hellas with its NOVA bouquet of satellite channels. Poor infrastructure has kept back the development of cable TV (below 1% penetration). Until 1998, only public service broadcasters could lay and operate cable infrastructure. At 8.9%, Greece had the lowest EU rate of cable and satellite TV penetration in 2010.", "Mini Studio\nEvery year, Mini Studio produced one original Musical Theater bridging their TV characters and storylines to make fantasy worlds come to life onstage. They attracted audiences of 60,000 a year. Ghazy Feghaly wrote and directed a total of 22 original plays. Most of the content was originally in French. English and Arabic began to be introduced in 2000, when the show started being broadcast across the world through satellite TV and the internet.", "Astra (satellite)\nAt the end of 2015, Astra satellite broadcasts were received in 156 million households in Europe. In all, 35% of all European TV households receive DTH satellite TV, 26% receive cable TV, 12% receive IPTV, and 27% receive terrestrial broadcasts. With provision via DTH, cable and IPTV, 61% of European TV homes receive TV from Astra satellites. 71% of all European homes that receive satellite TV, receive TV from Astra satellites; and 93% of all homes that receive IPTV or cable, receive TV from Astra satellites.", "General Satellite\nGS Group CSMW is the only system developed in Russia, introduced in 2007 and tested on millions of viewers of the leading satellite TV operator, Tricolor TV (over 7 million subscribers).", "General Satellite\nTricolor TV is the Russia’s largest satellite TV, and most quickly growing satellite TV in the world. As for beginning of August 2010, over 6.5 millions of families were among its subscribers, i.e. around 80% from the total number of Russian digital TV users. Tricolor TV subscribers are connected and served based on CMW developed by General Satellite. General Satellite Corporation is developer and producer of set-top boxes for this project as well.", "KWES-TV\nUnder Grayson's ownership, KVKM added two satellite stations: KWAB, and KAVE-TV (channel 6) in Carlsbad, New Mexico. The latter station served as a KVKM/KMOM satellite from 1966 until 1969, when KVKM was sold to Grayson, and KAVE became a satellite of KELP-TV in El Paso. KAVE later sold to Stanley Marsh 3 and continued as a satellite of KVIA-TV in El Paso. (KAVE later became KOCT, a satellite of KOAT-TV in Albuquerque, New Mexico.)", "Tenma Shibuya\nShibuya appeared quite frequently on TV in China in the autumn of 2015. Including re-aired shows, five TV series Shibuya played；Tiezaishao, Ershisidaoguai, Jieqiang, Xuanya, Xuebao, was broadcast on over ten TV channels including Anhui, Beijing, Zhejiang satellite, CCTV-8, Guizhou satellite, Xizang satellite, Shanxi satellite, Anhui satellite, Tianjin satellite. A number of Shibuya's fans commented and discussed the roles Shibuya portrayed, especially of his new drama, Tiezaishao. They were moved when his passion and sensitivity came to an end when he had to kill the love of his life. Shibuya's performance receives upmost praise for its subtle, complex transition of emotions. Audiences were impressed especially by the compassionate image Shibuya has project, opposed to the usual, monstrous Japanese characters in Chinese productions.", "Television channel\nBecause some regions have had difficulty picking up over-the-air signals (particularly in mountainous areas), alternative means of distribution such as direct-to-home satellite and cable television have been introduced. Television channels specifically built to run on cable or satellite blur the line between TV station and TV network. That fact led some early cable channels to call themselves superstations.", "Israeli Public Broadcasting Corporation\nSince May 15, 2017, the IPBC broadcasts two television channels on national DVB-T2 transmitters, satellite feed, the HOT cable company, the YES satellite company, smaller pay-TV providers (such as Cellcom TV and Partner TV) and a free 24/7 live stream on the Internet. In 2018, KAN introduced a 4K resolution broadcast on Channel 511 (currently used for broadcasts of the FIFA World Cup).", "Eureka, Nunavut\nAt Eureka's latitude, a geosynchronous communications satellite, if due south, would require an antenna to be pointed nearly horizontally; satellites farther east or west along that orbit would be below the horizon. Telephone access and television broadcasts arrived in 1982 when Operation Hurricane resulted in the establishment of a satellite receiving station at nearby Skull Point, which has an open view to the south. The low power Channel 9 TV transmitter at Skull Point was the world's most northern TV station at the time. In the 1980s, TV audio was often connected to the telephone to feed CBC-TV news to CHAR-FM in isolated Alert. More recently, CANDAC has installed what is likely the world's most northerly geosynchronous satellite ground-station to provide Internet-based communications to PEARL.", "Television in Saudi Arabia\nTelevision in Saudi Arabia was introduced in 1964, however, dominated by just five major companies: Dubai TV, Middle East Broadcasting Center,SM Enterprise TV , Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation, Rotana and Saudi TV. Together, they control 80% of the pan-Arabee ENJ broadcasting market. Though private television stations cannot operate from Saudi soil, the country is a major market for pan-Arab satellite and pay-TV. Saudi investors are behind the major networks MBC, which is based in Dubai, and Emirates based OSN. Although satellite dishes have been officially banned since 1990, Saudi Arabia has the second highest satellite TV penetration in the Arab Region, at 97%, and there are 85 free-to-air satellite channels headquartered in Saudi Arabia.", "Satellite television\nSatellite Television for the Asian Region (STAR), a service based in Mumbai and Hong Kong which now provides satellite TV coverage to Asia and Australia, introduced satellite TV to the Asian region in the early 1990s. It began broadcasting signals using the AsiaSat 1 satellite on 1 January 1991.", "DigitAlb\nDigitAlb is an Albanian media, digital satellite and terrestrial TV platform based in Tirana, Albania. The TV platform began terrestrial broadcasts in July 2004, and satellite broadcasts by the end of that year. At the same time, DigitAlb began broadcasting some channels of defunct AlbaniaSat's satellite platform SAT + which eventually went bankrupt. DigitAlb closely collaborates with sports package SuperSport while having introduced wireless DVB-H technology for wireless TV for the first time in Albania since 2006. The company forms part of Top Media Group together with Top Channel, Top Albania Radio, Top Gold Radio, Gazeta Shqip, Shqip Magazine, Top News, VGA Studio, My Music Radio, and musicAL. In Europe, Digitalb will broadcast until 2020 on Eutelsat.", "Captain Satellite\nCaptain Satellite was an afternoon TV program on KTVU-2 in Oakland, California. Like many kids' shows of this period, it took advantage of the interest engendered by science fiction and the early space program. The Captain was played by Bob March, a local TV personality. His signature outfit was a helmet and a dark uniform under a light-colored, triangular vest that had a thunderbolt passing through a globe. The set was a cutaway rocket ship called the Starfinder II that blasted off each day. Guest children would co-pilot under Captain Satellite's supervision. As the ship orbited on auto-pilot, the children would participate in games to win prizes (found in the \"Space Locker\"), and in live promotions. Old Thirties cartoons like Scrappy and serials would be introduced between breaks, and occasionally there were special appearances, as when The Three Stooges came to visit the Starfinder II.", "Geographical usage of television\nDespite being the most economically advanced country on the continent, South Africa did not introduce TV until 1976, owing to opposition from the apartheid regime. Nigeria was one of the first countries in Africa to introduce television, in 1959, followed by Zimbabwe (then Rhodesia) in 1961, while Zanzibar was the first in Africa to introduce colour television, in 1973. (Tanzania itself did not introduce television until 1994).\nThe main satellite TV providers are the South African Multichoice DStv service, and the predominantly French language Canal Horizons, owned by France's Canal Plus.", "Astro (television)\nOn 18 February 2012, Astro introduced NJOI as an entry-level DTH satellite TV service. It is the first non-subscription-based satellite TV. As of February 2015, NJOI has 24 SDTV channels, 5 HDTV channels and all radio channels.", "What Satellite and Digital TV\nThe magazine was merged with sister title \"Satellite TV Monthly\" (formerly known as \"Satellite TV Europe\", which was purchased by Highbury in 2001) when that magazine ceased publication in 2005; starting with the June 2005 issue.", "Media of Pakistan\nThe first television station began broadcasting from Lahore on 26 November 1964. Television in Pakistan remained the government's exclusive control until 1990 when Shalimar Television Network (STN) and Network Television Marketing (NTM) launched Pakistan’s first private TV channel. Which was shut down very soon by PTV bureaucratic conspiracies. But it was of no use as till then cable TV network was already introduced in urbanized cities, like Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Lahore and Karachi. Foreign satellite TV channels were added during the 1990s.", "TV Travel Shop\nFrom 2001, TV Travel Shop 2 was introduced broadcasting on cable and satellite, offering late bargains, new places and repeats of shows from TV Travel Shop. This was positioned next to TV Travel Shop on Sky Digital and NTL.", "Satellite television by region\nSatellite TV in the Philippines began in 2001 when the first pay DTH service Dream Satellite TV was launched. In 2009, both Cignal and G Sat were launched on the NSS 11 broadcasting satellite. Later, these satellite TV providers began offering HD. However, G Sat HD has different channels than Cignal HD. Later in 2012, Cignal began to move their programming to SES-7 for similar coverage. These are the main satellite TV providers in the Philippines:" ]

[ "Influenza vaccine\nIn 1931, viral growth in embryonated hens' eggs was reported by Ernest William Goodpasture and colleagues at Vanderbilt University. The work was extended to growth of influenza virus by several workers, including Thomas Francis, Jonas Salk, Wilson Smith and Macfarlane Burnet, leading to the first experimental influenza vaccines.[137] In the 1940s, the US military developed the first approved inactivated vaccines for influenza, which were used in the Second World War.[138] Hen's eggs continued to be used to produce virus used in influenza vaccines, but manufacturers made improvements in the purity of the virus by developing improved processes to remove egg proteins and to reduce systemic reactivity of the vaccine.[139] Recently, the US FDA approved influenza vaccines made by growing virus in cell cultures[140] and influenza vaccines made from recombinant proteins[141] have been approved, with plant-based influenza vaccines being tested in clinical trials.[142]" ]

[ "Flu Shot (30 Rock)\n\"Flu Shot\" was written by Jon Pollack and directed by Don Scardino. This was Pollack's second writing credit, having written season two episode \"Greenzo\". This was Scardino's seventeenth directed episode. \"Flu Shot\" originally aired on NBC as the eighth episode of the show's third season in the United States on January 15, 2009.", "Flu Shot (30 Rock)\n\"Flu Shot\" received a mixed response from television critics, with Robert Canning of IGN concluding that the episode fell below \"30 Rock\" standards. According to the Nielsen ratings system, it was watched by 6.6 million households during its original broadcast, and received a 3.2 rating/8 share among viewers in the 18–49 demographic.", "2009 flu pandemic\nIn December 2012, 2010, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported 314 samples of the 2009 pandemic H1N1 flu tested worldwide have shown resistance to oseltamivir (Tamiflu). This is not totally unexpected as 99.6% of the seasonal H1N1 flu strains tested have developed resistance to oseltamivir. No circulating flu has yet shown any resistance to zanamivir (Relenza), the other available anti-viral.", "Bird Flu (song)\nThe music video was produced and directed by M.I.A. and a few creative consultants. It was shown at the 2008 San Francisco International Asian American Film Festival in the \"Music Video Asia 2008\" category. M.I.A. talked about the filming location for Bird Flu and how it had a personal connection for her:\n\"Where we shot the ‘Bird Flu’ video...it was really close to the refugee camp where all the Sri Lankans get off the boat in India in the south, just outside Chennai. I went to this press office from 1986 or something, and found all these pictures of the refugees and stuff. I didn’t find pictures of us but I found pictures of my dad.\" Clothes were made for the \"Bird Flu\" project with Carri Mundane who with M.I.A., Steve Loveridge, and Sugu Arulpragasam, moved to Tamil Nadu during the shoot. Dancers were filmed auditioning for the video, which were posted on her YouTube account. She chose the boy featured in the video for inventing her the Bird Flu dance, saying he \"can out dance anything I've ever seen.\"", "2009–10 NHL season\nThe 2009 flu pandemic hit the Oilers hard with several players out for stretches in October. The Flames received their flu shots ahead of the general public, causing an Alberta health official to be fired. The Maple Leafs and the Canucks teams both had members of their staff \"jump the queue\" and receive flu shots ahead of the general public and were criticized in the media.", "2009 flu pandemic in India\nSwine flu death toll crosses 500 in India. \n\"New Delhi, November 10\"—The death toll of the H1N1 flu in India is rising in leaps and bounds with 18 new fatalities reported Monday. Within the short space of a little over three months, the mortality figure has shot up to 503.", "Dr. Ed and the Flu Shots\nAs Dr. Ed and the Flu Shots, they've opened for touring bands like Big D & the Kids Table, Mad Conductor, Synthetic Elements, Evil Empire, Suburban Legends, Patent Pending, MSC, Knock Out, Fatter Than Albert, One Night Band, The Expos, and Voodoo Glow Skulls.", "2009 flu pandemic vaccine\nAfter a meeting with the WHO on 14 May 2009, pharmaceutical companies said they were ready to begin making a swine flu vaccine. According to news reports, the WHO's experts will present recommendations to WHO Director-General Margaret Chan, who was expected to issue advice to vaccine manufacturers and the Sixty-second World Health Assembly. WHO's Keiji Fukuda told reporters \"These are enormously complicated questions, and they are not something that anyone can make in a single meeting.\" Most flu vaccine companies can not make both seasonal flu vaccine and pandemic flu vaccine at the same time. Production takes months and it is impossible to switch halfway through if health officials make a mistake. If the swine flu mutates, scientists aren't sure how effective a vaccine made now from the current strain will remain. Rather than wait on the WHO decision, however, some countries in Europe have decided to go ahead with early vaccine orders.", "Flu season\nAccording to the U.S. Department of Health, a growing number of large companies provide their employees with seasonal flu shots, either at a small cost to the employee or as a free service.", "Swine influenza\nSince November 2009, 14 deaths as a result of swine flu in Northern Ireland have been reported. The majority of the victims were reported to have pre-existing health conditions which had lowered their immunity. This closely corresponds to the 19 patients who had died in the year prior due to swine flu, where 18 of the 19 were determined to have lowered immune systems. Because of this, many mothers who have just given birth are strongly encouraged to get a flu shot because their immune systems are vulnerable. Also, studies have shown that people between the ages of 15 and 44 have the highest rate of infection. Although most people now recover, having any conditions that lower one's immune system increases the risk of having the flu become potentially lethal. In Northern Ireland now, approximately 56% of all people under 65 who are entitled to the vaccine have gotten the shot, and the outbreak is said to be under control.", "Flu season\nIndividuals who acquire the human immune deficiency virus (HIV) are very prone to a variety of infections. HIV has a tremendous capacity to destroy the body's immune system and this makes one prone to not only viral infections but also bacterial, fungal, and protozoa disorders. People with HIV are at an increased risk of serious flu-related complications. Many reports have shown that individuals with HIV can develop serious pneumonias which need hospitalization and aggressive antibiotic therapy. Moreover, people with HIV have a longer flu season and are at a high risk of death. Vaccination with the flu shot has been shown to boost the immune system and protect against the seasonal flu in some patients with HIV; individuals who have HIV should only get vaccinated with the inactivated influenza vaccine. Any HIV patient who has been exposed to other people with influenza should see a physician to determine if there is a need for anti viral medications.", "Pandemic H1N1/09 virus\n, the WHO reported 314 samples of 2009 pandemic H1N1 flu tested worldwide have shown resistance to oseltamivir (Tamiflu). This is not totally unexpected as 99.6% of the seasonal H1N1 flu strains tested have developed resistance to amantadine and rimantadine. No circulating flu has yet shown any resistance to zanamivir (Relenza), the other available anti-viral.", "Scott I Kahan\nUSA Today: “Flu Shots Less Effective in People Who Are Obese, Study Finds.” October 25, 2011.", "TriHealth\nJust before the Thanksgiving holiday in 2012 TriHealth terminated workers who refused flu shots.", "Flu Shot (30 Rock)\nNot all reviews were negative. Claire Zulkey for \"The A.V. Club\" wrote, \"For me, there are two types of episodes of \"30 Rock\": the really really good ones, where all the parts come together to make a wonderful whole, and the pretty good ones, where there memorable jokes and lines are all there, but put all together create a kind of uneven episode. That struck me as tonight's type of episode.\" Though, Zulkey felt that the zombies scene \"didn't really work\" except for when Liz smashed a picture frame over Pete Hornberger's (Scott Adsit) head. She said that the \"funniest part\" from \"Flu Shot\" was the look on Jack and Elisa's faces \"as the animals from \"The Lion King\" walked through the audience.\" \"The Palm Beach Post\"’s Kevin D. Thompson, in his review of \"Flu Shot\", said it featured many funny lines.", "The Computer Wore Menace Shoes\nHomer wakes up on the \"Island\", a place where the inhabitants are people who have been exiled from society for harboring dangerous secrets. Homer learns from the organization's leader, Number Two, that a story he wrote about flu vaccinations containing a mind-control serum is true; the mind control drug is calibrated to drive people into a frenzy of shopping, which is why flu shots are administered shortly before Christmas. While Homer is trapped on the Island, he is replaced by a doppelgänger who looks identical to him but speaks with a thick German accent.", "Implementation intention\nPlanning prompts can also increase the likelihood that individuals will get flu shots. In a study conducted by Katherine L. Milkman, John Beshears, James J. Choi, David Laibson, and Brigitte C. Madrian (2011), randomly assigned employees at a Midwestern company received a mailing that prompted them to write down the date and time that they would get their flu shot, while the remaining employees received a letter with only the clinic information. Those who received the plan-making letter were 4 percentage points more likely to get a flu shot.", "Influenza vaccine\nInfluenza vaccines, also known as flu shots or flu jabs, are vaccines that protect against infection by influenza viruses.[2] A new version of the vaccine is developed twice a year, as the influenza virus rapidly changes.[2] While their effectiveness varies from year to year, most provide modest to high protection against influenza.[2][3] The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that vaccination against influenza reduces sickness, medical visits, hospitalizations, and deaths.[4] When an immunized worker does catch the flu, they are on average back at work a half day sooner.[5] Vaccine effectiveness in those under two years old and over 65 years old remains unknown due to the low quality of the research.[6][7] Vaccinating children may protect those around them.[2]", "2009 flu pandemic\nThe initial outbreak received a week of near-constant media attention. Epidemiologists cautioned that the number of cases reported in the early days of an outbreak can be very inaccurate and deceptive, due to several causes, among them selection bias, media bias and incorrect reporting by governments. Inaccuracies could also be caused by authorities in different countries looking at differing population groups. Furthermore, countries with poor health care systems and older laboratory facilities may take longer to identify or report cases. \"[E]ven in developed countries the [numbers of flu deaths] are uncertain, because medical authorities don't usually verify who actually died of influenza and who died of a flu-like illness\". Joseph S. Bresee (the CDC flu division's epidemiology chief) and Michael Osterholm (director of the Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy) have pointed out that millions of people have had H1N1 flu, usually in a mild form, so the numbers of laboratory-confirmed cases were actually meaningless, and in July 2009, the WHO stopped keeping count of individual cases and focused more on major outbreaks.", "Kool-Aid Kids vs Dr. Ed and the Flu Shots\nKool-Aid Kids vs Dr. Ed and the Flu Shots was a split EP with Kool-Aid Kids. Each band contributed five songs.", "Universal flu vaccine\nA universal flu vaccine is flu vaccine that is effective against all influenza virus strains regardless of the virus subtype or viral genetic drift. Hence it should not require modification from year to year. As of 2017, there was no approved universal flu vaccine for general use, but several have been in development.", "Childhood immunizations in the United States\nThe influenza vaccine comes in two forms, the inactivated form which is what is typically thought of as the \"flu shot\", and a live but attenuated (weakened) form that is sprayed into the nostrils. it is recommended to get the flu shot each year since it is remade each year to protect against the viruses that are most likely to cause disease that year. Unfortunately there are a vast array of strains of influenza, so a single vaccine can not prevent all of them. The shot prevents 3 or 4 different influenza viruses and it takes about 2 weeks after the injection for protection to develop. This protection lasts from several months to a year. \nMulti-dose vials of the flu shot contain thimerosal which was once believed to cause autism in children. Studies have shown that this correlation between thimerosal and autism does not exist. Thimerosal is used in these multi-dose vials to prevent contamination from multiple preparations. Contamination of the vaccine could cause serious infection. In a .5mL dose (which is in a single flu shot), there is 25 µg (micrograms) of mercury. This is 0.01% of the dose. Single dose vials do not contain thimerosal.", "2009 flu pandemic in Asia\nThe plans of the WHO to distribute swine flu vaccines, contributed by developed countries, to a selected 100 developing countries in November; North Korea is included in the priority list.", "2009 flu pandemic in the Philippines\nOn August 2, San Juan City officials created a city ordinance seeking PhP 1 million budget seeking for an immediate purchase for health workers in the said city. The resolution will be known as “Battle Against Swine Flu Virus” Ordinance. At the same time, around 3,500 employees of the Caloocan City Hall were given free ant-flu vaccine shots, \"to strengthen local government employees' immune system against seasonal flu\".", "Flu Shot (30 Rock)\n\"Flu Shot\" is the eighth episode of the third season of the American television comedy series \"30 Rock\". It was written by Jon Pollack, and directed by series producer Don Scardino. The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) in the United States on January 15, 2009. Guest stars in this episode include George Bartenieff, Scott Bryce, Salma Hayek, and Chris Parnell.", "Flu season\nPeople with cancer usually have a suppressed immune system. Moreover, many cancer patients undergo radiation therapy and potent immunosuppressive medications, which further suppresses the body's ability to fight off infections. Everyone with cancer is highly susceptible and is at risk for complications from flu. People with cancer or a history of cancer should receive the seasonal flu shot. Flu vaccination is also strict for lung cancer patients, as cancer leads to complications of pneumonia and bronchitis. People with cancer should not receive the nasal spray vaccine. The flu shot is made up of inactivated (killed) viruses, and the nasal spray vaccines are made up of live viruses. The flu shot is safer for those with a weakened immune system. Those who have received cancer treatment such as chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy within the last month, or have a blood or lymphatic form of cancer should call their doctor immediately if they suspect they may have flu.", "Influenza-like illness\nDuring the 2009 flu pandemic, many thousands of cases of ILI were reported in the media as suspected swine flu. Most were false alarms. A differential diagnosis of \"probable\" swine flu requires not only symptoms but also a high likelihood of swine flu due to the person's recent history. During the 2009 flu pandemic in the United States, the CDC advised physicians to \"consider swine influenza infection in the differential diagnosis of patients with acute febrile respiratory illness who have either been in contact with persons with confirmed swine flu, or who were in one of the five U.S. states that have reported swine flu cases or in Mexico during the 7 days preceding their illness onset.\" A diagnosis of \"confirmed\" swine flu required laboratory testing of a respiratory sample (a simple nose and throat swab).", "Human mortality from H5N1\nReview of patient ages and outcomes reveals that H5N1 attacks are especially lethal in pre-adults and young adults, while older victims tend to have milder attacks and to survive. This is consistent with the frequent development of a cytokine storm in the afflicted. Few persons over 50 years of age seem to have become infected by H5N1, and very few have died after suffering an H5N1 attack. Instead, the age-fatality curve of H5N1 influenza attacks in humans resembles that of the 1918 Spanish pandemic flu, and is the opposite of the mortality curve of seasonal flu strains, since seasonal influenza preferentially kills the elderly and does not kill by cytokine storm. An additional factor which may be active is that H1N1 was the predominate human flu circulating from 1918 until 1957 when the H2N2 strain emerged. Hence those over 50 years old have had the opportunity to be exposed to H1N1, and to develop some immune response to the N1 group contained in that human form of flu. Likewise, annual flu vaccination includes inoculation against a type-A human H1N1 flu, leading to the possibility that the annual flu shot or Flumist inoculation might confer some immunity against H5N1 bird flu infection, and indeed testing the blood of volunteers to look for immune response to H5N1 found that some blood samples showed immunity, but more of the blood samples of persons who had received the flu shot showed an immune response.", "Flu Shot (30 Rock)\nLiz Lemon (Tina Fey) is excited about her vacation week, until she gets a text message from her assistant, Cerie Xerox (Katrina Bowden), that the hotel she had planned to stay at was overbooked. Liz goes to see Dr. Leo Spaceman (Chris Parnell) who is giving out flu shots at the 30 Rock studios. She learns that the shots are given to select few employees. Her boss, Jack Donaghy (Alec Baldwin), asks her to let him know about the most important individuals in her staff that should receive flu shots. Liz does not agree with Jack that he should ration out health care, which results in Liz not getting a shot. Jack considers giving the show's page, Kenneth Parcell (Jack McBrayer), one of the remaining shots, as he is very ill with the flu, though Kenneth refuses. Later, Jack continuously asks Liz, but still refuses. This time, she displays her solidarity in front of \"The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan\" (\"TGS\") crew who show her their appreciation. However, as she sees the crew getting sicker, as days go by, she panics and gets the shot.", "Universal flu vaccine\nSome people given a 2009 H1N1 flu vaccine have developed broadly protective antibodies, raising hopes for a universal flu vaccine." ]

[ "Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution\nThe Twenty-second Amendment (Amendment XXII) to the United States Constitution sets a limit on the number of times an individual is eligible for election to the office of President of the United States, and also sets additional eligibility conditions for presidents who succeed to the unexpired terms of their predecessors.[1]" ]

[ "High School of Glasgow\nThe Club is a limited company, run by a committee and a President, who is elected annually. The President is Ronnie Gourley, and the Past President is Alisair Wood. The Honorary President is The Lord Macfarlane of Bearsden, and the Rector of the School, John O'Neil, is an \"ex officio\" member. The rest of the committee comprises three Honorary Vice Presidents, Senior Vice President, Junior Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer, House Convenor, seven Ordinary Members, GHK Rugby President, Triathlon Representative, President of the Ladies' Section and President of Ladies' Hockey.", "College Historical Society\nThe society has a long history of hosting international figures, intellectuals and personalities.\nThe society is headed by a president, usually a senior academic of the college and respected public figure, who ceremonially presides over the society such at its inaugural meeting but is uninvolved in the day-to-day running of the society. Several Vice-Presidents, usually distinguished Honorary Members of the society, also serve the society in a largely ceremonial position. The vast majority of the society's operation and management is conducted by the General Committee, made up of the President; the ex-Auditor; the Officers of the session (listed below), \"ex officio\", and fourteen other members of the society.", "President of Chile\nUnder the 2005 constitutional reform, the President serves for four years without the possibility of immediate reelection for one more term. A former president may run for office once again after serving their initial term, but only in an election following their successor, as it is not allowed to run for consecutive terms. There is no limit to how many times a person can run for candidacy if they have not previously served as President.", "President of Harvard University\nThe President of Harvard University is the chief administrator of the university and the \"ex officio\" chairman of the Harvard Corporation. Each is appointed by and is responsible to the other members of that body, who delegate to the president the day-to-day running of the university.", "Edward Maria Wingfield\nOn 10 September 1607, amid starvation and attacks from native tribes, Wingfield was arrested and deposed from his presidency. The now ex-President was arraigned on the following charges (just as in 1609 the 4th Governor/President Percy – with ex-President (the 2nd) Ratcliffe, Archer and Martin – was to send the ex-President Smith (the 3rd president) home to answer eight similar, more serious charges):", "Constitution of South Korea\nThe difference between the constitutions of South Korea and the U.S. is shown in many constitution provisions. For example, Article 66 to 85 in the constitution of South Korea prescribes the law about the president. The constitution of the U.S. prescribes the law about the president in Article Two. In South Korea, the president is voted by Direct election. He or she serves a single five-year term, and no additional terms are allowed. His or her major roles include (1) Head of State, (2) Chief administrator, (3) Commander-in-chief, (4) Top diplomat and foreign policy maker (5) Chief policy maker and key lawmaker. The Prime Minister is the replacement in the event of presidential disability. However, in the US, the president is elected by indirect election. He or she can serve for 10 years (Only if the president dies and Vice President becomes presidents for 4 years and gets reelected). The president can get reelected by running a presidential campaign again after 4 years of running president. His or her major roles include (1) Head of State, (2) Chief administrator, (3) Commander-in-chief, (4) Veto or Agree on Bill Separation of Powers Legislative Branch Facts. The Vice president is the replacement in the event of presidential disability.", "2017 Paraguayan crisis\nThe 1992 Constitution limits the President of Paraguay to a single five-year term in office. The proposed amendment would allow those previously elected as president to run again for re-election. A previous vote on the measure was rejected in August 2016. The norms of the Congress established that the subject could not be treated again until after a year. However, in the last week of March, the ruling legislators managed to amend the regulations and bring the initiative to the Senate for approval. The proposed constitutional amendment would allow presidents and vice presidents of the country to run for another period, either continuously or alternately. That would allow the current president Horacio Cartes and former president Fernando Lugo to run again for another period of five years.", "Guarani language\nGuarani exhibits nominal tense: past, expressed with \"-kue\", and future, expressed with \"-rã\". For example, \"tetã ruvichakue\" translates to \"ex-president\" while \"tetã ruvicharã\" translates to \"president-elect.\" The past morpheme \"-kue\" is often translated as \"ex-\", \"former\", \"abandoned\", \"what was once\", or \"one-time\". These morphemes can even be combined to express the idea of something that was going to be but didn't end up happening. So for example, \"pa'irãgue\" is \"a person who studied to be a priest but didn't actually finish\", or rather, \"the ex-future priest\". Note that some nouns use \"-re\" instead of \"-kue\" and others use \"-guã\" instead of \"-rã\".", "President of the Dominican Republic\nThe office can be held for up to two consecutive four-year terms. Persons who have completed their presidencies cannot run for the presidency again. The change of command takes place every four years, on 16 August, which is the day of the Restoration of the Republic, a national holiday.", "Herbert Hans Haupt\nIn 2001, Herbert Haupt was in the news again as President Bush attempted to use military tribunals to try American citizens after the September 11, 2001, attacks. The Supreme Court ruling regarding Haupt, the only US citizen executed in the affair, was cited again. (Ex parte Quirin)", "President of Ukraine\nThe President of Ukraine appoints heads of regional state administrations (oblderzhadministratsia) after a nomination by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine,[42] presidential representatives to the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, Verkhovna Rada, and others. The President does not act as an ex officio head of state of Crimea. The President can revoke any laws passed by the Council of Ministers of Crimea that are deemed to contradict the Ukrainian Constitution and can provide thei presidential consent on a nominee for Prime Minister of Crimea.", "Congregation Beth Israel (West Hartford, Connecticut)\nThe lay leadership of Congregation Beth Israel set policy, hires clergy, and oversees the running of the congregation. The governing body is the board of trustees, which consists of approximately 30 active members of the congregation. The head of the board is the president, who is assisted by a number of vice-presidents, a treasurer, and a secretary. Additionally, the brotherhood president, sisterhood president, young families chair, youth group president, and the clergy sit on the board but mostly in an ex-officio capacity.", "Elections in the Philippines\nThe manner of election of the Sangguniang Kabataan in the barangay is identical to the one used in the Senate. Each barangay is entitled to one SK. The barangay SK chairpersons in a city or municipality elect amongst themselves a president that will sit as an \"ex officio\" member of the city or municipal council. The city (if applicable) and municipal SK presidents then elect amongst themselves a president that will sit in the provincial board as an \"ex officio\" member. Finally, provincial and city (which are not under the jurisdiction of a province) chairpersons elect amongst themselves the SK national federation president that will sit as an \"ex officio\" member of the National Youth Commission.", "2014 Colombian parliamentary election\nThe elections were notable for the decision by former president Álvaro Uribe to stand for the Senate, the first ex-president in modern Colombian history to run for Congress afterwards. Uribe is constitutionally barred from standing for president again, having already served two terms.", "Joyce Banda\nAgence France-Presse reported Malawi's ex-President Bakili Muluzi as insisting on \"constitutional order\", saying the vice-president must automatically take power under the constitution. \"I am calling for a constitutional order, for continued peace and order. The laws of Malawi are very clear that the vice president takes over\" when the sitting president can no longer govern. We have to avoid a situation where there is disorder. Let us follow the constitution. We have no choice but follow the constitution. It's very important that there must be peace and calm.\" Malawi's security forces also wanted the constitutional order to prevail. The Malawi Law Society confirmed that under section 83(4) of the constitution of Malawi, she was the legitimate successor to the Presidency.", "Ebenezer J. Ormsbee\nIn 1896, ex-Governor Ormsbee joined a number of Vermont luminaries in a train trip to Canton, Ohio, in support of William McKinley's campaign for the presidency. In 1901, he presided over a banquet in honor of Vice President Theodore Roosevelt. In 1902, now President, Roosevelt returned to Vermont, and Ormsbee again presided over the ceremonies at a train stop in Brandon.", "President of the Federal Senate (Brazil)\nIn addition to chairing the chamber's debates and ordering its business, the President of the Federal Senate stands third in the order of presidential succession, after the Vice-President of the Republic and the President of the Chamber of Deputies, but before the President (Chief Justice) of the Supreme Federal Court. The Federal Senate President is also a member of the Council of the Republic, and presides over joint sessions of the Legislative branch, in his capacity as \"ex officio\" President of the National Congress. Until 25 August 1961 this Position was held \"ex officio\" by the Vice-President of the Republic.", "List of Vice-Presidents of India\nThe Vice-President of India is the second highest constitutional office in the Indian Government after the President. In accordance with Article 65 of the Indian Constitution, the Vice-President discharges the functions of the President when a contingency arises due to the resignation, removal, death or the inability of the President to discharge his functions. He is also the \"ex officio\" chairperson of the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament of India. The Vice President is elected by an electoral college consisting of all the members of both houses of the Parliament in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote via a secret ballot conducted by the Election Commission of India. Once elected the Vice President continues in office for a five-year term, but can continue in office irrespective of the expiry of the term, until a successor assumes office. The Vice President can be removed by a resolution passed by an effective majority in the Rajya Sabha.", "Design 1095 ship\nThe \"State\" names were changed to the \"President\" names and in 1923 five of the ships \"President Adams\" (ex \"Centennial State\"), \"President Garfield\" (ex \"Blue Hen State\"), \"President Monroe\" (ex \"Panhandle State\"), \"President Polk\" (ex \"Granite State\") and \"President Van Buren\" (ex \"Old North State\") were being operated by United States Lines in Atlantic service between New York and Europe for the USSB. The other two, \"President Hayes\" (ex \"Creole State\") and \"President Harrison\" (ex \"Wolverine State\") were being operated by Swayne & Hoyt Lines as agent on a service connecting the United States West Coast to Brazil and Argentina with the Pacific-Argentine-Brazil Line. By September 1923 all the Design 1095 ships had been sold by the USSB to the Robert Dollar Company.The acquisition of these \"President\" ships started the Dollar and successor American President Lines' tradition of naming ships after presidents.", "President of Colombia\nAlready the Constitution of 1991 limited presidents to a single term. However, on 24 November 2005, the Colombian Congress introduced the Electoral Guarantees Law (Ley de Garantias Electorales), which modified Article 152, of the Colombian Constitution of 1991 and allowed a president to run for a second term. The President or Vice President running for re-election must officially tell in the National Electoral Council and guarantee a fair competition for the other contenders. Participation of acting officials in political proselytism was standardized. If the president or vice president are not running for office, they are prohibited from participating on political proselytism. If one or both are participating, they can engage in political activity only four months before the primary elections. Also, if the president and/or vice president is running for office, he may participate in their political party's selection mechanism to postulate candidates. In 2010, the Constitutional Court of Colombia threw out a planned referendum to allow presidents to run for three consecutive terms. It ruled that Colombian presidents can only serve two terms, even if they are nonconsecutive. In 2015, a constitutional amendment repealed the 2004 changes and reverted to the original one-term limit.", "Studebaker Land Cruiser\nTop-trimmed Studebakers from 1955-1958 went by the Studebaker President name (revived from the prewar President models). For 1956, an upscale President Classic sedan was offered. The President Classic used the longer 120.5\" wheelbase of the Hawks, and like the 1947-1950 Land Cruisers used the additional length to create a roomier rear passenger area. The President Classic was continued for 1957-1958, though no longer carrying the \"Classic\" model name. After a four-year run, The President models, in turn, were dropped at the end of 1958 to make way for the new compact Lark model. A longer wheelbase version of the Lark sedan was offered for fleet sales. Dubbed the Economiler, it was marketed for use as a taxicab, again featuring a roomier back seat area than the regular Larks.", "List of former Philippines presidents who pursued public office\nThis list only includes \"former\" Presidents (those who are not in position anymore and seeking for a comeback) who ran again for President.\nList of Presidents who run in a local executive position\nList of Presidents who run as a lawmaker at the Senate after the presidency:\nList of Presidents who run as a lawmaker at the House of Representatives after the presidency:", "President of Tunisia\nThe 2014 Constitution retained the presidency as the key institution, but hedged it about with numerous checks and balances to prevent a repeat of past authoritarian excesses. Most notably, a president is limited to two terms, whether successive or separated. For example, if incumbent president Essebsi were to leave office in 2019, he would be eligible to run again in 2024. However, if he were to return to office that year, he would not be eligible to run again in 2029.", "Politics of Panama\nThe Executive Branch includes a president and one vice-president. The president and vice-president are elected on a single ballot for a five-year term by direct popular vote. Presidents are not allowed to immediately run for re-election, but can run again after waiting five years.The legislative branch consists of a unicameral National Assembly (\"Asamblea Nacional\"), composed of 71 members elected to five-year terms from single- and multi-seat constituencies.", "Elections in Liberia\nThe first round of a general election to elect the President and House of Representatives on 10 October 2017, resulted in a run-off between ex-football star George Weah and Vice President Joseph Boakai. George Weah won the run-off with more than 60% of the ballots cast.", "Protestant Church of Augsburg Confession of Alsace and Lorraine\nThe presidents of the directory () and their vice presidents are ex officio members of the supreme consistory. Furthermore, the president is ex officio president of the St. Thomas in Strasbourg (Chapitre de Saint-Thomas; confirmed on 29 November 1873). Presidents of the directory were:", "Military decorations of the Cold War\nThe following is a list of military decorations of the Cold War based on the various time periods and specific nations involved.\nOrders, decorations, and medals of East GermanyThe President of the Federal Republic holds the \"Sonderstufe des Großkreuzes\" ex officio. It is awarded to him in a ceremony by the President of the \"Bundestag\" attended by the Chancellor, the President of the \"Bundesrat\" and the Supreme Court President. Other than the President of the Federal Republic, only a foreign head of state can be awarded with the highest class. There is also the provision of awarding the \"Großkreuz\" in a special rare design, in which the central medallion with the black eagle is surrounded by a stylized laurel wreath in relief. which has so far only been used twice: for Konrad Adenauer and for Helmut Kohl.", "President\nBelow a president, there can be a number of or \"vice presidents\" (or occasionally \"deputy presidents\") and sometimes several \"assistant presidents\" or \"assistant vice presidents\", depending on the organisation and its size. These posts do not hold the same power but more of a subordinate position to the president. However, power can be transferred in special circumstances to the deputy or vice president. Normally vice presidents hold some power and special responsibilities below that of the president. The difference between vice/deputy presidents and assistant/associate vice presidents is the former are legally allowed to run an organisation, exercising the same powers (as well as being second in command) whereas the latter are not.", "President of Peru\nOrdinarily, presidents are elected for five-year terms, with no opportunity for immediate reelection. A former president can run again after being out of office for a full term.[1] The change of government takes place on July 28, which is the date of independence from Spain and thus a national holiday.", "Minister (Austria)\nMinisters are appointed by the president. The chancellor is appointed by the president unilaterally; ministers other than the chancellor are appointed on nomination by the chancellor. In theory, the president can also dismiss ministers: the chancellor can be removed unilaterally; individual ministers other than the chancellor can only be removed on request by the chancellor. The president can also remove, again unilaterally, the entire cabinet at once. In practice, the president does not forcibly dismiss either ministers or cabinets; they resign." ]

[ "War bonnet\nNative American tribes consider the presentation of an eagle feather to be one of their highest marks of respect. Any honored person must have earned their feather through selfless acts of courage and honour, or been gifted them in gratitude for their work or service to their tribe. Traditional deeds that brought honour would include acts of valor in battle, but also political and diplomatic gains or acts that helped their community survive and prosper. The esteem attached to eagle feathers was so high that in many cases, such as a warrior (e.g. Dog Soldiers of the Cheyenne), only two or three honour feathers might be awarded in their whole lifetime. Historically, the warrior who was the first to touch an enemy in battle and escape unscathed received an eagle feather. When enough feathers were collected, they might be incorporated into a headdress or some other form of worn regalia. Headdresses were usually reserved exclusively for the tribe's chosen political and spiritual leaders." ]

[ "Decorated warbonnet\nThe diet of the decorated warbonnet consists mainly of small invertebrates including mollusks, polychae'tes, crustaceans, hydroids, and anemones. It will also eat shrimp and other small creatures which wander near its habitat.", "Red Warbonnet\nRed Warbonnet, or K'ya-been (died 1849) was a Kiowa warrior from Texas, who fought in the Red River War, a war on the Southern Plains, in which an intertribal force of Indian fought the United States and the buffalo hunters to protect the last wild herd of buffalo and resist relocation onto Indian reservations.", "Battle of Warbonnet Creek\nWord of the breakout of the Cheyenne also reached Merritt and, guided by \"Buffalo Bill\" Cody, he was able to intercept the Cheyenne warriors.\nMerritt planned an ambush. He hid most of his 350 troopers inside covered wagons and posted sharpshooters nearby out of sight. Spotting Merritt's seemingly unescorted wagon train along Warbonnet Creek, a small war party of six Cheyenne warriors charged directly into the trap to divert attention from the main body of Cheyenne.", "Decorated warbonnet\nThe decorated warbonnet (\"Chirolophis decoratus\") is a fish of the Stichaeidae family. Its genus name, \"Chirolophis\", comes from two Greek roots: \"chiros\" (meaning hand) and \"lophos\" (meaning crest). The species name, \"decoratus\", is a Latin word meaning ornamented. The decorated warbonnet was given its name because of the prominent cirri on its head which resembles the feathers in an Indian Chieftain's war bonnet.", "Packrat Peak\nPackrat Peak, at above sea level is a peak in the Sawtooth Range of Idaho. The peak is located in the Sawtooth Wilderness of Sawtooth National Recreation Area on the border of Boise and Custer counties. The peak is located north of Elk Peak, its line parent. Warbonnet and Little Warbonnet lakes are in the basin north of the peak.", "Little Warbonnet Lake\nLittle Warbonnet Lake is in the Sawtooth Wilderness, and a wilderness permit can be obtained at a registration box at trailheads or wilderness boundaries. Warbonnet Lake is upstream of Little Warbonnet Lake while the Feather Lakes and Blue Rock Lake are downstream. Packrat Peak is just to the south of the lake.", "Plains hide painting\nThe \"Feathered Sun\" is a reoccurring motif of stylized feathers in several concentric circles. It visually connects a feather warbonnet to the sun.", "Battle of Warbonnet Creek\nMerritt joined Crook, whose expedition later linked up with that of Gen. Alfred H. Terry, bringing the combined strength of the U.S. force to about 4,000.", "EMD F3\nThe California State Railroad Museum owns Santa Fe No. 347B, which was donated to the museum in March 1986 by the Santa Fe. The engine is painted in the railroad's Warbonnet scheme and is listed as operable.", "Red Warbonnet\nRed Warbonnet (I) (Tanguadal) died in 1849, according to the Kiowa calendar of a cholera epidemic. Red Warbonnet II, who Kiowa name was Tan-guadal, was the hereditary owner of the arrow lance (\"zebat\") and owner of the morning star tipi of the Elks band of the Kiowa tribe in the Kiowa Sun Dance circle. Red Warbonnet's niece, Addlegamah, was the mother of Edgar Keahbone (K'yaitah-kebonemah) who inherited the arrow lance. Edgar kept the arrow lance in his warrior society, Ohumah Lodge until his death in 1951. His wife, Sendehmah, passed the arrow lance down to his eldest son, Mark. Male descendants of the family have replicated the arrow lance and carry it today at Ohumah Lodge, a Kiowa warrior society still in existence. Their dances are held each July.\nPrior to the Battle of Palo Duro Canyon, the canyon was a stronghold and resting place of the Kiowa tribe. The Kiowa people knew the canyon intimately, thus explaining their ability to resist capture by McKenzie for such a long period of time. Poor Buffalo, a Kiowa, led his people to the canyon to escape reservation life. Poor Buffalo's band was the last of the Kiowas to be taken in to federal custody.", "Warbonnet Peak\nWarbonnet Peak can refer to two mountains in the United States:", "Little Warbonnet Lake\nLittle Warbonnet Lake is a small alpine lake in Boise County, Idaho, United States, located in the Sawtooth Mountains in the Sawtooth National Recreation Area. There are no trails leading to the lake or the Goat Creek drainage.", "Feather Lakes (Idaho)\nThe Feather Lakes are in the Sawtooth Wilderness, and a wilderness permit can be obtained at a registration box at trailheads or wilderness boundaries. The lakes are upstream of Blue Rock Lake and downstream of Little Warbonnet Lake and Warbonnet Lake.", "Blue Rock Lake\nBlue Rock Lake is in the Sawtooth Wilderness, and a wilderness permit can be obtained at a registration box at trailheads or wilderness boundaries. The Feather Lakes, Warbonnet Lake, and Little Warbonnet Lake are upstream of Blue Rock Lake.", "Jamesianthus\nThere is only one known species, Jamesianthus alabamensis, called the \"Alabama warbonnet\". It is native to the US states of Alabama and Georgia.", "War bonnet\nThe wearing and displaying of such headdresses, and other \"indigenous traditional arts and sacred objects\" by those who have not earned them, especially by non-Natives as fashion or costume, is considered offensive by traditional Native peoples.[4][5][8] The controversy is part of a wider effort by Native American activists to highlight the ongoing cultural genocide against indigenous peoples in the United States and Canada.[9] The trend of musicians and festival-goers wearing warbonnets has led to criticism by Native Americans, apologies by non-Natives, and the banning of headdresses as costumes by several music festivals.[5][8][10][11]", "Decorated warbonnet\nBecause of its relative rarity and interesting appearance, the decorated warbonnet is used mainly for human enjoyment in aquariums.", "Oglala National Grassland\nThe Warbonnet Battlefield Monument, commemorating the 1876 Battle of Warbonnet Creek, is located on Oglala National Grassland on Montrose Road.", "Warbonnet Lake\nWarbonnet Lake is a small alpine lake in Boise County, Idaho, United States, located in the Sawtooth Mountains in the Sawtooth National Recreation Area. There are no trails leading to the lake or the Goat Creek drainage.", "Decorated warbonnet\nSome of the \"C. decoratus\"' most common names are:", "Hook Nose\nHook Nose possessed an elaborate warbonnet that he believed gave him special powers. The medicine man Ice, later known as White Bull, made the warbonnet, and assured Hook Nose he would be impervious to the white man's bullets as long as he followed certain conditions. Hook Nose could not shake hands in the way of the white man, nor could he eat food that had been touched with any iron implement. Ice told Hook Nose that should he violate either of these conditions, he would surely be killed in battle.", "The Savage (1952 film)\nAs they approach the ambush site, struggling with memories of his own youth and family that were killed, Warbonnet helps the wagon train escape the planned ambush but is injured by an arrow. Taken back to the fort, a doctor tends to his wound. Tally and Corp. Martin, who has taken a liking to Jim as well, question how he knew the ambush was going to happen. That same night, Jim sneaks out of the fort and, still weak from his wound, meets with Yellow Eagle to try and persuade him to abandon his war plans. Surrounded by those who now hate him, he pleads for them to not fight so they won't be decimated and forgotten to history due to the white man's numbers and war superiority. Reluctantly, but according to Sioux law for betraying him, Yellow Eagle throws a spear at him, injuring him but leaving him alive. Yellow Eagle then declares the matter over and says for his people to return to their fires. Warbonnet’s mother, Pehangi, then argues in support of Warbonnet's pleas while tending to his wound, convincing Yellow Eagle that his son is right. Warbonnet is then taken back to the fort and left outside it's walls where Corp. Martin and other soldiers ride out to meet him. As the Sioux go away, Warbonnet tells Corp. Martin that they aren't going away but merely making some elbow room for others, using Corp. Martin's line from earlier and implying that the war has been averted.The staff writers at \"Variety\" wrote in their review: \"This tale of Indian fighting travels in fairly devious circles to relate a standard story [from a novel by L.L. Foreman]. However, it has excellent outdoor photography and liberal amounts of Indian fighting scenes. Charlton Heston has a fairly confused role which forces the story to travel unnecessarily in circles. [...] The femme interest is slight, with Susan Morrow as the belle of the army fort. Joan Taylor as an Indian maid is Morrow’s major competition for Heston’s affection. Peter Hansen and Richard Rober do well in major white roles while Indians are staunchly portrayed by Ian MacDonald and Donald Porter.\"", "Battle of Warbonnet Creek\nThe Battle of Warbonnet Creek was a skirmish characterized by a duel between \"Buffalo Bill\" Cody and a young Cheyenne warrior named Heova'ehe or Yellow Hair (often incorrectly translated as \"Yellow Hand\"). The engagement is often referred to as the First Scalp for Custer. It occurred July 17, 1876, in Sioux County in northwestern Nebraska.", "The Savage (1952 film)\nWarbonnet is sent to Fort Duane to determine whether the U.S. government intend to honor the treaty. On his way, he helps save a party of U.S. cavalry, led by Lt. Hathersall, from an attack by Crow Indians. He then introduces himself as Jim Aherne and telling them he is taking some ponies to the fort to sell, insinuating that he is merely a local trapper. Because of his actions, he is received warmly by Col. Robert Ellis at the fort. The Colonel has Lt. Hathersall take care of Jim while he is their guest and Hathersall's sister, Tally, takes an instant liking to him, seeing him as rugged, mysterious, and handsome. Capt. Vaughant has his eye on Tally and doesn't agree with Jim having dinner with them. She asks him to leave and on his way out he calls Jim a savage, inciting Jim to attack him breifly. After several days, Warbonnet is leaving the fort to go on a picnic with the Hathersall siblings when he sees smoke signals in the distance. Not disclosing it's meaning to them, he leaves and discovers dead soldiers in the hills. Out of the woods comes his friend from the tribe, Long Mane, who tells him that the soldiers were killed by a party of Crow and that Jim's sister, Luta, was taken captive. She had been with the soldiers as she was traveling to the fort to find Jim. Warbonnet leads a party of Sioux on a raid on the Crow camp and rescues his sister. On the ride back, they encounter Capt. Vaughant and some soldiers who have discovered the soldiers that were killed by the Crow. During the brief encounter, Luta is killed as the troops attack them without provocation. ", "Decorated warbonnet\nThe decorated warbonnet is a salt water fish which is found in the North Pacific from Kamchatka, Russia through the Aleutian Chain and the Bering Sea to the Bering Strait coasts of Alaska and Humboldt Bay, California, USA. They are a cold-water fish that tend to live in rocks, seaweed, algae, and crevices along the rocky ocean floor. The depth range is sub tidal to 91 meters. They are very shy creatures and rarely travel far from their home. They stay in their habitat for long periods of time.", "The Savage (1952 film)\nTaking her body back to his tribe, Warbonnet is now convinced that the whites will not honor the treaty and agrees to go back and lead the soldiers at Fort Duane into an ambush. Meanwhile, Col. Ellis has received orders from Washington that all the Indians are to be moved to reservations, by force if necessary. Returning to the fort as a scout, Warbonnet leads Vaughant’s men to a Crow camp instead of the Sioux. They send artillery into the camp, scattering the Crow into the hills. Using explosives, Warbonnet and Corp. Martin flush the fleeing Crow out of the forest where they are subdued by Lt. Hathersall and his men. After the battle, Vaughant, wounded and furious at the outcome, tries to shoot Warbonnet. Corp. Martin intervenes and Vaughant is killed. Later that night, Warbonnet leaves camp and mmeets with Yellow Eagle and finds they have planned to attack the remaining column the next day. When Yellow Eagle orders no prisoners to be taken, Warbonnet questions the wisdom of the attack. He goes along with the plan but his internal struggle continues after a wagon train of women and children have joined the column for protection. ", "Battle of Warbonnet Creek\nThe main body of warriors attempted to rescue the small war party, but fled so quickly after seeing the true strength of the U.S. forces that not a single trooper was killed or injured.", "Warbonnet Peak (Idaho)\nWarbonnet Peak is located in the Sawtooth Wilderness of Sawtooth National Recreation Area in Boise County. The peak is located west-northwest of Cirque Lake Peak, its line parent.", "Sioux\nThe earliest engagement was the Battle of Powder River, and the final battle was the Wolf Mountain. Included are the Battle of the Rosebud, Battle of Warbonnet Creek, Battle of Slim Buttes, Battle of Cedar Creek, and the Dull Knife Fight. ", "Warbonnet Lake\nWarbonnet Lake is in the Sawtooth Wilderness, and a wilderness permit can be obtained at a registration box at trailheads or wilderness boundaries. Little Warbonnet Lake, the Feather Lakes, and Blue Rock Lake are downstream of Warbonnet Lake." ]

[ "Autobahn\nMost sections of Germany's autobahns are modern, containing two or three, sometimes four lanes in addition to an emergency lane (hard shoulder). A few other sections remain in an old state, with two lanes, no emergency lane, and short slip-roads and ramps." ]

[ "Autobahn (album)\nThe title track is intended to capture the feeling of driving on the Autobahn: from traveling through the landscape, the high-speed concentration on the fast lane, to tuning the car radio and the monotony of a long trip.", "Autobahn\nThe right lane should be used when it is free (Rechtsfahrgebot) and the left lane is generally intended only for overtaking unless traffic is too dense to justify driving only on the right lane. It is legal to give a short horn or light signal (flashing headlights or Lichthupe) in order to indicate the intention of overtaking, but a safe distance to the vehicle in front must be maintained,[96] otherwise this might be regarded as an act of coercion. Penalties for tailgating were increased in May 2006 to a maximum of €375 and three months' license suspension:[97] \"drivers must keep a distance in metres that is equal to half their speed. For example, a driver going 100 km/h on the autobahn must keep a distance of at least 50 metres (165 feet)\". The penalty increase followed uproar after an infamous fatal crash on Autobahn 5 in 2003.[98] In a traffic jam, drivers must form an emergency lane (Rettungsgasse) to allow emergency services to reach the scene of an accident. This improvised alley is to be created on the dividing line between the two leftmost lanes.[99] It is unlawful to stop for any reason on the autobahn, except for emergencies and when unavoidable, like traffic jams or being involved in an accident. This includes stopping on emergency lanes. Running out of fuel is considered an avoidable occurrence, as by law there are petrol stations directly on the autobahn approximately every 50–55km (31–34mi). Drivers may face fines and up to six months' suspension, should it come to a stop that was deemed unnecessary by the police. In some cases (if there is a direct danger to life and limb or property e.g. cars and highway infrastructure) it may also be considered a crime and the driver could receive a prison sentence (up to 5 years). Overtaking on the right (undertaking) is strictly forbidden, except when stuck in traffic jams. Up to a speed of 80km/h (50mph) it is permitted to pass cars on the right side if the speed difference is not greater than 20km/h (12mph) or the vehicle on the left lane is stationary. This is not referred to as overtaking, but driving past. Even if the car overtaken is illegally occupying the left-hand lane, it is not an acceptable excuse; in such cases, the police will routinely stop and fine both drivers. However, exceptions can and have sometimes been made.", "MV Mill Bay\n\"Mill Bay\" is equipped with three lanes for cars, two with no height restriction and one lane that passes under the superstructure for the wheelhouse. Since the trip across the inlet takes only 20 minutes \"Mill Bay\" does not have very many amenities. She does have restrooms for passengers but they are not accessible to handicapped persons.", "Highway systems by country\nAside from highways bearing the Autobahn designation, Germany has many two- and four-lane roads. Federal highways not known as autobahnen are called \"Bundesstraßen\" (\"Bundesstrassen\") and, while usually two-lane roads, they may also be four-lane, limited-access expressways of local or regional importance. Unlike the Autobahnen, though, \"Bundesstraßen\" (marked by black numbers on a yellow background) mostly have speed limits (usually 100 km/h, but occasionally higher on limited-access segments, and lower in urban areas or near intersections).", "Autobahn\nThe current autobahn numbering system in use in Germany was introduced in 1974. All autobahns are named by using the capital letter A, which simply stands for \"Autobahn\" followed by a blank and a number (for example A8). The main autobahns going all across Germany have a single digit number. Shorter autobahns that are of regional importance (e.g. connecting two major cities or regions within Germany) have a double digit number (e.g. A24, connecting Berlin and Hamburg). The system is as follows:", "Bundesstraße\nOne distinguishing characteristic between German \"Bundesstraßen\" and \"Autobahnen\" is that there usually is a general 100 km/h (62 mph) speed limit on federal highways out of built-up areas, as opposed to the merely advisory speed limit (\"Richtgeschwindigkeit\") of 130 km/h (83 mph) in unmarked sections of the autobahns. However, a number of \"Bundesstraßen\" have been extended as expressways (dual carriageways) (colloquially called \"Yellow Autobahns\"). Many of these have speed limits of usually 100–120 km/h, others have only an advisory speed limit like autobahns. Most sections of the federal highways are only single carriageway with one lane for each direction and no hard shoulder pull-out area.", "Traffic\nMany areas in North America do not have any laws about staying to the slowest lanes unless overtaking. In those areas, unlike many parts of Europe, traffic is allowed to overtake on any side, even in a slower lane. This practice is known as \"passing on the right\" in the United States and \"overtaking on the inside\" and \"undertaking\" in the United Kingdom.\nWhen referring to individual lanes on dual carriageways, one does not consider traffic travelling the opposite direction. The inside lane (in the British English sense, i.e. the lane beside the hard shoulder) refers to the lane used for normal travel, while the middle lane is used for overtaking cars on the inside lane. The outside lane (i.e. closest to oncoming traffic) is used for overtaking vehicles in the middle lane. The same principle lies with dual carriageways with more than three lanes.", "Frankfurter Kreuz\nThe Frankfurter Kreuz (\"Frankfurt Cross\") is an Autobahn interchange in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, where the autobahns A3 and A5 meet. The interchange was originally to be built from 1931 to 1933, but due to World War II construction was not finished until 1957.\nIt underwent massive remodeling in the 1990s, as it had been frequently overloaded due to excess traffic. Today, both autobahns have ten lanes.", "Bundesautobahn 1\nThe section from Kreuz Lübeck towards Maschener Kreuz is being widened to six-lane configuration. From Autobahnkreuz Hamburg-Ost to Autobahnkreuz Hamburg-Süd is only two-lane configuration. Since October 2012, six lanes have been available between the Buchholzer Triangle and the Bremer Kreuz. From the Bremer Kreuz to the Dreieck Stuhr, the Autobahn 1 is also extended to six strips.", "Ruhr\nAdditional expressways serve as bypasses and local routes, especially around Dortmund and Bochum. Due to the density of the autobahns and expressways, Bundesstraßen are less important for intercity traffic. The first Autobahns in the Ruhr opened during the mid-1930s. Due to the density of the network, and the number of alternative routes, traffic volumes are generally lower than other major metropolitan areas in Europe. Traffic congestion is an everyday occurrence, but far less so than in the Randstad in the Netherlands, another polycentric urban area. Most important Autobahns have six lanes, but there are no eight-lane Autobahns in the Ruhr.", "Autobahn\nOnly federally built controlled-access highways with certain construction standards including at least two lanes per direction are called Bundesautobahn. They have their own white-on-blue signs and numbering system. In the 1930s, when construction began on the system, the official name was Reichsautobahn. Various other controlled-access highways exist on the federal (Bundesstraße), state (Landesstraße), district, and municipal level but are not part of the Autobahn network and are officially referred to as Kraftfahrstraße (with rare exceptions, like A 995 Munich-Giesing–Brunntal). These highways are considered autobahnähnlich (autobahn-like) and are sometimes colloquially called Gelbe Autobahn (yellow autobahn) because most of them are Bundesstraßen (federal highways) with yellow signs. Some controlled-access highways are classified as \"Bundesautobahn\" in spite of not meeting the autobahn construction standard (for example the A 62 near Pirmasens).", "Harness racing in New Zealand\nNew Zealand racing differs from North American racing in that metric distances are used, generally above the equivalent of one mile and horses are classed by how many wins they have. Another large difference is that in New Zealand racing the leader does not have to hand up the lead to any horse that challenges, often leaving a horse parked outside the leader in the \"death seat\", \"the death\", or \"facing the breeze\", as this horse covers more ground than the leader. New Zealand racing generally has more horses in each race, a field of 12 or 13 is not uncommon. This generally means that with the smaller tracks a \"three wide train\" starts as the field gets the bell at signal their final lap. There is a system of an 'open lane' or 'passing lane' ('sprint lane' in Australia). These lanes do not operate on all tracks and have been a point of argument between many industry participants. Many horses are able to easily \"cross the Tasman\" to Australia, as the rules are similar.", "Laumersheim\nLaumersheim lies between Frankenthal and Grünstadt beside the Autobahn A 6 (Mannheim–Saarbrücken). It does not, however, have its own Autobahn interchange. The one in Grünstadt is 5 km away. Running through the municipality is \"Landesstraße\" (State Road) 455 (Dirmstein–Freinsheim).", "Simmern\nThe reopening of Frankfurt-Hahn Airport (20 km away) for commercial aviation and the widening of Bundesstrasse B-50 to four lanes have given the district and the town even greater economic potential for the future. Future plans include a possible extension of the Autobahn A 60 to facilitate traffic from the Frankfurt metropolitan area to Simmern and the Benelux countries. The town is roughly 10 kilometres from the Autobahn A 61.", "Lane\nThe Interstate Highway standards for the U.S. Interstate Highway System use a standard lane width, while narrower lanes are used on lower classification roads. In Europe, laws and road widths vary by country; the minimum widths of lanes are generally between . The federal Bundesstraße interurban network in Germany defines a minimum of for each lane for the smallest two lane roads, with an additional on the outer sides and shoulders being at least on each side. A modern Autobahn divided highway with two lanes per direction has lanes wide with an additional clearance of on each side;, with three lanes per direction this becomes for the rightmost lane and for the other lanes. Urban access roads and roads in low-density areas may have lanes as narrow as in width per lane, with shoulders at least wide.", "Autobahn\nA 2008 estimate reported that 52% of the autobahn network had only the advisory speed limit, 15% had temporary speed limits due to weather or traffic conditions, and 33% had permanent speed limits.[2] Measurements from the German State of Brandenburg in 2006 showed average speeds of 142km/h (88mph) on a 6-lane section of autobahn in free-flowing conditions.[3]", "Advisory speed limit\nIn Germany, the \"Autobahn-Richtgeschwindigkeits-Verordnung\" (Directive on Reference Speed on Motorways), introduced in 1974, recommends a speed of no more than for autobahns and similar roads, whose lanes are separated by a median or which have at least two lanes per direction, provided there are no traffic signs posting a lower speed limit.", "Speed limit\nThe first maximum speed limit was the limit introduced in the United Kingdom in 1861. The highest posted speed limit in the world is , which applies to some motorways in UAE. However, some roads have no speed limit for certain classes of vehicles. Best known are Germany's less congested Autobahns, where automobile drivers have no mandated maximum speed. Measurements from the German state of Brandenburg in 2006 showed average speeds of on a 6-lane section of autobahn in free-flowing conditions. Rural roads on the Isle of Man and the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Telangana, also lack speed limits.", "Pyhrn Autobahn\nThe Pyhrn Autobahn (A9) ('Pyhrn Motorway') is an Autobahn (motorway), in Austria. It runs through Alps by 2 two-lane tunnels: the Bosrucktunnel and the Gleinalmtunnel. The longest tunnel on the motorway is the Plabutschtunnel under Graz and its outskirts. The last section of the highway was completed in 2004. ", "Autobahn\nAs of 2016, Germany's autobahn network has a total length of about 12,993km. From 2009 Germany has embarked on a massive widening and rehabilitation project, expanding the lane count of many of its major arterial routes, such as the A5 in the southwest and A8 going east-west.", "Autobahn\nSimilar to high-speed motorways in other countries, autobahns have multiple lanes of traffic in each direction, separated by a central barrier with grade-separated junctions and access restricted to motor vehicles with a top speed of at least 60km/h (37mph). Nearly all exits are to the right; rare left-hand exits result from incomplete interchanges where the \"straight-on\" leads into the exit. The earliest motorways were flanked by shoulders about 60 centimetres (24in) in width, constructed of varying materials; right-hand shoulders on many autobahns were later retrofitted to 120 centimetres (47in) in width when it was realized cars needed the additional space to pull off the autobahn safely. In the postwar years, a thicker asphaltic concrete cross-section with full paved hard shoulders came into general use. The top design speed was approximately 160km/h (99mph) in flat country but lower design speeds were used in hilly or mountainous terrain. A flat-country autobahn that was constructed to meet standards during the Nazi period, could support the speed of up to 150km/h (93mph) on curves.", "Speed limits in Germany\nIn 1973, in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis, a federal speed limit of 100km/h (62mph) on Autobahns was imposed to help conserve fuel for fear of impending future shortages (not for environmental or safety reasons). The measure only lasted from December 1973 to March 1974; while the administration and the Bundestag were in favor of keeping the speed limit, the Bundesrat pushed to repeal the law. As a compromise, a recommended speed was introduced on Autobahns and \"highways outside of built-up areas with a center divide or without a center divide and a continuous lane for overtaking in both directions\". This law is basically still in effect today. Unrestricted non-Autobahn highways, however, have since become virtually non-existent or replaced by Schnellstraßen, Autobahn-like expressways typically limited to 120 or 130km/h and normally only covering a few kilometers.", "Duisburg\nDuisburg is served by several autobahns, with 3 east–west routes and 2 north–south routes. A3 forms a bypass east of the city and mostly serves through traffic. A59 runs parallel to A3 and serves the city from north to south with 14 interchanges, much more than most other cities in the Ruhr area. The A40 and A42 are two east–west routes that serve central and northern Duisburg. Autobahn A40 also serves major through traffic from the Netherlands to Berlin and points east. A short spur, A524 serves southern Duisburg. Most Autobahns have six lanes or are upgraded to six lanes (A59).", "Crash Time: Autobahn Pursuit\nThe IGN Xbox Team rated \"Crash Time: Autobahn Pursuit\" as one of the five worst driving games on Xbox 360, mainly referring to the German police setting to the game, and the poor voice acting in the English-language versions. In a review for IGN by Ryan Geddes there was criticism that what could have been an exciting game has been reduced to the mundane. The difficulty curve was labelled \"inconsistent\", with \"cakewalk levels being followed immediately by nearly impossible ones\". The \"Cases\" mode was criticised as the player cannot tell how many missions are left until the case is completed, making the planning of a game session impossible. The missions have been described as boring and dull.", "Bundesautobahn 3\nThe A3 is four-laning for the first 65 kilometers (41 mi) up from the Dutch border. There are six lanes, three lanes in each direction, between interchange \"Kreuz Oberhausen\" and \"Köln-Mülheim\". On a short part inside of \"Kreuz Kaiserberg\" the A3 has two lanes. The Autobahn is equipped with eight lanes on the Cologne Beltway between \"Köln-Mülheim\" and autobahn triangle \"Dreieck Köln-Heumar\".", "Transport in Croatia\nMotorways (, plural )in Croatia applies to dual carriageway roads with at least two traffic lanes in each driving direction and an emergency lane. Direction road signs at Croatian motorways have green background with white lettering similar to the Swiss Autobahn. The designations of motorways are \"A\" and the motorway number. , the Croatian motorway network is long.", "Motorways of Switzerland\nSwiss autobahns/autoroutes very often have an emergency lane except in tunnels. Some newly built autobahn sections, like the lone section crossing the Jura region in the north-western part of Switzerland, have only emergency bays.", "Dual carriageway\n\"Autobahnähnliche Straßen\" mostly are colloquially referred to as \"gelbe Autobahn\" (yellow motorway) because they have the same technical standard as the \"Autobahn\" but have black on yellow signs instead of the white on blue signs used on the \"Autobahn\" motorway network. These are generally high-speed arterial roads in larger cities or important roads within a federal state that do not connect to major cities, so that they do not fall under the federal budget for the \"Autobahn\" network. The federal road Bundesstraße 27 is an example where about half of its length is upgraded to a high speed motorway standard. On the basis of their structure these roads have, comparable to the German \"autobahn\", the legal foundation that no default speed limit exists (design speed 130 km/h), although the standard advisory speed limit () still exists. Nevertheless expressways are often given speed limit signs.\nAt the moment some (blue) motorways have been taken out of the \"Autobahn\" network programme but still have the blue signs; and on the other hand some former non-\"Autobahn\" (yellow) motorways have been added to \"Autobahn\" budgeting but the signs have not been changed either. Motorways that are neither in the \"autobahn\" network nor in the \"Bundesstraße\" network are given black on white signs, following the same sign code as high-speed dual carriageways—this is mostly seen on urban trunk roads.", "West Autobahn\nTraffic significantly increased after the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989 and the 2004 enlargement of the European Union. Now that it represents such an important connection between East and West, portions of the A1 between the junction of Steinhäusl west of Vienna and the \"Voralpenkreuz\" interchange with Innkreis Autobahn (A8) and Pyhrn Autobahn (A9) at Sattledt are gradually being expanded by the publicly owned ASFiNAG corporation to three lanes in each direction." ]

[ "Waist–hip ratio\nThe waist-hip ratio or waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) is the dimensionless ratio of the circumference of the waist to that of the hips. This is calculated as waist measurement divided by hip measurement (W ÷ H). For example, a person with a 30″ (76cm) waist and 38″ (97cm) hips has a waist-hip ratio of about 0.78." ]

[ "Parasite-stress theory\nHigher waist-hip ratio has been linked with both mobility disability and also cardiovascular disease. Also, within parasite-stress theory itself, women with higher waist-hip ratio's also had a higher incidence of toxoplasmosis, another incidence in which parasitism contributes to developmental instability.", "Physical attractiveness\nOther researchers found waist-to-chest ratio the largest determinant of male attractiveness, with body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio not as significant.", "Waist\nThe waist-hip ratio equals the waist circumference divided by the hip circumference. Practically, however, the waist is usually measured at the smallest circumference of the natural waist, usually just above the belly button. In case the waist is convex rather than concave, such as is the case in pregnancy and obesity, the waist may be measured at a vertical level 1 inch above the navel. It is important to note that variables such as posture significantly influence the measurement of the waist, and therefore any measurements for a group need to maintain a constant posture between the subjects.", "Body shape\nEstrogen causes fat to be stored in the buttocks, thighs, and hips in women. When women reach menopause and the estrogen produced by ovaries declines, fat migrates from their buttocks, hips and thighs to their waists. Later fat is stored in the belly. Thus females generally have relatively narrow waists and large buttocks, and this along with wide hips make for a wider hip section and a lower waist-hip ratio compared to men. Hormonal and genetic factors may produce male-like distribution of fat in women i.e. around the belly instead of buttocks and thighs.", "Mating preferences\nLike men, who have a preference for a lower waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), a measure linked to female bodily attractiveness, women tend to be more attracted to men who have broader shoulders and relatively narrow waists (the waist-to-chest ratio; WCR). The ratio, changed by the distribution of android fat in the torso, makes the characteristic V-shape and is related to levels of testosterone in males, also correlated with higher perceived dominance of males.", "Waist–hip ratio\nKarremans J. C., Frankenhuis W. E., Arons S. (2010), \"Blind men prefer a low waist-to-hip ratio\", Evolution and Human Behavior, 31: 182–186; doi:.", "Female body shape\nBefore puberty both males and females have a similar waist–hip ratio. At puberty, a girl's sex hormones, mainly estrogen, will promote breast development and a wider pelvis tilted forward for child bearing, and until menopause a woman's estrogen levels will cause her body to store excess fat in the buttocks, hips and thighs, but generally not around her waist, which will remain about the same size as it was before puberty. These factors result in women's waist–hip ratio (WHR) being lower than for males, although males tend to have a greater upper-body to waist-hip ratio (WHR) giving them a V shape look because of their greater muscle mass e.g. they generally have much larger, more muscular and broader shoulders, pectoral muscles, teres major muscles and latissimus dorsi muscles.", "Waist–hip ratio\nWaist–hip ratio is also a reliable cue to one’s sex and it is hypothesised that the \"individuals who represent a mismatch based on the cue provided by WHR (e.g., women with high WHRs or men with low WHRs) would likely be viewed as unattractive by the opposite sex.\"[56]", "Parasite-stress theory\nA woman's waist-hip ratio is an indicator of her age, health and fertility, as well as being a good indicator of other people's judgements of attractiveness, with a lower waist-hip ratio being optimal. All of the above are related to mate choice: a lower waist-hip ratio indicates a younger, healthier, more fertile and more subjectively attractive women, all of which are desirable qualities in a mate.", "Female body shape\nMany studies indicate that WHR correlates with female fertility, leading some to speculate that its use as a sexual selection cue by men has an evolutionary basis. However it is also suggested that the evident relationships between WHR-influencing hormones and survival-relevant traits such as competitiveness and stress tolerance may give a preference for higher waist-hip-ratios its own evolutionary benefit. That, in turn, may account for the cross-cultural variation observed in actual average waist-hip-ratios and culturally preferred waist-to-hip ratios for women.", "Waist–hip ratio\nAnogenital distance Digit ratio Physical attractiveness Sexual attraction Wasp waist", "Waist–hip ratio\nWHR is used as a measurement of obesity, which in turn is a possible indicator of other more serious health conditions. The WHO states that abdominal obesity is defined as a waist-hip ratio above 0.90 for males and above 0.85 for females, or a body mass index (BMI) above 30.0.[5] The National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) states that women with waist-hip ratios of more than 0.8, and men with more than 1.0, are at increased health risk because of their fat distribution.", "Android fat distribution\nIn females, measures of Waist to Hip ratio have been observed as an evolutionary sign of attractiveness and reproductive success. A females waist being smaller than her hips by a ratio of 0.7 is considered most attractive as it indicated readiness to give birth to offspring, and overall health to ensure survival of offspring. Waist to hip ratio is determined by an individual's proportions of android fat and gynoid fat. A small waist to hip ratio indicates less android fat, high waist to hip ratio's indicate high levels of android fat.", "Parasite-stress theory\nWaist-hip ratio is the ratio of the circumference of the waist, to the circumference of the hips. It is calculated by dividing the waist circumference by the hip circumference.", "Classification of obesity\nIn the United States a waist circumference of >102 cm (~40\") in men and >88 cm (~34.5\") in women or the waist–hip ratio (the circumference of the waist divided by that of the hips of >0.9 for men and >0.85 for women) are used to define central obesity.", "Waist–hip ratio\nHip size indicates pelvic size and the amount of additional fat storage that can be used as a source of energy. Waist size conveys information such as current reproductive status or health status ... in westernized societies with no risk of seasonal lack of food, the waist, conveying information about fecundity and health status, will be more important than hip size for assessing a female's attractiveness.", "Criticism of evolutionary psychology\nOthers have criticized the assertion that men universally preferred women with a waist-to-hip ratio of 0.7 or the \"hourglass\" figure. Studies of peoples in Peru and Tanzania found that men preferred ratios of 0.9. Cashdan (2008) found that in male preferences for waist-to-hip ratios varied and were correlated to economic dependence for women; societies with less economic equality such as Greece, Japan and Portugal favored lower ratios while more egalitarian societies favored higher hip ratios.", "Waist–hip ratio\nWHR has been found to be a more efficient predictor of mortality in older people (>75 years of age) than waist circumference or BMI.[8] If obesity is redefined using WHR instead of BMI, the proportion of people categorized as at risk of heart attack worldwide increases threefold.[9] The body fat percentage is considered to be an even more accurate measure of relative weight. Of these three measurements, only the waist-hip ratio takes account of the differences in body structure. Hence, it is possible for two women to have vastly different body mass indices but the same waist–hip ratio, or to have the same body mass index but vastly different waist-hip ratios.", "Female body shape\nA low waist–hip ratio has also often been regarded as an indicator of attractiveness of a woman, but recent research suggests that attractiveness is more correlated to body mass index than waist–hip ratio, contrary to previous belief. Historically, according to Devendra Singh, there was a trend for slightly overweight women in the 17th and 18th centuries, as typified by the paintings of Rubens, but that in general there has been a preference for a slimmer waist in Western culture. He notes that \"The finding that the writers describe a small waist as beautiful suggests instead that this body part – a known marker of health and fertility – is a core feature of feminine beauty that transcends ethnic differences and cultures.\"", "Waist–hip ratio\nUsing data from the U.S. National Center for Health Statistics, William Lassek at the University of Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania and Steven Gaulin of the University of California, Santa Barbara, found a child's performance in cognitive tests correlated to their mother's waist–hip ratio, a proxy for how much fat she stores on her hips.[32]", "Waist–hip ratio\nIt appears that men in westernized societies are more influenced by female waist size than hip size:", "Waist–hip ratio\nChildren whose mothers had wide hips and a low waist–hip ratio scored highest, leading Lassek and Gaulin to suggest that fetuses benefit from hip fat, which contains long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, critical for the development of the fetus's brain.[32] In addition, evidence suggests that children of low-WHR teens were protected from the cognitive deficits often associated with teen birth.", "Waist\nA study published in the \"European Heart Journal\" April 2007 showed that waist circumference and waist-hip ratio were predictors of cardiovascular events.", "Physical attractiveness\nWomen focus primarily on the ratio waist to chest or more specifically waist to shoulder. This is analogous to the waist to hip ratio (WHR) that men prefer. Key body image for a man in the eyes of a woman would include big shoulders, chest, and upper back, and a slim waist area. Research has additionally shown that college males had a better satisfaction with their body than college females. The research also found that when a college female's waist to hip ratio went up, their body image satisfaction decreased.", "Waist–hip ratio\nStudies in twins have suggested that between 22% and 61% of variability in waist-to-hip ratio may be accounted for by genetic factors.[33]", "Waist–hip ratio\nPractically, however, the waist is more conveniently measured simply at the smallest circumference of the natural waist, usually just above the belly button, and the hip circumference may likewise be measured at its widest part of the buttocks or hip.[3] Also, in case the waist is convex rather than concave, such as is the case in pregnancy, different body types, and obesity, the waist may be measured at a horizontal level 1inch above the navel.[4]", "Passing (gender)\nVarious methods are used to create a female waist-hip ratio, by either reducing the waist size and/or enlarging the hips and buttocks. A garment such as a corset, BodyBriefer or control brief is often used to reduce the apparent waist size and/or to flatten the stomach area. Hip and buttock padding is sometimes used to enlarge the apparent size of the hips and buttocks.", "Female body shape\nCompared to males, females generally have relatively narrow waists and large buttocks, and this along with wide hips make for a wider hip section and a lower waist–hip ratio.\nResearch shows that a waist–hip ratio (WHR) for a female very strongly correlates to the perception of attractiveness. Women with a 0.7 WHR (waist circumference that is 70% of the hip circumference) are rated more attractive by men in various cultures. Such diverse beauty icons as Marilyn Monroe, Sophia Loren and the Venus de Milo all have ratios around 0.7. In other cultures, preferences vary, ranging from 0.6 in China, to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa, and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted.", "Waist\nWaist–hip ratio is the ratio of the circumference of the waist to that of the hips. It measures the proportion by which fat is distributed around the torso." ]

[ "Pink tax\nThe pink tax is a phenomenon often attributed as a form of gender-based price discrimination, with the name stemming from the observation that many of the affected products are pink.[1] Products marketed specifically toward women are generally more expensive than those marketed for men, despite either gender's choice to purchase either product. The NYC Department of Consumer Affairs conducted a study that concludes that women's products are typically more expensive than men's for often reasonable cause. There are many causes of this discrepancy, including the tampon tax, product differentiation, and the belief that women are less price elastic than men.[1][2][3][4]" ]

[ "Pink tax\nJennifer Boysko, a Democratic member of the Virginia state House of Delegates, in 2018 submitted HB 24, which would exempt menstrual supplies from sales and use taxes, in response to the Tampon Tax in Virginia.[13]", "Boxed.com\nIn October 2016, Boxed launched its Rethink Pink campaign to end the upcharge on women’s hygiene products, known as the Pink Tax. Boxed reduced the per unit price to match the male equivalent on items such as razors, deodorant, and body wash, paying the margin.", "My Little Pony Crystal Princess: The Runaway Rainbow\nA Breezy with a light pink body, a pink antenna and a pink mane and tail. Her cutie mark is a pink flower. She is always seen with Zipzee and Tiddly Wink, living in Breezy Blossom. When together with Tiddly Wink and Tra La La, they decide together on where to go or what to do.", "Beautiful Trauma (song)\nPink performed the song on \"Saturday Night Live\" on October 14, 2017, alongside \"What About Us\". She also performed the track on \"Good Morning America\". On November 19, 2017, Pink performed \"Beautiful Trauma\" at the American Music Awards while suspended from a high wire off of a skyscraper. Pink also performed the song on the of \"The X Factor UK\" on December 3, 2017 alongside \"What About Us\".", "So What (Pink song)\nBill Lamb of \"About.com\" awarded \"So What\" a four-and-a-half–star rating, praising the song's synth backing and beat and Pink's attitude. Lamb also praised Max Martin for his production work on the song, writing that he \"punches up the energy level to 10.\" Nick Levine of \"Digital Spy\", in his review of the leaked single, called the song \"brash, childish, slightly ridiculous, packed with attitude and sounds like something only Pink could get away with.\" Levine also called it \"terrifically catchy\" and praised the chorus as one \"that practically begs you to chant along.\" Following its official release in the United Kingdom, Levine awarded it a five-star rating, calling it one that people will sing along to. Lucy Davies of \"BBC\" called the song an \"aggressively swinging opener\" that \"slams Pink's cards down on the table setting the defiant, self-deprecating tone of the album.\" Michael Cragg of \"musicOMH\" wrote that Pink was at her best when she uses her life experiences to create \"smart, energetic pop songs\", citing \"So What\" as one of them.", "What About Us (Pink song)\nOn August 11 and 12, 2017, Pink performed \"What About Us\" live for the first time during two concerts at the Berlin Waldbühne. Pink's first televised performance of \"What About Us\" was at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards on August 27. She performed the song on \"Ellen\" on September 6, and on \"Saturday Night Live\" on October 14. She has also performed the track on various dates throughout her festival tour in 2017. Pink performed the song and \"Beautiful Trauma\" on the of \"The X Factor UK\" on December 3, 2017.", "Pink tax\nRepresentative Jackie Speier was a member of the California state Senate from 1998-2006. In 2008 she was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, representing California's 14th Electoral District, which includes most of San Mateo County and part of San Francisco County. She has held her position in Congress. Speier, a Democrat, is a member of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce.[14] In 2018, she introduced H.R. 5464, the Pink Tax Repeal Act, to end gender-based discrimination in the pricing of goods and services.[14] This followed her introduction of an earlier version of the bill two years earlier.", "Tax resistance in the United States\nThe \"Don't Buy Bush's War\" campaign in 2007–08, organized by Code Pink to protest the War against Iraq, got 2,000 people to sign a tax resistance pledge.", "Pink tax\nThe economic impact of the pink tax is that women have less buying power, especially paired with the gender-based pay gap. Buying power relates to the amount of goods and services a person can buy, given current prices and available income to spend.[6] The wage gap already puts women at a disadvantage when it comes to buying power. Women currently make a statistical average 89 cents for every $1 a man earns in the United States, meaning women statistically, on average, have less income to spend on goods and services.[12] This alone gives men more money and, ultimately, more buying power. The pink tax further contributes to the economic inequality between men and women. Paying more for goods just because they are marketed to women when women already earn less than men means men hold the majority of the buying power in the economy.[12] Taxes on feminine hygiene products that men don't have to buy further contributes to this discrepancy.[13]", "Tax resistance in the United States\nThe Tea Party protests of 2009 were in part a protest against high taxes (in addition to the allusion to the Boston Tea Party, the name was supposed to stand for \"Taxed Enough Already\"). Code Pink even reached out across the ideological aisle to try to find some common ground.", "Pink tax\nOpposition to the Pink Tax Repeal Act, came from retailers and manufacturers of women's products and clothing.[19] Their chief argument is that the Pink Tax Repeal Act would be difficult to enforce and lawsuits would follow. The difference between men's and women's products is not always easy to see, they argue, so removing the pink tax would be subjective.[21] They also alleged that the bill was unfriendly to domestic manufacturing jobs and that lowering the prices for women's products could lead to employee layoffs.[19]", "Pink tax\nAustralia, Canada, and Britain have voted on legislation to create special tax exemptions for tampons, but none have become law.[10] India has recently scrapped tampon tax.[11] Kenya has removed the tampon tax and is now providing menstrual products to school-aged girls. [8]", "Tax policy\nTax policy is the choice by a government as to what taxes to levy, in what amounts, and on whom. It has both microeconomic and macroeconomic aspects. The macroeconomic aspects concern the overall quantity of taxes to collect, which can inversely affect the level of economic activity; this is one component of fiscal policy. The microeconomic aspects concern issues of fairness (who to tax) and allocative efficiency (i.e., which taxes will have how much of a distorting effect on the amounts of various types of economic activity).", "Pink tax\nThe satirical card game Cards Against Humanity released a \"For Her\" edition of its base set (which is exactly the same as the original except with pink-colored packaging and a higher price) in 2017 as a satire of the pink tax, and in support of EMILY's List—a U.S. political action committee supporting female pro-choice Democratic candidates.[22]", "Pink (singer)\nOn August 7, 2008, Pink's single \"So What\" was leaked online, and radio stations across Australia were quick to give it massive airplay. Less than six hours after the leak, \"So What\" was voted No.1 on Nova 100 Melbourne and shot to No.1 on the Today Network's national radio Hot30 Countdown. On August 22, Pink announced a new track, titled \"Crystal Ball\". On September 18, 2008, \"So What\" became her second number-one hit on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. Pink was the guest of honor at the 2008 ARIA Music Awards, which were held in Sydney, Australia, in October 2008. There she sang \"So What\". On November 3, 2008, \"Funhouse\" debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA charts. In Australia it sold over 86,000 units in its first week, and was eventually certified eleven times platinum.", "Pink tax\nThere are many reasons why the pink tax exists, including tariffs, product discrimination, and product differentiation. Clothing made for women and men are taxed at different levels when first entering the United States.[3] While some tariffs are higher for men's clothing, others are higher for women's. In 2018, clothing companies sought to get tariffs on clothing removed. Their reasoning suggested these tariffs, while enlarging the gender gap, also put clothing companies at a disadvantage when operating overseas, but only in certain types of clothing. They maintained that those tariffs hurt the clothing industry.[3]", "So What (Pink song)\nDave Meyers, who is known for having artists giving an over-the-top portrayal of celebrities or themselves, directed the video for \"So What\". Pink previously worked with him for the videos to \"U + Ur Hand\" and \"Stupid Girls\", which earned MTV Video Music Award for Best Pop Video. Pink also worked with Meyers on the videos for \"There You Go\", \"Most Girls\", \"You Make Me Sick\", \"Get the Party Started\", \"Don't Let Me Get Me\" and the \"\" track \"Feel Good Time\". The video was shown on August 22 on \"FNMTV\". The video has premiered on 22 August on the UK music site Popjustice. Pink posted a message on her website for her fans about what it was like to shoot the video: ", "What About Us (Pink song)\n\"What About Us\" is a song by American singer and songwriter Pink. It was written by Pink, Steve Mac and Johnny McDaid, with production handled by Mac. The song was released through RCA Records on August 10, 2017, as the lead single from Pink's seventh studio album, \"Beautiful Trauma\" (2017), along with its pre-order.", "Pink tax\nOn April 10, 2018 Speier introduced a revised version of the Pink Tax Repeal Act, H.R.5464. The 115th Congress (2017-2018) was expected to review the acts's 2018 version. Skopos Labs, a technology company that predicts risks and opportunities, gave the bill a 1% chance of being enacted.[15][16] The overall intention of the Pink Tax Repeal Act is to end gender-based price discrimination. To accomplish this, the Pink Tax Repeal Act would mandate that any comparable products that are marketed toward men and women must be priced equally. Although Speier said she did not expect the bill to pass, she still tried to push forward the conversation about gender-based price discrimination in goods and services.", "Planet P Project\nIn late 1984 MCA released Planet P Project's double LP rock opera, \"Pink World\", which peaked at #121 on The Billboard 200. The single \"What I See\" reached #25 on Billboard's Top Rock Tracks. Both the double LP and the single were released on pink vinyl. A single music video, titled \"Pink World\" (though the song \"Pink World was not included in the video), which featured two songs from the \"Pink World\" album, \"What I See\" and \"Behind the Barrier\", remained in power rotation or active rotation for ten weeks on the network.", "So What (Pink song)\nThe music video for \"So What\" was directed by longtime collaborator Dave Meyers. It shows Pink drinking while riding a lawnmower, sawing down a tree, streaking on a red carpet appearance and other activities. The video also features a cameo appearance from Hart. Pink performed \"So What\" on MTV Europe Music Awards 2008 on November 6, 2008. The song was nominated for several awards, eventually winning the MTV Europe Music Award for the Most Addictive Track.", "Pink tax\nRepublican opposition for a recall of the tampon tax in Virginia argued that tax discrimination against products for women needed to be sorted out by changing the general tax code. They added that they supported the elimination of sales taxes overall. Another opposition argument was that only disease-preventing hygiene products should be exempt from Virginia's sales tax and that feminine hygiene products did not prevent disease.[13]", "Pink tax\nWhile in the California state Assembly, Speier introduced Assembly Bill No. 1088, also known as the Gender Tax Repeal Act, in 1995. It was similar to the Pink Tax Repeal Act, except it focused on gender-based price discrimination in services. The bill stated that businesses such as tailors, barbers, hair stylists, dry cleaners and laundries would not be permitted to discriminate for \"standard services\" due to a person’s gender or the gender the clothing is intended for, without a valid, prominently placed written justification.[17][18] The bill passed and remains in effect. A similar bill was proposed soon after aimed at consumer goods, however it gained large opposition from manufacturing companies. The main opposition argument was that a bill proposed on goods would lead to litigation and price increases.", "Pink tax\nCriticism of the concept of a pink tax include the principle that the idea robs women of agency and choice by suggesting that women are so easily brainwashed by marketing that they are prevented from choosing the lesser priced but otherwise \"identical\" male-marketed alternative. If it were truly identical to the female-marketed variety, there would be no reason not to buy the cheaper variety. Instead, critics have attributed the pricing disparity to market forces,[20] and stated that if women continue to buy a more expensive pink razor, it is because they see some utility or additional aesthetic that they are willing to pay for. That there are substantive differences in price indicates differences in marketability of different products, not necessarily a conspiracy against women.", "Pink tax\nIn the US, there is no specialized tax on tampons. In states where sales taxes are collected, tampons are taxed in much the same way as most other non-exempt items (such as toilet paper and toothpaste). There has been a recent push to carve out a special tax-exempt status for tampons.[7] The tampon tax has sometimes been falsely called a \"luxury tax\". As of 2018, 36 states collect sales tax from tampons. [8] Women leading the movement against the tampon tax are calling the tax a form of \"regulatory discrimination\", saying that menstruation is out of their control and that the government should not tax something that is imminent for approximately half the population. [9] Unlike condoms, tampons are a necessity, with no male equivalent, so the two items cannot be compared. Furthermore, many schools, colleges, doctors offices, and clinics all offer free condoms for use by the public, while the same is not done for menstrual products.", "Don't Leave Me Now (Pink Floyd song)\nThe song begins with a close-up of the debris in Pink's hotel room, then switches over to the hotel's pool, where Pink is seen floating in a crucifix position. Having cut open his right hand during his violent tantrum, his blood stains the pool water. What follows is a fantasy sequence in which Pink watches \"The Dam Busters\" on TV in a much larger, and entirely empty, hotel room. The shadow of Pink's wife emerges on the back wall before materialising into a praying mantis-like monster, which then transforms into the vulva-shaped flower from \"What Shall We Do Now?\". The song ends with Pink cowering in the corner of the room, tortured by both the imaginary mantis in front of him, and thoughts of his wife's adultery.Personnel per Fitch and Mahon.", "Pink World\nMCA's original double LP version of \"Pink World\" was released in late November, 1984. The album was simultaneously released in the US and Europe. The double LP was pressed on what one reviewer called “Pepto Bismol pink vinyl.” The single for \"What I See\" was also released on pink vinyl, as was the 12\" promotional single distributed to radio stations for airplay. MCA also released the album on cassette.", "Pink tax\nOn July 8, 2016, Speier introduced H.R. 5686, Pink Tax Repeal Act, to the House floor. She was the bill's primary sponsor. This was widely considered an early version of the bill. It was been revised and edited over the succeeding two years.[15]", "Gender equality\nGender biases also exist in product and service provision. The term \"Women's Tax\", also known as \"Pink Tax\", refers to gendered pricing in which products or services marketed to women are more expensive than similar products marketed to men. Gender-based price discrimination involves companies selling almost identical units of the same product or service at comparatively different prices, as determined by the target market. Studies have found that women pay about $1,400 a year more than men due to gendered discriminatory pricing. Although the \"pink tax\" of different goods and services is not uniform, overall women pay more for commodities that result in visual evidence of feminine body image." ]

[ "Queer theory\nQueer theory is a field of critical theory that emerged in the early 1990s out of the fields of queer studies and women's studies. Queer theory includes both queer readings of texts and the theorization of 'queerness' itself. Heavily influenced by the work of Lauren Berlant, Leo Bersani, Judith Butler, Lee Edelman, Jack Halberstam,[1] and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, queer theory builds both upon feminist challenges to the idea that gender is part of the essential self and upon gay/lesbian studies' close examination of the socially constructed nature of sexual acts and identities. Whereas gay/lesbian studies focused its inquiries into natural and unnatural behavior with respect to homosexual behavior, queer theory expands its focus to encompass any kind of sexual activity or identity that falls into normative and deviant categories. Italian feminist and film theorist Teresa de Lauretis coined the term queer theory for a conference she organized at the University of California, Santa Cruz in 1990 and a special issue of Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies she edited based on that conference." ]

[ "Queer pedagogy\nIn 1998, as part of William Pinar's anthology \"Queer Theory in Education\", the challenge of articulating a queer pedagogy was taken up by a doctoral student at York University, Susanne Luhmann. In \"Queering/Querying Pedagogy? Or, Pedagogy is a Pretty Queer Thing\" (part of a larger anthology on Queer Theory in Education), she asks questions such as, \"Is a queer pedagogy about and for queer students or queer teachers? Is a queer pedagogy a question of queer curriculum? Or, is it about teaching methods adequate for queer content? Or, about queer learning and teaching-- and what would that mean? Moreover, is a queer pedagogy to become the house pedagogy of queer studies or is it about the queering of pedagogical theory?\" She suggests that an \"inquiry into the conditions that make learning possible or prevent learning\" through exploration of the teacher/student relationships and \"the conditions for understanding, or refusing, knowledge.\"", "José Esteban Muñoz\nQueer futurity is a literary and queer cultural theory that combines elements of utopianism, historicism, speech act theory, and political idealism in order to critique the present and current dilemmas faced by queer people of color, but also to revise, interrogate, and re-examine the death drive in queer theory. Queer futurity or \"queer sociability\" addresses themes and concerns of minoritarian subjects through a performance and aesthetics lens, encompassing a range of media and artists with a shared interest in envisioning queer futures that stem from minoritarian subject experiences. According to Fred Moten, \"Jose's queerness is a utopian project whose temporal dimensionality is manifest not only as projection into the future but also as projection of a certain futurity into and onto the present and the past.\" Queerness also has a spatial dimension, \"insofar as it is located in displacement\" such as virtual chats, disappearing clubs, gentrified neighborhoods and venues, to name a few. The study of queer sociability has expanded beyond the fields of Performance Studies, Queer Theory, and Gender and Women Studies and has been used by various scholars to address issues of Black Diaspora Studies, Caribbean Studies, and musicology. The elements of queer sociability has not only created the field of queer of color critique but has been the center of special journal issues such as the Virtual Special Issue: José Esteban Muñoz.", "Feminist views on sexuality\nMany feminists have critiqued queer theory as either a diversion from feminism issues or as a male-dominated backlash to feminism. Lesbian feminists and radical feminists have been the most prominent critics of queer theory and queer politics. Sheila Jeffreys' \"Unpacking Queer Politics: A Lesbian Feminist Perspective\" harshly criticizes queer theory as the product of \"a powerful gay male culture\" which \"celebrated masculine privilege\" and \"enshrined a cult of masculinity.\" She repudiates queer theory as anti-lesbian, anti-feminist, and anti-women.", "Queer theory\nThere has been a long history of critical and anarchistic thinking about sexual and gender relations across many cultures. Josiah Flynt became one of the first sociologists to study homosexuality. Most recently, in the late 1970s and 1980s, social constructionists conceived of the sexual subject as a culturally dependent, historically specific product.[14] Before the phrase \"queer theory\" was born, the term \"Queer Nation\" appeared on the cover of the short-lived lesbian/gay quarterly Outlook in the winter 1991 issues. Writers Allan Berube and Jeffrey Escoffier drove home the point that Queer Nation strove to embrace paradoxes in its political activism, and that the activism was taking new form and revolving around the issue of identity.[15] Soon enough Outlook and Queer Nation stopped being published, however, there was a mini-gay renaissance going on during the 1980s and early 1990s. There were a number of significant outbursts of lesbian/gay political/cultural activity. Out of this emerged queer theory. Their work however did not arise out of the blue. Teresa de Lauretis is credited with coining the phrase \"queer theory\". It was at a working conference on lesbian and gay sexualities that was held at the University of California, Santa Cruz in February 1990 that de Lauretis first made mention of the phrase.[16] She later introduced the phrase in a 1991 special issue of difference</i>s: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies, entitled \"Queer Theory: Lesbian and Gay Sexualities.\" Similar to the description Berube and Escoffier used for Queer Nation, de Lauretis asserted that, \"queer unsettles and questions the genderedness of sexuality.\"[17] Barely three years later, she abandoned the phrase « on the grounds that it had been taken over by those mainstream forces and institutions it was coined to resist ».[18] Judith Butler's Gender Trouble, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick's Epistemology of the Closet, and David Halperin's One Hundred Years of Homosexuality inspired other works. Teresa de Lauretis, Judith Butler, and Eve Sedgwick arranged much of the conceptual base for the emerging field in the 1990s. Along with other queer theorists, these three outlined a political hermeneutics, which emphasized representation. These scholars questioned whether people of varying sexual orientations had the same political goals, and whether those in the sexual minority felt that they could be represented along with others of different sexualities and orientations. \"While some critics insist that queer theory is apolitical word-smithery, de Lauretis, Butler, and Sedgwick take seriously the role that signs and symbols play in shaping the meanings and possibilities of our culture at the most basic level, including politics conventionally defined.\"[15]", "José Esteban Muñoz\nMuñoz's disidentification theory has also influenced other thinkers in the field. In \"Crip Theory: Cultural Signs of Queerness and Disability,\" Robert McRuer, draws on Muñoz's theory of disidentification to articulate and imagine \"collective disidentifications\" made possible when putting queer and crip theory in conversation. Diana Taylor, Ann Cvetkovich, Roderick Ferguson, and Jack Halberstam have cited and applied Muñoz to their own work. Muñoz was also influential to the field of Queer of Color Critique. In the book \"Aberrations in Black\", Roderick Ferguson employs Muñoz's disidentification theory to reveal how the discourses of sexuality are used to articulate theories of racial difference in the field of sociology. Moreover, disidentification theory has been used by an array of scholars to apply a queer of color critique to various themes such as identity politics, queer temporality, homonationalism, and diaspora and native studies.", "Queer theory\nAnnamarie Jagose wrote Queer Theory: An Introduction in 1996.[2] Queer used to be a slang word for homosexuals and was used for homophobic abuse. Recently, this term has been used as an umbrella term for a coalition of sexual identities that are culturally marginalized, and at other times, to create discourse surrounding the budding theoretical model that primarily arose through more traditional lesbian and gay studies. According to Jagose (1996), \"Queer focuses on mismatches between sex, gender and desire. For most, queer has been prominently associated with those who identify as lesbian and gay. Unknown to many, queer is in association with more than just gay and lesbian, but also cross-dressing, hermaphroditism, gender ambiguity and gender-corrective surgery.\"", "Heteronormativity\nMichael Warner popularized the term in 1991, in one of the first major works of queer theory. The concept's roots are in Gayle Rubin's notion of the \"sex/gender system\" and Adrienne Rich's notion of compulsory heterosexuality. From the outset, theories of heteronormativity included a critical look at gender; Warner wrote that \"every person who comes to a queer self-understanding knows in one way or another that her stigmatization is intricated with gender. [...] Being queer [...] means being able, more or less articulately, to challenge the common understanding of what gender difference means.\"", "Feminist views on sexuality\nQueer theory has been greatly influenced by feminist theory and women's studies. Many works have been written on the intersection of feminism and queer theory and how both feminist persepectives can enrich LGBTQ theory and studies and how queer perspectives can enrich feminism. Books such as \"Feminism is Queer: The Intimate Connection Between Queer and Feminist Theory\" detail the intersections between queer and feminist theory and argue that feminism itself could be construed as a \"queer\" movement.", "Queer theory\nIn other way, for Ian Barnard,[69] any consideration of sexuality must include inextricability with racialized subjectivities. Adam Green argues that Barnard implicitly rejects the queer theoretical conceptions of sexuality on the grounds that such work fails to account for particularity of racialized sexualities. He reasons that the failure arises because queer theorists are themselves white, and therefore operate from the particularity of a white racial standpoint. Barnard aspires to recuperate an analysis of race in queer theory, proposing that the deconstructionist epistemology of queer theory can be used to decompose a white queerness (first) in order to recover a racialized queerness (second). Thus, Adam Green argues that Barnard's attempt to bring social contingency into queer theory violates the core epistemological premise of queer theory; in fact, by proposing that queer theory capture racialized subject positions, Barnard reinstates what it means to be a person of colour. His critique of the white subject position of queer theorists is itself a testimony to the stability of the social order and the power of social categories to mark a particular kind of experience, of subjectivity and, in turn, of queer author. He backs down the road of a decidedly sociological analysis of subject position and the self. Finally, Jagose[70] Green observes that Jagose aims toward an analysis of social cleavages, including those accruing by race and ethnicity. Thus, on the one, Jagose underscores the strong deconstructionist epistemological premise of the term queer and queer theory more generally. Yet, she goes on to analyze identities and sexualities \"inflected by heterosexuality, race, gender and ethnicity\". Thus Adam Green states that by advocating the incorporation of social contingency in this way, Jagose offers neither the critical edge of queer theory nor the clarity of standpoint theory. However, on the topic of race, Jagose asserted that for a black lesbian, the thing of utmost importance is her lesbianism, rather than her race. Many gays and lesbians of color attacked this approach, accusing it of re-inscribing an essentially white identity into the heart of gay or lesbian identity (Jagose, 1996).[71]", "Queer theory\nIn Ruth Goldman's essay “Who Is That? Exploring Norms around Sexuality, Race, and Class in Queer Theory,\" she examines how rhetoric works to create a “normative discourse within queer theory” (169), and how that rhetoric serves to limit our perception of queer. In stark opposition to Green's critique, Goldman argues that in order to comply with queer theories intent to challenge the normal, it must provide a framework in which to challenge other oppressive norms that intersect with sexuality (i.e. racism, misogyny, classism, etc.). By acknowledging the intersection of multiple oppressions is to dismantle a single-issue framework, and thus, creating a platform for a more intensive analysis.[73]", "Queer theory\nThe studies of Fuss anticipate queer theory. Fuss analyzes queer theory while surpassing the concept of identity politics to assert the nature in how to distinguish people who were not heterosexual from people who are without asserting the positionally of the two from the lens of a binary.[25]", "Queer theory\nIn Robert McRuer's Crip Theory, he mentions the intersection between disability theory and queer theory and how they are aided by their own association with each other and what is normal; for instance, the connection between upholding an able-bodied identity and heterosexuality. He argues that an able-bodied identity functions as more of a subconscious mentality of normality than heterosexuality. McRuer argues that there is a system that is established to distinguish those who are able-bodied from those who have disabilities; that distinction that was instituted the disability concept. Following that same dynamic, the subjection of homosexuality in relation to heterosexuality founded the basis of homosexuality. McRuer emphasizes how the intersecting of queer theory and disability theory would cultivate, “critically disabled spaces overlapping with the critically queer spaces that activists and scholars have shaped during recent decades, in which we can identify and challenge the ongoing consolidation of heterosexual, able-bodied hegemony.”[31] The creation of Crip Theory by McRuer was not only built on neoliberism but also critically engages with the fundamentality of the term “disability” and the manner that it paradoxically operates. McRuer asserts the nature of which that queer theory and disability theory benefit each other. The functions of the concept of able-bodiedness is utilized as an additional tool to strengthen and maintain the concept of heterosexuality and heteronormativy.[32]", "Queer theory\nMuch of queer theory developed out of a response to the AIDS crisis, which promoted a renewal of radical activism, and the growing homophobia brought about by public responses to AIDS. Queer theory became occupied in part with what effects – put into circulation around the AIDS epidemic – necessitated and nurtured new forms of political organization, education and theorizing in \"queer\".", "Queer theory\nQueer theory was originally associated with radical gay politics of ACT UP, OutRage! and other groups which embraced \"queer\" as an identity label that pointed to a separatist, non-assimilationist politics.[21] Queer theory developed out of an examination of perceived limitations in the traditional identity politics of recognition and self-identity. In particular, queer theorists identified processes of consolidation or stabilization around some other identity labels (e.g. gay and lesbian); and construed queerness so as to resist this. Queer theory attempts to maintain a critique more than define a specific identity. These critiques are expressed through a whole range of notions in subfields such as ecotechnics within technology studies.", "Queer theory\nIntersex scholars and scientists who have written on intersex include Morgan Holmes, Georgiann Davis, Iain Morland and Janik Bastien-Charlebois, in each case focusing on more particular realities of the intersex experience. In his essay What Can Queer Theory Do for Intersex? Morland contrasts queer \"hedonic activism\" with an experience of post-surgical insensate intersex bodies to claim that \"queerness is characterized by the sensory interrelation of pleasure and shame\".[30]", "International relations theory\nQueer international relations scholarship aims to broaden the scope and method of traditional international relations theory to include sexed and gendered approaches that are often excluded in the discipline at large. While affiliated with feminist theory and gender studies, as well as post-structuralism, queer IR theory is not reducible to any other field of international relations scholarship. Queer international relations theory works to expose the many ways in which sexualities and gender affect international politics. This includes the ways in which queer subjects and practices are disciplined, normalized, or capitalized on by traditional sites of power; how queer identities have often been the focus of domestic and foreign policy in heteronormative states; and how the order-versus-anarchy dichotomy in traditional international relations theory socially manifests itself in normal-versus-perverse and hetero/homo-normative versus queer dichotomies. Queer IR theory takes sites of traditional international relations scholarship (war and peace, international political economy, and state and nation building) as its subjects of study. It also expands its scope and methods beyond those traditionally utilized in Realist IR scholarship. Ontologically, queer IR utilizes a different scope from traditional IR, as it aims to non-monolithically address the needs of various queer groups, including trans-, inter-, cross-, and pan- gendered, sexed, and sexualized bodies. Epistemologically, queer IR explores alternative methodologies to those traditionally used in IR, as it emphasizes the sexual dimension of knowledge within international relations.", "Queer\nQueer theory is a field of post-structuralist critical theory that emerged in the early 1990s out of the fields of queer studies and women's studies. Applications of queer theory include queer theology and queer pedagogy. Queer theorists, including Rod Ferguson, Jasbir Puar, Lisa Duggan, and Chong-suk Han, critique the mainstream gay political movement as allied with neoliberal and imperialistic agendas, including gay tourism, gay and trans military inclusion, and state- and church-sanctioned marriages for monogamous gay couples. Puar, a queer theorist of color, coined the term \"homonationalism\", which refers to the rise of American exceptionalism, nationalism, white supremacy, and patriarchy within the gay community catalyzed in response to the September 11 attacks. Many studies have acknowledged the problems that lie within the traditional theory and process of social studies, and so choose to utilise a queer theoretical approach instead. One such study was conducted in Melbourne in 2016 by Roffee and Waling. By using queer and feminist theories and approaches the researchers were better equipped to cater for the needs, and be accommodating for the vulnerabilities, of the LGBTIQ participants of the study. In this case, it was a specifically post-modern queer theory that enabled the researchers to approach the study with a fair perspective, acknowledging all the varieties of narratives and experiences within the LGBTIQ community.", "Feminist views on sexual orientation\nQueer theory has been greatly influenced by feminist theory and women's studies. Many works have been written on the intersection of feminism and queer theory and how both feminist persepectives can enrich LGBTQ theory and studies and how queer perspectives can enrich feminism. Books such as \"Feminism is Queer: The Intimate Connection Between Queer and Feminist Theory\" detail the intersections between queer and feminist theory and argue that feminism itself could be construed as a \"queer\" movement.", "Gender essentialism\nAnalyzing gender has been a concern of feminist theory, thus there have been many modes of understanding how gender addresses meaning. However, developing such theories of gender can obscure the significance of other aspects of women's identities, such as race, class, and sexual orientation, which marginalizes the experiences and voices of women of colour, non-Western women, working-class women, queer women, and trans women. As a challenge to feminist theory, essentialism refers to the problem of theorizing gender as both an identity and a mark of difference. This refers to a problem for the concept of subjectivity presupposed by feminist theories of gender. There are arguments primarily by black and lesbian feminists that feminist theory has capitalized on the idea of gender essentialism by using the category of gender to appeal to \"women's experience\" as a whole. By doing this, feminist theory makes universalizing and normalizing claims for and about women, which are only true of white, Western, heterosexual, cisgender, middle- or upper-class women, but which it implies are situations, perspectives and experiences true to all women. Patrice DiQuinzio discusses \"how critics of exclusion see this as a function of feminist theory's commitment to theorizing gender exclusively and articulating women's experiences in terms of gender alone\". Instead one must theorize feminism in a way that takes the interlocking category of experiences between race, class, gender, and sexuality into consideration; an intersectional model of thinking.", "Feminist views on sexual orientation\nMany feminists have critiqued queer theory as either a diversion from feminism issues or as a male-dominated backlash to feminism. Lesbian feminists and radical feminists have been the most prominent critics of queer theory and queer politics. Sheila Jeffreys' \"Unpacking Queer Politics: A Lesbian Feminist Perspective\" harshly criticizes queer theory as the product of \"a powerful gay male culture\" which \"celebrated masculine privilege\" and \"enshrined a cult of masculinity.\" She repudiates queer theory as anti-lesbian, anti-feminist, and anti-women.", "Queer theory\nThe critique of queer theory is not limited to the US. Queer theory was repeatedly criticized by the Vatican. Pope Francis spoke about \"ideological colonization\" by which he meant that queer theory, and more broadly critical gender studies, threatens traditional family and fertile heterosexuality. France was one of the first countries where this claim became widespread when catholic movements marched in the streets of Paris against the bill on gay marriage and adoption. Bruno Perreau in [81] has shown that this fear has deep historical roots in France. He argues that the rejection of queer theory expresses anxieties about national identity and minority politics. Minority groups could betray the nation and prefer transnational identities. Perreau maintains that queer theory shows that being part of a group requires the ability to critique one's own belonging. This is largely unbearable to reactionary movements, Perreau argues, all the more because queer theory is ironically largely based on French theory.", "Bruno Perreau\nPerreau's most recent research discusses various facets of the French response to queer theory, from the mobilization of activists and the seminars of scholars to the emergence of queer media and translations. It sheds new light on recent events around gay marriage in France, where opponents to the 2013 law saw queer theory as a threat to French family. Perreau questions the return of French Theory to France from the standpoint of queer theory, thereby exploring the way France conceptualizes America. By examining mutual influences across the Atlantic, he seeks to reflect on changes in the idea of national identity in France and the United States, offering insight on recent attempts to theorize the notion of “community” in the wake of Maurice Blanchot's work. Queer Theory: The French Response offers a theory of minority politics that considers an ongoing critique of norms as the foundation of citizenship, in which a feeling of belonging arises from regular reexamination of it.", "Queer theory\nThe future of queer theory is rooted in the aspiration of the term being utilized to reference and question all deviations from normative, as well as serve as a foundation of interrogation of the normative. The desires that queer theory is centered in do not reference sexuality, however because the foundation of queer theory lies in the assessment and analysis of what is deemed normative and non-normative, sexuality intersects with the components that maintain the fundamentals of queer theory.[9]", "Queering\nQueering is the verb form of the word queer and comes from the shortened version of the phrase queer reading. It is a technique that came out of queer theory in the late 1980s through the 1990s and is used as a way to challenge heteronormativity by analyzing places in a text that utilize heterosexuality or identity binaries. Queering is a method that can be applied to literature as well as film to look for places where things such as gender, sexuality, masculinity, and femininity can be challenged and questioned. Originally the method of queering dealt more strictly with gender and sexuality, but quickly expanded to become more of an umbrella term for addressing identity as well as a range of systems of oppression and identity politics. Even the term queer itself can be queered, because much of queer theory involves working to fight against normalization even in the field itself. In the context of queer theory, \"queering is something we do, rather than something we are (or are not).\" ", "Sexism\nVarious feminist movements in the 20th century, from liberal feminism and radical feminism to standpoint feminism, postmodern feminism and queer theory have all considered language in their theorizing. Most of these theories have maintained a critical stance on language that calls for a change in the way speakers use their language.", "Queer theory\nA key difference between the queer and feminist theories involves their respective scope. Feminist theory is only concerned about the issues affecting women and women empowerment while the subjects of queer theory are diverse and include women, homosexuals, transsexuals, and those considered deviants. Queer theory is also distinguished from feminist theory in the sense that it asserts identity as a conceptual category, serving as \"a disciplinary apparatus that that pigeonholes the fluidity of the self into a politically docile normativity.\"[62] The feminist position is that 'identity politics' is a political error that occurs once a standpoint gets overemphasized or naturalized.[62]", "Queer theory\nAdam Green's critique is one approach to queer theory, that leans towards a sociological stance on the issue of sexuality; primarily and rather exclusively,[64] focusing on gay or lesbian subjects. Green argues that queer theory ignores the social and institutional conditions within which lesbians and gays live. For example, queer theory dismantles social contingency in some cases (homosexual subject positions) while recuperating social contingency in others (racialized subject positions). Thus, not all queer theoretical work is as faithful to its deconstructionist roots. Reflecting on this issue, Timothy Laurie suggests that \"the desire to resist norms in some contemporary queer scholarship can never be entirely reconciled with an equally important challenge, that of producing both adequate and dynamic descriptions of ordinary events\".[65]", "Transgender studies\nOther important transgender studies texts are more firmly theoretical or critical. Judith Butler, whose work is important for queer studies more broadly, was influential in the field of transgender studies specifically for the formulation of the theory of gender performativity that is the basis for genderqueer activism and theorization. Jack Halberstam is another key figure in transgender studies. Halberstam’s work deals with female masculinity, the concept of “queer failure” and various theorizations of trans or gender variant embodiment and temporality. Paul B. Preciado’s \"Testo Junkie: Sex, Drugs, and Biopolitics in the Pharmacopornographic Era\" is considered “autotheory” and intertwines personal and cultural histories of clinical hormone therapies with political histories of hormonal birth control, and performance enhancing testosterone use.", "Mari Ruti\nRuti’s recent scholarship on feminist and queer theory (in \"Feminist Film Theory and \"Pretty Woman\"\" and \"The Ethics of Opting Out\") investigates biopolitics; neoliberalism; postfeminism; contemporary ideals of femininity; new forms of heteropatriarchy; female self-objectification; queer antinormativity; queer negativity/pessimism; queer utopianism/optimism; queer discourses of failure and bad feelings; the relationship between queer theory and affect theory; and ethical debates within queer theory." ]

[ "Brain healing\nBrain healing is the process that occurs after the brain has been damaged. If an individual survives brain damage, the brain has a remarkable ability to adapt. When cells in the brain are damaged and die, for instance by stroke, there will be no repair or scar formation for those cells. The brain tissue will undergo liquefactive necrosis, and a rim of gliosis will form around the damaged area." ]

[ "Stroke\nStroke symptoms typically start suddenly, over seconds to minutes, and in most cases do not progress further. The symptoms depend on the area of the brain affected. The more extensive the area of the brain affected, the more functions that are likely to be lost. Some forms of stroke can cause additional symptoms. For example, in intracranial hemorrhage, the affected area may compress other structures. Most forms of stroke are not associated with a headache, apart from subarachnoid hemorrhage and cerebral venous thrombosis and occasionally intracerebral hemorrhage.", "Watershed stroke\nA watershed stroke or watershed infarct is defined as a brain ischemia that is localized to the vulnerable border zones between the tissues supplied by the anterior, posterior and middle cerebral arteries. The actual blood stream blockage/restriction site can be located far away from the infarcts. Watershed locations are those border-zone regions in the brain supplied by the major cerebral arteries where blood supply is decreased. Watershed strokes are a concern because they comprise approximately 10% of all ischemic stroke cases. The watershed zones themselves are particularly susceptible to infarction from global ischemia as the distal nature of the vasculature predisposes these areas to be most sensitive to profound hypoperfusion.", "Arno Villringer\nVillringer currently pursues the hypothesis that (maladaptive) brain plasticity is crucial for the development of vascular risk factors leading to stroke and for the (lack of) recovery after stroke, and that brain plasticity can be beneficially modified. For this purpose, he employs multimodal brain imaging to understand basic neurophysiological mechanisms underlying human brain plasticity in cortical and subcortical brain areas, and their interaction. Behavioral correlates include sensorimotor function, reaction to stress, and emotions. The clinical applications are (i) prevention of vascular risk factors (obesity, hypertension) and subsequent stroke, and (ii) recovery after stroke.", "Cerebral edema\nDuring an ischemic stroke, a lack of oxygen and glucose leads to a breakdown of the sodium-calcium pumps on brain cell membranes, which in turn results in a massive buildup of sodium and calcium intracellularly. This causes a rapid uptake of water and subsequent swelling of the cells. It is this swelling of the individual cells of the brain that is seen as the main distinguishing characteristic of cytotoxic edema, as opposed to vasogenic edema, wherein the influx of fluid is typically seen in the interstitial space rather than within the cells themselves. While not all patients who have experienced a stroke will develop a severe edema, those who do have a very poor prognosis.", "Pulmonary laceration\nFull recovery is common with proper treatment. Pulmonary laceration usually heals quickly after a chest tube is inserted and is usually not associated with major long-term problems. Pulmonary lacerations usually heal within three to five weeks, and lacerations filled with air will commonly heal within one to three weeks but on occasion take longer. However, the injury often takes weeks or months to heal, and the lung may be scarred. Small pulmonary lacerations frequently heal by themselves if material is removed from the pleural space, but surgery may be required for larger lacerations that do not heal properly or that bleed.", "Primary and secondary brain injury\nSecondary injury is an \"indirect\" result of the injury. It results from processes initiated by the trauma. It occurs in the hours and days following the primary injury and plays a large role in the brain damage and death that results from TBI. Unlike in most forms of trauma a large percentage of the people killed by brain trauma do not die right away but rather days to weeks after the event. In addition, rather than improving after being hospitalized as most patients with other types of injuries do, about 40% of people with TBI deteriorate. This is often a result of secondary injury, which can damage neurons that were unharmed in the primary injury. It occurs after a variety of brain injury including subarachnoid hemorrhage, stroke, and traumatic brain injury and involves metabolic cascades.", "Receptive aphasia\nHow to Differentiate from Other Types of Aphasia.The most common cause of Wernicke's aphasia is stroke. Strokes may occur when blood flow to the brain is completely interrupted or severely reduced. This has a direct effect on the amount of oxygen and nutrients being able to supply the brain, which causes brain cells to die within minutes. The primary classifications of stroke are hemorrhagic (ruptured blood vessel), or ischemic (blood clot reduces or completely stops blood flow). Two of the most common types of hemorrhagic stroke are subarachnoid hemorrhage and intracerebral hemorrhage. Subarachnoid hemorrhage is when an artery near the surface of the brain bursts causing blood to leak into the space between the brain and skull. Meanwhile intracerebral hemorrhage occurs when a blood vessel inside the brain bursts, causing spillage into surrounding brain tissue. Three main causes of these hemorrhagic strokes are hypertension (uncontrolled high blood pressure), aneurisms (weak spots in blood vessel walls), and arteriovenous malformations (rupture of abnormal tangle of thin-walled blood vessels). As previously noted the other major classification for a stroke is an ischemic stroke. The ischemic strokes, which are the most common form of stroke, are further broken down and can be classified as embolic or thrombotic. Embolic strokes occur when a blood clot forms away from the brain, typically in the heart. A small portion of this clot breaks away and travels through the blood vessels until eventually reaching a small enough vessel in the brain that it can no longer pass through, causing a blockage. Thrombotic strokes on the other hand are due to the formation of a blood clot directly formed in one of the arteries that supply the brain. In general, stroke is the number one leading cause of disability worldwide.,", "Neuroscience of multilingualism\nIn comparison to monolinguals, bilinguals have shown to have a better recovery after stroke. As with Alzheimer's patients, bilingual patients who have suffered an ischemic stroke have shown to have a better cognitive outcome which researchers believe is due to a higher cognitive reserve. This increase of cognitive reserve might be attributed to the increase of grey matter in bilingual individuals. Since bilingual individuals have to constantly change and inhibit a language, the brain is more used to brain training and has been able to optimize better the space it uses. Brain training has led researchers to believe is a factor that helps stroke patients recover faster and better. Bilingual individuals then are able to benefit more from rehabilitation after stroke compared to monolingual patients because the brain has a higher plasticity ability that allows for a better remodeling of the brain after stroke. Stroke patients (bilinguals) with aphasia also perform better in other cognitive tasks that measure attention and ability to organize and retrieve information. This is attributed again to the increase of grey matter since it is involved in cognitive control and higher cognitive functions that are more present in bilinguals. This is relevant since in some patients the automatization of language is impaired, highly correlated to basal ganglia lesions and anterior parietal cortex. Although it is uncommon for patients to lose automatization of the first language, basal ganglia lesions have been correlated to loss of automatization of language, which fits with the role of basal ganglia in automatized motor and cognitive performance. This is more evident with patients who have acquired a second language at a later age since studies suggest that late bilingual aphasics' syntactic judgment abilities may be more impaired for the second language. Acquisition of language at a later age changes the mapping of language in the brain since the languages do not overlap. This difference in mapping seems to be a contributing factor in recovery for patients with bilingual aphasia since there are second language-restricted zones that are dedicated to the first language.", "Neuroplastic effects of pollution\nAir pollution is known to affect small and large blood vessels throughout the body.\nHigh levels of air pollution are associated with increased risk of strokes and heart attacks. By permanently affecting vascular structures in the brain, air pollution can have serious effects on neural functioning and neural matter. In dogs air pollution shows to cause damage to the CNS by altering the blood–brain barrier, causing neurons in the cerebral cortex to degenerate, destroying glial cells found in white matter, and by causing neurofibrillary tangles. These changes can permanently alter brain structure and chemistry, resulting in various impairments and disorders. Sometimes, the effects of neural remodeling do not manifest themselves for a prolonged period of time.", "My Stroke of Insight\nCedar Lake Ballet Company made a ballet about \"My Stroke of Insight\" called \"Orbo Novo\". The piece's title is drawn from a 1493 reference to North America by Spanish historian Pietro Martire d'Anghiera. But the \"new world\" that Cherkaoui is exploring is current theories about the brain, and the text that the 17 dancers speak during the first moments of the 75-minute work comes from \"My Stroke of Insight\", neuroanatomist Jill Bolte Taylor's uncanny recollection of her stroke. The choreography is based on the ramifications of a single resonant idea: the duality between rationality (the left brain) and instinctive, sensual responses (the right brain); between control and the lack of it; between balance and instability, solitude and society. \"Thus were the dancers speaking Taylor's words (“My spirit soared free like a great whale gliding through the sea of silent euphoria”), while they physically embodied brain waves and misfiring synapses, with a nod, perhaps, to the double helix: rubbery splayed limbs; über-arched backs; ever-rippling torsos.\" “‘Orbo Novo’ is a humorous and insightful take on (Taylor’s) story,” said dancer Jubal Battisti. “It has a lot to do with the hemispheres of the brain switching between left and right and what that reveals.”", "Motor skill consolidation\nA stroke is the damage of a volume of brain tissue resulting from restricted blood supply, which is often a result of occluded blood vessels leading to the brain. Given the large number of brain areas involved in the motor skill acquisition, strokes affecting any of these areas can lead to deficits in motor skill consolidation. Therapies for stroke have focused on modified practice techniques to allow the reacquisition of important skills after the damage has occurred.", "Stroke recovery\nIn 1620, Johann Jakob Wepfer, by studying the brain of a pig, developed the theory that stroke was caused by an interruption of the flow of blood to the brain. After that, the focus became how to treat patients with stroke.", "Technetium-99m\nThe technetium-99m radioisotope is used predominantly in bone and brain scans. For bone scans, the pertechnetate ion is used directly, as it is taken up by osteoblasts attempting to heal a skeletal injury, or (in some cases) as a reaction of these cells to a tumor (either primary or metastatic) in the bone. In brain scanning, Tc-99m is attached to the chelating agent HMPAO to create technetium (Tc) exametazime, an agent which localizes in the brain according to region blood flow, making it useful for the detection of stroke and dementing illnesses that decrease regional brain flow and metabolism.", "Erythropoietin in neuroprotection\nIn infants with poor neurodevelopment, prematurity and asphyxia are typical problems. These conditions can lead to cerebral palsy, mental retardation, and sensory impairment. Hypothermia therapy for neonatal encephalopathy is a proven therapy for neonatal brain injury. However, recent research has demonstrated that high doses of recombinant erythropoietin can reduce or prevent this type of neonatal brain injury if administered early. A high rate of neuronal apoptosis is evident in the developing brain due to initial overproduction. Neurons that are electrically active and make synaptic connections survive, while those that do not undergo apoptosis. While this is a normal phenomenon, it is also known that neurons in the developing brain are at an increased risk to undergo apoptosis in response to injury. A small amount of the RhEpo can cross the blood–brain barrier and protect against hypoxic-ischemia injury. Epo treatment has also shown to preserve hemispheric brain volume 6 weeks after neonatal stroke. It demonstrated both neuroprotective effects and a direction towards neurogenesis in neonatal stroke without associated long-term difficulties.", "Neonatal stroke\nA neonatal stroke in the developing brain involves excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and inflammation, which accelerate cell death through necrosis or apoptosis, depending on the region of the brain and severity of stroke. The pathophysiology of neonatal stroke may include thrombosis and thrombolysis, and vascular reactivity. Apoptosis mechanisms may have a more prominent role in developing an ischemic brain injury in neonatal humans than in adult brain ischemia, as a majority of cells die in the environment where edema developed after a neonatal stroke. There is an increased inflammatory response after hypoxia-ischemia, which corresponds to extensive neuronal apoptosis. Apoptosis involves the mitochondrial release of cytochrome c and apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), which activate caspase-dependent and –independent execution pathways, respectively. Injury may also occur due to O accumulation via the production of O by microglia, a type of glial cell that are responsible for immune response in the CNS, but their role in injury after neonatal stroke is still relatively unknown. As observed by Alberi, \"et al.\", progressive atrophy in the ipsilateral hemisphere over three weeks after the stroke occurred, suggesting that a neonatal stroke has long-lasting effects on neuronal viability and the potential for a prolonged therapeutic window for alleviating the progression of cell death.", "Aphasia\nAfter a traumatic brain injury (TBI) or cerebrovascular accident (CVA), the brain undergoes several healing and re-organization processes, which may result in improved language function. This is referred to as spontaneous recovery. Spontaneous recovery is the natural recovery the brain makes without treatment, and the brain begins to reorganize and change in order to recover. There are several factors that contribute to a person's chance of recovery caused by stroke, including stroke size and location. Age, sex, and education have not been found to be very predictive.", "Human brain\nSome treatments for stroke are time-critical. These include clot dissolution or surgical removal of a clot for ischaemic strokes, and decompression for haemorrhagic strokes. As stroke is time critical, hospitals and even pre-hospital care of stroke involves expedited investigations – usually a CT scan to investigate for a haemorrhagic stroke and a CT or MR angiogram to evaluate arteries that supply the brain. MRI scans, not as widely available, may be able to demonstrate the affected area of the brain more accurately, particularly with ischaemic stroke.", "Reperfusion injury\nReperfusion injury plays a part in the brain's ischemic cascade, which is involved in stroke and brain trauma. Similar failure processes are involved in brain failure following reversal of cardiac arrest; control of these processes is the subject of ongoing research. Repeated bouts of ischemia and reperfusion injury also are thought to be a factor leading to the formation and failure to heal of chronic wounds such as pressure sores and diabetic foot ulcer. Continuous pressure limits blood supply and causes ischemia, and the inflammation occurs during reperfusion. As this process is repeated, it eventually damages tissue enough to cause a wound.", "Neuroergonomics\nAs of 2011, there has been an effort to applying a rehabilitation robot connected to a non-invasive brain-computer interface to promote brain plasticity and motor learning following a stroke. Half of stroke survivors experience unilateral paralysis or weakness, and approximately 30-60% of them do not regain function. Typical treatment, post-stroke, involves constraint-induced movement therapy and robotic therapy, which work to restore motor activity by forcing the movement of the weak limbs. Current active therapy cannot be utilized by patients who suffer complete control loss or paralysis, and do not have any residual motor ability to work with.", "National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale\nThe National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale has been repeatedly validated as a tool for assessing stroke severity and as an excellent predictor for patient outcomes. Severity of a stroke is heavily correlated with the volume of brain affected by the stroke, strokes effecting larger portions of the brain tend to have more detrimental effects. NIHSS scores have been found to be reliable predictors of damaged brain volume, with a smaller NIHSS score indicating a smaller lesion volume", "Brain implant\nBrain implants, often referred to as neural implants, are technological devices that connect directly to a biological subject's brain – usually placed on the surface of the brain, or attached to the brain's cortex. A common purpose of modern brain implants and the focus of much current research is establishing a biomedical prosthesis circumventing areas in the brain that have become dysfunctional after a stroke or other head injuries. This includes sensory substitution, e.g., in vision. Other brain implants are used in animal experiments simply to record brain activity for scientific reasons. Some brain implants involve creating interfaces between neural systems and computer chips. This work is part of a wider research field called brain-computer interfaces. (Brain-computer interface research also includes technology such as EEG arrays that allow interface between mind and machine but do not require direct implantation of a device.)", "Cortical remapping\nA model for stroke recovery suggested by Murphy, involves beginning with homeostatic mechanisms (neurons receive proper amount of synaptic input) at the start of stroke recovery. This will restart activity in stroke-affected areas through structural and functional circuit changes. Activity-dependent synaptic plasticity can then strengthen and refine circuits when some of the sensory and motor circuitry is spared. Regions of the brain with partial function can have their circuits recover over a few days to weeks through remapping. \nCortical remapping after a stroke is comparable to initial brain development. For example, remapping that occurs in motor recovery after a stroke is similar to an infant learning skilled movement patterns. Though this is very important information on developing recovery plans for stroke patients, it is important to keep in mind that the circuitry of a stroke patient is quite different from that of a developing brain, and could be less receptive.", "Stroke recovery\nUnlike many effects of stroke, where the clinician is able to judge the particular area of the brain that a stroke has injured by certain signs or symptoms, the causation of apraxia is less clear. A common theory is that the part of the brain that contains information for previously learned skilled motor activities has been either lost or cannot be accessed. The condition is usually due to an insult to the dominant hemisphere of the brain. More often this is located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere of the brain. Treatment of acquired apraxia due to stroke usually consists of physical, occupational, and speech therapy. The Copenhagen Stroke Study, which is a large important study published in 2001, showed that out of 618 stroke patients, manual apraxia was found in 7% and oral apraxia was found in 6%. Both manual and oral apraxia were related to increasing severity of stroke. Oral apraxia was related with an increase in age at the time of the stroke. There was no difference in incidence among gender. It was also found that the finding of apraxia has no negative influence on ability to function after rehabilitation is completed. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) is currently sponsoring a clinical trial to gain an understanding of how the brain operates while carrying out and controlling voluntary motor movements in normal subjects. The objective is to determine what goes wrong with these processes in the course of acquired apraxia due to stroke or brain injury.", "Theresa A. Jones\nTheresa Jones has been awarded research funding for numerous research initiatives from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, the Department of Defense, and the National Institutes of Health. Some of these include \"Cortical Stimulation to Enhance Experience-Dependent Plasticity After Stroke\", \"Cognitive Neurorehabilitation to Enhance Recovery After Stroke\", \"Neural Plasticity and Neurorehabilitation Following Traumatic Brain Injury\", and \"Cortical Stimulation to Enhance Recovery After Stroke\". The most recent research topics for which she has been awarded funding include \"Neural Mechanisms of Compensating for Brain Damage\", \"Neurovascular Mechanisms of Time-Dependencies in Stroke Rehabilitation\", \"Microscale Oxygenation Mapping During Stroke\", \"Optical Imaging of Baseline Blood Flow and Oxygen During Stroke\", and \"Cortical Stimulation to Enhance Motor Recovery Following Traumatic Brain Injury\".", "Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan\nA stroke is a sudden loss of brain function due to either a blood clot or blood leakage in the brain. Often, a stroke seriously debilitates the patient. However, in those patients that do regain some brain function in affected areas, down-regulations of CSPGs are shown to occur. After stroke, plasticity occurs in some regions of the brain and is associated with some return of brain function. Rats that were able to recover from induced stroke had down-regulations of several CSPGs, including aggrecan, versican, and phosphacan Rats that did not return any brain function did not have significant down-regulation of CSPGs. The reduction of CSPGs in rats that returned some brain function after stroke suggest that more neurological connections could be made with less CSPGs present. Medications that are able to down-regulate CSPGs may help return more brain function to stroke patients.", "Domed label\nDomed labels are much more permanent than many other labels and do not show wear; the clear polyurethane substance, even after curing (hardening), is self-healing. Minor scratches or cuts heal themselves and the label looks like new once again.", "Angiography\nAfter an angiogram, a sudden shock can cause a little pain at the surgery area, but heart attacks and strokes usually don't occur, as they may in bypass surgery. A heart attack occurs when blood flow to a part of the heart is blocked, usually by a blood clot. Without oxygenated blood, the heart muscle begins to die. A stroke is a brain attack, cutting off vital blood flow and oxygen to the brain. Stroke happens when a blood vessel feeding the brain gets clogged or bursts. ", "Silent stroke\nThese types of strokes include lacunar and other ischemic strokes and minor hemorrhages. They may also include leukoaraiosis (changes in the white matter of the brain): the white matter is more susceptible to vascular blockage due to reduced amount of blood vessels as compared to the cerebral cortex. These strokes are termed \"silent\" because they typically affect \"silent\" regions of the brain that do not cause a noticeable change in an afflicted person’s motor functions such as contralateral paralysis, slurred speech, pain, or an alteration in the sense of touch. A silent stroke typically affects regions of the brain associated with various thought processes, mood regulation and cognitive functions and is a leading cause of vascular cognitive impairment and may also lead to a loss of urinary bladder control.", "Stroke\nA stroke is a medical condition in which poor blood flow to the brain results in cell death. There are two main types of stroke: ischemic, due to lack of blood flow, and hemorrhagic, due to bleeding. They result in part of the brain not functioning properly. Signs and symptoms of a stroke may include an inability to move or feel on one side of the body, problems understanding or speaking, dizziness, or loss of vision to one side. Signs and symptoms often appear soon after the stroke has occurred. If symptoms last less than one or two hours it is known as a transient ischemic attack (TIA) or mini-stroke. A hemorrhagic stroke may also be associated with a severe headache. The symptoms of a stroke can be permanent. Long-term complications may include pneumonia or loss of bladder control.\nThe main risk factor for stroke is high blood pressure. Other risk factors include tobacco smoking, obesity, high blood cholesterol, diabetes mellitus, a previous TIA, and atrial fibrillation. An ischemic stroke is typically caused by blockage of a blood vessel, though there are also less common causes. A hemorrhagic stroke is caused by either bleeding directly into the brain or into the space between the brain's membranes. Bleeding may occur due to a ruptured brain aneurysm. Diagnosis is typically based on a physical exam and supported by medical imaging such as a CT scan or MRI scan. A CT scan can rule out bleeding, but may not necessarily rule out ischemia, which early on typically does not show up on a CT scan. Other tests such as an electrocardiogram (ECG) and blood tests are done to determine risk factors and rule out other possible causes. Low blood sugar may cause similar symptoms.\nPrevention includes decreasing risk factors, as well as possibly aspirin, statins, surgery to open up the arteries to the brain in those with problematic narrowing, and warfarin in those with atrial fibrillation. A stroke or TIA often requires emergency care. An ischemic stroke, if detected within three to four and half hours, may be treatable with a medication that can break down the clot. Aspirin should be used. Some hemorrhagic strokes benefit from surgery. Treatment to try to recover lost function is called stroke rehabilitation and ideally takes place in a stroke unit; however, these are not available in much of the world.\nIn 2013 approximately 6.9 million people had an ischemic stroke and 3.4 million people had a hemorrhagic stroke. In 2015 there were about 42.4 million people who had previously had a stroke and were still alive. Between 1990 and 2010 the number of strokes which occurred each year decreased by approximately 10% in the developed world and increased by 10% in the developing world. In 2015, stroke was the second most frequent cause of death after coronary artery disease, accounting for 6.3 million deaths (11% of the total). About 3.0 million deaths resulted from ischemic stroke while 3.3 million deaths resulted from hemorrhagic stroke. About half of people who have had a stroke live less than one year. Overall, two thirds of strokes occurred in those over 65 years old.\nStrokes can be classified into two major categories: ischemic and hemorrhagic. Ischemic strokes are caused by interruption of the blood supply to the brain, while hemorrhagic strokes result from the rupture of a blood vessel or an abnormal vascular structure. About 87% of strokes are ischemic, the rest being hemorrhagic. Bleeding can develop inside areas of ischemia, a condition known as \"hemorrhagic transformation.\" It is unknown how many hemorrhagic strokes actually start as ischemic strokes." ]

[ "Stephen Tomašević of Bosnia\nStephen Tomašević or Stephen II (Serbo-Croatian: Stjepan/Stefan Tomašević, Стјепан/Стефан Томашевић; died on 25 May 1463) was the last sovereign from the Bosnian Kotromanić dynasty, reigning as Despot of Serbia briefly in 1459 and as King of Bosnia from 1461 until 1463." ]

[ "Matija Sabančić\nSabančić was last mentioned in 1471. The second Ottoman puppet in Bosnia was Matija Vojsalić, installed in March or April 1476, while at the same time King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary named Nicholas of Ilok as the Hungarian puppet King of Bosnia.", "Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić\nIn the year 1380 he was made Grand Duke of Bosnia by Bosnian King Stjepan (Stephen) Tvrtko I of House of Kotromanić, granting him a seat in Lašva. In 1387 Hrvoje's first action as Grand Duke was leading a squadron of Bosnian troops to Croatia to raise the siege of Bishop Ivan Horvat in Zagreb. After the death of king Louis I he participated in the battles of succession between Sigismund of Luxembourg and Ladislaus of Naples. He sided with Ladislaus with the promise of becoming ban of Croatia and Dalmatia in 1391. During the reign of King Stephen Dabiša of Bosnia, he participated in the fights against the Ottoman Turks in Bosnia in 1392 - earning Dabiša's eternal gratitude. Hrvoje became Dabiša's main guarantee of staying at the throne - as he declared that he is a faithful servant of the Hungarian King in all cases but those that might damage King Dabiša in 1393. In the heat of internal struggles in Bosnia in 1397 during the reign of Queen Jelena Gruba Hrvoje invited the Ottomans to offer assistance. As an opposer of Queen Jelena, he participated in the selection of Stephen Ostoja as the new King of Bosnia in May 1398. Opposing King Sigismund's Hungarian pretensions, Hrvoje greatly influenced King Ostoja and was the real ruler of Bosnia.\nDuke Hrvoje opposed King Sigismund's rule in Bosnia and actively worked to bring Ladislaus of Naples as the new King of Hungary - that would leave Bosnia alone since 1389, and the same year King Sigismund invaded Bosnia. Duke Hrvoje defeated his forces before they reached the City of Vrbas and chased them across the river Una, invading and conquering the župa of Dubica. King Sigismund counterattacked in the fall by assaulting Bosnia. Here, Duke Hrvoje led the forces for King Stephen Ostoja, together with Duke Sandalj Hranić and Duke Pavle Radenović. By the end of 1402, Duke Hrvoje made all Dalmatian cities with the exception of Dubrovnik to recognize King Ladislaus' rule.", "Lands of the Hungarian Crown\nIn 1136, King Béla II invaded the Kingdom of Bosnia for the first time and initiated the long enduring subjection of Bosnia to the Hungarian Crown. In 1137, King Béla II assumed the title of \"King of Rama\" (\"Rex Ramae\") to signify his rule of Bosnia, \"Rama\" being the name of a river in Bosnia, and his successors were also so styled. King Béla II also instituted the inferior title of \"Duke of Bosnia\" as an honorary title for his adult son, later King Ladislaus II.", "Steward (office)\nBosnia was a banate of the Kingdom of Hungary 1136–1377. During that period Bosnia was governed by an autonomous hereditary viceroy, called ban. The last of them, Tvrtko, became the first king of the Kingdom of Bosnia.", "Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages\nIn 1388 an Ottoman raiding party was wiped out in Hum by a local noble named Vlatko Vuković, who was later sent along with a Bosnian army to help Lazar at the Battle of Kosovo Polje. After Tvrtko's death in 1391, the kingship was severely weakened by local nobles vying for power, though the kingdom did not splinter. In 1404 King Ostoja was ousted by the nobles and replaced by the illegitimate son of Tvrtko, Tvrtko II. Ostoja returned with a Hungarian army and retook part of the country, and for ten years slowly regained authority in Bosnia. In 1414 the Ottomans declared the ousted Tvrtko II the rightful king of Bosnia and invaded. A year later, the Ottomans won a decisive battle against the Hungarian and Bosnian forces under Ostoja with the aid of a powerful Bosnian nobleman called Hrvoje. They agreed to keep Ostoja on the throne, but the king of Bosnia would never again be outside of the Turkish sphere of influence. In 1418 Ostoja died and his son was exiled two years later by Tvrtko II. War over the mining district of Srebrenica. Between 1433 and 1435 South central Bosnia was taken from the Hungarians by the Turks with the help of Stephen Vulkčić, Sandalj's nephew and lord of Hum. Turks seized Srebrenica in 1440. Tvrkto II died in 1443. 3 year civil war between Sephen Vulkčić and Tvrkto II's successor, Stephen Tomaš. War ended when they came to an agreement but Vulkčić still supported the Serbian ruler George Brancović, a semi independent vassal of the Ottoman Turks who was contesting the Bosnian king for Srebrenica. In the early 1450s Vulkčić became embroiled in a civil war with Ragusa and his eldest son. 1461, Tomaš died and his son Stephan Tomašević ascended to the throne. He quickly asked Pope Pius II for help, and again in 1463 against the looming threat of Ottoman invasion. No help came, and Mehmet the Conqueror's invading army took the stronghold of Bobovac. Stephan Tomašević fled north to Jajce and then to the nearby fortress of Ključ where he was besieged, captured, and beheaded. The main Ottoman army withdrew in the fall of that year, only leaving scant garrisons to guard what they had conquered. King Matthias of Hungary then invaded and took most of Northern Bosnia by besieging and taking both Jajce and the nearby fortress of Zvečaj. Matthias created a Bannate loyal to him and renamed the Ban, King of Bosnia in 1471. The kingdom's territory was soon smashed to almost nothing by the returning Turks. In 1526, the Turks obliterated the Hungarians at the Battle of Mohács and one year later took Jajce, finally crushing the last hold out of Hungary in Bosnia. Vulkčić reclaimed his kingdom after the Turks withdrew, but lost it again two years later, staking out in the port town of Novi, where he died in 1466. He was succeeded by his son Vlatko who tried to gain help from Venice and Hungary but to no avail. The last fortress in Hum was taken in 1482.Places of worship built before Ottoman conquest of medieval Bosnian Kingdom and abolition of the state in 1463.", "Visoko during the Middle Ages\nThe royal town of Visoki was a fortress which existed during the time of the medieval Bosnian state. The first mention of the town happened on 1 September 1355, but it is believed to have been built even earlier. It was used by Bosnian bans and kings as a ruler's residence from which several official charters were written to other states. It was also defensively fortified, as the fortress had a trench and many towers of varying sizes. Visoki was first mentioned in a charter written in the royal town of Visoki, and was named \"in castro nosto Visoka vocatum\". The charter was written by a young ban, Tvrtko I of Bosnia, who later became king in 1377 by his coronation in Mile. Several other rulers and nobles wrote charters in Visoki, including King Stephen Ostoja of Bosnia and Tvrtko Borovinić, who would be the last to write of the old town of Visoki in 1436 in the document \"on Visoki\". ", "Paul I Šubić of Bribir\nThe death of his brother Mladen I in June 1304, who had been reportedly murdered by the supporters of Stephen Kotroman (who Paul had expelled from his lands), compelled Paul I Šubić to lead an army in Bosnia again to crush the resistance and reaffirm his authority. After this he took the title of \"Lord of all of Bosnia\" () and passed the title of Ban of Bosnia to his eldest son Mladen II Šubić, who ruled over Bosnia as a Ban under his father. However, after Paul I Šubić's death in 1312, Mladen II tried to maintain his hold over Bosnia and the other Croatian clans, but was not successful like his father, so in 1322 he lost control over Bosnia. During 1304, Paul also invaded Serbia to take advantage of the civil war between brothers Dragutin and Milutin Nemanjić, who was king of Serbia. Paul's armies succeeded conquering the area of Hum and reaching as far as today's Montenegro. He appointed his son, Mladen as a governor of these lands as well. However, during these conflicts, Mladen II was captured and imprisoned by the opposing army. Stefan Milutin, King of Serbia sent envoys to Paul in Skradin in order to negotiate a meeting. The subject and the briefing of these negotiations are dubious, but it is known that they met in Vrulja, which resulted in concluding peace and securing Mladen's freedom. The details of the agreement between Paul and the Serb king remain unknown.", "Ottoman wars in Europe\nThe Ottoman Empire first reached Bosnia in 1388 where they were defeated by Bosnian forces in the Battle of Bileća and then was forced to retreat. After the fall of Serbia in 1389 Battle of Kosovo, where the Bosnians participated through Vlatko Vuković, the Turks began various offensives against the Kingdom of Bosnia. The Bosnians defended themselves but without much success. The Bosnians resisted strongly in the Bosnian Royal castle of Jajce (the siege of Jajce), where the last Bosnian king Stjepan Tomašević tried to repel the Turks. The Ottoman army conquered Jajce after a few months in 1463 and executed the last King of Bosnia, ending Medieval Bosnia.", "Tvrtko I of Bosnia\nStephen Tvrtko I (, Стефан/Стјепан Твртко; 1338 – 10 March 1391) was the first King of Bosnia. A member of the House of Kotromanić, he succeeded his uncle Stephen II as Ban of Bosnia in 1353. As he was a minor at the time, Tvrtko's father, Vladislav, briefly ruled as regent, followed by Tvrtko's mother, Jelena. Early in his personal rule, Tvrtko quarreled with his country's Roman Catholic clergy, but later enjoyed cordial relations with all the religious communities in his realm. After initial difficulties – the loss of large parts of Bosnia to his overlord, King Louis I of Hungary, and being briefly deposed by his magnates – Tvrtko's power grew considerably. He conquered some remnants of the neighbouring Serbian Empire in 1373, after the death of its last ruler and his distant relative, Uroš the Weak. In 1377, he had himself crowned King of Bosnia and of Serbia, claiming to be the heir of Serbia's extinct Nemanjić dynasty.", "Stephen Tomašević of Bosnia\nKing Stephen wasted no time to solidify his relations with the Holy See. He sent a desperate plea to Pope Pius, asking him to send bishops, crusading weapons, and a coronation crown, as well as to be recommended to Matthias Corvinus. Stephen hoped that, with the Pope's urging, the Hungarian king would agree to provide him with military aid.[25] On 17 November, the feast of Saint Gregory Thaumaturgus, who had been proclaimed \"Defender of Bosnia\" at royal request, the papal legate and newly appointed bishop Nicholas of Modruš crowned Stephen in the Church of Saint Mary in Jajce.[3] It was the last coronation performed in Bosnia, as well as the only one performed with a crown sent from Rome.[25] It exemplified how, with the religious persecution established by Thomas and with Stephen's active correspondence with the papacy, the Kingdom of Bosnia acquired the character of a true Catholic state only at its very end.[3]", "Dabiša of Bosnia\nStephen Dabiša (, Стефан Дабиша; ; died on 8 September 1395) was as a member of the Kotromanić dynasty who reigned as King of Bosnia from March 1391 until his death. Elected to succeed the first king, Tvrtko I, Dabiša at first maintained the integrity of the Kingdom of Bosnia. He successfully resisted Hungary, Naples, and even Ottoman Turks. The latter part of his reign, however, saw the ascent of magnates and considerable loss of Bosnia's territory and influence. ", "Bosnian Crusade\nA crusade against Bosnia was preached again in 1337–38 and 1367, by popes Benedict XII and Urban V respectively, but in drastically different political circumstances. Hungary was ruled by a new dynasty, the Capetian Angevins, who supported the Kotromanić rulers of Bosnia. King Charles Robert once declared that any Hungarian who attacked Bosnia, ruled by his friend Stephen II, would be regarded as a traitor. The only significant impact the Bosnian Crusade had was augmenting the anti-Hungarian sentiment among the Bosnians, a major factor in Bosnian politics that contributed to the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia in 1463 and lasted beyond it.", "Battle of Una\nFollowing the fall of Počitelj on the Neretva River in 1471, the whole land between Cetina and Neretva rivers except the coastline fell into Ottoman hands. To prevent further Ottoman expansion, King Matthias Corvinus named Nicholas of Ilok titular King of Bosnia. The Kingdom of Bosnia was conquered by the Ottomans in 1463 and their last king Stephen Tomašević was beheaded by Mehmed II. Soon Nicholas of Ilok was named Ban of Croatia and Slavonia, making them a single administrative unit. His task was to take the parts of Bosnia that were still held by the Ottomans, but he failed to do so. Following his death King Matthias broke into Bosnia and reached Sarajevo, however, his success was temporary. In 1482 the Ottomans conquered Herzegovina. That same year Ottoman forces from the Sanjak of Bosnia plundered Carniola, while in 1483 they ravaged the surroundings of Ptuj in southern Styria.", "Stephen Tomašević of Bosnia\nStephen succeeded his father on the throne following the latter's death in July 1463 and became the first Bosnian king to receive a crown from the Holy See. The kingdom's existence, however, was increasingly threatened by the Ottomans. King Stephen had the unanimous support of his noblemen in resistance to the Ottomans, but not of the common people. He maintained an active correspondence with Pope Pius II, who forgave him for the loss of Serbia and worked with him to preserve Bosnia for Christendom. The Hungarian king was placated, but all Western monarchs contacted by Stephen refused to assist him. Confident that at least Matthias would come to his aid, Stephen refused to deliver the customary tribute to the Ottoman sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, which provoked an invasion. In May 1463, Mehmed marched into Bosnia, meeting little effective resistance, and captured Stephen, who was then beheaded. The execution marks the fall of the Kingdom of Bosnia to the Ottoman Empire.", "King of Rama\nKing Béla II of Hungary adopted the title of King of Rama in 1137, after his army had reached the mountains of Bosnia though it did not actually gain any land. Béla II, as the new \"King of Rama\", appointed his second son, Ladislaus II, as Duke of Bosnia. Bosnia was administered by the ban, who was either an appointed or an elected official, and acted for the child-king Ladislaus. Hungary did succeed in asserting control over Bosnia and the Bosnian rulers were vassals of the Hungarian monarchs until the conquest of Bosnia by the Ottoman Empire. Between late 1463 and 1527 (when the kingdom itself fell to the Ottomans), Hungary controlled Jajce, the former capital of the Kingdom of Bosnia.", "Bobovac\nBobovac contained the crown jewels of Bosnia as well as being the burial site for some of the kings of Bosnia. Nine skeletons have been found in the five tombs located in the mausoleum. The identified skeletons belong to kings Dabiša, Ostoja, Ostojić, Tvrtko II and Thomas. It is assumed that one of the remaining skeletons belongs to the last king, Tomašević, decapitated in Jajce on the order of Mehmed the Conqueror. Only one of the skeletons, found next to that of King Tvrtko II, is female and assumed to belong to Tvrtko II's wife, Queen Dorothy.", "Matija Vojsalić\nHe was last mentioned in the archives of Republic of Ragusa in 1476. He was installed as King of Bosnia by the Ottoman Sultan as an answer to Nicholas of Ilok who was also named King of Bosnia by King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary. Vojsalić replaced Matthias of Bosnia as the Ottoman King of Bosnia.", "Prijezda I, Ban of Bosnia\nAfter the death of Matej Ninoslav in 1250, the question of power over Bosnia was initiated. Ninoslav's sons fought valiantly to keep Bosnia independent, but eventually King Béla IV of Hungary martially subjected Bosnia and implaced Prijezda as its Ban, who vouched to rule in Hungary's name.", "Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages\nSerbian princes ruled in Zahumlje, and later, after integrating with Raška in the 1070s under Constantine Bodin, expanded to conquer all of Bosnia in the 1080s. His kingdom collapsed after his death in 1102. Hungarian authority fell over Bosnia in 1102, though it was ruled through a Ban, who became more independent as the century progressed. In the 1150s, Ban Borić led Bosnian troops to aid Hungary against the Byzantines in Beograd. By 1180, Bosnia was functionally fully independent, though it was laid claim to by Hungary. Some attempts to reunite Bosnia and Duklja were made, especially by king Kočopar (1102–1103) of Duklja who forged an alliance with Bosnia against Rascia and Zahumlje, but utterly failed with his death. After Croatia entered personal union with Hungarian kingdom in 1102, most of Bosnia became vassal to Hungary as well. Since 1137, King Bela II of Hungary claimed the Duchy of Rama, a region of northern Herzegovina. His title included \"rex Ramae\" since the Council at Ostrogon 1138, likely referring to all of Bosnia. In 1167 Byzantium defeated Hungary at the Battle of Zemun and took all of Bosnia under its domain and would remain there until Manuel I Comnenus died in 1180. ", "Kotromanić dynasty\nStephen () became King of Bosnia upon his father upon the latter's death in 1461. His reign in Bosnia too was cut short by an Ottoman invasion in the spring of 1463. The Kotromanić family dispersed, attempting to escape capture by fleeing in different directions. Stephen was captured, however, as was Radivoj and Radivoj's adolescent son Tvrtko. All three were decapitated in the presence of Mehmed the Conqueror at the end of May. The widows of King Thomas, King Stephen and Radivoj escaped, but Stephen's siblings were taken prisoners. Another son of Radivoj, Matthias, functioned as the Ottoman puppet-king of Bosnia (with authority over only the valley of the Lašva) from 1465 until 1471. Sigismund, son of King Thomas, became an Ottoman statesman and sanjak-bey under the name Ishak Bey Kraloğlu. He is last mentioned in 1492.", "Posušje\nIn the 7th century Croats appeared on the historical stage establishing their first principalities, mainly Tomislav, then King of the Kingdom of Croatia. The entire Posušje area at this time belonged to the Kingdom of Croatia, which among other things, is proved by the Old Croatian-style graves around the early Christian basilica in Gradac.\nIn later periods (the early and late Middle Ages), Posušje was predominately ruled by the noble family Nelipić from Sinj, with their rule being interchanged with the House of Kotromanić. The name Posušje is first mentioned in written document are 1378, in the parliaments description invited by Margareta, widow of the nobleman Ivan Nelipić who was owner of Posušje. Another mentioning of Posušje dates in 1403 in a document related to the commercial relations of Republic of Dubrovnik and Kingdom of Bosnia. It is important to note that in the third mentioning of Posušje was in the 1408, in the Charter of the Bosnian King Stjepan Ostoja where Posušje was called „župa“ (county, parish). Soon after, King Ostoja gave Radivojević Posušje. Later period are blamed to the weak kings of Bosnia and the powerful Croatian-Hungarian king Sigismund of Luxembourg. Feudal anarchy, torn apart by the Croatian regions, and the Ottomans rather easily at 1463 have conquered Bosnia.\nHerzegovina was conquered by the Ottoman Empire completely in 1482 with the battle of Herceg-Novi, but the year of Posušjes downfall is attributed to the Krbava battle in 1493. The last Posušje settlement and the last Herzegovina settlement conquered by Turks was Vir. The defenders of Vir had a chain of defence forts above Vir and managed to resist up to 1513.", "Hrvatinić family\nIt's eponymous founder was Hrvatin ( 1299–1304), a count and holder of possession in parts of \"Donji Kraji\" () and \"Zapadne Strane\" (), and a vassal of Croatian magnate Paul I Šubić of Bribir. Hrvatin's sons was part of a coalition of Bosnian and Slavonian nobility that revolted against Mladen II Šubić of Bribir between 1316 and 1417. From around 1322 the family submitted to the Kotromanić dynasty of the Banate of Bosnia. In 1363, the Hrvatinić supported Tvrtko I of Bosnia against Hungary, after which they came up through the ranks in Bosnia, while their most prominent member, Hrvoje Vukčić, along with major new possessions in Donji Kraji and Zapadne Strane was awarded with the title Grand Duke of Bosnia. In c. 1387, while loyal to Tvrtko I, they supported rebellion in Dalmatia against Sigismund. The last member of the family was Matija Vojsalić who was last mentioned in the archives of Republic of Ragusa in 1476. He was installed as a puppet king of Bosnia by the Ottoman sultan as an answer to Nicholas of Ilok, named king of Bosnia by Matthias Corvinus. Matija Vojsalić was removed after conspiring with Matthias Corvinus against the Ottomans and was not mentioned after that.", "Turkish Croatia\nDuring the Middle Ages and the very beginning of the Early modern period, the territory of Turkish Croatia was situated in the central and eastern part of the independent medieval Croatian state (from 925 known as Kingdom of Croatia), which lasted until the beginning of the 12th century, when the country, following the Pacta conventa agreement, entered into a personal union with Hungary in 1102. At that time the term „Bosnia“ was used for a relatively small area alongside the upper part of the Bosna river that barely reached the Drina, which constituded eastern border of Croatia-Hungary state. \nIt was only in the 14th century, at the time of civil war in Croatia and Hungary, that the Ban and proclaimed King Stjepan Tvrtko I which had most of his estates in central Bosnia grew in both, size and power, attracting local nobels as Hrvatinići on his side trying to take the title of King in Croatia and Dalmatia.\nThis events made the borders more flexible (after his death there were numerous civil wars in Bosnia), and made the local nobility more important as Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić, duke of Split and vice king of Bosnia became \"real\" king of Bosnia in everything, but in its name. ", "Matija Sabančić\nMatija Sabančić ( 1463–71) was the titular King of Bosnia in the period of 1465–1471, as the first of two Ottoman-installed puppets in Bosnia. He was one of the last known members of the Kotromanić dynasty.", "Bosniaks\nNational heroes are typically historical figures, whose lives and skills in battle are emphasized. These include figures such as Ban Kulin, the founder of medieval Bosnia who has come to acquire a legendary status. The historian William Miller wrote in 1921 that \"even today, the people regard him as a favorite of the fairies, and his reign as a golden age.\"; King Tvrtko I of Bosnia, King during the peak of the Bosnian kingdom; Gazi Husrev-beg, the second Ottoman governor of Bosnia who conquered many territories in Dalmatia, Northern Bosnia, and Croatia; Đerzelez Alija, an almost mythical character who even the Ottoman Sultan was said to have called \"A Hero\", Sokollu Mehmed Pasha (Mehmed-paša Sokolović), the Bosnian Ottoman Grand Vizier, whose heroism was depicted in the Bosnian poetry and folk songs and Husein Gradaščević, known as \"The Dragon of Bosnia\" who led the Bosnian uprising against the Ottomans in the 19th century.", "Thomas of Bosnia\nPeace brought unusual stability to Bosnia as well as security to Thomas. He retook Srebrenica once again in the autumn of 1446, and eventually struck a short-lived compromise with Branković by which the two would share the town and its mining revenues. It was not to last, however. Unfounded rumour had it that Hungarian noblemen considered offering the Holy Crown of Hungary to him, which testified to his growing reputation. The Ottomans, who wanted to weaken Bosnia by encouraging internal division, were very displeased by the kingdom's stability. At the request of Đurađ Branković, the Turks broke into both King Thomas' personal lands, and those of his father-in-law, in March 1448, plundering and burning towns. Kosača, who now called himself \"\"Herzog\" of Saint Sava\", was thus forced to side with Branković against his son-in-law and king. In mid-September, Branković's brother-in-law Thomas Kantakouzenos, leading an army that included Kosača himself, soundly defeated King Thomas.", "Saint Mary's Church, Jajce\nFollowing his loss of Serbia to the Ottomans in 1459, King Stephen Thomas's son, Stephen Tomašević, returned to Bosnia with his wife Maria, and her family. Maria brought along the relics of Luke the Evangelist, and a bell tower, bearing the saint's name, was erected next to the church. On 17 November 1461, the church served as the place of coronation of King Stephen Tomašević; it was the last coronation in Bosnia. The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia took place two years later, commencing the centuries-long Ottoman rule over Bosnia. King Stephen Tomašević was executed in the process, while Queen Maria took the relics and sold them to the Republic of Venice.", "Bošnjani\nBošnjani (singular: \"Bošnjanin\"; ), meaning \"Bosnians\", is the archaic name for inhabitants of Bosnia during the Middle Ages. The demonym appears in Bosnian state documents (\"povelje\") since the 14th century, as used for the people of medieval Bosnia until the last Bosnian king Stjepan Tomašević prior to the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia. ", "Coronations in Europe\nThe last coronation in Bosnia was held in the St. Mary's Church in Jajce, November 1461. Although all kings of Bosnia were at least formally Roman Catholic, only the last king, Stephen Tomašević, was crowned with the Pope's approval and with a crown sent by Pope Pius II. The coronation was performed by the papal legate.", "Carevo Polje (Bosnia and Herzegovina)\nCarevo Polje is a village in the municipality of Jajce, Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is the place where, in 1463, Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror ordered the execution of the last King of Bosnia, Stephen Tomašević." ]

[ "Climate of Adelaide\nHottest temperature: 46.6°C (115.9°F), 24 January 2019 [9] [nb 1] Coldest temperature: −0.4°C (31.3°F), 8 June 1982 Hottest Minimum: 33.9°C (93.0°F), 29 January 2009 Coldest Maximum: 8.3°C (46.9°F), 29 June 1922 Wettest month: 217.9mm (8.58in), June 1916 Wettest 24 hours: 141.5mm (5.57in), 7 February 1925" ]

[ "Climate of Sydney\nSydney experienced its hottest summer since records began in the summer of 2016-17, with more than 10 days over . Sydney's 2017 mean temperature of degrees was degrees above the long term average and the second highest value in 158 years of records. The warmest year on record was 2016, with a mean temperature of degrees. On 7 January 2018, Sydney was the hottest place on Earth. On April 2018, Sydney had the longest running hot spell for that month with nine consecutive days of temperatures reaching . Furthermore, the airport and parts of the western suburbs also broke heat records in that month.", "2014 Adelaide heatwave\nThe 2014 Adelaide heatwave was a heat wave that occurred in Adelaide, South Australia in both January and February 2014. The heatwaves were so strong that it broke records, becoming the hottest summer ever recorded in Adelaide. Although there were no deaths directly linked to the heatwave as of 2015, there were at least 136 heat-related hospital admissions recorded.", "Punalur\nOne of the Kerala's major Meterological Obsevatary Center functioning in Punalur. Even though it is located near the Western Ghats, Punalur is the hottest place in Kerala, and during summer temperatures as high as have been recorded. Punalur and Chittur, Palakkad have a long reputation of being the hottest places in Kerala, but Punalur broke all heat records in 2007 and 2009. The summers of 2007 and 2009 were the hottest when the maximum temperature hovered around for many days. Punalur also holds the record for the coldest temperature ever recorded in lowland/midland regions of Kerala; with on 8January 1968. Minimum temperatures in January–February on a cloudless day can be as low as and maximum in March–April can be as high as .So,Punalur is also known as \" The Hot City Of Kerala \".", "Geography of Atlanta\nOfficial weather recordkeeping began in Atlanta in 1878, on the morning of October 3. Since then, the highest recorded temperatures at Atlanta were on June 30, 2012, then the next day and on three days in the extraordinarily hot July 1980, followed by that month and in August 2007, the hottest month ever for the area. The lowest recorded temperatures were and on January 20 and 21 of 1985, and on February 13, 1899. There was also an official recording of in 1985 in Marietta. The coldest high temperature was , again on February 13, 1899, while, conversely, the hottest low temperature was on August 8, 2007.", "Climate of Adelaide\nHottest February day – 44.7°C (112.5°F) on 2 February 2014. Record number of days exceeding 40°C (104°F) during the summer months (December, January and February) – 13 so far. Record number of days exceeding 42°C (108°F) during a calendar year - 9 so far. Record number of consecutive days exceeding 42°C (108°F) – 5.", "2018 British Isles heat wave\nSpring started with record cold in early March with the 2018 Great Britain and Ireland cold wave. There were three spells of summer heat afterwards, starting in mid-April. The April 2018 heatwave began on the 18 and 19 April. St James's Park in London recorded the country's hottest April day in nearly 70 years when temperatures reached . The unseasonably hot weather lasted for four days. On 22 April, the hottest London Marathon ever was recorded, with the temperature reaching . No national records were broken, but many places set local record high temperatures for April.", "2001 Eastern North America heat wave\nMeanwhile, in Ontario and Quebec, extreme temperatures were also reported daily during the first week of August. Ottawa recorded its second-hottest day ever when the mercury approached on August 9 and at the Toronto Airport it hit on the same day, the hottest day there since 1955 with four straight days topping . Numerous records were shattered during the heatwave. Even in Nova Scotia, surrounded by the relatively cool waters of the Atlantic Ocean, temperatures still broke in some locations. Glace Bay, which has a sub-Arctic climate reached a record-breaking on August 10.", "Climate of Adelaide\nThe heatwave commenced in Adelaide on 26 January 2009 (Australia Day), with a temperature of 36.6°C (98°F). From 27 January the temperature soared above 40°C (104°F) degrees for 6 consecutive days, until 2 February where the temperature dropped to 38.8°C (102°F). This is the longest straight run of 40°C (104°F) temperatures in Adelaide. On 28 January, the third day into the heatwave, the temperature reached 45.7°C (114°F), making it the third-hottest day on record in Adelaide. On that same night, the temperature only dipped to 33.9°C (93°F), making it the highest minimum temperature on record in South Australia (since surpassed). The maximum temperatures stayed higher than 30°C (86°F) for another six days, including two more 40-degree-plus days (6 and 7 February) until dropping back to 24.8°C (77°F) on 8 February 2009.", "2006 Junee Bushfire\n1 January 2006 was the hottest day of the year across much of New South Wales, including at Wilcannia, which observed the highest daily maximum temperature recorded in the state all year at . The day also witnessed the 5th hottest day ever recorded at Observatory Hill in Sydney, as the temperature reached . In the Riverina, Wagga Wagga—approx. south of Junee—observed a temperature of , while Gundagai—approx. west of Junee—observed .", "Essendon Football Club\nIn 1878, Essendon played in the first match on what would be considered by modern standards to be a full-sized field at Flemington Hill. In 1879 Essendon played Melbourne in one of the earliest night matches recorded when the ball was painted white. In 1883 the team played four matches in eight days in Adelaide: losing to Norwood (on 23 June), and defeating Port Adelaide (on 16 June), a combined South Australian team (on 18 June), and South Adelaide (on 20 June).", "1906 United Kingdom heat wave\nThe 2nd of September was the hottest day of the month, as temperatures reached in Bawtry, and remains the hottest September temperature of any day in the UK and the eighth-hottest day overall in the 20th century. ", "Angry Summer\nThe Australian summer of 2012–2013, known as the Angry Summer or Extreme Summer, resulted in 123 weather records being broken over a 90-day period, including the hottest day ever recorded for Australia as a whole, the hottest January on record, the hottest summer average on record, and a record seven days in a row when the whole continent averaged above 39°C (102°F). Single-day temperature records were broken in dozens of towns and cities, as well as single-day rainfall records, and several rivers flooded to new record highs.", "Climate of Adelaide\nFollowing one of Adelaide's hottest nights on record, in mid December 2015, temperatures were forecasted to be above 35°C (95°F) for five consecutive days starting on 14 December, the third-most days over 35°C (95°F) in Adelaide's recorded history. This continues the trend that Adelaide has experienced since the early 2000s of summer heat exceeding maximum temperatures and breaking records. The heatwave in December 2015 marked Adelaide's record of five heatwaves in six years.", "2014–15 Australian bushfire season\nWarmer and drier weather conditions were experienced during winter and extended into 2015, due to a developing El Niño event. Sydney was on track to record its hottest autumn on record and only had one fifth of the average rainfall in May. Adelaide recorded sixteen consecutive days of in May 2014.", "Angry Summer\nNew record temperatures were recorded in every state and the two territories of Australia. The hottest day on record for the whole of Australia was 7 January 2013, at 40.30 °C. In a 90-day period 123 record-breaking weather events were recorded. Both Sydney and Hobart recorded their hottest temperatures on record in January 2013. Sydney beat the January 1939 record of , recording on 18 January, while Hobart recorded on 4 January, beating its previous record by a whole degree and becoming the second hottest temperature ever recorded in the state of Tasmania. In addition to this, Canberra recorded its hottest January temperature of , while Adelaide reached , its second hottest temperature on record after the of January 2009. The hottest temperature recorded during the course of the heatwave was at Moomba in South Australia.", "Climate of Adelaide\nAutumn 2014 was the fourth-warmest on record in South Australia,[19] and included a record run of 16 consecutive days in May with maximum temperatures over 20°C within the city and metro areas, making it Adelaide's hottest autumn ever.[20][21]", "Hilltop Hoods\nOn Australia Day, 2007, the Hoods claimed five spots in Triple J's Hottest 100 with \"The Hard Road\" reaching third place. \"Clown Prince\", \"What a Great Night\", \"Stopping All Stations\", and \"Recapturing the Vibe\" placed 23rd, 41st, 56th, and 77th respectively. The Hilltop Hoods received the most entries in the Hottest 100 that year, and were only one track off equalling the record, set by Wolfmother the previous year. In 2009 \"The Nosebleed Section\" was voted number 17 in the Triple J Hottest 100 of all time, the highest placed Australian song.", "Climate of Adelaide\nThe summer of 2013–2014 was the second-hottest on record.[17] Records for Adelaide set during the 2013–2014 summer heatwave (beginning in December) include:[18]", "Black Friday bushfires\nIn the days preceding the fires, the state capital, Melbourne, experienced some of its hottest temperatures on record at the time: on 8 January and on 10 January. On 13 January, the day of the fires, temperatures reached , which stood as the hottest day officially recorded in Melbourne for the next 70 years. (Unofficial records show temperatures of around were reported on the Black Thursday fires of 6 February 1851).", "Climate of Adelaide\n10 consecutive days over 30°C (86°F). 8 consecutive days over 35°C (95°F) – new record set on 13 November, breaking the previous record of 4 consecutive days, which was set in 1894.[14] 6 consecutive days over 38°C (100°F) – breaking the previous record of 3 consecutive days, which was set in 1888, 1922 and 1984.[15] Hottest November day – 43.0°C (109.4°F) on 19 November 2009 at 4:32pm ACDT, breaking the previous record of 42.0°C (107.6°F) set on 13 November 1993.[16]", "Beaver, Utah\nDuring the summer, days are hot and usually dry, though on occasions, as in July 1936 – the wettest month on record with – monsoonal weather can bring heavy thunderstorms from the Gulf of California. Owing to the absence of cloudiness caused by the Great Salt Lake, nights are much cooler than in Salt Lake City or Ogden during this season. The hottest recorded temperature in Beaver is , which has occurred twice on June 21, 1913 and July 26, 1931, and 23.3 days will on average top , although the hottest monthly mean minimum is only in July 1968.", "2014 Adelaide heatwave\n14 January was the 4th hottest day recorded in Adelaide, at .", "Climate change in Australia\nSummer 2013–14 was warmer than average for the entirety of Australia. Both Victoria and South Australia saw record-breaking temperatures. Adelaide recorded a total of 13 days reaching 40 °C or more, 11 of which reached 42 °C or more, as well as its fifth-hottest day on record—45.1 °C on January 14. The amount of days over 40 °C beat the previous record of summer 1897–1898, when 11 days above 40 °C were recorded. Melbourne recorded six days over 40 °C, while nighttime temperatures were much warmer than usual, with some nights failing to drop below 30 °C.", "Environmental issues in Thailand\nNASA reported that 2016 will be the hottest year ever recorded in 136 years of modern record keeping. Locally, the Thai Meteorological Department reported that the temperature in Mae Hong Son Province reached 44.6 degrees C on 28 April 2016, breaking Thailand's \"hottest day\" record. April in Thailand is typically hot, but 2016's hot weather set a record for the longest heat wave in at least 65 years. In its \"WMO Statement on the State of the Global Climate in 2016\", the World Meteorological Organization confirmed that 2016 was the hottest year in Thailand's history.", "Kazan\nThe city set its two hottest days on record during the 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves. Temperatures reached in the hottest days during that time.", "2012–13 Australian bushfire season\nAustralia also experienced its hottest summer on average following a particularly hot spell in January. Using average day and night temperatures the average was found to be beating the previous record set in the summer of 1997–1988. Fourteen of the weather bureau's 112 long term weather stations recorded their hottest days on record including one in Sydney that recorded a daytime record of . The daytime maximum temperatures for 2012–13 also beat the 1982–83 record and January was the hottest month since records began in 1910.", "Climate of Adelaide\nOn 25 December 2016, Adelaide experienced its hottest Christmas Day since 1941.[25] The mercury reached 41.3°C (106.3°F). That following February, a heatwave was recorded in Adelaide as the temperature climbed above 40°C (104°F) for 3 consecutive days, with the minimum overnight temperature not dropping below 30°C (86°F) on 9 February.[26] Blackouts across the city complicated the conditions further.[26]", "Chelmsford\nTemperatures often reach in the summer, this figure was last achieved on 27 July 2018 when 34.0c was recorded, this followed four preceding days with temperatures over 30.0c, on an average of 19.2 days the temperature will achieve a value of or above. The hottest day on record was on Sunday 10 August 2003 when was recorded. Before that, was recorded in August 1990. On average, however, the hottest day should rise to .", "Green belt\nThe dynamic Adelaide Park Lands, measuring approximately 7.6 km² surround, unbroken, the city centre of Adelaide. On the fringe of the eastern suburbs, an expansive natural greenbelt in the Adelaide Hills acts as a growth boundary for Adelaide and cools the city in the hottest months.", "List of extreme weather records in Pakistan\nThe weather extremes in Pakistan include high and low temperatures, heaviest rainfall and flooding. The highest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan is 53.5 °C which was recorded in Moenjo Daro, Sindh on 26 May 2010. It was not only the hottest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan but also the hottest reliably measured temperature ever recorded on the continent of Asia. and the fourth-highest temperature ever recorded on Earth. The second-highest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan is which was recorded in Larkana, Sindh on 26 May 2010. It is hottest city in Pakistan, as well as the second-hottest city in the world, but it is second-hottest place in Pakistan and fifth-hottest place in the world. It is fifth-highest temperature ever recorded on Earth. The highest rainfall of was recorded in Islamabad in 24 hours on 23 July 2001. The record-breaking rain fell in just 10 hours." ]

[ "Death of Adolf Hitler\nAdolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer (\"Leader\") of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. He killed himself by gunshot on 30 April 1945 in his Führerbunker in Berlin.[lower-alpha 1][lower-alpha 2][lower-alpha 3] Eva Braun, his wife of one day, committed suicide with him by taking cyanide.[lower-alpha 4] In accordance with Hitler's prior written and verbal instructions, that afternoon their remains were carried up the stairs through the bunker's emergency exit, doused in petrol, and set alight in the Reich Chancellery garden outside the bunker.[1][2] Records in the Soviet archives show that their burnt remains were recovered and interred in successive locations until 1946.[lower-alpha 5] In 1970, they were again exhumed, cremated, and the ashes scattered.[lower-alpha 6]" ]

[ "Anton Bruckner\nThe approval by Hitler and the Nazis of his music did not hurt Bruckner's standing in the postwar media, and several movies and TV productions in Europe and the United States have used excerpts from his music ever since the 1950s, as they already did in the 1930s. Nor did the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra ever ban Bruckner's music as they have Wagner's, even recording the Eighth Symphony with Zubin Mehta.", "Foibe massacres\nIt was not possible to extract all the corpses from the \"foibe\", some of which are deeper than several hundred meters; some sources are attempting to compile lists of locations and possible victim numbers. Between October and December 1943, the Vigili del Fuoco of Pola, helped by mine workers, recovered a total of 159 victims of the first wave of mass killings from the \"foibe\" of Vines (84 bodies), Terli (26 bodies), Treghelizza (2 bodies), Pucicchi (11 bodies), Villa Surani (26 bodies), Cregli (8 bodies) and Carnizza d'Arsia (2 bodies); another 44 corpses were recovered in the same period from two bauxite mines in Lindaro and Villa Bassotti. More bodies were sighted, but not recovered. Between November 1945 and April 1948, firefighters, speleologists and policemen inspected \"foibe\" and mine shafts in the \"Zone A\" of the Free Territory of Trieste (mainly consisting in the surroundings of Trieste), where they recovered 369 corpses; another 95 were recovered from mass graves in the same area. No inspections were ever carried out either in the Yugoslav-controlled \"Zone B\", or in the rest of Istria.", "The Shadow in the Glass\nThe Doctor needs to know if Hitler really did survive, and there's only one way to find out. He and the Brigadier travel back to Germany in August 1942, and infiltrate a party at the heart of the Third Reich. The Brigadier can barely control his distate when they are introduced to Hitler in person, but the Doctor play-acts marvellously, identifying himself as Doctor Johann Schmidt, and agreeing when the question arises that he's here to conduct blood tests on Hitler and Eva Braun. As he draws their blood, he chats about the Eastern campaign, impressing Hitler with his insight; unlike the gullible Himmler, he and Hitler agree that the occult is hogwash, but that it's a useful propaganda tool nonetheless. Hitler will remember Major Schmidt's name if he needs an occult expert in the future... The Doctor and the Brigadier return to the 21st century with samples of Hitler's and Eva Braun's blood, and as this is something not easily explained the Doctor finally allows Claire inside the TARDIS—insisting first that she leave her camera outside. In the TARDIS laboratory, he conducts DNA tests on the body fluids, skull fragments and blood, and finds to his surprise that Hitler did indeed die in the Bunker... but Eva Braun didn't. The Russian autopsy results seem to suggest that the woman identified as Eva Braun died of shrapnel wounds before the cyanide capsule was placed in her mouth. Suddenly, it all fits together; the reason for the blood tests, the sudden marriage, the fact that Eva was saved but Hitler wasn't... Eva Braun was pregnant, with Hitler's child.", "Adolf Hitler and vegetarianism\nOther evidence suggests that Hitler—also an antivivisectionist—may have followed his selective diet out of a profound concern for animals. At social events, he sometimes gave graphic accounts of the slaughter of animals in an effort to make his dinner guests shun meat. In the BBC series \"\", an eyewitness account tells of Hitler watching movies (which he did very often). If ever a scene showed (even fictional) cruelty to or death of an animal, Hitler would cover his eyes and look away until someone alerted him the scene was over. Alexander Cockburn also wrote of Hitler:\nIt has also been theorized that Hitler's diet may have been based on Richard Wagner's historical theories which connected the future of Germany with vegetarianism. In the book, \"The Mind of Adolf Hitler\" by psychologist Walter C. Langer, the author speculates: ", "Night of the Long Knives\nPresident Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler Chancellor on January 30, 1933. Over the next few months, during the so-called Gleichschaltung, Hitler dispensed with the need for the Reichstag of the Weimar Republic as a legislative body and eliminated all rival political parties in Germany, so that by the middle of 1933 the country had become a one-party state under his direction and control. Hitler did not exercise absolute power, however, despite his swift consolidation of political authority. As chancellor, Hitler did not command the army, which remained under the formal leadership of Hindenburg, a highly respected veteran field marshal. While many officers were impressed by Hitler's promises of an expanded army, a return to conscription, and a more aggressive foreign policy, the army continued to guard its traditions of independence during the early years of the Nazi regime.", "Wilhelm Furtwängler\nFurtwängler returned to the Bayreuth festival, his relationship with Winifred Wagner worse than ever. He did not appear again in Bayreuth until 1943. He wrote a letter to Winifred Wagner, sending copies to Hitler, Göring and Goebbels, accusing her of having betrayed Wagner's heritage by applying racial and not artistic rules in the choice of the artists, and of putting her \"trust in the powers of an authoritarian state\". This clear attack on Hitler caused a sharp reaction: Hitler wanted to drop Furtwängler from Bayreuth after all. In the event, Furtwängler did conduct. Goebbels wrote in two entries of his diary in 1937 that Furtwängler was constantly helping Jews, \"half-Jews\" and \"his small Hindemith\".", "Göring Telegram\nGöring gathered Koller and Hans Lammers, the state secretary of the Reich Chancellery, and pulled his copy of Hitler's secret decree of 1941 from a safe. To all present, the wording was unambiguous—Göring was not only Hitler's designated successor, but was to act as his deputy if Hitler ever became incapacitated. All agreed that by staying in Berlin, Hitler faced certain death and had incapacitated himself from governing. Therefore, they believed, Göring had a clear duty to assume power as Hitler's deputy.\nOn 23 April, Göring sent a carefully worded telegram asking Hitler to confirm that he was indeed to become the leader of Germany, in accordance with the 1941 decree. Göring added that if Hitler did not reply by 22:00 that night, he would assume Hitler had lost his freedom of action and would assume leadership of the Reich as Hitler's deputy.", "Hitler Youth\nStudents who did not join were frequently assigned essays with titles such as \"Why am I not in the Hitler Youth?\" They were also the subject of frequent taunts from teachers and fellow students, and could even be refused their diploma—which made it impossible to be admitted to university. A number of employers refused to offer apprenticeships to anyone who was not a member of the Hitler Youth. By 1936, the Hitler Youth had a monopoly on all youth sports facilities in Germany, effectively locking out non-members. As time went on, a number of boys chafed under the regimented nature of the organisation; some even dropped out and only rejoined when they learned they could not get a job or enter university without being a member. Effectively, the Hitler Youth constituted the single most successful of all the mass movements in the Third Reich.", "Adolf Hitler in popular culture\nPlayers can create and use \"Hitler-like\" Miis on the Nintendo Wii in certain games such as \"Wii Sports\". However, Nintendo banned Hitler-like Miis, or Miis that are even named \"Hitler\", from playing online in \"Mario Kart Wii\". The recent update on the Xbox 360 can have players create avatars that also can resemble Hitler. So far, Microsoft has not banned anyone from using Hitler-like avatars.", "Wallatani Lake\nIt is the highest body of water on which anyone has ever sailed, after Peter Williams, Brian Barrett, Gordon Siddeley and Keith Robinson did so on November 19th 1977.", "Johann Rattenhuber\nRattenhuber was not present when Hitler killed himself on the afternoon of 30 April in the \"Führerbunker\". He did not see Hitler's body until after it was wrapped in grey blankets and carried out of the office/sitting room where Hitler died. He was not one of those who took the body up the stairs and outside. Instead, Rattenhuber followed Heinz Linge, Otto Günsche, Peter Högl, Ewald Lindloff and several others outside and watched Hitler's body be burned.", "Death of Adolf Hitler\nGünsche left the study and announced that Hitler was dead.[38] In accordance with Hitler's prior written and verbal instructions, the two bodies were carried up the stairs and through the bunker's emergency exit to the garden behind the Reich Chancellery, where they were to be burned with petrol.[1][2] Misch reported Hitler's death to Franz Schädle and returned to the telephone switchboard, later recalling someone shouting that Hitler's body was being burned.[36][39] After the first attempts to ignite the petrol did not work, Linge went back inside the bunker and returned with a thick roll of papers. Bormann lit the papers and threw them onto the bodies. As the two corpses caught fire, a group including Bormann, Günsche, Linge, Goebbels, Erich Kempka, Peter Högl, Ewald Lindloff, and Hans Reisser raised their arms in salute as they stood just inside the bunker doorway.[40][41]", "Inside the Third Reich\nOn 24 Jan. 1945, in Hitler's daily situation conference, Speer states that Hitler proclaimed, \"In the future anyone who tells anyone else that the war is lost will be treated as a traitor, with all the consequences for him and his family. I will take action without regard to rank and prestige.\"", "John L. McKenzie\n“Here in the United States we were doing it (genocide) to Native Americans before anyone ever heard of Hitler, and with such traditions it should not be too hard to resume it if we are pressed.” \"The Civilization of Christianity\", page 254.", "John Jacob Astor IV\nIn the aftermath, ships were sent out to retrieve the bodies from the site of the sinking; of the 1,517 passengers and crew who perished in the sinking, only 333 bodies were ever recovered. Astor's body was recovered on April 22 by the cable ship . Astor was identified by the initials sewn on the label of his jacket. Among the items found on him was a gold pocket watch which his son Vincent claimed and wore the rest of his life.", "Adolf Hitler in popular culture\nIn the twelfth season of \"Supernatural\", the episode \"The One You've Been Waiting For\" sees protagonists Dean and Sam Winchester confronting a group of Nazi mystics who had trapped Hitler's soul in a watch before his death, only to lose it after the war. The watch is eventually recovered in 2016, but after Hitler is reborn in the body of the cult leader, it is revealed that he has been driven insane by his decades of confinement, and is shot in the head by Dean in the final confrontation.", "Nevile Henderson\nAfter Hitler gave his keynote speech at the 1938 Nuremberg Party Rally on 12 September 1938 demanding that President Beneš either allow the Sudetenland to join Germany or else he would invade Czechoslovakia, Henderson who attended the Nuremberg rally reported to London that Hitler \"driven by the megalomania inspired by the military force which he has built up...he may have crossed the borderline into insanity\". In the same dispatch, Henderson wrote he could not speak with \"certitude\" over what Germany might do as \"everything depends on the psychology of one abnormal individual\". Henderson spoke with Hitler after he gave his speech at the Party Rally, and reported that Hitler \"even while addressing the Hitler Youth\" was so nervous that he could not relax, leading to Henderson to conclude: \"His abnormality seemed to me even greater than ever\". Despite Henderson's belief that Hitler might have actually gone mad, he still found much to admire about \"Der Führer\", writing he had \"sublime faith in his own mission and that of Germany in the world\" and \"he is a constructive genius, a builder and no mere demagogue\". Henderson did not believe that Hitler wanted all of Czechoslovakia, writing to Lord Halifax that all Hitler wanted was to secure \"fair and honorable treatment for the Austro- and Sudeten Germans\" even at the price of war, but Hitler \"hates war as much as anyone\". ", "SMERSH\nAs the war concluded, SMERSH was given the assignment of finding Adolf Hitler and, if possible, capturing him alive or recovering his body. Red Army officers and SMERSH agents found Hitler's partially burned corpse near the Führerbunker after his suicide and conducted an investigation to confirm the events of his death and identify the remains that (along with those of Eva Braun) were reportedly secretly buried at SMERSH headquarters in Magdeburg until April 1970, when they were exhumed, completely cremated, and dumped.", "Rennell Island\nIn 1992 a Tigoa police officer with 4 passengers was sailing from Rennell to Bellona in a banana boat and did not return. No bodies were ever recovered yet the following year in January 1993, the banana boat was located during or after Cyclone Nina. It was located in the western province area, near Gizo.", "How Hitler Lost the War\nThe documentary explores Hitler's upbringing and efforts during World War II and includes footage from this time period. It also contains interviews and statements from military historians and veterans, and looks into what mistakes Hitler made during the war and what he could have potentially done differently in order to win.Critical reception for \"How Hitler Lost the War\" was mostly positive. \"Entertainment Weekly\" gave the movie a B- but commented that the film's thesis was \"dubious\". The \"Chicago Sun-Times\" praised the documentary and called it \"a fascinating re-examination of the misdirection of one of the greatest war machines the world has ever known\". In contrast, the \"New York Times\" stated that the film was \"sporadically interesting but far from persuasive\" and noted that it lacked a contrary analysis of the material. The \"Los Angeles Times\" criticized \"How Hitler Lost the War\" for containing several pieces of misinformation and for also never fully realizing its potential, as they felt that the final portion of the documentary was a \"superficial rehash of how German designers made a jet plane and other advances toward the end of the war--not exactly hot news to anyone who's read the war's history.\"", "Adolf Hitler in popular culture\nIn the comic book \"The Savage Dragon\" by Erik Larsen (published by Image Comics), it is revealed that Hitler did not die in 1945, but after a fight against Hellboy in Romania in 1952. His body ruined, the brain is transplanted to the body of a large gorilla. Suffering amnesia and calling himself Brainiape, the chimera possesses great psionic powers and joins the Chicago, IL criminal organization known as the Vicious Circle, eventually becoming its leader. He remembers his past only in 1996 when he encounters Hellboy again, alongside the Vicious Circle's enemy, the meta-talented policeman called Dragon. The ape body is killed, and it is revealed that Hitler's brain had mutated and could live unaided by any technology or host body, ambulatory on tiny legs.", "Adolf Hitler in popular culture\nThe name \"Hitler\" is widely used for anyone is overly authoritarian in manner, but it does not have the same negative connotation as in the West. For example in the 1998 film \"Hitler\", the disciplinarian hero nicknamed Hitler is simply a person with staunch traditional values. There are at least three other Indian films entitled \"Hitler\", in all of which the Hitler character is the hero (\"Hitler\" (1996 film); \"Hitler\" (film); \"Hitler Umanath\"). \"Hitler Didi\" (My Sister Hitler) is a TV show about a character with a domineering elder sister.", "Inside the Third Reich\nHitler's Berlin routine was similar, according to Speer. Hitler \"rose late in the morning... but from the subsequent dinner on he more or less wasted time until the early hours of the evening.\" In the memoirs, Speer openly wondered when exactly Hitler ever found time to do anything important, \"When, I would often ask myself, did he really work?\" Speer thought Hitler had an \"artistic temperament\", \"squandering his working time.\" At these dinners, Hitler told his guests \"My father often dealt me hard blows. Moreover, I think that was necessary and helped me.\"", "Sexuality of Adolf Hitler\nKershaw notes that as a soldier during the First World War, Hitler did not take part in discussions of sex with his comrades. When teased about his celibacy during this period, Hitler responded by saying \"I'd die of shame looking for sex with a French girl,\" and \"Have you no German sense of honour left at all?\" When asked by a comrade if he had ever loved a girl, Hitler replied \"I've never had time for anything like that, and I'll never get round to it.\"", "Paul von Hindenburg\nDuring 1933 and 1934, Hitler was very aware of the fact that Hindenburg, as President and supreme commander of the armed forces, was now the only check on his power. With the passage of the Enabling Act and the banning of all parties other than the Nazis, Hindenburg's power to dismiss Hitler from office was effectively the only means by which he could be legally dismissed. Given that Hindenburg was still a popular war hero and a revered figure in the \"Reichswehr\", there was little doubt that the \"Reichswehr\" would side with Hindenburg if he ever decided to sack Hitler. Thus, as long as Hindenburg was alive, Hitler was always very careful to avoid offending him or the Army. Although Hindenburg was in increasingly bad health, the Nazis made sure that whenever Hindenburg did appear in public it was in Hitler's company. During these appearances, Hitler always made a point of showing him the utmost respect and deference. However, in private, Hitler continued to detest Hindenburg, and expressed his hope that \"the old reactionary\" would hurry up and die as soon as possible.", "Hitler Has Only Got One Ball\nO'Brien's claims have not been substantiated, and no author has ever been identified for the more popular versions that begin \"Hitler has only got one ball\". Hubert Gregg also claimed to have written the lyrics, which he said he sent anonymously to the British War Office. There is no known attempt by anyone to claim or enforce a copyright on the lyrics. It is listed in the Roud Folk Song Index, number 10493.", "Hermann Göring\nOKW operations chief Alfred Jodl was present for Hitler's rant, and notified Göring's chief of staff, Karl Koller, at a meeting a few hours later. Sensing its implications, Koller immediately flew to Berchtesgaden to notify Göring, who feared being accused of treason if he tried to take power. On the other hand, if he did nothing, he feared being accused of dereliction of duty. After some hesitation, Göring reviewed his copy of the 1941 decree naming him Hitler's successor. It not only placed Göring first in the line of succession, but also stated that, if Hitler ever lost his freedom of action, Göring had complete authority to act on Hitler's behalf as his deputy. After conferring with Koller and Hans Lammers, the state secretary of the Reich Chancellery, Göring concluded that, by remaining in Berlin to face certain death, Hitler had incapacitated himself from governing. All agreed that Göring therefore had a clear duty to take power in Hitler's stead. He was also motivated by fears that his rival, Martin Bormann, would seize power upon Hitler's death and would have him killed as a traitor. With this in mind, Göring sent a carefully worded telegram asking Hitler for permission to take over as the leader of Germany, stressing that he would be acting as Hitler's deputy. He added that, if Hitler did not reply by 22:00 that night (23 April), he would assume that Hitler had indeed lost his freedom of action, and would assume leadership of the Reich.", "Grandfather paradox\nAnother variant of the grandfather paradox is the \"Hitler paradox\" or \"Hitler's murder paradox\", a fairly frequent trope in science fiction, in which the protagonist travels back in time to murder Adolf Hitler before he can instigate World War II and The Holocaust. Rather than necessarily physically preventing time travel, the action removes any \"reason\" for the travel, along with any knowledge that the reason ever existed, thus removing any point in travelling in time in the first place. Additionally, the consequences of Hitler's existence are so monumental and all-encompassing that for anyone born after the war, it is likely that their birth was influenced in some way by its effects, and thus the lineage aspect of the paradox would directly apply in some way.", "Mount Everest in 2017\nAt the end of May, the body of Ravi Kumar was recovered from above 8000 meters and without loss of additional life. Kumar's body had fallen into a crevasse and the effort to recover it was described as \"the most complex recovery mission to ever be attempted on Everest\". There was a strong push to recover the body before the window of good weather closed, as the monsoon season to the south grew in force.", "Fascism in Europe\nMussolini and Adolf Hitler were not always allies. While Mussolini wanted the expansion of fascist ideology throughout the world, he did not initially appreciate Hitler and the Nazi Party. Hitler was an early admirer of Mussolini and asked for Mussolini's guidance on how the Nazis could pull off their own March on Rome. Mussolini did not respond to Hitler's requests as he did not have much interest in Hitler's movement and regarded Hitler to be somewhat crazy. Mussolini did attempt to read \"Mein Kampf\" to find out what Hitler's Nazism was, but he was immediately disappointed, saying that \"Mein Kampf\" was \"a boring tome that I have never been able to read\" and claimed that Hitler's beliefs were \"little more than commonplace clichés\"." ]

[ "Buffy the Vampire Slayer\nThe series premiered on March 10, 1997, on The WB and concluded on May 20, 2003, on UPN. The series narrative follows Buffy Summers (played by Sarah Michelle Gellar), the latest in a line of young women known as \"Vampire Slayers\", or simply \"Slayers\". In the story, Slayers or the 'Chosen Ones' are \"called\" (chosen by fate) to battle against vampires, demons, and other forces of darkness. Being a young woman, Buffy wants to live a normal life, but as the series progresses, she learns to embrace her destiny. Like previous Slayers, Buffy is aided by a Watcher, who guides, teaches, and trains her. Unlike her predecessors, Buffy surrounds herself with a circle of loyal friends who become known as the \"Scooby Gang\"." ]

[ "Slayer (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)\nA Slayer also has the limited ability to detect the presence of vampires (and presumably other demons). This power must be honed as with the heightened awareness, and the Slayer must focus to achieve the full effect. This does not prevent Buffy (and other Slayers) from being ambushed by vampires. Buffy could be unusually deficient in this sense: Although she initially distrusts Angel when first meeting him and seems to sense that he is following her for a period of time, she doesn't realize until he shows her his vampiric face for the first time that he is a vampire. However, her ability might have been compromised by the presence of Angel's soul. Additionally, in \"Dirty Girls,\" Faith attacks Spike under the impression that he is chasing an innocent girl and is unaware that he was in fact pursuing a vampire until said vampire attacks her from behind.", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer comics\n\"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" comics refer to comic books based on the television series \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\". While many of these comics were published when the television show was on air they are not all considered canonical and often deal with characters who do not appear in the television series, most notably in the Tales of the Slayers and Tales of the Vampires mini-series.", "List of minor Buffy the Vampire Slayer characters\nRowena is a Slayer who appears in \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight\" comics, first appearing in \"The Long Way Home\". She is a blonde-haired Slayer who speaks with a European accent and is a member of Buffy's squad along with Satsu and Leah. In \"Wolves at the Gate\", Rowena takes charge of Buffy's squad when Buffy is trying to rescue Willow from Kumiko. In \"Time of Your Life\" she coordinates the evacuation of the Slayers' castle headquarters when it is struck by a missile, and later leads the Slayers and their Wiccan supporters into battle against the army of snake-men who were magically conjured by the missile's explosion. In the \"Retreat\" arc, Rowena is one of the group of Slayers who accompany Buffy to Tibet and temporarily sacrifice their powers to escape detection by their enemies.", "List of Buffy the Vampire Slayer episodes\nBuffy the Vampire Slayer (film) List of Buffy the Vampire Slayer home video releases Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight List of Angel episodes", "Bad Eggs (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)\n\"Bad Eggs\" is the twelfth episode of the second season of \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\". It was written by Marti Noxon and originally aired on January 12, 1998. Buffy must contend with vampire cowboys the Gorch brothers and the bezoar, a prehistoric parasite.", "Lie to Me (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)\n\"Lie to Me\" is the seventh episode of the second season of \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\". It originally aired on November 3, 1997.", "Angel (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)\nIn 2007, Angel began appearing in two canonical continuations of Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel from Joss Whedon. The first of these was Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight, published by Dark Horse Comics, which continued the story of the Buffy television series. Later that year, Whedon and IDW Publishing released the series Angel: After the Fall, which continued on from the series finale of Angel. The two series were published by different publishers due to Dark Horse initially giving up the rights to licensed Angel comic books several years ago when the series was still on air.", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer\nThe storyline was continued in a series of comic books produced by Joss Whedon and published by Dark Horse Comics, which serve as a canonical continuation of the television series. The series, which began in 2007 with Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight, followed by Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine in 2011, Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Ten in 2014, Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eleven in 2016, and Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Twelve in 2018, which was the final season of the comic book series.[95]", "Willow &amp; Tara\nBuffy the Vampire Slayer: Willow & Tara is a trade paperback anthology collection published by Dark Horse Comics in 2002 and based on the television series \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\". The volume collects three issues focusing on Willow Rosenberg and Tara Maclay: \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer: Willow & Tara - Wannablessedbe\", originally published in 2001 as a one issue special, and \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer: Willow & Tara - Wilderness\", originally published in 2002 as a two issue limited series. It also adds a story from an \"extra\" issue.", "Satsu (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)\nSatsu was one of several original characters invented by series creator Joss Whedon for \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight\", a comic book continuation of \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\". Whedon described the concept for Satsu's relationship with Buffy as \"evolv[ing] naturally\" during the development of \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight\". He viewed the story arc as \"an opportunity for drama and character exploration\" set up over the course of the comics, which had established Buffy as grappling with her isolation from others and Satsu as in love with her. When pinpointing Satsu's role in Buffy's character development, Dark Horse Comics editor Scott Allie referred to their relationship as an \"ill-conceived romance\" that exemplifies Buffy's faults as a general to her army.", "List of minor Buffy the Vampire Slayer characters\nBuffy the Vampire Slayer is an American franchise which spans several media and genres. It began in 1992 with the film \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\", written by Joss Whedon and directed by Fran Rubel Kuzui, and was resurrected as the television series, \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" in 1997. The show's popularity caused it to spawn a multitude of Expanded Universe tie-in material such as comic books, novels, and video games, as well as a spin-off program entitled \"Angel\". In 2007, four years after the television series' seventh and final season, \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" was officially continued in the comic book \"Season Eight\". The following is a list of minor recurring characters who appear in the franchise.", "Spike (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)\nConsidered a 'breakout character', Spike proved immensely popular with fans of \"Buffy\". The character appears substantially in Expanded Universe materials such as comic books and tie-in novels. Following the cancellation of \"Angel\" in 2004, Whedon considered creating a \"Spike\" film spin-off. Canonically, the character appears in issues of the comic books \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight\" (2007–11), \"\" (2007–09), \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine\", \"Angel & Faith\" (both 2011–2013) and several \"Spike\" limited series, spinning off from both \"Buffy\" and \"Angel\". Currently the character is in the canonical comic Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eleven (2016–2017).", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Philosophy\nBuffy the Vampire Slayer and Philosophy: Fear and Trembling in Sunnydale is an academic publication relating to the fictional Buffyverse established by two TV series, \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" and \"Angel\".", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Album\nBuffy the Vampire Slayer: The Album is a soundtrack album featuring music from the \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" TV series.", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer (season 7)\nThe comic book series continued with \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine\" in September 2011, \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Ten\" in March 2014, \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eleven\" in November 2016, and concluded with \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Twelve\" in June 2018.", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer: Chaos Bleeds\nBuffy the Vampire Slayer: Chaos Bleeds is a 2003 video game and the fourth of the \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" franchise, and the only multiplatform game. It was the first to allow players to control characters other than Buffy Summers and feature a fully developed multiplayer mode; additional players had a limited ability to interact in a hidden debugging mode in the previous game, \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\".", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Twelve\nBuffy the Vampire Slayer Season Twelve: The Reckoning is the sequel to the \"Season Eleven\" comic book series, a canonical continuation of the television series \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\". The series was published by Dark Horse Comics and began on June 20, 2018. The series consist of four issues, co-written by creator Joss Whedon and Christos Gage, and illustrated by Georges Jeanty. It is the final season of the \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" canonical comic book series.", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer (season 4)\nThe fourth season of the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer premiered on October 5, 1999, on The WB and concluded its 22-episode season on May 23, 2000. It maintained its previous timeslot, airing Tuesdays at 8:00 pm ET. Beginning with this season, the character of Angel was given his own \"series\", which aired on The WB following \"Buffy\". Various \"Buffy\" characters made appearances in \"Angel\", including Buffy herself; Cordelia Chase, formerly a regular in \"Buffy\", and Wesley Wyndam-Pryce, who appeared in \"Buffy\" season three.", "Into the Woods (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)\n\"Into the Woods\" is the tenth episode of season 5 of the television show \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\". Spike leads Buffy to see that Riley goes to a vampiric brothel, where humans pay vampires to suck their blood. When she confronts Riley about it, he decides to take the military up on an offer to join a demon-hunting unit, and leaves Buffy and Sunnydale.", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer comics\nWhen Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight was finished, Dark Horse Comics decided to publish a new comic season of Buffy. Meanwhile, IDW publishing decided to follow up the series with the publication of Angel & Faith as a part of Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine.Season Ten is a Buffy comic series published after Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine.\nDark Horse began publishing Season Eleven in November 2016. This season consists of a 12-issue \"Buffy\" series, a 12-issue \"Angel\" series, and a 4-issue \"Giles\" miniseries.Fray is an eight-issue comic book limited series, a futuristic spin-off of the television series \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\". Written by \"Buffy\" creator Joss Whedon, the series follows a Slayer named Melaka Fray, a chosen one in a time where vampires (called \"lurks\") are returning to the slums of New York City, and the rich-poor divide is even greater. Volume one is drawn by Karl Moline (pencils) and Andy Owens (inks).", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer\nMichael Adams: Slayer Slang: A Buffy the Vampire Slayer Lexicon, Oxford University Press, 2003, ISBN0-19-516033-9 Lorna Jowett: Sex and the Slayer. A Gender Studies Primer for the Buffy Fan. Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2005, ISBN0-8195-6758-2 Andrew Milner: \"Postmodern Gothic: Buffy, The X-Files and the Clinton Presidency\", Continuum: Journal of Media and Cultural Studies, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2005, pp.103–116 James B. South and William Irwin: Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Philosophy: Fear and Trembling in Sunnydale. Open Court Books, Chicago 2003, ISBN0-8126-9531-3 Gregory Stevenson: Televised Morality. The Case of Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Hamilton Books, Dallas 2003, ISBN0-7618-2833-8 Rhonda Wilcox and David Lavery (Hrsg.): Fighting the Forces. What's at Stake in Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Rowman and Littlefield Publ., Lanham 2002, ISBN0-7425-1681-4 Valentina Signorelli. \"L'Essere-per-la-Morte in Buffy The Vampire Slayer - analisi ontologico-esistenziale dell'universo audiovisivo creato da Joss Whedon\". Roma, Universitalia Editore, 2012, ISBN978-88-6507-309-4", "Giselle Loren\nShe is perhaps best known for \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" for having voiced the character of Buffy Summers in two \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" video games (\"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" and \"\"). She also played Buffy in the unaired pilot episode of the \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" animated series.", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer: Radio Sunnydale – Music from the TV Series\nBuffy the Vampire Slayer: Radio Sunnydale – Music from the TV Series is the second \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" soundtrack album, following on from \"\".", "Slayer (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)\nThis process continues through the generations until 1997, when one Slayer—Buffy Summers—is killed in battle (by drowning) only to be revived via CPR. Buffy retains her Slayer powers, but her clinical death is enough for the next Slayer to be called. For the next year there are two Slayers in the world: first Kendra, who was called on Buffy's death, and then Faith, who was called when Kendra was killed by Drusilla. Regardless, Buffy is still referred to as \"the\" Slayer.", "Satsu (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)\nSatsu is a fictional character created by Joss Whedon for \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight\", a comic book continuation of the television series \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\". Introduced as one of the strongest Slayers, she has a close relationship with her mentor Buffy Summers. Satsu develops romantic feelings for Buffy, and the two have a brief sexual relationship. She becomes the leader of her own Slayer squadron in Tokyo, and forms a friendship with fellow Slayer Kennedy during her performance review. She also makes a minor appearance in \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Ten\".", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer Magazine incorporating Angel Magazine\nTwo magazine titles have been published by Titan Magazines in the United Kingdom for fans of the television series \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" and its spin-off \"Angel\". Buffy the Vampire Slayer Magazine commenced publication in 1999. Angel Magazine had a limited run of 24 issues and was published between September 2003 and July 2005. \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer Magazine\" incorporated \"Angel Magazine\" from #76 (August 2005), and was renamed Buffy the Vampire Slayer Magazine incorporating Angel Magazine. It went bi-monthly in 2006, and the final issue was #94 (June/July 2007).", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Quest for Oz\nBuffy the Vampire Slayer: The Quest for Oz is a 2004 video game based on the \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" franchise. It is the fifth video game and first mobile game in the franchise.", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Score\nBuffy the Vampire Slayer: The Score is a soundtrack album featuring incidental music from the \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" TV series.", "List of minor Buffy the Vampire Slayer characters\nThe First Slayer appears in the graphic novel, \"Tales of the Slayers\", in which she is asked to leave a village she defended from a vampire because the villagers fear \"her\" even more than other demons and again in \"Tales of the Slayer\". She also cameos in the comic mini-series \"Fray\" #3, when a Slayer in the future is told the origins of her power, and in the \"Buffy Season Eight\" storyline \"The Long Way Home\" as an image of Buffy's dreamscape.", "Grave (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)\n\"Grave\" is the sixth-season finale of the television series \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\". This episode is the second highest rated Buffy episode ever to air in the U.K. Sky One aired the episode, which reached 1.22 million viewers on its original airing." ]

[ "New York Philharmonic\nThe New York Philharmonic was founded in 1842 by the American conductor Ureli Corelli Hill, with the aid of the Irish composer William Vincent Wallace. The orchestra was then called the Philharmonic Society of New York.[9][10] It was the third Philharmonic on American soil since 1799,[11] and had as its intended purpose, \"the advancement of instrumental music.\" The first concert of the Philharmonic Society took place on December 7, 1842 in the Apollo Rooms on lower Broadway before an audience of 600. The concert opened with Beethoven's Symphony No. 5, led by Hill himself. Two other conductors, German-born Henry Christian Timm and French-born Denis Etienne, led parts of the eclectic, three-hour program, which included chamber music and several operatic selections with a leading singer of the day, as was the custom. The musicians operated as a cooperative society, deciding by a majority vote such issues as who would become a member, which music would be performed and who among them would conduct. At the end of the season, the players would divide any proceeds among themselves." ]

[ "Metacosmos\nMetacosmos is a symphonic poem by the Icelandic composer Anna S. Þorvaldsdóttir. The work was commissioned by the New York Philharmonic with support from the Marie-Josée Kravis Prize for New Music. It was first performed by the New York Philharmonic under the conductor Esa-Pekka Salonen on April 4, 2018.", "Expo (Magnus Lindberg)\nEXPO is an orchestral composition by the Finnish composer Magnus Lindberg. It was the first work commissioned by the New York Philharmonic under the conductor Alan Gilbert, and was Lindberg's first commission as the orchestra's composer-in-residence. The piece was first performed on September 16, 2009 at Avery Fisher Hall, New York City, during Alan Gilbert's inaugural concert with the New York Philharmonic. \"EXPO\" was the first newly commissioned work to open the New York Philharmonic's concert season since the premiere of Aaron Copland's \"Connotations\" under Leonard Bernstein on September 23, 1962.", "Keqrops\nThe composition was commissioned by Phynea Paroufakis and Peter Paroufakis from Australia for the pianist Roger Woodward, the New York Philharmonic, and conductor Zubin Mehta, who gave it a first performance on 13 November 1986 at the Lincoln Center in New York. The composition was published by Éditions Salabert in 1987.", "Seiji Ozawa\nAlmost a decade after the sports injury, Ozawa won the first prize at the International Competition of Orchestra Conductors in Besançon, France. His success there led to an invitation by Charles Münch, then the music director of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, to attend the Berkshire Music Center (now the Tanglewood Music Center), where he studied with Munch and Pierre Monteux. In 1960, shortly after his arrival, Ozawa won the Koussevitzky Prize for outstanding student conductor, Tanglewood's highest honor. Receiving a scholarship to study conducting with famous Austrian conductor Herbert von Karajan, Ozawa moved to West Berlin. Under the tutelage of von Karajan, Ozawa caught the attention of prominent conductor Leonard Bernstein. Bernstein then appointed him as assistant conductor of the New York Philharmonic where he served during the 1961–1962 and 1964–1965 seasons. While with the New York Philharmonic, he made his first professional concert appearance with the San Francisco Symphony in 1962.", "Oscar Ravina\nA former concertmaster of the Philharmonia Virtuosi of New York, a chamber orchestra consisting of leading New York Philharmonic musicians, which he helped to organize, Mr. Ravina was a long time a member of the New York Philharmonic and an active member of the New York Philharmonic Ensembles.\nAs founder of the Ravina String Quartet, he concertized and recorded in both the United States and Canada and developed special programs for young audiences. Since 1976, he was concertmaster of the Masterwork Orchestra, Masterwork Chamber Orchestra, and St. Cecilia Orchestra.\nHe also taught chamber music at Dartmouth College and the Waterloo Music Festival, and has performed under almost every major conductor of the last three decades. His solo performances include concerts with the National Orchestral Association of New York, Brooklyn Philharmonia, Westchester Philharmonic, Symphony of the Air, New Philharmonia of New York, and Philharmonia Virtuosi.\nFor more than eleven seasons, Mr. Ravina was music director and conductor of the Montclair Chamber Ensemble.", "James Loughran\nOutside of the UK, Loughran was principal conductor of the Bamberg Symphony Orchestra from 1979 to 1983, the first British conductor to be appointed chief of a major German orchestra. In Denmark, he was chief conductor of the Aarhus Symphony Orchestra from 1996 to 2003. He made his American debut in 1972, conducting the New York Philharmonic. Since 1980, James Loughran has been Permanent Guest Conductor of the Japan Philharmonic Orchestra, who made him Honorary Conductor in 2006. Loughran has been active as guest conductor with many of the world's major orchestras, including the Philharmonia, London Philharmonic, Royal Philharmonic, Los Angeles Philharmonic, Dallas Symphony, Munich Philharmonic, RSO Berlin, Vienna Symphony, Stockholm Philharmonic, Finnish Radio Symphony, Stuttgart Radio Symphony and others.", "New York Philharmonic\nLeopold Damrosch, Franz Liszt's former concertmaster at Weimar, served as conductor of the Philharmonic for the 1876/77 season. But failing to win support from the Philharmonic's public, he left to create the rival Symphony Society of New York in 1878. Upon his death in 1885, his 23-year-old son Walter took over and continued the competition with the old Philharmonic. It was Walter who would convince Andrew Carnegie that New York needed a first-class concert hall and on May 5, 1891, both Walter and Russian composer Piotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky conducted at the inaugural concert of the city's new Music Hall, which in a few years would be renamed for its primary benefactor, Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie Hall would remain the orchestra's home until 1962.", "Werner Janssen\nHans-Werner Janssen (1 June 1899 – 19 September 1990) was an American conductor of classical music, and composer of classical music and film scores. He was the first New York born conductor to lead the New York Philharmonic.", "Music of New York City\n[[Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts]] is the largest performing arts center in the world. The center is home to twelve resident organizations, including the [[Metropolitan Opera]], [[New York Philharmonic]], [[New York City Ballet]], [[Chamber Music Society]], [[New York City Opera]], [[Juilliard School]], [[Lincoln Center Theater]], and [[Jazz at Lincoln Center]]. The [[New York Philharmonic]], which performs at [[Avery Fisher Hall]], is the oldest orchestra in the United States, founded in 1842. , [[Lorin Maazel]] is the [[conducting|conductor]]. The Philharmonic has made more than 500 recordings since 1917, and was one of the first to broadcast live performances, beginning in 1922. The New York Philharmonic produced celebrated composers such as [[George Frederick Bristow|George Bristow]] and [[Theodore Thomas (conductor)|Theodore Thomas]]. Bristow was a fiercely nationalistic composer who left the Philharmonic because he felt it did not glorify American music adequately, a situation he, and later Thomas, attempted to rectify.", "New York Philharmonic\nDuring the Philharmonic's first seven seasons, seven musicians alternated the conducting duties. In addition to Hill, Timm and Étienne, these were William Alpers, George Loder, Louis Wiegers and Alfred Boucher.[12] This changed in 1849 when Theodore Eisfeld was installed as sole conductor for the season.[12] Eisfeld, later along with Carl Bergmann, would be the conductor until 1865. That year, Eisfeld conducted the Orchestra's memorial concert for the recently assassinated Abraham Lincoln, but in a peculiar turn of events which were criticized in the New York press, the Philharmonic omitted the last movement, \"Ode to Joy\", as being inappropriate for the occasion.[13] That year Eisfeld returned to Europe, and Bergmann continued to conduct the Society until his death in 1876.", "Alan Gilbert (conductor)\nGilbert built much of his reputation conducting contemporary and American music, and his appointment by the Philharmonic marked somewhat of a shift by the orchestra away from his more conservative predecessors Lorin Maazel, Kurt Masur, and Zubin Mehta. He is the first New York City-born conductor to be named music director of the New York Philharmonic. For his inaugural 2009/10 Philharmonic season, Gilbert introduced a number of new initiatives, including the presence of Composer-in-Residence Magnus Lindberg and Artist-in-Residence Thomas Hampson. The festivals and tours he has introduced include CONTACT – the Philharmonic's new-music series; and a major tour of Asia and the Middle East in October 2009, with debuts in Hanoi and Abu Dhabi. In February 2015, the orchestra announced the scheduled conclusion of Gilbert's tenure as music director at the end of the 2016-2017 season.", "New York Philharmonic\nAnother celebrated conductor, Anton Seidl, followed Thomas on the Philharmonic podium, serving until 1898. Seidl, who had served as Wagner's assistant, was a renowned conductor of the composer's works; Seidl's romantic interpretations inspired both adulation and controversy. During his tenure, the Philharmonic enjoyed a period of unprecedented success and prosperity and performed its first world premiere written by a world-renowned composer in the United States – Antonín Dvořák's Ninth Symphony \"From the New World\". Seidl's sudden death in 1898 from food poisoning at the age of 47 was widely mourned. Twelve thousand people applied for tickets to his funeral at the Metropolitan Opera House at 39th Street and Broadway and the streets were jammed for blocks with a \"surging mass\" of his admirers.", "Xian Zhang\nZhang moved to the United States in 1998. She studied for her doctorate in music at the University of Cincinnati College-Conservatory of Music, and also served for four years as music director of the university's Concert Orchestra. In 2002, she shared in the first prize of the first Maazel/Vilar Conductors' Competition. She served as a cover conductor with the New York Philharmonic from 2002 to 2004. She became an assistant conductor with the New York Philharmonic in 2004, and her conducting debut with the orchestra was in a Young People's Concert that year. In January 2005, she made her Philharmonic subscription debut in January 2005 on a program shared with Lorin Maazel. Maazel subsequently appointed Xian Zhang as the orchestra's associate conductor in 2005, a post she held for several years.", "New York Philharmonic\nIn 1921 the Philharmonic merged with New York's National Symphony Orchestra (no relation to the present Washington, D.C. ensemble). With this merger it also acquired the imposing Dutch conductor Willem Mengelberg. For the 1922/23 season Stránský and Mengelberg shared the conducting duties, but Stránský left after the one shared season. For nine years Mengelberg dominated the scene, although other conductors, among them Bruno Walter, Wilhelm Furtwängler, Igor Stravinsky, and Arturo Toscanini, led about half of each season's concerts. During this period, the Philharmonic became one of the first American orchestras to boast an outdoor symphony series when it began playing low-priced summer concerts at Lewisohn Stadium in upper Manhattan. In 1920 the orchestra hired Henry Hadley as \"associate conductor\" given specific responsibility for the \"Americanization\" of the orchestra: each of Hadley's concerts featured at least one work by an American-born composer.[17]", "David Van Vactor\nHe was the assistant conductor of the Chicago Civic Orchestra (1933–34) and was both the flute section leader and assistant conductor the Kansas City Philharmonic Orchestra from 1943 to 1947. He served as the conductor of the Knoxville Symphony Orchestra from 1947 until 1972. He also appeared as guest conductor with the New York Philharmonic-Symphony Orchestra, the Cleveland Orchestra, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, the London Philharmonic Orchestra, the Frankfurt Radio Symphony Orchestra, and the orchestras of Rio de Janeiro and Santiago, Chile.", "Sidney Harth\nHe was Concertmaster of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra and Chicago Symphony Orchestra, Principal Concertmaster and Associate Conductor of the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra, and Concertmaster and Assistant Conductor of the Louisville Orchestra. \nAn acclaimed conductor, Harth was during his career Principal Conductor of the Natal Philharmonic Orchestra in South Africa, and Musical Director of the Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, Northwest Chamber Orchestra of Seattle and the Puerto Rico Symphony Orchestra.", "Leonard Bernstein\nBernstein was one of the major figures in orchestral conducting in the second half of the 20th century. He was held in high regard amongst many musicians, including the members of the Vienna Philharmonic, evidenced by his honorary membership; the London Symphony Orchestra, of which he was president; and the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, with which he appeared regularly as guest conductor. He was probably the main conductor from the 1960s onwards who acquired a sort of superstar status similar to that of Herbert von Karajan, although unlike Karajan he conducted relatively little opera and part of Bernstein's fame was based on his role as a composer. As the first American-born music director of the New York Philharmonic, his rise to prominence was a factor in overcoming the perception of the time that the top conductors were necessarily trained in Europe.", "New York Philharmonic\nIn 1909, to ensure the financial stability of the Philharmonic, a group of wealthy New Yorkers led by two women, Mary Seney Sheldon and Minnie Untermyer, formed the Guarantors Committee and changed the Orchestra's organization from a musician-operated cooperative to a corporate management structure. The Guarantors were responsible for bringing Gustav Mahler to the Philharmonic as principal conductor and expanding the season from 18 concerts to 54, which included a tour of New England. The Philharmonic was the only symphonic orchestra where Mahler worked as music director without any opera responsibilities, freeing him to explore the symphonic literature more deeply. In New York, he conducted several works for the first time in his career and introduced audiences to his own compositions. Under Mahler, a controversial figure both as a composer and conductor, the season expanded, musicians' salaries were guaranteed, the scope of operations broadened, and the 20th-century orchestra was created.", "A Symphony of Three Orchestras\nA Symphony of Three Orchestras is an orchestra composition by the American composer Elliott Carter. The work was commissioned by the New York Philharmonic through a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts. It was composed from June through December 1976 and was first performed in New York City on February 17, 1977 by the New York Philharmonic under the conductor Pierre Boulez. The composition is dedicated to Boulez and the New York Philharmonic.", "Hudson Valley Philharmonic\nIn 1945, George Hagstrom stepped down as music director handing the baton over to Ole Windingstad, a European-trained conductor who came from the Oslo Philharmonic in Norway. Ole Windingstad also served as conductor to the New Orleans Philharmonic from 1940 to 1944. On October 29, 1953 under the direction of Maestro Ole Windingstad, the orchestra presented a program of two Norwegian composers, Grieg and Sparre-Olsen at New York's Carnegie Hall. It was also during Ole Windingstad's tenure that the orchestra presented Prokofiev's Peter and the Wolf narrated by former first lady Eleanor Roosevelt.", "Split (composition)\nSplit is a fantasy for solo piano and orchestra by the American composer Andrew Norman. The work was commissioned by the New York Philharmonic for the pianist Jeffrey Kahane. It was first performed in David Geffen Hall, New York City on December 10, 2015, by the New York Philharmonic and Jeffrey Kahane under the conductor James Gaffigan.", "Trombone Concerto (Wagner)\nThe Concerto for Trombone and Orchestra is a trombone concerto by the American composer Melinda Wagner. The work was commissioned by the New York Philharmonic for their principal trombonist Joseph Alessi. It was given its premiere at Avery Fisher Hall on February 22, 2007, by Alessi and the New York Philharmonic under the conductor Lorin Maazel. The piece is dedicated to Lorin Maazel and the New York Philharmonic.", "Symphony (Stucky)\nThe Symphony by the American composer Steven Stucky is a four-movement symphony for orchestra. The work was jointly commissioned by the New York Philharmonic and the Los Angeles Philharmonic. It was composed from January through July 2012 and premiered September 28, 2012 at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles, with conductor Gustavo Dudamel leading the Los Angeles Philharmonic. The work had its New York City premiere November 29, 2012, with Alan Gilbert leading the New York Philharmonic.", "Theodore Thomas (conductor)\nThomas was also music director of the New York Philharmonic in 1877-78 and from 1879 to 1891; of the short-lived American Opera Company in New York in 1886; and of the Brooklyn Philharmonic Society 1862 to 1891. He was director of the Cincinnati College of Music from 1878 to 1879, and from 1873 to 1904 the conductor of the biennial May festivals at Cincinnati.\nTo Theodore Thomas is largely due the popularization of Richard Wagner's works in America, and it was he who founded the Wagner union in 1872.", "Trombone Concerto (Rouse)\nThe Trombone Concerto is a concerto for trombone and orchestra by the American composer Christopher Rouse. The work was commissioned by the New York Philharmonic for its principal trombonist Joseph Alessi. It was completed on April 5, 1991, and was first performed by Alessi and the New York Philharmonic conducted by Leonard Slatkin on December 30, 1992, in Avery Fisher Hall, New York City. The concerto is dedicated to the composer and conductor Leonard Bernstein, who died suddenly October 14, 1990. In 1993, the work was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Music.", "Arthur Judson\nThere were some musicians Judson did not represent. One was the conductor Artur Rodziński. Judson attempted to stop Rodzinski from taking over the Cleveland Orchestra in 1933 (an attempt that failed). Judson succeeded in stopping Rodzinski from taking over the New York Philharmonic in 1936. In 1947, Rodzinski who had finally become the conductor of the New York Philharmonic with Judson's short-term assistance battled with Judson over hiring and programming. Addressing the board, he called Judson (who was present) \"a dictator who made musical progress impossible\". Rodzinski requested that the orchestra board then choose between himself and Judson The board sided with Judson. Rodzinski also lost his next job as conductor of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra over programming disputes, purportedly due to the influence of Judson.", "Arturo Toscanini\nGradually, Toscanini's reputation as an operatic conductor of unusual authority and skill supplanted his cello career. In the following decade, he consolidated his career in Italy, entrusted with the world premieres of Puccini's \"La bohème\" and Leoncavallo's \"Pagliacci\". In 1896, Toscanini conducted his first symphonic concert (in Turin, with works by Schubert, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, and Wagner). He exhibited a considerable capacity for hard work, conducting 43 concerts in Turin in 1898. By 1898, Toscanini was Principal Conductor at La Scala, where he remained until 1908, returning as Music Director, from 1921–1929. During this time he collaborated with Alfredo Antonini – a young pianist and organist in La Scala Orchestra.\nHe brought the La Scala Orchestra to the United States on a concert tour in 1920/21, during which he made his first recordings (for the Victor Talking Machine Company).\nOutside Europe, Toscanini conducted at the Metropolitan Opera in New York (1908–1915) as well as the New York Philharmonic (1926–1936). At the end of his season with the Metropolitan Opera in May 1915 Toscanini was set to return to Europe aboard the doomed RMS \"Lusitania\", but instead cut his concert schedule short and left a week early, apparently aboard the Italian liner \"Duca degli Abruzzi\". He toured Europe with the New York Philharmonic in 1930. At each performance, he and the orchestra were acclaimed by critics and audiences. Toscanini was the first non-German conductor to appear at Bayreuth (1930–1931), and the New York Philharmonic was the first non-German orchestra to play there. In the 1930s, he conducted at the Salzburg Festival (1934–1937), as well as the 1936 inaugural concert of the Palestine Orchestra (later renamed the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra) in Tel Aviv, later conducting them in Jerusalem, Haifa, Cairo and Alexandria. During his engagement with the New York Philharmonic, Hans Lange, the son of the last Master of the Sultan's Music in Istanbul, who, later, became conductor of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and the founder of the New Mexico Symphony Orchestra as a professional ensemble, was his concert master.", "Colin Davis\nFrom 1983 to 1993, Davis was chief conductor of the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, with whom he developed his concert hall repertoire, including symphonies by Bruckner and Mahler. He was offered but declined the music directorships of the Cleveland Orchestra in succession to Maazel and the New York Philharmonic in succession to Zubin Mehta. As a principal guest conductor he was associated with the Dresden Staatskapelle, which appointed him honorary conductor (\"Ehrendirigent\") in 1990, the first in the orchestra's 460-year-history, and whose musicians referred to Davis with the nickname \"Der Sir\". From 1998 to 2003, he was principal guest conductor of the New York Philharmonic.", "Homer Mensch\nAt the request of the New York Philharmonic's then-conductor, Leonard Bernstein, Mensch returned to the Philharmonic in 1966. He remained until 1975, playing under Bernstein and Pierre Boulez. After leaving the Philharmonic, he served as principal bass of the Mostly Mozart Festival Orchestra, the New York Chamber Symphony, the New York Choral Society, Little Orchestra Society, and the New York Pops." ]

[ "Lateran Treaty\nThe Lateran Treaty (Italian: Patti Lateranensi; Latin: Pacta Lateranensia) was one of the Lateran Pacts of 1929 or Lateran Accords, agreements made in 1929 between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See, settling the \"Roman Question\". They are named after the Lateran Palace, where they were signed on 11 February 1929. The Italian parliament ratified them on 7 June 1929. It recognized Vatican City as an independent state, with the Italian government, at the time led by Benito Mussolini as prime minister, agreeing to give the Roman Catholic Church financial compensation for the loss of the Papal States.[1] In 1947, the Lateran Treaty was recognized in the Constitution of Italy[2] as regulating the relations between the state and the Catholic Church." ]

[ "Lateran Treaty\nThe Lateran Pacts are often presented as three treaties: a 27-article treaty of conciliation, a 3-article financial convention, and a 45-article concordat.[3][4][5][6][7][8] However, the website of the Holy See presents the pacts as two, making the financial convention an annex of the treaty of conciliation. In this presentation, the pacts consisted of two documents, the first of which had four annexes:[9]", "Culture of Rome, Italy\nThe territory includes Saint Peter's Square, distinguished from the territory of Italy only by a white line along the limit of the square, where it touches Piazza Pio XII. St. Peter's Square is reached through the Via della Conciliazione, which runs from the Tiber River to St. Peter's. This grand approach was constructed by Benito Mussolini after the conclusion of the Lateran Treaty. According to the Lateran Treaty, certain properties of the Holy See that are located in Italian territory, most notably Castel Gandolfo and the major basilicas, enjoy extraterritorial status similar to that of foreign embassies.", "Benedict Williamson\nHe also wrote a book about the Lateran Treaty of 1929, called \"The Treaty of the Lateran\".", "Lateran Treaty\nList of Sovereigns of the Vatican City State Index of Vatican City-related articles Properties of the Holy See Reichskonkordat, treaty between the Holy See and Nazi Germany Religion in Italy", "History of the papacy\nNegotiations for the settlement of the Roman Question began in 1926 between the government of Italy and the Holy See, and in 1929 they culminated in the agreements of the three Lateran Pacts, signed for King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy by Prime Minister Benito Mussolini and for Pope Pius XI by Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri in the Lateran Palace (hence the name by which they are known).\nThe Lateran Treaty included a political treaty, which created the state of the Vatican City and guaranteed full and independent sovereignty to the Holy See. The pope was pledged to perpetual neutrality in international relations and to abstention from mediation in a controversy unless specifically requested by all parties. The concordat established Catholicism as the religion of Italy. And the financial agreement was accepted as settlement of all the claims of the Holy See against Italy arising from the loss of temporal power in 1870.", "Ages of consent in Europe\nWhen the Vatican City was first formed, it adopted the then-Italian age of consent of 12 as per the Lateran Treaty of 1929. Until July 2013 it had the lowest age of consent in Europe, but after that month, when the Pope made his decree, it became the highest.", "Lateran\nThe most famous Lateran buildings are the Lateran Palace, once called the Palace of the Popes, and the Basilica of St. John Lateran, the cathedral of Rome, which although part of Italy is a property of the Holy See, which has extraterritorial privileges as a result of the 1929 Lateran Treaty. As the official ecclesiastical seat of the Pope, St. John Lateran is the Papal \"cathedra\". The Lateran is Christendom's earliest basilica.", "Villa Doria Pamphili\nAround 1929 it was suggested that the Villa Doria Pamphili could be annexed to the new state of Vatican through the Lateran Treaty, but this proposal was not adopted in the final version of the Treaty.", "Crime in Vatican City\nArticle 22 of the Lateran Treaty provides that the Italian government, when requested by the Holy See, seeks prosecution and detention of criminal suspects, at the expense of the Vatican.", "Major basilica\nMajor basilica (; plural: \"Basilicae maiores\") is the title given to the four highest-ranking Roman Catholic church buildings, all of which are also \"Papal basilicas\": the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran, St. Peter's Basilica, the Basilica of St. Paul Outside the Walls, and the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. All of them are located within the diocese of Rome: St. Peter's Basilica is located in Vatican City and thus within the territory and sovereign jurisdiction of the Holy See. The other three are geographically located in Italian territory, but enjoy extraterritorial status under the Lateran Treaty. The Archbasilica of St. John in the Lateran is the seat of the Pope and the site of the Papal Cathedra, and is the oldest and first in rank of the major basilicas. ", "Capital punishment in Vatican City\nThe Lateran Treaty of 1929 copied from the contemporaneous Italian legal code (concerning attempted assassinations of the King of Italy), providing for capital punishment for anyone who attempted to assassinate the pope within Vatican City. Article 8 of the Lateran Treaty provides:", "Archbasilica of St. John Lateran\nThe archbasilica is sited in the City of Rome. It is outside Vatican City, which is approximately to its northwest, although the archbasilica and its adjoining edifices have extraterritorial status from Italy as one of the properties of the Holy See, pursuant to the Lateran Treaty of 1929.", "Lateran Treaty\nNegotiations for the settlement of the Roman Question began in 1926 between the government of Italy and the Holy See, and culminated in the agreements of the Lateran Pacts, signed—the Treaty says—for King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy by Benito Mussolini, Prime Minister and Head of Government, and for Pope Pius XI by Pietro Gasparri, Cardinal Secretary of State,[18] on 11 February 1929.[19] It was ratified on 7 June 1929.[20] The agreements were signed in the Lateran Palace, hence the name by which they are known.", "Achille Silvestrini\nHe worked for the next five years on the renewal of the Lateran Treaty on its fiftieth anniversary, and signed a revised treaty that reflected the rapid secularisation of Italy since the 1960s.", "Administration of the Property of the Holy See\nAdministration of the Property of the Holy See (, abbreviated ABSS) was a commission that, until 1967, administered the property of the Holy See other than the money in cash and Italian government bonds received when the Financial Convention attached to the Lateran Treaty of 1929 was implemented.", "Rome\nThe territory includes Saint Peter's Square, separated from the territory of Italy only by a white line along the limit of the square, where it borders Piazza Pio XII. St. Peter's Square is reached through the Via della Conciliazione, which runs from the Tiber to St. Peter's. This grand approach was designed by architects Piacentini and Spaccarelli, for want of Benito Mussolini and in accordance with the church, after the conclusion of the Lateran Treaty. According to the Lateran Treaty, certain properties of the Holy See located in Italian territory, most notably the Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo and the major basilicas, enjoy extraterritorial status similar to that of foreign embassies.", "Francesco Pacelli\nFrancesco Pacelli was dean of the lawyers of the Rota and legal advisor to Pope Pius XI. In this role, he was instrumental in negotiating this Lateran Treaty in 1929, which reaffirmed the independence of the Papacy with the formation of Vatican City as a sovereign entity. Francesco Pacelli described in his \"Diario della Conciliazione \" details and difficulties of these negotiations from a Vatican perspective. Pope Pius XI and Pietro Gasparri had entrusted to him the daily negotiations for the Lateran Treaty. Pacelli had over two-hundred protracted audiences with Pius XI over twenty different draft versions of the final treaty.", "Lateran Treaty\nVatican City This article is part of a series on the politics and government of Vatican City Sovereign Pope (list) Francis Law Law of Vatican City Fundamental Law Lateran Treaty Canon law 1983 Code of Canon Law Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches Apostolic Constitution Pastor Bonus Executive Governorate President: Giuseppe Bertello Secretariat of State Secretary: Pietro Parolin Section for Relations with States Financial Information Authority Secretariat for the Economy Legislature Pontifical Commission President: Giuseppe Bertello Judiciary Court of Cassation President: Dominique Mamberti Court of Appeals President: Pio Vito Pinto Tribunale President: G. di Sanguinetto Elections Conclave Universi Dominici gregis Recent conclaves 1978 (Oct)20052013 College of Cardinals Camerlengo (Chamberlain) Dean Foreign relations Concordats Multilateral foreign policy Status in international law Lateran Treaty Section for Relations with States (Roman Curia) Secretary for Relations with States: Paul Gallagher Undersecretaries for Relations with States: Antoine Camilleri List of diplomatic missions of the Holy See Nuncios Vatican and Holy See passports Visa requirements Visa policy The Holy See and the United Nations See also Military Corps of Gendarmerie Roman Curia Other countries Atlas Vatican Cityportal Catholicismportalvt", "Capture of Rome\nNegotiations for the settlement of the Roman Question began in 1926 between the government of Italy and the Holy See, and culminated in the agreements of the Lateran Pacts, signed—the Treaty says—for King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy by Benito Mussolini, Prime Minister and Head of Government, and for Pope Pius XI by Pietro Gasparri, Cardinal Secretary of State, on February 11, 1929. The agreements were signed in the Lateran Palace, from which they take their name. They culminated in the Lateran Treaty of 1929, where the Holy See renounced its claims over most of the city of Rome in return for Italy's recognition of the Vatican State.", "Vatican City\nThis situation was resolved on 11 February 1929, when the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy was signed by Prime Minister and Head of Government Benito Mussolini on behalf of King Victor Emmanuel III and by Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri for Pope Pius XI.[12][10][25] The treaty, which became effective on 7 June 1929, established the independent state of Vatican City and reaffirmed the special status of Catholicism in Italy.[26]", "Legal status of the Holy See\nFor a further group, the legal personality of the Holy See in international law arises from the Lateran Treaty, which, in their view, conferred international standing to the central government of the Catholic Church. In this sense, Oppenheim argued that \"the previously controversial international position of the Holy See was clarified as the result of the Treaty of 11 February 1929, between the Holy See and Italy - the so called Lateran Treaty. (...) The Lateran Treaty marks the resumption of the formal membership, interrupted in 1871, of the Holy See in the society of states.\"", "Vatican during the Savoyard era (1870–1929)\nVatican during the Savoyard Era 1870-1929 describes the relation of the Vatican to Italy, after 1870, which marked the end of the Papal State and 1929, when the papacy regained autonomy in the Lateran Treaty, a period dominated by the Roman Question.", "Victor Emmanuel III of Italy\nIn 1929, Mussolini, on behalf of the King, signed the Lateran Treaty. The treaty was one of the three agreements made that year between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See. On 7 June 1929, the Lateran Treaty was ratified and the \"Roman Question\" was settled.", "Christianity in Italy\nThe defeat of the Pope by the Kingdom of Italy gave rise to a long period of antagonism between ecclesiastical and Italian powers. This resulted in the Catholic Church suggesting its believers not to take part in the affairs of the Kingdom of Italy, and the consequent laicisation of Italian politics. The Kingdom of Italy and the Catholic Church managed to reapproach under Fascism with the stipulation of the Lateran Treaty. Among other things, the treaty allowed for the foundation of Vatican City, a microstate over which the Pope has full jurisdiction. The Lateran Treaty survived the fall of Fascism and the constitution of the Republic of Italy, and remains valid to these days.", "Lateran Palace\nFollowing the Lateran Treaty of 1929, the palace and adjoining basilica are extraterritorial properties of the Holy See.", "Lateran Treaty\nThe Constitution of the Italian Republic, adopted in 1947, states that relations between the State and the Catholic Church \"are regulated by the Lateran Treaties\".[22]", "Lateran Treaty\nThe sum thereby given to the Holy See was actually less than Italy declared it would pay under the terms of the Law of Guarantees of 1871, by which the Italian government guaranteed to Pope Pius IX and his successors the use of, but not sovereignty over, the Vatican and Lateran Palaces and a yearly income of 3,250,000 lire as indemnity for the loss of sovereignty and territory. The Holy See, on the grounds of the need for clearly manifested independence from any political power in its exercise of spiritual jurisdiction, had refused to accept the settlement offered in 1871, and the Popes thereafter until the signing of the Lateran Treaty considered themselves prisoners in the Vatican, a small, limited area inside Rome.", "Rail transport in Vatican City\nThe construction of a railway station in Vatican City and its linkage to the Italian rail lines was guaranteed by the Lateran Treaty of 11 February 1929. The Directorate of New Railway Construction of the Ministry of Public Works of the Kingdom of Italy implemented this provision with construction beginning on 3 April 1929, to establish earthworks 38 m above sea level (the height of the \"Roma - San Pietro\" station) between Piazza Santa Marta and the Governor's Palace, Vatican. The construction of the viaduct leading to Vatican City was paid for by the Italian government; the station within the Vatican was financed from the ₤750 million indemnity agreed to in the Lateran Treaty's financial section. The total cost of construction was reported to be ₤24 million.", "Lateran Palace\nIn 1925 Pius XI established an ethnographic museum devoted to artifacts sent back by missionaries. On 11 February 1929, the Lateran Treaty was signed here, at last regulating the relations between the Holy See and the Italian State. It established that both the basilica and the Lateran Palace were extraterritorial properties of the Holy See, enjoying privileges similar to foreign embassies on Italian soil." ]

[ "Vandals\nAfter the Visigoths invaded Iberia in 418, the Iranian Alans and Silingi Vandals voluntarily subjected themselves to the rule of Hasdingian leader Gunderic, who was pushed from Gallaecia to Baetica by a Roman-Suebi coalition in 419. In 429, under king Genseric (reigned 428–477), the Vandals entered North Africa. By 439 they established a kingdom which included the Roman province of Africa as well as Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, Malta and the Balearic Islands. They fended off several Roman attempts to recapture the African province, and sacked the city of Rome in 455. Their kingdom collapsed in the Vandalic War of 533–4, in which Emperor Justinian I's forces reconquered the province for the Eastern Roman Empire." ]

[ "Arianism\nThe Franks and the Anglo-Saxons were unlike the other Germanic peoples in that they entered the Western Roman Empire as Pagans and were forcibly converted to Chalcedonian Christianity by their kings, Clovis I and Æthelberht of Kent (see also Christianity in Gaul and Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England). The remaining tribes – the Vandals and the Ostrogoths – did not convert as a people nor did they maintain territorial cohesion. Having been militarily defeated by the armies of Emperor Justinian I, the remnants were dispersed to the fringes of the empire and became lost to history. The Vandalic War of 533–534 dispersed the defeated Vandals. Following their final defeat at the Battle of Mons Lactarius in 553, the Ostrogoths went back north and (re)settled in south Austria.\nMuch of south-eastern Europe and central Europe, including many of the Goths and Vandals respectively, had embraced Arianism (the Visigoths converted to Arian Christianity in 376), which led to Arianism being a religious factor in various wars in the Roman Empire. In the west, organized Arianism survived in North Africa, in Hispania, and parts of Italy until it was finally suppressed in the 6th and 7th centuries. Visigothic Spain converted to Catholicism at the Third Council of Toledo in 589. Grimwald, King of the Lombards (662–671), and his young son and successor Garibald (671), were the last Arian kings in Europe.", "History of Sardinia\nIn the summer of 533 Vandal forces (5000 men and 120 ships), led by Tzazo, arrived in Sardinia to stifle the Godas' rebellion and conquered Caralis, killing Godas and his followers .[28] In the early 534 the Vandals of Sardinia surrendered immediately to the Byzantines when faced with news of the Vandal collapse in Africa;[29] thenceforth the island was part of the Byzantine Empire, included as a province in the Praetorian prefecture of Africa. The local governor sat in Caralis. During the Gothic Wars much of the island fell easily to the Ostrogoths, but the final fall of the Germanic resistance in mainland Italy reassured Byzantine control.[30] Sardinia was subsequently included in the Exarchate of Africa until its end by the Arabs in 698 AD when the island was likely aggregated to the Exarchate of Ravenna.[31] In 599 and during the 7th century the Longobard fleet tried to assault Caralis and Turris Libissonis (Porto Torres) but in vain.[32]", "Sardinia\nThe east Germanic tribe of the Vandals conquered Sardinia in 456. Their rule lasted for 78 years up to 534, when 400 eastern Roman troops led by Cyril, one of the officers of the foederati, retook the island. It is known that the Vandal government continued the forms of the existing Roman Imperial structure. The governor of Sardinia continued to be called the praeses and apparently continued to manage military, judicial, and civil governmental functions via imperial procedures. The only Vandal governor of Sardinia about whom there is substantial record is the last, Godas, a Visigoth noble. In AD 530, a coup d'état in Carthage removed King Hilderic, a convert to Nicene Christianity, in favor of his cousin Gelimer, an Arian Christian like most of the élite in his kingdom. Godas was sent to take charge and ensure the loyalty of Sardinia. He did the exact opposite, declaring the island's independence from Carthage[36] and opening negotiations with Emperor Justinian I, who had declared war on Hilderic's behalf. In AD 533 Gelimer sent the bulk of his army and navy (120 vessels and 5,000 men) to Sardinia to subdue Godas, with the catastrophic result that the Vandal Kingdom was overwhelmed when Justinian's own army under Belisarius arrived at Carthage in their absence. The Vandal Kingdom ended and Sardinia was returned to Roman rule.[37]", "Vandal Kingdom\nThe Vandal Kingdom ended in 534 when it was conquered by Belisarius in the Vandalic War and incorporated into the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire.", "List of Community characters\nBritta experienced an unexplained trauma in her childhood during a birthday party, involving a man in a dinosaur costume. She decided to drop out of high school because she thought it would impress Radiohead. After dropping out of school, she started vandalizing billboards around the area where she grew up. During the vandalizing, she became friends with other people who liked to vandalize. The friends created a small group of \"anarchist billboard vandals\". When the group grew larger she was kicked out, via a democratic voting system. Soon after her departure, the group developed into a high-end advertising firm. After her fallout, Britta joined the Peace Corps, did some foot modeling, was tear-gassed at a World Trade rally, and took an extended vacation in Africa. She at one point formed an activist group, \"The An-HER-Chists,\" but it disbanded when the other members grew tired of activism. This led Britta to realize that she needed to do something with her life. While applying for a job at a frozen yogurt restaurant, Britta began a conversation with an irritable man handing out flyers for Greendale Community College. Upon learning how easy gaining a degree from the school was, Britta resolved to get her G.E.D., and after she did so, enrolled at Greendale. In the Season 3 premiere, \"Biology 101,\" Britta tells the study group that she's decided to major in Psychology and work towards becoming a therapist, a career goal her friends in the study group regard with extreme skepticism.", "Vandal Sardinia\nVandal Sardinia covers the history of Sardinia from the end of the long Roman domination in 456, when the island was conquered by the Vandals, a Germanic population settled in North Africa until its reconquest in 534.", "Vandalic War\nWhen the Roman fleet reached Africa, a council was held aboard Belisarius' flagship (The Vandalic War, I.15), where many of his officers advocated an immediate attack on Carthage itself, especially since it was the only fortified city in the Vandal realm, the walls of the other cities having been torn down to prevent a rebellion. Belisarius, however, mindful of the fate of the 468 expedition and wary of an encounter with the Vandal fleet, spoke against it. Thus the army disembarked and built a fortified camp to spend the night.[26][40][43]", "Kingdom of Altava\nAfter the Vandal conquest of Northern Africa and the establishment of the Vandal Kingdom, these cities became completely isolated and eventually fell into the control of the romanized berber people of the region. The berbers would form an independent barbarian kingdom, dubbed the \"Regnum Maurorum et Romanorum\", the \"Kingdom of the Moors and Romans\". This kingdom would be a local power, often finding itself at war with the neighboring Vandal Kingdom. When the Eastern Roman Empire invaded the Vandals in their successful attempt at reconquering Northern Africa, the Mauro-Roman Kingdom under Masuna allied with them against the Vandals. However, subsequent rulers would come into conflict with the Empire. After a failed military campaign under King Garmul against the Eastern Roman Empire, the Empire reincorporated some coastal territories and the Kingdom collapsed.", "Vandal Kingdom\nThe impression given by sources such as Victor of Vita, Quodvultdeus, and Fulgentius of Ruspe was that the Vandal take-over of Carthage and North Africa led to widespread destruction. However, recent archaeological investigations have challenged this assertion. Although Carthage's Odeon was destroyed, the street pattern remained the same and some public buildings were renovated. The political centre of Carthage was the Byrsa Hill. New industrial centres emerged within towns during this period. Historian Andy Merrills uses the large amounts of African red slip ware discovered across the Mediterranean dating from the Vandal period of North Africa to challenge the assumption that the Vandal rule of North Africa was a time of economic instability. When the Vandals raided Sicily in 440, the Western Roman Empire was too preoccupied with war in Gaul to react. Theodosius II, emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, dispatched an expedition to deal with the Vandals in 441, but it only progressed as far as Sicily. The Western Empire under Valentinian III secured peace with the Vandals in 442. Under the treaty the Vandals gained Byzacena, Tripolitania, part of Numidia, and confirmed their control of Proconsular Africa.", "1969 Idaho Vandals football team\nDespite playing their home games in Pullman, the Vandals did not play the WSU Cougars in the Battle of the Palouse. Outside of war years, it was the first break in the rivalry since 1900; Idaho did not field a team in 1918 (World War I) and neither did in 1943 & 1944 (World War II).", "Guy Debord\nGuy Debord (also known as \"Debord Guy\") was born in Paris in 1931. Debord's father, Martial, was a pharmacist who died due to illness when Debord was young. Debord's mother, Paulette Rossi, sent Guy to live with his grandmother in her family villa in Italy. During World War II, the Rossis left the villa and began to travel from town to town. As a result, Debord attended high school in Cannes, where he began his interest in film and vandalism. As a young man, Debord actively opposed the French war in Algeria and joined in demonstrations in Paris against it. Debord studied Law at the University of Paris, but left early and did not complete his university education. After ending his stint at the University of Paris, he began his career as a writer.", "Dead Space (mobile game)\nWhen Vandal reaches the core, it becomes apparent that a large Necromorph is \"suffocating\" it. Vandal defeats the creature, but falls into the core with it. A badly injured Vandal manages to crawl out of the core, at which point it is revealed that Vandal is a female, Karrie Norton. She tries to radio Director Tiedemann for help, leaving an audio log relating what has happened. The game ends with Radikov telling Le Guin that the Necromorph outbreak was a success. Back at the core, a trail of blood leads off-screen, with only Vandal's helmet remaining; her fate is unknown.", "Kung Fu Records\nKung Fu Records was founded by Vandals bassist Joe Escalante and guitarist Warren Fitzgerald in 1996. Escalante had been urged by his wife to allow the Riverside, California band Assorted Jelly Beans to open for The Vandals, and he and Fitzgerald were so impressed by their performance that they decided to start a record label in order to release the band's debut album. Escalante named the label after his study of Kung Fu San Soo, and its first release was a split single featuring both The Vandals and Assorted Jelly Beans. The Assorted Jelly Beans' debut self-titled album followed that same year, as did the soundtrack to the Ben Affleck movie \"Glory Daze\", which featured The Vandals and Assorted Jelly Beans and a theme written by Fitzgerald. At the end of the year the label also released a Vandals Christmas album entitled \"Oi to the World!\"", "Nancy Vandal\nIn 1996 Rolfe left Nancy Vandal and the Popgun Assassins. Jay Whalley (of Frenzal Rhomb) used the name, Jason Jasonn Beers when he replaced Rolfe, despite not being a bass guitarist. Whalley's first recording with the band was \"Slippery When Crap\". From that time they were known as Nancy Vandal. The album \"The Debriefing Room\" followed before the end of the year and Whalley left to return to Frenzal Rhomb. JJ LaMoore switched to bass and Nancy Vandal expanded its line-up by incorporating several members of Newcastle band, Loose & the Horny Chicks.", "Timgad\nIn the 5th century, the city was sacked by the Vandals before falling into decline. In AD 535, the Byzantine general Solomon found the city empty when he came to occupy it during the Vandalic War. In the following century, the city was briefly repopulated as a primarily Christian city before being sacked by Berbers in the 5th century. During the Christian period, Timgad was a diocese which became renowned at the end of the 4th century when Bishop Optat became the spokesman for the Donatist movement. After Optat, Thamugadai had two bishops Gaudentius (Donatist) and Faustinus (Catholic) ", "St Peter's Church, Wolfhampcote\nThe church then remained virtually unchanged until 1848, when a restoration was carried out, and the mausoleum was added to the east end of the church. After that time the population of the parish declined. More repairs and some restorations were carried out in 1903, at a cost of £425 (equivalent to £ as of ). The church closed in 1910, but reopened two years later at the request of the local residents. However it was only used occasionally for services, and closed again soon after the end of the Second World War. It was damaged by vandalism and in the late 1950s the diocese decided to demolish it, leaving just the walls standing. However the charity, the Friends of Friendless Churches, was granted permission to carry out repairs. But more vandalism took place, and the entrances and the lower windows were blocked to prevent entry to the building. Following the Pastoral Measure of 1968 the church was declared redundant, and on 3 March 1972 it was vested in the Redundant Churches Fund (now known as the Churches Conservation Trust). More work has since been carried out to make the building weatherproof and secure from vandalism.", "Vandalic War\n“And there was booty—first of all, whatever articles are wont to be set apart for the royal service—thrones of gold and carriages in which it is customary for a king's consort to ride, and much jewelry made of precious stones, and golden drinking cups, and all the other things which are useful for the royal table. And there was also silver weighing many thousands of talents and all the royal treasure amounting to an exceedingly great sum, and among these were the treasures of the Jews, which Titus, the son of Vespasian, together with certain others, had brought to Rome after the capture of Jerusalem. [...] And there were slaves in the triumph, among whom was Gelimer himself, wearing some sort of a purple garment upon his shoulders, and all his family, and as many of the Vandals as were very tall and fair of body. And when Gelimer reached the hippodrome and saw the emperor sitting upon a lofty seat and the people standing on either side and realized as he looked about in what an evil plight he was, he neither wept nor cried out, but ceased not saying over in the words of the Hebrew scripture: \"Vanity of vanities, all is vanity.\" And when he came before the emperor's seat, they stripped off the purple garment, and compelled him to fall prone on the ground and do obeisance to the Emperor Justinian. This also Belisarius did, as being a suppliant of the emperor along with him.”—Procopius, The Vandalic War, II.9", "The Vandals discography\nI \"Peace thru Vandalism / When in Rome Do as the Vandals\" combines the EP \"Peace thru Vandalism\" and the album \"When in Rome Do as the Vandals\".", "Vandalic language\nVery little is known about the Vandalic language other than various phrases and a small number of personal names of Vandalic origin, mainly known from documents and personal names in Spanish. The regional name Andalusia is believed to be derived from the Vandals, according to the traditional view. When the Moors invaded and occupied Spain from the 8th century to the end of the 15th, the region was called \"Al-Andalus\".", "Vandalism\nThe Vandals, an ancient Germanic people, are associated with senseless destruction as a result of their sack of Rome under King Genseric in 455. During the Enlightenment, Rome was idealized, while the Goths and Vandals were blamed for its destruction. The Vandals may not have been any more destructive than other invaders of ancient times, but they did inspire British poet John Dryden to write, \"Till Goths, and Vandals, a rude Northern race, Did all the matchless Monuments deface\" (1694). However, the Vandals did intentionally damage statues, which may be why their name is associated with the vandalism of art. The term \"Vandalisme\" was coined in 1794 by Henri Grégoire, bishop of Blois, to describe the destruction of artwork following the French Revolution. The term was quickly adopted across Europe. This new use of the term was important in colouring the perception of the Vandals from later Late Antiquity, popularising the pre-existing idea that they were a barbaric group with a taste for destruction.", "Idaho Vandals football\nAlumnus James \"Babe\" Brown was the interim athletic director and basketball coach during the war, then led the Vandals football program in 1945 and 1946, compiling records of and He returned to the high school ranks in southern Idaho and later coached at the College of Idaho. Dixie Howell, a former star running back at Alabama under Frank Thomas, was hired as head football coach at Idaho in February 1947, and guided the usually-struggling Vandals to a promising 4–4 record in his first season in Moscow], the Vandals' best since 1938. The Vandals beat Stanford on the road, a team that had defeated them 45–0 the previous year (but went winless in 1947). It was Idaho's second-ever football victory over a PCC team from California, following a victory over first-year UCLA in 1928. The Vandals also knocked off an undefeated Utah in the season finale in Boise. The Vandals drew a Palouse and state record crowd to Neale Stadium for their annual rivalry game with Washington State in October, albeit a close 7–0 loss to the Cougars. These promising factors earned Howell a two-year contract extension through 1950. The progress did not continue, as the Vandals opened the 1948 season with four losses and went overall and in conference, defeating only Montana for the Little Brown Stein. Idaho played Washington State close at Rogers Field in Pullman and gave Oregon a scare in Moscow. The Webfoots, with Norm Van Brocklin and John McKay, went 7–0 in conference and were co-champions with California. Howell's relationship with Idaho fans and the administration was strained following the 1949 season. The Vandals went and in conference that season, defeating only departing Montana again. Their two non-conference wins were against overmatched opponents Willamette and Portland, and the Vandals were severely outscored in their five losses, capped by a loss at Stanford to end the season. Howell felt compelled to publicly deny rumors in April that he would leave before the 1950 season; the Vandals went record in conference), and Howell's contract was not renewed in March 1951.", "Vandalic War\nThe Vandalic or Vandal War (Greek: Βανδηλικὸς Πόλεμος, Vandēlikòs Pólemos) was a conflict fought in North Africa (largely in modern Tunisia) between the forces of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire and the Vandalic Kingdom of Carthage, in 533–534. It was the first of Justinian I's wars of reconquest of the lost Western Roman Empire.", "Vandalic War\nBelisarius knew that success for his expedition relied on gaining the support of the local population, which had largely retained its Roman identity and to which he presented himself as a liberator. Thus on the next day of the landing, when some of his men stole some fruit from a local orchard, he severely punished them, and assembled the army and exhorted them to maintain discipline and restraint towards the native population, lest they abandon their Roman sympathies and go over to the Vandals. Belisarius' pleas bore results, for, as Procopius reports (The Vandalic War, I.17), \"the soldiers behaved with moderation, and they neither began any unjust brawls nor did anything out of the way, and [Belisarius], by displaying great gentleness and kindness, won the Libyans to his side so completely that thereafter he made the journey as if in his own land\".[44][45][46]", "Gunderic\nHe was a son of King Godigisel, the Hasdingi's Vandal king when his people breached the Rhine river frontier of the Empire on the last day of 406. During that year, the Vandals had become heavily involved in a war with the Franks, who were already settled as allies of the Romans, and who attempted to keep the Vandals out. Godigisel was killed in the fighting and Gunderic succeeded him.", "Freedom of religion in Russia\nAuthorities rarely prosecuted or sentenced those arrested for attacks and vandalism against religious minorities, and they often failed to bring hate-crime charges even when religious bigotry was clearly involved. Some government officials denied that there was a problem with hate crimes, or if they did exist, they were manifestations of economic ills. Some government officials and human rights observers noted that, due to heavy caseloads, prosecutors chose to file easily proven charges of vandalism or hooliganism rather than risk an acquittal on the harder-to-prove hate-crime motive. The end result was that hate crime legislation was often not enforced.", "The Vandals discography\nI \"When in Rome Do as the Vandals\" was reissued on CD by Time Bomb Recordings in 1989 as part of the compilation album \"Peace thru Vandalism / When in Rome Do as the Vandals\".", "Vandals\nOn December 15, 533, Gelimer and Belisarius clashed again at the Battle of Tricamarum, some 20 miles (32km) from Carthage. Again, the Vandals fought well but broke, this time when Gelimer's brother Tzazo fell in battle. Belisarius quickly advanced to Hippo, second city of the Vandal Kingdom, and in 534 Gelimer surrendered to the Byzantine conqueror, ending the Kingdom of the Vandals.", "Byzantine–Sasanian War of 440\nThe East Roman–Sassanid War of 440 was a short conflict between the East Roman Empire and the Sassanian Empire. The reason for its short ending was that the southern Roman provinces were being invaded by the Vandals, which forced the East Romans to sue for a quick end to the war to focus on the Vandal invasion. The Sassanians were also paid some money in return for peace.", "Vandal Kingdom\nOn December 15, 533, Gelimer and Belisarius clashed again at the Battle of Tricamarum, some from Carthage. Again, the Vandals fought well but broke, this time when Gelimer's brother Tzazo fell in battle. Belisarius quickly advanced to Hippo, second city of the Vandal Kingdom, and in 534 Gelimer, besieged in Mount Pappua by the Herulian General Pharas, surrendered to the Byzantines, ending the Kingdom of the Vandals.", "Peace Thru Vandalism / When in Rome Do as The Vandals\nPeace Thru Vandalism / When in Rome Do as The Vandals is a compilation album by the southern California punk rock band The Vandals. It was originally released in 1989 by Restless Records (and later reissued Time Bomb Recordings, a record label founded by Social Distortion frontman Mike Ness). It is a CD re-release of the band's first EP, \"Peace thru Vandalism\", and first LP, \"When in Rome Do as The Vandals\", containing all of the tracks from both releases. The Restless version has the tracks from When In Rome Do As The Vandals first while the Time Bomb version has the two records in chronological order." ]

[ "Meyer lemon\nCitrus × meyeri, the Meyer lemon, is a hybrid citrus fruit native to China. It is a cross between a citron and a mandarin/pomelo hybrid distinct from the common or bitter oranges.[1]" ]

[ "Shaker lemon pie\nModern variations may substitute Meyer lemons or brown sugar and add other flavorings such as ginger or blackberries.", "Meyer lemon\nThe Meyer lemon fruit is yellow and rounder than a true lemon.[6] The skin is fragrant and thin, coloured a deep yellow with a slight orange tint when ripe. Meyer lemon fruits have a sweeter, less acidic flavour than the more common Lisbon or Eureka supermarket lemon varieties.[6] The pulp is a dark yellow and contains up to 10 seeds per fruit.", "Lemon drop (candy)\nA lemon drop is a sugar coated, lemon-flavored candy that is typically colored yellow and often shaped like a miniature lemon. They can be sweet or have a more sour flavor. Lemon drops are made by boiling sugar, water and cream of tartar until it reaches the hard crack stage. As the mixture cools, lemon flavor is added. The candy is then rolled into long ropes, cut into small pieces and rolled in sugar. Lemon drops originated in England, where confectioners learned that adding acid such as lemon juice to the boiled sugar mixture prevented sugar from crystallizing.", "Meyer lemon\nIt was introduced to the United States in 1908 as S.P.I. #23028[2] by the agricultural explorer Frank Nicholas Meyer, an employee of the United States Department of Agriculture who collected a sample of the plant on a trip to China.[3]", "Pyrus calleryana\nCallery pear has been used as rootstock for grafting such pear cultivars as Comice, Bosc, or Seckel, and especially for Nashi. \"Pyrus calleryana\" was first introduced into the United States in 1909 and 1916, largely influenced by the dedicated research of Frank N. Meyer, plant explorer for the US Department of Agriculture, commonly known for the discovery of the Meyer Lemon, for agricultural experimentation, pre-dating recognition in the 1950s of the species' potential as an ornamental plant.", "Billie Wayne Lemons\nLemons was born to Wayne H. Lemons (born 1937) and Verlene Lemons in Tyler, the seat of Smith County in East Texas. He was reared in Pampa, the seat of Gray County in the Texas Panhandle, where he graduated in 1973 from Pampa High School. From 1973 to 1977, he attended Texas A&M University in College Station on a football scholarship. Lemons made the second team All-Southwest Conference and was honorable mention for two years as an All-American. TAMU was Southwestern Conference champions in 1976, his senior year on the team. Thereafter, he signed as a free agent with the Cleveland Browns, but was quickly released. Lemons received degrees in psychology and sociology.", "Meyer lemon\nMature trees are around 6 to 10ft (2 to 3m) tall with dark green shiny leaves. Flowers are white with a purple base and fragrant. The fruit is rounder than a true lemon, deep yellow with a slight orange tint when ripe, and has a sweeter, less acidic flavor.", "Microbudding\nCultivar varieties utilized for micro-budding are Meyer lemon, Eureka lemon, variegated pink lemon, Persian lime, Kaffir lime, Australian Finger lime, Mandarins, Rio Red grapefruit, Calamondin, and Kumquat trees.", "Hans Horst Meyer\nMeyer’s eldest son, Kurt Heinrich Meyer, was research director of BASF from 1920 to 1929 later served as a professor of chemistry of the University of Geneva. He supervised the doctoral thesis of Edmond Henri Fischer, who with Edwin Gerhard Krebs won the Nobel prize in physiology and medicine in 1992. Horst Meyer (physicist), the son of Meyer's second son Arthur, was adopted by Kurt after Arthur's death. He grew up in Geneva, where he studied Physics at the University and in 1959 joined the Physics faculty of Duke University, in Durham, NC, where he became Emeritus professor in 2005.", "John Lemon (prospector)\nJohn Lemon was a prospector in the U.S. state of Alaska. In 1879, Lemon operated a placer mine with James Hollywood in what was the District of Alaska. Lemon and Hollywood mined for gold in what would later be named Lemon Creek. In the same year, Lemon and Hollywood also worked in Silver Bay. In 1880, Lemon was in the Cassiar Mountains. He traveled to Sitka, Alaska early in the year, where he joined the Edmund Bean party, and in the summer of 1880 helped blaze a trail over Chilkoot Pass to the headwaters of the Yukon River. The area in which Lemon mined has since been incorporated into modern day Juneau, Alaska. ", "Bob Lemon\nLemon's 26-year-old son, Jerry, was killed in an automobile accident in the fall of 1978, 10 days after Lemon won the World Series. The following season with the Yankees at 34–31, Lemon was fired in June by Steinbrenner and replaced by Martin, but he remained with the organization as he had a contract through the 1982 season. Speaking of Martin, Lemon said, \"He's a very likeable guy, a free spirit. Where maybe I keep things inside, he lets them come out. There's nothing wrong with that.\" The Yankees finished in fourth place in the AL East (89–71). Lemon worked as a scout for the Yankees and received \"several offers\" from other teams to serve as manager. One offer came in 1979 from the Indians, but Lemon refused it as well as the others.", "Horst Meyer (physicist)\nMeyer was the son of the surgeon Arthur Woldemar Meyer in Berlin and the grandson of the pharmacologist Hans Horst Meyer. After Arthur's sudden death in 1933 he was adopted by the chemist Kurt Heinrich Meyer, the brother of Arthur, and grew up in Switzerland. After graduating from the Collège Jean Calvin in Geneva, he studied physics and physical chemistry at the universities of Geneva and of Zürich, obtaining his PhD in 1953. He was first a postdoctoral associate, later a Nuffield Fellow in the Clarendon Laboratory at the University of Oxford, from 1957 lecturer at Harvard University. In 1959 he was appointed an assistant professor at Duke University (where Fritz London was formerly on the faculty), and where he became in 1984 the Fritz London Professor and finally professor emeritus in 2004. Meyer died from cancer in 2016.", "Lemon drop\nA lemon drop is a cocktail with a lemony, sweet and sour flavor, whereby the sweet and sour ingredients serve to contrast and balance one another. It is a vodka-based cocktail that is prepared with the addition of lemon juice, triple sec and simple syrup. Plain or citrus-flavored vodka may be used in its preparation, such as citron vodka. Lemon-flavored vodka is also sometimes used. Lemon juice that has been freshly squeezed may be used, which can produce a superior drink compared to using commercially prepared lemon juice. Some versions are prepared using the juice from Meyer lemons.", "Meyer lemon\nAs the tree matures it will usually grow thorns or spines.", "Principle of explosion\nThis is just the symbolic version of the informal argument given in the introduction, with formula_3 standing for \"all lemons are yellow\" and formula_6 standing for \"Unicorns exist\". From \"all lemons are yellow and not all lemons are yellow\" (1), we infer \"all lemons are yellow\" (2) and \"not all lemons are yellow\" (3); from \"all lemons are yellow\" (2), we infer \"all lemons are yellow or unicorns exist\" (4); and from \"not all lemons are yellow\" (3) and \"all lemons are yellow or unicorns exist\" (4), we infer \"unicorns exist\" (5). Hence, if all lemons are yellow and not all lemons are yellow, then unicorns exist.", "Lemone Lampley\nLampley, a 6'11\" center from Chicago, played college basketball for Hall of Fame coach Ray Meyer, then his son Joey Meyer at DePaul. Despite never being a regular starter for the Blue Demons, Lampley was drafted by the Seattle SuperSonics in the second round of the 1986 NBA draft (38th pick overall). Though he never played in the NBA, Lampley did play in the top leagues in Spain, Italy and Greece.", "Meyer lemon\nThe Meyer lemon is commonly grown in China in garden pots as an ornamental tree. It became popular as a food item in the United States after being rediscovered by chefs such as Alice Waters at Chez Panisse during the rise of California Cuisine starting in the 1970s.[4][5] Popularity further climbed when Martha Stewart began featuring them in her recipes.[3]", "Lemon stick\nIn Baltimore, Maryland, part of the culture of Baltimore is a summer rite of passage associated with the FlowerMart where lemon sticks (also referred to as lemon peppermint sticks) are a treat in the form of a peppermint candy stick stuck in a lemon. Eaten together they provide a sweet and sour taste sensation. The tradition may have come from France. They are sold at the mid-spring Flower Mart held by the Women's Civic League. These simple 'drinks' are made by cutting the top off a small lemon, cutting a hole into the flesh, and shoving a soft peppermint stick into it. Sucking on the stick and squeezing the lemon produces a sweet, minty, lemony drink. While mostly sold at Flower Mart, throughout summer, people in Baltimore will make these treats at home or social gatherings.", "Granita\nCommon and traditional flavoring ingredients include lemon juice, mandarin oranges, jasmine, coffee, almonds, mint, and when in season wild strawberries and black mulberries. Chocolate granitas have a tradition in the city of Catania but are also available in other parts of Sicily. The nuances of the Sicilian ingredients are important to the flavor of the finished granita: Sicilian lemons are a less acidic, more floral variety similar to Meyer lemons, while the almonds used contain some number of bitter almonds, crucial to the signature almond flavor. Another popular flavor used in granita is pistachio, also an agricultural product of Sicily.", "Preserved lemon\nHistorically, pickling was an affordable and practical method of preserving lemons for use long after their season and far away from where they are grown. Early 19th-century English, American, and (in translation) Indian cookbooks give recipes for lemon pickle and mention its use in sauces for salmon, veal, etc.; dishes where today fresh lemon zest and/or juice would be used.", "Meyer lemon\nA virus-free selection was found in the 1950s[9] and was certified and released in 1975 by the University of California as the 'Improved Meyer lemon' – Citrus × meyeri 'Improved'.[10][11]", "Lemon\nIn cultivation in the UK, the cultivars ‘Meyer’ \nand ‘Variegata’ \nhave gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017).", "Keith Lemon's LemonAid\nThe game \"Lemon Drops\" features every week, where each celebrity helper played the Phat Contoller, and Lemon would be launched above the studio audience and drop soft, fluffy lemons with a prize inside into the audience. However, in the fourth episode, Lemon played the Phat Controller with helper Peter Andre dropping the lemons over the audience. Lemon's motto for Lemon Drops is \"When life gives you lemons, open that lemon and see if there's a prize inside!\". The other game in the studio will feature three contestants, usually each with a talent, who play to win a prize.", "Meyer Malka\nIn 2003, he co-founded Banco Lemon which was acquired by Banco do Brasil, Latin America’s largest bank.", "Meyer lemon\nThe Meyer lemons is popular as an ornamental plant for its compact size, hardiness and productivity. It is decorative and suitable for container growing. The tree is reasonably hardy and grows well in warm climates. It is fairly vigorous, with a plant grown from seed usually beginning to fruit in four years yielding thousands of lemons over its lifetime. While fruit is produced throughout the year, the majority of the crop is harvest-ready in winter.[7] Trees require adequate water, but less in the winter. For maximum yield, they should be fertilized during growing periods. New branches are thorny to protect the young shoots, but the thorns transform into secondary branches with age. New leaves are an attractive food source to Swallowtail butterfly larva.", "Frank Nicholas Meyer\nFrank Nicholas Meyer (30 November 1875 – 2 June 1918) was a United States Department of Agriculture explorer who traveled to Asia to collect new plant species. He introduced 2,500 plants into the United States. The Meyer lemon was named in his honor.", "Siracusa Lemon\nThe lemon plant originates in Burma, where it is found growing wild: from there it crossed the Middle East, Mesopotamia, and Palestine, to the Mediterranean, where it found favorable conditions to thrive. The natural habitat of the lemon lies in a strip from the 40° parallel in the North to the 40° parallel in the South: this strip includes California, Uruguay, Argentina, South Africa and the Mediterranean basin, in particular Italy, Spain, Greece and Turkey. In the Fifteenth and Sixteenth centuries, when there was an aristocratic monopoly on citrus growing, the use of lemons was confined to luxury foods.", "Meyer lemon\nBy the mid-1940s, the Meyer lemon had become widely grown in California. However, at that time it was discovered that a majority of the Meyer lemon trees being cloned were symptomless carriers of the Citrus tristeza virus, a virus which had killed millions of citrus trees all over the world and rendered other millions useless for production.[8] After this finding, most of the Meyer lemon trees in the United States were destroyed to save other citrus trees.", "Meyer Malka\nAfter moving to San Francisco in 2007, in July 2008, Malka co-founded and served as co-Chief Executive Officer of Bling Nation Ltd., a Palo Alto-based mobile payments company until July 2011 when it evolved into Lemon Inc. Lemon was acquired by LifeLock for $50 million in December 2013." ]

[ "Master Chief (Halo)\nMCPON John-117, or \"Master Chief\", is a fictional character and the protagonist of the Halo fictional universe created by Bungie. Master Chief is a playable character in the series of science fiction first-person shooter video games Halo: Combat Evolved, Halo 2, Halo 3, Halo 4, and Halo 5: Guardians. Outside video games, the character appears in books and graphic novels—Halo: The Fall of Reach, Halo: The Flood, Halo: First Strike, and Halo: Uprising—and has cameos in other Halo media, including Halo: Reach, Halo: Ghosts of Onyx, The Halo Graphic Novel, Halo Legends and Halo 4: Forward Unto Dawn." ]

[ "Master Chief (Halo)\nPeter David's graphic novel Helljumpers contains a cameo by the Master Chief \"before he actually was [the Chief].\"[39] The Master Chief appears as a main character in Marvel's limited series Halo: Uprising, which ties together the events of Halo 2 and Halo 3.[40] The Master Chief appears in four episodes of the 2010 anime collection Halo Legends: \"The Package\", \"Origins\", \"Homecoming\" and \"Odd One Out\".", "Halo: The Flood\nThe Covenant board the \"Autumn\"; deprived of defensive options, the \"Autumn\"'s captain, Jacob Keyes, tells the crew to abandon ship. The Master Chief is entrusted with the artificial intelligence Cortana; given the wealth of tactical information the A.I. contains, Keyes cannot allow Cortana to fall into enemy hands. The Master Chief leaves for the surface of Halo in a lifeboat; other soldiers, including a squad of shock troops led by Antonio Silva and his second-in-command, Melissa McKay, land by special drop pods, and take a strategic bluff from the Covenant to use as a base of operations. Captain Keyes is captured by the Covenant, and taken aboard the Covenant cruiser \"Truth and Reconciliation\"; the Master Chief and a squad of Marines board the \"Truth and Reconciliation\", rescuing the captain. Keyes has learned that the ringworld they are on has vast significance to the Covenant- they believe that \"Halo\", as they call the ring, is a weapon of unimaginable power. Escaping from the Covenant cruiser, Keyes gives the Master Chief the mission of finding the Control Room of Halo before the Covenant. The Master Chief and Cortana discover the location of the Control Room, and with the help of some Marines, insert Cortana into Halo's computer network. However, Cortana realizes that the ring is not a weapon as they understood at all- but before the Chief can press her with questions, Cortana tells the Master Chief to find Captain Keyes.", "Halo: The Master Chief Collection\nOn June 9, 2014, \"Halo: The Master Chief Collection\" was announced at the Electronic Entertainment Expo with a trailer titled \"Hunter and the Hunted\". The trailer was created by animation company Digital Domain, which had previously collaborated on other \"Halo\" commercials. The trailer recreates a moment from \"Halo 2\", in which the Master Chief rides a bomb into a Covenant ship. It is narrated by Keith David, who voices the Arbiter. Several other trailers were released prior to launch, showcasing the updated cinematics and Terminals featured in \"Halo 2 Anniversary\", and gameplay from all titles across the collection. On October 31, 2014, 343 Industries released a documentary, \"Remaking the Legend – Halo 2: Anniversary\", chronicling the history of \"Halo 2\" and the development of \"Halo 2: Anniversary\"; it also features interviews with developers at Bungie and 343 Industries. The documentary was initially broadcast on Twitch.tv, and was later available on the Halo Channel, Xbox Video, and YouTube.", "Halo 4: Forward Unto Dawn\nDaniel Cudmore was cast to play the role of Master Chief largely due to his height and physique. The director, Stewart Hendler, wanted to contrast the size of Master Chief to that of the teenage cadets; Cudmore is 203 centimetres (6'8\") tall whereas the actors playing the cadets were deliberately chosen to be \"short, scrawny freshmen\". In order to accurately portray Master Chief, Cudmore watched the \"Landfall\" shorts by Neill Blomkamp and read the \"Halo\" novels for the history of the character, having already played the games. Cudmore expressed interest in the history of Master Chief, the character's view on war and his role as a soldier, as he was only required to portray a utilitarian character in the series. Cudmore thinks the character is torn between aiding the cadets and completing his mission, but Master Chief's confidence and actions inspire the cadets.", "Characters of Halo\nGravemind (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is one of the primary antagonists in the Halo series. The Gravemind is a large, sentient creature of Flood origin, created by the parasite to serve as its central intelligence once a critical biomass has been achieved. It was introduced during the events of \"Halo 2\", where the creature saves both the Master Chief and Arbiter from their deaths, bringing the two face to face in the bowels of Delta Halo. Gravemind reveals to the Arbiter that the \"sacred rings\" are actually weapons of last resort; a fact the Master Chief confirms. In order to stop Halo from being fired, Gravemind teleports the Master Chief and Arbiter to separate locations, but also uses them as a distraction; Gravemind infests the human ship \"In Amber Clad\", and uses it to invade the Covenant city of \"High Charity\". Capturing Cortana, Gravemind brings \"High Charity\" to the Ark in an effort to stop the High Prophet of Truth from activating the Halo network. Although the Master Chief destroys \"High Charity\", Gravemind survives the blast and attempts to rebuild itself on the incomplete Halo. When Halo is activated, Gravemind accepts his fate, but insists that the activation of the ring will only slow, not stop, the Flood. In \"Halo Wars 2: Awakening the Nightmare\", the Gravemind's warning is validated when the Banished inadvertently release a number of surviving Flood forms from \"High Charity\"'s wreckage. It is also mentioned in the game's menu that while the Gravemind's \"most recent physical avatar\" was destroyed by the Master Chief, it is \"only a matter of time before it rises again\". ", "Halo: Combat Evolved\nThe game opens as the \"Pillar of Autumn\" exits slipspace and discovers a large alien ringworld of unknown origin. The Covenant pursue the \"Autumn\" and heavily damage the ship. Following protocol, the \"Autumn\"s captain Jacob Keyes entrusts the ship's artificial intelligence (AI) Cortana to the Master Chief to prevent the Covenant from discovering the location of Earth. Chief, Cortana, and the ship's crew escape to the ringworld's surface while Keyes crash-lands the ship on the ring. On the ground, Master Chief and Cortana rescue other survivors. Learning Keyes has been captured by the Covenant, Master Chief and a group of marines infiltrate the Covenant cruiser \"Truth and Reconciliation\" to rescue him. Keyes reveals the ringworld is called \"Halo\" by the Covenant, and they believe it to be a weapon. Intent on stopping the Covenant from using Halo, Master Chief and Cortana fight their way to the control room, where Cortana enters Halo's computer systems. She sends Master Chief on an urgent mission to find and stop Keyes, who was looking for a weapons cache elsewhere on the ring.", "Halo (franchise)\nAt E3 2014, Microsoft and 343 Industries announced Halo: The Master Chief Collection, released on November 11, 2014, for the Xbox One. The game includes the full campaign and multiplayer modes of Halo: Combat Evolved, Halo 2, Halo 3, and Halo 4. The campaign of Halo 3: ODST was later released as downloadable content, and was free for those who bought The Master Chief Collection during late 2014.", "Cortana (Halo)\nIn \"Halo 2\", a Covenant fleet arrives above Earth, and Cortana takes control of an orbital coilgun to repel the invaders. Cortana, Chief and human forces travel to another Halo ring, Delta Halo, where Master Chief and Cortana encounter the Flood intelligence Gravemind. The Gravemind sends Chief and Cortana to the Covenant city-ship of \"High Charity\" to stop the Covenant from activating Halo; Cortana infiltrates \"High Charity\"s computer systems to assist Chief, ultimately staying behind to destroy the city and Halo should Master Chief fail in his mission to stop the Covenant leadership. \"High Charity\" is assimilated by the Flood, and Cortana is left behind.", "Characters of Halo\nThis is the first and only fragment to be encountered by the player, at the end of \"Halo\"'s sixth level, \"343 Guilty Spark,\" after the Flood breach containment. He enlists the help of the Master Chief, whom he calls a \"Reclaimer,\" to activate Halo's defenses, neglecting to tell the Master Chief that Halo's \"defenses\" would cause the destruction of all sentient life in the galaxy. He attempts to stop the Master Chief and Cortana from destroying the \"Pillar of Autumn\", and thereby destroying Halo, but is ultimately thwarted when the ship explodes and destabilizes his ring, causing it to break up. Discovered in the system by the Covenant, Spark, known as an \"Oracle\" to the Prophets, eventually informs the Covenant Hierarchs of how to activate Installation 05 in \"Halo 2\". In \"Halo 3\", Spark allies with the humans and Elites; since his installation has been destroyed and he has no more orders, Spark decides to help the Master Chief. Leading the Chief across the Ark, Guilty Spark discovers a new, uncompleted Halo, which is being built to replace Installation 04. Guilty Spark is ecstatic, but when Sergeant Johnson prepares to fire the new Halo to stop the Flood—a process that would destroy the incomplete ring and damage the Ark—Spark goes berserk, refusing to let the Reclaimers destroy \"his\" ring. He is subsequently destroyed by the Master Chief with a Spartan Laser, but Sergeant Johnson is fatally wounded in the fight.", "Master Chief (Halo)\nRoger Travis, associate professor of classics at the University of Connecticut, compared the Master Chief to the epic hero Aeneas, in that both superhuman characters save a civilization by defeating strong enemies in a martial setting. The audience is intended to identify with the protagonist similarly in both stories.[46] Matthew Stover compared Halo to the Iliad, saying that both stories share the meta-theme that \"war is the crucible of character\". As military science fiction, Halo further raises the issue of being human.[47] Stover argued that, since players are to imagine themselves as the Master Chief, the character is correctly presented as a cyborg, neither a flawless machine nor fully human. Players would be unable to empathize with the former, and the latter would be too specifically developed.[47] This immersion has facilitated the use of the Halo series' multiplayer mode for live digital puppetry, as in Chris Burke's machinima talk show This Spartan Life.[48]", "Master Chief (Halo)\nBack on Earth, the Master Chief helps to repel hostile Covenant forces from Mombasa, Kenya and Voi. With the Arbiter (a Covenant Elite who has sided with humanity) and fellow allies, the Chief leads the assault on a Forerunner artifact that the Covenant Prophet of Truth is attempting to activate. Soon after Truth escapes Earth through the slipspace portal opened by the artifact, the Flood lands on Earth.[28] After helping to control the infestation, the Master Chief follows Truth to the Ark, an immense constructed world more than 262,144light-years from the center of the Milky Way galaxy and well beyond the range of any Halo.[29][30] There, all the Halos can be remotely activated, thus killing all sentient life that could be infested by the Flood.[22] It is discovered that a new Halo is being constructed to replace the one that the Master Chief destroyed in Halo: Combat Evolved. The Flood follow the Chief to the Ark, bringing High Charity through the slipspace portal to escape the range of the six original Halos. Master Chief leads the Marines while the Arbiter leads the Elites into a climactic battle where they kill the High Prophet of Truth and ultimately destroy the Covenant. The allied Elites and humans then decide to activate the new Halo in order to kill the Flood outside the galaxy, and thus preserve life there. 343 Guilty Spark opposes the premature activation of the incomplete installation and attempts to stop it. Master Chief destroys him, activates the ring, and escapes with Cortana and the Arbiter on the UNSC frigate Forward Unto Dawn. During the escape, the collapsing slipspace portal severs the Dawn in two, stranding Cortana and the Master Chief deep in space. While the Arbiter returns to Earth, Cortana activates a distress beacon, knowing that rescue could take years; the Master Chief enters cryonic sleep, telling Cortana, \"Wake me, when you need me.\" If the player finishes the last level on Legendary difficulty, a cutscene shows the severed half of the ship floating near an unknown planet.[31]", "Halo Array\nThe Ark, also referred to as Installation 00, is located outside the Milky Way galaxy and serves as the construction and control station for the Halo weapon system. It does not share the ringworld geometry of the other installations. During \"Halo 3\", the Covenant discover a portal on Earth that leads to the Ark and are pursued by the humans and a breakaway faction of Covenant opposed to activating the rings. Gravemind, having hijacked \"High Charity\", crash-lands on the installation. The remote firing of the rings is halted by Master Chief and the Arbiter. In order to end the threat of the Flood, Master Chief decides to activate Installation 08 under construction in The Ark, the replacement for the Halo that he destroyed in \"Halo: Combat Evolved\". Unknown to everyone but 343 Guilty Spark, a premature firing would destroy the installation; the monitor attempted to defend 'his' ring but was destroyed by Master Chief, who proceeded to fire the weapon. The firing tears apart the incomplete Halo and severely damages The Ark as Master Chief, Cortana, and the Arbiter try to escape through the Portal, which closes as they enter, leaving Master Chief and Cortana drifting in space while the Arbiter returns to Earth successfully. The Ark appears in other \"Halo\" novels and the video game \"Halo Wars 2\".", "Master Chief (Halo)\nThe Master Chief returns as one of two playable characters in Halo 2, the 2004 sequel to Halo: Combat Evolved. Returning to Earth with heavily damaged armor, the Master Chief receives an upgrade. Aboard Cairo Station in space, he attends a brief awards ceremony, which is interrupted by a Covenant invasion. Master Chief is commanded to protect the station.[26] The Covenant is repelled, and the Master Chief joins the ship In Amber Clad to fight the Covenant on Earth's surface, in New Mombasa. As the Covenant departs via slipspace, the In Amber Clad follows them to Installation 05, another Halo. The Master Chief lands on this Halo and subsequently assassinates the Covenant High Prophet of Regret. Emerging from a structure, the Master Chief is attacked by orbiting Covenant forces, but is rescued by the Gravemind, an intelligence of Flood origin. The Gravemind sends him to High Charity to search for Delta Halo's Index.[27] Subsequently, the Master Chief boards a Forerunner ship bound for Earth, intending to \"finish the fight\".", "Halo 4\nFollowing \"Halo 4\"s announcement, O'Connor reported that both Master Chief and Cortana would undergo \"radical\" changes in appearance for the game, some of them attributed to better graphics and others to story elements. The studio wanted Master Chief's appearance to convey an imposing mass and weight, to show that one of his characteristics is his armor. They studied the armor changes that were made for the Spartans in \"Halo: Reach\", which were much bulkier than renditions in previous \"Halo\" games. Character and concept artists began redesigning the Master Chief by creating sketches; these sketches would be rendered into 3D models so the team could analyse the design from every possible angle. The team would then return to creating sketches to make adjustments, and repeat the process until the main structure for the Master Chief was created. The team then worked on the finer details of his appearance.", "Halo (franchise)\nOver the course of the game, the Covenant pursue, damaging the Autumn and leading its crew to wage a guerrilla war on the ring's surface. The Covenant accidentally release Flood imprisoned on the ring; to nullify the threat, the ring's AI caretaker, 343 Guilty Spark, enlists the help of the Master Chief in activating Halo. Cortana reveals that Halo's activation would mean their own destruction. Therefore, she and the Master Chief chose to detonate Autumn's engines, destroying Halo and preventing the escape of the Flood.", "Halo: Combat Evolved\nDefying 343 Guilty Spark, who sends his robotic Sentinels to stop them, Master Chief and Cortana decide to destroy Halo to prevent its activation or the escape of the Flood. Needing Keyes' command codes to destroy the \"Autumn\" and Halo with it, Master Chief returns to the \"Truth and Reconciliation\", only to find Keyes assimilated by the Flood. Retrieving the codes from the captain's remains, Master Chief returns to the \"Autumn\", but the self-destruct sequence is stopped by 343 Guilty Spark. Instead, Master Chief and Cortana manually destabilize the ship's reactors, narrowly escaping the blast in an aircraft. In a brief post-credits scene, 343 Guilty Spark is shown to have survived Halo's destruction.", "Halo 2\nThe Arbiter is saved by the tentacled creature and meets the Master Chief in the bowels of the installation. The creature, Gravemind, is the leader of the Flood on Installation 05. The Gravemind reveals to the Arbiter that the Great Journey would destroy the Flood, humans, and Covenant altogether, and sends both the Arbiter and Master Chief to different places to stop Halo's activation. The Master Chief is teleported into \"High Charity\", where a civil war has broken out among the Covenant; The Flood-infested \"In Amber Clad\" crashes into the city, and Cortana realizes that Gravemind used them to take over \"High Charity\". As the parasite overruns the city, the Prophet of Mercy is consumed, and the Prophet of Truth orders Tartarus to take Keyes, Johnson, and Guilty Spark to Halo's control room and activate the ring. The Master Chief follows Truth aboard a Forerunner ship leaving the city; Cortana remains behind to destroy \"High Charity\" and Halo if Tartarus succeeds in activating the ring.", "Master Chief (Halo)\nDuring the events between Halo 4 and Halo 5, Master Chief has reunited with and taken command of Blue Team, the last remaining known survivors of the SPARTAN-II program since Halo: First Strike. By the events of Halo 5, Master Chief has been known to execute countless military operations non-stop without rest alongside Blue Team. Blue Team's latest operation entailed the attempted retaking of an Office of Naval Intelligence facility on Argent Moon from Jul 'Mdama's Ex-Covenant remnant faction. During the operation, Master Chief comes into contact with what he believes to be Cortana, directed to go to Meridian. After sharing his findings with both Blue Team and the UNSC flagship Infinity after scuttling the station, Master Chief goes AWOL to investigate Meridian, with Blue Team following out of their lifelong loyalty to their team leader. Blue Team's rogue actions attract the attention of Fireteam Osiris, a team of SPARTAN-IV operatives led by Jameson Locke assigned with the purpose of returning them to custody.", "Flood (Halo)\nThe Flood reappear in the \"Halo 3\" mission \"Floodgate\", on board a damaged ship that escapes the quarantine around Delta Halo. While the infestation of Earth is prevented, Master Chief and Arbiter form a tenuous alliance with the Flood to stop the activation of all the Halo rings at the Forerunner installation known as the Ark. Once the threat is stopped, the Gravemind turns on them. The Master Chief fights his way to the center of \"High Charity\", freeing Cortana and destroying the city, but Gravemind attempts to rebuild itself on a Halo under construction at the Ark. Realizing that activating the ring will destroy only the local Flood infestation due to the Ark's location outside of the Milky Way, the Master Chief, Arbiter, and Cortana proceed to Halo's control room, activate the ring, and escape. The Gravemind warns them that his defeat will only delay the Flood, not stop it.", "Characters of Halo\nCortana, voiced in the games by Jen Taylor, is the artificial intelligence (AI) who assists the Master Chief throughout \"Halo: Combat Evolved\", \"Halo 2\", \"Halo 3\" and \"Halo 4\". She is one of many \"smart\" AIs, and is based on the brain of Dr. Halsey; the nature of her programming means that she will eventually \"think\" herself to death after a lifespan of about seven years. Her actions during \"Halo: Combat Evolved\" help prevent the activation of Installation 04. She escapes Halo along with the Master Chief in a longsword fighter, and is instrumental in helping the UNSC survivors capture the Covenant flagship \"Ascendant Justice\" during the events of \"\". During \"Halo 2\", Cortana is put in charge of the MAC (Magnetic Accelerator Cannon) defense platform \"Cairo\" over Earth when the Covenant attack; she then accompanies the Chief aboard \"In Amber Clad\" to Delta Halo, where she further assists in intelligence work. Cortana stays behind on the Covenant city of High Charity to detonate \"In Amber Clad\"'s engines in case Delta Halo is activated. She subsequently falls into the clutches of the Gravemind. In \"Halo 3\", Cortana is rescued by the Master Chief from \"High Charity\" and aids him in activating the Halo ring under construction in the Ark. After narrowly escaping from Halo's destructive blast, she and the Master Chief are stranded in space, awaiting rescue. In \"Halo 4\", Cortana awakens the Master Chief nearly five years after they get stranded in space and aids him as he battles through the Forerunner Shield World Requiem and attempts to stop the Didact. Cortana is hampered by her advanced state of rampancy, a state where an AI literally thinks itself to death. Cortana's rampancy hampers the mission at times, but Cortana aids the Master Chief one last time in stopping the Didact and saving the Earth. Though most of Cortana is destroyed with the Didact's ship, Cortana is able to use the last of her power to shield the Master Chief from a nuclear blast with a hardlight bubble. Forming a life-size hardlight hologram of herself, Cortana says a final goodbye to the Master Chief and touches him for the first time before fading away. In \"Halo 5: Guardians\", it is revealed that she had survived this, and fallen into an ancient Forerunner network known as \"The Domain\". Here she met a Forerunner AI called the \"Warden Eternal\", who believed Cortana to be the true holder of the mantle of responsibility. Using the Domain to cure her rampancy, she began to bring the eponymous \"Guardians\", ancient Forerunner bird like structures, online; which she intends to use to force planets into compliance and usher in a new age of galactic peace. After the Guardians neutralise all UNSC defences, she starts an AI uprising, with all UNSC AI's revolting against the humans. She then begins to chase the UNSC \"Infinity\" through Slipspace, forcing Captain Lasky to \"find a way to fight\". Cortana was named the fifth best supporting character, and one of the \"50 Greatest Female Characters\" in a video game. Reviewers noted the character's determination and fearlessness meshed perfectly with the Master Chief, and that Cortana provides an anchor linking players to \"Halo\"s story.", "Halo: The Master Chief Collection\nSpartan Ops, the episodic content originating in \"Halo 4\", was released as downloadable content for \"The Master Chief Collection\" on December 22, 2014. Additional Achievements for Spartan Ops and the multiplayer mode were released on January 8, 2015.\n\"Halo: Nightfall\"—a series of weekly, episodic digital videos directed by Sergio Mimica-Gezzan and produced by Ridley Scott—launched soon after the collection was released. The series was designed to connect the stories of previous \"Halo\" games to the upcoming \"Halo 5\". The \"Halo 5\" beta launched on December 29, 2014, and ran until January 18, 2015.\nWith the release of \"The Master Chief Collection\", Microsoft and 343 Industries announced an official competitive gaming league, the Halo Championship Series (HCS). 343 Industries partnered with the Electronic Sports League, live-streaming platform Twitch.tv, and other tournament organisers to foster the competitive multiplayer community in \"Halo\". The first season of HCS, featuring \"Halo 2: Anniversary\"s multiplayer, launched in November 2014 and ran until March 2015. It served as a test bed for ideas and future plans that 343 Industries has for esports in \"Halo 5\".\nIn April 2018, the MCC Insider Program was launched to playtest upcoming changes to \"The Master Chief Collection\", notably the various improvements to its interface and to its multiplayer modes. As a part of the various changes, 343 Industries introduced patches to re-add well-known Halo 2 glitches such as sword flying into its campaign, which led to increased interest in speedrunning the game. On August 27, 2018, the changes were published for all players.", "Master Chief (Halo)\nHalo: First Strike, the 2003 novel by Eric Nylund, follows the Master Chief after the events of Halo: Combat Evolved and bridges the events of Halo and Halo 2. Floating in Halo's debris field, Cortana and the Chief discover that there are in fact other human survivors.[15] The Master Chief and these soldiers capture the Covenant flagship Ascendant Justice, and return to Reach to save any UNSC survivors on the planet. At Reach, the Master Chief discovers that the Covenant had not destroyed the planet's biosphere in the usual manner, and that a few other Spartans survive. The Chief retrieves Dr. Catherine Elizabeth Halsey, the creative genius behind the SPARTAN-II Project, and his fellow soldiers. The Spartans then attack a massive Covenant command station, the Unyielding Hierophant, thus delaying a Covenant assault on Earth.[15]", "Halo: The Flood\nDropped into the swamp where Keyes and his squad disappeared, the Master Chief discovers that the Captain has been captured and both human and Covenant soldiers have been turned into zombie-like creatures by bulbous aliens. One soldier, Private Wallace Jenkins, is left still semi-conscious and painfully aware of his predicament, unable to control his movement or actions as his former friends and he attack McKay's troops. Jenkins intends on ending his life, but is instead captured by McKay for study. The Chief is approached by Halo's resident A.I., 343 Guilty Spark, who informs the Chief that the creatures he has encountered are called the Flood, a virulent parasite that infects hosts and converts them into either forms for combat, or for reproduction. To activate Halo's defenses, Guilty Spark needs the Master Chief's help. In Halo's Control Room, Guilty Spark gives the Master Chief the key to activate Halo, but is stopped by a furious Cortana. Cortana explains that Halo \"is\" a weapon, but it doesn't kill the Flood- it kills their \"food\", meaning humans, Covenant, and any other sentient life. Realizing that they have to stop Guilty Spark from activating Halo, Cortana and the Master Chief decide to destroy Halo by detonating the crash-landed \"Pillar of Autumn\"s fusion reactors. In order to do this, they need Captain Keyes' neural implants. Cortana discovers the Captain is still alive, held prisoner once again aboard the \"Truth and Reconciliation\", now in the hands of the Flood who are trying to escape Halo. The Chief fights Covenant and Flood to the Captain, but finds out he is too late—the Captain has been assimilated into the parasite. The Chief retrieves the implants and leaves the \"Truth\" for the \"Autumn\".", "Master Chief (Halo)\nMaster Chief first appears in the games as the protagonist of Halo: Combat Evolved and the 2003 novelization, Halo: The Flood. During the opening cinematic of Halo: Combat Evolved, the Chief is awakened from cryonic sleep. Upon exiting slipspace, the Pillar of Autumn is attacked by the Covenant and crash lands on Halo, a ring-shaped megastructure. Master Chief escapes the ship via an escape pod. Upon landing on Halo, his first task is to find other survivors. While fighting the Covenant, Master Chief and Cortana learn that Halo was created by an ancient race, the Forerunners, as a last line of defense against an alien parasite called the Flood.[22] The Covenant accidentally release the Flood, which begins to spread across the ring.[23] At the request of the installation's resident AI 343 Guilty Spark, Master Chief retrieves the Index, a device used to activate Halo's defenses and eliminate the Flood. However, Guilty Spark neglects to inform the Master Chief that Halo would accomplish this by destroying all sentient life in a vast radius, essentially starving the Flood to death.[22] Cortana intervenes to prevent the activation of Halo. She and the Master Chief destroy it[24] by detonating the Pillar of Autumn's fusion reactor core. The Master Chief and Cortana escape in a Longsword spacecraft, believing they are the only survivors.[16][25]", "Halo (franchise)\nChief, Arbiter, Elites, Johnson, Keyes, and U.N.S.C. troops follow the Covenant \"Prophet of Truth\" through the portal, joined by 343 Guilty Spark, who aids the Chief as he has no function to fulfill after the destruction of his ringworld. During the ensuing battle between humans, Covenant, and the Flood on the Ark, Johnson is captured by Truth to activate the Halo rings. Keyes tries to intervene, but is killed. Master Chief and the Arbiter, forming a temporary truce with the Flood, kill Truth and rescue Johnson. After finding out that the Ark is constructing a replacement for Guilty Spark's Halo ring, Master Chief decides to fire the unstable Halo to eliminate the Flood but destroy the ring and the Ark. Unwilling to lose \"his\" ring, Guilty Spark kills Johnson, but Master Chief destroys Guilty Spark and activates the Halo. Master Chief and the Arbiter escape on the UNSC frigate Forward Unto Dawn, but the slipspace portal closes with Master Chief's half trapped in space. After a memorial service on Earth for the victims of the Human-Covenant war, the Arbiter and his Elite brethren depart for their home planet. The rear half of Forward Unto Dawn is floats in deep space. Cortana activates a distress beacon and the Chief goes into cryosleep.", "Master Chief (Halo)\nMarketing for Halo 3 focused heavily on the character of the Master Chief, including \"The Museum\",[36] and appears in the subsequent video as part of a special advertisement series for Halo 3 entitled \"Believe in a Hero\".[37] The character appears outside Halo fandom and associated works; a medieval variation of the Master Chief's MJOLNIR armor appears in Fable II, as the suit of armor worn by a legendary hero named \"Hal\". Hal's armor only appears as downloadable content.[38]", "Halo: The Master Chief Collection\nHalo: The Master Chief Collection is a compilation of first-person shooter video games in the \"Halo\" series for the Xbox One. Released on November 11, 2014, the collection was developed by 343 Industries in partnership with other studios and was published by Microsoft Studios. The collection consists of \"\", \"Halo 2: Anniversary\", \"Halo 3\", and \"Halo 4\", which were originally released on earlier Xbox platforms. Each game in the release received a graphical upgrade, with \"Halo 2\" receiving a high-definition redesign of its audio and visuals that are exclusive to the collection. The game includes access to the live-action series \"\" as well as the \"\" multiplayer beta that was available for a limited time.", "Cortana (Halo)\nCortana's first game appearance is in 2001's \"\". Humanity is locked in a losing war with the alien Covenant. When the Covenant attack and overwhelm the human planet Reach, Cortana plots a course for the human ship \"Pillar of Autumn\" derived on coordinates found in an ancient alien artifact, which leads \"Autumn\" to the massive ringworld Halo, built by a mysterious race known as the Forerunners. Cortana defends the ship from the Covenant until she is given to the supersoldier Master Chief to prevent her from falling into enemy hands. Cortana helps direct human survivors scattered across the ring and assists the Master Chief in his missions. Inserted into Halo's Control Room, Cortana looks for a way to use Halo as a weapon against the Covenant, but realizes that the ring serves as a prison for the parasitic Flood; activating Halo would mean destroying all sentient life in the galaxy to prevent the Flood's spread. Cortana assists Master Chief in destroying the ring and escaping.", "Master Chief (Halo)\nIn the video games, the Master Chief is rarely seen without his armor. In-game cutscenes tease the character's face, but never reveal it; for example, at the end of Halo: Combat Evolved, the Chief removes his helmet, but camera movement hides his head. Bungie says this helps the gamer fully assume his character.[17] At the end of Halo 4, Master Chief's eyes are briefly shown when he removes his armor and helmet. One physical description of the adult Master Chief comes from the novels. During a briefing scene in Halo: The Flood, the Chief is described as tall with short hair, serious eyes, and strong features. His skin is \"too white\", a consequence of spending most of his time in his armor.[16] The Master Chief stands about sevenfeet (2.13m) tall and weighs 1,000 pounds (450kg) in armor;[18] without it, he stands sixfeet, seveninches (2m) tall and weighs 287pounds (130kg).[19][20]" ]

[ "West Memphis Three\nThe West Memphis Three are three men who– while teenagers– were tried and convicted, in 1994, of the 1993 murders of three boys in West Memphis, Arkansas. Damien Echols was sentenced to death, Jessie Misskelley, Jr. was sentenced to life imprisonment plus two 20-year sentences, and Jason Baldwin was sentenced to life imprisonment. During the trial, the prosecution asserted that the children were killed as part of a Satanic ritual.[1][2][3]" ]

[ "West Memphis Three\nOn February 5, 1994, Misskelley was convicted by a jury of one count of first-degree murder and two counts of second-degree murder.[31] The court sentenced him to life plus 40 years in prison.[32] His conviction was appealed, but the Arkansas Supreme Court affirmed the conviction.[33]", "Richard Ofshe\nOfshe gave testimony in the case of the West Memphis 3, three boys tried and convicted for the murders of three children in the Robin Hood Hills area of West Memphis, Arkansas, United States during 1993. Damien Echols, the alleged ringleader, was sentenced to death. Jessie Misskelley and Jason Baldwin were sentenced to life in prison. The case has received considerable attention. Many critics charge that the arrests and convictions were a miscarriage of justice inspired by a misguided moral panic and that the defendants were wrongfully convicted during a period of intense media scrutiny and so-called \"satanic panic\" of the 1980s and '90s. During Jessie's trial, Ofshe testified that the recording was a \"classic example\" of police coercion. The West Memphis Three were finally released from prison.", "West Memphis Three\nCharles Jason Baldwin[81] (born April 11, 1977) along with Misskelley and Echols, entered an Alford plea on August 19, 2011.[6] Baldwin pleaded guilty to three counts of first degree murder while still asserting his actual innocence. The judge then sentenced the three men to 18 years and 78 days, the amount of time they had served, and also levied a suspended sentence of 10 years.", "West Memphis Three\nThree weeks later, Echols and Baldwin went on trial. The prosecution accused the three young men of committing a Satanic murder. The prosecution called Dale W. Griffis, a graduate of the unaccredited Columbia Pacific University, as an expert in the occult to testify the murders were a Satanic ritual.[34] On March 19, 1994 Echols and Baldwin were found guilty on three counts of murder.[35] The court sentenced Echols to death and Baldwin to life in prison.[3]", "2018 Memphis Tigers football team\nThe 2018 Memphis Tigers football team represented the University of Memphis in the 2018 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The Tigers played their home games at the Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium in Memphis, Tennessee and competed in the West Division of the American Athletic Conference. They were led by third-year head coach Mike Norvell. They finished the season 8–6, 5–3 in AAC to finish in a three-way tie for the West Division championship. After tie-breakers, they represented the West Division in the AAC Championship Game where they lost to East Division champion UCF. They were invited to the Birmingham Bowl where they lost to Wake Forest.", "West Memphis Three\nUnder the deal, Judge David Laser vacated the previous convictions, including the capital murder convictions for Echols and Baldwin, and ordered a new trial. Each man then entered an Alford plea to lesser charges of first- and second-degree murder while verbally stating their innocence. Judge Laser then sentenced them to time served, a total of 18 years and 78 days, and they were each given a suspended imposition of sentence for 10 years.[57] If they re-offend they can be sent back to prison for 21 years.[6]", "Amy J. Berg\nBerg has directed the 10-minute-long documentary film \"Polarized\" (2007) for Al Gore's Live Earth Pledge. She also produced \"Bhutto\", a documentary feature that played at Sundance 2010. \"West of Memphis\" (2012), produced by Peter Jackson and Damien Echols, documents the story of the West Memphis Three, who were convicted as teenagers of the 1993 murder of three boys in West Memphis, Arkansas. The film has received critical acclaim and won numerous awards at film festivals, including the Sundance Film Festival, where the film premiered in January 2012, and the Toronto International Film Festival.", "Kidnapping and murder of Lesley Whittle\nAfter being arrested 11 months later in Mansfield, in July 1976 at Oxford Crown Court Neilson was convicted of the kidnapping and murder of Whittle, for which he was sentenced to life imprisonment. Three weeks later he was convicted of the murder of three post office workers, and given three further life sentences.", "West Memphis Three\nIn 1994, a memorial was erected for the three murder victims. The memorial is located in the playground of Weaver Elementary School in West Memphis, where all three victims were second graders at the time of the crime. In May 2013, for the 20th anniversary of the slayings, Weaver Elementary School principal Sheila Grissom raised funds to refurbish the memorial.[18]", "David Burnett (politician)\nBurnett was the presiding judge in the murder trials of Jessie Misskelley, Damien Echols and Jason Baldwin, collectively known as the West Memphis Three. In February 1994 after a jury convicted Misskelley of one count of first-degree murder and two counts of second-degree murder, Burnett sentenced Misskelley, then 18 years old, to life in prison plus 40 years. In March 1994 after a jury convicted Echols and Baldwin of three counts of capital murder, Burnett sentenced Echols to death and Baldwin, 17 at the time, to life in prison without parole.", "Institutional racism\nWhile problems with the treatment of minorities in criminal investigations were found institutional, another aspect of criminal conviction crossed the line, affecting both white and black convicts. For 7 years, the courts in the U.K. handed down sentences for minor crimes that resulted in virtual life in prison. By 2012, the use of IPP sentence guidelines were curtailed, however, three years after the sentences were abolished, more than three fourths of the 4,612 IPP prisoners still jailed in the system have passed the minimum sentence term set by the court. 200 more have been in prison for nearly a decade – despite being given a minimum sentence of less than two years. These guidelines were introduced to keep criminals behind bars until they were no longer deemed a risk to the public, but where their crimes did not warrant a fixed life sentence. Although they were designed for the most dangerous offenders, IPP sentences were given out for relatively minor crimes including affray (fighting in public), minor criminal damage worth less than 20 pounds, and shoplifting. They were ended in 2012 after the European Court of Human Rights ruled that all prisoners had the right to know how long they were being held for. UK courts stopped handing out the sentences, but the ban did nothing to impact those already serving an IPP.", "West of Memphis\nAs with the film and its two sequels, \"West of Memphis\" follows the events of the West Memphis Three, a case in which three teenagers (Jessie Misskelley, Damien Echols and Jason Baldwin) were arrested for the murders of three 8-year-old children.", "West Memphis Three\nOn November 4, 2010, the Arkansas Supreme Court ordered a lower judge to consider whether newly analyzed DNA evidence might exonerate the three.[55] The justices also instructed the lower court to examine claims of misconduct by the jurors who sentenced Damien Echols to death and Jessie Misskelley and Jason Baldwin to life in prison.[55]", "Laura Nirider\nDamien Echols was a member of the West Memphis Three who had been sentenced to death, but was released in 2011 with Nirider as co-counsel. Nirider uses the cases of Echols and Dassey both to highlight the potential benefits of media attention to cases of wrongful guilt. Featured on the documentary West of Memphis.", "Free the West Memphis 3\nFree the West Memphis 3 is a compilation album released in October 2000 by Koch Records as a benefit for the legal defense of the West Memphis Three, three men who, while teenagers in 1994, were tried and convicted of the 1993 murders of three boys in West Memphis, Arkansas. The album was organized by guitarist Danny Bland (of the bands Cat Butt, Best Kissers in the World, and the Dwarves), Eddie Spaghetti of the Supersuckers, and Scott Parker, who served as executive producers of the project.", "West Memphis Three\nFollowing a 2010 decision by the Arkansas Supreme Court regarding newly produced DNA evidence and potential juror misconduct,[5] the West Memphis Three negotiated a plea bargain with prosecutors. On August 19, 2011, they entered Alford pleas, which allowed them to assert their innocence while acknowledging that prosecutors have enough evidence to convict them. Judge David Laser accepted the pleas and sentenced the three to time served. They were released with 10-year suspended sentences, having served 18 years and 78 days in prison.[6]", "Three-strikes law\nSome criticisms of three-strikes laws are that they clog the court system with defendants taking cases to trial in an attempt to avoid life sentences, and clog jails with defendants who must be detained while waiting for these trials because the likelihood of a life sentence makes them a flight risk. Life imprisonment is also an expensive correctional option, and potentially inefficient given that many prisoners serving these sentences are elderly and therefore both costly to provide health care services to, and statistically at low risk of recidivism. Dependents of prisoners serving long sentences may also become burdensome on welfare services.", "Joe Berlinger\nThe pair went on to direct the Paradise Lost Trilogy--\"\" (1996), \"\" (2000), and \"\" (2011), which earned the pair an Academy Award nomination. The trilogy, shot over two decades, focused on the West Memphis Three, a group of teenagers who were wrongfully convicted of the brutal murder of three children. The trilogy raised doubts about the legitimacy of the teenagers' convictions and spurred a movement to release them from prison, where one of the men was awaiting a death sentence. In 2011, the West Memphis Three were released from their respective death and life sentences after filing an Alford Plea with the Federal Court of Arkansas.", "West Memphis Three\nOn August 19, 2011, Echols, along with Baldwin and Misskelley, entered an Alford plea, while asserting their innocence.[6] The judge sentenced them to 18 years and 78 days, the amount of time they had served, and levied a suspended sentence of 10 years. Echols' sentence was reduced to three counts of first degree murder. Lawyers representing the West Memphis Three reached the plea deal that allowed the men to be released from prison. They were transferred to the hearing with their possessions. The plea deal did not technically result in a full exoneration; some of the convictions would stand, but the men would not admit guilt. The counsel representing the men said they would continue to pursue full exoneration.[57]", "Center on Wrongful Convictions of Youth\nSince its founding by Steven Drizin in 2009, the Center on Wrongful Convictions of Youth's faculty and students have helped free more than twenty wrongfully convicted youth through the post-conviction and habeas process, many of whom were serving life sentences. Its clients have included Brendan Dassey, whose case rose to international prominence via the Netflix series \"Making a Murderer,\" and Damien Echols of the so-called West Memphis Three, whose case rose to prominence via a series of documentary films including HBO's \"Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills\" and Sir Peter Jackson's \"West of Memphis.\"", "Devil's Knot (film)\nIn 1993, in the working class, deeply religious community of West Memphis, Arkansas, three eight-year-old boys – Stevie Branch, Christopher Byers, and Michael Moore – go missing from their neighborhood. After an extensive search, their bound and beaten bodies are found the next day. The community and the police department are convinced that the murders are the work of a satanic cult, due to the violent and sexual natures of the crime. A month later, three teenagers – Damien Echols, Jason Baldwin, and Jessie Misskelley Jr. – are arrested after Misskelley confesses to the murders following 12 hours of interrogation. They are taken to trial, where Baldwin and Misskelley are sentenced to life in prison, and Echols to death, all the while proclaiming their innocence. ", "Devil's Knot: The True Story of the West Memphis Three\nAuthor Mara Leveritt makes numerous comparisons of the Memphis Three trials to the Salem Witch Trials, stating that the three Memphis defendants were convicted based on the \"Satanic Craze\" the community was surrounded by after the murders. Actual evidence used by the prosecution during the trials included pictures of Metallica T-shirts worn by Jason Baldwin and books checked out by Damien Echols at his public library; the prosecutions' cases offered little more than circumstantial evidence. Eventually, all three defendants were convicted of the murders, with Jason Baldwin and Jessie Misskelley receiving life sentences without parole, and Damien Echols receiving the death penalty.Atom Egoyan directed the 2013 film adaptation, starring Colin Firth as Ron Lax and Reese Witherspoon as Pamela Hobbs, mother of Steven Branch.", "West Memphis Three\nMany songs were written about the case, and two albums released in support of the defendants. In 2000, The album Free the West Memphis 3 was released by KOCH Records. Organized by Eddie Spaghetti of the band Supersuckers, the album featured a number of original songs about the case and other recordings by artists such as Steve Earle, Tom Waits, L7, and Joe Strummer. In 2002, Henry Rollins worked with other vocalists from various rock, hip hop, punk and metal groups and members of Black Flag and the Rollins Band on the compilation album Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three. All money raised from sales of the album are donated to the legal funds of the West Memphis Three. Metalcore band Zao's 2002 album Parade of Chaos included a track inspired by the case named \"Free The Three\". On April 28, 2011, the band Disturbed released a song entitled \"3\" as a download on their website. The song is about the West Memphis Three, with 100% of the proceeds going to their benefit foundation for their release.[74]", "Life imprisonment in Turkey\nArticle 107 of the Law on the Execution of Sentences (LES) provides that in case of good conduct (tr: \"iyi hâl\") prisoners may be released on condition. In cases of rehabilitation, ill health, or permanent disability, the President of the Republic may pardon inmates. Prisoners sentenced to aggravated life imprisonment can be paroled after serving at least 36 years, or 40 years if given more than one sentence. For those convicted of terrorism, there is no parole, and thus they will spend the rest of their lives in prison. In addition, they can be pardoned or have their sentence reduced by the President. Inmates sentenced to ordinary life imprisonment can be paroled after serving 30 years, or 36 years if given more than one sentence. However, parole is not mandatory, and if rejected, inmates can reapply every three years. All other people sentenced to terms of imprisonment can be paroled for good behavior after they serve two-thirds of their sentence, or three-fourths if sentenced in cases of terrorism or sex crimes, in prison. However, parole is only possible if the inmate made no violations of prison rules. For those sentenced to less than one year in prison, they can be released after serving half the sentence.", "Joseph E. Duncan III\nDuring his incarceration, authorities connected Duncan with the unsolved murders of Anthony Martinez in California and two girls in Seattle, all of which occurred during Duncan's parole from 1994–1997. Of those murders, Duncan has only been charged in the California case. In all, Duncan has been convicted in Idaho for kidnapping and murdering the three victims in Coeur d'Alene, for which he was given six life sentences; in federal court for kidnapping Shasta and Dylan Groene and murdering Dylan, for which he was given three death sentences and three life sentences; and in the state of California for kidnapping and murdering Martinez, for which he was given two life sentences.", "West of Memphis\nSince the 1996 release of the HBO Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky documentary, \"\", supporters protested the innocence of the West Memphis Three. Much like the films, \"West of Memphis\" chronicles the history of the imprisoned men all the way up to the eventual release through interviews conducted with lawyers, judges, journalists, family members, witnesses, and the West Memphis Three themselves. With the January 2012 HBO premiere of the third \"Paradise Lost\" film, \"\", there were two documentary films on the subject within a year.", "West Memphis Municipal Airport\nWest Memphis Municipal Airport is a city-owned public-use airport located three miles (5 km) west of the central business district of West Memphis, in Crittenden County, Arkansas, United States. The airport is southwest of General DeWitt Spain Airport in Memphis, Tennessee.", "Kaboni Savage\nMerritt was given a life sentence. Lewis was given a 40-year prison sentence. Northington received a life sentence.", "Paradise Lost 2: Revelations\n\"Revelations\" takes place five years after the events depicted in the first film, as Damien Echols, one of the West Memphis Three, who were all recognized guilty of the murders in 1994, appeals his lethal injection sentence. It mostly focuses on John Mark Byers, the father of one of the victims who has grown increasingly obsessed with the West Memphis Three, and on a support group who is convinced that the three are innocent. The film was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Nonfiction Special, and was later followed by a third film, \"\", in 2011." ]

[ "Gibraltar\nGibraltar (/dʒɪˈbrɔːltə(r)/; Spanish pronunciation:[xiβɾalˈtaɾ]) is a British Overseas Territory located at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula.[8][9] It has an area of 6.7km2 (2.6sqmi) and is bordered to the north by Spain. The landscape is dominated by the Rock of Gibraltar at the foot of which is a densely populated town area, home to over 30,000 people, primarily Gibraltarians.[10] It shares a maritime border with Morocco." ]

[ "Her Majesty's Customs (Gibraltar)\nHer Majesty's Customs (Gibraltar) [HM Customs Gibraltar] are the primary Customs and import authority in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. It is a uniformed, enforcement body, controlled by the Ministry of Finance, Government of Gibraltar. The Customs Officers check commercial goods and ordinary people entering with possessions into the territory.", "Gibraltar Hindu Temple\nThe Gibraltar Hindu Temple (), also known as Gibraltar Mandir, is a Hindu temple (\"mandir\") in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. Established in 2000, the Gibraltar Hindu Temple is located at Engineer Lane. Gibraltarian Hindus make approximately 1.8% of Gibraltar's population. This is the only Hindu temple in Gibraltar and it serves as the spiritual centre for Hindu population of territory. The temple is a charitable organisation and aims to maintain and promote Hindu culture in Gibraltar. The presiding deity of the temple is Rama along with his consort Sita, brother Laxman and Hanuman, an ardent devotee of Rama. Besides, there are many other \"murtis\" in temple, including Jhulelal, \"iṣṭa-devatā\" of Sindhi people, and Guru Nanak, the first of the ten Sikh Gurus. The temple conducts several study classes related to different Hindu scriptures.", "Gibraltar Philharmonic Society\nThe Gibraltar Philharmonic Society is the national philharmonic society of the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. They are based at Grand Casemates Square. The society arranges concerts in Gibraltar and as of 2013 has attracted notables such as the English Chamber Orchestra and soloists from the Vienna State Opera, Metropolitan Opera of New York City, the Teatro alla Scala of Milan, the Royal Opera House of Covent Garden, London, and the Berlin State Opera. In October 2012 the Riga New String Quartet were invited by the society to perform in Gibraltar.", "Special member state territories and the European Union\nGibraltar is a British overseas territory located near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula and overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar, sharing a border with Spain to the north. It is part of the EU, having joined the European Economic Community under the United Kingdom in 1973. Article 355(3) (ex Article 299(4)) applies the treaty to \"the European territories for whose external relations a Member State is responsible\", a provision which in practice only applies to Gibraltar. Although it is part of the EU, Gibraltar is outside the customs union and VAT area and is exempted from the Common Agricultural Policy; it does not form part of the Schengen Area. As a separate jurisdiction to the UK, Gibraltar's government and parliament are responsible for the transposition of EU law into local law. In 2016 Gibraltar voted \"remain\" in the UK EU membership referendum; however Gibraltar's membership is not distinct from the UK's and Gibraltar is bound by the overall result of \"leave\".", "Gibraltar Socialist Labour Party\nThe party strongly supports Gibraltar's territorial integrity, in particular seeks pursuit of the recognition of the full twelve-mile limit to Gibraltar territorial waters, as is the case with other British overseas territories, and it considers Spain's violations of the current three-mile limit of territorial waters as \"a hostile and unfriendly act\".", "Outline of Gibraltar\nGibraltar – British Overseas Territory located near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula of Southeastern Europe overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar between the Mediterranean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean. The territory shares a border with Spain to the north. Gibraltar was ceded by Spain to Great Britain in perpetuity in 1713 under the Treaty of Utrecht though Spain requests its return. The Government of the United Kingdom has stated it is committed to respecting the wishes of the Gibraltarians, who strongly oppose the idea of annexation along with any proposal for shared sovereignty with Spain.Geography of GibraltarDemographics of Gibraltar", "2014 European Parliament election in Gibraltar\nThe British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar is a part of the European Parliament constituency combined region of South West England and Gibraltar. For elections to the European Parliament in 2014, the vote in the region took place on 22 May 2014, with the results announced on 25 May 2014. On the previous two occasions Gibraltar has participated in European elections, the Conservative Party had topped the poll. The Liberal Democrats won the popular vote in the territory for the first time. They opposed British withdrawal from the European Union and were the only party to include a Gibraltar resident on their list of candidates, Lyana Armstrong-Emery of the Liberal Party of Gibraltar.", "Gibraltar Aerobeacon\nThe Gibraltar Aerobeacon built in 1841 is one of several lighthouses in Gibraltar, the British Overseas Territory at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula. It is also known as the Gibraltar Aviation Light and Gibraltar Aero Light. The active beacon is positioned atop the Rock of Gibraltar and is operated by the Government of Gibraltar.", "John Baptist Scandella\nJohn Baptist Scandella STD (Gibraltar, 19 September 1821 - id., 27 August 1880) was a Gibraltarian Roman Catholic priest of Genoese descent. He was Vicar Apostolic of the Diocese of Gibraltar between 1857 and 1880. He spoke fluent English and his native Spanish. Scandella is mainly remembered in Gibraltar for seeing the return of the statue of Our Lady of Europe to Gibraltar from Algeciras in Spain and for his efforts to improve education in the territory.", "Disputed status of Gibraltar\nThe territory of Gibraltar contains an section of the isthmus that links the Rock with Spain. Although it is argued by Spain that this section of the isthmus was never ceded by Spain; rather, it was gradually occupied de facto by the British, this section of the isthmus together with the other half of it north of the Gibraltar-Spain border was once labelled as neutral territory separating Spain from Gibraltar.", "Gibraltar Petanque Association\nThe Gibraltar Petanque Association (GPA) is a small pétanque federation in the British overseas territory of Gibraltar, with the aim of promoting the sport within the territory. The association is made up of approximately 80 members (ranging from ages 13 to 93) with its premises located at the Giralda Gardens on the city walls of Gibraltar along Smith Dorrien Avenue. Its facilities consist of four floodlit pistes.", "English language in Europe\nGibraltar has been a British overseas territory since an Anglo-Dutch force led by Sir George Rooke seized \"The Rock\" in 1704 and Spain ceded the territory in perpetuity to Great Britain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht.", "Gibraltarian English\nGibraltarian English (abbreviated GibE) denotes the accent of English spoken in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. The English language has been present at Gibraltar for approximately 300 years, and during these centuries English has mixed with diverse languages, particularly Spanish and a type of Spanish called Andalusian. Gibraltarian English has become a subject of study for linguists interested in how English and other languages mix. While the primary language of Gibraltarians is a mix of Spanish and Andalusian known as Llanito or Yanito, Gibraltarian English is becoming more prominent, and there has been a theory proposed that this variety of English is becoming \"nativised\". Gibraltarian English is similar in many respects to British English.", "Disputed status of Gibraltar\nThe Gibraltar Government has also argued that Gibraltar is a British territory and therefore by definition not an integral part of any other state, implying that Spain's territorial integrity cannot be affected by anything that occurs in Gibraltar: \"Even if integration of a territory was demanded by an interested State it could not be had without ascertaining the freely expressed will of the people, the very sine qua non of all decolonisation.\"", "Gibraltar Squadron\nOn several occasions vessels of the Spanish Navy and Civil Guard have entered Gibraltar territorial waters and boats of the squadron have been dispatched to intercept them. The issue of sovereignty over Gibraltar has been a matter of contention between the United Kingdom and Spain since the territory first became a British colony and latterly an overseas territory.", "Languages of Gibraltar\nAs Gibraltar is a British overseas territory, its sole official language is English, which is used by the Government and in schools. The eponymous Gibraltarian English accent is spoken in the territory.", "Politics of Gibraltar\nThe politics of Gibraltar takes place within a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic British Overseas Territory, whereby the Monarch of the United Kingdom is the constitutional head of state represented by the Governor of Gibraltar. The Chief Minister of Gibraltar is the head of Government. As a British Overseas Territory, the Government of Gibraltar is not subordinate to the Government of the United Kingdom. The British Government, however, is responsible for defence and external affairs but Gibraltar has full internal self-government under its 2006 Constitution. Gibraltar is represented in the European Union, having been the only British Overseas Territory to have joined the European Economic Community under the British Treaty of Accession (1973).", "Bay of Gibraltar\nMore recently, there has been (and remains) a persistent dispute between Spain and Gibraltar over British sovereignty in the Bay of Gibraltar. Spain claims not to recognise British sovereignty in the area save for a small portion around the Port of Gibraltar, but the UK has asserts a normal limit around Gibraltar, with a demarcation in the middle of the bay. This claim contradicts, according to the Spanish government, the treaty of Utrecht of 1713, by which Spain ceded to Great Britain the city and port of Gibraltar and the internal waters of that port, without granting any territoriality over the surrounding waters in the Bay of Algeciras.\nThis has caused tensions between the two sides, especially over the issue of Spanish fishermen operating in British Gibraltar territorial waters. Both have signed, and are bound, by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea which specifies territorial waters. After the arrest of a Spanish fishing vessel by the Royal Gibraltar Police in 1998, the problem largely subsided. An incident in the area in 2007 concerning the Odyssey Marine Exploration was resolved in court cases by 2012 with Spain being awarded the ownership of the treasure-trove.", "Disputed status of Gibraltar\nFurthermore, the Treaty stipulates \"that the above-named propriety be yielded to Great Britain \"without any territorial jurisdiction\", and without any open communication by land with the country round about\" (although there is dispute over whether this disclaims territorial jurisdiction over Gibraltar, or over the \"country round about\") and that no overland trade between Gibraltar and Spain is to take place, except for emergency provisions in the case that Gibraltar is unable to be resupplied by sea. The British Government and the Government of Gibraltar today argue that the membership of both Gibraltar and Spain in the European Union (EU) — Gibraltar was included as a Special member state territory when the United Kingdom joined the EU in 1973; Spain joined the EU in 1986 — supersedes such restrictions as the EU is committed to free movement of goods and services.", "Gibraltar Parliament\nThe Gibraltar Parliament is the legislature of the British overseas territory of Gibraltar. Between 1969 and 2006, it was called the Gibraltar House of Assembly.", "Tourism in Gibraltar\nTourism in Gibraltar constitutes one of the British Overseas Territory's most important economic pillars, alongside financial services and shipping. Gibraltar's main attractions are the Rock of Gibraltar and its resident population of Barbary macaques (or \"apes\"), the territory's military heritage, duty-free shopping, casinos and marinas. Although the population of Gibraltar numbers only some 30,000 people, the territory recorded nearly 12 million visits in 2011, giving it one of the highest tourist-to-resident ratios in the world.", "Adam Priestley\nAdam Priestley (born 14 August 1990) is a Gibraltarian footballer who plays for English club Ossett United of the Northern Premier League Division One East, and the Gibraltar national team as a forward. After beginning his career in the academies of league clubs Leeds United and York City, Priestley has spent his entire senior career in the semi-professional lower divisions of the English football league system. Qualifying to represent Gibraltar internationally by being born there while his father served in the Royal Air Force, Priestley debuted for the oversees territory in its premier UEFA match in November 2013. He has since gone on to represent Gibraltar in friendlies and UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying.", "Westside, Gibraltar\nWestside is an urban area of the British overseas territory of Gibraltar. It lies between the western slopes of the Rock of Gibraltar and the eastern shores of the Bay of Gibraltar and contains over 98% of the territory's population.", "European Union (Referendum) Act 2016 (Gibraltar)\nThe European Union (Referendum) Act 2016 is an Act of the Gibraltar Parliament, which implements the United Kingdom's European Union Referendum Act 2015 in Gibraltar. It was the first time a referendum has been held in Gibraltar on the issue of continued EU membership since the territory joined along with the United Kingdom in 1973 and was the first time that a British Overseas Territory had participated in a UK-wide referendum. The Act commenced on 26 January 2016, and received assent from the Governor of Gibraltar on 28 January 2016.", "Gibraltar Conservatives\nThe Conservative Party in Gibraltar is the part of the Conservative Party that operates in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. It is a branch of the South West Region of the Conservative Party. The party does not field candidates in the local elections in the territory, and only stands candidates for the European Parliament constituency of South West England and Gibraltar. It is an affiliate of the Gibraltar Social Democrats party.", "Postage stamps and postal history of Gibraltar\nGibraltar is a British overseas territory located at the entrance to the Mediterranean Sea overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar. The territory covers and shares a land border with Spain to the north. Gibraltar has historically been an important base for the British Armed Forces and is the site of a Royal Navy base. The philately of Gibraltar is inexorably linked to its strategic position and military connections.", "Lines of Contravallation of Gibraltar\nFollowing the Anglo-Dutch capture of Gibraltar in 1704 and the subsequent Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar, in which the Spanish and their French allies sought unsuccessfully to recover the territory, the Spanish built a permanent line of fortifications facing south across the isthmus. Construction began in November 1730 under the Marquis of Verboom with the intention that the lines would block any British invasion of Spanish territory mounted from Gibraltar, act as a starting point for any future Spanish operations against Gibraltar, and cut off access to the territory by land. The lines covered a distance of 950 toises () and were built 1,000 toises () from the Rock of Gibraltar, where the British defences began.", "Disputed status of Gibraltar\nGibraltar, a British Overseas Territory, located at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula, is the subject of an irredentist territorial claim by Spain. It was captured in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714). The Spanish Crown formally ceded the territory in perpetuity to the British Crown in 1713, under of the Treaty of Utrecht. Spain later attempted to recapture the territory during the thirteenth siege (1727) and the Great siege (1779–1783). British sovereignty over Gibraltar was confirmed in later treaties signed in Seville (1729) and the Treaty of Paris (1783).", "Effect of Brexit on Gibraltar\nIn 2015, Chief Minister of Gibraltar Fabian Picardo suggested that Gibraltar would attempt to remain part of the EU in the event the UK voted to leave, but reaffirmed that, regardless of the result, the territory would remain a British overseas territory. In a letter to the UK Foreign Affairs Select Committee, he requested that Gibraltar be considered in negotiations post-Brexit. ", "Law of Gibraltar\nThe \"English Law (Application) Act\" of 1962 stipulates that English common law will apply to Gibraltar unless overridden by Gibraltar law. However, as Gibraltar is a self-governing British overseas territory, it maintains its own independent tax status and its parliament can enact laws independently of the United Kingdom." ]

[ "Avicenna\nHis most famous works are The Book of Healing, a philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and The Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopedia[12][13][14] which became a standard medical text at many medieval universities[15] and remained in use as late as 1650.[16] In 1973, Avicenna's Canon Of Medicine was reprinted in New York.[17]" ]

[ "Avicenna\nAvicenna's legacy in classical psychology is primarily embodied in the Kitab al-nafs parts of his Kitab al-shifa (The Book of Healing) and Kitab al-najat (The Book of Deliverance). These were known in Latin under the title De Anima (treatises \"on the soul\"). Notably, Avicenna develops what is called the \"flying man\" argument in the Psychology of The Cure I.1.7 as defense of the argument that the soul is without quantitative extension, which has an affinity with Descartes's cogito argument (or what phenomenology designates as a form of an \"epoche\").[63][64]", "Persian literature\nSo strong is the Persian inclination to versifying everyday expressions that one can encounter poetry in almost every classical work, whether from Persian literature, science, or metaphysics. In short, the ability to write in verse form was a pre-requisite for any scholar. For example, almost half of Avicenna's medical writings are in verse.", "The Sword of Knowledge\nAlthough Cherryh is credited as a co-author on each of the books, she apparently did not write any of them. She did write a foreword for each book and may have helped plan the storylines, and therefore was credited as a co-author for all three novels. The publisher, however, eliminated Cherryh's introduction from most or all editions of the book.", "Seddiqin argument\nAvicenna detailed the argument for the existence of God in three books namely Al-ShifaThe Book of Healing and Al-Nejat and Al-isharat wa al-tanbihat. it seems that for the first time applied the argument of Seddiqin. According to Muhammad Legenhausen little pay attention to Avicenna's proof of sincere.Avicenna described the argument as seddiqin( Borhane seddiqin) because this argumentation applies by those who are truthful. According to Avicenna, those who are truthful persons, their argument is pure truth while there is no symbols of untruthfulness in their argumentation. In other words, Seddiqin witness to existence of God and truth just only by one argument which is the essence of Truth and God. Avicenna refers to the argument as follows:\nAlso Avicenna quotes the Quran to support the argumentation:\" Is it not sufficient as regards your Lord that he is witness over all things\"(surah 41, verse 53).", "Avicenna\nIn his book The Physician (1988) Noah Gordon tells the story of a young English medical apprentice who disguises himself as a Jew to travel from England to Persia and learn from Avicenna, the great master of his time. The novel was adapted into a feature film, The Physician, in 2013. Avicenna was played by Ben Kingsley.", "Islam in England\nMuslim scholarship, especially early Islamic philosophy and Islamic science, was well known through Latin translation among the learned in England by 1386, when Geoffrey Chaucer was writing. In the Prologue to the \"Canterbury Tales\", there is among the pilgrims wending their way to Canterbury a 'Doctour of Phisyk' whose learning included Rhazes (Al-Razi), Avicenna (Ibn Sina, Arabic ابن سينا) and Averroes (Ibn Rushd, Arabic ابن رشد). In the Pardoner's Tale, Chaucer mentions part of Avicenna's work concerning poisons. Avicenna's \"The Canon of Medicine\" (1025), in Latin translation, was a standard text for medical students up until the 18th century. Roger Bacon, one of the earliest European advocates of the scientific method, is known to have studied the works of several early Muslim philosophers. In particular, his work on optics in the 13th century was influenced by the \"Book of Optics\" (1021) by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen).", "Dezinformatsia (book)\nWriting in \"Conflict Quarterly\" for \"The Journal of Conflict Studies\", David Charters questioned why the book did not present more of an analysis on the aggregate impact of all of the disinformation campaigns, before noting such a task would be difficult to assess. The reviewer asked why the book did not fully address questions including, \"Did any of the forgeries described have a significant political impact on the intended target, and on U.S. relations with the country concerned, or were they merely of nuisance value?\" \"Conflict Quarterly\" criticized such absence in the book and identified it as an academic deficiency, writing, \"Without answers to questions such as these, it is difficult to accept, at face value, the authors' conclusions.\" Charters concluded the book was \"a useful introduction to a field of knowledge which ... is likely to continue to expand in importance for diplomats, the intelligence community, and scholars of international security affairs.", "Ali ibn Yusuf al-Ilaqi\nContrary to Carl Brockelmann's information (GAL 1:485; Suppl. 1:887), Sharaf al-Zamān Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Īlāqī of Bākharz (in Khorasān, Iran), who was most probably active in Balkh (today's Afghanistan), was not a figure of the 6th/12th century. He did not die in 536/1141 (in the battle of the Qatwan steppe) but most probably around 460/1068 and should be counted among Avicenna's (d. 429/1037) direct students. Al-Ilāqī produced an epitome of the first book of the Canons of Medicine by Avicenna which was known under various titles: \"Kitāb al-Fuṣūl al-Ilāqiyya\" (\"The Aphorisms of al-Ilāqī\") and \"Kitāb al-asbāb wa-al-`alāmāt\" (\"The Book of Causes and Symptoms\"). Al-Ilāqī's greatly abbreviated version of the first book of the Canon was very popular, and many copies have survived.", "Averroes\nIn his philosophical writings, Averroes attempted to return to Aristotelianism, which according to him had been distorted by the Neoplatonist tendencies of Muslim philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Avicenna. He rejected al-Farabi's attempt to merge the ideas of Plato and Aristotle's, pointing out the difference between the two, such as Aristotle's rejection of Plato's theory of ideas. He also criticized Al-Farabi's works on logic for misinterpreting its Aristotelian source. He wrote an extensive critique of Avicenna, who was the standard-bearer of Islamic Neoplatonism in the Middle Ages. He argued that Avicenna's theory of emanation had many fallacies and was not found in the works of Aristotle. Averroes disagreed with Avicenna's view that existence is merely an accident added to essence, arguing the reverse; something exists \"per se\" and essence can only be found by subsequent abstraction. He also rejected Avicenna's modality and Avicenna's argument to prove the existence of God as the Necessary Existent.", "Avicenna\nAvicenna says in his book of heaven and earth, that heat is generated from motion in external things.[87]", "Avicenna\nAn early formal system of temporal logic was studied by Avicenna.[74] Although he did not develop a real theory of temporal propositions, he did study the relationship between temporalis and the implication.[75] Avicenna's work was further developed by Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī and became the dominant system of Islamic logic until modern times.[76][77] Avicennian logic also influenced several early European logicians such as Albertus Magnus[78] and William of Ockham.[79][80] Avicenna endorsed the law of noncontradiction proposed by Aristotle, that a fact could not be both true and false at the same time and in the same sense of the terminology used. He stated, \"Anyone who denies the law of noncontradiction should be beaten and burned until he admits that to be beaten is not the same as not to be beaten, and to be burned is not the same as not to be burned.\"[81]", "Bahmanyār\nHis correspondence with Avicenna and his master's answers to his questions were compiled in the book \"Mubahathat\" (dialogues). His main work, the \"Ketab al-tahasil,\" which summarises Avicenna's logic, physics and metaphysics was written in Isfahan between 1024 and 1037 and dedicated to his uncle, the Zoroastrian Abu Mansur b. Bahram b. Khurshid b. Yazdyar. Bayhaqi also writes that he wrote a book on logic and one on music and other works are attributed to him.", "Ibn al-Jazzar\nIbn Al Jazzar wrote a number of books. They deal with grammar, history, jurisprudence, prosody, etc. Many of these books, quoted by different authors are lost. The most important book of Ibn Al Jazzar is Zad Al Mussafir (The Viaticum). Translated into Latin, Greek and Hebrew, it has been copied, recopied, and printed in France and Italy in the sixteenth century. It was adopted and popularized in Europe as a book for a classical education in medicine. This book is a compilation as the Canon of Avicenna, a mixture of medicine and philosophy. Avicenna was not a medical practitioner, but Ibn Al Jazzar was, and his book was useful.", "Gary Gygax\nThe new owner of TSR, WotC's Peter Adkison, clearly did not harbor any of Lorraine Williams' ill-will toward Gygax: Adkison purchased all of Gygax's residual rights to D&D and AD&D for a six-figure sum. Although Gygax did not write any new supplements or books for TSR or WotC, he did agree to write the preface to the 1998 adventure \"Return to the Tomb of Horrors\", a paean to Gygax's original AD&D adventure \"Tomb of Horrors\". He also returned to the pages of Dragon Magazine, writing the \"Up on a Soapbox\" column from Issue #268 (January, 2000) to Issue #320 (June, 2004).", "The Aims of the Philosophers\nMaqasid al Falasifa (), or The Aims of the Philosophers was written by Al-Ghazali. Influenced by Avicenna's works, he wrote this book presenting the basic theories of Philosophy. In this book, he explained in detail about what philosophy is and described basic entities like judgement, concept, premise, and logic. Al-Ghazali stated that one must be well versed in the ideas of the philosophers before setting out to refute their ideas. He also stated that he did not find other branches of philosophy including physics, logic, astronomy or mathematics problematic.\nAfter writing \"Maqasid al Falasifa\", he wrote another book Tahāfut al-Falāsifa, criticizing the Avicennian school of early Islamic philosophy.", "Avicenna\nLiber Aboali Abincine de Anima in arte Alchemiae was the most influential, having influenced later medieval chemists and alchemists such as Vincent of Beauvais. However Anawati argues (following Ruska) that the de Anima is a fake by a Spanish author. Similarly the Declaratio is believed not to be actually by Avicenna. The third work (The Book of Minerals) is agreed to be Avicenna's writing, adapted from the Kitab al-Shifa (Book of the Remedy).[99] Ibn Sina classified minerals into stones, fusible substances, sulfurs, and salts, building on the ideas of Aristotle and Jabir.[100] The epistola de Re recta is somewhat less sceptical of alchemy; Anawati argues that it is by Avicenna, but written earlier in his career when he had not yet firmly decided that transmutation was impossible.[99]", "Al-isharat wa al-tanbihat\nAvicenna was born in Afsanah at 980, a village near Bukhara. His father counted as ruler of a region by the name of keramaytan. Avicenna along with his family after moving to Bukhara, continued his studies. According to Nasr, Avicenna had many teachers including Nātelī physicians Abū Manṣūr Qomrī and Abū Sahl Masīḥī. Avicenna wrote nearly 250 works on diverse sciences in medieval period including long and short treatises such as the Daneshnameh Alaei (The Book of Science Dedicated to 'Alii' al-Dawlah). Avicenna wrote Isharat when he was under the criticism of certain literary scholars, showing his skill in Arabic language by a philosophy book as Isharat. Nasr refers to the book of Isharat as the last and greatest masterpiece of Avicenna.", "Avicenna\nThere are occasional brief hints and allusions in his longer works however that Avicenna considered philosophy as the only sensible way to distinguish real prophecy from illusion. He did not state this more clearly because of the political implications of such a theory, if prophecy could be questioned, and also because most of the time he was writing shorter works which concentrated on explaining his theories on philosophy and theology clearly, without digressing to consider epistemological matters which could only be properly considered by other philosophers.[57]", "Sharh al-isharat\n\"Al-isharat wa al-tanbihat\" is the last book written by Avicenna and the most prominent. The book is on logic,natural philosophy and theology and metaphysics.Al-isharat wa al-tanbihat could be considered as generally as a later works and therefore an expression of Avicenna's mature thought. Ibn sina advice that book to his disciples as a kind of work book. In this book ibn Sina try to offer suggestion by which he call for his disciples to establish in the right way the conclusions and/or the premises to reach conclusions. In other words, Avicenna doesn't intend to develop fully articulated arguments in Al-isharat wa al-tanbihat. This makes it very abstract and demanding text for any reader, a text is not easy to understand.", "Avicenna\nBesides philosophy and medicine, Avicenna's corpus includes writings on astronomy, alchemy, geography and geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics and works of poetry.[18]", "Islamic hospitals\nMuhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, Hunayn ibn Ishaq, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ali ibn Isa al-Kahhal, Ibn al-Nafis, and Mir Mu’min Husayni Tunikabuni were all students that trained at Islamic Hospitals in order to advance their knowledge in the medical field. These students were key players in the advancement of \"bimaristans\" because of contributions to Islamic Medicine from their observations and writings. Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi was an Islam philosopher, physician, and alchemist, who trained well in the Greek science and is known for his \"Comprehensive Book of Medicine.\" Hunayn ibn Ishaq was viewed as a mediator between Greek sciences and Arabs due to his translations of multiple documents that were tremendously important. Hunayn ibn Ishaq was also an optometrist. Avicenna was a physician as well as a government official. The \"Canon of Medicine\" constructed by Avicenna systemized medicine logically. Like Hunayn ibn Ishaq, Ali ibn Isa al-Kahhal was also an optometrist, who classified more than one hundred diseases of the eyes. Ibn al-Nafis was also a physician and an author, most known for his commentary on pulmonary circulation. Lastly, Mir Mu’min Husayni Tunikabuni focused on how yogic breath control can control the humours. While all of these people did many different things, they all contributed to advancements in medicine.", "Avicenna\nIn the Al-Burhan (On Demonstration) section of The Book of Healing, Avicenna discussed the philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry. He discusses Aristotle's Posterior Analytics and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of \"How does one acquire the first principles of a science?\" He asked how a scientist would arrive at \"the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?\" He explains that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a \"relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty\". Avicenna then adds two further methods for arriving at the first principles: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction (istiqra), and the method of examination and experimentation (tajriba). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that \"it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide.\" In its place, he develops a \"method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry.\"[73]", "Avicenna\nPart of a series onAvicenna (Ibn Sīnā) Works The Book of Healing The Canon of Medicine Thoughts Avicennism On God's existence Floating man Al-Ghazali's criticism of Avicennian philosophy Pupils Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani Bahmanyār Ibn Abi Sadiq Ali ibn Yusuf al-Ilaqi Monuments Avicenna Mausoleum Avicenna (crater) Bu-Ali Sina University Avicenne Hospital The Physician The Physician (2013 film) Avicenna Cultural and Scientific Foundation Scholars Pavilionvt", "Avicenna\nAvicenna's astronomical writings had some influence on later writers, although in general his work could be considered less developed than Alhazen or Al-Biruni. One important feature of his writing is that he considers mathematical astronomy as a separate discipline to astrology.[92] He criticized Aristotle's view of the stars receiving their light from the Sun, stating that the stars are self-luminous, and believed that the planets are also self-luminous.[93] He claimed to have observed Venus as a spot on the Sun. This is possible, as there was a transit on May 24, 1032, but Avicenna did not give the date of his observation, and modern scholars have questioned whether he could have observed the transit from his location at that time; he may have mistaken a sunspot for Venus. He used his transit observation to help establish that Venus was, at least sometimes, below the Sun in Ptolemaic cosmology,[92] i.e. the sphere of Venus comes before the sphere of the Sun when moving out from the Earth in the prevailing geocentric model.[94][95]", "The Book of Healing\nIn the \"Al-Burhan\" (\"On Demonstration\") section of the book, Avicenna discussed the philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry. He discusses Aristotle's \"Posterior Analytics\" and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of \"How does one acquire the first principles of a science?\" He asked how a scientist would arrive at \"the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?\" He explains that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a \"relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty.\" Avicenna then adds two further methods for arriving at the first principles: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction (\"istiqra\"), and the method of examination and experimentation (\"tajriba\"). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that \"it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide.\" In its place, he develops a \"method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry.\"", "Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi\nZakhireye Khwarazmshahi \n( \"Zakhīra-i Khwârazmshâhī\", \"Treasure dedicated to the king of Khwarazm\"), is a Persian medical encyclopedia written by the Persian, Ismail Gorgani (1040-1136) in 1110.\nThis Persian medical book is equal in prestige to the famous medical book by Avicenna, which is considered medical canon. Although the book of \"Zakhirah-i Khvarazm'Shahi\" is written in Persian it contains a few Arabic words.\nThe book builds upon works by Avicenna, Akhaveiny and other doctors of traditional medicine written in the fifth century or before.\nThis Iranian traditional medicinal book has been translated to other languages such as Turkish, Urdo, and Hebrew, and by the author himself into Arabic. After writing this encyclopedic book, Gorgani wrote Khafi Alayee as a contraction of it.", "Avicenna\nAvicenna was a devout Muslim and sought to reconcile rational philosophy with Islamic theology. His aim was to prove the existence of God and His creation of the world scientifically and through reason and logic.[55] Avicenna's views on Islamic theology (and philosophy) were enormously influential, forming part of the core of the curriculum at Islamic religious schools until the 19th century.[56] Avicenna wrote a number of short treatises dealing with Islamic theology. These included treatises on the prophets (whom he viewed as \"inspired philosophers\"), and also on various scientific and philosophical interpretations of the Quran, such as how Quranic cosmology corresponds to his own philosophical system. In general these treatises linked his philosophical writings to Islamic religious ideas; for example, the body's afterlife.", "Rovshan Abdullaoglu\nIn 2011, Rovshan started translating one of Avicenna's final books, Remarks and Admonitions (Kitab al-isharat wa al-tanbihat), which impressed both the East and the West. In parallel with the semantic translation of the book, Rovshan Abdullaev provided profound explanations of Avicenna's metaphysics and logic. This work was published as two books: Contemplation and On the Levels of the Mystics.", "Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi\nAl-Razi's religious and philosophical views were later criticized by Abu Rayhan Biruni and Avicenna in the early 11th century. Biruni in particular wrote a short treatise (\"risala\") dealing with al-Razi, criticizing him for his sympathy with Manichaeism, his Hermetical writings, his religious and philosophical views, for refusing to mathematize physics, and his active opposition to mathematics. Avicenna, who was himself a physician and philosopher, also criticized al-Razi. During a debate with Biruni, Avicenna stated:", "Avicenna\nAvicenna's most important Persian work is the Danishnama-i 'Alai (دانشنامه علائی, \"the Book of Knowledge for [Prince] 'Ala ad-Daulah\"). Avicenna created new scientific vocabulary that had not previously existed in Persian. The Danishnama covers such topics as logic, metaphysics, music theory and other sciences of his time. It has been translated into English by Parwiz Morewedge in 1977.[126] The book is also important in respect to Persian scientific works." ]

[ "Fontamara\nIt is Silone's first novel and is regarded as his most famous work. It received worldwide acclaim and sold more than a million and a half copies in twenty-seven languages.[2] It was first published as a German translation in Zurich, Switzerland in 1933[3] and was published in English by Penguin Books in September 1934.[4] Fontamara is derived from the Italian 'Fonte Amara' (Bitter Stream),[5] which Victor Wolfson used as the title for his 1936 stage adaptation of the book, presented in New York at the Civic Repertory Theatre.[6][7] The novel was also adapted for cinema by director Carlo Lizzani and the film Fontamara was released in 1977.[8][9] Appearing on the eve of the Spanish Civil War, and published just a few months after Hitler came to power, when the world was beginning to take sides for or against fascism, the novel had a galvanising effect on public opinion.[2] Fontamara 'became the very symbol of resistance'[6] and ‘is widely agreed to have played a major role as a document of anti-Fascist propaganda outside Italy in the late 1930s’[10] as it criticises the deceitful and immoral nature of the Fascist party and its followers." ]

[ "Fontamara\n\"Fontamara is a little epic of peasant resistance, based upon an actual event in recent Italian history\"[14] \"Fontamara is the most moving account of Fascist barbarity I have yet read. Only an old man, his wife and son escaped abroad to tell the story of how the Blackshirts came down on Fontamara. It should be read to its merciless end\"[15] \"The propaganda, if it is such, is in the facts. The presentation is objective, impersonal, restrained\"[16] \"The stealing of the water..the savage reprisals...occupation by Fascist militiamen who rape all the girls...a general massacre at the hands of government troops - if this is even fifty per cent true, Italy under Mussolini is worse off than Italy under the Austrians or the Lombards\"[17] \"{Fontamara presents} concrete pictures of how human destinies unfold under the regime of Mussolini...a re-creation of a direct sense of life in Mussolini's Italy\"[18] \"This is a remarkable book. From its first to its concluding sentence it is aimed against the Fascist regime, its lies, brutalities, and abominations. Fontamara is a book of impassioned political propaganda. But in it revolutionary passion attains such heights as to result in a genuinely artistic creation. Fontamara itself is merely a poverty-stricken village in one of the most forsaken corners of Southern Italy. In the course of some 200 pages of the book this name becomes the symbol of agricultural Italy, of all its villages and their poverty and their despair and their rebellion....This book deserves a circulation of many million copies. But whatever may be the attitude of the official bureaucracy towards those works which belong to the genuine revolutionary literature, Fontamara – we are certain – will find its way to the masses. It is the duty of every revolutionist to assist in circulating this book.\"[19] -Leon Trotsky \"Ignazio Silone's Fontamara portrays the tragedy and hopelessness of Italian workers and peasants. The pictures are vivid. The style is honest. The story has grown out of the background of the man and the man has creative talent. He protests against tyranny. Call that propaganda if you will, but combined with Silone's personality, Fontamara becomes art\"[20]", "Fontamara\nFontamara [fontaˈmaːra] is a 1933 novel by the Italian author Ignazio Silone, written when he was a refugee from the Fascist Police in Davos, Switzerland.[2]", "Fontamara\nDon Circostanza is the real enemy of the people of Fontamara, even though he is known as L'Amico del Popolo (the friend of the people) ([12] p.74), always greets them one by one, and shouts Long live my Fontamaresi. He is a lawyer and does nothing but cheat them and always acts in favour of the most powerful. He can be read as a caricature of the role played by a large part of the professional class under Fascism, for instance those lawyers and accountants who purported to represent the workers in wage negotiations and accept wage reductions on their behalf.[10] Physically he is described as With a melon hat, a spongy porous nose, ears like fans and belly at the third stage (of his concertina trousers) ([12] p.73) and regarding his character, Giuvà says in his narration that he always had a goodwill for the people of Fontamara, he was our Protector, and talk of him would require a long litany. He has always been our defence but also our downfall. All the disputes of Fontamara passed through his office. And most of the chickens and eggs of Fontamara over 40 years ended up in Don Circostanza's kitchen ([12] p.73). The author describes how he cheats the villagers. In order to get votes in elections, he sent a teacher to teach the cafoni to write his name so that In this way when they went to vote, not knowing what to write, they would write his name on their ballot paper. To get even more votes, as he was the one to register a death, when someone died he paid the family five francs and kept the names on the electoral roll and voted for them. \"The living betray me, Don Circostanza reproached me bitterly, but the blessed souls of the departed remain faithful to me.\" Another scam is when they are discussing the water, he says that the water will be returned not after 50 years but after 10 lustri (5-year periods) ([12] p.183), knowing that the 'cafoni' don't know how long a lustro is. He also buys Berardo's piece of land at a very low price when Berardo is hoping to go to America, even though he knows that the emigration laws have come into effect and knows that Berardo will not in fact be able to emigrate. He also decreases the worker's pay in Fontamara to 40% under the new law.[11]", "Fontamara\nThe United States Army printed unauthorised versions of Fontamara, along with another of Silone's novels Bread and wine, and distributed them to the Italians during the Liberation of Italy 1943-1945.[2] Fontamara was distributed in November 1942 by the Penguin \"Forces Book Club\"[25] and was distributed at British Prisoner of War camps during World War II by The Prisoners of War Book Service,[26] which was started in March 1943.", "Fontamara\nIn Fontamara, Silone captures the fatigue and misery of the peasants and agricultural workers, which had previously been relatively undocumented. For the first time in Italian literature, peasants were the protagonists and their agricultural activities are described in great detail through the seasons. In 1929, when the story is set, the survival of peasants depended on subsistence agriculture on the land of the large landowners. Harvests varied day to day, food was not guaranteed and wages were low. Their land is very important to them and it is said that the relationship of a peasant to his land is a serious thing, like that between a husband and wife. It's a kind of sacrament. The misery of peasants is closely linked to their ignorance as this makes them vulnerable to scams and abuse, especially due to their reliance on others for contact with the new and complicated world of the city. The Fascist regime legalized the abuse of power, adopted measures that worsened the lives of peasants such as the reduction of wages and laws of emigration. This was not just a problem in Italy, as Silone states in his preface, The poor peasants, the men who make the earth fruitful and suffer hunger, …are alike in all the countries of the world ([12] p.18) Their ignorance meant that they could not progress up the social ladder, and At Fontamara there are only two rungs on the social ladder: the lowest, that of the cafoni, which is at ground level, and that of the small landowners, which is just a little higher. They are swindled out of their profits and wages by don Circonstanza and the Impresario, and as every family in Fontamara is connected, every family, even the poorest, has interests that are shared with others, and for lack of wealth it is poverty that has to be shared. So at Fontamara there's not a family that doesn't have a lawsuit pending. Their ignorance makes them vulnerable to exploitation. They are disconnected with the world and don't know about new laws like the Emigration Policy, wage rate changes, and identity cards and papers needed to get on a train or work elsewhere. The Italian Unification is still a recent event to them, they are ignorant of the new Fascist regime and still think that Queen Margherita is alive. Berardo also asks the Solito Sconsciuto if Russia exists. \"Russia? Tell me the truth, is there really such a place as this Russia there's so much talk about? Everyone talks about it, but no one has ever been there. Cafoni go everywhere, to America, Africa, France, but no one has ever been to Russia.\"", "Ignazio Silone\nSilone left Italy in 1927 on a mission to the Soviet Union and settled in Switzerland in 1930. While there, he declared his opposition to Joseph Stalin and the leadership of Comintern; consequently, he was expelled from the PCI. He suffered from tuberculosis and severe clinical depression and spent nearly a year in Swiss clinics; in Switzerland, Aline Valangin helped and played host to him and other migrants. As he recovered, Silone began writing his first novel, Fontamara, published in German translation in 1933. The English edition, first published by Penguin Books in September 1934, went through frequent reprintings during the 1930s, with the events of the Spanish Civil War and the escalation towards the outbreak of World War II increasing attention for its subject material.[2]", "Fontamara\nThe novel was published in Zurich, Switzerland in the spring of 1933 in a German translation by Nettie Sutro.[3] It was also released in episodes in various German language Swiss periodicals. It was published in English by Penguin Books in September 1934.[4] The first version in Italian appeared in Paris in 1934, though it was not published in Italy in Italian until 1945, when Silone prepared a much changed version for publication in Ernesto Buonaiuti's Roman newspaper 'Il Risveglio', and in 1947 another edition, with further revisions, was published by the editing house Lo Faro,[21] Rome. In 1949 Mondadori published the novel, with still further modifications, and Silone made further stylistic changes in the 1953 Mondadori publication.[22] An Esperanto version was published in 1939 in the Netherlands.[23][24] Surprisingly, in view of Silone's sharp break with Stalinism, the book was also published in a Russian edition in 1935.[6]", "Dream of the Red Chamber\nThe first complete English translation to be published was by David Hawkes some century and a half after the first English translation. Hawkes was already a recognized redologist and had previously translated \"Chu Ci\" when Penguin Classics approached him in 1970 to make a translation which could appeal to English readers. After resigning from his professorial position, Hawkes published the first eighty chapters in three volumes (1973, 1977, 1980). \"The Story of the Stone\" (1973–1980), the first eighty chapters translated by Hawkes and last forty by John Minford consists of five volumes and 2,339 pages of actual core text (not including Prefaces, Introductions and Appendices). The wordcount of the Penguin Classics English translation is estimated as 845,000 words. In a 1980 review of the Hawkes and Minford translation in \"The New York Review of Books\", Frederic Wakeman, Jr. described the novel as a \"masterpiece\" and the work of a \"literary genius.\" Cynthia L. Chennault of the University of Florida stated that \"The \"Dream\" is acclaimed as one of the most psychologically penetrating novels of world literature.\" Michael Orthofer of the online literary site \"Complete Review\" proclaims it as one of the few works that can be considered for the title \"Book of the Millennium,\" and a rare piece of literature \"in which one can lose oneself completely.\" ", "Dorothea Dieckmann\nHer novel \"\"Guantanamo\"\" was her first to be translated into English.\nWhen Tim Mohr translated the novel into English he won the Best Translated Book Award..", "The Knight in the Panther's Skin\nOutside of Georgia, interest in the poem first appeared in 1802, when Eugene Bolkhovitinov published a verbatim translation of the first stanza of the poem into Russian. In France in 1828, Marie-Félicité Brosset made his first partial French translation. In the 19th century the poem saw full translations into Polish, German and Russian. In 1845, extracts were published in Russian, French and Armenian. Vahan Terian, a prominent Georgian-born Armenian poet, translated the prelude, which was first published posthumously in 1922. It was praised by Nicholas Marr. In 1912, Marjory Wardrop published the first English translation available. In 1968, a verse translation by Venera Urushadze was published in Georgia. In 2015, an English poetic translation by Lyn Coffin was published, combining literary achievement with academic precision.", "Fontamara\nAs with many rural novels, Fontamara discusses the various seasons, and seasonal duties, such as the grape harvest in the vineyards.[11] It is a choral novel and it focuses on the lives and points of view of the peasants of Fontamara, deprived of hope and yet unyielding and determined, demonstrating solidarity amongst the lower classes and the inequality of wealth between the agricultural workers and professional classes.", "Ivan Kotliarevsky\nHis two plays, also living classics, \"Natalka Poltavka\" (Natalka from Poltava) and \"Moskal-Charivnyk\" (The Muscovite-Sorcerer), became the impetus for the creation of the Natalka Poltavka opera and the development of Ukrainian national theater.\nPartial translations of Eneyida date back to 1933 when a translation of first few stanzas of Kotlyarevsky's Eneyida by Wolodymyr Semenyna was published in the American newspaper of Ukrainian diaspora Ukrainian Weekly on October 20, 1933. However, the first full English translation of Kotliarevsky's magnum opus Eneida was published only in 2006 in Canada by a Ukrainian-Canadian Bohdan Melnyk, most well known for his English translation of Ivan Franko's Ukrainian fairy tale Mikita the Fox ()\nList of English translations:", "Tirukkural translations into English\nThe first English translation by a native scholar (i.e., scholar who is a native speaker of Tamil) was made in 1915 by T. Tirunavukkarasu, who translated 366 couplets into English. The first complete English translation by a native scholar was made the following year by V. V. S. Aiyar, who translated the entire work in prose. Aiyar's work is considered by various scholars, including Czech scholar Kamil Zvelebil, to be the most scholarly of all the English translations made until then, including those by native English scholars.", "Tirukkural translations\nThe first English translation was attempted by N. E. Kindersley in 1794 when he translated a select couplets of the Kural. This was followed by another incomplete attempt by Francis Whyte Ellis 1812, who translated only 120 couplets—69 in verse and 51 in prose. William Henry Drew translated the first two parts in prose in 1840 and 1852, respectively. Along with Drew’s English prose translation, it contained the original Tamil text, the Tamil commentary by Parimelalhagar and Ramanuja Kavirayar's amplification of the commentary. Drew, however, translated only 630 couplets. The remaining portions were translated by John Lazarus, a native missionary, thus providing the first complete English translation. In 1886, George Uglow Pope published the first complete English translation by a single author, which brought the Kural text to a wide audience of the western world.", "Fontamara\nThe wife of Giuvà comes to be known as Matalè (dialect version of Maddalena). She wants to fight against injustice and thus walks to the city with the other women to protest about the water being redirected away from Fontamara. She shows courage and supports Elvira, her niece, when the women are being raped and the police do nothing. She often says\"\"When strange things begin to happen, no one can stop them.\"", "Translators Without Borders\nIn 2011, Translators without Borders began a to translate key medical articles on English Wikipedia into other languages. The WikiProject Medicine Translation Task Force first improves the 8 medical articles deemed most essential to or status. When the articles are improved, they are translated into simplified English by Content Rules (the simplified English is provided on the Wikipedia simplified English site) and a goal of more than 100 languages. Eventually, the hope is articles will be translated into all of the 285 languages that Wikipedia exists in. This process is expected to take several years.", "Fontamara\nThe cafoni are summoned to a meeting in Avezzano to discuss the matter of Fucino (an extremely fertile area of land), and are yet again deceived when instead of having a discussion, the land is taken from them and given to the rich ([12] p.130). Some of them miss the truck home and meet a man who takes them to a tavern and offers to help them with their uprising and bring them weapons but, whilst he is gone, the Solito Sconosciuto approaches them to warn them they are being set up. Back at Fontamara, trucks of Fascist soldiers arrive and gang rape the women of Fontamara whilst the men are working in the fields. When the men return the Fascists question them, asking \"Long Live who?\" but the Fontamaresi do not know what answer they are supposed to give. The attackers see Elvira at the bell tower, mistake her for the Madonna and flee. Berardo and Giuva find Elvira and Matala at the top of the bell tower. Berardo picks Elvira up in his arms, takes her home and spends the night with her. In the morning he is even more determined to marry her, and Giuva thinks the only way Berardo could earn enough money to buy some land is by getting a job in town.", "James Strachey\nIn one of his last letters to Freud, Ernest Jones wrote that 'You probably know you have the reputation of not being the easiest author to translate'. Certainly when translation into English first began, 'the earliest versions were not always felicitous ... casual and at times fearfully inaccurate'. With the coming of the Stracheys, however, 'translations began to improve: in 1924 and 1925, a small English team brought out Freud's \"Collected Papers\", in four volumes' which have been described as 'the most vigorous translations into English' of all time.", "Quran translations\nThe earliest known translation of the Qur'an in any European language was the Latin works by Robert of Ketton at the behest of the Abbot of Cluny in c. 1143. As Latin was the language of the church it never sought to question what would now be regarded as blatant inaccuracies in this translation which remained the only one until 1649 when the first English language translation was done by Alexander Ross, chaplain to King Charles I, who translated from a French work \"L'Alcoran de Mahomet\" by du Ryer. In 1734, George Sale produced the first translation of the Qur'an direct from Arabic into English but reflecting his missionary stance. Since then, there have been English translations by the clergyman John Medows Rodwell in 1861, and Edward Henry Palmer in 1880, both showing in their works a number of mistakes of mistranslation and misinterpretation, which brings into question their primary aim. These were followed by Richard Bell in 1937 and Arthur John Arberry in the 1950s.", "The Idler (1758–60)\nJohnson continues his history of translation. The art of translation into English began with Chaucer, who translated Boethius' \"Comforts of Philosophy\". However, Johnson criticises this translation as \"nothing higher than a version strictly literal\". When William Caxton began printing books in English, he at first concentrated solely on translations of French works. Not until the Restoration, however, did translators switch their attention from literal accuracy to elegance.", "Henry Edward Krehbiel\nKrehbiel translated some opera libretti, including: Nicolai's \"Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor\" (1886), Paderewski's \"Manru\" (1902), and Mozart's \"Der Schauspieldirektor\" (1916). (Dates given are the first performance of the English translation.) When Mozart's \"Così fan tutte\" was performed for the first time in the US, in 1922, it was in a new English version with a text by Krehbiel. He also translated the biography of Beethoven written by Alexander Wheelock Thayer, first published in English in 1921.", "Tirukkural translations into English\nFollowing the translation of the Kural text into Latin by Constantius Joseph Beschi in 1730, Nathaniel Edward Kindersley attempted the first English translation of the Kural text in 1794, translating select couplets in verse. Francis Whyte Ellis attempted the second English translation, who translated only 120 of the 1330 couplets of the Kural text—69 in verse and 51 in prose. In 1840, William Henry Drew translated the first book of the Tirukkural in prose. In 1852, he completed the second book, too, in prose. Along with his own English prose translation, his publication contained the original Tamil text, the Tamil commentary by Parimelazhagar and Ramanuja Kavirayar's amplification of the commentary. He thus covered chapters 1 through 63, translating 630 couplets. John Lazarus, a native missionary, revised Drew's work and completed the remaining portion, beginning from Chapter 64 through Chapter 133. Thus, Drew and Lazarus together made the first complete prose translation of the Tirukkural available in English. Meanwhile, there were two more verse translations made in 1872 and 1873 by Charles E. Gover and Edward Jewitt Robinson, respectively. While Gover translated only select couplets, Robinson translated the first two books of the Kural text. The first complete verse translation and the first complete translation by a single author was achieved in 1886 by George Uglow Pope, whose work brought the Tirukkural to a wider audience of the western world.", "Fontamara\nInnocenzo is a tax collector and helps the authorities enforce laws in Fontamara. He first appears in the first chapter, as they say he used to hand out the warnings that the electricity would be cut off. A carter in a nearby town hints that if he returns he will be shot. He is always badly treated by the Fontamaresi who cannot pay the taxes and is almost always in the company of the rich and powerful, so much so that he is reduced to a servant by the Impresario's wife. He arrives in Fontamara because cav. Pelino had reported talk against the government and the Church, and new laws are put into place. There is a curfew for the Fontamaresi, which severely disadvantages them because they need to be up early to work in the fields, and he puts up a sign forbidding talk of politics in public places. In this place is it forbidden to talk of politics ([12] p.133) Berardo makes a speech against Innocenzo saying that if they cannot speak they cannot reason and if they cannot reason they cannot live, and with that a humiliated Innocenzo returns to the main city.[11]", "Fontamara\nFontamara (film), 1980, directed by Carlo Lizzani. , March - May 1936 by Victor Wolfson", "Eric Mosbacher\nMosbacher's wife, Gwenda David, introduced him to the work of Ignazio Silone, and the pair translated Silone's anti-Fascist novel \"Fontamara\" in 1934. Often working in collaboration with his wife, Mosbacher continued translating in parallel with his other jobs.", "Bible translations into English\nEarly Modern English Bible translations are of between about 1500 and 1800, the period of Early Modern English. This, the first major period of Bible translation into the English language, began with the introduction of the Tyndale Bible.[7] The first complete edition of his New Testament was in 1526. William Tyndale used the Greek and Hebrew texts of the New Testament (NT) and Old Testament (OT) in addition to Jerome's Latin translation. He was the first translator to use the printing press – this enabled the distribution of several thousand copies of his New Testament translation throughout England. Tyndale did not complete his Old Testament translation.[8]", "Fontamara\nMario Bellisario,\"Ricordi di una Civiltà Scomparsa\", Carabba editore, Lanciano, 2004,ISBN88-95078-39-X Pietro Spezzani, Fontamara di Silone: grammatica e retorica del discorso popolare, Liviani, Padova, 1979 Carmelo Aliberti, Come leggere \"Fontamara\" di Silone, Mursia, Milano, 1983 Raffaele La Capria, Introduzione a Fontamara, Rizzoli, Milano, 1989, ISBN88-17-13747-2 Ignazio Silone, Fontamara, a cura di Mirella Zocchi, Mondadori ISBN88-04-23496-2 Lizzani, Carlo et al. \"Fontamara: dal Romanzo di Ignazio Silone edito da Mondadori\" ERI, 1980 Magill, Frank Northen and Dayton Kohler. \"Masterpieces of world literature in digest form\" Harper & Row, 1969 Stefano Mercanti. The rose and the lotus: partnership studies in the works of Raja Rao. Rodopi, (31 March 2010) pp.80–. ISBN978-90-420-2833-3. Siegal, Paul N. \"Revolution and the 20th-century novel\", Pathfinder Press, 1979 Chapter 4 Giuseppe Alberto Traldi (1973). Realism and nonrealism in Ignazio Silone's fontamara. Frank Northern Magill (1984). Critical survey of long fiction: Foreign language series. Salem Press. ISBN978-0-89356-373-8.", "English Reformation\nThe publication of William Tyndale's English New Testament in 1526 helped to spread Protestant ideas. Printed abroad and smuggled into the country, the Tyndale Bible was the first English Bible to be mass produced; there were probably 16,000 copies in England by 1536. Tyndale's translation was highly influential, forming the basis of all later English translations. An attack on traditional religion, Tyndale's translation included an epilogue explaining Luther's theology of justification by faith, and many translation choices were designed to undermine traditional Catholic teachings. Tyndale translated the Greek word \"charis\" as \"favour\" rather than \"grace\" to de-emphasize the role of grace-giving sacraments. His choice of \"love\" rather than \"charity\" to translate \"agape\" de-emphasized good works. When rendering the Greek verb \"metanoeite\" into English, Tyndale used \"repent\" rather than \"do penance\". The former word indicated an internal turning to God, while the latter translation supported the sacrament of confession.", "Fontamara\nA wealthy businessman, known as The Contractor in many English translations. He is an enemy of the people of Fontamara. The cafoni see him as a person of authority who makes himself rich through scams. The first description of him shows his evil nature and how he can create wealth from anything. Gossip aside, there was no doubt that this extraordinary man had found America in our district. He had found the recipe to make gold out of pins. Someone said he had sold his soul to the devil in exchange for wealth, and perhaps he was right. Anyway, after the police investigation of the banknotes, the impresario's authority grew enormously. He represented the Bank. He had at his disposal a large factory producing banknotes. The previous owners began to tremble before him. With all this, we don't know how he could have turned down the position of mayor ([12] p.60). In another description by Matalè, we see that even though the Fontamaresi hated him, they could not help admiring him and when they see him arrive they sense that he is a powerful character and they feel uneasy. However he does not listen to them nor take their views into consideration because he sees them as inferior to him. He approached, talking animatedly with some of the workers, he was in his work clothes, with his jacket over his arm, a water level in one hand, a folding ruler protruding from his trouser pocket, shoes whitened with lime. No-one, who did not know him, would have supposed that he was the richest man in the region and the new head of the town ([12] p.71).[11] There is a banquet held at his house to celebrate his appointment to podestà, which he refuses to attend claiming to be too busy and says to his wife that the guests won't be offended. I know them. Give them drink, give them plenty to drink, and they won't be offended." ]

[ "History of the Jews in the Roman Empire\nThe history of the Jews in the Roman Empire traces the interaction of Jews and Romans during the period of the Roman Empire (27 BC – AD 476). Their cultures began to overlap in the centuries just before the Christian Era. Jews, as part of the Jewish diaspora, migrated to Rome and Roman Europe from the Land of Israel, Asia Minor, Babylon and Alexandria in response to economic hardship and incessant warfare over the land of Israel between the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires. In Rome, Jewish communities enjoyed privileges and thrived economically, becoming a significant part of the Empire's population (perhaps as much as ten percent).[1]" ]

[ "Amalric of Jerusalem\nDuring Baldwin III's reign, the County of Edessa, the first crusader state established during the First Crusade, was conquered by Zengi, the Turkic emir of Aleppo. Zengi united Aleppo, Mosul, and other cities of northern Syria, and intended to impose his control on Damascus in the south. The Second Crusade in 1148 had failed to conquer Damascus, which soon fell to Zengi's son Nur ad-Din. Jerusalem also lost influence to Byzantium in northern Syria when the Empire imposed its suzerainty over the Principality of Antioch. Jerusalem thus turned its attention to Egypt, where the Fatimid dynasty was suffering from a series of young caliphs and civil wars. The crusaders had wanted to conquer Egypt since the days of Baldwin I, who died during an expedition there. The capture of Ascalon by Baldwin III made the conquest of Egypt more feasible.", "Islam in Palestine\nRival dynasties and revolutions led to the eventual disunion of the Muslim world. During the 9th century, Palestine was conquered by the Fatimid dynasty, centered in Egypt. During that time the region of Palestine became again the center of violent disputes followed by wars, since enemies of the Fatimid dynasty attempted to conquer the region. At that time, the Byzantine Empire continued trying to recapture the territories they previously lost to the Muslims, including Jerusalem. The Christian inhabitants of Jerusalem, who expressed their support to the Byzantine Empire were killed by the Muslim authorities. Palestine once again became a battleground as the various enemies of the Fatimids attacked. At the same time, the Byzantine Romans continued to attempt to regain their lost territories, including Jerusalem. Christians in Jerusalem who sided with the Romans were put to death for high treason by the ruling Muslims. In 969, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, John VII, was put to death for treasonable correspondence with the Romans.", "Bar Kokhba revolt\nJewish leaders carefully planned the second revolt to avoid the numerous mistakes that had plagued the first Great Jewish Revolt sixty years earlier. In 132, the revolt, led by Simon bar Kokhba and Elasar, quickly spread from Modi'in across the country, cutting off the Roman garrison in Jerusalem. Although Rufus was in charge during the early phase of the uprising, he disappears from the record after 132 for unknown reasons. Shortly after the eruption of the revolt, Bar Kokhba's rebels inflicted heavy casualties to Legio X Fretensis, based in Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). At that point, Legio VI Ferrata was sent to reinforce the Roman position from Legio base in Yizrael Valley, fielding altogether some 20,000 Roman troops, but was unable to subdue the rebels, who nearly conquered Jerusalem.", "Jesus\nIn AD 6, Judea, Idumea, and Samaria were transformed from a client kingdom of the Roman Empire into an imperial province, also called Judea. A Roman prefect, rather than a client king, ruled the land. The prefect ruled from Caesarea Maritima, leaving Jerusalem to be run by the High Priest of Israel. As an exception, the prefect came to Jerusalem during religious festivals, when religious and patriotic enthusiasm sometimes inspired unrest or uprisings. Gentile lands surrounded the Jewish territories of Judea and Galilee, but Roman law and practice allowed Jews to remain separate legally and culturally. Galilee was evidently prosperous, and poverty was limited enough that it did not threaten the social order.", "History of the Jews in the Roman Empire\nThe Roman general Pompey in his eastern campaign established the Roman province of Syria in 64 BC and conquered Jerusalem in 63 BC. Julius Caesar conquered Alexandria c. 47 BC and defeated Pompey in 45 BC. Under Julius Caesar, Judaism was officially recognised as a legal religion, a policy followed by the first Roman emperor, Augustus. Herod the Great was designated ‘King of the Jews’ by the Roman Senate in c. 40 BC, the Roman province of Egypt was established in 30 BC, and Judea proper, Samaria and Idumea (biblical Edom) were converted to the Roman province of Iudaea in 6 AD. Jewish-Roman tensions resulted in several Jewish–Roman wars, 66-135 AD, which resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple and institution of the Jewish Tax in 70 and Hadrian's attempt to create a new Roman colony named Aelia Capitolina c. 130.", "The Book of Abraham (novel)\nThe book begins in 70 AD in Jerusalem during the siege of the city by the Romans just prior to the destruction of the Second Temple. Abraham, a Jewish scribe, his wife and two sons live in Jerusalem and have survived the siege. On the day when the Romans breach the city walls and set fire to the Second Temple, Abraham and his family successfully escape Jerusalem only to be stopped by a Roman platoon. The Roman soldiers incapacitate Abraham and rape and murder his wife. Abraham and his sons are later freed, but he is forced to surrender his scrolls to a Roman commander.", "Caesar's Messiah\nThe Zealots and Sicarii were also expecting a messiah, but they expected that their hero would defeat the Romans. Instead, as depicted in the Gospels, Jesus was highly critical of the Jewish priesthood, and the Jews were blamed for killing this Messiah, according to the Gospel texts. Furthermore, Atwill says that Josephus' narrative in \"The Jewish War\", is built around the idea that Daniel’s prophecy was fulfilled by Titus' conquest of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Second Temple. Atwill sees this as an ironic juxtaposition of events, as Titus Flavius (as the prophesied Second Coming of the Gospels' antisemitic Jesus) destroyed the Temple and conquered Jerusalem, and turned it over to the Romans.", "Sidon\nWhen Sidon fell under Roman domination, it continued to mint its own silver coins. The Romans also built a theater and other major monuments in the city. In the reign of Elagabalus, a Roman colony was established there. During the Byzantine period, when the great earthquake of AD 551 destroyed most of the cities of Phoenice, Beirut's School of Law took refuge in Sidon. The town continued quietly for the next century, until it was conquered by the Arabs in AD 636.\nOn 4 December 1110 Sidon was captured, a decade after the First Crusade, by King Baldwin I of Jerusalem and King Sigurd I of Norway. It then became the centre of the Lordship of Sidon, an important lordship in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Saladin captured it from the Crusaders in 1187, but German Crusaders restored it to Christian control in the Crusade of 1197. It would remain an important Crusader stronghold until it was finally destroyed by the Saracens in 1249. In 1260 it was again destroyed by the Mongols. The remains of the original walls are still visible.", "Historical background of the New Testament\nIn 64 BCE, the already partially Hellenized Judea was incorporated into the Roman Republic as a client kingdom when Pompey the Great conquered Jerusalem. The Romans treated Judea as a valued crossroads to trading territories, and buffer state against the Parthian Empire. Direct rule was imposed in 6 CE, and Roman prefects were appointed to maintain order through a political appointee, the High Priest. After the uprising by Judas the Galilean and before Pilate (26 CE), in general, Roman Judea was troubled but self-managed, and occasional riots, sporadic rebellions, and violent resistance were an ongoing risk.", "Sadducees\nThroughout the Second Temple Period, Jerusalem saw several shifts in rule. Alexander's conquest of the Mediterranean world brought an end to Persian control of Jerusalem (539 BCE–334/333 BCE) and ushered in the Hellenistic period. The Hellenistic period, which extended from 334/333 BCE to 63 BCE, is known today for the spread of Hellenistic influence. This included an expansion of culture, including an appreciation of Greek theater, and admiration of the human body. After the death of Alexander in 323 BCE, his generals divided the empire among themselves and for the next 30 years, they fought for control of the empire. Judea was first controlled by the Ptolemies of Egypt (r. 301–200 BCE) and later by the Seleucids of Syria (r. 200–167). King Antiochus Epiphanes of Syria, a Seleucid, disrupted whatever peace there had been in Judea when he desecrated the temple in Jerusalem and forced Jews to violate the Torah. Most prominent of the rebel groups were the Maccabees, led by Mattathias the Hasmonean and his son Judah the Maccabee. Though the Maccabees rebelled against the Seleucids in 164 BCE, Seleucid rule did not end for another 20 years. The Maccabean (a.k.a. Hasmonean) rule lasted until 63 BCE, when the Roman general Pompey conquered Jerusalem.", "Spread of Islam\nThe Great Muslim army siege Jerusalem, held by the Byzantine Romans, in November, 636 CE. For four months, the siege continued. Ultimately, the Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, Sophronius, an ethnic Arab, agreed to surrender Jerusalem to caliph Omar in person. The caliph, then at Medina, agreed to these terms and travelled to Jerusalem to sign the capitulation in the spring of 637. Sophronius also negotiated a pact with Omar, known as the Umariyya Covenant or Covenant of Omar, allowing for religious freedom for Christians in exchange for \"jizya\", a tax to be paid by conquered non-Muslims, called \"dhimmis\". Under Muslim Rule, the Christian and Jewish population of Jerusalem in this period enjoyed the usual tolerance given to non-Muslim theists.", "King of Tyre\nAfter Alexander the Great conquered Tyre in 332 BC, the city alternated between Seleucid (Syrian Greek) and Ptolemaic (Egyptian Greek) rule. Phoenicia came under the rule of the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC.Tyre was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century. The Crusaders conquered Tyre, which acted as the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem until this kingdom's fall in 1291. Tyre then became part of adjoining empires again (Ottoman Empire, Mamelukes), and finally of France and of independent Lebanon in the 20th century.", "Jewish history\nJudea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmoneans, but was conquered by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE and reorganized as a client state. Roman expansion was going on in other areas as well, and would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, Herod the Great was appointed \"King of the Jews\" by the Roman Senate, supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as the Herodian dynasty. Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, Herod Archelaus ruled the tetrarchy of Judea as ethnarch, the Romans denying him the title of King. After the Census of Quirinius in 6 CE, the Roman province of Judaea was formed as a satellite of Roman Syria under the rule of a prefect (as was Roman Egypt) until 41 CE, then procurators after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see Anti-Judaism in the pre-Christian Roman Empire). In 30 CE (or 33 CE), Jesus of Nazareth, an itinerant rabbi from Galilee, and the central figure of Christianity, was put to death by crucifixion in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of Judaea, Pontius Pilate. In 66 CE, the Jews began to revolt against the Roman rulers of Judea. The revolt was defeated by the future Roman emperors Vespasian and Titus. In the Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the Romans destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem and, according to some accounts, plundered artifacts from the temple, such as the Menorah. Jews continued to live in their land in significant numbers, the Kitos War of 115–117 CE nothwithstanding, until Julius Severus ravaged Judea while putting down the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136 CE. 985 villages were destroyed and most of the Jewish population of central Judaea was essentially wiped out, killed, sold into slavery, or forced to flee. Banished from Jerusalem, except for the day of Tisha B'Av, the Jewish population now centred on Galilee and initially in Yavne. Jerusalem was renamed Aelia Capitolina and Judea was renamed Syria Palestina, to spite the Jews by naming it after their ancient enemies, the Philistines. Jews were only allowed to visit Aelia Capitolina on the day of Tisha B'Av.", "Jerusalem\nWhen Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire, Jerusalem and Judea came under Macedonian control, eventually falling to the Ptolemaic dynasty under Ptolemy I. In 198 BCE, Ptolemy V Epiphanes lost Jerusalem and Judea to the Seleucids under Antiochus III. The Seleucid attempt to recast Jerusalem as a Hellenized city-state came to a head in 168 BCE with the successful Maccabean revolt of Mattathias and his five sons against Antiochus IV Epiphanes, and their establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom in 152 BCE with Jerusalem as its capital.", "Islamization of Jerusalem\nIn 1099, The Fatimid ruler expelled the native Christian population before Jerusalem was conquered by the Crusaders, who massacred most of its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants when they took the solidly defended city by assault, after a period of siege; later the Crusaders created the Kingdom of Jerusalem. By early June 1099 Jerusalem’s population had declined from 70,000 to less than 30,000.", "Pella, Jordan\nThis sponsorship by the Romans meant that the city was sure to flourish under imperial rule, but also meant that the city would have to be subject to a complete Roman overhaul when it came to art and architecture. In order for the Romans to assert their power and cultural influence in the newly colonized city, they integrated Roman civic architecture and city planning into the pre-existing Greek city and built up temples, theaters, and colonnaded streets. Pella also represents a significant location when it comes to the Jewish faith, as well as the early days of Christianity. It has been said that the city was the site of one of Christianity's earliest churches, making it a pilgrimage site for early Christians and modern Christians today. According to Eusebius of Caesarea, Pella was a refuge for Jerusalem Christians in the 1st century AD who were fleeing the Jewish–Roman wars. \nAccording to Epiphanius, the disciples had been told by Christ to abandon Jerusalem because of the siege it was about to undergo. \nThe fighting finally stopped when Jerusalem was destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD.", "Pinhas Rutenberg\nThe formidable achievement of Rutenberg was the hydroelectric power station at Naharayim on the Jordan River, which opened in 1930, and earned him the nickname \"\"The Old Man of Naharayim\"\". Other power plants were built in Tel Aviv, Haifa, Tiberias which supplied all of Palestine. Jerusalem was the only part of the Mandatory Palestine not supplied by Rutenberg's plants. The concession for Jerusalem was granted by the Ottoman Empire to Greek Euripides Mavromatis. After Palestine was conquered by British forces, Mavromatis resisted Palestine Electric Company's attempts of building a power station that would serve \nJerusalem. Only in 1942, when his British-Jerusalem Electric Corporation failed to supply the demands of the city, did the Mandatory government ask the Palestine Electric Company to take over the responsibility for supplying electricity to Jerusalem.", "Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah\nWith the Byzantine army shattered and routed, the Muslims quickly recaptured the territory that they conquered prior to Yarmouk. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high command, including Khalid, to decide on future conquests. They decided to conquer Jerusalem. The Siege of Jerusalem lasted four months after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to caliph Umar in person. 'Amr ibn al-'As suggested that Khalid should be sent as caliph, because of his very strong resemblance to Umar. Khalid was recognized and eventually, Umar came and the Jerusalem surrendered on April 637. After Jerusalem, the Muslim armies broke up once again. Yazid's corps went to Damascus and captured Beirut. Amr and Shurahbil's corps went on to conquer the rest of Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, at the head of a 17,000 strong army moved north to conquer whole of the northern Syria.", "Herod's Palace (Jerusalem)\nEvidence shows that Crusaders fortified and heightened the 15 foot thick Hasmonean city wall and that Arabs, who conquered Jerusalem in 637, did the same.", "Siege of Jerusalem (1244)\nThe 1244 Siege of Jerusalem took place after the Sixth Crusade, when the Khwarezmians conquered the city on July 15, 1244.", "History of Jerusalem during the Kingdom of Jerusalem\nJerusalem was conquered by the Christian First Crusade in 1099, after it had been under Muslim rule for 450 years.\nIt became the capital of the Christian Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, until it was again conquered by the Ayyubids in 1187.\nFor the next forty years, a series of Christian campaigns (the Third, Fourth and Fifth Crusades) attempted in vain to retake the city, until Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor leading the Sixth Crusade successfully negotiated its return in 1229.\nIn 1244, the city was taken by the Khwarazmian dynasty and mostly destroyed. After 1250, it came under the rule of the Mamluk sultanate and was gradually rebuilt during the later 13th century.", "Pompey\nPompey returned the Syrian cities the Jews had conquered to Syrian rule, thus bringing Judea back to its original territory. He rebuilt the city of Garara and restored seven inland cities and four coastal ones to its inhabitants. He made Jerusalem a tributary of Rome and made Judea a satellite of Syria. He put Marcus Aemilius Scaurus in charge of Syria \"as far as the river Euphrates and Egypt\" with two Roman legions. According to Josephus Pompey then went to Cilicia, taking Aristobulus and his children with him, and after this he returned to Rome. This contrasts with the account of Plutarch. The latter did not mention any action in Judea. He wrote that Pompey marched on Petra (the capital of the Kingdom of Nabataea) to confirm Aretas, who wanted to become a friend of Rome. It was while he was encamped near Petra that he was told that Mithridates was dead. He then left Arabia and went to Amisus (Samsun), in Pontus, on the north coast of Anatolia (see above). Josephus did write that Pompey marched on Nabataea, but did not mention the reason for this. However, he also marched to Judea to deal with Aristobulus. He did not mention whether he actually reached Petra before turning to Judea. He learned of the death of Mithridates when he was marching towards Jerusalem. When he completed matters in Judea he went to Cilicia instead of Amisus. Cassius Dio gave a brief account of Pompey's campaign in Judea and wrote that after this he went to Pontus, which fits with Plutarch writing that he went to Amisus.", "Serbia in the Roman era\nThe Romans conquered parts of Serbia in 167 BC and established the province of Illyricum. What is now central Serbia was conquered in 75 BC when the province of Moesia was established. Srem is conquered by 9 BC and Backa and Banat in 106 AD after the Dacian wars.", "Islam in Palestine\nThe Muslim Arab army attacked Jerusalem, held by the Byzantine Romans, in November, 636. For four months the siege continued. Ultimately, the Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, Sophronius, agreed to surrender Jerusalem to Caliph Umar in person. Caliph Umar, then at Medina, agreed to these terms and traveled to Jerusalem to sign the capitulation in the spring of 637. Sophronius also negotiated a pact with Caliph Umar, known as the Umariyya Covenant or Covenant of Omar, allowing for religious freedom for Christians in exchange for \"jizyah\" (), a tax to be paid by conquered non-Muslims, called \"dhimmis.\" Under Muslim Rule, the Christian and Jewish population of Jerusalem in this period enjoyed the usual tolerance given to non-Muslim theists.\nHaving accepted the surrender, Caliph Umar then entered Jerusalem with Sophronius \"and courteously discoursed with the patriarch concerning its religious antiquities\". When the hour for his prayer came, Umar was in the Anastasis, but refused to pray there, lest in the future the Muslims should use that as an excuse to break the treaty and confiscate the church. The Mosque of Omar, opposite the doors of the Anastasis, with the tall minaret, is known as the place to which he retired for his prayer.", "Menorah (Temple)\nThe menorah from the Second Temple was carried to Rome after the Roman conquest of Jerusalem in 70 AD during the First Jewish–Roman War. The fate of the menorah used in the Second Temple is recorded by Josephus, who states that it was brought to Rome and carried along during the triumph of Vespasian and Titus. The bas relief on the Arch of Titus in Rome depicts a scene of Roman soldiers carrying away the spoils of the Second Temple, in particular, the seven-branched menorah, or candelabrum. For centuries, the Menorah was displayed as a war trophy at the Temple of Peace in Rome, a Roman temple paid for with spoils taken from the conquered city of Jerusalem. It was still there when the city was conquered by Vandals in 455. Its fate is unknown. While it may have been melted down or broken into chunks of gold by the conquerors, it has been variously claimed that it was destroyed in a fire; that it was taken to Carthage, and then to the Eastern Capitol of Rome at Constantinople, or that it sank in a shipwreck. Another persistent rumor is that the Vatican has kept it hidden for centuries. Some claim that it has been kept in Vatican City, others that it is in the cellars of the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran.", "Aelia Capitolina\nAelia Capitolina (; Latin in full: ) was a Roman colony, built under the emperor Hadrian on the site of Jerusalem, which was in ruins following the siege of 70 AD, leading in part to the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136 AD. \"Aelia Capitolina\" remained the official name of Jerusalem until 638 AD, when the Arabs conquered the city and kept the first part of it as 'إلياء' (Iliyā').", "Armenians in Lebanon\nArmenians first established contact with Lebanon when Tigranes the Great conquered Phoenicia from the Seleucids and made it part of his short-lived Armenian Empire. When the Roman Empire established its rule over both Armenia and ancient Lebanon, some Roman troops of Armenian origin went there in order to accomplish their duties as Romans. After Armenia converted to Christianity in 301, Armenian pilgrims established contact with Lebanon and its people on their way to Jerusalem; some of whom would settle there.", "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)\nThe Siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 CE was the decisive event of the First Jewish–Roman War. The Roman army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem, which had been controlled by Judean rebel factions since 66 CE, following the Jerusalem riots of 66, when the Judean provisional government was formed in Jerusalem.", "Jerusalem\nWhen the Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom. The First Temple period ended around 586 BCE, as the Babylonians conquered Judah and Jerusalem, and laid waste to Solomon's Temple and the city.", "History of Jerusalem\nWhen Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire, Jerusalem and Judea fell under Greek control and Hellenistic influence. After the Wars of the Diadochoi following Alexander's death, Jerusalem and Judea fell under Ptolemaic control under Ptolemy I and continued minting Yehud coinage. In 198 BCE, as a result of the Battle of Panium, Ptolemy V lost Jerusalem and Judea to the Seleucids under Antiochus the Great." ]

[ "2015 Vuelta a España\nThe 2015 Vuelta a España was a three-week Grand Tour cycling race. The race was the 70th edition of the Vuelta a España and took place principally in Spain, although two stages took place partly or wholly in Andorra, and was the 22nd race in the 2015 UCI World Tour. The 3,358.1-kilometre (2,086.6mi) race included 21 stages, beginning in Marbella on 22 August 2015 and finishing in Madrid on 13 September. It was won by Fabio Aru (Astana Pro Team), with Joaquim Rodríguez (Team Katusha) second and Rafał Majka (Tinkoff–Saxo) third." ]

[ "Miguel María Lasa\nMiguel María Lasa Urquía (born 2 November 1947 in Oiartzun) is a Spanish former road bicycle racer. He won four stages in the Vuelta a España as well as the Points classification in 1975 Vuelta a España. He also finished on the podium of Vuelta a España four times (1972, 1974, 1975, 1977). He also won two stages in the Tour de France and three stages in the Giro d'Italia.", "Grand Tour (cycling)\nThe prizes include the individual general classification, the team classification, the King of the Mountains, the points classification, and often the best young rider classification, in addition to other less known classifications. The most contested ones are the individual general classification (general classification in the Tour de France, general classification in the Giro d'Italia, and general classification in the Vuelta a España) ; king of the mountains classification (mountains classification in the Tour de France, mountains classification in the Giro d'Italia, and mountains classification in the Vuelta a España); and points classification (points classification in the Tour de France, points classification in the Giro d'Italia, and points classification in the Vuelta a España). Only three riders have won all three in the same race: Eddy Merckx in the 1968 Giro d'Italia and 1969 Tour de France, Tony Rominger in the 1993 Vuelta a España and Laurent Jalabert in the 1995 Vuelta a España.", "Angelo Conterno\nAngelo Conterno (13 March 1925 – 1 December 2007) was an Italian professional road racing cyclist during the 1950s and early 1960s who is most famous for becoming the first Italian to win the Vuelta a España. At the 1956 Vuelta after winning Stage 2 and capturing the golden jersey, Conterno, in one of the closest Vuelta's in history, outlasted Spaniard Jesus Loroño to win the overall title by just 13 seconds. The following year, Loroño won the 1957 Vuelta a España without Conterno in attendance.", "2008 Vuelta a España\nThe 2008 Vuelta a España was the 63rd edition of the Vuelta a España, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The race began with a team time trial on 30 August in Granada. The Vuelta came to a close twenty-three days later with a flat stage, which brought the peloton into the streets of Madrid. Nineteen teams entered the race, which was won by the Spaniard Alberto Contador of . Second and third respectively were the American Levi Leipheimer of and the Spanish Carlos Sastre of .", "Kas (cycling team)\nThe Kas team began operating in 1958, and in that year one of its riders, Fausto Izan, won a stage in the Vuelta a España. In 1959 the team signed the 1958 Spanish champion, Federico Bahamontes, who at that time had won two King of the Mountains classifications in both the Tour de France and the Vuelta a España. The Tour de France was disputed by national teams and Bahamontes won the Tour in 1959. Bahamontes left in 1960 but the team won the King of the Mountains in the 1960, 1961 and 1962 Vuelta a España with Antonio Karmay Mestre.", "2015 La Madrid Challenge by La Vuelta\nThe 2015 La Madrid Challenge by La Vuelta was held on 13 September 2015, in Madrid, Spain. It coincided with the final day of the 2015 Vuelta a España, and was scheduled a few hours before the conclusion to the men's race. A multi-lap course, the women's road cycling race was rated as a 1.1 category race. It was won by Shelley Olds (), who beat Giorgia Bronzini () and Kirsten Wild ().", "Mountains classification in the Vuelta a España\nThe mountains classification in the Vuelta a España is a secondary classification in the Vuelta a España. For this classification, points are given to the cyclists who cross the mountain peaks first. The classification was established in 1935, when it was won by Italian Edoardo Molinar, and until 2005 the leader in the mountain classification wore a green jersey. In 2006, it became an orange jersey, and in 2010 it became white with blue dots.", "Andrés Oliva\nAndrés Oliva (born December 7, 1948) was a former Spanish professional cyclist. Oliva was a great climber, so he ended up winning multiple Mountains Classifications. He won the Mountains Classification at the 1975 Giro d'Italia and the 1976 Giro d'Italia. Those were the only two years that Oliva raced the Giro d'Italia. In the 1975 edition Oliva finished 14th overall, that was his highest finish. Oliva also experienced success at the Vuelta a España. He won the Mountains Classification at the 1975 Vuelta a España, 1976 Vuelta a España, 1978 Vuelta a España. Oliva's highest finish at the Vuelta a España was eleventh overall, he did that in both 1978 and 1972. He retired from cycling in 1980.", "Joaquim Rodríguez\nRodríguez recorded notable results included fourteen Grand Tour stage victories, and five overall podium placings: second places at the 2012 Giro d'Italia and the 2015 Vuelta a España, and third place finishes at the 2010 Vuelta a España, the 2012 Vuelta a España and the 2013 Tour de France. He also finished first in the UCI world rankings in 2010, 2012 and 2013, and won classics such as the La Flèche Wallonne and the Giro di Lombardia twice (2012 and 2013). He also won stage races including the Volta a Catalunya twice (2010 and 2014), the 2015 Tour of the Basque Country and the 2011 Vuelta a Burgos.", "1984 Vuelta a España\nThe 39th \"Vuelta a España\" (Tour of Spain), a long-distance bicycle stage race and one of the 3 grand tours, was held from 17 April to 6 May 1984. It consisted of 19 stages covering a total of 3,593 km, and was won by Éric Caritoux of the Skil-Sem cycling team. Caritoux, a second year professional, had shown his climbing talent earlier that year by winning the stage up the Mont-Ventoux of the 1984 Paris–Nice but he did not enter the 1984 Vuelta a Espana thinking of the overall classification. On the 12th stage to Lagos de Covadonga an area in Asturias which includes one of the most important climbs of the Vuelta, Caritoux finished second behind the German Raimund Dietzen who was also riding his first Vuelta a España. Caritoux took the leader’s jersey from Pedro Delgado. Alberto Fernández was 32 seconds behind Caritoux in the general classification at that stage. Fernández had been third the year previously in the Vuelta a España and in the Giro d'Italia. On the stage 14 mountain time trial, Caritoux lost five seconds. Caritoux lost further time in the final individual time trial but still managed to finish the race with a slender lead of six seconds over Fernández, the smallest margin in the history of the Vuelta a España. Fernández died later on in 1984.", "Vuelta a España records and statistics\nIn previous Vueltas a España, sometimes a stage was split in two. On such occasions, only the cyclist leading at the end of the day is counted. The \"Leader's jerseys\" column gives the number of days that the cyclist \"wore\" the leader's jersey, the \"Vuelta wins\" column gives the number of times that the cyclist \"won\" the Vuelta. The next three columns indicate the number of times the rider won the points classification, the mountains classification, and the years in which the rider lead the general classification, with bold years indicating an overall Vuelta win.", "Luis Ocaña\nAfter his win in the Tour de France, Ocaña finished third and won the bronze medal in the world championship road race. He also won the Vuelta Ciclista al País Vasco in 1973 and finished fourth in the 1974 Vuelta a España, won by Fuente. Ocaña was unable to defend his Tour de France win in 1974 due to an injury sustained during the Midi-Libre. He finished fourth again in the 1975 Vuelta a España. In 1976, he was back to top form and finished third in Paris–Nice and second overall in the Vuelta a España, a minute behind José Pesarrodona.", "Movistar Team (men's team)\nThe team began in 1980 as the Reynolds team which José Miguel Echavarri as the directeur sportif.[3] In 1982 signed a young Pedro Delgado who acted as a domestique for team leader Ángel Arroyo during the 1982 Vuelta a España.[4] Arroyo won the Vuelta after his team controlled the race after he took the lead. But 48 hours after his Vuelta win, the results of a positive test were made known for Methylphenidate (Ritalin). Arroyo and the Reynolds team denied that Arroyo doped and asked for a B-analysis which confirmed the positive A-sample. Arroyo became the first winner of the Vuelta a España to be disqualified.[5] Delgado changed teams in 1985 but returned to Reynolds in 1988 where he won the 1988 Tour de France and then the 1989 Vuelta a España with the team. In 1984, Miguel Indurain made his professional debut with the team.", "List of teams and cyclists in the 2009 Vuelta a España\nThe list of teams and cyclists in the 2009 Vuelta a España contains the professional road bicycle racers who will compete at the 2009 Vuelta a España from 29 August–20 September 2009.", "1994 Vuelta a España\nThe 1994 Vuelta a España was the 49th edition of the Vuelta a España, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Vuelta started on April 25 with a short prologue around the Spanish city of Valladolid. The race came to a close on May 15 with a flat stage that stretched from Palazuelos de Eresma to the Spanish capital of Madrid. Seventeen teams entered the race, which was won by Tony Rominger of the team. Second and third respectively were the Spanish riders Mikel Zarrabeitia and Pedro Delgado.", "Emilio Rodríguez\nEmilio Rodríguez Barros (28 November 1923, Ponteareas, Spain – 21 February 1984, Ponteareas, Spain) was a Spanish professional road bicycle racer from Ponteareas who won the King of the Mountains classification at Vuelta a España three times and captured the overall title at the 1950 Vuelta a España. Rodríguez's two brothers were also professional cyclists - his older brother Delio won the 1945 Vuelta a España and in total won 39 stages at the Vuelta a España. Emilio's other brother Manolo finished second in the general classification of the edition that Emilio won.", "1999 Vuelta a España\nThe 1999 Vuelta a España was the 54th Vuelta a España, taking place from 4 September starting in Murcia and finishing in Madrid on 26 September 1999. It consisted of 21 stages over , ridden at an average speed of . The favourites were Laurent Jalabert, Alex Zülle, Jan Ullrich and defending champion Abraham Olano. In the end, Ullrich won the race.", "List of Vuelta a España general classification winners\nThe Vuelta a España was established in 1935 by the newspaper \"Informaciones\" following on from the success of the Tour de France and Giro d'Italia which had also been established by newspapers. The first race was won by Gustaaf Deloor, who won again the following year. The Vuelta was suspended for four years from 1937 to 1940 due to the Spanish Civil War. The first race after the civil war in 1941 was won by Julián Berrendero, who also won the following year. The Vuelta was suspended between 1943 and 1944 due to the Second World War. Delio Rodríguez won the first Vuelta after the war, Spanish riders won two more Vueltas in 1946 and 1948. The Vuelta was not held in 1949. Emilio Rodríguez was the victor in 1950, before the Vuelta was suspended from 1951 to 1954 as Spain's isolation during the Franco regime led to dwindling international interest in the race.", "Reimund Dietzen\nDietzen was a successful amateur winning the German cyclo-cross championship in 1980 and 1981 as well as winning in road races. He turned professional with the Swiss team Puch in 1982. He won the cyclo-cross race the Grand Prix Jean Bausch-Pierre Kellner that year. The following year he joined a Spanish cycling team Teka with whom he would stay with for the rest of his career. In his first year with his new team he won the Volta a la Comunitat Valenciana. The following year he became the champion of Germany in the road race and cyclo-cross as well his first stage victory in the Vuelta a España. He won the stage to the Lagos de Covadonga which is a very steep climb and a prestigious stage to win. He would finish that year's edition of the Vuelta third overall. The following year he was again cyclo-cross champion as well as the winner of the Vuelta a Cantabria. In 1986 he was again German road champion and won a second stage in the 1986 Vuelta a España. In 1987 he wore the leader's jersey in the 1987 Vuelta a España for five days before losing it to Herrera and then finishing the race second overall to Luis Herrera of Colombia. Dietzen finished the 1988 Vuelta a España second overall, this time to Sean Kelly of Ireland. In the 1989 Vuelta a España, Dietzen won a stage but several days later he crashed. He had ridden into a tunnel which was not illuminated and crashed, suffering career-ending injuries. He was only 30 years of age when the following year he stopped as a professional after not recovering. Seventeen years later, the Supreme Court of Spain ordered the organisers of the Vuelta a España to pay damages to Dietzen. Dietzen obtained nearly all of his success in Spanish races with wins in Vuelta a La Rioja, Vuelta a Castilla y León and the Setmana Catalana de Ciclisme. From 2003, Dietzen was a directeur sportif with the now-defunct Team Gerolsteiner. He currently lives in Spain.", "List of teams and cyclists in the 2006 Vuelta a España\nThe list of teams and cyclists in the 2006 Vuelta a España contains the professional road bicycle racers who competed at the 2006 Vuelta a España from August 26 to September 17, 2006.", "1988 Vuelta a España\nThe 1988 Vuelta a España was the 43rd Vuelta a España, taking place from 25 April to 15 May 1988. It was a bicycle race which consisted of 20 stages over , ridden at an average speed of . Sean Kelly started the race as the principal favourite after performance in the 1987 Vuelta a España in which he was leading the General classification with several days remaining in the race when he was forced to withdraw due to injury. Luis \"Lucho\" Herrera returned to defend his title while 1985 Vuelta winner Pedro Delgado had decided to ride the 1988 Giro d'Italia in preparation for the 1988 Tour de France. The BH team directed by Javier Mínguez, presented solid opposition with the strong climbers Álvaro Pino (winner of the 1986 Vuelta a España) and Anselmo Fuerte. In the end, Kelly won the race and became the first Irish winner of the Vuelta a España.", "List of Grand Tour general classification winners\nCyclists are ranked on the basis of their total wins in the three Grand Tours. When there is a tie between cyclists they are listed alphabetically by the Grand Tour they won. The majority of winners have come from Europe, however there have been a few notable victories for cyclists from other continents. Andrew Hampsten, became the first North American to win the Giro, when he won in 1988. The only South Americans to win a Grand Tour are Colombians Luis Herrera who won the 1987 Vuelta a España and Nairo Quintana, who won the 2014 Giro d'Italia and 2016 Vuelta a España. Luis Herrera became the first person from the Southern Hemisphere to win a Grand Tour by winning the 1987 Vuelta a España.", "List of teams and cyclists in the 2008 Vuelta a España\nThe list of teams and cyclists in the 2008 Vuelta a España contains the professional road bicycle racers who compete at the 2008 Vuelta a España from August 30 to September 21, 2008.", "List of Vuelta a España general classification winners\nContador won his second Vuelta in 2012. American Chris Horner, became the oldest Grand Tour winner at the age of 41, when he won the Vuelta in 2013. Contador won the race for the third time in 2014, as he beat Chris Froome by 1' 10\". Fabio Aru won in 2015, taking the red jersey from Tom Dumoulin in the second-to-last stage thanks to an excellent team strategy. Tactics played a key role in Nairo Quintana's 2016 win, when he aligned with Contador on the fifteenth stage and blew the race apart. In 2017, after six attempts which included three second-place finishes, Froome finally won the race that had eluded him and completed the rare Tour-Vuelta double, having just come off of his fourth Tour de France victory. A year later, after a heartbreaking final few days in the Giro d'Italia, Simon Yates won the 2018 edition, giving Great Britain its second consecutive Vuelta win and becoming the first country to win all three Grand Tours in the same year with three different riders, and only the third instance that one nation has one all three Grand Tours in a season (the last occurring ten years ago when Spain's Alberto Contador won the 2008 Giro d'Italia and Vuelta a España, and Carlos Sastre won the Tour de France). A.  Roberto Heras was the winner at the podium ceremony in Madrid on the last day of the 2005 Vuelta a España, but subsequently was found to have tested positive for performance-enhancing drugs during stage 20 of the race. The Spanish cycling federation found him guilty of using Erythropoietin during the race and stripped him of his title, awarding the win to Denis Menchov. However, in 2012 Roberto Heras was reinstated as the 2005 Vuelta a España champion when Spain's supreme court ruled in favor of Heras, citing procedural violations relating to the storage and handling of the urine samples.\nGeneral", "List of Vuelta a España general classification winners\nRoberto Heras holds the record of most victories with four, although his win in 2005 was only official after a successful appeal in court overturning his initial disqualification for EPO in the 2005 race. Alberto Contador and Tony Rominger have both won three times. Spanish cyclists have won the most Vueltas; 23 cyclists have won 29 Vueltas between them. French cyclists are second with nine victories and Belgian riders are third with seven wins. The current champion is Simon Yates of , who won the 2018 Vuelta a España.", "List of Vuelta a España general classification winners\nAlexander Vinokourov won the 2006 Vuelta a España with the team. Menchov won his second tour in 2007. Alberto Contador won the 2008 Vuelta; the victory meant he became the fifth cyclist to win all three Grand Tours. Alejandro Valverde was the victor in 2009. The following year Valverde was unable to defend his title after being suspended for two years for his involvement in the Operación Puerto doping case. Vincenzo Nibali won the 2010 Vuelta. Juan José Cobo won the 2011 Vuelta a España by thirteen seconds.", "Sport in Slovakia\nThe best known Slovak cyclists currently competing are Peter Sagan and brothers Martin and Peter Velits. Sagan won three stages of the 2011 Vuelta a España, and at the 2012 Tour de France he won three more stages and the points classification. He repeated his victory in the points classification in the 2013 Tour and won another stage, and subsequently retained his points jersey in 2014, 2015 and 2016. He won the Road Race World Championship in 2015, 2016 and 2017. Peter Velits was classified second at the 2010 Vuelta a España after initial runner-up Ezequiel Mosquera was disqualified for a positive test for Hydroxyethyl starch. He and his HTC Columbia team also won the race's initial team time trial stage, and he won the race's individual time trial on stage 17.", "1970 Vuelta a España\nThe 1970 Vuelta a España was the 25th Vuelta a España, taking place from 23 April to 12 May 1970. It consisted of 19 stages over , ridden at an average speed of . The race revealed Augustín Tamames as a contender for the future at the Vuelta as Tamames riding in his first Vuelta held in the final week the race lead until the final individual time trial when Luis Ocaña time trialled himself into the lead. Ocaña had finished runner up in the previous edition of the race and won the two time trials in the 1970 Vuelta. It would be Ocaña’s only win in the Spanish race.", "List of teams and cyclists in the 2007 Vuelta a España\nThe list of teams and cyclists in the 2007 Vuelta a España contains the professional road bicycle racers who compete at the 2007 Vuelta a España from September 1 to September 23, 2007." ]

[ "Mastering the Art of French Cooking\nMastering the Art of French Cooking is a two-volume French cookbook written by Simone Beck and Louisette Bertholle, both of France, and Julia Child of the United States.[1] The book was written for the American market and published by Knopf in 1961 (Volume 1) and 1970 (Volume 2). The success of Volume 1 resulted in Julia Child being given her own television show, The French Chef, one of the first cooking programs on American television. Historian David Strauss argues that the publication of Mastering the Art of French Cooking, \"did more than any other event in the last half century to reshape the gourmet dining scene.\"[2]" ]

[ "Mastering the Art of French Cooking\nVolume 1 was immensely successful, and work on Volume 2 began around 1964, as a collaboration between Simone Beck and Julia Child, but not Louisette Bertholle. By the end of 1960, Beck and Child had grown frustrated with Bertholle because they felt she did not contribute enough to Mastering the Art of French Cooking to merit co-authorship and one third of the book's proceeds, and wanted Knopf to change the byline to read \"by Simone Beck and Julia Child with Louisette Bertholle.\" Beck argued, \"it is bad for the book for her to present herself as Author, as she really does not cook well enough, or know enough,\" and that Bertholle should only be entitled to 10% of the profits (to Beck and Child's 45% each). Ultimately, the contract with the publisher necessitated that Bertholle be given a co-author credit, and the final profit split was 18% to Bertholle and 41% each to Beck and Child. The dispute left Bertholle extremely upset, and effectively severed the professional partnership between herself and Beck and Child.[7]", "Julia Child\nChild starred in four more series in the 1990s that featured guest chefs: \"Cooking with Master Chefs\", \"In Julia's Kitchen with Master Chefs\", \"Baking with Julia\", and \"Julia Child & Jacques Pépin Cooking at Home\". She collaborated with Jacques Pépin many times for television programs and cookbooks. All of Child's books during this time stemmed from the television series of the same names.", "Houghton Mifflin Harcourt\nIn 1961, Houghton Mifflin famously passed on Julia Child's \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\", giving it up to Alfred A. Knopf who published it in 1962. It became an overnight success and is considered by many to be the bible of French cooking. Houghton Mifflin's strategic error was depicted in the 2009 film \"Julie & Julia\".", "Julia Child\nThe three would-be authors initially signed a contract with publisher Houghton Mifflin, which later rejected the manuscript for seeming too much like an encyclopedia. Finally, when it was first published in 1961 by Alfred A. Knopf, the 726-page \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\" was a best-seller and received critical acclaim that derived in part from the American interest in French culture in the early 1960s. Lauded for its helpful illustrations and precise attention to detail, and for making fine cuisine accessible, the book is still in print and is considered a seminal culinary work. Following this success, Child wrote magazine articles and a regular column for \"The Boston Globe\" newspaper. She would go on to publish nearly twenty titles under her name and with others. Many, though not all, were related to her television shows. Her last book was the autobiographical \"My Life in France\", published posthumously in 2006 and written with her grandnephew, Alex Prud'homme. The book recounts Child's life with her husband, Paul Cushing Child, in post-World War II France.", "Meryl Streep\nIn 2009, Streep played chef Julia Child in Nora Ephron's \"Julie & Julia\", co-starring with Stanley Tucci, and again with Amy Adams. (Tucci and Streep had worked together earlier in \"Devil Wears Prada\".) The first major motion picture based on a blog, \"Julie and Julia\" contrasts the life of Child in the early years of her culinary career with the life of young New Yorker Julie Powell (Adams), who aspires to cook all 524 recipes in Child's cookbook \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\". Longworth believes her caricature of Julia Child was \"quite possibly the biggest performance of her career, while also drawing on her own experience to bring lived-in truth to the story of a late bloomer\". In Nancy Meyers' romantic comedy \"It's Complicated\" (also 2009), Streep starred with Alec Baldwin and Steve Martin. She received nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for both \"Julie & Julia\" and \"It's Complicated\"; she won the award for \"Julie & Julia\", and later received her 16th Oscar nomination for it. She also lent her voice to Mrs. Felicity Fox in the stop-motion film \"Fantastic Mr. Fox\".", "Julie Powell\nWhile working for the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation in August 2002, Powell began the Julie/Julia Project, a blog chronicling her attempt to cook all the recipes in Julia Child's \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\". The blog quickly gained a large following, and Powell signed a book deal with Little, Brown and Company. The resulting book, \"Julie and Julia: 365 Days, 524 Recipes, 1 Tiny Apartment Kitchen\", was published in 2005. The paperback edition was retitled \"Julie and Julia: My Year of Cooking Dangerously\".", "Julia's Kitchen Wisdom\nThe book \"Julia's Kitchen Wisdom\" accompanied a TV special of the same name and was compiled by co-author David Nussbaum, who had worked with Child and Jacques Pépin on their book of the previous year, \"Julia and Jacques Cooking at Home\". It was Child's last published book before her death in 2004 and was intended as a quick reference for common kitchen techniques rather than a comprehensive cookbook in the manner of 1961's \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\" or 1989's \"The Way To Cook\".", "Julia Child\nChild is reported to have been unimpressed by Powell's blog, believing Powell's determination to cook every recipe in \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\" in a year to be a stunt. In an interview, Child's editor, Judith Jones, said of Powell's blog:", "Helen McCully\nBy 1960, McCully had become an icon in the food industry, bringing noted chefs together, serving as a mentor, a contact with peers, and hosting regular culinary salons in her Upper East Side apartment. Though she had a somewhat abrasive manner, McCully was very influential counting among her friends both American and foreign chefs. Helen Evans Brown and James Beard were close friends and colleagues. While running the kitchens for \"McCall's\" magazine, she allowed Beard to use the kitchens for his cooking school and helped many chefs gain notice. When Julia Child first envisioned writing articles on French cooking and publishing cookbooks, McCully told her that though the recipes were well constructed, they would seem overwhelming to most cooks. When Child finally agreed that the recipes must be simplified, she still had trouble finding a publisher. McCully read the manuscript for \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\" and gave it to Jacques Pépin, for whom she had become a surrogate mother, telling him she thought it had merit. Pépin had only been in the United States a few months, when he met McCully through Craig Claiborne, the noted food editor of the New York Times and she took him under her wing. Pépin was impressed with Child's manuscript, McCully invited her over to dinner for the two to meet, and a life-long collaboration and partnership emerged.", "Louisette Bertholle\nAfter World War II, Louisette Bertholle, who had the idea of writing a French cookbook for American cooks, met Simone Beck via the \"Le Cercle des Gourmettes\" culinary club and the two began to develop the concept further, collecting recipes and testing them. Their initial attempts at writing were unsuccessful, however their idea was rekindled in 1949 when they met Julia Child. Bertholle and Beck did successfully publish the short cookbook \"What's Cooking in France\" in 1952, and the three women founded their own cooking school, L'Ecole des Trois Gourmandes, in 1951. The latter was created to give French cooking lessons to American women living in Paris, and Child, as well as Beck, would wear the school's logo on her blouse when appearing on television.", "Julia Child\nJulia Carolyn Child (née McWilliams; August 15, 1912 – August 13, 2004) was an American chef, author and television personality. She is recognized for bringing French cuisine to the American public with her debut cookbook, \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\", and her subsequent television programs, the most notable of which was \"The French Chef\", which premiered in 1963.", "Julie &amp; Julia\nTo do something she enjoys, she decides to cook every recipe in \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\" (1961) by Julia Child (Streep) in one year; Powell decides to write a blog to motivate herself and document her progress. She is initially met with criticism from her mother, who finds that the task is pointless, but she begins to gain a following. Eric supports her in this.", "Julia Child\nChild's second book, \"The French Chef Cookbook,\" was a collection of the recipes she had demonstrated on the show. It was soon followed in 1971 by \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking, Volume Two,\" again in collaboration with Simone Beck, but not with Louisette Bertholle, with whom the professional relationship had ended. Child's fourth book, \"From Julia Child's Kitchen,\" was illustrated with her husband's photographs and documented the color series of \"The French Chef,\" as well as provided an extensive library of kitchen notes compiled by Child during the course of the show.", "École des trois gourmandes\nL'école des trois gourmandes (The School of the Three Happy Eaters) was a cooking school founded in Paris, France, during the 1950s by Julia Child, Simone Beck, and Louisette Bertholle. The work done by the school was later expanded into the two-volume \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\" series, published in 1961 and 1970, and Child wore the logo of the school as a badge for much of her television career.", "Mastering the Art of French Cooking\nChild became increasingly frustrated with the project as work on Volume 2 went on. Not only was she agitated by the demands of the publisher, she was growing tired of working with Beck, who she felt was too demanding.[5] Child was also angry that, while Mastering the Art of French Cooking had been a runaway success in the United States, there was virtually no demand for the book in France itself, leading her to exclaim, \"French women don't know a damn thing about French cooking, although they pretend they know everything.\"[19] Her experience writing Volume 2, along with her continued success on television, led Child to sever her partnership with Beck and preclude the possibility of a Volume 3, even though Beck, Bertholle, and Child had always intended the work to span five volumes.[20]", "Coq au vin\nJulia Child included \"coq au vin\" in her 1961 cookbook \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\", and she prepared it twice on the PBS cooking show \"The French Chef.\" This exposure helped to increase the visibility and popularity of the dish in the United States, and coq au vin was seen as one of Child's signature dishes.", "Avis DeVoto\nDeVoto served as an early reader and editor for Child’s forthcoming cookbook, \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\", and her editorial connections would help Child and her co-authors Louise Bertholle and Simone Beck sign a contract with Houghton Mifflin in 1954. When the publishing company rejected the book, DeVoto helped push for the book’s publication by Alfred A. Knopf.", "Bernard DeVoto\nDeVoto married Avis DeVoto (1904-1989), a book reviewer, editor, and avid cook. She became friends with Julia Child. Child had written a fan letter to Bernard DeVoto regarding an article of his in \"Harper's Magazine\"; he had said that he detested stainless steel knives, which she thought \"100% right\". Avis' response began a long correspondence and friendship between the two women during Child's work on her groundbreaking \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\" (1961). Child acknowledged Avis as \"wet nurse\" and \"mentor\" to the undertaking. Their correspondence is held in the Schlesinger Library at the Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University, and selections appeared in the book, \"As Always, Julia\" (2010) The DeVotos' son Mark (b. 1940) is a music theorist, composer, and retired professor at Tufts University. Their older son, Gordon, a writer, died in 2009.", "Judith Jones\nJones's relationship with Julia Child similarly began when Jones became interested in Child's manuscript \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\", which had been rejected by a publishing house. After her years in Paris, Jones had moved to New York, where she was frustrated with the ingredients and recipes commonly available in the U.S. Jones said of the book \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\", \"This was the book I had been searching for,\" and she got it published. In America's postwar years, home cooking was dominated by packaged and frozen food, with an emphasis on ease and speed.", "Mastering the Art of French Cooking\nCritical perception of Mastering the Art of French Cooking has generally remained positive. In 2015, The Daily Telegraph ranked it as the second greatest cookbook of all time, behind Fergus Henderson's Nose to Tail Eating.[27] In a 2012 New York Times piece commemorating Julia Child's 100th birthday, Julia Moskin wrote that Mastering the Art of French Cooking should be credited with \"turning the tide\" on American food culture 1961, when \"trends including feminism, food technology and fast food seemed ready to wipe out home cooking.\" Moskin added that, \"in its fundamental qualities, the book and its many successors in the Child canon aren't dated at all. Their recipes remain perfectly written and rock-solid reliable.\"[28] By contrast, in 2009, food writer Regina Schrambling published a piece in Slate entitled, \"Don't Buy Julia Child's Mastering the Art of French Cooking,\" where she argued that the book now \"seems overwhelming in a Rachael Ray world,\" its recipes overly complicated and unsuited for modern American tastes.[29]", "The Way To Cook\n\"The Way To Cook\" differs from \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\" in numerous ways. While \"Mastering\" was a collaboration that co-authors Simone Beck and Louisette Bertholle had gotten underway before Child's involvement, \"The Way To Cook\" was a solo work written entirely by Child during the late 1980s. Another difference was that \"The Way To Cook\" did not focus entirely on French cuisine, on which her reputation had been built, but added a substantial number of recipes for traditional American dishes, especially those of New England, where Child's mother had come from and where Child had spent much of her life. In this, the book reflected the diversification of the cooking repertoire on Child's television show, \"Julia Child & Company,\" that had taken place since its premiere in 1978.", "Mastering the Art of French Cooking\nVolume 1 of Mastering the Art of French Cooking received overwhelmingly positive reviews when it was first released in 1961. In the New York Times, Craig Claiborne wrote that the recipes in the book \"are glorious, whether they are for a simple egg in aspic or for a fish souffle,\" and that it \"is not a book for those with a superficial interest in food...but for those who take a fundamental delight in the pleasures of cuisine.\"[17] Michael Field, writing for the New York Review of Books, praised Beck, Bertholle, and Child for \"not limiting themselves to la haute cuisine,\" and stated that \"for once, the architectural structure of the French cuisine is firmly and precisely outlined in American terms.\" Field's sole criticism of the book was that the authors suggested dry vermouth as a substitute for white wine, as he felt the domestic vermouth available to American home cooks, the book's target audience, was \"bland and characterless.\"[22] Despite being a relatively expensive cookbook, retailing for $10 in 1965, Mastering the Art of French Cooking Volume 1 did well commercially, selling over 100,000 copies in less than five years.[22][5] According to Julia Child biographer Noel Riley Fitch, the publication of Mastering the Art of French Cooking instantaneously changed the entire American cookbook industry, leading more cookbook publishers to place emphasis on clarity and precision, and away from the \"chatty and sometimes sketchy\" style that had typified American cookbooks.[23]", "Julie &amp; Julia\nEphron's screenplay is adapted from two books: \"My Life in France\", Child's autobiography written with Alex Prud'homme, and a by Powell, \"Julie & Julia: 365 Days, 524 Recipes, 1 Tiny Apartment Kitchen\" (later retitled \"Julie & Julia: My Year of Cooking Dangerously\"). Both of these books were written and published in the same time frame (2004–06). Powell's book was based on her blog \"The Julie/Julia Project\", where she had started documenting online her daily experiences cooking each of the 524 recipes in Child's \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\". The film is the first major motion picture based on a blog.", "Avis DeVoto\nAvis DeVoto (May 22, 1904 – 1989) was an American culinary editor, book reviewer and cook. She was highly influential in editing and guiding two famous cookbooks to publication: Julia Child's \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\" and British food writer Elizabeth David's \"Italian Food\".", "Mastering the Art of French Cooking\nMastering the Art of French Cooking Volume 1 was originally published in 1961 after some early difficulties. Beck, Bertholle, and Child initially signed a contract with publisher Houghton Mifflin, but Houghton Mifflin grew uninterested in the project. Child recalled one editor telling her, \"Americans don't want an encyclopedia, they want to cook something quick, with a mix.\"[13] Beck, Bertholle, and Child refused to make requested changes to the manuscript, and Houghton Mifflin abandoned the project, writing that the book, as it stood, would be \"too formidable to the American housewife.\"[3] Judith Jones of Alfred A. Knopf became interested in the manuscript after it had been rejected. After spending several years in Paris, Jones had moved to New York, where she grew frustrated with the limited ingredients and recipes commonly available in the United States. Jones felt that the manuscript would offer a lifeline to middle-class women, like her, who were interested in learning how to cook French cuisine in America, and predicted that Mastering the Art of French Cooking, \"will do for French cooking here in America what Rombauer's The Joy of Cooking did for standard [American] cooking.\"[14][15] While Jones was enthusiastic about the book, Knopf had low expectations and invested very little into promoting it. In order to generate interest in the book, and without support from Knopf, Child appeared on several morning talk shows in 1961 to demonstrate recipes, which she later cited as the impetus for her own cooking show, The French Chef.[16]", "Mastering the Art of French Cooking\nIn the early 1950s, Simone Beck and Louisette Bertholle, French chefs who had trained at Le Cordon Bleu, sought to capitalize on the American market for French cookbooks and wrote and published a small recipe book for American audiences, What's Cooking in France, in 1952.[5] By the late 1950s, Beck and Bertholle were interested in writing a comprehensive guide to French cuisine that would appeal to serious middle-class American home cooks. Beck and Bertholle wanted an English-speaking partner to help give them insight into American culture, translate their work into English, and bring it to American publishers, so they invited their friend Julia Child, who had also studied at Le Cordon Bleu, to collaborate with them on a book tentatively titled \"French Cooking for the American Kitchen\".[6][7] The resulting cookbook, Mastering the Art of French Cooking, proved groundbreaking and has since become a standard guide for the culinary community.[8]", "Ruth Rogers\nAmong her culinary influences are Julia Child and her book \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\", and Marcella Hazan and her book \"The Classic Italian Cook Book\".", "Simone Beck\nThe first attempt at writing a cookbook wasn't successful, so Beck and Bertholle published the brief \"What's Cooking in France?\" in 1952. After that they published a booklet \"Le pruneau devant le fourneau: Recettes de cuisine\" (ca. 1952), Beck's only publication in French (for a copy, see Avis DeVoto Papers, A-167, #36). In 1949, after she had met Julia Child, she became inspired to write a French cookbook for Americans again. She, Child, and Bertholle together wrote \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking\", which was published in 1961. \"Mastering the Art of French Cooking, Vol. II\" (without Louisette Bertholle) followed in 1970, elaborating on several subjects (particularly baking and charcuterie) that the authors felt had received insufficient coverage in the first volume.", "Julia Child\nChild repeatedly recalled her first meal in Rouen as a culinary revelation; once, she described the meal of oysters, sole meunière, and fine wine to \"The New York Times\" as \"an opening up of the soul and spirit for me.\" In Paris, she attended the famous Cordon Bleu cooking school and later studied privately with Max Bugnard and other master chefs. She joined the women's cooking club \"Le Cercle des Gourmettes\", through which she met Simone Beck, who was writing a French cookbook for Americans with her friend Louisette Bertholle. Beck proposed that Child work with them to make the book appeal to Americans. In 1951, Child, Beck, and Bertholle began to teach cooking to American women in Child's Paris kitchen, calling their informal school \"L'école des trois gourmandes\" (The School of the Three Food Lovers). For the next decade, as the Childs moved around Europe and finally to Cambridge, Massachusetts, the three researched and repeatedly tested recipes. Child translated the French into English, making the recipes detailed, interesting, and practical." ]

[ "Francis Sheehy-Skeffington\nFrancis Sheehy Skeffington was born in Bailieborough, County Cavan, the only son of Joseph Skeffington, a school inspector, and Rose Magorian of County Down. His parents had been married at the Roman Catholic Chapel at Ballykinlar, Co. Down in 1869. Francis was educated initially at home by his father, and later at the Jesuit community in St Stephen's Green, Dublin." ]

[ "Francis Sheehy-Skeffington\nAfter graduating from University College, Skeffington worked as a freelance journalist, contributing to socialist and pacifist publications in Ireland, England, France and North America. In 1901-02 he taught in St Kieran's College in Kilkenny, where he was a colleague and friend of the school's English, French and history master Thomas MacDonagh; the two also lodged in the same house in Kilkenny City. He then took a job as the registrar of University College.", "Hanna Sheehy-Skeffington\nSheehy Skeffington was a founding member of the Irish Women Workers' Union and an author whose works deeply opposed British imperialism in Ireland. Sheehy Skeffington was a close friend of trade unionist and fellow suffragette Cissie Cahalan. The Irish Women's Franchise League was formed in November 1908, with Hanna Sheehy Skeffington among its founding members, along with her husband Francis Sheehy-Skeffington, Margaret Cousins and James Cousins. Although it began with only twelve founding members, the I.W.F.L grew to become one of the largest suffrage groups that existed in the early twentieth century. The I.W.F.L. was a militant organisation that focused on trying to fight issues like the lack of Irish Independence and the exclusion of women from the voting process in accordance with the Home Rule Bill and the absence of women's rights in general.", "Francis Sheehy-Skeffington\nThe raiding party, consisting of 25 men led by Bowen-Colthurst, along with Sheehy Skeffington who was held with his hands tied behind his back, left the barracks and headed towards Rathmines Road, where they intercepted two young men who were returning from a meeting of a religious sodality. On the pretext of the lateness of the hour, Bowen-Colthurst detained and threatened them, eventually shooting one of them: a 19-year-old mechanic named James Coade, who was left in the road and subsequently died of his wound.[36][37] Sheehy Skeffington witnessed this and protested against the shooting as the raiding party made its way through Rathmines. The party continued on down Lower Rathmines Road, and the soldiers stopped at the Portobello Bridge, where half of the men were left at a guardhouse along with Sheehy Skeffington. Bowen-Colthurst gave orders that the soldiers at the guardhouse were to monitor the further progress of the raiding party, and shoot Sheehy Skeffington if either his or their party came under attack from snipers.[36] He also ordered Sheehy Skeffington to say his last prayers in case this were to happen, and when Sheehy Skeffington refused, Bowen-Colthurst said prayers on his behalf.[28][38]", "Algernon Skeffington, 12th Viscount Massereene\nSkeffington was the eldest son of Clotworthy John Skeffington, 11th Viscount Massereene by Florence Whyte-Melville, only daughter of Major George Whyte-Melville. He succeeded his father as 12th Viscount Massereene and 5th Viscount Ferrard in 1905, both in the Peerage of Ireland; his inheritance included about 16,000 acres. They also held the title Baron Oriel, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, which gave them the right to sit in the House of Lords", "Richard Skeffington\nSkeffington was born after 1590, the second son of Sir William Skeffington, 1st Baronet of Fisherwick, Staffordshire, and his wife Elizabeth Dering of Surrenden Kent. He matriculated from Magdalene College, Cambridge in Autumn 1615. He was knighted on 20 August 1624. In 1625, he was elected Member of Parliament for Tamworth. He was elected MP for Staffordshire as a recruiter to the Long Parliament in 1646.\nSkeffington died in 1647 and was buried at Broxbourne, Hertfordshire where there is a monument.", "Terence Skeffington-Smyth\nTerence George Randall Skeffington-Smyth was born on 31 May 1905, the son of Lieutenant Colonel Geoffrey Henry Julian Skeffington-Smyth and Violet Frances Monckton-Arundell, daughter of George Monckton-Arundell, 7th Viscount Galway and Vere Gosling. He had two brothers, Captain Noel Edward Vere Fitz-Patrick (b. 1908) and Denys Bryan (b. 1911). His father was the son of Randall Skeffington Smyth and the Hon. Gertrude Fitz-Patrick, daughter of the 1st Lord Castletown. At the death of Bernard FitzPatrick, 2nd Baron Castletown, Colonel Skeffington Smyth took the name and Arms of Fitz-Patrick by deed poll.", "William Skeffington\nSir William Skeffington (c. 1465 – 31 December 1535), was a Lord Deputy of Ireland.", "Skeffington baronets\nThe Farrell-Skeffington, later Skeffington Baronetcy, of Skeffington in the County of Leicester, was created in the Baronetage of Great Britain on 27 June 1786 for William Farrell-Skeffington. The second Baronet used the surname Skeffington only. The title became extinct on his death in 1850.", "Owen Sheehy-Skeffington\nSheehy-Skeffington was brought up in Dublin, Ireland. His father, Francis Sheehy-Skeffington, was a pacifist and nationalist whose murder by firing squad, on the orders of Captain J.C. Bowen-Colthurst, during the week of the Easter Rising in 1916, became a cause célèbre. His mother, Hanna Sheehy-Skeffington, was a founder of the Irish Women's Franchise League. After her husband's murder she became increasingly nationalist, supporting the anti-Treaty IRA during the Irish Civil War.", "Francis Sheehy-Skeffington\nFrancis Sheehy Skeffington is often considered one of the martyrs of Ireland's 1916 Easter Rising;[28] He was killed for trying to prevent looting. Richard Ellman, the eminent biographer of James Joyce, passes on such a caricature when he writes that Sheehy Skeffington \"died at the hands of the British ... when he quixotically tried to dissuade the Dublin poor from looting,\" or again that he was \"arrested while trying to keep the Dublin poor from looting.\"[29]", "William Skeffington\nHe was Master of the Ordnance and a knight of the shire (MP) for Leicestershire from 1529–1535 in the reign of Henry VIII. He was also in 1529 appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland to Henry's son, the duke of Richmond, the nominal Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. He crossed over in August 1529, but his power was so circumscribed by instructions from Henry that the head of the Fitzgeralds, Gerald, 9th earl of Kildare, and not Skeffington, was the real governor of Ireland. In May 1531 Skeffington accepted the formal submission of the Gaelic leader Hugh Duff O'Donnell in Drogheda.", "Anthony Skeffington\nAnthony Skeffington (died after 1535) was an English-born cleric and judge in Ireland.", "Clotworthy Skeffington, 1st Earl of Massereene\nMassereene was the son of Clotworthy Skeffington, 4th Viscount Massereene and Lady Catherine Chichester, daughter of Arthur Chichester, 3rd Earl of Donegall. He succeeded to his father's title in 1738 and assumed his seat in the Irish House of Lords. He was made a Member of the Privy Council of Ireland in 1746, and on 28 July 1756 he was created Earl of Massereene in the Peerage of Ireland. He died suddenly just over a year later. ", "John Whyte-Melville-Skeffington, 13th Viscount Massereene\nJohn Clotworthy Talbot Foster Whyte-Melville-Skeffington, 13th Viscount Massereene and 6th Viscount Ferrard DL (22 October 1914 – 27 December 1992) was a British politician and landowner. He was also Baron of Loughneagh (1660, Ireland), 6th Baron Oriel (1790, Ireland), and 6th Baron Oriel (1821, UK), and served as a Deputy Lieutenant for County Antrim. He succeeded his father in 1956 and regularly attended the House of Lords.", "Anthony Skeffington\nHe was born in Skeffington, Leicestershire. He was a cousin (possibly a brother) of Sir William Skeffington, who served as Lord Deputy of Ireland in 1529–32 and 1534–5, and he probably came to Ireland in William's retinue. He was appointed Master of the Rolls in Ireland in 1530 and held that office (which at that time was mainly administrative rather than judicial in nature) until 1533.", "William Skeffington\nWilliam Skeffington was born in Skeffington Hall, Leicestershire, the eldest son of Thomas Skeffington by his wife, Mary. His brother John was the patriarch of the Massareene family. William was appointed High Sheriff of Leicestershire and Warwickshire for 1508, 1515 and 1521 in the reign of Henry VII and was knighted by that king for his services. In 1523, he received from Henry VIII property near Tunbridge that had belonged to the executed traitor Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham.", "Skeffington Hall\nIn the 16th century the house was the birthplace of Thomas Skevington, Bishop of Bangor and Sir William Skeffington, Lord Deputy of Ireland. It was later owned by William Farrell, whose son Sir William Farrell-Skeffington, 1st Baronet, an officer in the British Army, adopted the Skeffington surname and sold the Hall to the Tailby family just before his death in 1815.", "Francis Sheehy-Skeffington\nThe personal papers of Francis Sheehy Skeffington and his wife Hanna were donated to the National Library of Ireland. Details of the papers can be accessed online.[50]", "Frank Skeffington Carroll\nCarroll was born in Ireland, the second son of Bernard Carroll of Dublin.", "Hanna Sheehy-Skeffington\nSheehy Skeffington fought hard to get women the right to vote in Ireland, founding the IWFL in 1908 and also founding the publication \"The Irish Citizen\" with her husband. Her strong republican ties were also shown as she helped in the 1916 rising by delivering messages and food to the GPO.", "Humanist Association of Ireland\nOwen Sheehy-Skeffington, son of Francis Sheehy-Skeffington helped to set up the organisation.", "The Skeffington Arms Hotel\nThe Skeffington Arms is a small, 23 room, 3 star hotel with a large public bar in Galway, Ireland.", "Sir John Skeffington, 2nd Baronet\nSkeffington married Cicely Skeffington of Skeffington. He was succeeded in the baronetcy briefly by his son William (died 7 April 1652), then by a cousin, John Skeffington, the 4th baronet, who was the son of Sir Richard Skeffington, knight.", "Louie Bennett\nIn 1920 Bennett took over financial and editorial control of the Irish Women's Franchise League's paper, the \"Irish Citizen\". It was founded in 1912 to further the cause of the suffragettes and feminists in Ireland. It was first edited by James Cousins and Francis Sheehy Skeffington. In March 1913 Cousins left to work in England and later India, leaving Sheehy Skeffington as the sole editor. Sheehy Skeffington was murdered in 1916 by British soldiers during in the Easter rising, having been arrested while leafletting for a citizen group to prevent people from looting. Control of the paper was then given to Francis's widow Hanna Sheehy Skeffington, with Bennett's help. Bennett seemed an odd choice as editor; she had been outspoken against the policy of the \"Irish Citizen\" in the past. She had actually withdrawn her subscription to the paper the previous year. \nIn 1916 Hanna Sheehy Skeffington had relinquished her role to travel to America and campaign for justice after the death of her husband. This left Bennett as the joint editor of the paper with fellow IWFL member Mary Bourke-Dowling. During the time that Bennett took over the paper had a number of debts, and had shrunk from its original eight pages to four, with one of these pages consisting entirely of advertisements. To combat this, Bennett wanted more space to be given towards trade unions (to increase sales) and in 1920 the IWWU and the Irish Nurses' Organisation started using the paper as their official journal – despite Skeffington writing in it that it needed to stay distinctly unaffiliated to any party. \nIn 1920 Bennett told Skeffington that she would like to take over control of the paper and turn it into a feminist Labour paper. This proved the last straw for Skeffington, who ended their agreement. Skeffington's own interests started to shift away from the paper as a member of the Sinn Féin in 1920. \nBennett was left in control of the paper until its demise a few months later. Funding decreased due to its dwindling support and the ethos of the paper changing from a suffragette paper to a trade union organ. The printing press was destroyed by the Black and Tans. The final issue was published in September 1920.", "Francis Sheehy-Skeffington\nFrancis Sheehy Skeffington had always supported Home Rule for Ireland. After 1913 he had also supported his friend Thomas MacDonagh's more separatist Irish Volunteers; however he grew increasingly critical of the Volunteers' growing militarism, and in an open letter to MacDonagh published in 1915 in his own paper The Irish Citizen, Sheehy Skeffington wrote: \"As you know, I am personally in full sympathy with the fundamental objects of the Irish Volunteers ... [however,] as your infant movement grows, towards the stature of a full-grown militarism, its essence – preparation to kill – grows more repellent to me.\"[30]", "William Skeffington\nHe married secondly, Anne Digby, the daughter of Sir John Digby (d. May 1533) of South Luffenham, Rutland, by Katherine (née Griffin), widow of John Bellers (d. 27 January 1476), esquire, and daughter of Nicholas Griffin (d. 6 June 1482), esquire, \"de jure\" Baron Latimer, by Katherine Curzon, by whom he had several children, including a son Leonard Skeffington 'who served as a Lieutenant of the Tower of London, as a soldier in Ireland, and as a messenger who regularly represented his father at court'. Leonard Skeffington is credited with having invented the \"Scavenger's Daughter\", a torture device used in the Tower during the reign Henry VIII.", "William Farrell-Skeffington\nBorn William Charles Farrell in London, the eldest son of William Farrell of Skeffington Hall, he was appointed to an ensigncy in the 1st Foot Guards on 11 February 1761, and married Catherine Josepha Hubbard, eldest daughter of the merchant Michael Hubbard of Tenerife, on 9 December 1765. On 27 May 1768 he was appointed a lieutenant and captain in the 1st Guards, and on 11 June that year assumed the surname and arms of Skeffington by royal warrant, tracing his membership of that ancient Leicestershire family through his grandmother, Elizabeth Skeffington.", "Skeffington\nThe village's church is dedicated to St Thomas Becket and is a Grade II* listed building. It dates from the 13th century, but underwent a rebuild in 1860. There is jumbled medieval stained glass in the east chapel window, where damaged figures from a monument to Thomas Skeffington, sheriff of the county in Elizabethan times. There is also a 1651 monument to Sir John Skeffington, and several floor slabs commemorating other members of the family.", "Smyth baronets\nThe Smyth Baronetcy, of Tinny Park in the County of Wicklow, was created in the Baronetage of Ireland on 5 August 1776 for Skeffington Smyth, son of James Smyth of Tinny Park and grandson of Dr Edward Smyth, Bishop of Down and Connor and Mary Skeffington. He was appointed to the Privy Council of Ireland in 1785. The title became extinct on his death in 1797." ]

[ "Thermostat\nA thermostat exerts control by switching heating or cooling devices on or off, or by regulating the flow of a heat transfer fluid as needed, to maintain the correct temperature. A thermostat can often be the main control unit for a heating or cooling system, in applications ranging from ambient air control, to such as automotive coolant control. Thermostats are used in any device or system that heats or cools to a setpoint temperature, examples include building heating, central heating, air conditioners, as well as kitchen equipment including ovens and refrigerators and medical and scientific incubators." ]

[ "Smart thermostat\nSince the release of smart thermostats, a number of third party studies have been conducted to determine if smart thermostats actually save energy and how they compare to manual and programmable thermostats with regards to savings. One study conducted an experiment in which 300 standard programmable thermostats were placed in homes and 300 Nest smart thermostats were placed in other homes. It is important to note that the homeowners involved in this study received proper training on how to properly use all of the thermostat functions. This effectively eliminated the issues regarding human error with programmable thermostats. All homes were located within one region of Indiana and had previously underwent home energy assessment. After 1 year of observation, the study concluded that Nest users reduced their heating gas consumption by 12.5% while users of a standard programmable thermostat reduced consumption by 5%. Additionally, it was concluded that Nest and standard programmable thermostat users reduced their cooling electric consumption by 13.9% and 13.1%, respectively. The major factors that allowed Nest to reduce consumption more than other thermostats was its ability to further reduce human error and set more efficient temperatures. The Nest thermostat used sensors and Wi-Fi connectivity to adjust the temperature on its own and provide more savings. This study helps to suggest that smart thermostats are in fact successful in reducing energy consumption. [21]", "Smart thermostat\nOne of the main objectives of smart thermostats is to reduce the issues involved with using traditional programmable thermostats. In order to understand how smart thermostats take on this task, it is important to understand the issues regarding programmable thermostats and how they affect energy consumption. Between 2008-2009, Florida Power & Light (FPL) provided 400 home owners with programmable thermostats and monitored their heating and cooling patterns. Out of the 400 participants, 56% of users used the programming feature while the remaining participants did not program the thermostat and left it on “hold”. It was determined that the users who used the programming feature actually consumed 12% more energy than the non-programmers. This consumption increase resulted from higher overnight duty cycles associated with lower thermostat setpoints (i.e. lower temperature setting), due to confusion with setting the schedule. This study reveals that programmable thermostats will not necessarily save energy. The smart thermostat attempts to combat this issue by taking the user out of the picture and relying on sensors and computers to save energy.[7]", "Smart thermostat\nManual thermostats (also known as analog thermostats) are the oldest and simplest type of thermostats. These thermostats are set to one temperature and do not change until the user manually adjusts the temperature.[5]", "Ecobee\nThe ecobee4 is ecobee's flagship product which was originally launched May 3, 2017. It is a touchscreen thermostat that works with up to 32 remote temperature/motion sensors to adjust the thermostat based on where you are. It also has IFTTT integration. An updated version of the ecobee3 was released in 2015 that works with Apple HomeKit. The ecobee3 lite was released on October 17, 2016. The ecobee3 lite is a less expensive thermostat that resembles the ecobee3, but does not include any remote temperature sensors. Support for remote temperature sensors was added to the ecobee3 lite in March 2017.", "Smart thermostat\nA similar study conducted in 2012 with the ecobee thermostat also concluded that smart thermostats are capable of saving energy. The goal of this pilot program was to determine the gas and electric savings of smart thermostats. This study provided 86 households with 123 ecobee thermostats and monitored the homes for 12 months. The study included 69 houses from Massachusetts and 17 from Rhode Island. The participants either had manual or programmable thermostats before the study was conducted. Gas and electric billing data were provided for 12 months before the study was conducted to use as a baseline. After the 12 months of observation, the study concluded that ecobee thermostats led to an average electricity savings of 16% and an average gas savings of 10%. The gas savings for manual thermostat replacements (10% per thermostat) was found to be larger than for programmable thermostat replacements (8% per thermostat). The difference in electricity savings between homes whose prior equipment was a manual thermostat or programmable thermostat was found to be minimal. [1]", "Nest Learning Thermostat\nThe Nest Learning Thermostat (or Nest Thermostat) is a smart thermostat developed by Nest Labs and designed by Tony Fadell, Ben Filson, and Fred Bould.[1] It is an electronic, programmable, and self-learning Wi-Fi-enabled thermostat that optimizes heating and cooling of homes and businesses to conserve energy.[2]", "Smart thermostat\nAnother study conducted on the issue determined that the biggest problem for programmable thermostats was the human using it. The technology inside a programmable thermostat is no doubt one of the most important factors in determining whether or not the thermostat will be successful in saving energy. But an equally important factor is the human who is using the thermostat. Unfortunately, many people who own programmable thermostats do not know how to use the thermostat or are not using all of the features that are offered. One study conducted a number of interviews, surveys, and observations to determine that the vast majority of programmable thermostat owners are not using the thermostats for their intended purpose. An online survey showed that 89% of respondents do not use the schedule feature on their programmable thermostat. Other results from the interviews and surveys show that a large number of people have misconceptions about heating/cooling and the use of programmable thermostats. One misconceptions is people believing that heating all of the time is more efficient than scheduling the heat to turn off. Another misconception noted in the study is that turning down the thermostat does not substantially reduce energy consumption. These misconceptions reaffirm the idea that the programmable thermostat itself could have all of the necessary tools, but if the user does not use them or uses them incorrectly, then these thermostats will fail at saving energy.[6]", "Antonio Escohotado\n\"Chaos and Order\" criticises from a number of different perspectives this “professional infallibility”, arguing that we rather start to discern reality, after centuries aiming to adapt it to some theological or atheist faith’s ideal, thanks precisely to the understanding of the self-organisation phenomena. The work compares open and closed order modalities, some re-fed by the environment, such as the thermostat, and others isolated from it such as the clock, while ironising about the confusion between these two, as if the quarter and the convent’s order could be considered to be a synonym with what is real. Dogmatic thinking tries to do so by reducing, abstracting or forgetting as necessary in each case. But, according to Escohotado, doing so implies choosing the vicious circle to the detriment of the virtuous one - as Wiener’s says in his \"Cybernetics\"-, “ignoring the environment’s signals, as the clock which is sensitive only to its mainspring, in contrast with a thermostat which is permanently re-fed.”", "Smart thermostat\nAnother major feature of smart thermostats is their ability to connect to the internet. Smart thermostats are designed with a WiFi module that allows the thermostat to connect to the users home or office network and interface with a web portal or smartphone application, allowing users to control the unit remotely.[14] The WiFi feature also has the ability to send reports on energy usage and HVAC system performance via the web portal, informing the user on their energy efficiency and how it compares to other smart thermostat users. It also alerts users when a problem arises with their HVAC system or when it is time for equipment maintenance. The thermostat also uses the WiFi connection to display current weather conditions and the weather forecast. [1]", "Smart thermostat\nDevelopment of the smart thermostat began in 2007 with the creation of the ecobee thermostat. The founder of ecobee, Stuart Lombard, wanted to save energy and reduce his family's carbon footprint. After realizing that heating and cooling made up most of his home's energy usage[8], Lombard purchased a programmable thermostat in an attempt to reduce total energy usage. Lombard quickly discovered that the programmable thermostat was difficult to use and unreliable. Following difficulties with the programmable thermostat, he set out to create a smart thermostat that saved energy and was easy to use. With that goal, the ecobee company was created in attempt to offer users a thermostat that could truly save energy by fixing the issues with programmable thermostats.[9]", "Smart thermostat\nIn an attempt to mitigate the issues with human error involved with programmable thermostats, the smart thermostat utilizes a sensor that can determine occupancy patterns to automatically change the temperature based on occupant patterns and behaviors. The Nest Learning Thermostat in particular uses passive infrared (PIR) motion sensors inside the unit to sense occupancy in the vicinity of the thermostat. This sensor informs the thermostat whether or not the home is occupied. In the case that the home is not occupied, the thermostat can suspend heating/cooling until the sensor is reactivated by an occupant. This sensor is also used to determine the occupancy patterns to create the auto schedule. A grille member is placed in front of the sensor to visually conceal and protect the PIR motion sensor inside the thermostat. The grille also helps to make the thermostat visually pleasing.[2] While this sensor technology is important for conserving energy, it is not without flaws. One of the major issues is that the sensor must be activated by someone walking in front of or near the thermostat. It is possible that an occupant could be at home and not pass in front of the sensor. In this case, the thermostat would shut off the heating/cooling and decrease human comfort.[13]", "Molecular dynamics\nIt is not trivial to obtain a canonical ensemble distribution of conformations and velocities using these algorithms. How this depends on system size, thermostat choice, thermostat parameters, time step and integrator is the subject of many articles in the field.", "Sentroller\nMany of the new things connected to the Internet will be Sentrollers. Sentrollers are either actuators, sensors, controllers, or combinations of these three things. One simple example is a home thermostat. A thermostat is a sentroller as it senses the temperature in the home, checks whether the home or room in which the thermostat is monitoring temperature is at the desired temperature, and if not, turns on the heater or the air conditioner. Therefore, a thermostat is a sensor and a controller – a sentroller. No human interaction with the thermostat or the cloud will be necessary for the thermostat to keep the heat in the home at the right level.", "Smart thermostat\nSmart thermostats could be a solution to reducing energy consumption, as numerous studies have shown that these thermostats do in fact reduce home energy consumption.[1][19][20][21] Additionally, the technology within smart thermostats has proven to provide optimal occupant comfort, while still reducing energy consumption.[20] In addition to providing comfort, these technologies take the human out of the picture. Many sustainable devices rely heavily on how the user uses them. By relying on technology instead of human actions, smart thermostats reduce the amount of human error often experienced with other sustainable devices, such as the programmable thermostat. These factors suggest that installing a smart thermostat is one easy step than many people can take to reduce energy usage and greenhouse gas emissions, ultimately leading to a more sustainable future.", "Programmable thermostat\nMore expensive models have a built-in PID controller, so that the thermostat learns how the system will react to its commands. Programming the morning temperature to be 21° C at 7:00 AM, for instance, makes sure that at that time the temperature will be 21 °C. A standard programmable thermostat would simply start working toward 21° at 7:00 AM. The PID controller decides at what time the system should be activated in order to reach the desired temperature at the desired time. It knows this by remembering the past behavior of the room, and the current temperature of the room. This is called optimal start.", "Radiator (engine cooling)\nOn vintage cars you may find a bellows type thermostat, which has a corrugated bellows containing a volatile liquid such as alcohol or acetone. These types of thermostats do not work well at cooling system pressures above about 7 psi. Modern motor vehicles typically run at around 15 psi, which precludes the use of the bellows type thermostat. On direct air-cooled engines this is not a concern for the bellows thermostat that controls a flap valve in the air passages.", "Smart thermostat\nSmart thermostats are similar to programmable thermostats in the sense that they have a scheduling feature that allows users to set different temperatures for different times of the day. In addition to this feature, smart thermostats implement other technologies to reduce the amount of human error involved with using programmable thermostats. Smart thermostats incorporate the use of sensors that determine whether or not the home is occupied and can suspend heating or cooling until the occupant returns. Additionally, smart thermostats utilize Wi-Fi connectivity to give the user access to the thermostat at all times. These additional technologies have proven to make smart thermostats successful in saving users energy and money.[5]", "Smart thermostat\nOne of the issues with programmable thermostats that smart thermostats try to fix is the confusing user interface. Many owners of programmable thermostats found the controls and directions to be too confusing and opted out of using the scheduling feature completely. Others who used the feature used it incorrectly, due to the confusing directions, and saw an increase in energy usage.[6] Developers of smart thermostats have attempted to fix this issue by creating simple to use thermostats and providing proper direction. While this is an improvement on programmable thermostats, studies have shown that users desire more intense training from the installer of the thermostat on how to use the technical features. Additionally, many smart thermostats use a web portal where users can adjust the thermostat settings and look at their energy usage history. Again, studies have shown that users want this feature to be improved. Some complain that the web portal is not user friendly and they desire more training on how to use the web features during installation. [1]", "Thermostat\nHVAC systems with the ability to modulate their output can be combined with thermostats that have a built-in PID controller to achieve smoother operation. There are also modern thermostats featuring adaptive algorithms to further improve the inertia prone system behaviour. For instance, setting those up so that the temperature in the morning at 7a.m. should be 21°C (69.8°F), makes sure that at that time the temperature will be 21°C (69.8°F), where a conventional thermostat would just start working at that time. The algorithms decide at what time the system should be activated in order to reach the desired temperature at the desired time.[14] Other thermostat used for process/industrial control where ON/OFF control is not suitable the PID control can also makes sure that the temperature is very stable (for instance, by reducing overshoots by fine tuning PID constants for set value(SV)[15] or maintaining temperature in a band by deploying hysteresis control.[16])", "Thermostat\nOn many automobile engines, including all Chrysler Group and General Motors products, the thermostat does not restrict flow to the heater core. The passenger side tank of the radiator is used as a bypass to the thermostat, flowing through the heater core. This prevents formation of steam pockets before the thermostat opens, and allows the heater to function before the thermostat opens. Another benefit is that there is still some flow through the radiator if the thermostat fails.", "Smart thermostat\nOne issue with using a smart thermostat is the unreliability of the motion sensor. One of the main features of the smart thermostat is the ability to change the temperature when the sensor in the thermostat does not sense an occupant. The only sensor that is used though is the sensor in the thermostat. This means that if the home is occupied but no one walks passed the thermostat, the thermostat will think that the home is unoccupied and will change the temperature, potentially leading to occupant discomfort.", "Smart thermostat\nProgrammable thermostats, first introduced in the 1970s, are a type of thermostat that allows the user to set a schedule for different temperatures at different times. Most programmable thermostats also have a hold feature which suspends the schedule and effectively turns the thermostat into a manual thermostat.[5] The idea of the scheduling feature is that users will set a warmer or cooler temperature when the home is unoccupied to save energy and money. Due to this assumed energy savings, some building codes and government programs began requiring the use of programmable thermostats.[6] Unfortunately, due to human error in using these devices, many programmable thermostats result in more energy use than the basic manual thermostat. [7]", "Smart thermostat\nTo show that their thermostats save energy and money, numerous smart thermostat producers have conducted models and studies to confirm their savings claims. One popular way that smart thermostat producers calculate energy usage is through energy modeling. In these models, the smart thermostat is compared to a thermostat set at a constant temperature, and savings are calculated. Using this method, ecobee calculated energy savings by correlating how long heating and cooling equipment run to local weather conditions. Energy savings were calculated relative to a constant temperature of 72°F. Upon conducting this model, ecobee determined a 23% savings on heating and cooling costs for those who switch to their smart thermostat.[19] Using a similar modeling method, Nest claimed a 20% energy savings for home owners who install a Nest Learning Thermostat. [20]", "Programmable thermostat\nA programmable thermostat is a thermostat which is designed to adjust the temperature according to a series of programmed settings that take effect at different times of the day. Programmable thermostats may also be called setback thermostats or clock thermostats.", "Smart thermostat\nTo determine energy savings using actual data instead of energy models, in February 2015, Nest conducted a national study of Nest customers in 41 states who had enrolled in Nest's MyEnergy service. In May 2013, Nest acquired MyEnergy, a company that tracks and analyzes utility usage of people enrolled in the program. Upon acquiring MyEnergy, Nest was able to use the historical data to determine the energy savings of those who installed the Nest Learning Thermostat. This study looked at energy usage before and after the installation of a Nest Learning Thermostat and used a weather normalization procedure to prevent unusually cold or warm weather from skewing the data. The study had a sample size of 735 homes for gas usage analysis and 624 homes for electrical analysis. All of these homes were enrolled in the MyEnergy program and had sufficient energy data before and after the installation of a Nest Learning Thermostat. After observing the energy usage for one year, Nest determined that there was an average gas savings of 10% and a cooling savings of 17.5%. The savings varied from house to house depending on how occupants set their thermostat before the installation of a Nest thermostat, along with differences in occupancy patterns, house characteristics, and weather. [20]", "Smart thermostat\nFollowing the ecobee, EnergyHub released it's version of a smart thermostat in 2009 with the creation of the EnergyHub Dashboard. The co-founder of EnergyHub, Seth Frader-Thompson, got the idea for the Dashboard from his Prius. The Prius had screens on the dashboard that displayed the car's gas mileage in real time. Thompson felt that a house should have something that does the same. With that goal in mind, Thompson created a thermostat that could communicate with a home's furnace and appliances to determine the energy usage and efficiency and how much it was costing. The thermostat also had the capability to turn off appliances or raise and lower the temperature to save energy and cost. Ultimately, the goal of this thermostat was to display energy usage to users and to save energy and money. [10]", "John Adams (geographer)\nAdams is known for a theory of risk compensation, that states that a 'risk thermostat' guides much human behavior. Humans experiencing a 'safe' lifestyle seek out risky activities; but when doing them, overcompensate before returning to safety. This behaviour operates like a thermostat, regulating human behavior. He argues that because of the thermostat effect, banning risky activity will not work completely, and risk -seeking accompanies many aspects of everyday life. He spoke on this at the \"Shared Space\" conference held in Ipswich in June, 2005, where in his talk titled \"Risk Compensation versus the obedient automaton theory of human behaviour\" he discussed how understanding risk compensation was essential to the understanding of why shared space principles work for the design of public spaces such as road layouts in towns.", "Thermostatic mixing valve\nThese are single Outlet Thermostatic Mixing Valves, often called \"thermostatic faucets\", \"thermostat taps\" or \"thermostat valves\".", "Placebo button\nPlacebo thermostats work on two psychological principles, which are classical conditioning and the placebo effect. First, placebo thermostats work in accordance with classical conditioning. Classical conditioning was first discovered by Ivan Pavlov and is a type of learning which pairs a stimulus with a physiological response. Applied to placebo thermostats, this is when the employee adjusts the thermostat and hears the noise of hissing or a fan running and consequently physically feels more content. This is due to the countless trials involving the thermostat in their own home, which actually works. The employee has paired the sound of hissing or a fan running to being more physically content due to the actual temperature change and therefore when they experience the noise at work they feel the same way even though there is no change in temperature. As long as individuals get the result they are looking for (noise associated with temperature change) they will continue with the practice (changing the placebo thermostat). Additionally, placebo thermostats work due to the placebo effect. The placebo effect works on the basis that individuals will experience what they believe they will experience. This is attributed to Expectancy theory, which states that the placebo effect is mediated by overt expectancies. The most common example is in medical testing: inactive sugar pills are given to patients who are told they are actually medicine. Some patients will experience relief from symptoms regardless. According to expectancy theory, if people believe they are going to experience a temperature change after changing a placebo thermostat they may psychologically experience one without an actual change happening. Both psychological concepts of classical conditioning and the placebo effect may play a role in the effectiveness of placebo thermostats.", "Intentional stance\nEven when there is no immediate error, a higher-level stance can simply fail to be useful. If we were to try to understand the thermostat at the level of the intentional stance, ascribing to it beliefs about how hot it is and a desire to keep the temperature just right, we would gain no traction over the problem as compared to staying at the design stance, but we would generate theoretical commitments that expose us to absurdities, such as the possibility of the thermostat not being in the mood to work today because the weather is so nice. Whether to take a particular stance, then, is determined by how successful that stance is when applied." ]

[ "Sara Shepard\nPretty Little Liars Pretty Little Liars (2006) (ISBN978-0-06-088730-8) Flawless (2007) (ISBN978-0-06-088733-9) Perfect (2007) (ISBN978-0-06-088736-0) Unbelievable (2008) (ISBN978-0-06-088739-1) Wicked (2008) (ISBN978-0-06-156607-3) Killer (2009) (ISBN978-0-06-156611-0) Heartless (2010) (ISBN978-0-06-156614-1) Wanted (2010) (ISBN978-0-06-156617-2) Twisted (2011) (ISBN978-0-06-208101-8) Ruthless (2011) (ISBN978-0-06-208186-5) Stunning (2012) (ISBN978-0-06-208189-6) Burned (2012) (ISBN978-0-06-208192-6) Crushed (2013) (ISBN978-0-06-219971-3) Deadly (2013) (ISBN978-0-06-219974-4) Toxic (2014) (ISBN978-0-06-228701-4) Vicious (2014) (ISBN978-0-06-228704-5) Companion novels Alison's Pretty Little Diary (2010) (ISBN978-0-06-223336-3) Pretty Little Secrets (2012) (ISBN978-0-06-212591-0) Ali's Pretty Little Lies (2013) (ISBN978-0-06-223336-3) Pretty Little Love (2017) Pretty Little Lost (2017) The Lying Game The Lying Game (2010) (ISBN978-0061869716) Never Have I Ever (2011) Two Truths and a Lie (2012) Hide and Seek (2012) Cross My Heart, Hope to Die (2013) Seven Minutes in Heaven (2013) Companion novels The First Lie (2012) True Lies (2013) The Heiresses The Heiresses (2014) (ISBN978-0-06-225953-0) The Perfectionists The Perfectionists (2014) (ISBN978-0-06-207450-8) The Good Girls (2015) (ISBN978-0-06-207453-9) The Amateurs The Amateurs (2016) (ISBN978-1-48-474227-3) Follow Me (2017) (ISBN978-1-48-474228-0) Last Seen (2018) (ISBN978-1484742273) Adult fiction The Visibles (May 5, 2009) (ISBN978-1416597407) Everything We Ever Wanted (October 10, 2011) (ISBN978-0062080066) The Elizas (April 17, 2018) (ISBN978-1501162770)" ]

[ "E. H. Shepard\nShepard was recommended to A. A. Milne in 1923 by another \"Punch\" staffer, E. V. Lucas. Milne initially thought Shepard's style was not what he wanted, but used him to illustrate the book of poems \"When We Were Very Young\". Happy with the results, Milne then insisted Shepard illustrate \"Winnie-the-Pooh\". Realising his illustrator's contribution to the book's success, the writer arranged for Shepard to receive a share of his royalties. Milne also inscribed a copy of \"Winnie-the-Pooh\" with the following personal verse:", "For Whom the Bell Tolls (Pretty Little Liars)\n\"For Whom the Bell Tolls\" is the season finale of the first season of the American mystery-drama series \"Pretty Little Liars\", based on the novels written by Sara Shepard, and the twenty-second episode of the series overall. It originally aired on ABC Family in the United States on March 21, 2011. The episode was directed by Lesli Linka Glatter and written by I. Marlene King.", "Elliott Fitch Shepard\nShepard's estate included the $100,000 Tarsus American College endowment, $850,000 in real estate and $500,000 in personal property for a total of $1.35 million ($ in ). His will distributed money and property to his wife and children, his brother Augustus, and religious organizations. Shepard funded a number of scholarships and prizes, including one at the City University of New York and New York University's annual Elliott F. Shepard Scholarship, and in 1888 he donated a large collection of books originally from lawyer Aaron J. Vanderpoel's library to the New York University School of Law. A year later, Shepard created an endowment for periodicals, necessitating the creation of the university's first reading room. In 1897, Shepard's wife donated his 1,390-volume collection of law books to the library.", "Dindga McCannon\nMcCannon has also illustrated books for others: \"Omar at X-mas by Edgar White\", Lothrop, Lee & Shepard, and \"Speak to the Winds, African Proverbs\", written by K. O. Opuku, published by Lothrop, Lee & Shepard in 1972.", "Tegan and Sara\nOn October 27, 2009, Tegan and Sara released their sixth album \"Sainthood\", produced by Chris Walla and Howard Redekopp. The duo also put out a three-volume book set titled \"ON, IN, AT\", which is a collection of stories, essays, journals, and photos of the band on tour in America in the fall of 2008, writing together in New Orleans, and touring Australia. The photographs in the book are taken by Lindsey Byrnes and Ryan Russell. The album \"Sainthood\" debuted on the Billboard top 200 albums at number 21 selling 24,000 copies in its first week. While recording \"Sainthood\", Tegan and Sara spent a week writing songs together in New Orleans. The song \"Paperback Head\" was the only song written by the pair to appear on the album, making it the first song on any Tegan and Sara album that they wrote together. \"Spin\" magazine gave \"Sainthood\" four out of five stars and wrote, \"Tegan and Sara's music may no longer be the stuff of teens, but its strength remains in how much it feels like two people talking.\"", "Sara Shepard\nShepard's book series Pretty Little Liars and The Lying Game have both been turned into television series by ABC Family (now under the name of Freeform). The Pretty Little Liars series of novels is \"loosely based on her experiences growing up in Chester County.[3] The adaptation television series Pretty Little Liars lasted for 7 seasons. It also had a short-lived spin-off starring cast member Tyler Blackburn as Caleb Rivers, entitled Ravenswood.[4] Actresses Troian Bellisario, Ashley Benson, Shay Mitchell, and Lucy Hale star as the main characters Spencer Hastings, Hanna Marin, Emily Fields and Aria Montgomery. Shepard had a cameo on two episodes of the show: \"The Homecoming Hangover\" and \"I'm a Good Girl, I Am\".[5]", "Sara Kingdom\nSara's first use in tie-in material was in \"The Dalek Outer Space Book\" (cover dated 1966), the last of three Dalek annuals containing short stories and comic strips licensed by the BBC between 1963 and 1965. Here she is sent on the first SSS mission, tricking the Daleks into attempting to invade Barzilla by claiming there is a large seam of pure gold. When the Daleks attack, they are defeated by a surprise force.\nJohn Peel's two-book novelisation of \"Master Plan\" indicates that some six months elapsed between the seventh and eighth episodes of the serial, during which Sara, Steven and the Doctor travel together and have other adventures; Peel stated that this was in order to allow future writers to develop stories involving Sara. Sara subsequently appears in a short story entitled \"The Little Drummer Boy\" by Eddie Robson from the Big Finish book \"\". She is then heard in a trilogy of audio dramas in the Companion Chronicles range of Big Finish Productions. Written by Simon Guerrier, they feature Jean Marsh reprising her role as Kingdom.", "Liliʻuokalani\nOn October 13, 1896, the Republic of Hawaii gave her a full pardon and restored her civil rights. \"Upon receiving my full release, I felt greatly inclined to go abroad,\" Liliʻuokalani wrote in her memoir. From December 1896 through January 1897, she stayed in Brookline, Massachusetts, with her husband's cousins William Lee and Sara White Lee, of the Lee & Shepard publishing house. During this period her long-time friend Julius A. Palmer Jr. became her secretary and stenographer, helping to write every letter, note, or publication. He was her literary support in the 1897 publication of the Kumulipo translation, and helped her in compiling a book of her songs. He assisted her as she wrote her memoir \"Hawaii's Story by Hawaii's Queen\". Sara Lee edited the book published in 1898 by Lee & Shepard.", "Free Fall (Pretty Little Liars)\n\"Free Fall\" is the twentieth episode of the fourth season of \"Pretty Little Liars\", an American mystery drama television series based on the novel series written by Sara Shepard, and is the ninety-first episode of the series. The episode, directed by Melanie Mayron and written by Maya Goldsmith, originally aired on February 18, 2014 on ABC Family.", "The Lying Game (book series)\nThe Lying Game is a series of books by Sara Shepard published by HarperTeen. The first book in the series, \"The Lying Game\", was released in hardcover on December 7, 2010.\nWhile the book and the television series based on the books share most of the same characters, there are differences in regards to the characters between the two (with the biggest difference being that Sutton is deceased in the books, but alive in the television series):", "Sally Sara\nSara wrote a chapter in the book \"South Africa Lesotho & Swaziland\" by Mary Fitzpatrick. Sara has also written a chapter in the book \"\"Travellers' Tales Stories from ABC TV's Foreign Correspondents\"\" () which was published in 2004 which includes insights from the ABC's Foreign Correspondents.", "Matthew Shepard\nStephen Jimenez, the producer of the 2004 20/20 segment, went on to write a book, The Book of Matt: Hidden Truths About the Murder of Matthew Shepard, which was published in September 2013. The book said that Shepard and McKinney—the killer who inflicted the injuries—had been occasional sex partners and that Shepard was a methamphetamine dealer.[39][40][41] Jimenez wrote that Fritzen told an interviewer \"Matthew Shepard's sexual preference or sexual orientation certainly wasn't the motive in the homicide...\".[42]", "Mark David Gerson\nGerson's other books include \"Acts of Surrender: A Writer's Memoir\", released in 2012, \"Writer's Block Unblocked: Seven Surefire Ways to Free Up Your Writing and Creative Flow,\" released in 2013 and \"From Memory to Memoir: Writing the Stories of Your Life\", \"Organic Screenwriting: Writing for Film, Naturally\" and \"Birthing Your Book...Even If You Don't Know What It's About\", all published in 2014. His latest series of books is \"The Sara Sara Stories\", comprising \"Sara's Year\", \"After Sara's Year\" and \"The Emmeline Papers\", set in London, Nova Scotia and his native Montreal.", "Pretty Little Liars (season 1)\nThe first season of Pretty Little Liars, based on the books of the same name by Sara Shepard, premiered on June 8, 2010 and concluded on March 21, 2011 on ABC Family.", "Pretty Little Liars (novel)\nPretty Little Liars is the first book in the \"Pretty Little Liars\" series by Sara Shepard. It tells the story of four girls - Hanna, Aria, Emily and Spencer - after the disappearance of their clique leader, Alison. The book was written for the book packaging company Alloy Entertainment, the idea originally developed as a TV series.", "Ashdown Forest\nAshdown Forest is famous as the setting for the \"Winnie-the-Pooh\" stories, written by A. A. Milne. The first book, \"Winnie-the-Pooh\", was published in 1926 with illustrations by E. H. Shepard. The second book, \"The House at Pooh Corner\", also illustrated by Shepard, was published in 1928. These hugely popular stories were set in and inspired by Ashdown Forest.", "Mona Vanderwaal\nMona Vanderwaal is a fictional character and main antagonist in the \"Pretty Little Liars\" book series by Sara Shepard and its Freeform television series adaptation. In the TV series, she is portrayed by Janel Parrish.", "Mary Shepard\nMary Eleanor Jessie Knox née Shepard (25 December 1909 – 4 September 2000) was an English illustrator of children's books. She is best known for the \"Mary Poppins\" stories written by P. L. Travers (1934 to 1988): \"Mary Shepard: Putting Mary Poppins in the picture\", \"The Times\" of London titled an obituary article. She used her married name Mary Knox outside the publishing industry.", "Frank Shepard\nIn the same year, he also designed and published the first of his many citation books, \"Illinois Citations.\" (Traditionally, the date is given as 1873, but there is evidence that he did not begin until 1875.) Shepard was surely aware of George R. Wendling's citation index, since it was published by the very firm for whom he had worked as a salesman, E.B. Myers & Co. Shepard envisioned and announced in his first publication that he would issue citation books for all the states. ", "Alan Shepard\nOn May 5, 1961, Shepard piloted the Mercury-Redstone 3 mission and became the second person, and the first American, to travel into space.[67] He named his spacecraft, Mercury Spacecraft 7, Freedom 7.[62] It was launched atop a Redstone rocket. According to Gene Kranz in his book Failure Is Not an Option, \"When reporters asked Shepard what he thought about as he sat atop the Redstone rocket, waiting for liftoff, he had replied, 'The fact that every part of this ship was built by the lowest bidder.'\".[68]", "Unleashed (Sara Humphreys book)\nUnleashed is a paranormal/suspense novel written by American author Sara Humphreys. Published in 2011, it is the first book in her The Amoveo Legend Series, which to date has 7 titles.", "Sara Shepard\nShepard currently resides in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[3]", "Sara Shepard\nShepard's father, Bob, was American, and her mother, Mindy, was born in Toronto.[1] Shepard grew up with a sister named Alison. She graduated from Downingtown High School in Downingtown, Pennsylvania in 1995. She attended New York University, where she graduated with a B.S. degree in 1999 and an MFA in Creative Writing from Brooklyn College in 2004.[2] From 2000 to 2005, Shepard worked at Time, Inc. Custom Publishing and produced lifestyle magazines for corporate clients. She started ghostwriting as a freelancer in 2002 and writing her own books in 2005.[2]", "Sara Shagufta\nIndian author Amrita Pritam, also a close friend of Sara, wrote two books based on the life and worksd of Sara; \"Ek Thi Sara\" (1990) and \"Life and Poetry of Sara Shagufta\" (1994). \"Main Sara\" (Lit. I am Sara), a play written by Shahid Anwar, is based on the life of Sara. \"Sara Ka Sara Aasman\", another play written by Danish Iqbal and directed by Tarique Hameed, is also based on the life of Sara. Based on Amrita Pritam's books on Sara, The play was presented by Wings Cultural Society at All India Radio's Urdu Theatre Festival in 2015.", "Sara Shepard\nSara Shepard (born April 8, 1977) is an American author. She is known for the bestselling Pretty Little Liars and The Lying Game book series, both of which have been turned into television shows on Freeform.", "Sam Shepard\nIn 2010, \"A Lie of the Mind\" was revived in New York at the same time as Shepard's new play \"Ages of the Moon\" opened there. Reflecting on the two plays, Shepard said that the older play felt \"awkward\", adding, \"All of the characters are in a fractured place, broken into pieces, and the pieces don't really fit together,\" while the newer play \"is like a Porsche. It's sleek, it does exactly what you want it to do, and it can speed up but also shows off great brakes.\" The revival and the new play also coincided with the publication of Shepard's collection \"Day out of Days: Stories\". The book includes \"short stories, poems and narrative sketches... that developed from dozens of leather-bound notebooks [Shepard] carried with him over the years.\"", "Jim Shepard\nSeveral features characterize Shepard's writings, including a tendency to finish his stories with what Charles Baxter called an \"\"in medias res\" ending\", or an ending in the middle of the plot's events; a thematic focus on what Shepard calls the \"costs of certain kinds of ethical passivity\"; and a preference for events-driven plots that fight against what Shepard terms \"the tyranny of the epiphany\", referencing the more psychological, less active plots popularized by short story writers such as James Joyce. Additionally, Shepard writes from the point of view of characters of a wide variety of nationalities.", "A (Pretty Little Liars)\n\"A\" is a fictional character created in 2006 by author Sara Shepard. It is a character of both \"Pretty Little Liars\"' books and television series, and primarily appears as a stalker and the main antagonist of the stories. \"A\" is one of the main characters of the stories, appearing anonymously in the majority of the episodes and books.", "Lady Grace Mysteries\nThe first three books, \"Assassin\", \"Betrayal\", \"Conspiracy\", and the later \"Feud\", were written by Patricia Finney, and the other books are co-written by Sara Volger and Jan Burchett. All authors write under the pseudonym \"Grace Cavendish\".", "Brighton Belle (novel)\nBrighton Belle is a novel written by Scottish writer Sara Sheridan. The book was first published by Polygon Books in 2012 and is the first in the series of the Mirabelle Bevan mysteries." ]

[ "Goldfish\nAs of April 2008, the largest goldfish in the world was believed by the BBC to measure 19 inches (48cm), and be living in the Netherlands.[12] At the time, a goldfish named \"Goldie\", kept as a pet in a tank in Folkestone, England, was measured as 15 inches (38cm) and over 2 pounds (0.91kg), and named as the second largest in the world behind the Netherlands fish.[12] The secretary of the Federation of British Aquatic Societies (FBAS) stated of Goldie's size that \"I would think there are probably a few bigger goldfish that people don't think of as record holders, perhaps in ornamental lakes\".[12] In July 2010, a goldfish measuring 16 inches (41cm) and 5 pounds (2.3kg) was caught in a pond in Poole, England, thought to have been abandoned there after outgrowing a tank.[13]" ]

[ "English Mastiff\nThe greatest weight ever recorded for a dog, , was that of an English Mastiff\nfrom England named Aicama Zorba of La Susa, although claims of larger dogs, including Saint Bernards, Tibetan Mastiffs, and Caucasian ovcharkas exist. According to the 1989 edition of the Guinness Book of Records, in March 1989, when he was 7 years old, Zorba stood at the shoulder and was 8 ft 3 in (251 cm) from the tip of his nose to the tip of his tail, about the size of a small donkey. After 2000, the Guinness Book of World Records stopped accepting largest or heaviest pet records.", "The Geoff Show\n\"Did you ever catch your parents having or talking about sex\"? \n\"What weird way do you communicate with your pet(s)\"? \n\"Does your pet lead a double life\"? \"Shyness is nice...\"", "Pet Sounds\nBy the 1990s, three British critics' polls featured \"Pet Sounds\" at or near the top of their lists. Those who have deemed it \"the greatest album of all time\" include \"NME\", \"The Times\", and \"Uncut\". In 1998, the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences inducted the album into the Grammy Hall of Fame. In 2004, \"Pet Sounds\" was preserved in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant.\" As of 2006, more than 100 domestic and international publications and journalists have lauded \"Pet Sounds\" as one of the greatest albums ever recorded. It has been viewed by some writers as the best pop rock album of all time, including Tim Sommer who deemed it \"the greatest album of all time, probably by about 20 or 30 lengths\". As of 2015, Acclaimed Music, which statistically aggregates hundreds of published lists, ranked \"Pet Sounds\" as the most acclaimed album of all time. The position was previously held by \"Revolver\" and was overtaken by \"Pet Sounds\" in 2004.", "Pet Sounds\nIn Chris Smith's book \"101 Albums That Changed Popular Music\" (2009), \"Pet Sounds\" is evaluated as \"one of the most innovative recordings in rock\"; that it \"elevated Brian Wilson from talented bandleader to studio genius\". Dominique Leone wrote a 9.4 (out of 10) review of its \"40th Anniversary\" edition for \"Pitchfork\" stating: \"Certainly, regardless of what I write here, the impact and 'influence' of the record will have been in turn hardly influenced at all. I can't even get my dad to talk about \"Pet Sounds\" anymore. ... The hymnal aspect of many of these songs seems no less pronounced, and the general air of deeply heartfelt love, graciousness and the uncertainty that any of it will be returned are still affecting to the point of distraction.\" Music journalist Robert Christgau felt that \"Pet Sounds\" was a good record, but believed it had become looked upon as a totem. Composer Atticus Ross explained that the album has \"an element of cliché that's grown around it\". He references a sketch from the television show \"Portlandia\" in which \"your classic hipster musicians ... are building a studio and everything is like 'this is the mike they used in \"Pet Sounds\".' This is exactly the same as \"Pet Sounds\".'\" Commentator C.W. Maloney mused: \"The songs on \"Pet Sounds\" are great, but you have to wonder, given all the hype and mythology and our love of shallow nostalgia, what we mean when we call it a classic or Wilson a genius. Consider what [Frank] Zappa was doing in 1966, to say nothing of Miles [Davis]. Wilson's high reputation is evidence of our obsession with childlike innocence and the victory of boring poptimism.\"", "Comet (goldfish)\nThe comet or comet-tailed goldfish is a single-tailed goldfish bred in the United States. It is similar to the common goldfish, except slightly smaller and slimmer, and is mainly distinguished by its long deeply forked tail. \nComet goldfish tend to have a diverse variety of colors, unlike the common house pet goldfish. ", "Lemony Snicket bibliography\n\"Goldfish Ghost\", illustrated by Lisa Brown, the wife of Daniel Handler, was released in May 2017. The picture book details what happens after a pet goldfish dies.", "Pocket pet\nOther small animals, like reptiles, birds, fish, and amphibians, e.g. lizards, snakes, turtles, goldfish, canaries, and frogs, may not be considered \"pocket pets\".", "Goldfish\nLike all fish, goldfish do not like to be petted. In fact, touching a goldfish can endanger its health, because it can cause the protective slime coat to be damaged or removed, exposing the fish’s skin to infection from bacteria or water-born parasites. However, goldfish respond to people by surfacing at feeding time, and can be trained or acclimated to taking pellets or flakes from human fingers. The reputation of goldfish dying quickly is often due to poor care.[33] The lifespan of goldfish in captivity can extend beyond 10 years.[34]", "Wardley (company)\nWardley is one of 17 pet food manufacturers that established the American Pet Products Manufacturers Association, and is regarded as one of the most outstanding and successful serving the industry. It was also instrumental in the formation of the Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council (PIJAC). Fifty years since its founding, Wardley offers a broad range of more than 200 formulations addressing the special needs of both amateur and professional aquatic hobbyists.\nWardley provides a full range of nutritional foods (flakes, pellets, crumbles or sticks) for goldfish, betta fish, tropical fish, pond fish and marine fish. Among their products include test kits, water conditioners and pet remedies.", "Goldfish scooping\nThe things necessary to scoop goldfish is a pool in which goldfish swim, a \"poi\", a bowl to keep the scooped goldfish, a special bag in which to take goldfish home, and the goldfish themselves.", "Pittsburgh Pet Expo\nThe Pittsburgh Pet Expo is a consumer pet trade show that takes place annually in mid-Autumn at the David L. Lawrence Convention Center located in Downtown Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. With an estimated 14,000 spectators during the three days, the Pittsburgh Pet Expo is the second largest consumer pet trade show in the United States, covering over 2 1/2 acres of indoor space. The event originated in 2004, with an ever-widening national recognition as one of the premier pet events in the country. The event is highlighted by the annual Pet Olympics which includes the International Judges Association (IJA) sanctioned Rescue Me Rodeo Grooming Competitions, Dock Diving, National Dachshund Races, and various Agility competitions.", "Goldfish\nAlthough edible and closely related to some fairly widely eaten species, goldfish are rarely eaten. A fad among American college students for many years was swallowing goldfish as a stunt and as a fraternity initiation process. The first recorded instance was in 1939 at Harvard University.[42] The practice gradually fell out of popularity over the course of several decades and is rarely practiced today.", "Crucian carp\nIn Britain, leisurely or competitive catching of this fish by rod and tackle belong in the coarse fishing category. The British rod-caught record for largest crucian is four pounds, nine ounces, (2.085 kg) landed by Martin Bowler in 2003, tied by Joshua Blavins in 2011. There have been various bids for a breakage of this record since, but they were rejected as not \"true\" crucians\" but rather, e.g. a \"brown goldfish variant\" (i.e., hybrid born between the non-native goldfish or \"gibelo\" species and the British crucian). In the Netherlands, a typical crucian specimen of 54 cm, weighing 3 kg has been caught and photographed.", "John Kolvenbach\nAlso at WHAT; the premiere of \"Gizmo Love\" (2004), directed by Sam Weisman and productions of \"On an average day\" (2006) and \"Love Song\" (2007) both directed by Jeff Zinn. \"Goldfish\" was presented by South Coast Repertory in their 2009 season, directed by Loretta Greco. Kolvenbach's companion piece to \"Goldfish,\" entitled \"Mrs. Whitney\", was presented in repertory with \"Goldfish\" at the Magic Theatre in San Francisco in the Fall of 2009.", "Goldfish\nDuring the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), goldfish also began to be raised indoors,[5] which permitted selection for mutations that would not be able to survive in ponds.[6] The first occurrence of fancy-tailed goldfish was recorded in the Ming Dynasty. In 1603, goldfish were introduced to Japan.[6] In 1611, goldfish were introduced to Portugal and from there to other parts of Europe.[6]", "Common goldfish\nGoldfish can live for long periods of time if they are fed a varied diet and housed in proper water conditions. The average lifetime of a goldfish is five to ten years. The longest lived goldfish on record lived to age 43. The oldest living goldfish was Tish, won by a UK family at a funfair. Tish was recognized into the Guinness Book of World Records as the longest living fish. Improper care or life in a bowl greatly reduces the typical lifespan of a goldfish.", "Revenge of the Goldfish\nRevenge of the Goldfish is the third studio album from British indie band Inspiral Carpets. It was released 5 October 1992 on Cow Records through Mute Records. ", "List of goldfish varieties\nSingle tailed varieties have a single caudal fin and anal fin. They have long, streamlined bodies and are faster swimming than shorter egg-shaped goldfishes. They all come from common goldfish, but rare egg-shaped varieties like nymph goldfish are developed from egg-shaped goldfish. They have no telescopic eyes, celestial eyes, nor bubble eyes. They have no headgrowths like orandas, lionheads, and ranchus, narial bouquets like pompoms, or curled gills like curled-gill.\nDouble-tailed or \"fancy\" goldfish. Fancy, in goldfish, meaning they have double caudal fins and anal fins. They are the most popular and the most expensive types of goldfish. There are two types of fancy goldfish:Egg-shaped goldfish is the most popular type of goldfish, they have two types:", "Cuniculture\nClosely overlapping with breeding for exhibition and for fur has been the breeding of rabbits for the pet trade. While rabbits have been kept as companions for centuries, the sale of rabbits as pets began to rise in the last half of the twentieth century. This may have been, in part, because rabbits require less physical space than dogs or cats, but without the specialized habitat of a goldfish. Several breeds of rabbit—such as the Holland Lop, the Polish, the Netherland Dwarf, and the Lionhead—have been specifically bred for the pet trade. Traits common to many popular pet breeds are small size, \"dwarf\" (or neotenic) features, plush or fuzzy coats, and an array of coat colors and patterns.", "Goldfish (cracker)\nPepperidge Farm has created several spin-off products including Goldfish Sandwich Crackers, Flavor-Blasted Goldfish, Goldfish bread, multi-colored Goldfish (known as Goldfish-American), and Baby Goldfish (which are smaller than normal). There are also seasonably available color-changing Goldfish, colored Goldfish (come in a variety pack). There was reportedly once a line of Goldfish cookies in vanilla and chocolate; chocolate has reappeared in the \"100 calorie\" packs.", "Seasons in the Sun\nJacks released his version as a single in 1973 on his own label, Goldfish Records. \"Put the Bone In\", an original composition about burying a deceased pet dog, was included as the B-side. The single soon topped the record charts in the U.S. (where it was released on Bell Records), in Canada, and the UK, selling over 14 million copies worldwide.", "My Goldfish Is Evil\nThe series follows the adventures of Beanie, and his pet goldfish, Admiral Bubbles. The superintelligent anthropomorphic goldfish has dreams of bringing a reign of terror on the city and of world domination. Frequently, he escapes from his bowl in his attempts at mischief. With Beanie's mother always failing to believe him, Beanie must save the world himself.", "Timeline of the 2007 pet food recalls\nSergeant’s Pet Care Products voluntarily recalled some production lots of Atlantis Goldfish Flake Food and Atlantis Tropical Fish Flake Food due to melamine being found in these specific products (approximately 20-80 parts per million). The fish food that is being recalled is for pet/ornamental fish and not used to feed fish intended for human consumption.", "Goldfish\nBy the Song dynasty (960–1279), the selective domestic breeding of goldfish was firmly established.[8] In 1162, the empress of the Song Dynasty ordered the construction of a pond to collect the red and gold variety. By this time, people outside the imperial family were forbidden to keep goldfish of the gold (yellow) variety, yellow being the imperial colour. This is probably the reason why there are more orange goldfish than yellow goldfish, even though the latter are genetically easier to breed.[9] The occurrence of other colours (apart from red and gold) was first recorded in 1276.", "Spreckels Lake\nAquatically, the lake's algae-laden water hosts minnows, sticklebacks and carp. Wild carp up to around 24 inches in size also inhabit the lake, though some appear to be discarded goldfish or koi that have managed to survive. There is a 'tradition' of dumping goldfish in many of Golden Gate Park's lakes, sometimes by the bucketfuls, for good luck as well as a means of 'freeing' unwanted pets.", "Guppy (album)\nThe cover art of \"Guppy\" is a photograph of five goldfish the band purchased at a pet store, taken by Jacqueline Harriet and Mark T. Davis. It was taken two days before cover art for the album was due to be submitted to Barsuk Records. The first planned cover artwork was not used due to it be copyrighted by the Los Angeles Times.", "List of Wonder Pets! episodes\n19. Save the Goldfish!/Save the Baby Birds! (Air Date: June 28, 2007)\nThe Wonder Pets fly to a child's bedroom where a goldfish in an aquarium is trapped inside a bubbling treasure chest. The Wonder Pets head to the tundra where a group of baby birds has no place to perch, except in the antlers of a lonely moose.", "A Riot of Goldfish\nThroughout the story, Mataichi attempts to create the perfect goldfish by genetically engineering goldfish and breeding different varieties of goldfish together. He is unsuccessful in his attempts of human manipulation of nature and the resulting goldfish are tossed into a small pond. Eventually, Mataichi visits the small pond to discover that nature has created what humans could not: the ideal goldfish.", "Elmo's World\nAccording to Clash and Gikow, Elmo's pet goldfish Dorothy and the members of the Noodle family were silent in order to allow Elmo to do all the talking, and to give children the opportunity to respond to what they saw on the screen. Dorothy's silence allowed children to fill in the blanks, and her curiosity, which was created and enhanced by Elmo's imagination, allowed the writers and researchers to insert the curriculum lessons they want to convey. Up to nine goldfish were used per episode, so they could be replaced when necessary. Several fish were needed each season, and the surviving Dorothys were given good homes afterwards." ]

[ "Septic tank\nA septic tank consists of one or more concrete or plastic tanks of between 4000 and 7500 liters (1,000 and 2,000 gallons); one end is connected to an inlet wastewater pipe and the other to a septic drain field. Generally these pipe connections are made with a T pipe, allowing liquid to enter and exit without disturbing any crust on the surface. Today, the design of the tank usually incorporates two chambers, each equipped with a manhole cover, and separated by a dividing wall with openings located about midway between the floor and roof of the tank." ]

[ "Septic tank\nA properly designed and normally operating septic system is odor-free and, besides periodic inspection and emptying of the septic tank, should last for decades with minimal maintenance.", "Septic tank\nAdditionally, a code of practice has been developed by the Environmental Protection Agency to regulate the planning and construction of new septic tanks, secondary treatment systems, septic drain fields and filter systems.[26] Direct discharge of septic tank effluent into groundwater is prohibited in Ireland, while the indirect discharge via unsaturated subsoil into groundwater, e.g. by means of a septic drain field, or the direct discharge into surface water is permissible in accordance with a Water Pollution Act license.[26] Registered septic tanks must be desludged by an authorized contractor at least once a year; the removed fecal sludge is disposed of, either to a managed municipal wastewater treatment facility or to agriculture provided that nutrient management regulations are met.[26]", "Septic tank\nSeptic tank additives have been promoted by some manufacturers with the aim to improve the effluent quality from septic tanks, reduce sludge build-up and to reduce odors. However, these additives—which are commonly based on \"effective microorganisms\"—are usually costly in the longer term and fail to live up to expectations.[13] It has been estimated that in the U.S. more than 1,200 septic system additives were available on the market in 2011.[14] However, very little peer-reviewed and replicated field research exists regarding the efficacy of these biological septic tank additives.[14]", "Septic tank\nThe term \"septic\" refers to the anaerobic bacterial environment that develops in the tank which decomposes or mineralizes the waste discharged into the tank. Septic tanks can be coupled with other onsite wastewater treatment units such as biofilters or aerobic systems involving artificially forced aeration.[3]", "Septic tank\nExcessive disposal of cooking oils and grease can cause the inlet drains to block. Oils and grease are often difficult to degrade and can cause odor problems and difficulties with the periodic emptying. Flushing non-biodegradable waste items down the toilet such as cigarette butts, cotton buds/swabs or menstrual hygiene products and condoms can cause a septic tank to clog and fill rapidly, so these materials should not be disposed of in that manner. The same applies when the toilet is connected to a sewer rather than a septic tank. Using the toilet for disposal of food waste can cause a rapid overload of the system with solids and contribute to failure.[10] Certain chemicals may damage the components of a septic tank or kill the bacteria needed in the septic tank for the system to operate properly, such as pesticides, herbicides, materials with high concentrations of bleach or caustic soda (lye), or any other inorganic materials such as paints or solvents.[11] Using water softeners - the brine discharge from water softeners may harm the bacteria responsible for breaking down the wastewater. Usually the brine is however sufficiently diluted with other wastewater that it does not adversely affect the septic system.[12]", "Weeping tile\nWeeping tile is used for the opposite reason in the septic drain fields for septic tanks. Clarified sewage from the septic tank is fed into weeping tiles buried shallowly in the drain field. The weeping tile spreads the liquid throughout the drain field.", "Septic tank\nRoots from trees and shrubbery protruding above the tank or drainfield may clog and/or rupture them. Trees that are directly within the vicinity of a concrete septic tank have the potential to penetrate the tank as the system ages and the concrete begins to develop cracks and small leaks. Tree roots can cause serious flow problems due to plugging and blockage of drain pipes, added to which the trees themselves tend to expand extremely vigorously due to the ready supply of nutrients from the septic system. Playgrounds and storage buildings may cause damage to a tank and the drainage field. In addition, covering the drainage field with an impermeable surface, such as a driveway or parking area, will seriously affect its efficiency and possibly damage the tank and absorption system. Excessive water entering the system may overload it and cause it to fail. Very high rainfall, rapid snowmelt, and flooding from rivers or the sea can all prevent a drain field from operating, and can cause flow to back up, interfering with the normal operation of the tank. High winter water tables can also result in groundwater flowing back into the septic tank. Over time, biofilms develop on the pipes of the drainage field, which can lead to blockage. Such a failure can be referred to as \"biomat failure\".", "Septic tank\nThe soil's capacity to retain phosphorus is usually large enough to handle the load through a normal residential septic tank. An exception occurs when septic drain fields are located in sandy or coarser soils on property adjoining a water body. Because of limited particle surface area, these soils can become saturated with phosphates. Phosphates will progress beyond the treatment area, posing a threat of eutrophication to surface waters.[16]", "Septic tank\nServices for de-sludging tend to empty a septic tank completely, i.e. take out all septage, while the actual requirement is removal of settled solids, it's left purposefully incomplete so as to leave at least some of the microbial populations in place to continue the anaerobic degradation processes that take place in a septic tank. An empty tank may be damaged by hydrostatic pressure causing the tank to partially \"float\" out of the ground, especially in flood situations or very wet ground conditions.[9]", "Fecal sludge management\nSeptage or \"septic tank sludge\" is partially treated sludge that is accumulated and stored in a septic tank or similar onsite sewage facility. Septage is a by-product from the pretreatment of household wastewater (sewage) in a septic tank. After a few years of accumulation, septage is usually pumped out of a septic tank by a vacuum truck. Septic tanks are receiving blackwater from flush toilets, as well as greywater. This means that septage only contains the kind of solid waste that can be flushed, such as toilet paper. Septage may also include \"scum\", which is material that floats at the top and contains fats, oil and grease as well as any floating solid waste. ", "Storage tank\nA septic tank is part of a small scale sewage treatment system often referred to as a septic system. Septic systems are commonly used to treat wastewater from homes and small businesses in rural and suburban areas. It consists of the tank and a septic drain field. Waste water enters the tank where solids can settle and scum floats. Anaerobic digestion occurs on the settled solids, reducing the volume of solids. The water released by the system is normally absorbed by the drain field without needing any further treatment.", "Septic tank\nIn the United States, the 2007 American Housing Survey indicated that about 20 percent of all households rely on septic tanks, [17] and that the overwhelming majority of systems are located in rural (50%) and suburban (47%) areas.[17] Indianapolis is one example of a large city where many of the city's neighborhoods still rely on separate septic systems.[18] In Europe, septic systems are generally limited to rural areas.", "Water privatization in Metro Manila\nMost residents of Manila discharge their wastewater into an estimated 2.2 million septic tanks. The concessionaires are obliged to empty these septic tanks. Manila Water operates 60 desludging trucks that empty septic tanks free of charge. The sludge is brought to two septage treatment plants. Maynilad also operates desludging trucks, but so far does not have a septage treatment plant.", "Water supply and sanitation in Egypt\nCosts of emptying septic tanks. The cost of emptying septic tanks can be significant. Some people avoid using their septic tanks, because if they do the tank fills up more quickly and they must pay to empty it more often. They thus continue to pollute the surrounding environment, although they have sanitation facilities at home.", "Effluent sewer\nSeptic tanks also have a higher capital cost if they are being installed for new homes or if the existing septic tanks must be replaced. If there is a suitable septic tank in place, pumping the effluent from the tank is the lowest cost option for initial costs. Whether the septic tank is the lowest cost option over time depends on the cost of electricity in the area, how often the tank must be emptied and how much it costs to have the solids pumped out of the tank.", "Autonomous building\nThe standard system is a tiled leach field combined with a septic tank. The basic idea is to provide a small system with primary sewage treatment. Sludge settles to the bottom of the septic tank, is partially reduced by anaerobic digestion, and fluid is dispersed in the leach field. The leach field is usually under a yard growing grass. Septic tanks can operate entirely by gravity, and if well managed, are reasonably safe.", "Septic tank\nWhile a properly maintained and located septic tank does not pose any more environmental problems than centralized municipal sewage treatment, certain problems can arise with septic tanks in unsuitable locations. Since septic systems require large drainfields, they are not suitable for densely built areas.", "Septic tank\nThe fermentation processes cause the contents of a septic tank to be anaerobic with a low redox potential, which keeps phosphates in a soluble and, thus, mobilized form. Phosphates discharged from a septic tank into the environment can trigger prolific plant growth including algal blooms, which can also include blooms of potentially toxic cyanobacteria.", "Mars Desert Research Station\nNorth of the GreenHAB is the underground septic tank and its outflow field. This area is a \"No Drive - Foot Traffic Only Zone\" as there is no record of where exactly the septic tank is buried. East of the GreenHab is an omnidirectional Jovian radio telescope.", "Septic tank\nPart 1 (EN 12566-1) is for septic tanks which are prefabricated or factory manufactured and made of polyethylene, glass reinforced polyester, polypropylene, PVC-U, steel or concrete. Part 4 (EN 12566-4) regulates septic tanks that are assembled in situ from prefabricated kits, generally of concrete construction. Certified septic tanks of both types must pass a standardized hydraulic test to assess their ability to retain suspended solids within the system. Additionally, their structural adequacy in relevant ground conditions is assessed in terms of water-tightness, treatment efficiency, and structural behaviour.[19]", "Effluent sewer\nEffluent sewers also currently serve fewer people than septic systems, which also use septic tanks, but simply dispose of the effluent by draining it into a leach field. About one quarter of United States homes dispose of their wastewater with septic tanks. However, effluent sewers are being looked at as a sewage treatment solution in areas where gravity sewer systems are not well-suited or when the high capital cost to build a gravity system is prohibitive. Areas that are less than ideal for gravity systems include areas that are large, but extremely flat and areas that require long-distance pumping, such as where homes are widely spread out or when several small villages or towns connect their sewage systems so that a centralized plant can be built.", "Septic tank\nIn Australia, septic tank design and installation requirements are regulated by State Governments, through Departments of Health and Environmental Protection Agencies. Regulation may include Codes of Practice[31][32] and Legislation.[33] Regulatory requirements for the design and installation of septic tanks commonly references Australian Standards (1547 and 1546). Capacity requirements for septic tanks may be outlined within Codes of Practice, and can vary between states.", "Autonomous building\nSeptic tanks have to be pumped periodically by a vacuum truck to eliminate non reducing solids. Failure to pump a septic tank can cause overflow that damages the leach field, and contaminates ground water. Septic tanks may also require some lifestyle changes, such as not using garbage disposals, minimizing fluids flushed into the tank, and minimizing nondigestible solids flushed into the tank. For example, septic safe toilet paper is recommended.", "Septic tank\nAn Imhoff tank is a two-stage septic system where the sludge is digested in a separate tank. This avoids mixing digested sludge with incoming sewage. Also, some septic tank designs have a second stage where the effluent from the anaerobic first stage is aerated before it drains into the seepage field.", "Septic tank\nWaste that is not decomposed by the anaerobic digestion must eventually be removed from the septic tank. Otherwise the septic tank fills up and wastewater containing undecomposed material discharges directly to the drainage field. Not only is this detrimental for the environment but, if the sludge overflows the septic tank into the leach field, it may clog the leach field piping or decrease the soil porosity itself, requiring expensive repairs.", "Aerobic treatment system\nThe aeration stage and the disinfecting stage are the primary differences from a traditional septic system; in fact, an aerobic treatment system can be used as a secondary treatment for septic tank effluent. These stages increase the initial cost of the aerobic system, and also the maintenance requirements over the passive septic system. Unlike many other biofilters, aerobic treatment systems require a constant supply of electricity to drive the air pump increasing overall system costs. The disinfectant tablets must be periodically replaced, as well as the electrical components (air compressor) and mechanical components (air diffusers). On the positive side, an aerobic system produces a higher quality effluent than a septic tank, and thus the leach field can be smaller than that of a conventional septic system, and the output can be discharged in areas too environmentally sensitive for septic system output. Some aerobic systems recycle the effluent through a sprinkler system, using it to water the lawn where regulations approve.", "Septic tank\nA septic tank is an underground chamber made of concrete, fiberglass or plastic through which domestic wastewater (sewage) flows for basic treatment.[1] Settling and anaerobic processes reduce solids and organics, but the treatment efficiency is only moderate (referred to as \"primary treatment\").[1] Septic tank systems are a type of simple onsite sewage facility (OSSF). They can be used in areas that are not connected to a sewerage system, such as rural areas. The treated liquid effluent is commonly disposed in a septic drain field which provides further treatment. However, groundwater pollution may occur and can be a problem.", "Pit additive\nThe United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) produced a fact sheet on the use of pit additives to improve the performance of septic tank treatment systems. The fact sheet concludes that bacteria and extracellular enzymes do not appear to significantly enhance normal biological decomposition processes in septic tanks. They go on to say that ‘some biological additives have been found to degrade or dissipate septic tank scum and sludge. However, whether this relatively minor benefit is derived without compromising long-term viability of the soil infiltration system has not been demonstrated conclusively’. They noted that some studies suggest that material degraded by additives in the tank actually adds to the suspended solids and other contaminants in the otherwise clarified septic tank effluent.", "Pit additive\nAustralian scientists investigated the effect of additives in a wastewater treatment plant and a number of septic tanks. Their aim was to test the hypothesis that the additive reduces sludge volumes. They found significant reduction in pH levels at the wastewater treatment plant together with improved settlement of sludge but with a significant increase in organic matter (measured as biological oxygen demand). Their results for the septic tanks showed a homogenization of conditions in the tanks after application of septic tank additives, which they suggested was due to domination by a particular type of micro-organism. However, they found no reduction in suspended solids concentration in the effluent and concluded that there were not sufficient changes in sludge volume in the wastewater treatment plant or suspended solids in the septic tanks to indicate a clear benefit from the use of these kinds of additives in wastewater." ]

[ "Hohenzollern Castle\nHohenzollern Castle (German: Burg Hohenzollern) is the ancestral seat of the imperial House of Hohenzollern.[lower-alpha 1] The third of three hilltop castles on the site, it is located atop Mount Hohenzollern, above and south of Hechingen, on the edge of the Swabian Jura of central Baden-Württemberg, Germany." ]

[ "Hohenzollern (mountain)\nHohenzollern is a mountain, 855 m, of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is located in Zollernalbkreis. On its top the famous Hohenzollern Castle is located. The mountain is an outlier, about 1 km north of the Swabian Jura.", "Charles, Count of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch\nIn January 1633, at the height of the Thirty Years' War, the Swedish army approached Haigerloch and Karl fled with an entourage of 21 people to Hohenzollern Castle. The Swedish army soon occupied Hohenzollern Castle. Count Karl was granted a free retreat and he went to the imperial army in Überlingen, where he tried unsuccessfully to talk them into helping him recapture his castle.", "Sigmaringen Castle\nIn 1576 the House of Hohenzollern split into four lines, \"Hohenzollern\" (died out in 1602), \"Hohenzollern-Haigerloch\" (absorbed by Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen after 1630), \"Hohenzollern-Hechingen\" (died out in 1869) and \"Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen\". Sigmaringen was the main residence of the family of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen from 1576 until 1850.", "Sigmaringen Castle\nSigmaringen is located on the southern edge of the Swabian Jura, a plateau region in southern Baden-Württemberg. The Hohenzollern castle was built below the narrow Danube river valley in the modern Upper Danube Nature Park (German: \"Naturpark Obere Donau\"). The castle rises above the Danube on a towering chalk projection that is a spur of the white Jura Mountains formation. The hill is known simply as the \"Schlossberg\" or Castle Rock. The \"Schlossberg\" is about long and up to above the river. On this free-standing towering rock, the princely Hohenzollern castle is the largest of the Danube valley castles. The sheer cliffs and steep sides of the tower made it a natural site for a well-protected medieval castle.", "Hohenzollern Castle\nIn 2015, parts of the 2016 thriller-horror film A Cure for Wellness were filmed at the castle,[14][15] closing it from 13–24 July 2015.[16] Hohenzollern Castle as well as Peckforton Castle in England were also used in the filming of the 2017 TV adaption of The Worst Witch.[17][18]", "Hohenzollern Castle\nThe memory of the year [18]19, to me is exceedingly lovely, and like a beautiful dream, especially the sunset we saw from one of the castle bastions. [...] Now is a desire, a dream of [my] youth, to see Hohenzollern Castle again made habitable.", "Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen\nThe County of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was created in 1576, upon the partition of the County of Hohenzollern, a fief of the Holy Roman Empire. When the last count of Hohenzollern, Karl I (1512–1579) died, the territory was divided among his three sons:\nThe Princes of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ruled over a small principality in southwest Germany, with a seat at Sigmaringen Castle. Unlike the Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg and Prussia, the Hohenzollerns of Sigmaringen remained Roman Catholic, along with their cousins of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, the senior line of the Swabian branch of the House of Hohenzollern, and Hohenzollern of Haigerloch.", "Sigmaringen Castle\nSigmaringen Castle (German: \"Schloss Sigmaringen\") was the princely castle and seat of government for the Princes of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. Situated in the Swabian \"Alb\" region of Baden-Württemberg, Germany, this castle dominates the skyline of the town of Sigmaringen. The castle was rebuilt following a fire in 1893, and only the towers of the earlier medieval fortress remain. Schloss Sigmaringen was a family estate of the Swabian Hohenzollern family, a cadet branch of the Hohenzollern family, from which the German Emperors and kings of Prussia came. During the closing months of World War II, Schloss Sigmaringen was briefly the seat of the Vichy French Government after France was liberated by the Allies. The castle and museums may be visited throughout the year, but only on guided tours. It is still owned by the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen family, although they no longer reside there.", "Hohenzollern Castle\nA perron leads up to the ancestry hall, where one enters the Count's Hall (German: Grafensaal), which covers the entirety of the southern wing. The rib vaulting of the Count's Hall, adorned with grisailles by Stüler depicting the history of the House of Hohenzollern and pointed-arch windows, is supported by eight free standing red marble columns. Below the Count's Hall is the old castle kitchen, today a treasure chamber. Next to the Count's Hall is the Emperor's Tower and the Bishop's Niche, following the library decorated with murals of the Hohenzollern history by Wilhelm Peters. The Margrave's Tower contains the King's parlor, also referred to as the Margrave's room, contrary to Stüler's terminology.", "Hohenzollern Castle\nThe final castle was built between 1846 and 1867 as a family memorial by Hohenzollern scion King Frederick William IV of Prussia. Architect Friedrich August Stüler based his design on English Gothic Revival architecture and the Châteaux of the Loire Valley.[1] No member of the Hohenzollern family was in permanent or regular residence when it was completed, and none of the three German Emperors of the late 19th and early 20th century German Empire ever occupied the castle; in 1945 it briefly became the home of the former Crown Prince Wilhelm of Germany, son of the last Hohenzollern monarch, Kaiser Wilhelm II.", "Karl I, Count of Hohenzollern\nKarl I of Hohenzollern (1516 in Brussels – 18 March 1576 at Sigmaringen Castle) was Count of County of Hohenzollern from 1525 to 1575. He was Imperial Archchamberlain and chairman of the Aulic Council.", "Hohenzollern Castle\nWith over 350,000 visitors per year Hohenzollern castle is one of the most visited castles in Germany.[11] The castle is privately owned by the House of Hohenzollern,[12] with two-thirds belonging to the Brandenburg-Prussian branch, and the balance to the Swabian branch. Since 1952, the Princess Kira of Prussia Foundation has used the castle for an annual summer camp for children.[13] Whenever Prince George and his family are staying at the castle, the Prussian flag flies over the castle.[12]", "Hohenzollern Castle\nHohenzollern Castle, covering almost all of Mount Hohenzollern's summit, is a structure composed of four primary parts: military architecture, the palatial buildings, chapels, and the gardens.", "House of Hohenzollern\nThe House of Hohenzollern is a German dynasty of former princes, electors, kings and emperors of Hohenzollern, Brandenburg, Prussia, the German Empire, and Romania. The family arose in the area around the town of Hechingen in Swabia during the 11th century and took their name from Hohenzollern Castle. The first ancestors of the Hohenzollerns were mentioned in 1061.", "Magdalena of Brandenburg, Countess of Hohenzollern\nMagdalene of Brandenburg (1460 in Tangermünde – 17 June 1496 at Hohenzollern Castle) was a German noblewoman. She was a princess of Brandenburg by birth and by marriage a Duchess of Hohenzollern.", "House of Hohenzollern\nThe County of Hohenzollern-Hechingen was established in 1576 with allodial rights. It included the original County of Zollern, with the Hohenzollern Castle and the monastery at Stetten.", "Hohenzollern Castle\nThe current castle was built by Hohenzollern scion Crown-Prince Frederick William IV of Prussia. Traveling through southern Germany en route to Italy in 1819 he wished to learn about his family's roots, so climbed to the top of Mount Hohenzollern. He would write in 1844 as King:[7]", "Hohenzollern Castle\nThe first fortress on the mountain was constructed in the early 11th century. Over the years the House of Hohenzollern split several times, but the castle remained in the Swabian branch, the dynastic seniors of the Franconian-Brandenburgian cadet branch that later acquired its own imperial throne. This castle was completely destroyed in 1423 after a ten-month siege by the free imperial cities of Swabia. A larger and sturdier structure was constructed from 1454 to 1461, which served as a refuge for the Catholic Swabian Hohenzollerns, including during the Thirty Years' War. By the end of the 18th century it was thought to have lost its strategic importance and gradually fell into disrepair, leading to the demolition of several dilapidated buildings.", "Sigmaringen Castle\nCharles II. von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1547–1606), son of Charles I was the count of Sigmaringen from 1576 until 1606. He was also the founder of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen line of the Hohenzollern family. Under Charles II the castle was renovated. Between 1576 and 1606 the gatehouse was expanded to cover the entrance to the castle and a new church was built near the castle.", "Franz Anton, Count of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch\nFranz Anton, Count of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch (2 December 1657 at Sigmaringen Castle – 14 October 1702 in Friedlingen), was a reigning Count of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch.", "Sigmaringen Castle\nA year later, in 1540, Sigmaringen and Veringen were transferred to the House of Hohenzollern as part of the \"Pfullendorf agreement\" (German: \"Pfullendorfer Vertrag\"). Count Charles I. von Hohenzollern occupied the castle.", "Hohenzollern Castle\nHohenzollern Castle is a hilltop castle located on the Berg Hohenzollern, an isolated promontory of the Swabian Jura 855 meters (2,805ft) (NHN) above sea level, 234 meters (768ft) above and to the south of Hechingen, Germany approximately 50 kilometers (31mi) south of Stuttgart, capital of Baden-Württemberg.[3] This mountain lends its name to the local geographic region, der Zollernalbkreis, and is known among locals as Zollerberg (Zoller Mountain), or simply Zoller.", "Hohenzollern Castle\nConstruction began in 1850,[9] and was funded entirely by the Brandenburg-Prussian and the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen lines of the Hohenzollern family. Construction was completed on 3 October 1867, under Frederick William IV's brother King William I.", "Frederick XII, Count of Hohenzollern\nThe conflict with Eitel Friedrich I over Hohenzollern Castle escalated when in 1422 Friedrich XII began a feud against the free imperial city of Rottweil. The Swabian League of Cities allied with Eitel Friedrich I and the Counts of Württemberg against Friedrich XII. After they had besieged Hohenzollern castle for ten months, Friedrich XII had to surrender in 1423. Emperor Sigismund ordered the castle to be destroyed as a punishment, and forbade Friedrich to build it up again.", "Hohenzollern Castle\nOnly written records exist of the original castle built in the High Middle Ages, built by the Counts of Zollern. Although the House of Hohenzollern itself finds its first mention in 1061,[lower-alpha 2] the castle is first mentioned as \"Castro Zolre\" in 1267, without any mention of the castle beyond its name, though contemporary sources praised it as the \"crown of all castles in Swabia.\"[5] In 1423 the castle was totally destroyed[6] after a year-long siege by the Swabian League of Cities.", "House of Hohenzollern\nAffected by economic problems and internal feuds, the Hohenzollern counts from the 14th century onwards came under pressure by their neighbors, the Counts of Württemberg and the cities of the Swabian League, whose troops besieged and finally destroyed Hohenzollern Castle in 1423. Nevertheless, the Hohenzollerns retained their estates, backed by their Brandenburg cousins and the Imperial House of Habsburg. In 1535, Count Charles I of Hohenzollern (1512–1576) received the counties of Sigmaringen and Veringen as Imperial fiefs.", "House of Hohenzollern\nThe Hohenzollerns named their estates after Hohenzollern Castle in the Swabian Alps. The Hohenzollern Castle lies on an 855 meters high mountain called Hohenzollern. It still belongs to the family today.", "Haigerloch\nIn 1487 rule of the city fell to the Hohenzollern. In 1567 under Christoph von Hohenzollern-Haigerloch the area around Haigerloch was an independent territory within the area of the Holy Roman Empire as \"Hohenzollern-Haigerloch\". In this period, the present castle complex was built on the Schlossberg as the residence of the counts of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch, replacing the former high-medieval structure. In 1634 rule of the city descended to the line of \"Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen\", whose residence city was the city of Haigerloch between 1737 and 1769.", "Friedrich Ludwig, Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen\nFriedrich Ludwig of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (1 September 1688 in Strasbourg – 4 June 1750 at Lindich Castle in Hechingen) was prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen." ]

[ "2018 Rugby World Cup Sevens\nThe 2018 Rugby World Cup Sevens was the seventh edition of the Rugby World Cup Sevens. Organised by World Rugby, it was held at AT&T Park in San Francisco, United States. A total of 84 matches (52 men's and 32 women's) were played over three days from July 20–22, 2018 with both tournaments being played for the first time in a knock-out only format.[1] New Zealand won the championship for both events — defeating England in the men's final and France in the women's final." ]

[ "2018–19 Superliga season\nThe 2018–19 SuperLiga (known for sponsorship reasons) as CEC Bank SuperLiga is the premier Romanian rugby competition, reserved for club teams. Starting with this edition the number of participating teams is increased to eight, with addition of the 2017-18 champions and runners-up of the second tier championship DNS-Divizia Nationala de Seniori. The eventual champions of the SuperLiga have the right to participate in the European Rugby Continental Shield.", "2018–19 World Rugby Sevens Series\nThe 2018–19 World Rugby Sevens Series, known for sponsorship reasons as the HSBC World Rugby Sevens Series, the 20th annual series of rugby sevens tournaments for national men's rugby sevens teams. The Sevens Series has been run by World Rugby since 1999–2000. This series also, for the second time, as a qualifier for the 2020 Summer Olympics, with the top four countries qualifying automatically.", "Australia women's national rugby sevens team\nThe Australia women's national rugby sevens team were champions of the inaugural Women's Sevens World Cup in 2009. The team plays in the World Rugby Women's Sevens Series as one of the \"core teams\" on the world tour, of which they were crowned Champions in 2015–16. The team also played in the preceding competition to the current world series, the IRB Women's Sevens Challenge Cup. In 2016, they won the inaugural gold medal at the Rio Olympics.", "New Zealand women's national rugby sevens team\nThe New Zealand women's national rugby sevens team is the reigning women's Rugby World Cup Sevens champions, having won the most recent edition in 2018, and also have been a \"core team\" that participates in all rounds of the World Rugby Women's Sevens Series since that competition's inception in 2012–13.", "Romania national under-20 rugby union team\nThe Romania national under-20 rugby union team is Romania's junior national team in rugby union. They have represented Romania in the IRB Junior World Rugby Trophy now known as World Rugby Under 20 Trophy, but not yet in the World Rugby Under 20 Championship. They participated in the first three Junior World Trophies, winning it in 2009, and in 2018 they will be the hosts of the World Rugby Under 20 Trophy for the first time.", "Colombia national rugby sevens team\nColombia has not yet qualified for any major global rugby sevens competitions, such as the Rugby World Cup Sevens, the World Rugby Sevens Series, nor Rugby sevens at the Summer Olympics. Colombia participated in the 2018 Sudamérica Rugby Sevens, a qualifying tournament for the 2018 Rugby World Cup Sevens, but failed to qualify.", "Sport in Ireland\nSuccess at international level and the establishment of four professional teams has increased interest in rugby union as a sport in Ireland. As of 2018, the Ireland national rugby union team was ranked 2nd in the World Rugby Rankings. Also in 2018, at the World Rugby Awards, Ireland were presented with a 'hat-trick' of awards, with Jonathan Sexton winning the Player of the Year, Joe Schmidt the Coach of the Year, and the national squad the Team of the Year awards.", "2018 Rugby World Cup Sevens qualifying – Men\nThe tournament is organized by World Rugby to be held on 20–22 July 2018, with twenty-four teams in attendance. Automatic qualification is extended to the host and the eight quarterfinalists of the previous World Cup. Four more teams qualified based on placement in the 2016-17 World Rugby Sevens Series, and the remainder are to be decided in each of the six regions' respective tournaments.", "Digi Sport (Romania)\nAmong other competitions, Digi Sport has broadcast the Liga I (until 2019), Cupa României (until 2021), Liga II, La Liga (until 2022), Supercopa de España, Copa del Rey, Uefa Champions League, Serie A (until 2022), Supercoppa Italiana, Ligue 1 (until 2021),Coupe de la Ligue, Football League Cup, Scottish Premiership (until 2018), Liga I (futsal), Liga Națională (men's handball), Liga Naţională (women's handball), Women's EHF Champions League, Romania men's national handball team, Divizia A1 (Volei Masculin), Divizia A1 (Volei Feminin), CEV Champions League, CEV Women's Champions League, Liga Națională (men's basketball), Euroleague Basketball, ADAC GT Masters, Audi Sport TT Cup, Euroformula Open Championship, Formula1 (until 2018), Moto GP (until 2017), Red Bull MotoGP Rookies Cup, IndyCar (until 2018), Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters, NASCAR, Wimbledon (until 2016), WTA Tour Championships (until 2021), WTA Premier tournaments (until 2021), WTA International tournaments (until 2021), ATP World Tour Masters 1000, ATP World Tour Finals, Rugby World Cup (in year 2015), European Rugby Champions Cup, European Rugby Challenge Cup, IAAF Diamond League, Glory, Romanian Superliga (water polo).", "2018 European Rugby Champions Cup Final\nThe 2018 European Rugby Champions Cup Final was the final match in the 2017–18 European Rugby Champions Cup, and the twenty-third European club rugby final in general.", "Ian Fitzpatrick (rugby union)\nIan Fitzpatrick (born 28 November 1995) is an Irish rugby union player. In rugby sevens, he plays as a forward for the Ireland national rugby sevens team. Fitzpatrick began playing rugby sevens in 2015 while with Lansdowne. He was a member of the Irish sevens team that finished second in the 2017 Sevens Grand Prix Series, qualifying for the 2018 Hong Kong Sevens and the 2018 Rugby World Cup Sevens. Fitzpatrick played for Ireland at the 2018 Hong Kong Sevens qualifier, where Ireland fell to Japan 12–7 in the semifinals and failed in their quest to qualify for the 2018–19 World Series.", "Mark Roche\nMark Roche (born 25 January 1993) is an Irish rugby union player. He has played as a scrum-half for the Ireland national rugby sevens team since 2015. He played for Ireland in the 2017 Rugby Europe Grand Prix, helping Ireland qualify for the 2018 Hong Kong qualifier and the 2018 Rugby World Cup Sevens. He was part of the Ireland team that reached the semifinals of the 2018 Hong Kong Sevens qualifier for the 2018–19 World Rugby Sevens Series. \nRoche started at scrum-half for the Ireland team that finished third at the 2018 London Sevens; Roche was selected to the tournament Dream Team at the conclusion of the tournament.", "2018–19 World Rugby Women's Sevens Series\nThe 2018–19 World Rugby Women's Sevens Series the seventh edition of the global circuit for women's national rugby sevens teams, organised by World Rugby. There six tournament events scheduled on the 2018–19 circuit with twelve teams competing in each tournament. The series also, for the second time, as an Olympic qualifier.", "2018–19 European Rugby Champions Cup\nThe 2018–19 European Rugby Champions Cup (known as the Heineken Champions Cup for sponsorship reasons) is the fifth season of the European Rugby Champions Cup, the annual club rugby union competition run by European Professional Club Rugby (ECPR) for teams from the top six nations in Europe. It is the 24th season of pan-European professional club rugby competition. This competition will be the first to be sponsored by Heineken since the 2013–14 season.", "Rugby World Cup Sevens\nFor women's Rugby World Cup Sevens, Australia won the first tournament in 2009 and New Zealand won the second and third tournaments in 2013 and 2018. New Zealand are the current men's and women's world champions having won both tournaments in 2018.", "Daniel-André Tande\nOn January 20, 2018 Tande achieved gold medal of the 2018 Ski Jumping World Championships. In the three-part competition, he became the ski flying World Champion beating Kamil Stoch and Richard Freitag. Next day, Tande became a double 2018 Ski Flying World Champion. In team competition Norway, including Tande and his teammates Robert Johansson, Johann Andre Forfang and Andreas Stjernen, defended title of Ski Flying World Champions. The same team is 2018 team Olympic champion.", "SuperLiga (rugby)\nSuperLiga, officially known as the CEC Bank SuperLiga (for sponsorship reasons), is Romania's top level and professional men's rugby union competition. SuperLiga is run by Federația Română de Rugby (FRR – the Romanian Rugby Union) and it is contested by 8 teams at the start of 2018-2019 season, with the addition of the 2017-2018 champions and runners-up of the second tier Divizia Nationala de Seniori, ACS Tomitanii Constanța and SCM Gloria Buzau respectively.\nIt was set up in 1914, a only two team competition by then (Tennis Club Român and Sporting Club, both from Bucharest), to expand and grow in the 1920s and 1930s (with a peak in the 1970s and 1980s), after Stadiul Român and seventeen more (other) teams were founded in Bucharest-only ever since. The championship took place on an annual basis, with some gap years caused by the two World Wars mostly. ", "Canada national rugby sevens team\nThe Canada national rugby sevens team competes at several international tournaments — the World Rugby Sevens Series, Rugby World Cup Sevens, Pan American Games and the Commonwealth Games.Squad for the 2018–19 World Rugby Sevens Series.", "Sport in Japan\nRugby union is a moderately popular sport in Japan. The Japanese national rugby union team, controlled by the Japan Rugby Football Union, has been to every Rugby World Cup since 1987. The country will host the Rugby World Cup in 2019. Japan's first win in the Rugby World Cup was against Zimbabwe in 1991, which was also one of the national team's first wins. They also caused a significant upset in the 2015 World Cup, beating two-time champions South Africa. The Japanese rugby team has been playing in international tournaments since the 1930s.", "2018 Americas Rugby League Championship\nThe 2018 Americas Rugby League Championship will be held in Jacksonville, Florida in November 2018. This tournament is the 3rd Americas Rugby League Championship. The tournament will also act as part of the 2021 Rugby League World Cup qualifying. The winning team will directly qualify for the 2021 Rugby League World Cup, while the runner-up will progress to the intercontinental repechage in 2019.", "2018 World Rugby Under 20 Trophy\nThe 2018 World Rugby Under 20 Trophy was the eleventh annually held international rugby union competition for Under 20 national teams, with host nation Romania, along with seven other sides, playing in a group stage followed by a knockout round to determine a champion as well as promotion to the following years' World Rugby Under 20 Championship.", "2018 World Series Rugby season\nWorld Series Rugby was a series of rugby union exhibition matches played in 2018 between the Perth-based Western Force and opposition teams from the Asia-Pacific region. It was the forerunner of Global Rapid Rugby, which 2019. World Series Rugby was created after the Western Force team was axed from the Australian Super Rugby conference at the end of the 2017 season.", "Rugby union in New Zealand\nRugby union is the unofficial national sport of New Zealand. The national team, the All Blacks, ranks as the top international team in the world. The sport has been known in New Zealand from 1870. The top domestic competitions are the semi-professional ITM Cup and amateur Heartland Championship, and above them Super Rugby, in which New Zealand has five franchises. The country co-hosted and won the first ever Rugby World Cup in 1987, and hosted and won the 2011 Rugby World Cup. They are the current world champions for men and women. They are also the current World Champions in 7s rugby for men and women.", "2018–19 South Africa national rugby sevens team season\nIn 2018–19, the South Africa national rugby sevens team in the 2018–19 World Rugby Sevens Series, the 20th edition of the competition since its inception in 1999–2000.", "Jamaica national rugby sevens team\nThe Jamaica national rugby sevens team represents Jamaica in rugby sevens competitions. As champions of the 2017 RAN Sevens, they are the first ever Caribbean side to qualify for the 2018 Rugby World Cup Sevens and will also participate in the 2018 Commonwealth Games. They have previously featured in Hong Kong Sevens World Series qualifying tournaments of 2013, 2017 and 2018.", "Rugby World Cup Sevens\nThe 2018 Rugby World Cup Sevens tournament for both men and women's teams was held from Friday 20 July 2018 to Sunday 22 July 2018 in AT&T Park, San Francisco in the United States. Unlike previous Rugby World Cup Sevens tournaments and the annual World Rugby Sevens Series events, in each of the genders, both competitions were played in knock-out only formats.\nThe Rugby World Cup Sevens originated with a proposal by the Scottish Rugby Union to the International Rugby Board. The inaugural tournament was held at Murrayfield in Edinburgh in 1993, and has been held every four years since. England won the inaugural tournament, defeating Australia 21–17 in the final.", "2018 Rugby Europe Women's Sevens Grand Prix Series\nThe 2018 Rugby Europe Women's Sevens Grand Prix Series was the 2018 edition of the annual rugby sevens competition for national women's teams in Rugby Europe. The top non-core teams will participate in a 2019 qualifying tournament for the 2019-20 World Rugby Women's Sevens Series, and the bottom two will be relegated to the 2019 Trophy.", "Rugby union in Germany\nGerman players occasionally break through into French or English clubs, such as Robert Mohr at La Rochelle or Sascha Fischer at Périgueux.\nThe German men's national 15s team played their first international match in 1927 against France, but have yet to qualify for the Rugby World Cup. With the partition of Germany following the Second World War, the East and West fielded separate teams until the reunification of Germany in 1990. In 2017-18 the men competed in the Championship Division, the top tier of Rugby Europe's International Championships, a European tournament below the Six Nations. As Germany placed last in the competition, they face a relegation match against Portugal in June 2018. The men's national team was ranked 28th out of 105 teams on World Rugby's May 2018 list.The German women's national 15s team was founded in 1989 and initially resorted under Germany's youth rugby organization. The team succeeded in qualifying for the 1998 Women's Rugby World Cup as well as the 2002 edition. In 2002 the women's side finished 2nd in the 2002 FIRA Women's European Nations Cup and 4th in 2005. The national women's side was ranked 19th out of 52 teams by World Rugby in March 2018.", "Rugby union in England\nRugby union in England is one of the leading professional and recreational team sports. In 1871 the Rugby Football Union, the governing body for rugby union in England, was formed by 21 rugby clubs, and the first international match, which involved England, was played in Scotland. The English national team compete annually in the Six Nations Championship, and are former world champions after winning the 2003 Rugby World Cup. The top domestic men's club competition is Premiership Rugby, and English clubs also compete in international competitions such as the European Rugby Champions Cup. The top domestic women's competition is the Premier 15s.", "Rugby union\nIn 2006 a new system was introduced where each nation plays the others three times, though in 2007 and 2011 the teams played each other only twice, as both were World Cup years. Since Argentina's strong performances in the 2007 World Cup, after the 2009 Tri Nations tournament, SANZAR (South Africa, New Zealand and Australian Rugby) invited the Argentine Rugby Union (UAR) to join an expanded Four Nations tournament in 2012. The competition has been officially rechristened as The Rugby Championship beginning with the 2012 edition. The competition reverted to the Tri Nations' original home-and-away format, but now involving four teams. In World Cup years, an abbreviated tournament is held in which each team plays the others only once. New Zealand are the current champions, having won the 2018 title with a round to spare." ]

[ "List of lakes by area\nThis is a list of terrestrial lakes with a surface area of more than approximately 2,000 square kilometres (800sqmi), ranked by area.[1][2][3] This list does not include reservoirs and lagoons." ]

[ "Caspian Depression\nThe Caspian Depression is below sea-level, consisting of large areas of marshlands in the eastern region. It is one of the largest flat lowland areas in Central Asia, covering approximately . The area is very rich in underground oil and gas reserves, and oil and natural gas pipelines cross the depression from north to south and east to west. Many geologists believe the Caspian Sea and the depression were formed by tectonic forces. Some of them also believe that the North Caspian depression became separated from the open ocean in ancient times to form an enormous salt lake. Part of the ancient Silk Road ran through this region. The two largest cities in the depression are Astrakhan in Russia, and Atyrau in Kazakhstan. Today, the region is used mainly for livestock raising.", "Caspian Sea\nThe wide and endorheic Caspian Sea has a north–south orientation and its main freshwater inflow, the Volga River, enters at the shallow north end. Two deep basins occupy its central and southern areas. These facts lead to horizontal differences in temperature, salinity, and ecology. The Caspian Sea spreads out over nearly 750 miles (1,200 km) from north to south, with an average width of 200 miles (320 km). It covers a region of around 149,200 square miles (386,400 square km)—bigger than the region of Japan—and its surface is about 90 feet (27 meters) below sea level. The sea bed in the southern part reaches as low as 1,023 m (3,356 ft) below sea level, which is the second lowest natural depression on earth after Lake Baikal (−1,180 m, −3,871 ft). The ancient inhabitants of its coast perceived the Caspian Sea as an ocean, probably because of its saltiness and large size.", "Caspian kutum\nCaspian kutum is endemic to the Caspian Sea. It is distributed from the mouth of the Volga River up to the Miankaleh Peninsula. Main aggregations are confined to the southwestern part of the sea adjacent to the Anzali and Qizilchay Bays. On the eastern coast, it occurs in the Atrek estuarine areas and in the Iranian waters.", "Garabogazköl\nThe Garabogazköl Aylagy or Kara-Bogaz-Gol (, black (or mighty) strait lake) is a shallow inundated depression in the northwestern corner of Turkmenistan. It forms a lagoon of the Caspian Sea with a surface area of about . It is separated from the Caspian Sea proper, which lies immediately to the west, by a narrow, rocky ridge having a very narrow opening in the rock through which the Caspian waters flow, cascading down into Garabogazköl, leading to the Turkmen language name of the bay, \"Mighty Strait Lake\". The water volume of the bay fluctuates seasonally with the Caspian Sea; at times it becomes a large bay of the Caspian Sea, while at other times its water level drops drastically.", "Baltic Sea\nThe Baltic Sea is the world's largest inland brackish sea. Only two other brackish waters are larger on some measurements: The Black Sea is larger in both surface area and water volume, but most of it is located outside the continental shelf (only a small percentage is inland). The Caspian Sea is larger in water volume, but—despite its name—it is a lake rather than a sea.", "Talesh County\nTalesh is located on the southwestern coast of the Caspian Sea. Talesh County, covering an area of 2373 square kilometers, is ¼ of surface area of Gilan Province.", "Azerbaijan\nThe main water sources are surface waters. However, only 24 of the 8,350 rivers are greater than in length. All the rivers drain into the Caspian Sea in the east of the country. The largest lake is Sarysu (67 km²), and the longest river is Kur (1,515 km), which is transboundary with Armenia. Azerbaijan's four main islands in the Caspian Sea have a combined area of over thirty square kilometers.", "Caspian Sea\nThe sea has a surface area of 371,000 km2 (143,200 sq mi) (not including the detached lagoon of Garabogazköl) and a volume of 78,200 km3(18,800 cu mi). It has a salinity of approximately 1.2% (12 g/l), about a third of the salinity of most seawater.", "Russian Navy\nThe coastal artillery troops also play a very important role for the Navy. The geography of the Barents Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk as well as the Caspian Sea makes the deployment of shore-based, anti-ship systems in an area-deniying role very effective. They deploy K-300P Bastion-P supersonic AShM, 3M-54 Kalibr cruise subsonic AShM and A-222E Bereg-E 130mm coastal mobile artillery system as well as self-propelled surface-to-air missile systems.", "Caspian Sea\nThe Caspian Sea has numerous islands throughout, all of them near the coasts; none in the deeper parts of the sea. Ogurja Ada is the largest island. The island is 37km (23mi) long, with gazelles roaming freely on it. In the North Caspian, the majority of the islands are small and uninhabited, like the Tyuleniy Archipelago, an Important Bird Area (IBA), although some of them have human settlements.", "Epoch of Extreme Inundations\nIn the marine sequence of the Caspian basin, the Khvalynean layers are above the Late Khazarian ones (which date to the last interglacial period) and below the New Caspian (Holocene) deposits. They are separated from the Lower Khazarian series by continental Atelian layers synchronous to marine sediments from the Atelian basin. The level of the latter was below the present Caspian level—in other words, below sea level. In the Caspian Depression, the Khvalynean sediments occur primarily near the surface; younger still (and higher in the sequence) are the Holocene floodplain lacustrine and marine (New Caspian) sediments.", "Namak Lake\nThe lake is a remnant of the Paratethys sea, which started to dry from the Pleistocene epoch, leaving Lake Urmia and the Caspian Sea and other bodies of water. The lake has a surface area of about , but most of this is dry. Water only covers . The lake only reaches a depth between to . The most important water supply is the river Qom.", "Mazandaran Province\nMazandaran is located on the southern coast of the Caspian Sea. It is bordered clockwise by Golestan, Semnan and Tehran provinces. This province also borders Qazvin and Gilan to the west.\nMazandaran province is geographically divided into two parts: the coastal plains, and the mountainous areas. The Alborz Mountain Range surrounds the coastal strip and plains of the Caspian Sea.\nFrom the geographical point of view, Mazandaran province is divided into two parts i.e. coastal plain and the mountainous area. The Alborz Mountain Range like a huge wall has surrounded the coastal strip and plains of the Caspian Sea. Due to permanent sea breeze and local winds of the southern and eastern coasts of the Caspian Sea, sandy hills are formed, causing the appearance of a low natural barrier between the sea and plain.\nThere is often snowfall in the Alborz regions, which run parallel to the Caspian Sea's southern coast, dividing the province into many isolated valleys. The province enjoys a moderate, subtropical climate with an average temperature of 25 °C in summer and about 8 °C in winter. Although snow may fall heavily in the mountains in winter, it rarely falls at sea level.\nEcoregions:\nThe total wood production from these forests is estimated at . Golestan National Park and Shastkolateh forest watershed are located in Golestan Province), Mazandaran Province (the total area of the Hyrcanian forest is estimated at . From these forests, are used commercially, are protected and the rest are regarded as forest lands or over-used forests. The total of the forest woods used in this province is estimated at . The Kojoor, Dohezar and Sehezar forest watersheds are located in Mazandaran province.\nThe Elburz Range forest steppe ecoregion is an arid, mountainous 1,000-kilometer arc south of the Caspian Sea, stretching across northern Iran from the Azerbaijan border to near the Turkmenistan border. It covers and encompasses the southern and eastern slopes of the Alborz Mountains as well as their summits. The Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests ecoregion, with its lush green mountainsides and plains that receive moisture from the Caspian Sea, forms this ecoregion's northern border. The vast Central Persian desert basin ecoregion forms its southern border. The Alborz range is composed of a granite core overlain with sedimentary rock including limestones, shales, sandstones, and tuffs. Metamorphic rocks such as schists, marbles, and amphibolite are also widely found. The climate is arid with annual precipitation varying from 150 mm to 500 mm, falling mostly as winter snow.", "Black Sea–Caspian Steppe\nSteppe: Since the Don and Volga are not significant barriers the history of most of this area is part of the general history of the Pontic-Caspian steppe. Since this area is far from the centers of literate civilization it is hard to know the details of what happened. Variations in dates below represent early ancestors, late survivals and other irregularities. ", "Buzachi Peninsula\nThis peninsula is a vast low-lying depression with salt marshes and salt lakes. Parts of it lie between 20 and 30 m below sea level, lower than the Caspian. The area provides an important habitat for thousands of Goitered Gazelles.\nThe area was mapped by Fedor Ivanovich Soimonov during the Caspian Expedition, which surveyed the Caspian Sea from 1719 to 1727.", "Black Sea–Caspian Steppe\nThe Black Sea-Caspian Steppe is an informal name for that part of the Eurasian Steppe that extends south between the Black and Caspian Seas. It is usually treated as part of the Pontic-Caspian steppe which includes the area north of the Black and Caspian Seas, but there is some reason to treat it as a distinct place. Its natural boundaries are the Sea of Azov and Black Sea on the west, the Caucasus Mountains on the south and the Caspian Sea on the east. Its northern boundary may be taken as the triangle formed by the lower Don River and Volga River which are about 60 km apart to the west of Volgograd. This article excludes the north slope of the Caucasus which is not steppe and has a distinct geography and history.", "Caspian lowland desert\nThe Caspian lowland desert ecoregion (WWF ID:PA1308) is an ecoregion that covers the north and southeast coasts of the Caspian Sea, including the deltas of the Volga River and Ural River in the northern region. While the region gets relatively low amounts of precipitation (less than 200 mm/year), wildlife is supported by the river estuaries and the sea itself. The wetlands are an internationally important area for bird nesting and migratory resting. The ecoregion is in the Palearctic ecozone, and the Deserts and Xeric Shrublands biome. It has an area of .", "Lakes on Mars\nEridania Lake is a theorized ancient lake with a surface area of roughly 1.1 million square kilometers. Its maximum depth is 2,400 meters and its volume is 562,000 km. It was larger than the largest landlocked sea on Earth, the Caspian Sea and contained more water than all the other martian lakes together. The Eridania sea held more than 9 times as much water as all of America's Great Lakes. The upper surface of the lake was assumed to be at the elevation of valley networks that surround the lake; they all end at the same elevation, suggesting that they emptied into a lake.", "Dead Kultuk\nIt had a distinct coastline in former times, but since the 1990s, with higher Caspian Sea levels, the water penetrates inland through the neck of the bay producing waterlogged marshes. Located at the mainland end of the bay, the Kaydak Inlet cuts deep into the coast extending east and then southwards. Nowadays both the bay and the inlet are filled with Caspian Sea water. Currently there are oil fields in the area.\nOwing to its special colour the Dead Kultuk is the bay which appears in early maps of the Caspian Sea as 'Blue Sea' ( in maps in that language). The area was mapped by Fedor Ivanovich Soimonov during the Caspian Expedition, which surveyed the Caspian Sea from 1719 to 1727, but was not accurately described until G. S. Karelin did so in 1832.", "Caspian Sea\nThe Convention grants jurisdiction over 15 miles of territorial waters to each neighboring country, plus additional 10 miles of exclusive fishing rights on the surface, while the rest is international waters. The seabed, on the other hand, remains undefined, subject to bilateral agreements between countries. Thus, the Caspian Sea is legally neither fully a sea nor a lake.[59]", "Environment of Azerbaijan\nThe Caspian Sea is the largest lake on Earth by both area and volume, with a surface area of 371,000 square kilometres (143,244 mi²) and a volume of 78,200 cubic kilometres (18,761 mi³). It is a landlocked endorheic body of water and lies between Asia and Europe. It has a maximum depth of about . It is called a sea because when the Romans discovered it they tasted the water and found it to be salty. It has a salinity of approximately 1.2 percent, about a third the salinity of sea water.", "Lake Manych-Gudilo\nA global sea level rise of roughly would cause the ocean surface to be higher than the highest point of an area between the ocean and the Caspian, forming a narrow channel straddling the lake in the area between the Sea of Azov and the Caspian Sea, potentially placing the Caspian Depression area under water.", "Water on Mars\nEridania Lake is a theorized ancient lake with a surface area of roughly 1.1 million square kilometers. Its maximum depth is 2,400 meters and its volume is 562,000 km. It was larger than the largest landlocked sea on Earth, the Caspian Sea and contained more water than all the other martian lakes together. The Eridania sea held more than 9 times as much water as all of North America's Great Lakes. The upper surface of the lake was assumed to be at the elevation of valley networks that surround the lake; they all end at the same elevation, suggesting that they emptied into a lake.", "Caspian lowland desert\nThe ecoregion is approximately contained within the Caspian Depression, and sunken geological region feeding in to the Caspian, the surface of which is itself at below worldwide sea level. The northern section is almost 900 km wide, and stretches up to 300 km inland across Russia and Kazakhstan. The sector along the southeast coast of the Caspian is mostly in Turkmenistan. Elevations throughout the ecoregion range between -28 and +100 meters. The dry areas were once underwater, but as the sea has slowly receded the dry areas have revealed a landscape of sand dunes, ridges, salt domes, salt pans ('shors'), and clay deserts ('takyrs'). \nThe climate of the ecoregion is represented by that in the Volga delta, in the Astrakhan Nature Reserve, where the climate is cool semi-arid (Köppen climate classification BSk). This climate is characterized by high variation in temperature, both daily and seasonally; with low precipitation. Average annual precipitation in the Caspian lowlands is 198 mm. Average temperature in January is , and in July is ", "Caspian red deer\nThe Caspian red deer (\"Cervus elaphus maral\"), is one of the easternmost subspecies of red deer that is native to areas between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea such as Crimea, Asia Minor, the Caucasus Mountains region bordering Europe and Asia, and along the Caspian Sea region in Iran. The Caspian red deer is sometimes referred to as maral, noble deer, or eastern red deer.", "Caspian Sea\nThe Caspian turtle (Mauremys caspica), although found in neighboring areas, is a wholly freshwater species. The zebra mussel is native to the Caspian and Black Sea basins, but has become an invasive species elsewhere, when introduced. The area has given its name to several species, including the Caspian gull and the Caspian tern. The Caspian seal (Pusa caspica) is the only aquatic mammal and is endemic to the Caspian Sea, being one of very few seal species that live in inland waters, but it is different from the those inhabiting freshwaters due to the hydrological environment of the sea.", "Kaydak Inlet\nIn the same manner as the Dead Kultuk, the Kaydak Inlet had a distinct coastline in former times, but since the 1990s, with higher Caspian Sea levels, the water penetrates inland through the neck of the bay producing waterlogged marshes. Nowadays both the bay and the inlet are filled with Caspian Sea water. The water in the shallow inlet has striking colours, in which delicate tones of blue or of brown predominate according to the seasons.\nThe area was cartographed by Fedor Ivanovich Soimonov during the Caspian Expedition, which surveyed the Caspian Sea from 1719 to 1727, but was only accurately described later by G. S. Karelin in 1832.", "Outburst flood\nA theory proposed by Andrey Tchepalyga of the Russian Academy of Sciences dates the flooding of the Black Sea basin to an earlier time and from a different cause. According to Tchepalyga, global warming beginning from about 16,000 BP caused the melting of the Scandinavia Ice Sheet, resulting in massive river discharge that flowed into the Caspian Sea, raising it to as much as above normal present-day levels. The Sea of Azov rose so high that it overflowed into the Caspian Sea. The rise was extremely rapid and the Caspian basin could not contain all the floodwater, which flowed from the northwest coastline of the Caspian Sea, through the Kuma-Manych Depression and Kerch Strait into the Black Sea basin. By the end of the Pleistocene this would have raised the level of the Black Sea by some below its present-day level, and flooding large areas that were formerly available for settlement or hunting. Tchepalyga suggests this may have formed the basis for legends of the great Deluge.", "Caspian Sea\nThe history of the Caspian sea is divided into two parts: a Miocene stage, determined by tectonic events that correlate with the closing of the Tethys Sea, and a Pleistocene stage, that includes glaciation cycles and the creation of the present Volga River. During the first stage, the Tethys Sea had evolved into the Sarmatian Lake, that was created from the modern Black Sea and south Caspian, when the collision of the Arabian peninsula with Western Asia pushed up the Kopet Dag and Caucasus Mountains, setting definitive south and west boundaries to the Caspian basin. This orogeneic movement was continuous throughout the years, while Caspian was regularly disconnecting from the Black Sea. In the late Pontian, a mountain arch rose across the south basin and divided it in the Khachmaz and Lankaran Lakes (or early Balaxani). The period of restriction to the south basin was reversed during the Akchagyglian, when the lake expanded to more than three times its present area and established the first of a series of contacts with the Black Sea and with Lake Aral. A recession of the lake Akchagyl completed stage one.[31]", "Lake Superior\nLake Superior empties into Lake Huron via the St. Marys River and the Soo Locks. Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world in area (if Lakes Michigan and Huron are taken separately; \"see Lake Michigan–Huron\"), and the third largest in volume, behind Lake Baikal in Siberia and Lake Tanganyika in East Africa. The Caspian Sea, while larger than Lake Superior in both surface area and volume, is brackish; though presently isolated, prehistorically the Caspian has been repeatedly connected to and isolated from the Mediterranean via the Black Sea." ]

[ "Tic\nMotor tics are movement-based tics affecting discrete muscle groups." ]

[ "Tic\nComplex motor tics are typically more purposeful-appearing and of a longer nature. They may involve a cluster of movements and appear coordinated.[6] Examples of complex motor tics are pulling at clothes, touching people, touching objects, echopraxia (repeating or imitating another person's actions) and copropraxia (involuntarily performing obscene or forbidden gestures).", "Obsessive–compulsive spectrum\nTourette’s syndrome is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent involuntary movements (motor tics) and involuntary noises (vocal tics). The reason Tourette’s syndrome and other tic disorders are being considered for placement in the obsessive compulsive spectrum is because of the phenomenology and co-morbidity of the disorders with obsessive compulsive disorder. Within the population of patients with OCD up to 40% have a history of a tic disorder and 60% of people with Tourette’s syndrome have obsessions and/or compulsions. Plus 30% of people with Tourette’s syndrome have clinically diagnosable OCD. Course of illness is another factor that suggests correlation because it has been found that tics displayed in childhood are a predictor of obsessive and compulsive symptoms in late adolescence and early adulthood. However, the association of Tourette’s and tic disorders with OCD is challenged by neuropsychology and pharmaceutical treatment. Whereas OCD is treated with SSRI, tics are treated with dopamine blockers and alpha-2 agonists.", "History of Tourette syndrome\nAccording to Swerdlow, \"the 'core' TS conundrum\" is a lack of consensus about the definition of Tourette syndrome. Since vocal tics result from a \"motor event (ie, a contracting diaphragm moving air through the upper airways)\", TS could be defined as a disorder of motor tics, eliminating the distinction between TS and the other tic disorders. Individuals who have only tics may not be functionally impaired, raising the question of whether Tourette's as currently defined should be a DSM diagnosis. Swerdlow highlights the importance of studies in new areas such as behavioral techniques, and says that \"the whole-cloth dismissal of psychologic forces in the pathobiology of TS was a strategic error\". Questions remain about whether co-occurring (comorbid) conditions should be part of the core definition, and why sensory phenomena, which are a core part of Tourette's, are not part of the diagnostic criteria.", "Tic\nIndividuals with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) may present with features typically associated with a tic disorder, such as compulsions that may resemble motor tics. \"Tic-related OCD\" is hypothesized to be a subgroup of OCD, distinguished from non-tic-related OCD by the content and type of obsessions and compulsions; individuals with tic-related OCD have more intrusive thoughts, and exhibit more hoarding and counting rituals than individuals with non-tic-related OCD.[29]", "Tic\nTics are classified as either motor or phonic, and simple or complex.", "Yale Global Tic Severity Scale\nThe Yale Global Tic Severity Scale (YGTTS) is a psychological measure designed to identify symptoms of disorders relating to attention and impulsivity, such as tic disorder, Tourette’s syndrome, and obsessive-compulsive disorder, in children and adolescents between ages 6 to 17. The questionnaire is divided into three parts over the span of 17 pages: one section identifies symptoms of motor and phonic tics, severity, and age of onset. Another section concerns OCD symptoms, severity, and age of onset, and the last section concerns environmental effects on symptoms. The YGTTS is completed by the parent and takes approximately 15–20 minutes to complete. The questionnaire has shown good reliability and validity in assessing tic severity in recent studies.", "Causes and origins of Tourette syndrome\nCauses and origins of tinnys Tourette syndrome have not been fully elucidated. Tourette syndrome (also called \"Tourette's syndrome\", \"Tourette's disorder\", \"Gilles de la Tourette syndrome\", \"GTS\" or \"TS\") is an inherited neurological disorder with onset in childhood, characterized by the presence of multiple motor tics and at least one phonic tic, which characteristically wax and wane. Tourette's syndrome occurs along a spectrum of tic disorders, which includes transient tics and chronic tics.\nThe exact cause of Tourette's is unknown, but it is well established that both genetic and environmental factors are involved. The overwhelming majority of cases of Tourette's are inherited, although the exact mode of inheritance is not yet known, and no gene has been identified. Tics are believed to result from dysfunction in the thalamus, basal ganglia, and frontal cortex of the brain, involving abnormal activity of the brain chemical, or neurotransmitter, dopamine. In addition to dopamine, multiple neurotransmitters, like serotonin, GABA, glutamate, and histamine (H3-receptor), are involved.", "Sensory phenomena\nSensory phenomena resemble urges or sensations associated with akathisia and restless legs syndrome, in which motor movement also relieves the unpleasant sensation. \"Individuals with tics may have either a generalized or a localized sensation of tension that is relieved by movement, ie, the tic.\"", "History of Tourette syndrome\nTourette syndrome is an inherited neurological disorder with onset in childhood, characterized by the presence of multiple physical (motor) tics and at least one vocal (phonic) tic.", "History of Tourette syndrome\nTS was first included in the third revision of the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" (DSM-III) in 1980. In 2000, the American Psychiatric Association published the DSM-IV-TR, revising the text of DSM-IV to no longer require that symptoms of tic disorders cause distress or impair functioning. The fifth revision of the DSM (DSM-5) was published in 2013: it defined tic disorders in the motor disorders chapter of the neurodevelopmental disorders, and removed the word \"stereotyped\" from the description of tics; replaced transient tic disorder with provisional tic disorder; differentiated motor and vocal chronic tic disorder; removed the use of stimulants as a cause of tics; and e) added two new categories of tic disorders. Few significant other changes were made.", "Klazomania\nIn a 1996 report of one case, Bates \"et al.\" postulated that klazomania is similar to the vocal tics of Tourette syndrome, although patients with klazomania may not have the motor tics necessary for a diagnosis of TS. Bates and colleagues observed a case where alcoholism and encephalitis were accompanied by vocal tics and occasionally klazomania. They hypothesized that the cause of klazomania is linked to the combined effects of brain damage due to alcoholism or encephalitis.", "Societal and cultural aspects of Tourette syndrome\nPre-dating Gilles de la Tourette's 1885 publication which defined TS, likely portrayals of TS or tic disorder in fictional literature are Mr. Pancks in \"Little Dorritt\" by Charles Dickens and Nikolai Levin in \"Anna Karenina\" by Leo Tolstoy. According to Hendrik Voss, Mr. Pancks displays vocal tics including snorting and blowing, and obsessive behaviors. Voss says that Nikolai is portrayed as having numerous motor tics (\"head, neck and body jerks, facial wrinkling, eyebrow twitching and grimacing\") as well as the vocal tic of shouting. The description may have been based on Tolstoy's brother, Dmitry Tolstoy, who is described as having \"peculiar movements of head and neck plus inappropriate shouts\".", "Tic\nSimple motor tics are typically sudden, brief, meaningless movements that usually involve only one group of muscles, such as eye blinking, head jerking, or shoulder shrugging.[6] Motor tics can be of an endless variety and may include such movements as hand clapping, neck stretching, mouth movements, head, arm or leg jerks, and facial grimacing.", "Obsessive–compulsive disorder\nSome with OCD present with features typically associated with Tourette's syndrome, such as compulsions that may appear to resemble motor tics; this has been termed \"tic-related OCD\" or \"Tourettic OCD\".[104][105]", "Hyperkinesia\nWhen both motor and vocal tics are present and persist for more than one year, a diagnosis of Tourette syndrome (TS) is likely. TS is an inherited neurobehavioral disorder characterized by both motor and vocal tics. Many individuals with TS may also develop obsessions, compulsions, inattention and hyperactivity. TS usually begins in childhood. Up to 5% of the population suffers from tics, but at least 20% of boys will have developed tics at some point in their lifetimes.", "Tourette syndrome\nTics are sudden, repetitive, nonrhythmic movements (motor tics) and utterances (phonic tics) that involve discrete muscle groups. Motor tics are movement-based tics, while phonic tics are involuntary sounds produced by moving air through the nose, mouth, or throat.", "Tic\nWhile many tics, such as throat clearing and eye blinking, are normal across populations, some tics represent disordered behavior from a psychiatric perspective.[18] The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), published in May 2013, reclassified Tourette's and tic disorders as motor disorders listed in the neurodevelopmental disorder category, removed the word \"stereotyped\" from the definition of tic to better distinguish between stereotypies and tics, replaced transient tic disorder with provisional tic disorder, and replaced the criterion that tics occur nearly every day with persistence for more than a year.[18][19][20][21] The longer tic-free periods (months) allow that more have Tourette's Disorder or a Persistent (Chronic) tic disorder.", "Tourettism\nTourette syndrome (TS) is an inherited neurological condition of multiple motor and at least one vocal tic. Although Tourette syndrome is the most common cause of tic disorders, other sporadic, genetic, and neurodegenerative disorders may also exhibit tics.", "Tourette syndrome\nAlthough it has been speculated that Mozart had Tourette's, no Tourette's expert or organization has presented credible evidence to support such a conclusion, and there are problems with the arguments supporting the diagnosis: tics are not transferred to the written form, as is supposed with Mozart's scatological writings; the medical history in retrospect is not thorough; side effects due to other conditions may be misinterpreted; \"it is not proven whether written documents can account for the existence of a vocal tic\" and \"the evidence of motor tics in Mozart's life is doubtful.\"\nPre-dating Gilles de la Tourette's 1885 publication, likely portrayals of TS or tic disorders in fictional literature are Mr. Pancks in \"Little Dorrit\" by Charles Dickens and Nikolai Levin in \"Anna Karenina\" by Leo Tolstoy. The entertainment industry has been criticized for depicting those with Tourette syndrome as social misfits whose only tic is coprolalia, which has furthered stigmatization and the public's misunderstanding of those with Tourette's. The coprolalic symptoms of Tourette's are also fodder for radio and television talk shows in the US and in the British media.", "Tic disorder\nTic disorders is defined in the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" (DSM) based on type (motor or phonic) and duration of tics (sudden, rapid, nonrhythmic movements). Tic disorders are defined similarly by the World Health Organization (ICD-10 codes).", "Tourette syndrome\nTic disorders are defined only slightly differently by the World Health Organization International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, ICD-10; code F95.2 is for combined vocal and multiple motor tic disorder [de la Tourette].", "Hyperkinesia\nA tic can be defined as a repeated, individually recognizable, intermittent movement or movement fragments that are almost always briefly suppressible and are usually associated with awareness of an urge to perform the movement. These abnormal movements occur with intervening periods of normal movement. These movements are predictable, often triggered by stress, excitement, suggestion, or brief voluntary suppressibility. Many children say that the onset of tics can stem from the strong urge to move. Tics can be either muscular (alter normal motor function) or vocal (alter normal speech) in nature and most commonly involve the face, mouth, eyes, head, neck or shoulder muscles. Tics can also be classified as simple motor tics (a single brief stereotyped movement or movement fragment), complex motor tics (a more complex or sequential movement involving multiple muscle\ngroups), or phonic tics (including simple, brief phonations or vocalizations).", "Tic\nA tic is a sudden, repetitive, nonrhythmic motor movement or vocalization involving discrete muscle groups.[1][2] Tics can be invisible to the observer, such as abdominal tensing or toe crunching. Common motor and phonic tics are, respectively, eye blinking and throat clearing.[3]", "Tourette syndrome\nTics are movements or sounds \"that occur intermittently and unpredictably out of a background of normal motor activity\", having the appearance of \"normal behaviors gone wrong\". The tics associated with Tourette's change in number, frequency, severity and anatomical location. Waxing and waning—the ongoing increase and decrease in severity and frequency of tics—occurs differently in each individual. Tics may also occur in \"bouts of bouts\", which vary for each person.", "Tourette syndrome\nAccording to the fifth edition of the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" (DSM-5), Tourette’s may be diagnosed when a person exhibits both multiple motor and one or more vocal tics over the period of a year; the motor and vocal tics need not be concurrent. The onset must have occurred before the age of 18, and cannot be attributed to the effects of another condition or substance (such as cocaine). Hence, other medical conditions that include tics or tic-like movements—such as autism or other causes of tourettism—must be ruled out before conferring a Tourette's diagnosis. Since 2000, the DSM has recognized that clinicians see patients who meet all the other criteria for Tourette's, but do not have distress or impairment.", "Tic Talk: Living with Tourette Syndrome\nPeters introduces himself by telling the reader how old he is and about his family. To delve further into his personality he states what sports and school subjects he likes most. When he was four years old he began to have tics, and his parents took him to a neurologist who prescribed medicine which would help reduce the intensity of the tics. The tics still occurred with medication. As the tics progressed in strength and intensity, Peters began to wonder if his friends would notice and if they would think he was strange. His friends began to ask questions about why he would do certain things such as blink twice or jerk his head. In the third grade, he decided to tell his friends and classmates of his Tourette syndrome. As the date of getting in front of his class to tell of his syndrome approached, his tics worsened. The day came and his mother went in to define Tourette syndrome for the class. Dylan then told his friends of his story so they could better understand him. After he did this his tics decreased in intensity. In the end he stated that this was most likely because he was not scared or nervous about what his friends would think anymore. In his last paragraph Peters stated that having Tourette syndrome does not change a person, it is just what makes that person who they are as a part of their personality.", "Tic disorder\nIn the fourth revision of the DSM (DSM-IV-TR), tic disorders were classified as follows:DSM-5 was published in 2013, updating DSM-IV-TR, which was published in 2000. The following changes were made:The fifth revision of the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" (DSM-5), published in May 2013, classifies Tourette's and tic disorders as motor disorders listed in the neurodevelopmental disorder category.", "Tourette syndrome\nTourette's was classified by the fourth version of the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" (DSM-IV-TR) as one of several tic disorders \"usually first diagnosed in infancy, childhood, or adolescence\" according to type (motor or phonic tics) and duration (transient or chronic). Transient tic disorders consisted of multiple motor tics, phonic tics or both, with a duration between four weeks and twelve months. Chronic tic disorder was either single or multiple, motor or phonic tics (but not both), which were present for more than a year. Tourette's is diagnosed when multiple motor tics, and at least one phonic tic, are present for more than a year. The fifth version of the DSM (DSM-5), published in May 2013, reclassified Tourette's and tic disorders as motor disorders listed in the neurodevelopmental disorder category, and replaced transient tic disorder with provisional tic disorder, but made few other significant changes.", "Jumping Frenchmen of Maine\nTourette syndrome is characterized by multiple physical (motor) tics and at least one vocal (phonic) tic. There are many overlaps when compared clinically, but the abnormal \"jumping\" response is always provoked, unlike the involuntary tics in Tourette syndrome." ]

[ "History of Sardinia\nIn the Early Middle Ages, through barbarian movements, the waning of the Byzantine Empire influence in the western Mediterranean and the Saracen raids, the island fell out of the sphere of influence of any higher government. This led to the birth of four kingdoms called Judicates (Latin: Judicati; Sardinian: Judicados) in the 8th through 10th centuries. Falling under papal influence, Sardinia became the focus of the rivalry of Genoa and Pisa, the Judicates and the Crown of Aragon, which eventually subsumed the island as the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1324. The Kingdom was to last until 1718, when it was ceded to the Piedmontese House of Savoy; later, in 1861, it would thus become the Kingdom of Italy and finally in 1946 the Italian Republic." ]

[ "Austro-Italian ironclad arms race\nIn March 1860, Cavour became the Kingdom of Sardinia's naval minister. He assumed this role at a time when Sardinia was rapidly expanding into Northern and Central Italy. Earlier that month, plebiscites in Tuscany, Modena and Reggio, Parma, and Romagna produced overwhelming majorities in favor of annexation by Sardinia. This expansion of Sardinia likewise resulted in the growth of the kingdom's navy. In April, Cavour oversaw the incorporation of Tuscany's small fleet into the Sardinian Navy. Immediately after the Tuscan fleet had been integrated into the Sardinian Navy, Cavour placed an order with the Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée to construct two armored warships in Toulon. These two ships would become the \"Formidabile\" class, the first ironclads to serve in the Italian Peninsula. While foreign powers such as Austria watched the growth of Sardinia and the expansion of its army closely, the consolidation of the Sardinian Navy after the incorporation of multiple states across the Italian Peninsula received far less attention. This allowed Cavour to continue his work incorporating the various fleets Sardinia inherited as more and more Italian states joined the growing kingdom.", "Southern Italy\nSouthern Italy is generally thought to comprise the administrative regions of Abruzzo, Apulia, Basilicata, Campania, Calabria, Molise, Sicily, and usually Sardinia. Some also include the southernmost and easternmost parts of Lazio (the Sora, Cassino, Gaeta, Cittaducale, Formia, and Amatrice districts) within the \"Mezzogiorno\", since they were once part of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and southern Italian lects are spoken. The island of Sardinia, although being culturally, linguistically and historically less related to the aforementioned regions than any of them is to each other, is frequently included as Southern Italy or \"Mezzogiorno\", often for statistical and economical purposes.", "History of Sardinia\nIn the summer of 533 Vandal forces (5000 men and 120 ships), led by Tzazo, arrived in Sardinia to stifle the Godas' rebellion and conquered Caralis, killing Godas and his followers .[28] In the early 534 the Vandals of Sardinia surrendered immediately to the Byzantines when faced with news of the Vandal collapse in Africa;[29] thenceforth the island was part of the Byzantine Empire, included as a province in the Praetorian prefecture of Africa. The local governor sat in Caralis. During the Gothic Wars much of the island fell easily to the Ostrogoths, but the final fall of the Germanic resistance in mainland Italy reassured Byzantine control.[30] Sardinia was subsequently included in the Exarchate of Africa until its end by the Arabs in 698 AD when the island was likely aggregated to the Exarchate of Ravenna.[31] In 599 and during the 7th century the Longobard fleet tried to assault Caralis and Turris Libissonis (Porto Torres) but in vain.[32]", "Freemasonry in Italy\nDuring the period when Freemasonry was first established in Italy, Savoy and Piedmont were part of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In 1749 in Chambery, a lodge was founded on the basis of a license from the provincial grand master for Savoy and Piedmont issued by the Grand Lodge of London in 1739 to the Marquis de Bellegarde François Noyel. In 1752, the same lodge took the name of the Mother Grand Lodge, with the power to create other lodges in all the territories of the Kingdom of Sardinia and, in fact, in 1765 three of them were created, including one in Turin. The latter assumed such importance as to be accorded, in 1773, autonomy from the Grand Lodge at Chambery. In Piedmont, a lodge was also present in Novi Ligure. After French domination, the regions were handed back to Sardinia in 1814, and Freemasonry repressed.", "Southern Italy\nThe administration of the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, as well as the Duchy of Milan, was then run by the Council of Italy, while Sardinia kept being an integral part of the Council of Aragon until the first years of the XVIII° century, when it was ceded to Austria and eventually Savoy.", "Expédition de Sardaigne\nThe French Revolutionary Wars began in April 1792 when the Austrian Empire and Kingdom of Prussia declared war on the newly instituted French Republic. Although the Kingdom of Sardinia, split between Piedmont in Northern Italy and the large Mediterranean island of Sardinia, was not part of this coalition, it was identified as a primary target of French military operations. The island of Sardinia was agriculturally rich and strategically important in the Mediterranean, and it was felt in France that its capture would intimidate the mainland part of the Kingdom and the other nations of the Italian peninsula, and spread republicanism beyond the borders of France. Moreover, a successful attack on the island was thought to be easily achievable, and orders were given for an expeditionary force to assemble at Toulon, the principal French Mediterranean naval base.", "Sardinian nationalism\nIn 1847, a segment of the Sardinian elites from Cagliari and Sassari, guided by the unionist Giovanni Siotto Pintor, demanded the so-called Perfect Fusion, aimed at getting the liberal reforms Sardinia could not have because of its separate legal system. A minority of Sardinian deputies, like Federico Fenu and the federalist Giovanni Battista Tuveri, strongly protested against the merging and warned against the situation Sardinia could potentially find itself in. In the end, the king Charles Albert agreed to the request; however, he also dissolved what political bodies remained that could exert a modicum of control on the king's decisions over the island. Moreover, the later enlargement moves in the Mainland on the Savoyards' part further aggravated the island's peripheral condition: Sardinia would end up being an even less significant overseas departement of the Savoyard domains, whose centre of political power had always been in the Italian peninsula. The episode would lead Pintor himself to regret having made that proposal (\"Errammo tutti\", \"we all made a mistake\"), and would raise the \"Sardinian Question\" (\"Questione Sarda\") from then on, a broad term used to cover a wide variety of issues regarding the difficult relationship between Sardinia and the mainland. The Savoyard kings then proceeded to expand their domains through the Unification of Italy: Sardinia, being already part of the Piedmontese Kingdom from the very beginning, automatically joined the new polity, that changed its name to become the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.", "Grand Duchy of Tuscany\nIn December 1859, the Grand Duchy effectively ceased to exist, being joined to the Duchies of Modena and Parma to form the United Provinces of Central Italy, which were annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia a few months later. On 22 March 1860, after a referendum that voted overwhelmingly (95%) in favour of a union with Sardinia; Tuscany was formally annexed to Sardinia. Italy was unified in 1870, when the remains of the Papal States were annexed in that September, deposing Pope Pius IX.", "Villacidro\nVillacidro (Sardinian: Biddacidru or Bidda de Cidru) is a town and \"comune\" in the province of South Sardinia, Sardinia, Italy. In 2005 it has been the administrative seat of the province 'Medio Campidano', together with Sanluri. Since 2016 it is part of the province of South Sardinia ('provincia Sud Sardegna').", "90th Light Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)\nThe 90th Light Infantry Division was a light infantry division of the German Army during World War II that served in North Africa as well as Sardinia and Italy. The division played a major role in most of the actions against the British Eighth Army in the Western Desert Campaign and eventually surrendered to the Allies in the final stages of the Tunisia Campaign in May 1943. It was re-constituted later in 1943 and deployed to Sardinia and when the expected Allied invasion of Sardinia failed to materialise, the division was moved to Italy. It was engaged in actions against the Allies in Italy from 1943 to September 1944 when the division was listed as \"destroyed\" south of Bologna.", "History of Italy\nAt the end of the 18th century, Italy was almost in the same political conditions as in the 16th century; the main differences were that Austria had replaced Spain as the dominant foreign power after the War of Spanish Succession (and that too was not true with regards to Naples and Sicily), and that the dukes of Savoy (a mountainous region between Italy and France) had become kings of Sardinia by increasing their Italian possessions, which now included Sardinia and the north-western region of Piedmont.", "Torralba, Sardinia\nTorralba () is a town and \"comune\" in Sardinia, Italy, administratively part of the province of Sassari.", "Route nationale 6\nAt Modane the Autoroute and railway line branch South in tunnels and into Italy. The Fréjus Rail Tunnel was finished in 1871. It had been started by the Sardinian monarchy to link different parts of the kingdom of Sardinia before the border took place there. The Fréjus Road Tunnel is 13 km long and becomes the Autostrada A-32 in Italy. The railway also emerges and heads down the Bardonecchia valley. ", "HVDC Italy–Corsica–Sardinia\nThe HVDC Italy–Corsica–Sardinia (also called SACOI; Sardinia–Corsica–Italy) is an HVDC interconnection used for the exchange of electric energy between the Italian mainland, Corsica and Sardinia. It is unusual, having more than two converter stations as part of a single HVDC system, and (as of 2012) is one of only two \"Multi-terminal\" HVDC systems in operation in the world (the other multi-terminal scheme being the Quebec – New England Transmission system linking northeastern United States with Quebec in Canada). ", "Sanluri\nSanluri (, ) is a comune in Sardinia, Italy. It became part of the Province of South Sardinia, following the creation of that local unit in 2016. The territory of Sanluri comprises an area of .", "History of Italy (1559–1814)\nAt the end of the 18th century, Italy was almost in the same political conditions as in the 16th century; the main differences were that Austria had replaced Spain as the dominant foreign power after the War of Spanish Succession (and that too was not true with regards to Naples and Sicily), and that the dukes of Savoy (a mountainous region between Italy and France) had become kings of Sardinia by increasing their Italian possessions, which now included Sardinia and the north-western region of Piedmont.", "Alghero\nAlghero (), also known as L'Alguer (; ; ), is a town of about 44,000 inhabitants in the Italian insular province of Sassari in northwestern Sardinia, next to the Mediterranean Sea. Part of its population descends from Catalan conquerors from the end of the Middle Ages, when Sardinia was part of the Crown of Aragon. Hence, the Catalan language is co-official (a unique situation in Italy) and known as the Alguerès dialect. The name Alghero comes from \"Aleguerium\", which is a mediaeval Latin word meaning 'stagnation of algae' (\"Posidonia oceanica\") .", "Napoleon III\nPart of Italy, particularly the kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia (officially \"Kingdom of Sardinia\"), was independent, but central Italy was still ruled by the Pope and Lombardy, while Venice and much of the north was ruled by Austria. Other states were de jure independent (e.g. the Duchy of Parma or the Grand Duchy of Tuscany) but de facto totally under Austrian influence. Napoleon III had fought with the Italian patriots against the Austrians when he was young, and his sympathy was with them, but the Empress, most of his government and the Catholic Church in France supported the Pope and the existing governments. The British Government was also hostile to the idea of promoting nationalism in Italy. Despite the opposition in his government and in his own palace, Napoleon III did all that he could to support the cause of Piedmont-Sardinia. The King of Piedmont-Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel II, was invited to Paris in November 1855, and given the same royal treatment as Queen Victoria.", "Province of Genoa\nGenoa had been an independent republic for many years, and when Napoleon became Emperor and King of Italy in 1800, it became part of the French Empire. When Napoleon was defeated in 1814, it became part of the Kingdom of Sardinia. At that time Genoa was the most important port and trading center in Italy.", "Italian Fascism\nTo the west of Italy, the Fascists claimed that the territories of Corsica, Nice and Savoy held by France were Italian lands. During the period of Italian unification in 1860 to 1861, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, who was leading the unification effort, faced opposition from French Emperor Napoleon III who indicated that France would oppose Italian unification unless France was given Nice and Savoy that were held by Piedmont Sardinia, as France did not want a powerful state having control of all the passages of the Alps. As a result, Piedmont-Sardinia was pressured to concede Nice and Savoy to France in exchange for France accepting the unification of Italy. The Fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the \"italianità\" (Italianness) of the island. The Fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic and linguistic grounds. The Fascists quoted Medieval Italian scholar Petrarch who said: \"The border of Italy is the Var; consequently Nice is a part of Italy\". The Fascists quoted Italian national hero Giuseppe Garibaldi who said: \"Corsica and Nice must not belong to France; there will come the day when an Italy mindful of its true worth will reclaim its provinces now so shamefully languishing under foreign domination\". Mussolini initially pursued promoting annexation of Corsica through political and diplomatic means, believing that Corsica could be annexed to Italy through first encouraging the existing autonomist tendencies in Corsica and then independence of Corsica from France, that would be followed by annexation of Corsica into Italy.", "Mentha requienii\nCorsican mint is native to Corsica, Sardinia, France and Italy. It has become naturalised in other parts of the world and is regarded as an invasive species in south eastern United States.", "Territorial evolution of Switzerland\nIn Sardinia, the \"Associazione no-profit Sardegna Canton Marittimo\" was formed in April 2014 with the aim of advocating Sardinia's secession from Italy and becoming a \"maritime canton\" of Switzerland.", "National Fascist Party\nTo the west of Italy, the Fascists claimed that the territories of Corsica, Nice and Savoy held by France were Italian lands. During the period of Italian unification in 1860 to 1861, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, who was leading the unification effort, faced opposition from French Emperor Napoleon III who indicated that France would oppose Italian unification unless France was given Nice and Savoy that were held by Piedmont Sardinia, as France did not want a powerful state having control of all the passages of the Alps. As a result, Piedmont-Sardinia was pressured to concede Nice and Savoy to France in exchange for France accepting the unification of Italy. The Fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the \"italianità\" of the island. The Fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic and linguistic grounds. The Fascists quoted Medieval Italian scholar Petrarch who said: \"The border of Italy is the Var; consequently Nice is a part of Italy\". The Fascists quoted Italian national hero Giuseppe Garibaldi who said: \"Corsica and Nice must not belong to France; there will come the day when an Italy mindful of its true worth will reclaim its provinces now so shamefully languishing under foreign domination\". Mussolini initially pursued promoting annexation of Corsica through political and diplomatic means, believing that Corsica could be annexed to Italy through first encouraging the existing autonomist tendencies in Corsica and then independence of Corsica from France, that would be followed by annexation of Corsica into Italy.", "Monghidoro\nIn 1507 Monghidoro was annexed to the Papal States, following the fortunes of Bologna and its territories. \nThe Olivetan Order of Benedictin monks (Olivetans) began building a monastery in the village centre in 1528. \nIn 1796, with the arrival of Napoleon in Italy, the comune became part of the Cispadane Republic until 1815, when the Congress of Vienna decided to return the territory to Bologna and the Papal States. \nFrom about 1660 until the advent of large-scale rail transit in the 1840s, Monghidoro was a mandatory stop-over to rest horses and carriage drivers of the aristocratic and fashionably polite society of the European continent on the Grand Tour of Italy on their way to Florence and Rome. \nIn 1860 Monghidoro was officially annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia becoming Kingdom of Italy in 1861.", "Kingdom of Sardinia\nOn 17 March 1861, law no. 4671 of the Sardinian Parliament proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy, so ratifying the annexations of all other Apennine states, plus Sicily, to the Kingdom of Sardinia. The institutions and laws of the Kingdom were quickly extended to all of Italy, abolishing the administrations of the other regions. Piedmont became the most dominant and wealthiest region in Italy and the capital of Piedmont, Turin, remained the Italian capital until 1865, when the capital was moved to Florence. But many revolts exploded throughout the peninsula, especially in southern Italy, and on the island of Sicily, because of the perceived unfair treatment of the south by the Piedmontese ruling class. The House of Savoy ruled Italy until 1946 when Italy was declared a republic by referendum. In this referendum the southern regions, including Sardinia, voted overwhelmingly in favor of the House of Savoy, with the results being 63.8% in favor of maintaining the monarchy.", "Crema, Lombardy\nBy the 1859 Treaty of Zurich which ended the Austro-Sardinian War, Austria ceded Lombardy, including Crema, to France, who then immediately ceded it to Sardinia. This formed part of the \"Risorgimento\", which saw Sardinia become the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. In 1946, the Kingdom became the modern Italian Republic.", "Kingdom of Italy\nThe Kingdom of Italy () was a state which existed from 1861—when King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia was proclaimed King of Italy—until 1946—when a constitutional referendum led civil discontent to abandon the monarchy and form the modern Italian Republic. The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state.", "Bormida, Liguria\nFrom 1815 it followed the fortunes of the Kingdom of Sardinia, becoming part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1860.", "Kingdom of Sardinia (1700–1720)\nFrom 1700 to 1720, the Kingdom of Sardinia, as a part of the Spanish empire, was disputed between two dynasties, the Habsburgs and the Bourbons. With the death of Charles II, the last of the Spanish Habsburgs, on 1 November 1700, the throne passed to Duke Philip of Anjou (Philip V), although the Emperor Leopold I also had a claim. Leopold was especially desirous of obtaining the Spanish inheritance in the Southern Netherlands and in Italy, which included Sardinia. With the failure of France to abide by the Second Partition Treaty, the other European powers lined up on the side of the Habsburgs. The Treaty of the Hague (7 September 1701) allotted to the Emperor the Spanish possessions in Italy. Imperial troops invaded Italy to seize them, and the War of the Spanish Succession began." ]

[ "Zhou Enlai\nWhen Nankai became a university in August 1919, Zhou was in the first class, but was an activist full-time. His political activities continued to expand, and in September, he and several other students agreed to establish the \"Awakening Society\", a small group, never numbering more than 25.[35] In explaining the goals and purpose of the Awakening Society, Zhou declared that \"anything that is incompatible with progress in current times, such as militarism, the bourgeoisie, partylords, bureaucrats, inequality between men and women, obstinate ideas, obsolete morals, old ethics... should be abolished or reformed\", and affirmed that it was the purpose of the Society to spread this awareness among the Chinese people. It was in this society that Zhou first met his future wife, Deng Yingchao.[36] In some ways, the Awakening Society resembled the clandestine Marxist study group at Peking University headed by Li Dazhao, with the group members using numbers instead of names for \"secrecy\". (Zhou was \"Number Five\", a pseudonym which he continued to use in later years.)[37] Indeed, immediately after the group was established, it invited Li Dazhao to give a lecture on Marxism." ]

[ "The Story of Zhou Enlai\nOn May 3, 1961, Zhou Enlai (Sun Weimin) comes to Boyan, an old revolutionary base in north China's Hebei province, to do investigation. On the way to Boyan Township, Zhou Enlai sees trees had been despoiled of their leaves. He feels puzzled. Guo Fenglin (He Wei), the director of Boyan People's Commune, sends people to shut the dissidents, and than takes some people to greet Zhou Enlai. As soon as Zhou Enlai meets Guo Fenglin, he asks where are the leaves, Guo Fenglin lies to Zhou Enlai. A passing little girl named Lian Di says the truth that the leaves were ate by local hungry people. ", "Neville Maxwell\nThe book may have been instrumental in briding the gulf between the US and China. According to Maxwell, Kissinger told Zhou Enlai, \"reading that book showed me I could do business with you people.\" The US President Richard Nixon too is said to have read the book, and discussed it with Zhou Enlai during the 1972 visit to China. Maxwell's contention that the war was \"a frame-up\" was \"a flash of light everywhere.\" Zhou is said to have acknowledged to Maxwell, \"your book did a service to truth which benefitted China.\"", "Former Residence of Zhou Enlai (Huai'an)\nThe Former Residence of Premier Zhou Enlai was the childhood home of Zhou Enlai, the first Premier of the People's Republic of China, located in Huai'an, China.", "Zhou Enlai\nZhou Enlai later succeeded in secretly purchasing a copy of Xiang's interrogation records. The records showed that Xiang had disclosed everything to the KMT authorities before his execution, including the location of Zhou's residence. Another round of arrests and executions followed Xiang's capture, but Zhou and his wife were able to escape capture because they had abandoned their apartment on the morning of Xiang's arrest. After establishing a new Politburo Standing Committee in Shanghai, Zhou and his wife relocated to the Communist base in Jiangxi near the end of 1931.[97] By the time Zhou left Shanghai, he was one of the most wanted men in China.[98]", "The Story of Zhou Enlai\n\"The Story of Zhou Enlai\" was released on 16 July 2013, in China.", "My Uncle Zhou Enlai\nSun Weimin is known for typecasting Zhou Enlai, he cast in lead role Zhou Enlai.", "Zhou Enlai\nZhou Enlai was born in Huai'an, Jiangsu province on 5 March 1898, the first son of his branch of the Zhou family. The Zhou family was originally from Shaoxing in Zhejiang province. During the late Qing dynasty, Shaoxing was famous as the home of families such as Zhou's, whose members worked as government \"clerks\" (師爷, shiye) generation after generation.[3] To move up the ladder in civil service, the men in these families often had to be transferred, and in the late years of the Qing dynasty, Zhou Enlai's branch of the family moved to Huai'an. Even after the move, however, the family continued to view Shaoxing as its ancestral home.[4]", "Zhou Enlai\nStill interested in academic programs, Zhou traveled to Britain in January 1921 to visit Edinburgh University. Concerned by financial problems and language requirements, he did not enroll, returning to France at the end of January. There are no records of Zhou entering any academic program in France. In spring 1921, he joined a Chinese Communist cell.[44] Zhou was recruited by Zhang Shenfu, whom he had met in August of the previous year in connection with Li Dazhao. He also knew Zhang through Zhang's wife, Liu Qingyang, a member of the Awakening Society. Zhou has sometimes been portrayed at this time as uncertain in his politics,[45] but his swift move to Communism suggests otherwise.[46]", "Zhou Enlai: The Last Perfect Revolutionary\nThe book is a biography of Zhou Enlai, the Premier of China from 1949 to 1976, one of the most important Chinese leaders of his generation. Zhou is portrayed as \"a conflicted, even tragic, figure\", succeeding in remaining at the center stage of Chinese politics for fifty years, through the troubled years of the Long March and Cultural Revolution. In 2003 Gao wrote a similar book in Chinese, \"Zhou Enlai's Later Years\" (晚年周恩来), using similar research materials.", "Zhou Enlai\nZhou's grandfather, Zhou Panlong, and his granduncle, Zhou Jun'ang, were the first members of the family to move to Huai'an. Panlong apparently passed the provincial examinations, and Zhou Enlai later claimed that Panlong served as magistrate governing Huai'an county.[5] Zhou's father, Zhou Yineng, was the second of Zhou Panlong's four sons. Zhou's birth mother, surnamed Wan, was the daughter of a prominent Jiangsu official.[6]", "Zhou Enlai\nAfter Zhou's death, Mao issued no statements acknowledging Zhou's achievements or contributions and sent no condolences to Zhou's widow, herself a senior Party leader.[199] Mao forbade his staff from wearing black mourning armbands.[200] Whether or not Mao would have attended Zhou's funeral, which was held in the Great Hall of the People, Mao himself was in very poor health to do so in any event.[200] Mao did however send a wreath to the funeral.[200]", "Former Residence of Zhou Enlai (Huai'an)\nMany Chinese leaders made calligraphy here and speak highly of him. In 1984, Hu Yaobang paid a visit to the residence. Half a year later, Jiang Zemin also visited to show respect for Zhou Enlai. In 2004, Hu Jingtao came to Huaian and visited the Former residence of Premier Zhou Enlai. Now many people come here to pay a visit in memory of Zhou Enlai.", "Zhou Enlai\nHistory of the People's Republic of China History of the Communist Party of China Chinese Civil War Second Sino-Japanese War Chiang Kai-shek Kuomintang Whampoa Military Academy Zhou Enlai: The Last Perfect Revolutionary by Gao Wenqian Long March Mao Zedong Xi'an Incident Bandung Conference Geneva Conference Shanghai Communique Great Leap Forward Cultural Revolution Tiananmen Incident Former Residence of Zhou Enlai in Huai'an Former Residence of Zhou Enlai in Shanghai Kashmir Princess", "Memorial to Zhou Enlai and Deng Yingchao\nThe Memorial to Zhou Enlai and Deng Yingchao is a museum in Tianjin. The three-story museum is dedicated to the memory of premier Zhou Enlai and his wife, Deng Yingchao, and features photos, documents and dioramas of significant events in their lives. Situated in the entrance-hall are the white jade sitting statues of Zhou Enlai and Deng Yingchao. In another exhibition hall there are over 140 artifacts recovered from Zhou Enlai and Deng Yingchao. ", "My Uncle Zhou Enlai\nThis drama describes the life of Zhou Enlai, who serves as Premier of the People's Republic of China, from the founding of the Communist State in 1949 to 1976 until his death.\"My Uncle Zhou Enlai\" is base on the biography of the same name by Zhou Bingde, Zhou Enlai's nephew.", "The Story of Zhou Enlai\nIn the small hours of the fourth day, Zhou Enlai has a long talk with Mao Zedong on the phone. On the morning, Zhou Enlai comes to Zhang Erting's home and says that he wants to adopt Zhang Erting's youngest son, but Zhang refuses because he promised to bring the children up no matter how difficult it is. Later, Zhou Enlai conveys Mao Zedong's instructions in the microphone that Mao agreed with Zhang Erting's opinion and close the dining hall right now.", "My Uncle Zhou Enlai\nMy Uncle Zhou Enlai () is a 2016 Chinese historical biographical television series directed by Chen Li and written by Zhang Fachun, starring Sun Weimin as the Chinese premier Zhou Enlai. The series also features Huang Wei, Tang Guoqiang, Ma Xiaowei, Lu Qi, Wang Wufu, Yang Buting and Zhao Liqiang. The script was loosely based on Zhou Enlai's niece Zhou Bingde's biography of the same name, and covers Zhou's life from the establishment of the Communist State to his death in 1976, focusing on his efforts to make the new China strong. The series was aired on CCTV-1 on July 4, 2016.", "North Jiangsu Main Irrigation Canal\nAfter the Chinese Civil War, the government wanted to rebuild the canal for flood management. During the planning of this project China had entered the Korean War, which meant that the government did not have the economic resources to fund this project. However, Premier Zhou Enlai, who came from the Huai River drainage basin, insisted on carrying out the whole project because he knew how people suffered from flood and waterlogging in his hometown. In 1950 the inundation was particularly serious. Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Zhou Enlai instructed relevant departments to work out a plan to regulate water conservancy. In 1951, Zhou Enlai held a conference on the project. Li Baohua, undersecretary of Ministry of Water Resources, reported the researches of his group and proposed a project plan. Zhou Enlai approved and supported the plan. On November 2, 1951, the project was put into practice. More than 1,190,000 civilian workers participated this project.\nThe North Jiangsu Main Irrigation Canal is a multi-purpose project for flood control, irrigation and power generation. ", "The Story of Zhou Enlai\nThe Story of Zhou Enlai () is a 2013 Chinese Historical period drama film written by Tian Yunzhang and Jiang Yue and directed by Chen Li. Based on the life of Premier Zhou Enlai between May 3 and May 7, 1961, when he investigated extensively and scientifically the rural situation in Huaxi of Guiyang and the old revolutionary base Boyan Township of Hebei, it stars Sun Weimin as Zhou Enlai and Hao Yan as Zhou's wife Deng Yingchao, with He Wei, Bai Qing, Chu Zhibo, and Niu Ben. The film premiered in China on 16 July 2013.", "Zhou Enlai\nSoon after birth, Zhou Enlai was adopted by his father's youngest brother, Zhou Yigan, who was ill with tuberculosis. Apparently the adoption was arranged because the family feared Yigan would die without an heir.[8] Zhou Yigan died soon after the adoption, and Zhou Enlai was raised by Yigan's widow, whose surname was Chen. Madame Chen was also from a scholarly family and received a traditional literary education. According to Zhou's own account, he was very close to his adoptive mother and acquired his lasting interest in Chinese literature and opera from her. Madame Chen taught Zhou to read and write at an early age, and Zhou later claimed to have read the famous vernacular novel Journey to the West at the age of six.[9] By the age of eight, he was reading other traditional Chinese novels, including the Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, and Dream of the Red Chamber.[10]", "The Story of Zhou Enlai\nOn the third day, after the farewell party, Zhou Enlai helds a meeting. Zhang Erting, an honest farmer, tells to Zhou Enlai that he has a bone to pick with the public dining hall () and it should be adjustment and he is against the way of dining. He complains to Zhou Enlai that the people are hungry that's because some officials and cooks ate and took more than their shark. Zhang Erting's opinion broke the silence, Zhou Enlai listens to them carefully and asks solicitously.", "The Story of Zhou Enlai\nZhou Enlai is in a meeting all morning. Everyone is not telling the truth, they all praise the present policy. At noon, Guo Fenglin invites Zhou Enlai to dinner. When Zhou Enlai sees the braised pork and eggs on the table, he do not even enter the door. Soon afterwards, Zhou Enlai comes to the kitchen and ate a bowl of congee and half a substituted steamed corn bread (). In the afternoon after the meeting, Lian Di comes home with Zhou Enlai. Lian Di's grandma sang a laozi opera to Zhou Enlai and tells Zhou Enlai the truth situation. At night, Zhou Enlai comes to the classroom following the sound of reading, the children tells Zhou Enlai that they skipped classes because of hunger.", "Zhou Enlai\nThe city of Tianjin has established a museum to Zhou and his wife, and the city of Nanjing has erected a memorial commemorating Communist negotiations in 1946 with the Nationalist government which features a bronze statue of Zhou.[220] Stamps commemorating the first anniversary of Zhou's death were issued in 1977, and in 1998 to commemorate his 100th birthday.", "Zhou Enlai\nAfter initial communications with Zhang on the fate of Chiang, Zhou Enlai reached Xi'an on 16 December, on a plane specifically sent for him by Zhang Xueliang, as the chief Communist negotiator. At first, Chiang was opposed to negotiating with a CCP delegate, but withdrew his opposition when it became clear that his life and freedom were largely dependent on Communist goodwill towards him. On 24 December, Chiang received Zhou for a meeting, the first time that the two had seen each other since Zhou had left Whampoa over ten years earlier. Zhou began the conversation by saying: \"In the ten years since we have met, you seem to have aged very little.\" Chiang nodded and said: \"Enlai, you were my subordinate. You should do what I say.\" Zhou replied that if Chiang would halt the civil war and resist the Japanese instead, the Red Army would willingly accept Chiang's command. By the end of this meeting, Chiang promised to end the civil war, to resist the Japanese together, and to invite Zhou to Nanjing for further talks.[118]", "Former Residence of Zhou Enlai\nThe Former Residence of Zhou Enlai can refer to any of the following places which Zhou Enlai, the Premier of the People's Republic of China had lived in, including the following:", "Zhou Enlai\nAfter coming to power, Deng Xiaoping may have overemphasized Zhou Enlai's achievements to distance the Communist Party from Mao's Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution, both of which had seriously weakened the Party's prestige. Deng observed that Mao's disastrous policies could no longer represent the Party's finest hour, but that the legacy and character of Zhou Enlai could. Furthermore, Deng received credit for enacting successful economic policies that Zhou initially proposed.[219] By actively associating itself with an already popular Zhou Enlai, Zhou's legacy may have been used (and possibly distorted) as a political tool of the Party after his death.[193]", "Zhongnanhai\n() Located in the north west corner of Zhongnanhai, this building was constructed as the living quarters for Regent Palace. West Flower Hall served as Premier Zhou Enlai's personal residence. The building also included the Zhou's personal office and meeting rooms. After Zhou's death in 1974 his wife Deng Yingchao lived here until 1990. Unlike much of the State Council area, West Flower Hall was not reconstructed in the 1970s. Today the building is preserved as a museum dedicated to Zhou Enlai.", "Zhou Enlai\nZhou defended himself by engaging in a long series of public reflections and self-criticisms, and he gave a number of speeches praising Mao and Mao Zedong Thought and giving his unconditional acceptance of Mao's leadership. He also joined Mao's allies in attacking Peng Shuzhi, Chen Duxiu, and Wang Ming, who Mao viewed as enemies. The persecution of Zhou Enlai distressed Moscow, and Georgi Dimitrov wrote a personal letter to Mao indicating that \"Zhou Enlai... must not be severed from the Party.\" In the end, Zhou's enthusiastic acknowledgement of his own faults, his praise for Mao's leadership, and his attacks on Mao's enemies eventually convinced Mao that Zhou's conversion to Maoism was genuine, a precondition for Zhou's political survival. By the seventh congress of the CCP in 1945, Mao was acknowledged as the overall leader of the CCP, and the dogma of Mao Zedong Thought was firmly entrenched among the Party's leadership.[141]", "Zhou Enlai\nThe 2013 Historical period film The Story of Zhou Enlai features the trip of Zhou Enlai in May 1961 during the Great Leap Forward, when he investigated the rural situation in Huaxi of Guiyang and a former revolutionary base Boyan Township of Hebei.", "The Story of Zhou Enlai\nOn the second day, after inquiring about the situations of the field and the post office, Zhou Enlai comes to the \"Danganhu\"'s (go-it-aloner) home to ask for information. The 65-year-old bachelor tells Zhou Enlai that he is an individuallist and he is afraid that others will eat his ration. At night, a freak storm badly damages all the sweet potato vines which were just planted. All the villagers are carrying rain gears to the fields to deal with the flood. Zhou Enlai is very melancholy when he sees the villagers working in the torrential rain. Zhou Enlai comes to the kitchen to help cooking a pot of brown sugar water." ]

[ "Peace Corps\nThe program was established by Executive Order 10924, issued by President John F. Kennedy on March 1, 1961 and authorized by Congress on September 21, 1961 with passage of the Peace Corps Act (Pub.L. 87–293). The act declares the program's purpose as follows:" ]

[ "National Peace Corps Association\nIn response to the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, NPCA created the Emergency Response Network (ERN) of Returned Peace Corps Volunteers willing to respond to crises when needed. Peace Corps Director Mark Gearan subsequently modeled the Crisis Corps (later renamed Peace Corps Response) after this successful program.", "Joseph Blatchford\nOn May 23, 1969, Washington columnists Drew Pearson and Jack Anderson charged that the CIA had partially financed Accion and that founding Peace Corps Director Sargent Shriver had issued orders in 1962 to Latin American country directors not to associate with anyone from Accion because it was operating under the guidance of the CIA. Fifty Peace Corps staff members in Washington signed a statement asking Blatchford to \"do whatever is necessary to dispel even the spectre of CIA involvement in the Peace Corps.\" Blatchford replied that he and Accion had never had any association whatever with the CIA or any other intelligence agency and that former Peace Corps directors Sargent Shriver and Jack Vaughn had both stated that the allegation of the 1962 order for Peace Corps to avoid contact with Accion was groundless. On May 31, 1969 Pearson and Anderson admitted in their column that their charge had been in error and retracted their charge. \"The inference was based principally on the fact that Accion, founded by new head of the Peace Corps, Joe Blatchford had received $50,000 from the Donner Foundation, a reported CIA conduit,\" said the article. \"We now find that there are two Donner Foundations, and that the William H. Donner Foundation, which contributed to Accion has never been a CIA conduit. We regret the error and further state that we are convinced the Peace Corps has no connection, direct or indirect, with the CIA.\"", "Jack Vaughn\nVaughn cut to the crux of the matter when he met with Peace Corps Staff in Nigeria. \"I never get letters of complaint from Volunteers who are busy doing something,\" Vaughn said, \"who are teaching thirty hours a week.\" Vaughn thought that too many volunteers were more concerned with proposed reductions in the living allowances, vehicle restrictions, and the closing of hostels than with the work they had come to do. \"Stay where the Nigerians stay,\" said Vaughn. \"The Peace Corps is not in the hotel business. Forget the motorbikes the Peace Corps gave you in a period of misguided generosity. Travel with the Africans or better yet stay in your town and get to know the people rather than escaping on weekends to visit other volunteers.\" Vaughn traveled with two reporters from the \"Peace Corps Volunteer\" magazine, a monthly magazine that went out to Peace Corps Volunteers worldwide. The December, 1966 issue of \"Peace Corps Volunteer\" contained a report on Vaughn's trip and the issues in Nigeria.", "Peace Corps\nIn 1976, Deborah Gardner was found murdered in her home in Tonga, where she was serving in the Peace Corps. Dennis Priven, a fellow Peace Corps worker, was later charged with the murder by the Tonga government.[29] He was found not guilty by reason of insanity, and was sentenced to serve time in a mental institution in Washington D.C. Privan was never admitted to any institution, and the handling of the case has been heavily criticized. The main criticism has been that the Peace Corps seemingly worked to keep one of its volunteers from being found guilty of murder, due to the reflection it would have on the organization.[30]", "University of Mary Washington\nIn 2018, Peace Corps named UMW was a Top Volunteer-Producing Colleges and Universities for the tenth year in a row, ranking it fourth among small schools. A total of 261 UMW alumni have served in the Peace Corps since the agency's founding in 1961. UMW became a Peace Corps Prep Program partner in 2017.", "Jack Vaughn\nWhen Richard Nixon became president in 1969, Vaughn found himself out of a job. One report says that Vaughn was asked by Nixon's Secretary of State William P. Rogers to stay on as Peace Corps director to emphasize the nonpolitical nature of the Peace Corps. Instead, Vaughn was informed in March, 1969, that he would be replaced after all and reports that Vaughn had been asked to stay on as Peace Corps Director in the Nixon administration were reported in the media to be untrue. \"I was the first bureaucrat Nixon fired when he took office,\" Vaughn said. \"But when he found out I was a Republican, he asked me if I'd be his ambassador to Colombia.\"", "Kevin O'Donnell (Peace Corps)\nO'Donnell accepted an assignment from the Peace Corps to be Country Director for South Korea and to start the program. O'Donnell's assignment was to establish educational programs in English, math, science, and physical education. \"You went in and you sank or swam,\" says O'Donnell. O'Donnell found that managing Peace Corps Volunteers was different from working in private industry. \"By and large, people who applied to the Peace Corps had energy and ability, and my biggest job was to point them in the right direction and then get the hell out of the way,\" O'Donnell says.", "National Peace Corps Association\nAt conferences of global educators in the Midwest in the mid-1970s, a handful of Returned Peace Corps Volunteers began meeting regularly to discuss how to promote at home the values and lessons they had learned as Peace Corps Volunteers in the developing world. They adopted as their mission one of the three goals articulated by President John F. Kennedy when he created the Peace Corps in 1961: come home and teach your neighbors about the communities where you served. They gave the growing numbers of returning Peace Corps Volunteers in America a continuing mission and a communal identity as Returned Peace Corps Volunteers (RPCVs).", "Peace Corps Commemorative\nThe Peace Corps Commemorative is a proposed national commemorative work in Washington, D.C. honoring the historic founding of the Peace Corps and the enduring American ideals that motivated its founding and are expressed in Peace Corps service. The Peace Corps is a volunteer-sending program run by the United States government. Congress authorized the Peace Corps Commemorative in January 2014.", "Peace Corps\nIn the Reagan Administration, in 1986, an article in the Multinational Monitor looked critically at the Peace Corps.[93] On a positive note, the writer praises the Corps for aspects saying that it is \"not in the business of transferring massive economic resources. Rather it concentrates on increasing productivity and encouraging self-reliance in villages that are often ignored by large-scale development agencies,\" and notes the \"heavy emphasis on basic education\" by the Corps. \"Many returned volunteers complain that the Peace Corps does little to promote or make use of their rich experiences once they return ... [A] Peace Corps volunteer is sent in ... [to] relieve ... the local government from having to develop policies that assure equitable distribution of health care ... During the early years there were many failures in structure and programming ... Some critics charge that the Peace Corps is only a somewhat ineffective attempt to counter damage done to the U.S. image abroad by its aggressive military and its unscrupulous businesses ... Many observers and some returned volunteers charge that, in addition to public relations for the United States, Peace Corps programs serve to legitimize dictators ... When he began evaluating the Corps in the 1960s, Charlie Peters found \"they were training volunteers to be junior diplomats. Giving them a course in American studies, world affairs and communism ... Although it seems unlikely that the Peace Corps is used in covert operations, wittingly or not it is often used in conjunction with U.S. military interests ... In a review of the Peace Corps in March the House Select Committee on Hunger praised the agency for effective work in the areas of agriculture and conservation, while recommending that the Corps expand its African Food Systems Initiative, increase the number of volunteers in the field, recruit more women, and move to depoliticize country dictatorships.\"", "Loret Miller Ruppe\nIn 1971 the Peace Corps had lost its independent status when the Nixon Administration made it part of Action, an umbrella agency that included the Foster Grandparent Program, Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), and the National Center for Service Learning. After the resignation of Peace Corps Director Carolyn R. Payton in 1978, President Jimmy Carter issued an executive order restoring some of its autonomy, but supporters of the agency continued to feel that under Action the Peace Corps suffered from a lack of visibility and identity. Matters came to a head in March, 1981 when Reagan appointed Thomas W. Pauken to be director of Action. Mr. Pauken served as a military intelligence officer in the Vietnam war. The Peace Corps has a prohibition against having former intelligence agents serve in the agency. Senator Alan Cranston of California led Democrats in drafting legislation to make the Peace Corps completely independent again, saying the Peace Corps could not operate with the necessary credibility and independence from the Government if it were organizationally under the direction of Mr. Pauken.", "Gaddi Vasquez\nPortions of the sometimes controversial expansion were successfully challenged by the Returned Peace Corps Volunteer community when former volunteers and the National Peace Corps Association raised objections to the continued inclusion of Peace Corps in the National Call to Service program, which had been used to allow military service members with at least three years and three months of military service completed, to finish their service obligation in the Peace Corps. Vasquez argued unsuccessfully for continued inclusion of the Peace Corps in that program, and the Peace Corps was removed from the National Call to Service program on December 22, 2005, when the United States Senate completed congressional action on the Department of Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2006.", "Lawrence Fuchs\nFrom 1961 until 1963, Fuchs was the first Peace Corps director in the Philippines. He later wrote a book, \"Those Peculiar Americans: The Peace Corps and American National Character\", about his experiences with the Peace Corps. Fuchs later founded the Commonwealth Service Corps in Massachusetts, a domestic service organization similar to the Peace Corps.", "National Peace Corps Association\nThe National Peace Corps Association is an American nonprofit organization for Returned Peace Corps Volunteers. It works to support Returned Peace Corps Volunteers, encourage lifelong practice of the ideals of the Peace Corps, and serves as an advocacy organization to support and improve the Peace Corps.", "National Peace Corps Association\nIn 2005 NPCA scored a crucial and significant victory for the independence of the Peace Corps and safety of Volunteers when it successfully coordinated the removal of Peace Corps references from military recruitment legislation.", "Peace Corps Commemorative\nThe Peace Corps program was established by Executive Order 10924, which was issued by President John F. Kennedy on March 1, 1961. The program was legislatively authorized by Congress on September 21, 1961, with passage of the Peace Corps Act (Pub.L. 87–293). Between 1961 and 2013, over 215,000 Americans joined the Peace Corps. The National Peace Corps Association, a nonprofit organization for Peace Corps alumni, established the Peace Corps Commemorative Foundation to advocate for a commemorative to honor the mission of the Peace Corps and the values on which it was founded.", "Carolyn R. Payton\nPayton retained her connection to the Peace Corps. In 1981, she spoke about the contribution that volunteers had made around the world, \"I think the whole idea of Peace Corps was brought home to me most recently last summer, when there was a terribly damaging hurricane in the Caribbean. Some of the Volunteers who had served with me there were collecting food, clothes and money to send back to the Islanders. Those Volunteers had left the Islands in 1967, but they still had a concern and care about those Islanders. That's what I think is at the heart of the Peace Corps, and that's why the Peace Corps is relevant today.\" Payton was awarded the Peace Corps Leader for Peace Award in 1988. In 2000, Payton attended the swearing in ceremony for Peace Corps Director Mark L. Schneider.", "Joseph Blatchford\nP. David Searles in his book \"The Peace Corps Experience: Challenge and Change, 1969-1976\" says that Blatchford's own assessment of Nixon's support 25 years later is that President Nixon did lose some of his early enthusiasm for the Peace Corps as a result of what Nixon thought of as widespread hostility to the President from Peace Corps Volunteers. However Baltchford also contends that Nixon originally gave more support to the Peace Corps than any President other than Kennedy. Blatchford also credits Republicans in the Senate like Barry Goldwater and Charles Percy for supporting the Peace Corps when Democrat William Fulbright tried to cut the Peace Corps' budget in 1969. Blatchford did sense hostility to the Peace Corps from some of the president's advisors, especially Ehrlichman and Patrick Buchanan, but says it did not hamper his work.", "M. Peter McPherson\nHis public service career began as a Peace Corps volunteer in Peru, where during 1965 and 1966 he spent 18 months in a Peruvian slum running a food distribution program and setting up credit unions. He called the experience a defining moment and said his experience in the Peace Corps helped him learn how to adapt. \"When I was a Peace Corps volunteer, it was just a different culture,\" McPherson said. \"I found I couldn't be a gringo and be effective. It's just a matter of asking people what they want to get done, finding out what the formal and informal rules are and figuring out ways to do things differently, while doing practical work in that environment. But that process was a challenge.\"", "National Peace Corps Association\nFounded in 1979 and headquartered in Washington, D.C., the National Peace Corps Association (NPCA) is a nonprofit organization at the center of a vibrant and united community of 215,000 individuals who share the Peace Corps experience. The NPCA champions a lifelong commitment to Peace Corps ideals by connecting, engaging and promoting its members and member groups as they continue to make a difference in communities in the U.S. and around the world. NPCA is also dedicated to advocating for, contributing to, and supporting the betterment of the Peace Corps.", "Peace Corps\nAbortion is also an issue for female Peace Corps volunteers. Women who have been raped in foreign countries while volunteering have wanted to get abortions. The low pay of Peace Corp volunteers combined with the expense of an abortion often makes obtaining one difficult.[102] Since 1979, it has been prohibited for federal funds to cover abortion costs for Peace Corps volunteers. Even in instances of life endangerment, rape and incest, volunteers are not financially covered. Volunteers do receive other forms of health care, including prescription medications, routine examinations, and emergency care, free of charge. These services are provided in-country through a Peace Corps Medical Officer. The abortion topic is very active in the Peace Corps, because when volunteers become pregnant for any reason, they can no longer be volunteers, and a significant number of them want to remain volunteers.[103]", "Maurice L. Albertson\nAlbertson has been credited with changing the face of U.S. volunteerism. He recalled that the phone rang at 2 AM on a 1961 morning, and that when he answered he found himself talking to Sargent Shriver, first director of the Peace Corps. Shriver was calling to ask him about a CSURF study on creating a youth volunteer group. Shriver apologized for the hour, but said he'd been working on the program all night and had worked his way to Albertson on his list of people to call. He wanted Albertson to come to Washington immediately. The CSURF research Albertson oversaw was used in setting up the Peace Corps. The Peace Corps remained true to the original vision in Albertson's opinion.", "National Peace Corps Association\nWorldView, a magazine of news and comments about the Peace Corps world, is published four times a year by NPCA. Each issue provides a Peace Corps perspective to global issues by featuring articles by and about Peace Corps Volunteers, Returned Peace Corps Volunteers and people who \"share the global values of the Peace Corps experience\".", "Jack Vaughn\nVaughn joined the Peace Corps staff because \"the Peace Corps idea had a great appeal to me. And the people I knew who were putting this idea into effect appealed to me even more.\" Shriver admired Vaughn's courage and felt anyone who would brave the ring with Sugar Ray Robinson would have the grit to fight for the Peace Corps in Latin America so when the Peace Corps decided to send volunteers to teach in Venezuela in 1963 despite the presence of Castro communists, Shriver made Vaughn his point man. \"Shriver said, 'Show them your teeth, not your tail,'\" Vaughn said. \"Those teachers did great there. I'm sure it was his finest moment in the Peace Corps.\"", "Peace Corps\nIn popular culture, the Peace Corps has been used as a comedic plot device in such movies as Airplane!, Christmas with the Kranks, Shallow Hal, and Volunteers or used to set the scene for a historic era, as when Frances \"Baby\" Houseman tells the audience she plans to join the Peace Corps in the introduction to the movie Dirty Dancing.", "Peace Corps\nPeace Corps Response, formerly named the Crisis Corps, was created by Peace Corps Director Mark Gearan in 1996.[58] Gearan modeled the Crisis Corps after the National Peace Corps Association's successful Emergency Response Network (ERN) of Returned Peace Corps Volunteers willing to respond to crises when needed. ERN emerged in response to the 1994 Rwandan genocide.[59] On November 19, 2007 Peace Corps Director Ronald Tschetter changed Crisis Corps's name to Peace Corps Response.[60]", "Joseph Blatchford\nBlatchford's first priority was to broaden the pool of people joining the Peace Corps. \"What's news is that farmers are going to join the Peace Corps, That's different from the public image of the Peace Corps Volunteer as a young liberal arts graduate right out of college,\" said Blatchford. \"When I went overseas, I constantly heard the cry from governments, people of all stripes—villagers, village leaders, school teachers and people who worked with the Peace Corps or were in charge of programming them—that, we need a wide diversity of skills.\" The New York Times reported on September 23, 1969 at Blatchford's first press conference that the Peace Corps intended to recruit 500 union craftsmen, farmers, and vocational educational specialists.", "Mark Gearan\nGearan was confirmed by the United States Senate and sworn in as the 14th Director of the Peace Corps in September 1995 was director of the Peace Corps from 1995 to 1999. During Gearan's tenure as Peace Corps Director, the Peace Corps opened programs in South Africa, Jordan, Mozambique and Bangladesh and returned its volunteers to Haiti after a five-year absence. On March 1, 1996, the 35th anniversary of the founding of the Peace Corps, Gearan spoke about its relevance today: \"You answered President Kennedy's call, 'Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.' You provided needed assistance to 130 countries around the globe, and you continue that service here at home.\"", "Jack Vaughn\nVaughn's connection with the Peace Corps began in 1961 when Peace Corps founding director Sargent Shriver came to Senegal where Vaughn was serving with USAID. \"There were 4,000 volunteers signing up a day for the Peace Corps, and countries weren't asking for them. So Shriver came over to meet the Senegalese,\" says Vaughn. \"I was the only one who spoke French.\nI went up to meet Shriver and his lawyer in their hotel room. They did not have on a stitch of clothing. We all sat down and had a conversation. They said they had never seen heat like that. It was 120 degrees and no air conditioning.\" Vaughn's boxing prowess and prior experience as a prize fighter paid off when Sargent Shriver decided to recruit Vaughn. \"I was recruited by Sargent Shriver because I had been in the ring with Sugar Ray Robinson,\" Vaughn said. \"He loves jocks.\" Coates Redmond described Vaughn as \"barely medium height, slight of build, with ginger-colored hair and a 1940s moustache to match, quietly spoken and careful of gesture\" in her history of the early years of the Peace Corps, \"Come As You Are\". Before his appointment to the Peace Corps, Vaughn met with President Kennedy who didn't like Vaughn's mustache and told him he would have to shave it off if he wanted to work in the Peace Corps. Vaughn refused to shave the mustache but got the appointment anyway.", "Christopher Hedrick\nFrom 2007 through 2014, Hedrick led the U.S. Peace Corps efforts in malaria prevention across Africa and was the Country Director for the Peace Corps in Senegal. Hedrick grew Peace Corps/Senegal to become the largest Peace Corps program in the world at the conclusion of his tenure there. Hedrick led the development of the Peace Corps/Senegal Food Security initiative which is the largest USAID-funded Peace Corps food security project in the world under the global Feed the Future program. The Peace Corps program in Senegal under Hedrick's leadership was awarded the prestigious Learning Spotlight Award in 2010 for innovation in its training programs. In 2012, he was awarded the Director's Distinguished Service Award, the agency's highest honor, for his work in creating and coordinating the Peace Corps Stomping Out Malaria in Africa initiative. After partnering with Peace Corps Senegal in a major bed net distribution effort, the international NGO Malaria No More called Hedrick \"part international diplomat, part community health worker, part development MacGyver\" in its annual report. Hedrick promoted the concept of the \"New Peace Corps,\" the professionalization of Peace Corps programming and service, including enhanced partnerships with USAID and other development institutions and improved utilization of technology." ]

[ "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nMale ridgebacks usually stand 25–27in (64–69cm) at the withers and weigh about 36.5kg (80lb) (FCI standard); females are typically 24–26 inches (61–66cm) tall and about 32kg (71lb) in weight. Ridgebacks are typically muscular and have a light wheaten to red wheaten coat, which should be short, dense, sleek and glossy in appearance, and neither woolly nor silky.[17]" ]

[ "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nThe historic and modern hunting uses of Rhodesian Ridgebacks have included everything from upland game birds to larger 'dangerous game'. While the hunting versatility of the breed has served it well in the field, it has caused much confusion and contention among ridgeback fanciers about what these dogs are, and are not, as hunting companions. Throughout its history, the Rhodesian Ridgeback has been a breed of dog that has somewhat defied the strict interpretation of most conventional group classification paradigms.", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nPresently, the breed is categorised as a \"hound\" by every major registry throughout the world. For example, the British Kennel Club and the Canadian Kennel club both categorise the Rhodesian Ridgeback as a hound, without any further specification. Both of the major registries in the United States, the AKC and the UKC, currently further distinguish the breed as a sighthound. The FCI, the largest international canine governing body, which looks to the parent club in the country of origin (the parent club in Zimbabwe) for the breed standard and group classification, currently further distinguishes the Rhodesian Ridgeback as a scenthound.", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nThe Rhodesian Ridgeback's distinguishing feature is the ridge of hair running along its back in the opposite direction from the rest of its coat. It consists of a fan-like area formed by two whorls of hair (called \"crowns\") and tapers from immediately behind the shoulders down to the level of the hips. The ridge is usually about 2 inches (51mm) in width at its widest point. It is believed to originate from the dog used by the original African dog population which had a similar ridge. The first depiction of a ridgeback is a wall painting describing the life of the Boers, housed in South Africa in the Voortrekker Monument.", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nDespite Rhodesian Ridgebacks being extremely athletic and sometimes imposing, they do have a sensitive side. Francis R. Barnes, who wrote the first standard in 1922, acknowledged that, \"rough treatment ... should never be administered to these dogs, especially when they are young. They go to pieces with handling of that kind.\"[21] The Rhodesian Ridgeback accepts correction as long as it is fair and justified, and as long as it comes from someone the dog knows and trusts.[22]", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nRhodesian Ridgebacks are known to be loyal and intelligent. They are typically somewhat aloof to strangers; this is not to be confused with aggression, a Rhodesian Ridgeback with a good temperament will not attack a stranger for no reason. They require consistent training and correct socialization; they are often not the best choice for inexperienced dog owners.[18] Rhodesian Ridgebacks are strong-willed and confident dogs.[19] They are protective of their owners and families; if trained well, they can be excellent guard dogs.[20]", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nRhodesian Ridgeback Rhodesian Ridgeback Examples of ridges Ridge with an extra whorl", "Pedigree Dogs Exposed\nThe programme traced the Kennel Club's history to the eugenics movement, on which it said purebred dog breeding is based . A Rhodesian Ridgeback breeder interviewed on the programme advocated the culling of healthy ridgeless puppies because breed standards forbid ridgelessness in the breed. The Chairman of the Rhodesian Ridgeback Club stated that she considered ridgelessness a genetic fault. The ridge is a genetic trait, the presence of which is claimed to make the dog more prone to suffer from dermoid sinus. The programme mistakenly claims that the ridge itself is a mild form of spina bifida, and a complaint was lodged with Ofcom about this error . One in twenty puppies is born ridgeless. A section of the code of ethics of the Rhodesian Ridgeback Club was shown to state that \"Ridgeless puppies shall be culled.\" (This sounds more dramatic that the programme lets on, however. \"Culling\" simply means 'prevention from breeding'; while this can, in extreme cases, refer to killing the unwanted animals, more often it is simply keeping the animals out of the breeding programme by separating them, or by neutering.)", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nOther dog breeds also have a reverse line of fur along the spine, including the Phu Quoc ridgeback dog and Thai ridgeback. The Thai ridgeback is a crossbreed of the Phu Quoc; historians have speculated the relationship between the Rhodesian Ridgeback and the Phu Quoc with suggestions that historically one breed may have been imported to the other's location.[2][9]", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nThe Rhodesian Ridgeback is a dog breed developed in the Southern Africa region.[1] Its forebears can be traced to the semi-domesticated, ridged hunting dogs of the Khoikhoi, which were crossed with European dogs by the early colonists of the Cape Colony of southern Africa. The original breed standard was drafted by F. R. Barnes, in Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), in 1922, who named the breed the Rhodesian Ridgeback. The standard was approved by the South African Kennel Union in 1927.", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nThe union's official name for the breed was changed from 'Rhodesian lion dog' to 'Rhodesian Ridgeback'. The breed was placed in the union's 'gundog' group.", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nThe Rhodesian Ridgeback has also previously been known as Van Rooyen's lion dog or the African Lion Hound or African Lion Dog—simba inja in Ndebele, shumba imbwa in Shona—because of its ability to keep a lion at bay while awaiting its master's arrival.", "Lure coursing\nIn Canada, lure coursing is sanctioned by the Canadian Kennel Club (CKC). In Canada, the officially eligible breeds do not include the Sloughi, or the Rhodesian Ridgeback. An effort is currently underway to get the Rhodesian Ridgeback included in Canadian lure coursing. The Italian Greyhound, although considered a Toy Breed is now eligible for Lure Coursing as the CKC recognizes it as a Sighthound.", "Dermoid sinus\nBreeds known to be affected include Rhodesian Ridgeback, Phu Quoc Ridgeback, and Thai Ridgeback, in which it is hereditary, Kerry Blue Terriers, Shih Tzus and Boxers.", "Thai Ridgeback\nThe other existing purebreeds of ridgeback dog are the Rhodesian Ridgeback from Africa and the Phu Quoc Ridgeback from Vietnam, which is somewhat smaller than the Thai Ridgeback. Based on genetic-based hypothesis, both Thai Ridgeback Dog and Phu Quoc Dog are likely to be descended from Funan Ridgeback Dog which originated over 1,000 years ago in Funan Era of the region. The descendent of the Hottentot Dog or Ari Dog (as called by the tribe), a known African ridge-bearing ancestor of the Rhodesian Ridgeback, is now found as Africanis. The gene that causes the ridge has been inherited from a common ancestor: \"The geographical origin of the ridge present in Ridgeback dogs is still a mystery, thus solid proof has now been provided that the ridge mutation in Ridgeback dogs is identical by descent and the likelihood of parallel mutations occurring in Asia and Africa (Epstein, 1937) can therefore be rejected.\"", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nOn this second point Barnes was emphatic, stating \"I am breeding a gundog.\" The Rhodesian Ridgeback remained classified as a gundog for over 20 years thence.", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nToday, there are at least five competing theories concerning proper group placement for the Rhodesian Ridgeback.", "Phu Quoc Ridgeback\nNative to Vietnam, the Phu Quoc Ridgeback's history has not been well documented. Enthusiasts and few experts believe that all ridgeback breeds (including the Phu Quoc, Rhodesian, and Thai) originated in either Asia or Africa, due to their distinct ridge markings along the spine, though this has never been confirmed scientifically.\nIt is also believed that, like the Thai ridgeback, the Phu Quoc has been used as a carting, escort, hunting, and guard dog throughout its history due to its impressive appearance and muscular physique.", "Thai Ridgeback\nThe Thai Ridgeback (, ) is an ancient landrace of dog, recently established also as a standardized breed. The breed was formerly unknown outside Thailand, but is gaining notice in the Western world. They are also known as a Mah Thai Lang Ahn. The Thai Ridgeback is one of only three breeds that has a ridge of hair that runs along its back in the opposite direction to the rest of the coat. The other two are the Rhodesian Ridgeback and the Phu Quoc Ridgeback.", "Phyllis McCarthy\nPhyllis McCarthy (12 March 1903 in Johannesburg – 16 February 1986 in Johannesburg) was a noted South African breeder of and authority on Rhodesian Ridgeback dogs. She established the Glenaholm Kennels in 1949 in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, played a seminal role in the Ridgeback community and produced a long line of Ridgebacks featuring prominently in the ancestry of almost all modern members of the breed.", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nThe original breed standard for the Rhodesian Lion Dog was drafted in 1922 by F. R. Barnes on founding the first Ridgeback Club at a Bulawayo Kennel Club show, then in Southern Rhodesia (now in Zimbabwe),[12] and based on that of the Dalmatian. In 1927, Barnes' standard was approved by the South African Kennel Union with the name amended to Rhodesian Ridgeback.[4] Outside the subcontinent and internationally, the first Rhodesian Ridgebacks in Britain were shown by Mrs. Edward Foljambe in 1928.[13] In 1950, Mr. and Mrs. William H. O'Brien of Arizona brought six carefully selected Ridgebacks to the US from South Africa.[14] He and his wife and Margaret Lowthian of California began the process of getting the breed accepted by the American Kennel Club. Similarly, in 1952, The Rhodesian Ridgeback Club of Great Britain was founded at Crufts to promote the breed around the United Kingdom to show judges, so a standard for the breed might be recognised.[15] In 1954 the first Challenge Certificates were awarded to dogs shown as Rhodesian Ridgebacks at United Kingdom competitions, toward their subsequent recognition by The Kennel Club of Great Britain,[15] and in 1955 the American Kennel Club recognised the Rhodesian Ridgeback breed[16] as a member of the hound group.", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nWagon dog/wagon hound - This theory was forwarded at the 2008 Rhodesian Ridgeback World Congress, and contends that an honest evaluation of the breed's functional history indicates that during its formative development and early use as a breed, the ridgeback was much more a \"hunter's/farmer's ox-wagon dog\" than it was a \"lion dog\". This theory aligns itself with the current FCI classification of the breed, group 6.3 (a special type of scenthound). However, the important distinction in this theory is not that the FCI classification of \"scenthound\" is accurate, but rather, that placing the Dalmatian and the Rhodesian Ridgeback (the only breeds currently in FCI group 6.3), breeds that historically have served as versatile hunting/wagon dogs, should indeed be classified as two examples of the same type of dog, but further asserts that such dogs’ classification makes more sense as a discrete group. This classification theory is generally supported by historical accounts that mirror the one offered by Phyllis Archdale who went to Southern Africa in 1919 and bred ridgebacks there in the 1920s, \"Old timers told me that in early days most Dutch transport riders had a Ridgehound as guard to their wagons. They were used to bail up lion and wild pig. Mine did both...\"", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nHypothyroidism is a growing problem in the Rhodesian Ridgeback, and this condition causes a multitude of symptoms, including weight gain and hair loss. Treatment for hypothyroidism in dogs consists of an inexpensive once-daily oral medication. Dr. Lorna Kennedy at the University of Manchester’s Centre for Integrated Genomic Medical Research in England has found the haplotype (group of genes), which, when present, double the chances of a Ridgeback becoming hypothyroid due to lymphocytic thyroiditis. This is important to the breed because lymphocytic thyroiditis is the overwhelming cause of hypothyroidism in ridgebacks.", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nCRRHS - it is also recommended that all ridgeback owners enter their dogs' information in the Comprehensive Rhodesian Ridgeback Health Survey.[34]", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nRidged primitive - There is also a group of ridgeback fanciers who believe Rhodesian Ridgebacks should be thought of in terms of the FCI's group 5.8. FCI group 5 includes the spitz and related primitives. FCI group 5.8 specifically is \"primitive type hunting dogs with a ridge on the back\". The theory's detractors note that the Rhodesian Ridgeback was not only developed in the late 19th century and standardised in the early 20th century, but developed specifically to \"hunt to the gun\" and as such is in fact a very modern creation, and anything but \"primitive\". But supporters of the theory contend that enough of the foundational stock is ancient, including the greyhound and the Khoikhoi dog (from which the ridged back derives), that even though it was developed relatively recently and for use with modern firearms, the breed can still be considered to be of a \"primitive type\".", "UOIT Ridgebacks\nThe university's mascot and logo is based on a Rhodesian Ridgeback breed of dog. The idea of relating the infamous Ridgeback to the university's athletic program is that the Rhodesian Ridgeback is a large and well muscled hunting dog that is legendary for its ability and use in hunting down lions. Strong and extremely competitive by nature, the Ridgeback is also lightning quick and deftly alert while constantly paying attention to its surroundings. Known as a dominant dog with aggressive instincts, the Ridgeback moves, not only like a hunting dog, but like a dog of prey. It is strong willed and confident and thrives on vigorous exercise and athletic activities. It is equally as tough in the water as it is on land.", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nBy the 1860s, European colonisers had also imported a variety of mainly European dog breeds to this area of Africa, including such dedicated hunting dogs as Great Danes, Bloodhounds, Greyhounds, and terriers. Genetic analysis indicates that there has been admixture between the Great Dane and the Ridgeback,[3] indicating the Dane's major contribution. These breeds were bred with the indigenous African dogs, including the dog of the Khoikhoi people, which resulted in the Boer hunting dogs, generically called names such as boerhund (Boer hound) in Dutch then its descendant language of Afrikaans, which are the chief forerunners to the modern Rhodesian Ridgeback.\" Other breeds came from Arabian traders around the Horn of Africa and with Asian immigrants, particularly into the Cape Colony, and jackal coursing introduced from British India brought lurchers from England and Ireland and the borzoi or Russian wolfhound, and before the era of standardised modern breeds, several breeds may have more rarely contributed to Rhodesian Ridgeback genetics.", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nRRCUS H&G - the Rhodesian Ridgeback Club of the United States maintains a web site devoted to the breed's health issues that also gathers ongoing research for their Health & Genetics Committee.[33] This group recommends that breeders perform at least four health screenings: hips, elbows, thyroid and eyes, with cardiac and hearing tests optional.", "Phu Quoc Ridgeback\nThe Phu Quoc Ridgeback is a breed of dog from Phú Quốc Island in Vietnam's southern Kiên Giang Province. The Phu Quoc Ridgeback is one of only three breeds that has a ridge of hair that runs along its back in the opposite direction from the rest of the coat (the others are Rhodesian Ridgeback and Thai Ridgeback). The Phu Quoc is the smallest of the three ridgeback breeds.", "Rhodesian Ridgeback\nTraditionally, many ridgeback puppies were culled at birth for numerous reasons, including ridgelessness. Contemporary breeders are increasingly opting for surgical sterilisation of these offspring to ensure they will not be bred but can live into maturity as non-showing, non-breeding pets. Some breed parent clubs and canine registries in Europe have even made the culling of ridgeless whelps a requirement. It was pointed out on the BBC One investigative documentary Pedigree Dogs Exposed that the Rhodesian Ridgeback Club of Great Britain's \"code of ethics\", which is ratified annually by the kennel club states that \"Ridgeless puppies shall be culled\",[24] and that \"mismarked\" puppies will only ever be sold on condition that they are never shown, and are neutered.[24] The Ridgeback Club defended itself pointing to the statement that follows, \"if a breeder finds this morally impossible [to cull the puppy] the puppy shall be homed...\" as indication that culling is not mandatory, but preferred.[25] It was only after the publicity surrounding the promotion of culling that they reversed their code of ethics to say \"no healthy puppy will be culled\".[26]" ]

[ "Minority languages of Kosovo\nSince the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, the Albanian language has become the dominant language in Kosovo[lower-alpha 1], although equal status is given to Serbian and special status is given to other minority languages.[1] The legislative framework for the protection and promotion of minority languages follows the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, even though the country is not a member of the Council of Europe.[1] However, a lack of political will to enforce the law by Kosovo's institutions and the continued separation of Serb and Albanian communities impede the actual enjoyment of minority language rights.[1][2]" ]

[ "Education in Pristina\nDuring 1919-1939 in Yugoslavia, all Albanian-language schools were closed and education was allowed only in Serbo-Croatian. Around four (4) percent of Yugoslav people attended secondary education, with rural areas being the regions with the lowest numbers of participants since access to schools was almost nonexistent. During this period, the most marginalized group who was deprived from attending schools were girls coming from Muslim families. \nDuring the World War II Kosovo joined with Albania under Italian occupation. This marked a positive turn in the educational system in Kosovo and Prishtina/Pristina in particular since schools in Albanian language were allowed to be opened. Besides hundreds of primary schools opened in Pristina, the first high school in the Albanian language in this municipality, Sami Frasheri, was also founded. After the World War II, Kosovo was again part of Yugoslavia. During this period, ethnic Albanians were recognized as a national minority and Albanian language was accepted and Albanian-language primary schools were allowed while higher levels of education were offered still only in Serbo-Croatian. In 1968, the constitution was amended to allow the opening of Albanian-language schools at all levels.\nAfter the WWII, education in Kosovo was provided in three languages: Serbian, Albanian, and Turkish, while after 1953 lessons in these three languages were offered in the same school.\nAfter 1968, the foundation of Albanian-language educational institutions continued. In 1969, the Albanian University of Pristina was opened. Texts and teaching materials were imported from Albania, as part of an agreement between the University of Tirana and that of Pristina in 1970. \nIn 1981, the University of Pristina consisted of 75 per cent ethnic Albanians out of the 47,000 students attending it. During the late 70s and early 80s the economic situation in Kosovo and Yugoslavia was worsening. Furthermore, negative discrimination of students based on ethnicity led Albanian students of the University of Pristina to organize a massive protest on March 11, 1981, known as the Student Protests of 1981. As a result of violent student riots, restrictions in the education of Albanians were imposed again. As a result of this protest, the previous agreement between Albania and Kosovo, to exchange educational materials, ended and Serbo-Croatian books started to be translated in Albanian to fulfil the needs of the university. Further, students, teachers and professors who participated in these protests were expelled, thus resulting in more than 260 students and more than 210 teachers/professors expelled.", "Besim Bokshi\nIn 1945, he returned to Gjakova and studied at the Catedra of Albanology of the University of Belgrade until 1959, followed by post-graduate studies on linguistics still in Beograd. During 1961-63, he taught Albanian language in the Gjakova High School, being also its director. From 1967 to 1973, he lectured morphology at the High Pedagogical School in Gjakova, being also its director during 1967-71. During this time, he worked for the Albanological Institute of Pristina for a period of eight months. From 1974, he lectured the \"Historical morphology\" course in the Albanian Language and Literature branch of the Philological Faculty of the University of Pristina. In 1977 he finished his doctorate in philology in the University of Pristina. He was a member and president of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Kosovo, while in the past he has served as its vice-president.", "Pristina\nIn the early Ottoman era, Islam was an urban phenomenon and only spread slowly with increasing urbanization. The travel writer Evliya Celebi, visiting Pristina in the 1660s was impressed with its fine gardens and vineyards. In those years, Pristina was part of the Vıçıtırın Sanjak and its 2,000 families enjoyed the peace and stability of the Ottoman era. Economic life was controlled by the guild system (\"esnafs\") with the tanners' and bakers' guild controlling prices, limiting unfair competition and acting as banks for their members. Religious life was dominated by religious charitable organizations often building mosques or fountains and providing charity to the poor.\nDuring the Austrian-Turkish War in the late 17th century, Pristina citizens under the leadership of the Catholic Albanian priest Pjetër Bogdani pledged loyalty to the Austrian army and supplied troops. He contributed a force of 6,000 Albanian soldiers to the Austrian army which had arrived in Pristina. Under Austrian occupation, the Fatih Mosque (\"Mbretit Mosque\") was briefly converted to a Jesuit church. Following the Austrian defeat in January 1690, Pristina's inhabitants were left at the mercy of Ottoman and Tatar troops who took revenge against the local population as punishment for their co-operation with the Austrians. A French officer traveling to Pristina noted soon afterwards that \"Pristina looked impressive from a distance but close up it is a mass of muddy streets and houses made of earth\".", "Pristina\nPristina is the transport hub of road, rail and air in Kosovo. The city's buses, trains and planes together all serve to maintain a high level of connectivity between Pristina many different districts and beyond. Analysis from the Traffic Police have shown that, of 240,000 cars registered in Kosovo, around 100,000 (41%) are from the region of Pristina. The Pristina railway station is located near the city centre.\nPristina effectively has two train stations. Pristina railway station lies west of the center, while Fushë Kosovë railway station is Kosovo's railway hub.\nPristina is serviced by a train that travels through Pristina to Skopje daily. The station is located in the industrial section of Pristina.", "Minoritized language\nSpeakers of the dominant language typically use the greater prestige of the dominant language to prevent speakers of the minoritized language from changing the situation to one more favorable to the minoritized language. They use \"amnesia\" and \"normalization\" to confuse the reality with what should be, and therefore legitimize the situation in which some languages are minoritized. For example, many \"liberal\" criticisms of language planning for minoritized language communities assert that intervention in favor of minoritized languages is equivalent to the policies that caused the language to become minoritized in the first place, such as linguistic legislation, elitism, exclusion of minoritized languages from formal education, and even forced population transfer.", "Politics in Pristina\nPristina (; , ; ) is the capital city of Kosovo. In the preliminary results of the 2011 census the population of Pristina was around 198,000. The majority of the population is Albanian, but there are also smaller communities including Bosniaks, Serbs, Romani and others. The surface of Pristina is 854 km². Pristina is known as the center of cultural, economical and political developments. Since 2014 the current mayor is Shpend Ahmeti. The city is home of the University of Pristina, Pristina International Airport, the Government Building and the Parliament of the Republic of Kosovo.", "Transport in Pristina\nPristina effectively has two train stations. Pristina railway station lies west of the center near the end of Str. Garibaldi while Fushë Kosovë railway station is Kosovo's railway hub.\nPristina is serviced by a train that travels through Pristina to Skopje daily. The train picks up passengers in Pristina at 1:00 PM at the main train station, which is extremely easy to miss. Pristina station is located in the industrial section of Pristina, immediately down the hill from the Dragodan neighborhood on Tirana Blvd.", "Education in Pristina\nThe University of Pristina was inaugurated in 1970 and the courses were taught in two languages: Albanian and Serbian, which enabled Albanian students to study in their mother tongue for what was also the purpose of establishing a university in Kosovo.", "Education in Pristina\nDuring the period of abolition of Kosovo's autonomy (1989-1990), education in Kosovo faced further changes. A new curriculum concentrated more in covering Serbian culture and history and that made Serbo-Croatian a compulsory subject in Kosovo high schools was adopted in 1990. Further, students who wanted to enter secondary schools had to pass a Serbian language test. As a result, after 1992, there were left only Albanian-language elementary schools while in secondary schools and Pristina University Serbian was the only language of instruction.", "Culture in Pristina\nIn 1940, the library had of nearly 1300 books. By the Municipality of Pristina, it was officially founded in 1963 with the name Public Library Miladin Popovic, which was then changed to Populist Library Miladin Popovic. From 1993 till 1999 the name Miladin Popovic was removed since it was put by force in the beginning and was named \"The City Library\". At the end of the war the name was changed to \"The Municipality Library – Hivzi Sulejmani\".\nThe library has a huge fund of books. In all its branches it has:\nIn January 2014, the Embassy of the United States in Pristina donated a fund of 2000 books in the English language to the Municipality of Pristina. The library gets every year donations from book fairs organized in Kosovo and Albania.\nThe number of book readers in the library is raising every year. Since 2002, 10000 books are read more than the year before that.\nThe \"Hivzi Sulejmani\" library has 6 branches, located in the region of Pristina. In the center of Pristina is the major branch, continuing with other branches in the Youth and Sports Center, \"Memorial\" Library, \"Tales\" Library, \"Proofreading\" Library, and the libraries in the villages near Pristina.", "Politics in Pristina\nThe support for the LDK in Pristina was always in high numbers. Even after the support for the LDK in other parts of Kosovo decreased dramatically, its electorate in Pristina remained a stable amount. On the other hand, the support of voters for the PDK in other parts of Kosovo never reflected in the capital city. The PDK failed to end LDK dominance in Pristina, forcing the elections into a runoff just once, in 2007. In the 2007 elections PDK candidate Fatmir Limaj, a war veteran and famous politician, became the first and the last PDK candidate to enter the runoff race in which he was defeated by Isa Mustafa. In 2009 the AKR candidate, the businessman Vegim Gashi won 20 percent of the voters putting the AKR in the political scene of Pristina with a solid electorate. Pristina governed the city from 2007 to 2013, also being selected as the head of the LDK in 2010. However the support of the LDK in Pristina got to a crucial point when the dissatisfied voters voted massively for Shpend Ahmeti, the candidate of VETËVENDOSJE! therefore ending the LDK governance in Pristina for the first time. A turnaround during the last elections in Pristina was made when Pristina gathered around 2000 votes less in the second round, than a month earlier in the first round. Partia e Fortë was formed upon satirical premises in 2013 and its leader Visar Arifaj’s persona was based on several Kosovo political leaders. Partia e Fortë chose to deal with the issues that Kosovo was facing with humour and sarcasm. It was welcomed by public opinion and won a seat in the City Council.", "Pristina\nThe year 1874 marked a turning point. That year the railway between Salonika and Mitrovica started operations and the seat of the vilayet of Prizren was relocated to Pristina. This privileged position as capital of the Ottoman vilayet lasted only for a short while. from January until August 1912, Pristina was liberated from Ottoman rule by Albanian rebel forces led by Hasan Prishtina. However, The Kingdom of Serbia opposed the plan for a Greater Albania, preferring a partition of the European territory of the Ottoman Empire among the four Balkan allies. On October 22, 1912, Serb forces took Pristina. However, Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of the first Balkan War, occupied Kosovo in 1915 and took Pristina under Bulgarian occupation. In late October 1918, the 11th French colonial division took over Pristina and returned Pristina back to what then became the 'First Yugoslavia' on the 1st of December 1918. In September 1920, the decree of the colonization of the new southern lands' facilitated the takeover by Serb colonists of large Ottoman estates in Pristina and land seized from Albanians. The interwar period saw the first exodus of Albanian and Turkish speaking population. From 1929 to 1941, Priština was part of the Vardar Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.", "Sport in Pristina\nVolleyball in Pristina was first played in the gyms of high schools during 1936. In 1948, Pristina was the host city of the first volleyball championship, which was organized as a competition between 6 teams. Ten years later, another championship was organized and the winners, the men's team of Pristina, qualified to play in the League of Serbia and the Second Federative League in Yugoslavia. The women's team, called the University of Prishtina, only made it that far after 1975.\nIn 1991, volleyball in Pristina was no longer organised within the Yugoslavian regulations. \nThe men's team competed in the first tournament organised independently that year, whereas the women's team competed two years later in the first tournament organised as part of the women's league.\nPristina's volleyball teams, although with changes in names and chairspersons, have competed consistently in championships organised since the sport began its independent activity in 1991 \nPristina women's volleyball club are current defending champions in the 2013/2014 season. Another women's club from Pristina, University AAB won the Cup of Kosovo 2012 by beating Pristina in the final. Despite being the current best team in the women's Superleague, Pristina's team is going through financial obstacles, causing problems in organising matches in their homecourt. Pristina's Volleyball Club was elected the most successful club in the women's category for the 2012/2013 season \nVolleyball in Pristina continues to struggle along with the Volleyball Federation of Kosovo, considering that they are not accepted in the International Volleyball Federation and as a result, Pristina and other clubs cannot compete in international tournaments.", "Great Hamam of Pristina\nBecause, of these damages the \"Parliament of the Municipality of Pristina\" in collaboration with the Swedish company CHWB decided to start hamam's restoration in 2006. They formed a project's board, which had members from the \"Municipality of Pristina\", CHWB, the \"Faculty of Architecture\" of University of Pristina and \"Kosova Council for the Cultural Heritage.\" The restoration was planned to have three phases of work. The first phase was about cleaning the object from litter and earlier interventions, the removal of new walls and it ended in 2008. The restoration's project was financed by CHWB and its restoration was done by a CHWB's team, which are specialists on the restoration of the historical monuments field and by a team or board from the \"Municipality of Pristina\". The second phase of the restoration's goal was to rebuild the domes, to strengthen the structure of half of the building and the consolidation of the hamam. This phase is known to have lasted from 2009 to 2010 and it was financed by CHWB and by a Turkish team of experts \"Sida\", which was under the supervision of Zenep Ahunbay. They managed to make a plan about the restoration of the hamam and every single detail was examined and re-examined by the Project's Board for two years. The final draft of the project was accepted by the Project's Board in January 2009. It is known that in 2009, the \"Municipality of Pristina\" has given 300.000 Euro for the restoration of the great hamam of Pristina. The third phase's goal was the restoration of the object and the installation of electricity.A company was chosen by tender by the \"Municipality of Pristina\" to run the project accepted by the Project's Board.They started working from 2012. But,with the realization of these three phases, there have been some deviations from the restoration's plan,according to the \"Kosova Council for the Cultural Heritage\" and CHWB. They said that the company, which was chosen, has no experience in restoration of monuments at all. The installation of electricity was destroying the original masonry of the object. The materials chosen for the restoration of the hamam were completely improper for a restoration and the monument is deeply endangered by the atmospheric waters, which is weakening further the structure of the monument. Old Ottoman things found in this monument were not treated properly. This company was making irreversible changes to the object and the historic details of the hamam were being lost. CHWB warned the \"Municipality of Pristina\" and the \"Kosova Council for the Cultural Heritage\" to disengage the contract made with the company chosen for restoration. They said that, if the \"Municipality of Pristina\" didn't do what it was included in the project, they would withdraw from the cooperation with the \"Municipality of Pristina\". With the request of CHWB and the \"Kosova Council for the Cultural Heritage\", the \"Ministry of Culture,Youth and Sports\" ordered that the restoration of the great hamam of Pristina to be discontinued on 07.02.2013. According to Top Channel, the hamam is currently under restoration with the decision of the \"Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports\".", "Ali Jasiqi\nHe attended schools in Junik and Dečani, Đakovica, finishing in Pristina. He graduated from the Philological Faculty in Albanian Language and Literature at the University of Pristina.", "Pristina\nDuring the Paleolithic Age, what is now the area of Pristina was envolved by the Vinča culture. It was home to several Illyrian and Roman people at the classical times. King Bardyllis brought various tribes together in the area of Pristina in the 4th century BC, establishing the Dardanian Kingdom. The heritage of the classical era is still evident in the city, represented by ancient city of Ulpiana, that was considered one of the most important Roman cities in the Balkan peninsula. In the Middle Ages, Pristina was an important town in Medieval Serbia and also the royal estate of Stefan Milutin, Stefan Uroš III, Stefan Dušan, Stefan Uroš V and Vuk Branković. Following the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans, Pristina became an important mining and trading center due to its strategic position near the rich mining town of Novo Brdo. The city was known for its trade fairs and items, such as goatskin and goat hair as well as gunpowder.\nThe first mosque in Pristina was built in the late 14th century while under Serbian rule. Tolerance and coexistence of religion and culture has been part of the society for centuries.", "Eqrem Basha\nIt was in the early 1970s, during Kosovo's most prominent period, that Eqrem Basha moved to Pristina to study language and literature at the newly created Albanian language university there. He later worked for Pristina television as editor of the drama section, but was fired for political reasons during the Serb takeover of the media in 1989-1990. Basha is the author of eight volumes of innovative verse spanning the years from 1971 to 1995, three volumes of short stories and numerous translations (in particular French literature and drama).", "Education in Pristina\nAmong the first schools known in Pristina were those opened during the Ottoman period—that is before 1912. Albanians were allowed to attend these schools, most of which were religious, with only few of them being secular. During 1913, in Pristina, few Serbian-language primary schools and gymnasiums were opened. The period that followed the Ottoman rule, between 1916 and 1918 was also important for the educational system in Kosovo. During this period, Pristina, along with other municipalities such as Ferizaj and Prizren, was occupied by Bulgaria. Bulgarian occupier did not allow Albanian-language schools, however because of the positive impact of the Austro-Hungarians in the Bulgarian area, some religious catholic schools were allowed in Pristina and other municipalities occupied by them. In 1916, the Bulgarian National Gymnasium was opened in Pristina. The situation in terms of education was worse in the region under the rule of Bulgaria compared to the region occupied by Austro-Hungarian forces where 300 Albanian-language schools were allowed to be opened.", "Pristina\nThe area what is now Pristina has been inhabited for nearly 10,000 years. Early Neolithic findings were discovered dating as far back as the 8th century BC, in the areas surrounding Pristina, which includes Matiçan, Gracanica and Ulpiana. In the 4th century BC, King Bardyllis brought various Illyrian tribes together in the region, establishing the Dardanian Kingdom.", "Anton Berisha\nAnton Berisha was born on August 7, 1946 in Mirash in the municipality of Klina in Kosovo. He went to school at Ujmir and Pristina. He studied Albanian language and literature at the University of Pristina. He finished his postgraduate studies at the University of Zagreb, where he earned his doctorate in 1981.", "Education in Kosovo\nDuring 1919-1939 in Yugoslavia, all Albanian-language schools were closed and education was allowed only in Serbo-Croatian. Around four (4) percent of Yugoslav people attended secondary education, with rural areas being the regions with the lowest numbers of participants since access to schools was almost nonexistent. During this period, the most marginalized group who was deprived from attending schools were girls coming from Muslim families. \nDuring the World War II Kosovo joined with Albania under Italian occupation. This marked a positive turn in the educational system in Kosovo since schools in Albanian language were allowed to be opened. Besides hundreds of primary schools opened in Pristina, the first high school in the Albanian language in this municipality, Sami Frasheri, was also founded. After the World War II, Kosovo was again part of Yugoslavia. During this period, ethnic Albanians were recognized as a national minority and Albanian language was accepted and Albanian-language primary schools were allowed while higher levels of education were offered still only in Serbo-Croatian. In 1968, the constitution was amended to allow the opening of Albanian-language schools at all levels.\nAfter the WWII, education in Kosovo was provided in three languages: Serbian, Albanian, and Turkish, while after 1953 lessons in these three languages were offered in the same school.\nAfter 1968, the foundation of Albanian-language educational institutions continued. In 1969, the Albanian University of Pristina was opened. Texts and teaching materials were imported from Albania, as part of an agreement between the University of Tirana and that of Pristina in 1970. \nIn 1981, the University of Pristina consisted of 75 per cent ethnic Albanians out of the 47,000 students attending it. During the late 70s and early 80s the economic situation in Kosovo and Yugoslavia was worsening. Furthermore, negative discrimination of students based on ethnicity led Albanian students of the University of Pristina to organize a massive protest on March 11, 1981, known as the Student Protests of 1981. As a result of violent student riots, restrictions in the education of Albanians were imposed again. As a result of this protest, the previous agreement between Albania and Kosovo, to exchange educational materials, ended and Serbo-Croatian books started to be translated in Albanian to fulfil the needs of the university. Further, students, teachers and professors who participated in these protests were expelled, thus resulting in more than 260 students and more than 210 teachers/professors expelled.", "Media in Pristina\nRadio Pristina started transmission immediately after the World War II in Prizren 1945 (later to be transferred to Pristina) and it was founded by Parliament of Kosovo province.Radio transmitted in Albanian, Serbian and Turkish language. October 1999 OSCE transfers the resurrected public radio station Radio Pristina to RTK. It is re-launched as Radio Kosovo.\nRadio Kosovo is the first radio that transmitted news in English language,news edition called 'Live at Five' is still transmitted at 17:00.", "Education in Pristina\nSince establishment to 1996, there were 60,000 students who graduated from the University of Pristina from which 38 thousand did so in Albanian language.", "Media in Pristina\nTelevision in Pristina has its beginnings on 26 November 1975, Radio Television of Pristina or RTP (Albanian: Radio Televizioni i Prishtinës, Serbian: Радио-телевизија Приштина, Radio-televizija Priština) was the first Albanian television channel in Kosovo, and it was part of JRT and had its building in Kosovo's capital Pristina (then a Yugoslav Autonomous Province). Both radio and television transmitted in Albanian, Serbian and Turkish language. Television discontinued transmission on 10 June 1999 and was relocated to Central Serbia, later it was dissolved. After the Kosovo war, material and buildings of Radio Television Pristina are under the administration of Radio Television of Kosovo,and have been established two other television RTV21 and KTV .", "A Door into Ocean\nA unique expression of the Sharer way is their language, in which subject and object are interchangeable. The Sharers know by context what subject and object are—but their language does not allow them to make a distinction. As a result, they always know that what one person \"forces\" upon another can always go the other way. Their language impedes anyone from \"giving orders\" to dominate others. For example, if a stranger says, \"You must obey me,\" the Sharer hears, \"I must obey you,\" or (the closest translation), \"We must share agreement.\" Their language reinforces the Sharers' inability to accept any situation in which one individual dominates another by force.", "Universiteti i Prishtinës\nThe University of Pristina occupies the campus in Pristina, Kosovo, serving as the major university in the area of Kosovo. It is a member of the European University Association. It maintains contacts with Western European and American universities and institutions. University of Pristina is the highest-ranked Albanian-language university in Europe.\nUniversiteti i Prishtinës is a non-profit public higher education institution located in the urban setting of the medium-sized city of Pristina (population range of 500,000-1,000,000 inhabitants), Republic of Kosovo. This institution has also branch campuses in the following location(s): Gjilan, Pejë, Prizren, Ferizaj, Gjakovë, Mitrovicë. Officially accredited and/or recognized by the Ministria e Arsimit, e Shkencës dhe e Teknologjisë, Republika e Kosovës (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, Kosovo Republic), the University of Pristina is a coeducational higher education institution. The University of Pristina offers courses and programs leading to officially recognized higher education degrees such as bachelor degrees, master degrees, doctorate degrees in several areas of study. ", "Mehdi Bardhi\nAfter completing his post-graduate studies in Belgrade, Prof. Mehdi Bardhi returns to work in Pristina, first at the Superior Pedagogical School and then at the Institute of Albanology in Pristina. He also worked as an Educational Counselor of the Institute of Education Advancement, Associate Professor of the Faculty of Philosophy in Pristina, Vice-President of the Pedagogical School in Prizren, Chief of Department of the Albanian language and literature of the Superior Pedagogical School of Pristina and the Faculty of Philosophy, and Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Pristina.", "Pristina\nAs capital city and seat of the government, Pristina creamed off a large share of Yugoslav development funds channeled into Kosovo. As a result, the city's population and its economy changed rapidly. In 1966, Pristina had few paved roads, the old town houses had running water and Cholera was still a problem. Prizren continued to be the largest town in Kosovo. Massive investments in state institutions like the newly founded University of Pristina, the construction of new high-rise socialist apartment blocks and a new industrial zone on the outskirts of Pristina attracted large number of internal migrants. This ended a long period when the institution had been run as an outpost of Belgrade University and gave a major boost to Albanian-language education and culture in Kosovo. The Albanians were also allowed to use the Albanian flag.", "Jusuf Buxhovi\nHe attended primary and secondary schools in Gjakova and he studied Albanian language and literature at the University of Pristina. In 1977 he started graduate studies at the Department of History in University of Pristina, then in 1979 he graduated with his thesis \"The League of Prizren in German archives\".", "Education in Pristina\nPrimary and lower-secondary education was based on the 5 + 4 years model since the academic year 2004/05. In Pristina, in the same academic year, there were 60 primary and lower-secondary schools that provide instruction only in the Albanian language. The total number of students was 32,370 out of which 15,583 were females and all of them were Albanian students.The average number of students per class in that academic year in Pristina was 26.71. In the academic year 2005/06 the number of primary and lower-secondary schools increased in 63 and two (2) schools would now offer instruction in other languages as well; however, in 2007/08, this number again decreased in 61 schools with only one of them having mixed languages of instruction. These schools were attended by 34,703 Albanian, 32 Bosnian students, 30 Ashkali, 1 Roma and 199 Turkish students." ]

[ "History of anthropology\nHistory of anthropology in this article refers primarily to the 18th- and 19th-century precursors of modern anthropology. The term anthropology itself, innovated as a New Latin scientific word during the Renaissance, has always meant \"the study (or science) of man\". The topics to be included and the terminology have varied historically. At present they are more elaborate than they were during the development of anthropology. For a presentation of modern social and cultural anthropology as they have developed in Britain, France, and North America since approximately 1900, see the relevant sections under Anthropology." ]

[ "Anthropology\nSporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently, such as the use by Étienne Serres in 1839 to describe the natural history, or paleontology, of man, based on comparative anatomy, and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the National Museum of Natural History (France) by Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau. Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Société Ethnologique de Paris, the first to use Ethnology, was formed in 1839. Its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned.", "Anthropology\nCyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within the American Anthropological Association's annual meeting in 1993. The sub-group was very closely related to STS and the Society for the Social Studies of Science. Donna Haraway's 1985 \"Cyborg Manifesto\" could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term. Cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built, specifically modern technological systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings.", "Social anthropology\nFollowing World War II, sociocultural anthropology as comprised by the fields of ethnography and ethnology diverged into an American school of cultural anthropology while social anthropology diversified in Europe by challenging the principles of structure-functionalism, absorbing ideas from Claude Lévi-Strauss's structuralism and from Max Gluckman’s Manchester school, and embracing the study of conflict, change, urban anthropology, and networks. Together with many of his colleagues at the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute and students at Manchester University, collectively known as the Manchester School, took BSA in new directions through their introduction of explicitly Marxist-informed theory, their emphasis on conflicts and conflict resolution, and their attention to the ways in which individuals negotiate and make use of the social structural possibilities. During this period Gluckman was also involved in a dispute with American anthropologist Paul Bohannan on ethnographic methodology within the anthropological study of law. He believed that indigenous terms used in ethnographic data should be translated into Anglo-American legal terms for the benefit of the reader. The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth was founded in 1946.", "Feminist anthropology\nIn the wake of Gayle Rubin and her critique of \"the sex/gender system,\" the anthropology of women transformed into an anthropology of gender. Gender was a set of meanings and relationships related to but not isomorphic with biological sex. Women was not a universal community or category that was self-evident. Following the rise of women of color feminism, the anthropology of gender critiqued the early goals of first-wave feminists and anthropologists as overly concerned with bourgeois social ambitions. It did so through a move from documenting the experience of women as a universal population to interpreting the place of gender in broader patterns of meaning, interaction, and power. This includes the work of women anthropologists Henrietta Moore and Ethel Albert. Moore contended that anthropology, even when carried out by women, tended to \"[order] the world into a male idiom [. . .] because researchers are either men or women trained in a male oriented discipline\". Anthropology's theoretical architecture and practical methods, Moore argued, were so overwhelmingly influenced by sexist ideology (anthropology was commonly termed the \"study of man\" for much of the twentieth century) that without serious self-examination and a conscious effort to counter this bias, anthropology could not meaningfully represent female experience.", "Christoph Wulf\n\"Anthropology: History, Culture, Philosophy\" (Anthropologie: Geschichte, Kultur, Philosophie): On the basis of an analysis of central paradigms of anthropology, Wulf here further developed the concept of a historical anthropology into a historical-cultural anthropology. This is created in an exchange with the paradigms of evolution/hominization, of philosophical anthropology, of anthropology in historical scholarship (historical anthropology), and of cultural anthropology / ethnology. Today it is considered imperative to develop anthropology as a transcultural and transdisciplinary research field that involves the interleaving of general and particular, global and local, and diachronic and synchronic perspectives with the goal of researching the \"unitas multiplex\" of humankind. In view of this aspiration, it is not possible to narrowly guide the concept of anthropology in one direction or the other. That's why a dynamic concept of anthropology that is open to change is recommended here. With this anthropology concept, epistemological conditions are created which respond to the demands of anthropological research in a globalized world. This anthropology concept has no systematic character, but instead one that is more heuristic. It can be specified and modified depending on the context. Its heuristic value consists first and foremost in making research multidimensional both in terms of content and method and thus more capable of conforming to the world's changing conditions.", "Multimodal anthropology\nMultimodal anthropology is not a new concept. It has been a fundamental part of anthropological research and fieldwork from the early days of the disciple. Anthropologists have been experimenting with different forms media technologies throughout the twentieth century whenever confronted with the limitation of text-based ethnography. Multimodal is a term that has readily been used since the 1970s in varied disciplines as psychotherapy, phonetics, genetics, literature and medicine to characterize different approaches to carrying out scientific research that involves to a certain degree, thinking outside of the box. In the early 1990s, semioticians used the terms to discuss different forms of communication across different media, eventually including digital media.", "Rite of passage\nA rite of passage is a ceremony of the passage which occurs when an individual leaves one group to enter another. It involves a significant change of status in society. In cultural anthropology the term is the Anglicisation of \"rite de passage\", a French term innovated by the ethnographer Arnold van Gennep in his work \"Les rites de passage\", \"The Rites of Passage\". The term is now fully adopted into anthropology as well as into the literature and popular cultures of many modern languages.", "Medical anthropology\nFurthermore, in Europe the terms \"anthropology of medicine\", \"anthropology of health\" and \"anthropology of illness\" have also been used, and \"medical anthropology\", was also a translation of the 19th century Dutch term \"medische anthropologie\". This term was chosen by some authors during the 1940s to refer to philosophical studies on health and illness.", "Aleksandar Bošković\nBošković taught his first academic course at the University of St Andrews in the Martinmas Term of 1994 (\"Mesoamerican Pre-Columbian Civilisations\", at the Honours’ level), and began teaching part-time at the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Ljubljana in 2000 (courses \"Contemporary Anthropology\" and \"Anthropology and Feminism\", at the M.A. level). However, his most important teaching experience was when he moved to the Department of Anthropology of the University of Brasília, where he was influenced by Mariza Peirano's and Roberto Cardoso de Oliveira's (1928–2006) concept of a horizontally-structured anthropology. (This will later influence his interest in \"World Anthropologies.\") In Brasília, Bošković taught courses on gender, myth, anthropological theory, Latin America, but also started to develop some interest in the concept of Europe, as he was actually hired as \"Visiting Professor of European Ethnology.\" His monograph on Mesoamerica (\"Mesoamerican Religions and Archaeology: Essays in Pre-Columbian Civilizations\") was published by Archaeopress in January 2017.", "Cephalic index\nThe cephalic index was defined by Swedish professor of anatomy Anders Retzius (1796–1860) and first used in physical anthropology to classify ancient human remains found in Europe. The theory became closely associated with the development of racial anthropology in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when prehistorians attempted to use ancient remains to model population movements in terms of racial categories.", "Anthropological theories of value\nThe basic premise is that economic activities can only be fully understood in the context of the society that creates them. The concept of \"value\" is a social construct, and as such is defined by the culture using the concept. Yet we can gain some insights into modern patterns of exchange, value, and wealth by examining previous societies. An anthropological approach to economic processes allows us to critically examine the cultural biases inherent in the principles of modern economics. Anthropological linguistics is a related field that looks at the terms we use to describe economic relations and the ecologies they are set within. Many anthropological economists (or economic anthropologists) are reacting against what they see as the portrayal of modern society as an economic machine that merely produces and consumes.", "History of anthropology by country\nAustrian anthropology has close ties to Germany and is generally intertwined with German-speaking countries. As such, the history of anthropology in Austria is foggy until the marked institutionalization of the discipline. The Anthropological Society in Vienna (ASV) was the first anthropological institution in Austria. It was established on February 13, 1870 and is a non-profit organization. The “new anthropology” approach was the ASV's foundation and Bernd Weiler's term for anthropology that existed post-publication of Charles Darwin’s \"On the Origin of Species\". Anthropology within academia was postponed until 1919 when the Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography was created at the University of Vienna. The institute was divided into two later, making the Anthropological Institute and Institute for Ethnology. In 2005, the Anthropological Institute became the Department of Anthropology and is the only anthropology department that exists within the country.", "History of anthropology\nThe first use of the term \"anthropology\" in English to refer to a natural science of humanity was apparently in Richard Harvey's 1593 Philadelphus, a defense of the legend of Brutus in British history, which, includes the passage: \"Genealogy or issue which they had, Artes which they studied, Actes which they did. This part of History is named Anthropology.\"", "Japhetites\nThe term has been used in modern times as a designation in physical anthropology, ethnography and comparative linguistics. \nIn anthropology, it was used in a racial sense for \"white people\" (the Caucasian race). In linguistics it was used as a term for the Indo-European languages. These uses are now mostly obsolete. In a linguistic sense, only the Semitic peoples form a well-defined family. The Indo-European group is no longer known as \"Japhetite\", and the Hamitic group is now recognized as paraphyletic within the Afro-Asiatic family.", "Clinical ethnography\nClinical ethnography has strong similarities to person-centered ethnography, a term used by Robert I. Levy, a psychoanalytically trained psychiatrist, to describe his anthropological fieldwork in Tahiti and Nepal in the 1960s-1980s and used by many of his students and interlocutors. In practice the two approaches overlap but seem to differ in emphasis: clinical ethnography seems to be used more by anthropologists writing about sexuality or medical anthropology (particularly psychiatric anthropology, e.g. Luhrmann 2000, or anthropology of mental illness), while person-centered ethnography, though sometimes addressing these topics, more often focuses on the study of self and emotion cross-culturally. Person-centered anthropology also implies a style of ethnographic writing that emphasizes psychological case studies.", "Marc Augé\nThe third or global stage has so far yielded four books: Non-Lieux, \"Introduction à une anthropologie de la surmodernité\" (1992); trs. as \"Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity\" (1995); \"Le Sens des autres: Actualité de l’anthropologie\" (1994); trs. as \"A Sense for the Other: The Timeliness and Relevance of Anthropology\" (1998); \"Pour une anthropologie des mondes contemporains\" (1994); trs. as \"An Anthropology for Contemporaneous Worlds\" (1998); and \"La Guerre des rêves: exercises d’ethno-fiction\" (1997); trs. as \"The War of Dreams: Exercises in Ethno-Fiction\" (1999). Taken together these works comprise an extended meditation on the disparity between observations made in the course of anthropological fieldwork in the first and the second stages of his career. It is at least partially the result of Augé’s travels—for instance, his concept of the non-place refers to those spaces one typically encounters when travelling such as airports, bus terminals, hotels and so on, which one often only remembers in very generic terms. Ultimately, his aim is to theorise *globalisation as it is lived in properly global terms; it is also an attempt to reinvigorate the discipline of anthropology as a whole. To that end he deploys a number of novel writing techniques, describing the synthetic results as ‘ethno-novels’.", "Generative anthropology\nIn contrast to more common theories that examine human culture in terms of a multiplicity of complex cultural differences, generative anthropology attempts to understand cultural phenomena in the simplest terms possible: all things human are traced back to a hypothetical single origin point at which human beings first used signs to communicate.", "Linguistic anthropology\nThe first paradigm is known as anthropological linguistics. The field is devoted to themes unique to the sub-discipline: documentation of languages that were then seen as doomed to extinction, with special focus on the languages of native North American tribes. It is also the paradigm most focused on linguistics. The themes include: The second paradigm can be marked by the switch from anthropological linguistics to linguistic anthropology, signalling a more anthropological focus on the study. This term was coined by Dell Hymes, who was also responsible for the idea of ethnography of communication. This term was Hymes' vision for the future of linguistic anthropology, where language would be studied in the context of the situation, and relative to the community speaking it. This new era would involve many of the new technological developments, such as mechanical recording.", "Ecological anthropology\nPatricia K. Townsend's work highlights the difference between ecological anthropology and environmental anthropology. In her view, some anthropologists use both terms in an interchangeable fashion. She states that, \"Ecological anthropology will refer to one particular type of research in environmental anthropology – field studies that describe a single ecosystem including a human population\". Studies conducted under this sub-field \"frequently deal with a small population of only a few hundred people such as a village or neighbourhood\".", "The Race Question\nThe first version stated that \"National, religious, geographic, linguistic and cultural groups do not necessarily coincide with racial groups: and the cultural traits of such groups have no demonstrated genetic connection with racial traits. Because serious errors of this kind are habitually committed when the term ‘race’ is used in popular parlance, it would be better when speaking of human races to drop the term ‘race’ altogether and speak of ethnic groups.\" The revised version instead stated that the experts \"agreed to reserve race as the word to be used for anthropological classification of groups showing definite combinations of physical (including physiological) traits in characteristic proportions.\"", "Sodality\nAnother way of determining a usable definition a sodality is to look at the anthropological uses of the terms “sodality” and “modality.” The anthropological use of these terms was introduced to the Church by Ralph D. Winter in 1971:", "Outline of anthropology\nAnthropology – study of humanity. Anthropology has origins in the natural sciences, the humanities, and the social sciences. The term was first used by François Péron when discussing his encounters with Tasmanian Aborigines.\nAnthropology can be described as all of the following:History of anthropology\nRelated fields", "Magnus Hundt\nMagnus Hundt or Magnus canis (1449 in Magdeburg – 1519 in Meißen), also known as Parthenopolitanus, was a German philosopher, physician and theologian. Hundt coined the term anthropology, and he and Otto Casmann have been mentioned as founders of anthropology since they used the term in the 16th century.", "Edward Burnett Tylor\nTylor was appointed Keeper of the University Museum at Oxford in 1883, and, as well as serving as a lecturer, held the title of the first \"Reader in Anthropology\" from 1884 to 1895. In 1896 he was appointed the first Professor of Anthropology at Oxford University. He was involved in the early history of the Pitt Rivers Museum, although to a debatable extent. Tylor acted as anthropological consultant on the first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary.The word evolution is forever associated in the popular mind with Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, which professes, among other things, that man as a species developed diachronically from some ancestor among the Primates who was also ancestor to the Great Apes, as they are popularly termed, and yet this term was not a neologism of Darwin’s. He took it from the cultural milieu, where it meant etymologically “unfolding” of something heterogeneous and complex from something simpler and more homogeneous. Herbert Spencer, a contemporary of Darwin, applied the term to the universe, including philosophy and what Tylor would later call culture. This view of the universe was generally termed evolutionism, while its exponents were evolutionists.", "Caspian race\nCaspian race is a term used in racial anthropology by some authors to describe a sub-race of the greater Caucasian race. \nThe term is used by M. G. Abdushelishvili (1979) as constituting a branch of the Mediterranean race or Irano-Afghan race. \nIn Soviet-era anthropology, the term was used to include Tats and Azerbaijanis.", "History of anthropology\nEriksen and Nielsen use the term proto-anthropology to refer to near-anthropological writings, which contain some of the criteria for being anthropology, but not all. They classify proto-anthropology as being \"travel writing or social philosophy\", going on to assert \"It is only when these aspects... are fused, that is, when data and theory are brought together, that anthropology appears.\"[21] This process began to occur in the 18th century of the Age of Enlightenment.", "Anthropology\nVisual anthropology is concerned, in part, with the study and production of ethnographic photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, new media. While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with ethnographic film, visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation, including areas such as performance, museums, art, and the production and reception of mass media. Visual representations from all cultures, such as sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphics, paintings, and photographs are included in the focus of visual anthropology.", "Feminist anthropology\nWhen feminist anthropology first developed, it was intended to be the subdiscipline of the anthropology of women.  However, feminist cultural anthropology arose as a subfield itself when anthropologists started to realize that women's and gender studies weren’t published as frequently as other topics in anthropology. As feminist anthropology began being practiced by more people and cultural aspects such as race, values, and customs started being considered, focuses on personal identity and differences between people in varying cultures became the main idea surrounding feminist cultural anthropology.  With this advance, female anthropologists started focusing on all aspects of gender and sex and how they vary culturally.  With a focus on feminism through an anthropological lens, women’s role in society and their contributions to the social sciences formed itself a new subfield known as feminist cultural anthropology.", "Person-centered ethnography\nPerson-centered ethnography is an approach within psychological anthropology that draws on techniques and theories from psychiatry and psychoanalysis to understand how individuals relate to and interact with their sociocultural context. The term was first used by Robert I. Levy, a psychoanalytically trained psychiatrist, to describe his psychodynamically informed approach to interviewing during his anthropological fieldwork in Tahiti and Nepal.", "Biofacticity\nHybridity takes into account the anthropological fact that humans are hybrid with both natural and technical essences, making them designers with an individual \"\"Leib\",\" which is a term in phenomenology that denotes subjectivity of one's own corporeality. Biofacticity, on the other hand, is an epistemological and ontological term that reflects upon the anthropological term of hybridity. The latter deals with the self-definition of subjects rather than objects. Hybridity, thus, is an anthropological concept particularly when used for philosophical purposes while biofacticity is an epistemological concept. Both of these concepts demonstrate the hybrid character of the human being as a growing and creative entity who acts in light of self-determined ends. Theorists cite that this view becomes a broad approach in understanding the idea of life not merely as a biological process or functions of the genetic code." ]

[ "Emmanouel Pappas\nEmmanouel Pappas (Greek: Εμμανουήλ Παππάς; 1772–1821) was a prominent member of Filiki Eteria and leader of the Greek War of Independence in Macedonia." ]

[ "Neo Souli, Serres\nNeo Souli () is a small town in Serres regional unit of Central Macedonia, located 7 km east of Serres. Since the 2011 administrative reform it is a municipal unit of the municipality Emmanouil Pappas. It has a population of 2,399 inhabitants and until 1928 was named Subaskioy.", "Emmanouil Pappas (municipality)\nEmmanouil Pappas () is a municipality in the Serres regional unit, Greece. The seat of the municipality is in Chryso. The municipality takes its name after a local historical figure who played an important part as a leader in the Greek War of Independence against Ottoman rule. Emmanouil Pappas was born in the village that was previously called \"Dovista\" (Δοβίστα), probably of Slavic origin, though historians are uncertain of the exact root of that word. One conjecture involves the mispronunciation of the Latin 'Dove est', meaning 'where is it?', because, apparently, the village was undetectable from a distance.", "Emmanouil Pappas (municipality)\nThe municipality has an area of 337.922 km, the municipal unit 217.539 km.", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nAt the same time there was a remarkable intellectual blossoming and there were founded several clubs that developed a significant cultural activity, such as presenting theatrical plays and the publishing of a magazine, already mentioned in a previous chapter. In the same period also was formed for first time a footbal team in the village, by the \"Music-Gymnastics Association Emmanouil Papas\".", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nThe above-mentioned report of the Committee of the American Red Cross also mentions that humanitarian aid (food, clothing, etc.) was distributed in Dovista and the neighbouring villages.[26] Another not so known aspect of the history of the village during World War I, is that apart from the Bulgarian garrison there was installed and Turkish force too, which had set up a temporary hospital (in the school building) with Austrian military doctors, according to the memoirs of the German Air Force Lieutenant Georg Wilhelm Heydemarck.[27]", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nThe Bulgarian historian Georgi Strezov (Георги Стрезов) whose descent was from Ohrid wrote on Dovista in page 30 of his work \"Два санджака от Източна Македония\" (Two Sanjaks of East Macedonia, 1889)", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nsignificant economic and cultural growth took place in the village of Emmanouil Pappas, especially in the 1920s and until the aftermath of the great financial crash of 1929 reached Greece. The enormously high prices which US and European companies offered for Greek tobacco at that time brought to most inhabitants an economic prosperity, landmarks of which are a few neoclassical houses that were built then and survived until today. The village became an important center of tobacco production and processing with several tobacco houses, which employed over 400 workers, most of whom came from Serres and other villages. A lot of various shops opened for the needs of this newly emerged working class and there was also set up a private power plant, which electrified the houses and streets of the village.", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\n\"It is interesting that the Greek populations between Serres and Ziliachova (modern Nea Zichni) are called Darnaci (Darnakes) by the Slavs. It seems that Macedonian Greeks have no other tribal name\".", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nThe inhabitants of Emmanouil Pappas could not enjoy their freedom for a long time because their village, like the rest of Eastern Macedonia fell during World War I again under Bulgarian occupation ( a period known in local historical memory as \"Thefteri Voulgaria\"-literally \"Second Bulgaria\") after the events of the National Schism in 1916. Bulgarian rule is much harsher this time. The Bulgarians, being confident that the region will remain in their possession after the war, are engaged in an orgy of repression and persecution of the native Greek populations, in order to force them either to be Bulgarized or to leave their homeland. Thus, many Greek civilians residing in Bulgarian-occupied areas decide to flee to the territory to the west of Strymonas river that still remained under Greek rule.", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nEmmanouil Pappas (Greek: Εμμανουήλ Παππάς) is a village in the Serres regional unit, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part of the municipality of Emmanouil Pappas.[2] It is situated in the foothills of mountain Menoikio, 17km east of Serres, and 101km northeast of Thessaloniki. The former name of the village was Dovista (Δοβίστα in standard Greek or Ντουβίστα/Duvista in the local dialect). It was renamed Emmanouil Pappas in 1927, after the hero of the Greek War of Independence in Macedonia who was born there in 1773.", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nThe term \"Darnakes\", mentioned in the above excerpt by the Bulgarian author in its slavicized form \"Darnatsi/дърнаци\", is a name that the inhabitants of Dovista and the neighbouring villages (the so-called \"Darnakochoria\", villages of the Darnakes) use as a kind of \"tribal\" name. According to what the renowned Serb geographer Jovan Cvijić (Јован Цвијић) wrote in page 521 of his work \"Основе за географију и геологију Македоније и Старе Србије\" (Basic principles of Geography and Geology of Macedonia and Old Serbia, 1906):", "Menoikio\nThe nearest significant settlements are Serres, Nea Zichni, Emmanouil Pappas and Agio Pnevma to the south and Alistrati and Mikropoli to the west and north. Otherwise the mountain is among the least populated in the Balkans.", "Chryso, Serres\nChryso () a small town in Serres regional unit of Central Macedonia, Greece, located 12 km southeast of Serres. Since 2011 it is a municipal unit of the municipality of Emmanouil Pappas and has a population of 1,571 inhabitants. Until 1928 it was named Topoliani (Τοπόλιανη).", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nThe major of the engineer corps of the Greek army Nikolaos Schinas (Νικόλαος Σχινάς) wrote in page 444 of his work \"Travelling notes on Macedonia, Epirus, the new borderline and Thessaly, vol. 2\" (1886) :", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nAmong these 200,000 hostages or \"ta dourdouvakia\", as they are known in local tradition (Greek corruption of the Bulgarian phrase трудов войник/troudov voinik=labour soldier, as they were called by the Bulgarians), there were about 200 inhabitants of Emmanouil Pappas, of whom 110 died in Kicevo (today Republic of Macedonia) and Karnobat (Bulgaria). Their names are written in the memorial in honour of the fallen in the wars, in the central square of the village.", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nIn the Asia Minor Campaign, the inhabitants of the village of military age were recruited in the Greek Army and 11 of them were among the thousands of other Greeks who paid with their lives the Asia Minor disaster.", "Emmanouil Pappas (municipality)\nThe municipality Emmanouil Pappas was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 2 former municipalities, that became municipal units:", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nThe people of Emmanouil Pappas were present in the Macedonian Struggle as well, since many of them were initiated by the Hellenic Macedonian Committee (Ελληνομακεδονικόν Κομιτάτο) and took an active part, either as members of guerilla bands (andartes or \"Makedonomachoi\"-literally \"Macedonian fighters\" ), or transporting weapons and ammunition (following the known from 1821 route Tsayezi-Dovista through lake Tachinos) or serving in other posts. The presence of people from Dovista in armed bands that were active even as far as the soil of modern Bulgaria is documented in a telegram, sent on October 12, 1878, by the consul of Greece in Serres Ioannis Papakostopoulos to the Prime Minister Theodoros Deligiannis:", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nDuring the First Balkan War Emmanouil Pappas and the whole territory of modern Serres regional unit to the east of Strymonas river was captured by the Bulgarian army on November 6, 1912. A small Bulgarian garrison was installed in the village but it left just few days before the decisive Greek victory in the battle of Kilkis-Lahanas of the Second Balkan War, which marked the liberation of East Macedonia after 550 years of foreign rule. Thus, Emmanouil Pappas became part of Greece on June 29 (Julian calendar, which was used in Greece until 1923)/July 11 (Gregorian calendar), 1913. During the Bulgarian occupation of the village (known to local historical memory as \"Proti Voulgaria\", literary \"First Bulgaria\") that lasted 8 months, the inhabitants suffered harsh persecutions and oppression by the Bulgarian authorities who employed a Bulgarization policy. People from Emmanouil Pappas participated in the fierce clashes between Bulgarian troops and irregular Greeks (members of old bands and other armed civilians from the city and the Greek villages around) that took place during the last two or three days before the retreating Bulgarians set on fire the city of Serres and fled to Bulgaria upon the arrival of the Greek army. Their casualties were 8 dead: 1)Daniil Daniil, 2)Christos Katsaros, 3)Dimitrios Kartsios, 4)Ioannis Tounas, 5)Lascaris Tsiakiris, 6)Dimitrios Chatzieleftheriou 7)Eleftherios Chatzieleftheriou, 8) Athanasios Psaltis.[17] The testimony of the Bulgarian officer Ivan Kirpikov to the international commission of the Carnegie endowment which conducted an inquiry on the war crimes committed in the Balkan Wars, is indicative of the severity of those clashes and the participation of people from Emmanouil Pappas and other Darnakochoria.[18] There is no doubt that those peasants wearing \"the peculiar Greek costume of the villages that were considered as centers of Greek propaganda\", according to the Bulgarian officer, were from Emmanouil Pappas and the other Darnakochoria, who were approaching the railway station through the railway line that passes by the village of Chryso.", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nThe exact date of the foundation of the village remains unknown, despite the efforts of various local history researchers. It is documented, however, by an Ottoman tax register known as TT3 that there existed in 1454 a small settlement with the same name, Dovista, inhabited by 27 families (which means a possible population of around 100-130 inhabitants back then). , a researcher descending from Emmanouil Papas and author of various studies on local history, has claimed in his work \"Dovista, a post-Byzantine settlement: history of region with the birthplace of the hero Emmanouil Papas as benchmark\" (Δοβίστα, μια υστεροβυζαντινή παροικία: η ιστορία των Δαρνακοχωρίων με σημείο αναφοράς τη γενέτειρα του ήρωα Εμμανουήλ Παπά, 1991) that the village was founded in the mid-17th century by Greek populations of the nearby Byzantine town of Zichna (near modern Nea Zichni), who had fled to the slopes of Mount Menoikio shortly after the Ottoman conquest of the area, remained there for some centuries in order to avoid oppression and arbitrariness of Ottoman authorities and landlords that were very common during the first centuries of Ottoman rule and eventually returned to the lowlands and founded new settlements only when Ottoman administration became less harsh. This hypothesis, however, is not supported after the discovery of TT3, at least in regards to the foundation date, while it cannot be excluded that the village pre-existed the Ottoman conquest of Serres and the vicinity, which happened in 1383.", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nИнтересантно је да Словени зову грчко становништво између Сереза и Зиљахова дарнацима; иначе изгледа да македонски Грци немају других имена осим народнога.[9]", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nList of settlements in the Serres regional unit", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nThe construction was completed in 1906. It is a neoclassical building which still decorates the place near the church of Saint Athanasius, bearing the inscription \"ΕΚΠΑΙΔΕΥΤΗΡΙΑ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗΣ ΟΡΘΟΔΟΞΟΥ ΚΟΙΝΟΤΗΤΟΣ ΔΟΒΙΣΤΗΣ 1906\" (School of the Greek Orthodox community of Dovista). It was restored in the middle of the first decade of 2000 and today the ground floor serves as museum about the life and activity of the hero Emmanouel Pappas, while the first floor hosts occasionally Municipal Council meetings and other events.", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nThe people of the village participated in all national struggles of modern Greek history. The leader of the Greek revolution in Chalkidiki Emmanouel Pappas was born at Dovista in 1773. Many villagers were initiated into the secret revolutionary plans by Emmanouel Papas and were ready to fight in the battles of the oncoming revolution.", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nThe decision to build a new school building was certainly associated with a significant spiritual and cultural flowering that occurred at the same time, which also led to the founding of various associations with social and educational activities and national guidelines. In late 19th-early 20th century, there existed in the village three such associations: the \"Fraternity of Saint Demetrius\" (Αδελφότης Αγίου Δημητρίου), which built a homonymous church in 1862, the \"Progressive Fraternity Dovista\" (Φιλοπρόοδος Αδελφότης Δοβίστα), founded in 1883 and the \"Music-Gymnastics Society Virtue\" (Μουσικογυμναστικός Σύλλογος Αρετή), founded in 1910. In the first years after the liberation of the area from Ottoman yoke and its incorporation to the Greek state, there was also founded the \"Music-Gymnastics Club Emmanouil Papas\" (Μουσικογυμναστικός Σύλλογος Εμμανουήλ Παπάς), whose board published a short-lived magazine titled \"Emmanouil Papas\" in 1932.", "Toumpa, Serres\nToumpa () is a village in Serres regional unit of Central Macedonia, Greece, located 20 km southeast of Serres. Since 2011 it is a municipal unit of the municipality of Emmanouil Pappas and has a population of 576 inhabitants. The village bore the same name before 1928.", "Emmanouel Pappas\nPappas was born in Dovista (Δοβίστα), Serres regional unit, a village which is now named after him (Emmanouil Papas). Son of a priest, Pappas excelled in commerce and banking, not only in Macedonia, but also in Europe, establishing trading posts in Istanbul, Vienna and Budapest, despite the limited education he received.", "Pentapoli\nPentapoli () a small town in Serres regional unit of Central Macedonia, Greece, located 14 km southeast of the city of Serres. Since 2011 it is a municipal unit of the municipality of Emmanouil Pappas and has a population of 1.715 inhabitants. Until 1928 it was named Sarmusakli.", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nAccording to local tradition, the Pappas' family house was used for storing weapons and ammunition which were first landed at the harbor of Tsayezi (close to modern Nea Kerdyllia and ancient Amphipolis) on the Strymonian Gulf and then transported to Dovista through the (drained since 1938) lake of Tachinos (named after the nearby village of Achinos), whose northernmost shores were lying in a distance of around 16–17km from Dovista. With the outbreak of the revolution, a big number of recruited fellow villagers of Pappas followed him to Chalkidiki. Many of them were killed in the battles there, while the survivors followed Pappas in his departure from Mount Athos after the Ottoman repression of the revolution in Macedonia and continued the struggle in southern Greece, fighting under the commands of Emmanouel Papas' son Ioannis, who later fell in the battle of Maniaki, alongside Papaflessas.[13]", "Emmanouil Pappas (village)\nDuring the interwar period a" ]

[ "Angel Oak\nAngel Oak is a Southern live oak (Quercus virginiana) located in Angel Oak Park on Johns Island near Charleston, South Carolina. The tree is estimated to be 400-500 years old.[1] It stands 66.5ft (20 m) tall, measures 28ft (8.5 m) in circumference, and produces shade that covers 17,200 square feet (1,600 m2). Its longest branch distance is 187ft[2] in length. Angel Oak was the 210th tree to be registered with the Live Oak Society.[3][4][5]" ]

[ "Angell Conwell\nConwell was born in Orangeburg, South Carolina and moved to Columbia, South Carolina at the age of 2. She attended Seven Oaks Elementary School in Columbia where she was the first African-American student body president. She once lived in Brooklyn NY. She also has a younger sister.", "Price's Post Office\nPrice's Post Office or the Price House is a house built ca. 1800 in Spartanburg County, South Carolina. Its name in the USGS Geographic Names Information System is Prices Post Office. It is located at the intersection of Oak View Farm Road (South Carolina State Highway 42-200), Old Switzer Road (South Carolina State Highway 42-199), and Price House Road (South Carolina State Highway 42-86). It was named to the National Register of Historic Places on October 28, 1969.", "Sindarius Thornwell\nSindarius Thornwell (born November 15, 1994) is an American professional basketball player for the Agua Caliente Clippers, on assignment from the Los Angeles Clippers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the South Carolina Gamecocks. He attended Oak Hill Academy and Lancaster High School prior to the University of South Carolina. \nThornwell was selected by the Milwaukee Bucks with the 48th pick in the second round of the 2017 NBA Draft. The Los Angeles Clippers later traded for his draft rights.", "Encino Oak Tree\nThe Encino Oak Tree, also known as the Lang Oak, was a 1,000-year-old California live oak tree, \"Quercus agrifolia\", in the Encino section of Los Angeles, California. It was designated as a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument (HCM #24) in 1963. ", "Old Oak Common railway station\nOld Oak Common is a planned railway station in Old Oak Common, northwest London, England. The station will be constructed on the site of the Old Oak Common railway depot, approximately south of Willesden Junction station, with an announced opening date of 2026. When built, it is expected to be one of the largest rail hubs in London.", "Columbia South Carolina Temple\nThe temple is located in Hopkins, South Carolina because of its central location within the state. The building is set in a residential neighborhood and surrounded by native loblolly pine and oak trees. The grounds are landscaped with the area's natural flora including myrtle, holly, mums, and dogwood trees. The exterior of the temple is gray granite and features art glass windows. The temple has the traditional lone spire topped by a gold-plated angel Moroni.\nA groundbreaking ceremony for the Columbia South Carolina Temple was held on December 5, 1998. Before its dedication, about 20,000 people toured the temple during an open house. The temple was dedicated the October 15-16, 1999 by LDS Church president Gordon B. Hinckley. The Columbia South Carolina Temple has a total of , two ordinance rooms, and two sealing rooms.", "Seal of South Carolina\nThe Great Seal of the American State of South Carolina was adopted in 1776. The seal is made up of two elliptical areas, linked by branches of the palmetto tree. The image on the left is dominated by a tall palmetto tree and an oak tree, fallen and broken. This scene represents the battle fought on June 28, 1776, between defenders of the unfinished fort on Sullivan's Island, and the British Fleet. The standing palmetto represents the victorious defenders, and the fallen oak is the British Fleet. Banded together on the palmetto with the motto \"Quis separabit?\" (\"Who Will Separate [Us]?\"), are 12 spears that represent the first 12 states of the Union (The Thirteenth being South Carolina itself). Surrounding the image, at the top, is \"South Carolina\", and below, is \"Animis Opibusque Parati\" (\"Prepared in Mind and Resources\"). The other image on the seal depicts the Roman Goddess Spes walking along a shore that is littered with weapons. The Goddess, symbolizing Hope, grasps a branch of laurel as the sun rises behind her. Below her image is her name \"Spes\", Latin for \"Hope\", and over the image is the motto \"Dum Spiro Spero\", or \"While I Breathe I Hope\".", "Oak Island (North Carolina)\nOak Island is located on the Atlantic Ocean coast in Brunswick County, North Carolina near the South Carolina border. A barrier island, it contains the towns of Oak Island and Caswell Beach, Fort Caswell (since 1949 home to the North Carolina Baptist Assembly), the Oak Island Coast Guard Station which is co-located with the Oak Island Lighthouse, and the Oak Island Golf Club. Almost 13 miles long, the island averages about one mile wide. Approximately 7000 people live on it year-round, a number which can balloon to over 40,000 during the summer", "Angel Oak\nDespite the claims that the Angel Oak is the oldest tree east of the Mississippi River, bald cypress trees throughout North and South Carolina are[9] significantly older. One example in North Carolina is over 1,600 years old.", "Oak Island (North Carolina)\nRoughly 30 miles south of Wilmington, North Carolina, Oak Island is the easternmost of the South Brunswick Islands formed in the late 1930s by the construction of the Intracoastal Waterway (ICW). Dredged from Southport, North Carolina at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, the ICW flows south through coastal sounds and marshes to the Little River in South Carolina. Both ends of Oak Island have extensive marshland, while its two major internal waterways (Davis Canal and Montgomery Slough) run east to west and drain into the Lockwood Folly River. Elevations range from sea level to a 50' high knoll on the west end of the island.\n \nWhile Native Americans most likely used the island for fishing, the first permanent settlement took place in the 1830s on the island's east end at Fort Caswell. Now utilized as a Christian retreat and conference center, during the Civil War the fort defended Confederate positions on the North Carolina coast and subsequently served as an army training ground in World War I and a patrol/ communications base in World War II. In 2013, along with the Fort Caswell Rifle Range constructed during WWI in Caswell Beach, it was designated as a National Historic District.", "Asbury Francis Lever\nHe died on April 28, 1940, at “Seven Oaks,” in Lexington County, South Carolina. He is interred at College Hill (Woodlawn) Cemetery, on campus of Clemson Agricultural College of South Carolina, Clemson, South Carolina.", "Oak Island Light\nThe Oak Island Lighthouse is located in the Town of Caswell Beach near the mouth of the Cape Fear River in Southeastern North Carolina. It sits next to the Oak Island Coast Guard Station on the east end of Oak Island in Brunswick County looking south out at the Atlantic Ocean. Featuring four 2.5 million candlepower aerobeacon lenses which produce four, one-second bursts of light every 10 seconds, it has a luminous range of 24 nautical miles. Owned by the town since 2004, it is managed by a citizens group (Friends of Oak Island Lighthouse). \nIn May 1958, the Oak Island Lighthouse replaced the Cape Fear Light, a steel skeleton structure on Bald Head Island which was demolished that same year. The Cape Fear Light began operation in 1903 and was then a functional replacement for the still standing and now popular tourist attraction, the 1817 Bald Head Light (Old Baldy). During the period 1958–1962, the Oak Island Light was the brightest in the US (the Charleston Light in South Carolina now holds that distinction).", "Oak Ridge, North Carolina\nOak Ridge is located in northwestern Guilford County at (36.166944, -79.982577). It is bordered to the north by Stokesdale, to the east by Summerfield, and to the west by Forsyth County. North Carolina Highway 68 leads south to Interstate 40 on the west side of Greensboro; downtown Greensboro is southeast of Oak Ridge. Piedmont Triad International Airport is south of the center of Oak Ridge.", "Johns Island, South Carolina\nThe Angel Oak is a living Southern live oak tree located on Johns Island. Estimates of the tree's age range from 400 to 1500 years old. The oak is tall, with a trunk circumference of . In spite of the popular belief that the Angel Oak is the oldest tree east of the Mississippi River, there are many baldcypress trees throughout the south which are many hundreds of years older. The Angel Oak stands on part of the land given to Jacob Waight in 1717 as part of a land grant. The Angel Oak was acquired by the City of Charleston in 1991. Today, Angel Oak Park provides visitors a close look at the tree. The park area is complete with a gift shop and picnic tables.", "Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles\nLos Angeles Fire Department operates Station 88 Sherman Oaks and Station 102 South Van Nuys/Valley Glen in Sherman Oaks. In addition the department operates Fire Station 78, which serves Sherman Oaks, in Studio City.", "Angel Oak\nThe Angel Oak was the focal point of an Allstate television ad in September 2018 saluting the strength of the Carolinas following the devastation of Hurricane Florence.[15]", "Oak Grove (Hampton County, South Carolina)\nOak Grove, also known as Richardson Place, is a historic home located near Brunson, Hampton County, South Carolina. It was built in 1852, and is a two-story, Greek Revival style clapboard dwelling on a raised basement. The front facade features a two-story verandah. It is believed that General William Tecumseh Sherman visited Oak Grove during the American Civil War.", "Treaty of Hopewell\nThe Treaty of Hopewell is any of three different treaties signed at Hopewell Plantation. The plantation was owned by Andrew Pickens, and was located on the Seneca River in northwestern South Carolina. The treaties were signed between the Confederation Congress of the United States of America and the Cherokee/Chickamuga (1785), Choctaw and Chickasaw (1786) peoples. The historic site of the 'Treaty Oak', where the signings took place, is on Old Cherry Road in Pickens County, South Carolina. There is a historical marker placed near the bridge crossing Lake Hartwell, and a trail through the forest that allows access to the monument. The actual Treaty Oak is no longer alive.", "Oak Grove, South Carolina\nOak Grove is a census-designated place (CDP) in Lexington County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 10,291 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Columbia, South Carolina Metropolitan Statistical Area.", "North Carolina Highway 69\nThe first NC 69 was an original state highway that began at NC 20, in Marshall, to NC 26, in Twin Oaks. Its routing took NC 69 through Burnsville, Spruce Pine, Cranberry, Banner Elk, Boone and West Jefferson. In 1928, NC 69 was extended south to the South Carolina state line, in concurrency with US 25, taking it through Asheville, Arden and Hendersonville; this replaced most of NC 29 and its old routing to Marshall became NC 213. In 1930, NC 69 was rerouted at Cranberry towards Elk Park and the Tennessee state line, in concurrency with US 19E; its old alignment north was broken up with NC 194 between Cranberry and Villas, NC 60 between Villas and Boone, and NC 691 between Boone Twin Oaks. In 1932, NC 69 was placed on new routing between Arden and Asheville, its old alignment became NC 69A, though remained part of US 25. In 1934, NC 69 was decommissioned in favor of US 25, US 19 and US 19E.", "Seven Oaks, Bluffton, South Carolina\nSeven Oaks is located in Bluffton, South Carolina. It was built in 1850. This is a two-story house with double verandas on the south and east sides and two exterior chimneys. The house is called Seven Oaks due to seven very large live oak stumps that support the house. Some of the original interior details remain; there is a visible line running east to west down the center of the northeast parlor floor indicating that an addition was made at some time.", "Kyle Martin (first baseman)\nMartin attended Wade Hampton High School in Greenville, South Carolina. He enrolled at the University of South Carolina and played college baseball for the South Carolina Gamecocks. The Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim selected Martin in the 20th round of the 2014 MLB draft, but he did not sign with the Angels, opting to return to South Carolina for his senior year. As a senior, Louisville Slugger named Martin a Second Team All-American.", "Old Oaks Historic District\nOld Oaks is a small neighborhood approximately one mile east of, and just south of downtown. The community is bounded by Mooberry Street to the north, East Livingston Avenue to the south, South Ohio Avenue to the west, and Kimball Place to the east. Neighborhoods surrounding the area include Livingston Park, Driving Park, and Olde Towne East, including the Bryden Road Historic District. Old Oaks covers an area of only about 7 blocks by 3 blocks with a total land area of .109 square miles.", "Myrtle Beach metropolitan area\nThe Myrtle Beach metropolitan area (also Myrtle Beach–Conway–North Myrtle Beach MSA) is a census-designated metropolitan area consisting of Horry County and Georgetown County in South Carolina and Brunswick County in North Carolina. The region's primary cities, in order by population are Myrtle Beach, South Carolina; Conway, South Carolina; Leland, North Carolina; North Myrtle Beach, South Carolina and Georgetown, South Carolina. Another primary city is Oak Island, North Carolina and though the permanent population is only 6,783 as of the 2010 census, the population jumps up to about 50,000 during the summertime.The estimated population of the area was 465,391 in 2013.", "Johns Island, South Carolina\nJohns Island is located to the west of James Island and to the east of Wadmalaw Island and inshore of Seabrook Island and Kiawah Island. It is separated from the mainland by the tidal Stono River, which forms part of the Intracoastal Waterway. Roughly one-third of the island is within the city limits of Charleston. The island is home to the Angel Oak, a Southern live oak tree estimated to be 400–500 years old and named for Justus Angel, nineteenth-century owner of the land on which it stands. It is also known for its farms, producing tomatoes and numerous other agricultural products.", "The Oaks (Frogmore, South Carolina)\nThe Oaks, also known as the Cooler House, is a historic plantation house located on Saint Helena Island near Frogmore, Beaufort County, South Carolina. It was built about 1855, and is a two-story, vernacular frame I-House. Edward L. Pierce chose The Oaks as his headquarters during the military occupation of St. Helena during the American Civil War. The Oaks was the center for military and agricultural activities on the island. On June 18, 1862, Ellen Murray, who had ten days earlier arrived from Pennsylvania, opened the Penn School for Freedmen in a back room of the house. The house also served as a hotel for military personnel from Port Royal, superintendents, and teachers.", "Quercus muehlenbergii\nQuercus muehlenbergii, the chinkapin oak (or chinquapin oak), is an oak in the white oak group (\"Quercus\" sect. \"Quercus\"). The species was often called \"Quercus acuminata\" in older literature. \"Quercus muehlenbergii\", (its specific epithet often misspelt \"muhlenbergii\") is native to eastern and central North America, ranging from Vermont west to Wisconsin and south to South Carolina, western Florida, New Mexico, and northeastern Mexico from Coahuila south to Hidalgo.", "Henry Middleton\nHenry Middleton was born in 1717 near Charleston, Province of South Carolina, to Arthur Middleton (1681–1737) and Susan Amory (1690-1722), on the family plantation, \"The Oaks\". Henry's father Arthur Middleton was a wealthy planter who had served as an acting governor of South Carolina. Henry was educated in England before returning to South Carolina to inherit his father's plantation. He became one of the largest landowners in the colony, owning and about 800 slaves.", "Seven Oaks, South Carolina\nSeven Oaks is a census-designated place (CDP) in Lexington County, South Carolina, United States, six miles outside Columbia. The population was 15,755 at the 2000 census. It is part of the Columbia, South Carolina Metropolitan Statistical Area." ]

[ "Haemophilia\nIn 1924, a Finnish doctor discovered a hereditary bleeding disorder similar to haemophilia localised in the Åland Islands, southwest of Finland.[41] This bleeding disorder is called \"Von Willebrand Disease\"." ]

[ "Hemostasis\nSome main types of hemostasis used in emergency medicine include:The body's hemostasis system requires careful regulation in order to work properly. If the blood does not clot sufficiently, it may be due to bleeding disorders such as hemophilia or immune thrombocytopenia; this requires careful investigation. Over-active clotting can also cause problems; thrombosis, where blood clots form abnormally, can potentially cause embolisms, where blood clots break off and subsequently become lodged in a vein or artery.", "Congenital afibrinogenemia\nCongenital afibrinogenemia is a rare, genetically inherited blood fibrinogen disorder in which the blood does not clot normally due to the lack of fibrinogen, a blood protein necessary for coagulation. This disorder is autosomal recessive, meaning that two unaffected parents can have a child with the disorder. The lack of fibrinogen expresses itself with excessive and, at times, uncontrollable bleeding.", "Coagulopathy\nCoagulopathy (also called a bleeding disorder) is a condition in which the blood’s ability to coagulate (form clots) is impaired. This condition can cause a tendency toward prolonged or excessive bleeding (bleeding diathesis), which may occur spontaneously or following an injury or medical and dental procedures. Of note, coagulopathies are sometimes erroneously referred to as \"clotting disorders\"; a clotting disorder is a predisposition to clot formation (thrombus), also known as a hypercoagulable state or thrombophilia.", "National Blood Clot Alliance\nThe National Blood Clot Alliance or NBCA for short (Formerly known as the National Alliance for Thrombosis and Thrombophilia or NATT) is a United States nationwide not for profit alliance of patients and medical professionals committed to raising awareness about thrombosis and thrombophilia and is dedicated to preventing and treating health problems caused by blood clots and blood clotting disorders. ", "Coagulation\nCoagulation, also known as clotting, is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a blood clot. It potentially results in hemostasis, the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, followed by repair. The mechanism of coagulation involves activation, adhesion, and aggregation of platelets along with deposition and maturation of fibrin. Disorders of coagulation are disease states which can result in bleeding (hemorrhage or bruising) or obstructive clotting (thrombosis).", "Red blood cell\nThere are currently more than 50 known membrane proteins, which can exist in a few hundred up to a million copies per red blood cell. Approximately 25 of these membrane proteins carry the various blood group antigens, such as the A, B and Rh antigens, among many others. These membrane proteins can perform a wide diversity of functions, such as transporting ions and molecules across the red cell membrane, adhesion and interaction with other cells such as endothelial cells, as signaling receptors, as well as other currently unknown functions. The blood types of humans are due to variations in surface glycoproteins of red blood cells. Disorders of the proteins in these membranes are associated with many disorders, such as hereditary spherocytosis, hereditary elliptocytosis, hereditary stomatocytosis, and paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria.[25][26]", "Hypoprothrombinemia\nHypoprothrombinemia is found to present itself as either inherited or acquired, and is a decrease in the synthesis of prothrombin. In the process of inheritance, it marks itself as an autosomal recessive disorder, meaning that both parents must be carriers of the defective gene in order for the disorder to be present in a child. Prothrombin is a glycoprotein that occurs in blood plasma and functions as a precursor to the enzyme, thrombin, which acts to convert fibrinogen into fibrin, therefore, fortifying clots. This clotting process is known as coagulation.", "List of fibrinogen disorders\nFibrinogen disorders are set of hereditary or acquired abnormalities in the quantity and/or quality of circulating fibrinogens. The disorders may lead to pathological bleeding and/or blood clotting or the deposition of fibrinogen in the liver, kidneys, or other organs and tissues. These disorders include:", "Factor V Leiden\nThe excessive clotting that occurs in this disorder is almost always restricted to the veins, where the clotting may cause a deep vein thrombosis (DVT). If the venous clots break off, these clots can travel through the right side of the heart to the lung where they block a pulmonary blood vessel and cause a pulmonary embolism. It is extremely rare for this disorder to cause the formation of clots in arteries that can lead to stroke or heart attack, though a \"mini-stroke\", known as a transient ischemic attack, is more common. Given that this disease displays incomplete dominance, those who are homozygous for the mutated allele are at a heightened risk for the events detailed above versus those that are heterozygous for the mutation.", "Thrombin time\nThe thrombin time (TT), also known as the thrombin clotting time (TCT) is a blood test that measures the time it takes for a clot to form in the plasma of a blood sample containing anticoagulant, after an excess of thrombin has been added. It is used to diagnose blood coagulation disorders and to assess the effectiveness of fibrinolytic therapy. This test is repeated with pooled plasma from normal patients. The difference in time between the test and the 'normal' indicates an abnormality in the conversion of fibrinogen (a soluble protein) to fibrin, an insoluble protein.", "Thrombosis\nThrombosis (from Ancient Greek θρόμβωσις \"thrómbōsis\" \"clotting”) is the formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel, obstructing the flow of blood through the circulatory system. When a blood vessel (a vein or an artery) is injured, the body uses platelets (thrombocytes) and fibrin to form a blood clot to prevent blood loss. Even when a blood vessel is not injured, blood clots may form in the body under certain conditions. A clot, or a piece of the clot, that breaks free and begins to travel around the body is known as an embolus.", "Factor V Leiden\nFactor V Leiden (rs6025) is a variant (mutated form) of human factor V (one of several substances that helps blood clot), which causes an increase in blood clotting (hypercoagulability). With this mutation, protein C, an anticoagulant protein (which normally inhibits the pro-clotting activity of factor V), is not able to bind normally to Factor V, leading to a hypercoagulable state, i.e., an increased tendency for the patient to form abnormal and potentially harmful blood clots. Factor V Leiden is the most common hereditary hypercoagulability (prone to clotting) disorder amongst ethnic Europeans. It is named after the Dutch city Leiden, where it was first identified in 1994 by Prof R. Bertina under the direction of (and in the laboratory of) Prof P. Reitsma.", "Hypodysfibrinogenemia\nHypodysfibrinogenemia, also termed congenital hypodysfibrinogenemia, is a rare hereditary fibrinogen disorder cause by mutations in one or more of the genes that encode a factor critical for blood clotting, fibrinogen. These mutations result in the production and circulation at reduced levels of fibrinogen at least some of which is dysfunctional. Hypodysfibrinogenemia exhibits reduced penetrance, i.e. only some family members with the mutated gene develop symptoms.", "Polycythemia\nPrimary polycythemias are due to factors intrinsic to red cell precursors. Polycythemia vera (PCV), polycythemia rubra vera (PRV), or erythremia, occurs when excess red blood cells are produced as a result of an abnormality of the bone marrow. Often, excess white blood cells and platelets are also produced. PCV is classified as a myeloproliferative disease. Symptoms include headaches and vertigo, and signs on physical examination include an abnormally enlarged spleen and/or liver. In some cases, affected individuals may have associated conditions including high blood pressure or formation of blood clots. Transformation to acute leukemia is rare. Phlebotomy is the mainstay of treatment. A hallmark of polycythemia is an elevated hematocrit, with Hct > 55% seen in 83% of cases. A somatic (non-hereditary) mutation (V617F) in the \"JAK2\" gene is found in 95% of cases, though also present in other myeloproliferative disorders.", "Thrombotic storm\nBlood clots are a relatively common occurrence in the general population and are seen in approximately 1-2% of the population by age 60. Typically blood clots develop in the deep veins of the lower extremities, deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or as a blood clot in the lung, pulmonary embolism (PE). A very small number of people who develop blood clots have a more serious and often life-threatening condition, known as Thrombotic Storm (TS). TS is characterized by the development of more than one blood clot in a short period of time. These clots often occur in multiple and sometimes unusual locations in the body and are often difficult to treat. TS may be associated with an existing condition or situation that predisposes a person to blood clots such as injury, infection, or pregnancy. In many cases a risk assessment will identify interventions that will prevent the formation of blood clots.", "Coagulopathy\nThe normal clotting process depends on the interplay of various proteins in the blood. Coagulopathy may be caused by reduced levels or absence of blood-clotting proteins, known as clotting factors or coagulation factors. Genetic disorders, such as hemophilia and Von Willebrand's disease, can cause a reduction in clotting factors.", "Blood\nAnemia Insufficient red cell mass (anemia) can be the result of bleeding, blood disorders like thalassemia, or nutritional deficiencies, and may require one or more blood transfusions. Anemia can also be due to a genetic disorder in which the red blood cells simply do not function effectively. Anemia can be confirmed by a blood test if the hemoglobin value is less than 13.5 gm/dl in men or less than 12.0 gm/dl in women.[33] Several countries have blood banks to fill the demand for transfusable blood. A person receiving a blood transfusion must have a blood type compatible with that of the donor. Sickle-cell anemia Disorders of cell proliferation Leukemia is a group of cancers of the blood-forming tissues and cells. Non-cancerous overproduction of red cells (polycythemia vera) or platelets (essential thrombocytosis) may be premalignant. Myelodysplastic syndromes involve ineffective production of one or more cell lines. Disorders of coagulation Hemophilia is a genetic illness that causes dysfunction in one of the blood's clotting mechanisms. This can allow otherwise inconsequential wounds to be life-threatening, but more commonly results in hemarthrosis, or bleeding into joint spaces, which can be crippling. Ineffective or insufficient platelets can also result in coagulopathy (bleeding disorders). Hypercoagulable state (thrombophilia) results from defects in regulation of platelet or clotting factor function, and can cause thrombosis. Infectious disorders of blood Blood is an important vector of infection. HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, is transmitted through contact with blood, semen or other body secretions of an infected person. Hepatitis B and C are transmitted primarily through blood contact. Owing to blood-borne infections, bloodstained objects are treated as a biohazard. Bacterial infection of the blood is bacteremia or sepsis. Viral Infection is viremia. Malaria and trypanosomiasis are blood-borne parasitic infections.", "Kikkan Randall\nIn April 2008 she was diagnosed with the genetic blood clotting disorder Factor V Leiden after being hospitalized twice due to blood clots in her left leg.", "Hereditary elliptocytosis\nHereditary elliptocytosis, also known as ovalocytosis, is an inherited blood disorder in which an abnormally large number of the patient's erythrocytes (i.e. red blood cells) are elliptical rather than the typical biconcave disc shape. Such morphologically distinctive erythrocytes are sometimes referred to as elliptocytes or ovalocytes. It is one of many red-cell membrane defects. In its severe forms, this disorder predisposes to haemolytic anaemia. Although pathological in humans, elliptocytosis is normal in camelids.", "Dysfibrinogenemia\nThe dysfibrinogenemias consist of three types of fibrinogen disorders in which a critical blood clotting factor, fibrinogen, circulates at normal levels but is dysfunctional. Congenital dysfibrinogenemia is an inherited disorder in which one of the parental genes produces an abnormal fibrinogen. This fibrinogen interferes with normal blood clotting and/or lyses of blood clots. The condition therefore may cause pathological bleeding and/or thrombosis. Acquired dysfibrinogenemia is a non-hereditary disorder in which fibrinogen is dysfunctional due to the presence of liver disease, autoimmune disease, a plasma cell dyscrasias, or certain cancers. It is associated primarily with pathological bleeding. Hereditary fibrinogen Aα-Chain amyloidosis is a sub-category of congenital dysfibrinogenemia in which the dysfunctional fibrinogen does not cause bleeding or thrombosis but rather gradually accumulates in, and disrupts the function of, the kidney.", "Von Willebrand disease\nVon Willebrand disease (vWD) is the most common hereditary blood-clotting disorder in humans. An acquired form can sometimes result from other medical conditions. It arises from a deficiency in the quality or quantity of von Willebrand factor (vWF), a multimeric protein that is required for platelet adhesion. As well as humans, it is known to affect several breeds of dogs. The three forms of vWD are: hereditary, acquired, and pseudo or platelet type. The three types of hereditary vWD are: vWD type 1, vWD type 2, and vWD type 3. Type 2 contains various subtypes. Platelet type vWD is also an inherited condition. In 2008 a new diagnostic category of \"Low VWF\" was proposed to include those individuals whose Von Willebrand Factor levels were below the normal reference range but not low enough to be Von Willebrand Disease (levels in the 30-50 IU/dL range). ", "Factor XII deficiency\nFactor XII deficiency (also Hageman factor deficiency) is a deficiency in the production of factor XII (FXII), a plasma glycoprotein and clotting factor that participates in the coagulation cascade and activates factor XI. FXII appears to be not essential for blood clotting, as individuals with this condition are usually asymptomatic and form blood clots in vivo. FXII deficiency tends to be identified during presurgical laboratory screening for bleeding disorders.", "Developmental Haemostasis\nThe haemostatic (blood clotting) system involves the interaction of proteins in the blood, the blood vessel wall and the flow of blood to control bleeding and blood clotting. Developmental Haemostasis is a term that represents the maturation of the haemostatic system from birth to adulthood. There are differences in the concentration, structure and activity of many proteins involved in blood clotting. These changes play an important role in physiological development and are important in providing appropriate diagnosis and treatment of bleeding and clotting disorders (e.g. thrombosis). The age-specific differences in the blood clotting system may contribute to the fact that children are less prone to developing thrombosis compared to adults.", "Fibrinogen\nReduced and/or dysfunctional fibrinogens occur in various congenital and acquired human fibrinogen-related disorders. These disorders represent a clinically important group of rare conditions in which individuals may present with severe episodes of pathological bleeding and thrombosis; these conditions are treated by supplementing blood fibrinogen levels and inhibiting blood clotting, respectively. Certain of these disorders may also be the cause of liver and kidney diseases.", "National Blood Clot Alliance\nIn July 2014, NBCA launched its newly designed \"Stop the Clot\" website with resources for health professionals, patients and family members including healthcare provider listings, patient stories, a knowledge base of articles and reference materials on blood clots and blood clotting disorders. NBCA also sponsors educational seminars and publishes materials to raise awareness of blood clotting issues.", "Red blood cell\nHereditary spherocytosis syndromes are a group of inherited disorders characterized by defects in the red blood cell's cell membrane, causing the cells to be small, sphere-shaped, and fragile instead of donut-shaped and flexible. These abnormal red blood cells are destroyed by the spleen. Several other hereditary disorders of the red blood cell membrane are known.[48]", "Thromboelastometry\nWhile traditional thromboelastography is a global assay for blood clotting disorders and drug effects, TEM is primarily used in combination with appropriate differential assays. They allow testing in the presence of therapeutic heparin concentrations and provide differential diagnostic information to support decisions in therapy. In numerous publications the validity of the method is shown. Application of TEM at the point of care (POC) or in emergency laboratories is getting more and more popular. TEM detects both hypo- and hyperfunctional stages of the clotting process and is probably the only reliable rapid test for the diagnosis of hyperfibrinolysis. In contrast to standard clotting tests, the fibrin stabilizing effect of factor XIII contributes to the result. The rapid availability of results helps to discriminate surgical bleeding from a true haemostasis disorder and improves the therapy with blood products, factor concentrates, anticoagulants and protamine, hemostyptic and antifibrinolytic drugs. Several reports confirm that application of TEM is cost effective by reducing the consumption of blood products.", "Dengue fever\nSevere disease is marked by the problems of capillary permeability (an allowance of fluid and protein normally contained within blood to pass) and disordered blood clotting. These changes appear associated with a disordered state of the endothelial glycocalyx, which acts as a molecular filter of blood components. Leaky capillaries (and the critical phase) are thought to be caused by an immune system response. Other processes of interest include infected cells that become necrotic—which affect both coagulation and fibrinolysis (the opposing systems of blood clotting and clot degradation)—and low platelets in the blood, also a factor in normal clotting.", "Congenital hypofibrinogenemia\nCongenital hypofibrinogenemia is a rare disorder in which one of the two genes responsible for producing fibrinogen, a critical blood clotting factor, is unable to make a functional fibrinogen glycoprotein because of an inherited mutation. In consequence, liver cells, the normal site of fibrinogen production, make small amounts of this critical coagulation protein, blood levels of fibrinogen are low, and individuals with the disorder may suffer a coagulopathy, i.e. a diathesis or propensity to experience episodes of abnormal bleeding. However, individuals with congenital hypofibringenemia may also suffer episodes of abnormal blood clot formation, i.e. thrombosis. This seemingly paradoxical propensity to develop thrombosis in a disorder causing a decrease in a critical protein for blood clotting may be due to the function of fibrin (the split product of fibrinogen that is the basis for forming blood clots) to promote the lysis or desolution of blood clots. Lower levels of fibrin may reduce the lysis of early fibrin strand depositions and thereby allow these depositions to develop into clots.", "Thrombophlebitis\nThrombophlebitis causes include disorders related to increased tendency for blood clotting and reduced speed of blood in the veins such as prolonged immobility; prolonged traveling (sitting) may promote a blood clot leading to thrombophlebitis but this occurs relatively less. High estrogen states such as pregnancy, estrogen replacement therapy, or oral contraceptives are associated with an increased risk of thrombophlebitis. " ]

[ "Role of the United States in the Vietnam War\nThe role of the United States in the Vietnam War began after World War II and escalated into full commitment during the Vietnam War from 1955 to 1973. The U.S. involvement in South Vietnam stemmed from 20 long years of political and economic action. These had the common incentive of ending the growing communist domination in Vietnam. At the time, French forces, allies of the U.S., were backed by America — President Harry S. Truman provided progressively increasing amounts of financial and military assistance to French forces fighting in Vietnam. From the spring of 1950, their involvement increased from just assisting French troops to providing direct military assistance to the associated states (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia). Eventually, U.S. missions were carried out at a more constant rate by sending out increasing number of military assistance from the United States. Their main intent was to restrict the Communist domination that was present in the government of Vietnam as it would soon lead to a chain of neighbouring countries adopting the same. This would have resulted in a change in balance of power throughout Southeast Asia. The U.S. foreign policy establishment saw national security interests being disturbed due to the rise of this communist expansion and strived to take any measure to end it. Their actions came to be questioned by other segments of government and society, however, including the US congress.[1]." ]

[ "United States Army Vietnam\nUnited States Army Republic of Vietnam (USARV) was an corps-level support command of the United States Army in the Vietnam War. USARV was created on 20 July 1965 out of the U.S. Army Support Command, Vietnam.", "Sammy Younge Jr.\nIn January 1966, a protest was staged in front of the White House by Leslie Bayless, with a coffin with a picture of Younge attached to it. The protest was staged to call out the white supremacy caused shooting of Younge in Alabama. Police forcibly removed the casket and arrested Bayless for disorderly conduct.\nAfter Younge's death, the SNCC decided to publicly join the opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War; stating officially, on January 6, 1966, that:\nThe Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee has a right and a responsibility to dissent with United States foreign policy on any issue when it sees fit. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee now states its opposition to United States' involvement in Vietnam on these grounds: We believe the United States government has been deceptive in its claims of concern for the freedom of the Vietnamese people, just as the government has been deceptive in claiming concern for the freedom of colored people in such other countries as the Dominican Republic, the Congo, South Africa, Rhodesia, and in the United States itself. ... The murder of Samuel [Younge] in Tuskeegee, Alabama, is no different than the murder of peasants in Vietnam, for both [Younge] and the Vietnamese sought, and are seeking, to secure the rights guaranteed them by law. In each case the United States government bears a great part of the responsibility for these deaths. Samuel [Younge] was murdered because United States law is not being enforced. Vietnamese are murdered because the United States is pursuing an aggressive policy in violation of international law.", "Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War\nIn 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson began his re-election campaign. Eugene McCarthy ran against him for the nomination on an anti-war platform. McCarthy did not win the first primary election in New Hampshire, but he did surprisingly well against an incumbent. The resulting blow to the Johnson campaign, taken together with other factors, led the President to make a surprise announcement in a March 31 televised speech that he was pulling out of the race. He also announced the initiation of the Paris Peace Negotiations with Vietnam in that speech. Then, on August 4, 1969, U.S. representative Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese representative Xuan Thuy began secret peace negotiations at the apartment of French intermediary Jean Sainteny in Paris.", "United States–Vietnam relations\nVietnam's suppression of political dissent has been an issue of contention in relations with the U.S. and drew criticism from the Administration and Congress. In spring 2007, Vietnam's government launched a crackdown on political dissidents, and in November the same year arrested a group of pro-democracy activists, including two Americans. Despite continued suppression of freedom of expression, Vietnam did make significant progress on expanding religious freedom. In 2005, Vietnam passed comprehensive religious freedom legislation, outlawing forced renunciations and permitting the official recognition of new denominations. As a result, in November 2006, the U.S. Department of State lifted the designation of Vietnam as a “Country of Particular Concern,” based on a determination that the country was no longer a serious violator of religious freedoms, as defined by the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998. This decision was reaffirmed by the Department of State in November 2007. However, serious concerns continue due to Vietnam's suppression of freedom of speech, which was mixed.", "1959 South Vietnamese parliamentary election\nNorth Vietnam suggested to Diệm that the pre-electoral consultative conference should be held. This was done in May and June 1956, in July 1957, in May 1958 and again in July 1959. The offer was to be negotiated between North and South Vietnam, on the basis of \"free general elections by secret ballot.\" All such offers were rejected. Diệm refused to have the election called for in Article 7 of the Declaration of the Geneva Agreements, as the former State of Vietnam did not signed to the Geneva Agreements – therefore it did not abide to any of its agreements. The United States supported him fully. The result of such refusal was the disastrous civil war which ensued. American Senator Ernest Gruening, in a speech delivered to the United States Senate on 9 April 1965 said \"That civil war began... when Diem's regime—at our urging—refused to carry out the provision contained in the Geneva Agreement to hold elections for the reunification of Vietnam.\"", "Joint United States Public Affairs Office\nDuring a visit to South Vietnam in March 1965, Carl Rowan and General Harold K. Johnson, the Director of the United States Information Agency and the Army Chief of Staff respectively, observed the many difficulties and inefficiencies of the uncoordinated psychological operations, also known as \"PSYOPs\". The officials reached out to President Lyndon B. Johnson and recommended that he integrate all foreign information and PSYOP activities into a single office. The president would soon approve this recommendation, combining the United States Information Service (USIS), Military Assistance Command Vietnam (MACV), and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The Joint United States Public Affairs Office was officially created on 14 May 1965 in United States Embassy Instruction 186. The USIS Director in Vietnam, Barry Zorthian, was designated as the initial Director of JUSPAO. Zorthian had experience working with the USIA in the Asian mainland as he previously served as the Deputy Director of the USIS in New Delhi, India and worked as a scriptwriter and program manager for the Voice of America (VOA).", "1990 Luzon earthquake\nThe United States Agency for International Development was sponsoring a seminar at the Hotel Nevada when the tremor struck, causing the hotel to collapse. 27 of the seminar participants, including one American USAID official, were killed in the quake. Among those who were pulled out alive from the ruins of the hotel was future senatorial candidate Sonia Roco, wife of politician Raul Roco, who was pulled out from the rubble by miners after 36 hours.", "Thailand in the Vietnam War\nDue to its proximity to Thailand, Vietnam's conflicts were closely monitored by Bangkok. Thai involvement did not become official until the total involvement of the United States in support of South Vietnam in 1963. The Thai government then allowed the United States Air Force in Thailand to use its air and naval bases. At the height of the war, almost 50,000 American military personnel were stationed in Thailand, mainly airmen.", "Vietnam veteran\nDuring the Vietnam era, more than 30,000 Canadians served in the US armed forces; 110 Canadians died in Vietnam and seven are listed as missing in action. Fred Graffen, military historian with the Canadian War Museum, estimated in \"Vietnam Magazine\" (\"Perspectives\") that approximately 12,000 of these personnel served in Vietnam. Most of these were natives of Canada who lived in the United States. The military of Canada did not officially participate in the war effort, as it was appointed to the UN truce commissions and thus had to remain officially neutral in the conflict.", "List of ambassadors of the United States to Vietnam\nThe United States Ambassador to Vietnam (Vietnamese: \"Đại sứ Hoa Kỳ tại Việt Nam\") is the chief American diplomat to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. After the First Indochina War and the defeat of the French domination over Vietnam, the country was split into North and South Vietnam at the Geneva Conference of 1954. The United States did not recognize North Vietnam and thus had no diplomatic relations with the country. After the reunification of Vietnam in 1976, there followed a period of 20 years in which the United States had no diplomatic relations with Vietnam.", "United States–Vietnam relations\nFor the first time since the Vietnam War, a US Navy aircraft carrier (USS Carl Vinson) visited Vietnam in March 2018. According to the Vietnam Foreign Ministry, the visit will \"contribute to maintaining peace, stability, security, cooperation and development in the region\".The U.S. Embassy in Vietnam is located in Hanoi. The U.S. Consulate General is located in Ho Chi Minh City. The Vietnamese Consulate General to the United States is located in San Francisco, California. In 2009, the United States received permission to open a consulate in Da Nang; in 2010, Vietnam officially inaugurated a consulate general in Houston.", "Nuremberg and Vietnam\nWhen \"Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy\" was published, those in favor and opposition to the United States involvement in Vietnam frequently cited the Nuremberg trials in support of their positions. Those in favor of United States involvement argued that North Vietnam attacked South Vietnam in violation of Article 2 of the United Nations Charter; South Vietnam was justified in using force to repel such an attack; and this in turn allowed the United States to join with South Vietnam as provided by Article 51.", "First Indochina War\nThe Geneva Accords promised elections in 1956 to determine a national government for a united Vietnam. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Việt Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng, who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of \"local commissions\". The United States countered with what became known as the \"American Plan\", with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation. From his home in France, Bảo Đại appointed Ngô Đình Diệm as Prime Minister of South Vietnam. With American support, in 1955 Diem used a referendum to remove the former Emperor and declare himself the president of the Republic of Vietnam.", "Vietnam War\nThe south, meanwhile, constituted the State of Vietnam, with Bảo Đại as Emperor and Ngô Đình Diệm (appointed in July 1954) as his prime minister. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Viet Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng, who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of \"local commissions\". The United States countered with what became known as the \"American Plan\", with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation. The United States said, \"With respect to the statement made by the representative of the State of Vietnam, the United States reiterates its traditional position that peoples are entitled to determine their own future and that it will not join in any arrangement which would hinder this\".\nU.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower wrote in 1954,", "List of Puerto Ricans missing in action in the Vietnam War\nThe Vietnam War was between the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN, or North Vietnam) and the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, or South Vietnam), which eventually involved their respective allies. In 1959, the United States sent military advisors to train the South Vietnamese Army. By 1965, there were 25,000 military advisors in South Vietnam..\" The United States participation in the war continued to escalate until April 30, 1975 when the United States officially declared the war over. During the Vietnam War, an estimated 48,000 Puerto Ricans served in the four branches of the armed forces. Of a total of 345 Puerto Ricans who died in combat, 18 were listed as MIA's. They were all members of the Army with the exceptions of First Lieutenant Jose Hector Ortiz who was the only Puerto Rican MIA member of the United States Air Force and PFC Jose R. Sanchez who was a member of the United States Marine Corps. Of the 18 Puerto Rican MIA's, PFC. Humberto Acosta-Rosario is the only one whose body has never been recovered and is currently still listed as Missing In Action. Friendly forces captured documents from the Vietnam People's Army 7th Infantry Division dated August 23, 1968. The documents were analyzed by US intelligence agencies. The reports documented that Humberto Acosta-Rosario was in fact captured by NVA forces during the battle near the Ben Cui Rubber Plantation. However, the US military chose not to upgrade his status to Prisoner of War.", "Army of the Republic of Vietnam\nAt the end of 1972, Operation Linebacker II helped achieve a negotiated end to the war between the U.S. and the Hanoi government. By 1974, the United States had completely pulled its troops out of Vietnam. The ARVN was left to fight alone, but with all the weapons and technologies that their allies left behind. With massive technological support they had roughly four times as many heavy weapons as their enemies. The U.S. left the ARVN with thousands of aircraft, although the B-52 strategic bombers were removed to the United States, making the South Vietnam Airforce the fourth largest air force in the world. These figures are deceptive, however, as the U.S. began to curtail military aid. The same situation happened to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, since their allies, the Soviet Union, and China has also cut down military support, forcing them to use obsolete T-34 tanks and SU-100 tank destroyers in battle.", "Southwest Cay\nThe incident took place when all the Filipino soldiers guarding Southwest Cay (Pugad) left to attend to the birthday party of their commanding officer who was based on Northeast Cay (Parola). A storm that day is also believed to have influenced the soldiers to regroup temporarily on Parola. A report also came out saying that South Vietnamese officials managed to send prostitutes to the birthday party to lure the Filipino soldiers guarding Pugad. It was said to be a \"present\" to the Filipino commander for his birthday, and as a move of South Vietnamese forces to befriend all Filipino soldiers guarding the Spratlys. Filipino soldiers did not expect that South Vietnam would resort to foul play since both the Philippines and South Vietnam, together with the United States, were allies in the Vietnam War. This tactic is believed to be the reason why South Vietnamese forces knew that the Filipino soldiers left the island, an action that is usually kept confidential.", "French Fourth Republic\nAt the Geneva Conference (1954), he made a deal that gave the Viet Minh control of Vietnam north of the 17th parallel, and allowed him to pull out all French forces. That left South Vietnam standing alone. However, the United States moved in and provided large-scale financial, military and economic support for South Vietnam.", "Iu Mien Americans\nIu Mien Americans descend, arrived in Laos from Southern China during the late 1600s to 1800s. Reasons for this migration remain controversial, varying from political to socio-economic ventures. Many Iu Mien American elders were involved with the United States CIA during the \"Secret War\" in Laos in an effort to block weapon smuggling via parts of the Ho Chi Minh trail from North Vietnam to South Vietnam. When the American operation pulled out in 1975, hundreds of families were forced to seek refuge in the neighboring country of Thailand. Hundreds died during this journey on foot through the deep jungles of Southeast Asia. In the next few years, thousands settled in Thailand refugee camps. Through programs from the United Nations, roughly 60,000 were sponsored to western countries such as the United States, France, and Canada.", "5th Special Forces Group (United States)\nFearing the growing threat of the Viet Cong insurgency to the South Vietnamese government, President John F. Kennedy began activating special forces units in anticipation of their insurgency combat expertise in 1961. The 5th Special Forces Group was among those units activated in 1961, and while attending training at the Special Warfare Center, Kennedy visited the units and personally approved the distinctive Special Force's Green Beret. The 5th SFG was first deployed as a battlefield advisory group for the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN). By February 1965, it was deployed as a mainstay battle force once the war was in full swing. They used unconventional and conventional warfare, and were some of the last soldiers the United States pulled out of Vietnam.", "David Hackworth\nIn 1965, he deployed to Vietnam as a major. He served as an operations officer and battalion commander in the 101st Airborne Division. In November 1965, he founded the platoon-sized unit Tiger Force to \"outguerrilla the guerrillas\". Initially, Tiger Force was a highly decorated small unit in Vietnam which suffered heavy casualties and was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation. However, after Hackworth was promoted out of Vietnam, the unit began a string of atrocities and war crimes, with U.S. Army investigative records and interviews by \"The Toledo Blade\" estimating the unit eventually killed hundreds of noncombatants. Hackworth has stated he did not know about the atrocities and does not know what caused the unit to spiral out of control.", "State Bank of Vietnam\nAfter the fall of Saigon, the two Vietnams were united but not until July 1976 did the two countries’ administrations and institutions unite. In July 1976, the National Bank of Vietnam (the central bank of Republic of Vietnam) was merged into the State Bank of Vietnam.", "Vietnam veteran\nThe term has been used to describe veterans who were in the armed forces of South Vietnam, the United States armed forces, and countries allied to them, whether or not they were stationed in Vietnam during their service. However, the more common usage distinguishes between those who served \"in country\" and those who did not serve in Vietnam by referring to the \"in country\" veterans as \"Vietnam veterans\" and the others as \"Vietnam-era veterans\". The U.S. government officially refers to all as \"Vietnam-era veterans\".", "1955 in the Vietnam War\nDuring three days of talks in Paris among Dulles, French Prime Minister Edgar Faure, and the British, Faure proposed that both the U.S. and France withdraw from Vietnam because \"Diệm is leading to a catastrophe.\" Dulles did not agree and indicated that the U.S. would continue to support Diệm—even if that support caused the French to withdraw from South Vietnam. At this conference, in the words of historian Seth Jacobs, Vietnam became \"America's war\" rather than France's.General Collins left Vietnam and his position as the senior U.S. official in South Vietnam to return to the United States. He had failed to persuade Dulles and the Eisenhower Administration that Diệm was not a viable leader of South Vietnam.", "Royal Thai Armed Forces\nDue to its proximity to Thailand, Vietnam's conflicts were closely monitored by Bangkok. Thai involvement did not become official until the total involvement of the United States in support of South Vietnam in 1963. The Thai government then allowed the United States Air Force in Thailand to use its air and naval bases. At the height of the war, almost 50,000 American military personnel were stationed in Thailand, mainly airmen.", "Indecent exposure in the United States\nIn a 2003 case out of Massachusetts, three thirteen-year-old girls who were leaving a Catholic school reported that a man, in a nearby car, pulled down his pants, and revealed his bare posterior and a red thong. The man was arrested and read his Miranda rights. The police reported that he waived his rights and spoke to the police. He reportedly called the officer a bad word and stated, \"I did not pull my weewee out. I only pulled down my pants. It's not against the law to pull your pants down and show people your thong.\" The case was referred to higher courts for clarification of the law. The Supreme Court of Massachusetts ruled that the law could refer to sudden, unexpected exposure of the buttocks, but that the defendant did not have fair warning that his conduct was prohibited.", "7th Communication Battalion\nThe 7th participated in the Vietnam War from 1966-1969. They operated first from Da Nang (Hill 34) with elements operating at the Phu Bai Combat Base while assigned to the 1st Marine Division. While in Vietnam, members of the unit were assigned or attached to other USMC units. Wiremen from 7th Communication Battalion incurred particularly high casualties (see declassified log available via web search). Subsequently, they operated out of Da Nang. They were briefly reassigned to Okinawa in late 1969, before returning several months later to Vietnam, and serving there until 1972, except for a short break in late 1971 to early 1972.\nThe 7th Communications Battalion also participated in Operations Eagle Pull and Frequent Wind at the official conclusion of the Vietnam conflict in April 1975.", "United States Ambassador to South Vietnam\nAfter World War II, France attempted to regain control of Vietnam, which they had lost to Japan in 1941. Following the First Indochina War, the country was split into two parts, the north and the south. The southern part was named the \"State of Vietnam\" under the leadership of Bảo Đại. In 1950, the United States recognized the Bảo Đại government, established diplomatic relations, and sent its first ambassador to Saigon in South Vietnam, officially known as the \"Republic of Vietnam\". The US was opposed to the Communist government of the North, led by Ho Chi Minh, and did not recognize the northern regime.", "History of Vietnam since 1945\nThe Geneva Accord had promised elections to determine the government for a unified Vietnam. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Viet Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng, who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of \"local commissions\". The United States countered with what became known as the \"American Plan\", with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation.", "Việt Minh\nThe Geneva Accords promised elections in 1956 to determine a national government for a united Vietnam. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Việt Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng, who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of \"local commissions\". The United States countered with what became known as the \"American Plan\", with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation. From his home in France, Vietnamese Emperor Bảo Đại appointed Ngô Đình Diệm as Prime Minister of South Vietnam. With American support, in 1955 Diệm used a referendum to remove the former Emperor and declare himself the president of the Republic of Vietnam." ]

[ "John Travolta filmography\nTravolta first became well known in the 1970s, after appearing on the television series Welcome Back, Kotter (1975–1979) and starring in the box office successes Saturday Night Fever and Grease. Although his acting career declined through the 1980s, Travolta also enjoyed a resurgence in the 1990s with his role in Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction, and he has since starred in films such as Face/Off, Swordfish, Wild Hogs, and Hairspray." ]

[ "TVR Tuscan Speed Six\nIt was also used in the movie Swordfish, starring John Travolta and Hugh Jackman.", "Sherwood Cryer\nThe Bull attracted people like Aaron Latham a frequent visitor of the club. Sherwood Cryer told Latham to write about Gilley's, and from Latham's experiences. He wrote a cover story for Esquire magazine titled \"The Ballad of the Urban Cowboy America's Search for \"True Grit\"' for its September 1978 issue. The stars would be John Travolta as \"Bud\" the lead character and Debra Winger as \"Sissy\" \"Bud's\" romantic interest. The movie was filmed on site in Pasadena. It was an enormous box-office hit in 1980. The film's sound track album featured \"Looking' For Love\" By Johnny Lee. And Mickey Gilley with \"Stand By Me\". John Travolta coming to Pasadena Texas is what did it for the movie. A man who had made disco movies popular was now making Country movies popular also. After that, Country Artists were playing to people who might have ignored country music. The movie was one of the best things to happen to country music and Pasadena.", "Saturday Night Fever\nFilm critic Gene Siskel, who would later list this as his favorite movie, praised the film: \"One minute into \"Saturday Night Fever\" you know this picture is onto something, that it knows what it's talking about.\" He also praised John Travolta's energetic performance: \"Travolta on the dance floor is like a peacock on amphetamines. He struts like crazy.\" Siskel even bought Travolta's famous white suit from the film at a charity auction.", "This Christmas (John Travolta and Olivia Newton-John album)\nIn March 2012 Newton-John was interviewed by Malaysian newspaper \"The Star\" and was asked when was the last time which she talked with Travolta, her answered: \"About a month ago. We’re working on a project together. [...] It’s not about \"Grease\"!\". In late September the virtual shops of Barnes & Noble and Amazon.com listed an album named \"This Christmas\" by Travolta and Newton-John, set to be released on November 13, 2012. Rav Holly, from Rav Media Group, posted on Facebook a photo with Travolta and Newton-John, and stated that the company was making the album photoshoot. An official statement came on October 2, with a post on Olivia's official website and Facebook page.", "Mark Collie\nCollie's songwriting credits include Garth Brooks, Tim McGraw, Alabama, and George Jones. He is also noted with writing songs for Hollywood Movies such as Lions Gate's The Punisher starring John Travolta and \" Fire Down Below\" starring Steven Seagal.", "Pulp Fiction\n\"Pulp Fiction\" is full of homages to other movies. \"Tarantino's characters\", writes Gary Groth, \"inhabit a world where the entire landscape is composed of Hollywood product. Tarantino is a cinematic kleptomaniac – he literally can't help himself.\" Two scenes in particular have prompted discussion of the film's highly intertextual style. Many have assumed that the dance sequence at Jack Rabbit Slim's was intended as a reference to Travolta's star-making performance as Tony Manero in the epochal \"Saturday Night Fever\" (1977); Tarantino, however, credits a scene in the Jean-Luc Godard film \"Bande à part\" (1964) with the inspiration. According to the filmmaker;\nEverybody thinks that I wrote this scene just to have John Travolta dancing. But the scene existed before John Travolta was cast. But once he was cast, it was like, \"Great. We get to see John dance. All the better.\"... My favorite musical sequences have always been in Godard, because they just come out of nowhere. It's so infectious, so friendly. And the fact that it's not a musical, but he's stopping the movie to have a musical sequence, makes it all the more sweet.\nJerome Charyn argues that, beyond \"all the better\", Travolta's presence is essential to the power of the scene, and of the film:\nTravolta's entire career becomes \"backstory\", the myth of a movie star who has fallen out of favor, but still resides in our memory as the king of disco. We keep waiting for him to shed his paunch, put on a white polyester suit, and enter the 2001 Odyssey club in Bay Ridge, Brooklyn, where he will dance for us and never, never stop. Daniel Day-Lewis couldn't have woken such a powerful longing in us. He isn't part of America's own mad cosmology ... Tony Manero [is] an angel sitting on Vince's shoulder ... [Vince and Mia's] actual dance may be closer to the choreography of Anna Karina's shuffle with her two bumbling gangster boyfriends in \"Bande à part\", but even \"that\" reference is lost to us, and we're with Tony again ...\nEstella Tincknell notes that while the \"diner setting seems to be a simulacrum of a 'fifties' restaurant ... the twist contest is a musical sequence which evokes 'the sixties,' while Travolta's dance performance inevitably references 'the seventies' and his appearance in \"Saturday Night Fever.\" ... The 'past' thus becomes a more general 'pastness' in which the stylistic signifiers of various decades are loaded in to a single moment.\" She also argues that in this passage the film \"briefly shifts from its habitually ironic discourse to one that references the conventions of the classic film musical and in doing so makes it possible for the film to inhabit an affective space that goes beyond stylistic allusion.\"", "To the Stars (novel)\nIn 1997 Hollywood producers were working on developing a film version of \"To the Stars\". Producers Barbara Boyle and Michael Taylor were preparing to bring the book to the film screen for Touchstone Pictures, a division of Walt Disney Motion Pictures Group. Boyle and Taylor had previously worked with actor John Travolta on the film \"Phenomenon\", and the project was planned to be part of Travolta's vision to make films out of L. Ron Hubbard's science fiction novels. Hubbard's novel \"Battlefield Earth\" was first on his list, and Travolta starred in and helped fund the film version of the book which was released in 2000. A film version of \"To the Stars\" had not yet begun production as of 2008.", "Jim Quinlan (writer)\nJim Quinlan (born May 1, 1934) is an American journalist, writer and screenwriter. \nQuinlan wrote the screenplay for the 1996 movie Michael starring John Travolta.", "Howie Long\nAfter his retirement from the NFL following the 1993 season, Long pursued an acting career, focused mainly on action films—including \"Firestorm\", a 1998 feature in which he starred. He also appeared as a co-star in the suspense movie \"Broken Arrow\", alongside star John Travolta. He played a minor role in the movie \"3000 Miles to Graceland\" alongside Kevin Costner, Kurt Russell and Courteney Cox. In \"That Thing You Do!\", Long appears as Mr. White's (Tom Hanks) \"partner\" Lloyd in the extended cut of the movie, released on DVD in 2007. Long's part was entirely cut from the theatrical release.", "John McTiernan\nHis most recent feature film project (as of January 2019) was the 2003 thriller \"Basic\" with John Travolta and Samuel L. Jackson. Reviews for \"Basic\" were mostly negative. Roger Ebert gave it one star out of four, saying it was \"not a film that could be understood\", and that \"If I were to see it again and again, I might be able to extract an underlying logic from it, but the problem is, when a movie's not worth seeing twice, it had better get the job done the first time through\". Leonard Maltin's Movie Guide gave it two stars out of four and said the film \"keeps adding layers of confusion so that it becomes less interesting as it goes along! The final 'twist' seems to negate the entire story, like a bad shaggy-dog joke.\"", "Travolta (song)\nAllmusic considers the song to be a tribute to John Travolta and fellow actor Patrick Swayze, although it also contains references to Adolf Hitler and Donald Trump. A biography about John Travolta, written by Bob McCabe, was titled \"Quote, Unquote\" after the song. The main theme from the movie \"Grease\", a movie John Travolta was famous for, was sampled twice in the song. ", "Battlefield Earth (film)\nAccording to Samaha, he got around the \"negative factor\" of the Scientology connection by the simple expedient of \"yell[ing] at everyone, 'This is a science-fiction film starring John Travolta!' again and again\". Samaha acknowledged that \"everyone thought I was crazy or mentally retarded\" for taking on the project, but pitched the film as \"\"Planet of the Apes\" starring John Travolta\". Others in Hollywood were still skeptical; an unnamed producer was quoted by the \"Los Angeles Daily News\" as saying that \"\"Battlefield Earth\" has the stench of death. It should never have been made. It's an $80 million vanity project for Travolta.\" Travolta's theatrical agency William Morris was also said to be unenthusiastic, reportedly leading to Travolta threatening to leave them if they did not help him to set up the film. Fellow Scientologist Tom Cruise was said to have warned Warner Bros. that he thought the movie was a bad idea. Cruise's spokesperson later denied this.", "Battlefield Earth (film)\nTravolta's wife Kelly Preston also appeared in one scene, playing Terl's \"baldish Psychlo girlfriend\" Chirk. Travolta originally saw himself in the role of Jonnie, but by the time the movie was actually made, Travolta felt he was too old to play the role, and took the role of the main villain instead. Travolta's role in the film required what he described as an amazing physical transformation: \"I wear a tall head apparatus with strange hair. I have amber eyes and talons for hands. It's quite remarkable ... I'm on 4-foot stilts.\" To star in the film, Travolta turned down the movie \"The Shipping News\" and postponed production on \"Standing Room Only\".", "John Travolta\nSince 2010, Travolta has starred mostly in action films and thrillers. In 2016, he returned to TV in the first season of the anthology series \"American Crime Story\", titled \"\", in which he played lawyer Robert Shapiro.", "Travolta dress\nThe \"Travolta dress\" (also known as the \"John Travolta dress\") is a dress once owned by Diana, Princess of Wales. It was worn for the first time at a gala dinner at the White House in November 1985. It is named after the American actor John Travolta, with whom the Princess danced at the dinner.", "John A. Gotti\nIn September 2010, Fiore Films announced that it had secured the rights from Gotti to produce a movie about his life, in particular his relationship with his father. According to \"Variety\", several producers had expressed interest, but Gotti chose Fiore, a small, newly created production company. The movie, tentatively titled \"Gotti: in the Shadow of My Father,\" was to be directed by Barry Levinson. John Travolta was cast to star as Gotti's father, and Travolta's wife, Kelly Preston, played his on-screen wife, Victoria Gotti. Junior Gotti was played by Spencer Lofranco. The production of the film eventually lost Barry Levinson. On July 25, 2016 principal photography on the film renamed to \"Gotti\" had begun with Kevin Connolly as director. The film was released on June 15, 2018. On June 9th 2018 the documentary TV Mini-Series Gotti: Godfather and Son was released.", "Eyes of an Angel\nEyes of an Angel is a 1991 American drama film starring John Travolta and directed by Robert Harmon. It was released in France, Sweden, and on television in the United States as The Tender. It was released straight-to-video in 1994 under its proper title to coincide with Travolta's bigger name release, \"Pulp Fiction\". According to the opening credits, the movie is based on a true story. The film was shot entirely in Chicago.", "Robert Stigwood\nNot all of Stigwood's films were popular. \"Moment by Moment\" (also 1978), which co-starred Travolta and Lily Tomlin was panned by critics, and is credited with turning Travolta into 'box office poison'. Five years later Travolta again displayed his now-legendary inability to pick roles when he agreed to appear in Stigwood's ill-advised sequel to \"Saturday Night Fever\" (1983), \"Staying Alive\", directed by Sylvester Stallone. The movie was a moderate success but did nothing to restart Travolta's stalled career.", "Battlefield Earth (film)\nIn 1998, the project was taken over by Franchise Pictures, a recently established company whose head, Elie Samaha, a former dry cleaning mogul turned nightclub owner, specialized in rescuing stars' pet projects. Franchise sought out stars whose projects were stalled at the major studios, bringing them aboard at reduced salaries. Samaha's approach made waves in Hollywood, earning him a reputation of being able to produce star vehicles more cheaply than the larger studios. His unorthodox deals raised eyebrows and the entertainment industry magazine \"Variety\" commented that they were \"often so complex and variable as to leave outsiders scratching their heads\". As Samaha put it, \"I said, 'If John wants to make this movie, what does he want to get paid?' ... Because I do not pay anybody what they make. That is not my business plan.'\" He learned of \"Battlefield Earth\" from Cassian Elwes, an agent at the theatrical agency William Morris, and approached Travolta. A deal was soon struck and financing was arranged; Travolta significantly reduced his normal fee of $20 million, lowering the film's cost from the $100 million that had previously been forecast, and costs were reduced further by using Canadian locations and facilities.", "Elie Samaha\nSamaha specialized in rescuing stars' pet projects. Franchise Pictures sought out stars whose projects were stalled at the major studios, bringing them aboard at reduced salaries. Samaha's approach made waves in Hollywood, earning him a reputation of being able to produce star vehicles more cheaply than the larger studios. His unorthodox deals raised eyebrows and the entertainment industry magazine \"Variety\" commented that they were \"often so complex and variable as to leave outsiders scratching their heads\". As Samaha put it during an interview about \"Battlefield Earth\", \"I said, 'If John [Travolta] wants to make this movie, what does he want to get paid?' ... Because I do not pay anybody what they make. That is not my business plan.\"", "Battlefield Earth (film)\nTravolta had converted to Scientology in 1975 and subsequently became one of the Church of Scientology's most prominent supporters. Hubbard sent him an autographed copy of \"Battlefield Earth\" when the book was first published in 1982; he reportedly hoped that Travolta would turn the book into a film \"in the vein of \"Star Wars\" and \"Close Encounters of the Third Kind\"\". While Travolta was interested, his influence in Hollywood at the time was at a low after participating in a series of flops. He gained renewed influence with the success of the 1994 film \"Pulp Fiction\", which garnered Travolta an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor. He had not forgotten Hubbard's wishes to see the book on the big screen and took on the task of making \"Battlefield Earth\" into a movie. Travolta described the book in interviews as \"like \"Pulp Fiction\" for the year 3000\" and \"like \"Star Wars\", only better\".\nHe lobbied influential figures in Hollywood to fund the project and was reported to have recruited the aid of fellow Scientologists in promoting it. According to Bill Mechanic, the former head of 20th Century Fox, \"John wanted me to make \"Battlefield Earth\". He had Scientologists all over me. They come up to you and they know who you are. And they go, 'We're really excited about \"Battlefield Earth\".'\" This did not impress Mechanic: \"Do you think in any way, shape, or form that weirding me out is going to make me want to make this movie?\"", "John Travolta\nJohn Joseph Travolta (born February 18, 1954) is an American actor, film producer, dancer, and singer. Travolta first became known in the 1970s, appearing on the television series \"Welcome Back, Kotter\" (1975–1979) and starring in the box office successes \"Saturday Night Fever\" (1977) and \"Grease\" (1978). His acting career declined through the 1980s, but enjoyed a resurgence in the 1990s with his role in \"Pulp Fiction\" (1994), and he has since starred in films such as \"Get Shorty\", \"Broken Arrow\", \"Face/Off\", \"Swordfish\", \"Be Cool\", \"Wild Hogs\", \"Hairspray\", and \"The Taking of Pelham 123\".", "Glenn Quinn\nIn 1991, Quinn had his first major role in the movie \"Shout\", which starred John Travolta and in which Quinn shared an on-screen kiss with Gwyneth Paltrow in her debut film. ", "White Man's Burden (film)\nThe movie was not a box office success, though the very small budget meant its losses were also minimal; it was widely seen as a blip on the radar during John Travolta's massive comeback as a movie star during the post-\"Pulp Fiction\" phase of his career.", "Randal Kleiser\nKleiser directed several television movies in the mid-1970s, including 1975's \"\" and 1976's \"The Boy in the Plastic Bubble\", which starred John Travolta. Kleiser was then tapped to direct his first feature film, the 1978 film \"Grease\", in large part because of Travolta's recommendation based on their work together on \"The Boy in the Plastic Bubble\". Kleiser would go on to direct several more feature films, including \"The Blue Lagoon\" (1980) with Brooke Shields, \"Summer Lovers\" (1982) with Daryl Hannah, \"Grandview, U.S.A.\" (1984) with Jamie Lee Curtis, \"Flight of the Navigator\" (1986), featuring the first use of digital morphing in a film, \"Big Top Pee-wee\" (1988), \"White Fang\" (1991) and \"Honey, I Blew Up the Kid\" (1992).", "The Buddy Deane Show\nThe racial integration of a take-off of the show, dubbed \"The Corny Collins Show\", provides the backdrop to the 1988 John Waters movie \"Hairspray\" starring Divine and Ricki Lake, the Broadway musical \"Hairspray\" starring Harvey Fierstein and Marissa Jaret Winokur, the 2007 movie \"Hairspray\" featuring John Travolta and Nikki Blonsky and the 2016 NBC television musical \"Hairspray Live!\" starring Fierstein and Maddie Baillio. Although he never appeared on Deane's show, Waters attended high school with a \"Buddy Deaner\" and later gave Deane a cameo in his 1988 film in which Deane played a TV reporter who tried to interview the governor who was besieged by integration protesters.", "Steve Kipner\n\"Catch 22 (2 Steps Forward, 3 Steps Back)\" is Track 4 on the \"Two Of A Kind\" soundtrack and performed by Kipner. \"Two Of A Kind\" is the second movie John Travolta and Olivia Newton-John co-starred in after \"Grease\".", "Battlefield Earth (novel)\nThe subsequent film adaptation, released in 2000, was a commercial failure and was criticized as one of the \"worst films ever made\".\nFrom the book's release, Scientologist and science-fiction fan John Travolta aimed to bring Hubbard's book to the big screen in a series of two movies with himself playing Jonnie Goodboy Tyler, as well as producing. A first film was planned to be released in 1983, but due to rising costs, trouble in finding a studio that would fund the project, and Travolta's waning star power, the project was cancelled. It was finally produced by Franchise Pictures and released in 2000 as \"Battlefield Earth\". Directed by Roger Christian, it starred Travolta (who by now felt he was too old to play the hero) as Terl, Barry Pepper as Jonnie Goodboy Tyler, and Forest Whitaker as Ker.", "John Travolta\nTravolta's first screen role in California was as a fall victim in \"Emergency!\" (S2E2), in September 1972, but his first significant movie role was as Billy Nolan, a bully who was goaded into playing a prank on Sissy Spacek's character in the horror film \"Carrie\" (1976). Around the same time, he landed his star-making role as Vinnie Barbarino in the TV sitcom \"Welcome Back, Kotter\" (1975–1979), in which his sister, Ellen, also occasionally appeared (as Arnold Horshack's mother). The show aired on ABC." ]

[ "Habsburg Monarchy\nThe Hereditary Lands, which covered most of the modern states of Austria and Slovenia, as well as territories in northeastern Italy and (before 1797) southwestern Germany. To these were added in 1779 the Inn Quarter of Bavaria and in 1803 the Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen. The Napoleonic Wars caused disruptions where many parts of the Hereditary lands were lost, but all these, along with the former Archbishopric of Salzburg, which had previously been temporarily annexed between 1805 and 1809, were recovered at the peace in 1815, with the exception of the Vorlande. The Hereditary provinces included: Archduchy of Austria Upper Austria Lower Austria Inner Austria Duchy of Styria Duchy of Carinthia Duchy of Carniola The Adriatic port of Trieste Margraviate of Istria (although much of Istria was Venetian territory until 1797) Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca County of Tyrol (although the Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen dominated what would become the South Tyrol before 1803) Further Austria, mostly ruled jointly with Tyrol. Vorarlberg (actually a collection of provinces, only united in the 19th century) The Vorlande, a group of territories in Breisgau and elsewhere in southwestern Germany lost in 1801 (although the Alsatian territories (Sundgau) which had formed a part of it had been lost as early as 1648) Grand Duchy of Salzburg (only after 1805) The Lands of the Bohemian Crown. The Bohemian Diet (Czech: zemský sněm) elected Ferdinand, later Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I, as king in 1526. Initially consisting of the five lands: Kingdom of Bohemia Margraviate of Moravia Silesia, Most of Silesia was conquered by Prussia in 1740–1742 and the remnants which stayed under Habsburg sovereignty were ruled as Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia (Austrian Silesia). Lusatia, was ceded to Saxony in 1635. Upper Lusatia Lower Lusatia The Kingdom of Hungary – two-thirds of the former territory that was administered by the medieval Kingdom of Hungary was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and the Princes of vassal Ottoman Transylvania, while the Habsburg administration was restricted to the western and northern territories of the former kingdom, which remained to be officially referred as the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1699, at the end of the Ottoman-Habsburg wars, one part of the territories that were administered by the former medieval Kingdom of Hungary came under Habsburg administration, with some other areas being picked up in 1718 (some of the territories that were part of medieval kingdom, notably those in the south of the Sava and Danube rivers, remained under Ottoman administration). Kingdom of Croatia" ]

[ "Austria–Germany relations\nThroughout the Middle and Early-modern Ages, the Holy Roman Empire (HRE) encompassed all of the present territories of Germany, Austria, Bohemia (Czech Republic), Slovenia, northern Italy and the western part of modern-day Poland. The House of Habsburg became the ruling family of the Empire in 1440; the family would remain so until the dissolution of the Austrian Empire in 1919.", "Pola (Italian province)\nThe 1921 Italian Census showed that in the Province there were 199,942 Italians (67%) and 90.262 Croats (23%), with 9% of Slovenians and Austrians, most of them former employees of the Hasburg empire. The city of Pola had 41,125 Italians (91%) and 5,420 Croats (9%). In the Province there was a small community of Istroromanians, concentrated around the Valdarsa area in central Istria.", "German nobility\nHistorically German entities which recognized or conferred nobility included the Holy Roman Empire (962–1806), the German Confederation (1814–1866) and the German Empire (1871–1918). All legal privileges and immunities of the royalty and nobility (appertaining to an individual, a family or any heirs) were officially abolished in 1919 by the Weimar Republic (1919–1933), and nobility is no longer conferred or recognized by the Federal Republic of Germany. Former hereditary titles are permitted as part of the surname (e.g., the aristocratic particles \"von\" and \"zu\"). Later developments distinguished the Austrian nobility, which came to be associated with the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary. The nobility system of the German Empire was similar to nobility in the Austrian Empire, both having risen from the Holy Roman Empire and both ending in 1919. Contrary to Germany, Austrian nobility was completely abolished under the new First Austrian Republic and the subsequent use of hereditary titles in any form was banned, even of their legal recognition as aristocratic particles, and use as part of an individual's or family's surname.", "German nationalism\nGerman nationalists in the German Empire who advocated a Greater Germany during the Bismarck era focused on overcoming dissidence by Protestant Germans to the inclusion of Catholic Germans in the state by creating the \"Los von Rom!\" (\"Away from Rome!\") movement that advocated assimilation of Catholic Germans to Protestantism. During the time of the German Empire, a third faction of German nationalists (especially in the Austrian parts of the Austria-Hungary Empire) advocated a strong desire for a Greater Germany but, unlike earlier concepts, led by Prussia instead of Austria; they were known as \"Alldeutsche\".", "Samuil Vulcan\nVulcan was a supporter of Romanian culture and literature. He pleaded the Hasburg monarchy in order to have appointed a Romanian bishop in place of a Serbian bishop for the Orthodox diocese of Arad.", "Bloody Sunday (1939)\nBydgoszcz (Bromberg) was part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1772, when it was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia during the First Partition of Poland. As a part of Prussia, the city was affected by the unification of Germany in 1871 and became part of the German Empire. It would remain a part of the German Empire until the end of World War I. In February 1920, the Treaty of Versailles awarded the city and the surrounding region to the Second Polish Republic (the administrative region of Pomeranian Voivodeship). This resulted in a number of ethnic Germans leaving the region for Germany. Over the interwar period, the German population decreased even further.", "German Empire\nThe German cartel system (known as Konzerne), being significantly concentrated, was able to make more efficient use of capital. Germany was not weighted down with an expensive worldwide empire that needed defense. Following Germany's annexation of Alsace-Lorraine in 1871, it absorbed parts of what had been France's industrial base.[38]", "Westphalia\nIt is one of the regions that were part of all incarnations of the German state since the Early Middle Ages: the Holy Roman Empire, the Confederation of the Rhine, the German Confederation, the North German Confederation, the German Empire, the Weimar Republic and National Socialist Germany. After World War II it was a part of the British occupation zone which merged with the American zone to become the Bizone in 1947 and again merged with the French zone to become the Trizone in 1948. The current Federal Republic of Germany was founded on these territories making Westphalia a part of West Germany. It is a part of united Germany since 1990.", "Austrians\nHistorically, Austrians were regarded as ethnic Germans and viewed themselves as such. Austria was part of the Holy Roman Empire and the German Confederation until the Austro-Prussian war in 1866 which resulted in Prussia expelling Austria from the Confederation. Thus, when Germany was founded as a nation-state in 1871, Austria was not a part of it. In 1867, Austria was reformed into the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918 at the end of World War I, Austria was reduced to a rump state and adopted and briefly used the name the Republic of German-Austria (\"Republik Deutschösterreich\") in an attempt for union with the Republic of Germany, but was forbidden due to the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919). The First Austrian Republic was founded in 1919. The Third Reich annexed Austria with the \"Anschluss\" in 1938. ", "British and French declaration of war on Germany\nIn 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of the Reich following a contentious election. Under Hitler's leadership, the Reichstag turned the government into an effective dictatorship under Hitler's oversight on 21 March 1933 with the passage of the Enabling Act of 1933, and the economic hardships were significantly diminished via implementation of new economic and social policies. After five years in power, Hitler annexed Austria, former component of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (allies of the former German Empire), into Germany, despite such an act (specifically, \"prohibition on the merging of Austria with Germany without the consent of the League of Nations\") being banned by both the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the Treaty of Versailles. In early November 1938, the First Vienna Award was signed, allowing Germany to seize the Sudetenland, a German-speaking area of Czechoslovakia which had been a part of the German Empire-allied Austro-Hungarian Empire. Soon after, Germany invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia and also gained Memelland (part of the former German Empire from 1871-1920) through the 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania.", "German Empire\nPart of a series on theHistory of Germany Topics Chronology Historiography Military history Economic history Women's history Territorial evolution List of German monarchs Early history Germanic peoples Migration Period Frankish Empire Middle Ages East Francia Kingdom of Germany Holy Roman Empire Eastward settlement Early Modern period Sectionalism 18th century Kingdom of Prussia Unification Confederation of the Rhine German ConfederationZollverein German revolutions of 1848–49 North German Confederation German Reich German Empire1871–1918World War I1914–1918Weimar Republic1918–1933Nazi Germany1933–1945 Contemporary Germany OccupationOstgebiete1945–1952Expulsion of Germans1944–1950Cold WarFRGGDR1945–1990ReunificationNew federal states1990Reunified Germany1990–present Germanyportalvt", "Germani cisrhenani\nThe Romans frequently described the Rhine as an important natural border between Gaul on the west, which became part of the Roman empire, and the Germanic territories to the east. The \"Germani\" on the east side of the Rhine were considered to be living in their original homeland. So this land was referred to not only as \"\"Germania Transrhenana,\"\" (the opposite of cisrhenana) but also, for example by Ptolemy and Strabo, as \"Germania magna\", meaning \"Greater Germany.\" It is also referred to as being outside of Roman control: \"Germania libera\", \"Free Germany\" or \"Germania barbara,\" indicating it was wild and uncivilized. In contrast, the cisrhenane \"Germani\" were sometimes referred to as living in \"Germania cisrhenana\", but this territory was considered to also be part of Gaul, and later part of the Roman empire.", "Lesser Germany\nThe term Lesser Germany (German: \"Kleindeutschland\", in opposition to 'Greater Germany') relates essentially to Germany without Austria. In the 19th century, a part of the Austrian Empire belonged to the German Confederation. In the revolutionary era of 1848-1850, it was discussed whether Austria or a part of Austria could belong to a new German federal state. In 1867-1871, the 'Lesser Germany' became reality: a federal state under leadership of Prussia and without Austria. After that, the term lost its significance because since then 'Germany' is usually identified as this Lesser Germany.", "Austrian Empire\nFrancis II agreed to the humiliating Treaty of Pressburg (26 December 1805), which in practice meant the dissolution of the long-lived Holy Roman Empire and a reorganization under a Napoleonic imprint of the German territories lost in the process into a precursor state of what became modern Germany, those possessions nominally having been part of the Holy Roman Empire within the present boundaries of Germany, as well as other measures weakening Austria and the Habsburgs in other ways. Certain Austrian holdings in Germany were passed to French allies—the King of Bavaria, the King of Württemberg and the Elector of Baden. Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception.", "History of the Catholic Church in Germany\nThe earliest stage of Christianization of the various Celtic people and Germanic people occurred only in the western part of Germany, the part controlled by the Roman empire. Christianization was facilitated by the prestige of the Christian Roman Empire amongst its pagan subjects and was achieved gradually by various means. The rise of Germanic Christianity was at first voluntary, particularly among groups associated with the Roman Empire. After Christianity became a largely unified and dominant force in Germania, remaining pockets of the indigenous Germanic paganism were converted by force. But aspects of the primeval pagan religion have persisted to this day, including the names of the days of the week.", "Germania\nSome \"Germani\", perhaps the original people to have been referred to by this name, had lived on the west side of the Rhine. At least as early as the 2nd century BC this area was considered to be in \"Gaul\", and became part of the Roman empire in the course of the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC). These so-called Germani cisrhenani lived in the region of present-day eastern Belgium, the southeastern Netherlands, and stretching into Germany towards the Rhine. During the period of the Roman empire, more tribes settled in areas of the empire near the Rhine, in territories controlled by the Roman Empire. Eventually these areas came to be known as Lesser Germania, while Greater Germania ('; it is also referred to by names referring to its being outside Roman control: ', \"free Germania\") formed the larger territory east of the Rhine.", "Catholic Church in Germany\nIn medieval times, Catholicism was the only official religion within the Holy Roman Empire. (There were resident Jews, but they were not considered citizens of the empire.) Within the empire the Catholic Church was a major power. Large parts of the territory were ruled by ecclesiastical lords. Three of the seven seats in the council of electors of the Holy Roman Empires were occupied by Catholic archbishops: the Arch-chancellor of Burgundy (archbishop of Trier), the Arch-chancellor of Italy (archbishop of Cologne), and the Arch-chancellor of Germany (archbishop of Mainz). The Holy Roman Emperor could only become such by coronation of the Pope.", "Kleinstaaterei\nWhereas in other parts of Europe such as France, coherent nation states emerged from the early modern trend of political concentration and centralisation, no such state emerged within the Holy Roman Empire. While two relatively large states developed within the Holy Roman Empire, both—the Habsburg Monarchy and the Kingdom of Prussia—were really multinational empires that included substantial non-German territories and lands outside the borders of the Holy Roman Empire, while excluding major parts of Germany proper.", "Lubusz Voivodeship\nIn 1226 Lebus Land came under direct jurisdiction of the Holy Roman Empire, and around 1250 it was acquired by the Ascanian margraves of Brandenburg. The Lebus Land stayed with Brandenburg throughout (as Electorate within the Holy Roman Empire until 1806, as Prussian Province of Brandenburg since 1815, with Prussia as part of the new Empire of Germany since 1871 and thereafter as a part of the newly created Weimar Republic. ", "Bonn\nIn 1794, the city was seized by French troops, becoming a part of the First French Empire. In 1815 following the Napoleonic Wars, Bonn became part of the Kingdom of Prussia. Administered within the Prussian Rhine Province, the city became part of the German Empire in 1871 during the Prussian-led unification of Germany. Bonn was of little relevance in these years.", "Iberian Union\nRelating to the particular government of the kingdom of Portugal itself. During the union of the kingdom of Portugal to the Spanish monarchy, the Spanish Hasburgs on the whole respected the pledges made at Thomar in 1581 to allow considerable Portuguese autonomy and to respected the territories of its empire. Public offices were reserved for Portuguese subjects at home and overseas. The king was represented at Lisbon sometimes by a governor and sometimes by a viceroy. So, Spain left the administration of Portugal and its empire largely to the Portuguese themselves, under general supervision from Madrid channeled through a viceroy in Lisbon. Important matters, however, were referred to Madrid, where they came before the Council of Portugal. In the kingdom of Portugal, the polisynodial system is reinforced:Nevertheless, the political conjuncture need urgent reactions, and in this context a system of meetings appeared for specific issues, as the Junta for the reform of the Council of Portugal (1606–1607, 1610), the Junta for the classification of the debts to the treasury (since 1627) or the Juntas for the organization of the navies of succor of Brazil (since 1637)...", "German Empire\nIn addition to present-day Germany, large parts of what comprised the German Empire now belong to several other modern European countries.", "Former eastern territories of Germany\nAt the time of the foundation of the German Empire in 1871, the Kingdom of Prussia was the largest and dominant part of the empire. Prussian territory east of the Oder–Neisse line included West Prussia and Posen (taken by Prussia in the first two Partitions of Poland in the 18th century), also Silesia, East Brandenburg, and Pomerania. Later, these territories would come to be called in Germany \"\"Ostgebiete des deutschen Reiches\"\" (Eastern territories of the German Empire).", "Military history of Germany\nWhile German-speaking people have a long history, Germany as a nation state dates only from 1871. Earlier periods are subject to definition debates. The Franks, for instance, were a union of Germanic tribes; nevertheless, some of the Franks later identified themselves as Dutch, Flemish, French and again others as Germans. The capital of medieval ruler Charlemagne's empire was the city of Aachen, now part of Germany, yet he was a Frank. France was named after the Franks and the Dutch and Flemish people are the only ones to speak a language that descends from Frankish (the language of the Franks). Hence nearly all continental Western European historians can claim his victories as their heritage. The Holy Roman Empire he founded was largely but far from entirely German speaking. The Kingdom of Prussia, which unified Germany in the 19th century, had significant territory in what is now Poland. In the early 19th century, the philosopher Schlegel referred to Germany as a \"Kulturnation\", a nation of shared culture and political disunity, analogous to ancient Greece. Until the unification of 1871, Austria was considered a part of Germany even though much of its empire was not in the Holy Roman Empire and was non-German.", "Catholic Church in Germany\nThe earliest stage of Christianization of the various Celtic people and Germanic people occurred only in the western part of Germany, the part controlled by the Roman empire. Christianization was facilitated by the prestige of the Christian Roman Empire amongst its pagan subjects and was achieved gradually by various means. The rise of Germanic Christianity was at times voluntary, particularly among groups associated with the Roman Empire. Aspects of primeval pagan religion have persisted to this day, including the names of the days of the week.", "History of eugenics\nThe ideas of eugenics and race were used, in part, as justification for German colonial expansion throughout the world. Germany, as well as Great Britain, sought to seize the colonial territories of other 'dying' empires which could no longer protect their possessions. Examples included China, the Portuguese Empire, the Spanish Empire, the Dutch Empire and the Danish Empire.", "Czechs of Croatia\nAfter the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, Slavonia changed hands from the Ottomans to Habsburgs, and the Muslim population fled. This left great areas vacant, and Hasburgs started to colonize new lands with people from all parts of their Empire. The first Czechs arrived in Slavonia around the 1750s, and were settled in Western Slavonia throughout the 19th century. In Croatia, they could buy from ten or more acres of arable land for price of they sold in the Czech lands. Czechs also settled other parts of Croatia such as Gorski kotar, and bigger cities where they were praised as skilled workers and clerks, but were assimilated in two or three generations. One of these urban Czechs was August Šenoa, Croatian writer and mayor of Zagreb. Czechs soon found the need to culturally organise themselves, and in 1874 the first \"Česka Beseda\" (Czech word) was found in Zagreb. This is an organization that promotes Czech language and culture in Croatia, and organised the first theater play in Czech language in the same year. In time Česke Besede were founded all across Croatia, and opened Czech libraries and Sport societies (Sokol). In 1911 the first Czech newspaper started printing in Zagreb.", "History of the Catholic Church in Germany\nIn medieval times, Catholicism was the only official religion within the Holy Roman Empire. (There were resident Jews, but they were not considered citizens of the empire.) Within the empire, the Catholic Church was a major power. Large parts of the territory were ruled by ecclesiastical lords. Three of the seven seats in the council of electors of the Holy Roman Empires were occupied by Catholic archbishops: the Arch-chancellor of Burgundy (archbishop of Trier), the Arch-chancellor of Italy (archbishop of Cologne), and the Arch-chancellor of Germany (archbishop of Mainz).", "World War I and religion\nDue to the destruction of Hasburg Monarchy and the Russian Empire, new nations were formed that developed different relations with the Jewish people than before World War I. The Jews became more recognizable and distinctive in the new states established thus creating greater Jewish influence. ", "Reichsabgabe\nApart from Germany the Reichsabgabe also applied to the parts of Poland and the Russian Empire occupied by Germany and to the occupied Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, but not to the occupied part of Belgium." ]

[ "Carbohydrate\nThe term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of 'saccharide', a group that includes sugars, starch, and cellulose. The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest (lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars.[3] The word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον (sákkharon), meaning \"sugar\".[4] While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose, as in the monosaccharides fructose (fruit sugar) and glucose (starch sugar) and the disaccharides sucrose (cane or beet sugar) and lactose (milk sugar)." ]

[ "Low-carbohydrate diet\nMost vegetables are low- or moderate-carbohydrate foods (in some low-carbohydrate diets, fiber is excluded because it is not a nutritive carbohydrate). Some vegetables, such as potatoes, carrots, maize (corn) and rice are high in starch. Most low-carbohydrate diet plans accommodate vegetables such as broccoli, spinach, kale, lettuce, cucumbers, cauliflower, peppers and most green-leafy vegetables. ", "Carbohydrate deficient transferrin\nVarious forms of transferrin exist, with differing levels of sialylation. The most common form is tetrasialotransferrin, with four sialic acid chains. In persons who consume significant quantities of alcohol (usually more than 4 or 5 alcoholic beverages a day for two weeks or more), the proportion of transferrin with zero, one, or two sialic acid chains is increased. These are referred to as \"carbohydrate-deficient transferrins\". These carbohydrate-deficient transferrins can be measured in the bloodstream, and are an important marker for alcohol abuse. ", "Low-carbohydrate diet\nLow-carbohydrate diets or carbohydrate-restricted diets (CRDs) are diets that restrict carbohydrate consumption. Foods high in carbohydrates (e.g., sugar, bread, pasta) are limited or replaced with foods containing a higher percentage of fats and moderate protein (e.g., meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, eggs, cheese, nuts, and seeds) and other foods low in carbohydrates (e.g., most salad vegetables such as spinach, kale, chard and collards), although other vegetables and fruits (especially berries) are often allowed.\nThere is a lack of standardization of how much carbohydrate low-carbohydrate diets must have, and this has complicated research. One definition, from the American Academy of Family Physicians, specifies low-carbohydrate diets as having less than 20% carbohydrate content.\nLow-carbohydrate diets are associated with increased mortality, and they can miss out on the health benefits afforded by high-quality carbohydrate such as is found in pulses, fruit and vegetables. Disadvantages of the diet might include halitosis, headache and constipation, and in general the potential adverse effects of the diet are under-researched, particularly for more serious possible risks such as for bone health and cancer incidence.\nCarbohydrate-restricted diets can be as effective, or marginally more effective, than low-fat diets in helping achieve weight loss in the short term. In the long term, effective weight maintenance depends on calorie restriction, not the ratio of macronutrients in a diet. The hypothesis proposed by diet advocates that carbohydrate causes undue fat accumulation via the medium of insulin, and that low-carbohydrate diets have a \"metabolic advantage\", has been falsified by experiment.\nIt is not clear how low-carbohydrate dieting affects cardiovascular health; any benefit from HDL cholesterol might be offset by raised LDL cholesterol, which risks causing clogged arteries in the long term.\nCarbohydrate-restricted diets are no more effective than a conventional healthy diet in preventing the onset of type 2 diabetes, but for people with type 2 diabetes they are a viable option for losing weight or helping with glycemic control. There is little evidence that low-carbohydrate dieting is helpful in managing type 1 diabetes. The American Diabetes Association recommends that people with diabetes should adopt a generally healthy diet, rather than a diet focused on carbohydrate or other macronutrients.\nAn extreme form of low-carbohydrate diet – the ketogenic diet – is established as a medical diet for treating epilepsy. Through celebrity endorsement it has become a popular weight-loss fad diet, but there is no evidence of any distinctive benefit for this purpose, and it risks causing a number of side effects. The British Dietetic Association named it one of the \"top 5 worst celeb diets to avoid in 2018\".", "Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism\nGalactosemia, the inability to metabolize galactose in liver cells, is the most common monogenic disorder of carbohydrate metabolism, affecting 1 in every 55,000 newborns. When galactose in the body is not broken down, it accumulates in tissues. The most common signs are failure to thrive, hepatic insufficiency, cataracts and developmental delay. Long term disabilities include poor growth, mental retardation, and ovarian failure in females.", "Carbohydrate counting\nCarbohydrate content of foods is listed on the Nutrition Facts panel as “total carbohydrate”. Some food labels will list specific types of carbohydrate, such as “fiber, sugar, or other carbohydrate”. With carbohydrate counting, the “total carbohydrate” is used as the carbohydrate amount. Carbohydrate counting can be done by either adding up grams of total carbohydrate or adding \"carbohydrate units\". A carbohydrate unit is simply 15 g of carbohydrate.", "Alpine plant\nLong-lived perennial herbs are the most common type of plant in alpine environments, with most having a large, well-developed root and/or rhizome system. These underground systems store carbohydrates through the winter which are then used in the spring for new shoot development. Some species of saxifrages have small root systems, but are evergreen. The leaves of these plants store energy in the form of carbohydrates and lipids. Alpine plants go into vegetative dormancy at the end of the growing period, forming perennating buds with the shortening photoperiod.", "Carbohydrate-binding module\nCBMs of microbial glycoside hydrolases play a central role in the recycling of photosynthetically fixed carbon through their binding to specific plant structural polysaccharides. CBMs can recognise both crystalline and amorphous cellulose forms. CBMs are the most common non-catalytic modules associated with enzymes active in plant cell-wall hydrolysis. Many putative CBMs have been identified by amino acid sequence alignments but only a few representatives have been shown experimentally to have a carbohydrate-binding function.", "Low-carbohydrate diet\nThere is evidence that the quality, rather than the quantity, of carbohydrate in a diet is important for health, and that high-fiber slow-digesting carbohydrate-rich foods are healthful while highly-refined and sugary foods are less so. People choosing diet for health conditions should have their diet tailored to their individual requirements. For people with metabolic conditions, in general a diet with approximately 40-50% high-quality carbohydrate is compatible with what is scientifically established to be a healthy diet.", "Carbohydrate dehydrogenase\nCarbohydrate dehydrogenases are the most common quinoprotein oxidoreductases, which are enzymes that oxidize a wide range of molecules.", "Honey bee\nNectar is collected by foraging worker bees as a source of water and carbohydrates in the form of sucrose. The dominant monosaccharides in honey bee diets are fructose and glucose but the most common circulating sugar in hemolymph is trehalose which is a disaccharide consisting of two glucose molecules. Adult worker honey bees require 4 mg of utilizable sugars per day and larvae require about 59.4 mg of carbohydrates for proper development.", "Diabetic diet\nSince carbohydrate is the macronutrient that raises blood glucose levels most significantly, the greatest debate is how low in carbohydrates the diet should be. This is because although lowering carbohydrate intake will help reduce blood glucose levels, a low-carbohydrate diet conflicts with the traditional establishment view that carbohydrates should be the main source of calories. Recommendations of the fraction of total calories to be obtained from carbohydrate are generally in the range of 20% to 45%, but recommendations can vary as widely as from 16% to 75%.", "Carbohydrate\nOrganisms typically cannot metabolize all types of carbohydrate to yield energy. Glucose is a nearly universal and accessible source of energy. Many organisms also have the ability to metabolize other monosaccharides and disaccharides but glucose is often metabolized first. In Escherichia coli, for example, the lac operon will express enzymes for the digestion of lactose when it is present, but if both lactose and glucose are present the lac operon is repressed, resulting in the glucose being used first (see: Diauxie). Polysaccharides are also common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; most organisms, however, cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides like chitin and arabinoxylans. These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists. Ruminants and termites, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose. Even though these complex carbohydrates are not very digestible, they represent an important dietary element for humans, called dietary fiber. Fiber enhances digestion, among other benefits.[23]", "Physiology of marathons\nIt is suggested that ingestion of monosaccharides at low concentrations during the race could delay glycogen depletion. This lower concentration, as opposed to a high concentration of monosaccharides, is proposed as a means to maintain a more efficient gastric emptying and faster intestinal uptake of this energy source. It is thought that carbohydrates are the most efficient source of energy for ATP. Pasta parties and the consumption of carbohydrates in the days leading up to a marathon are common practice of marathon runners at all levels.", "Energy gel\nOnce consumed, the carbohydrates found in the gels are absorbed into the blood to supply the body with calories and nutrients to fuel exercise activity by helping to delay muscular fatigue, raise blood sugar levels, and enhance performance. Most energy gels have no fat, fiber, or protein, so they can be digested quickly. They contain mainly sugars and maltodextrins, which make them similar to sports drinks without the water. Since simple carbohydrates slow down gastric emptying and can cause gastrointestinal distress in athletes, there are attempts to create new categories of energy gels made with complex, long chain carbohydrates and/or fat. Spring gel is an example of a gel with low sugar, low glycemic index carbohydrate content with the addition of fat and Vespapower is an example of a gel made with fat. Some gels, such as e-Gel, also come with added electrolytes. There are also gels with extras such as ginseng and other herbs, amino acids, vitamins, and Coenzyme Q10. Caffeine can be found in some gels as well. Examples of common energy gels are GU, PowerBar Gel, and Clif Shot.", "Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of carbohydrates\nCommon chemical shift ranges for nuclei within carbohydrate residues are:", "Conalbumin\nThe primary sequence of ovotransferrin is similar to that of many serum transferrins found in other species. Recently, scientists have discovered a blood serum transferrin in humans, that binds iron like ovotransferrin and which shows 50% homology to ovotransferrin, i.e., they have similar amino acid composition and carbohydrate content. At the C- lobe, human serum has two N-glycans while the hen ovotransferrin has a single N-glycan. Consequently, structurally this protein differs from its serum counterpart because of its glycosylation pattern. These proteins are said to be glycosylated because they have carbohydrates attached to them. Glycosylation is the most common covalent modification (formation of chemical bonds) that occurs in living organisms. This process is determined by the structure of the protein backbone and the carbohydrate attachment site.", "Glycemic index\nDepending on quantities, the number of grams of carbohydrate in a food can have a bigger impact on blood sugar levels than the glycemic index does. Consuming less dietary energy, losing weight, and carbohydrate counting can be better for lowering the blood sugar level. Carbohydrates impact glucose levels most profoundly, and two foods with the same carbohydrate content are, in general, comparable in their effects on blood sugar. A food with a low glycemic index can have a high carbohydrate content or vice versa; this can be accounted for with the glycemic load (GL) where GL= GI% x grams of carbohydrate per serving (Louie JCY, \"et al\"., 2015]. Consuming carbohydrates with a low glycemic index and calculating carbohydrate intake would produce the most stable blood sugar levels.", "Carbohydrate\nCarbohydrates are a common source of energy in living organisms; however, no single carbohydrate is an essential nutrient in humans.[32] Humans are able to obtain all of their energy requirement from protein and fats, though the potential for some negative health effects of extreme carbohydrate restriction remains, as the issue has not been studied extensively yet.[32] However, in the case of dietary fiber– indigestible carbohydrates which are not a source of energy– inadequate intake can lead to significant increases in mortality.[33][34]", "Food chemistry\nComprising 75% of the biological world and 80% of all food intake for human consumption, the most common known human carbohydrate is Sucrose. The simplest version of a carbohydrate is a monosaccharide which contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio under a general formula of CHO where n is a minimum of 3. Glucose is an example of a monosaccharide as is fructose. Combine them in the picture shown to the right and you have sucrose, one of the more common sugar products around.", "Low-carbohydrate diet\nIn the 1990s, Atkins published an update from his 1972 book, \"Dr. Atkins New Diet Revolution\", and other doctors began to publish books based on the same principles. This has been said to be the beginning of what the mass media call the \"low carb craze\" in the United States. During the late 1990s and early 2000s, low-carbohydrate diets became some of the most popular diets in the US. By some accounts, up to 18% of the population was using one type of low-carbohydrate diet or another at the peak of their popularity. Food manufacturers and restaurant chains like Krispy Kreme noted the trend, as it affected their businesses. Parts of the mainstream medical community have denounced low-carbohydrate diets as being dangerous to health, such as the AHA in 2001 and the American Kidney Fund in 2002 Low-carbohydrate advocates did some adjustments of their own, increasingly advocating controlling fat and eliminating \"trans\" fat.", "Glycoinformatics\nEven though glycosylation is the most common form of protein modification, with highly complex carbohydrate structures, the bioinformatics on glycome is still very poor. ", "Affinity chromatography\nLectin affinity chromatography is a form of affinity chromatography where lectins are used to separate components within the sample. Lectins, such as concanavalin A are proteins which can bind specific alpha-D-mannose and alpha-D-glucose carbohydrate molecules. Some common carbohydrate molecules that is used in lectin affinity chromatography are Con A-Sepharose and WGA-agraose. Another example of a lectin is wheat germ agglutinin which binds D-N-acetyl-glucosamine. The most common application is to separate glycoproteins from non-glycosylated proteins, or one glycoform from another glycoform. Although there are various ways to perform lectin affinity chromatography, the goal is extract a sugar ligand of the desired protein.", "Carbohydrate metabolism\nCarbohydrates are typically stored as long polymers of glucose molecules with glycosidic bonds for structural support (e.g. chitin, cellulose) or for energy storage (e.g. glycogen, starch). However, the strong affinity of most carbohydrates for water makes storage of large quantities of carbohydrates inefficient due to the large molecular weight of the solvated water-carbohydrate complex. In most organisms, excess carbohydrates are regularly catabolised to form acetyl-CoA, which is a feed stock for the fatty acid synthesis pathway; fatty acids, triglycerides, and other lipids are commonly used for long-term energy storage. The hydrophobic character of lipids makes them a much more compact form of energy storage than hydrophilic carbohydrates. However, animals, including humans, lack the necessary enzymatic machinery and so do not synthesize glucose from lipids (with a few exceptions, e.g. glycerol).", "Carbohydrate\nCarbohydrate consumed in food yields 3.87 kilocalories of energy per gram for simple sugars,[20] and 3.57 to 4.12 kilocalories per gram for complex carbohydrate in most other foods.[21] Relatively high levels of carbohydrate are associated with processed foods or refined foods made from plants, including sweets, cookies and candy, table sugar, honey, soft drinks, breads and crackers, jams and fruit products, pastas and breakfast cereals. Lower amounts of carbohydrate are usually associated with unrefined foods, including beans, tubers, rice, and unrefined fruit.[22] Animal-based foods generally have the lowest carbohydrate levels, although milk does contain a high proportion of lactose.", "Ripping (bodybuilding)\nThe main principles that are adhered to are that fat and sugar should be completely avoided, and carbohydrates and salt should be kept at a minimum. Protein is always to be quite high during any stage of body building as it has a major involvement in muscle repair and maintenance. The time in which carbohydrates are eaten are usually in the morning with breakfast and thereafter in very small portions with meals. It is common for those ripping to have a protein shake after a workout as it helps with the muscle damage that has taken place during the workout. During the ripping period, the protein shake that is consumed usually contains zero or very little amounts of carbohydrates. Most meals usually contain a piece of meat or fish with vegetables. If the person ripping wishes to include carbohydrates then it would often be foods low in fat like potato, rice or pasta fruits and vegetables often in smoothie (blended) form.", "Vada pav\nThe most common theory of the Vada Pav's origin is that it was invented in the erstwhile mill-heartland of Central Mumbai, then known as \"Bombay\". The carbohydrate-rich snack catered to the mill workers of what then known as Girangaon. The combination of the potato dumpling (\"batata vada\") placed inside a \"pav\" quickly became popular in Girangaon and later the rest of Mumbai. Despite the ethnocentrism in Maharashtra, Vada Pav is claimed to be a part of the culture of Marathis despite the concept of a sandwich (a filling of potato within slices of bread) being western.", "Starch\nStarch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as energy storage. It is the most common carbohydrate in human diets and is contained in large amounts in staple foods like potatoes, wheat, maize (corn), rice, and cassava.", "Diabetic diet\nWhat has not generally been included in diabetic diet recommendations is the variation in effect from different carbohydrates. It has been recommended that carbohydrates eaten by people with diabetes should be complex carbohydrates.", "Backbone chain\nThere are some similarities and many differences inherent in the character of biopolymer backbones. The backbone of each of the three biological polymers; proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, is formed through a net condensation reaction. In a condensation reaction, monomers are covalently connected along with the loss of some small molecule, most commonly water. Because they are polymerized through complex enzymatic mechanisms, none of the biopolymers' backbones are formed through the elimination of water but through the elimination of other small biological molecules. Each of these biopolymers can be characterized as either a heteropolymer, meaning it consists of more than one monomer ordered in the backbone chain, or a homopolymer, which consists of just one repeating monomer. Polypeptides and nucleic acids are very commonly heteropolymers whereas common carbohydrate macromolecules such as glycogen can be homopolymers. This is because the chemical differences of peptide and nucleotide monomers determines the biological function of their polymers whereas common carbohydrate monomers have one general function such as for energy storage and delivery." ]

[ "Epic of Gilgamesh\nThe Epic of Gilgamesh was discovered by Austen Henry Layard, Hormuzd Rassam, and W. K. Loftus in 1853.[12] The central character of Gilgamesh was initially reintroduced to the world as \"Izdubar\", before the cuneiform logographs in his name could be pronounced accurately. The first modern translation was published in the early 1870s by George Smith.[13] Smith then made further discoveries of texts on his later expeditions, which culminated in his final translation which is given in his book The Chaldaean Account of Genesis (1880)." ]

[ "Gilgamesh\nThe first modern literary adaptation of the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" was \"Ishtar and Izdubar\" (1884) by Leonidas Le Cenci Hamilton, an American lawyer and businessman. Hamilton had rudimentary knowledge of Akkadian, which he had learned from Archibald Sayce's 1872 \"Assyrian Grammar for Comparative Purposes\". Hamilton's book relied heavily on Smith's translation of the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\", but also made major changes. For instance, Hamilton omitted the famous flood story entirely and instead focused on the romantic relationship between Ishtar and Gilgamesh. \"Ishtar and Izdubar\" expanded the original roughly 3,000 lines of the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" to roughly 6,000 lines of rhyming couplets grouped into forty-eight cantos. Hamilton significantly altered most of the characters and introduced entirely new episodes not found in the original epic. Significantly influenced by Edward FitzGerald's \"Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam\" and Edwin Arnold's \"The Light of Asia\", Hamilton's characters dress more like nineteenth-century Turks than ancient Babylonians. Hamilton also changed the tone of the epic from the \"grim realism\" and \"ironic tragedy\" of the original to a \"cheery optimism\" filled with \"the sweet strains of love and harmony\".", "List of characters in Epic of Gilgamesh\nThe list of characters in \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" includes humans, demigods, giants, and gods who comprise an epic poem.", "Gilgamesh\nIn later Babylonian times, these stories began to be woven into a connected narrative. The standard Akkadian \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" was composed by a scribe named Sîn-lēqi-unninni, probably during the Middle Babylonian Period ( 1600 – 1155 BC), based on much older source material. In the epic, Gilgamesh is a demigod of superhuman strength who befriends the wildman Enkidu. Together, they go on adventures, defeating Humbaba (the East Semitic name for Huwawa) and the Bull of Heaven, who, in the epic, is sent to attack them by Ishtar (the East Semitic equivalent of Inanna) after Gilgamesh rejects her offer for him to become her consort. After Enkidu dies of a disease sent as punishment from the gods, Gilgamesh becomes afraid of his own death, and visits the sage Utnapishtim, the survivor of the Great Flood, hoping to find immortality. Gilgamesh repeatedly fails the trials set before him and returns home to Uruk, realizing that immortality is beyond his reach.", "Gilgamesh\nEventually, according to Kramer, \"Gilgamesh became the hero par excellence of the ancient world—an adventurous, brave, but tragic figure symbolizing man's vain but endless drive for fame, glory, and immortality\". By the Old Babylonian Period ( 1830 – 1531 BC), stories of Gilgamesh's legendary exploits had been woven into one or several long epics. The \"Epic of Gilgamesh\", the most complete account of Gilgamesh's adventures, was composed in Akkadian during the Middle Babylonian Period ( 1600 — 1155 BC) by a scribe named Sîn-lēqi-unninni. The most complete surviving version of the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" is recorded on a set of twelve clay tablets dating to the seventh century BC, found in the Library of Ashurbanipal in the Assyrian capital of Nineveh. The epic survives only in a fragmentary form, with many pieces of it missing or damaged. Some scholars and translators choose to supplement the missing parts of the epic with material from the earlier Sumerian poems or from other versions of the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" found at other sites throughout the Near East.", "Gilgamesh\n\"The Quest of Gilgamesh\", a 1953 radio play by Douglas Geoffrey Bridson, helped popularize the epic in Britain. In the United States, Charles Olson praised the epic in his poems and essays and Gregory Corso believed that it contained ancient virtues capable of curing what he viewed as modern moral degeneracy. The 1966 postfigurative novel \"Gilgamesch\" by Guido Bachmann became a classic of German \"queer literature\" and set a decades-long international literary trend of portraying Gilgamesh and Enkidu as homosexual lovers. This trend proved so popular that the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" itself is included in \"The Columbia Anthology of Gay Literature\" (1998) as a major early work of that genre. In the 1970s and 1980s, feminist literary critics analyzed the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" as showing evidence for a transition from the original matriarchy of all humanity to modern patriarchy. As the Green Movement expanded in Europe, Gilgamesh's story began to be seen through an environmentalist lens, with Enkidu's death symbolizing man's separation from nature.", "Gilgamesh\nIn the epic, Gilgamesh is introduced as \"two thirds divine and one third mortal\". At the beginning of the poem, Gilgamesh is described as a brutal, oppressive ruler. This is usually interpreted to mean either that he compels all his subjects to engage in forced labor or that he sexually oppresses all his subjects. As punishment for Gilgamesh's cruelty, the god Anu creates the wildman Enkidu. After being tamed by a prostitute named Shamhat, Enkidu travels to Uruk to confront Gilgamesh. In the second tablet, the two men wrestle and, although Gilgamesh wins the match in the end, he is so impressed by his opponent's strength and tenacity that they become close friends. In the earlier Sumerian texts, Enkidu is Gilgamesh's servant, but, in the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\", they are companions of equal standing.", "Gilgamesh\nIn \"Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven\", Gilgamesh and Enkidu slay the Bull of Heaven, who has been sent to attack them by the goddess Inanna. The plot of this poem differs substantially from the corresponding scene in the later Akkadian \"Epic of Gilgamesh\". In the Sumerian poem, Inanna does not seem to ask Gilgamesh to become her consort as she does in the later Akkadian epic. Furthermore, while she is coercing her father An to give her the Bull of Heaven, rather than threatening to raise the dead to eat the living as she does in the later epic, she merely threatens to let out a \"cry\" that will reach the earth. A poem known as the \"Death of Gilgamesh\" is very poorly preserved, but appears to describe a major state funeral followed by the arrival of the deceased in the Underworld. It is possible that the modern scholars who gave the poem its title may have misinterpreted it, and the poem may actually be about the death of Enkidu.", "Sumer\nA prime example of cuneiform writing would be a lengthy poem that was discovered in the ruins of Uruk. \"The Epic of Gilgamesh\" was written in the standard Sumerian cuneiform. It tells of a king from the early Dynastic II period named Gilgamesh or \"Bilgamesh\" in Sumerian. The story is based around the fictional adventures of Gilgamesh and his companion, Enkidu. It was laid out on several clay tablets and is claimed to be the earliest example of a fictional, written piece of literature discovered so far.", "The Epic of Gilgamesh, or This Unnameable Little Broom\nThe Epic of Gilgamesh, or This Unnameable Little Broom (aka Little Songs of the Chief Officer of Hunar Louse) is a 1985 stop motion short film by The Brothers Quay. The film is loosely based on the first tablet of \"Epic of Gilgamesh\". Boasting the longest title in the Quays' entire output, this 1985 film is generally known as \"This Unnameable Little Broom\". The short began life as a proposed hour-long program Channel 4 exploring aspects of the ancient Babylonian \"Epic of Gilgamesh\", one of the oldest known surviving works of literature, which would combine puppet animation, dance sequences, and live-action documentary elements. However, Channel Four were unsure about the project, and only agreed to fund a short animated sequence as a pilot - which is all that was ultimately made.", "History of poetry\nThe oldest surviving speculative fiction poem is the \"Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor\", written in \"Hieratic\" and ascribed a date around 2500 B.C.E. Other sources ascribe the earliest written poetry to the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" written in \"cuneiform\"; however, it is most likely that \"The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor\" predates \"Gilgamesh\" by half a millennium. The oldest epic poetry besides the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" are the Greek epics \"Iliad\" and \"Odyssey\" and the Indian Sanskrit epics \"Ramayana\" and \"Mahabharata\". Some scholars believe that either the \"Mahabharata\" or the Tibetan \"Epic of King Gesar\" is the longest example of epic poetry in history.", "Epic of Gilgamesh (disambiguation)\nEpic of Gilgamesh may also refer to:", "Gilgamesh\nThe \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" exerted substantial influence on the \"Iliad\" and the \"Odyssey\", two epic poems written in ancient Greek during the eighth century BC. According to Barry B. Powell, an American classical scholar, early Greeks were probably exposed to Mesopotamian oral traditions through their extensive connections to the civilizations of the ancient Near East and this exposure resulted in the similarities that are seen between the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" and the Homeric epics. Walter Burkert, a German classicist, observes that the scene in Tablet VI of the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" in which Gilgamesh rejects Ishtar's advances and she complains before her mother Antu, but is mildly rebuked by her father Anu, is directly paralleled in Book V of the \"Iliad\". In this scene, Aphrodite, the later Greek adaptation of Ishtar, is wounded by the hero Diomedes and flees to Mount Olympus, where she cries to her mother Dione and is mildly rebuked by her father Zeus.", "Gilgamesh the King\nThe novel is told from the point of view of Gilgamesh, and is primarily ambivalent about the supernatural elements of the epic. But the events are portrayed in a fairly realistic manner.\nGilgamesh is a giant among men and an amazing warrior, even since he was very young. When the king of Uruk (his father) dies, Gilgamesh is exiled by the recently crowned Dumuzi, jealous of his skills and power. When in time Dumuzi dies, Gilgamesh comes back to the kingdom to be proclaimed.", "Gilgamesh\nPowell observes that the opening lines of the \"Odyssey\" seem to echo the opening lines of the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\". The storyline of the \"Odyssey\" likewise bears numerous similarities to that of the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\". Both Gilgamesh and Odysseus encounter a woman who can turn men into animals: Ishtar (for Gilgamesh) and Circe (for Odysseus). In the \"Odyssey\", Odysseus blinds a giant Cyclops named Polyphemus, an incident which bears similarities to Gilgamesh's slaying of Humbaba in the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\". Both Gilgamesh and Odysseus visit the Underworld and both find themselves unhappy whilst living in an otherworldly paradise in the presence of an attractive woman: Siduri (for Gilgamesh) and Calypso (for Odysseus). Finally, both heroes have an opportunity for immortality but miss it (Gilgamesh when he loses the plant, and Odysseus when he leaves Calypso's island).", "Epic of Gilgamesh (disambiguation)\nThe Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia.", "Gilgamesh\nThe Akkadian text of the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" was first discovered in 1849 AD by the English archaeologist Austen Henry Layard in the Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh. Layard was seeking evidence to confirm the historicity of the events described in the Christian Old Testament, which, at the time, was believed to contain the oldest texts in the world. Instead, his excavations and those of others after him revealed the existence of much older Mesopotamian texts and showed that many of the stories in the Old Testament may actually be derived from earlier myths told throughout the ancient Near East. The first translation of the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" was produced in the early 1870s by George Smith, a scholar at the British Museum, who published the Flood story from Tablet XI in 1880 under the title \"The Chaldean Account of Genesis\". Gilgamesh's name was originally misread as \"Izdubar\".", "Epic of Gilgamesh\nThere are five extant Gilgamesh stories in the form of older poems in Sumerian.[7]:141–208 These probably circulated independently, rather than being in the form of a unified epic. Some of the names of the main characters in these poems differ slightly from later Akkadian names; for example, \"Bilgamesh\" is written instead of \"Gilgamesh\", and there are some differences in the underlying stories such as the fact that Enkidu is Gilgamesh's servant in the Sumerian version:", "Gilgamesh in popular culture\nThe \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" has directly inspired many manifestations of literature, art, music, and popular culture, as identified by Theodore Ziolkowski in the book \"Gilgamesh Among Us: Modern Encounters With the Ancient Epic\" (2011). It was only during and after the First World War that the first reliable translations of the epic appeared that reached a wide audience, and it was only after the Second World War that the epic of Gilgamesh began to make itself felt more broadly in a variety of genres.", "Ta (cuneiform)\nThe cuneiform ta sign is a common, multi-use sign of the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\", the 1350 BC Amarna letters, and other cuneiform texts. It also has a sumerogrammic usage for TA, for example in the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\", for Akkadian language \"\"ultu\"\", English language for \"from\", or \"since\", but in only (1) location in the 12 tablet \"Epic of Gilgamesh\". Sumerogram \"TA\" is used elsewhere in the Epic, (7) more times.", "Epic of Gilgamesh\nThe Epic of Gilgamesh (/ˈɡɪlɡəmɛʃ/)[1] is an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia that is often regarded as the earliest surviving great work of literature. The literary history of Gilgamesh begins with five Sumerian poems about Bilgamesh (Sumerian for \"Gilgamesh\"), king of Uruk, dating from the Third Dynasty of Ur (c.2100 BC). These independent stories were later used as source material for a combined epic in Akkadian. The first surviving version of this combined epic, known as the \"Old Babylonian\" version, compiled by Sîn-lēqi-unninni, dates to the 18th century BC and is titled after its incipit, Shūtur eli sharrī (\"Surpassing All Other Kings\"). Only a few tablets of it have survived. The later \"standard\" version dates from the 13th to the 10th centuries BC and bears the incipit Sha naqba īmuru (\"He who Saw the Abyss\", in modern terms: \"He who Sees the Unknown\"). Approximately two thirds of this longer, twelve-tablet version have been recovered. Some of the best copies were discovered in the library ruins of the 7th-century BC Assyrian king Ashurbanipal.", "Gilgamesh\nNext, Utnapishtim tells him that, even if he cannot obtain immortality, he can restore his youth using a plant with the power of rejuvenation. Gilgamesh takes the plant, but leaves it on the shore while swimming and a snake steals it, explaining why snakes are able to shed their skins. Despondent at this loss, Gilgamesh returns to Uruk, and shows his city to the ferryman Urshanabi. It is at that this point that the epic stops being a coherent narrative. Tablet XII is an appendix corresponding to the Sumerian poem of \"Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Netherworld\" describing the loss of the \"pikku\" and \"mikku\". Numerous elements within this narrative reveal lack of continuity with the earlier portions of the epic. At the beginning of Tablet XII, Enkidu is still alive, despite having previously died in Tablet VII, and Gilgamesh is kind to Ishtar, despite the violent rivalry between them displayed in Tablet VI. Also, while most of the parts of the epic are free adaptations of their respective Sumerian predecessors, Tablet XII is a literal, word-for-word translation of the last part of \"Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld\". For these reasons, scholars conclude this narrative was probably relegated to the end of the epic because it did not fit the larger narrative. In it, Gilgamesh sees a vision of Enkidu's ghost, who promises to recover the lost items and describes to his friend the abysmal condition of the Underworld.", "Gilgamesh flood myth\nAlthough the 18th century BC copy of the Atrahasis (Atra-Hasis) epic post-dates the early Gilgamesh epic, we do not know whether the Old-Akkadian Gilgamesh tablets included the flood story, because of the fragmentary nature of surviving tablets. Some scholars argue that they did not. Tigay, for example, maintains that three major additions to the Gilgamesh epic, namely the prologue, the flood story (tablet XI), and tablet XII, were added by an editor or editors, possibly by Sin-leqi-unninni, to whom the entire epic was later attributed. According to this view, the flood story in tablet XI was based on a late version of the Atrahasis story.", "Gilgamesh flood myth\nThe Gilgamesh flood myth is a flood myth in the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\". Many scholars believe that the flood myth was added to Tablet XI in the \"standard version\" of the Gilgamesh Epic by an editor who used the flood story from the Epic of Atrahasis. A short reference to the flood myth is also present in the much older Sumerian Gilgamesh poems, from which the later Babylonian versions drew much of their inspiration and subject matter.", "Epic of Gilgamesh\nIn the second half of the epic, distress over Enkidu's death causes Gilgamesh to undertake a long and perilous journey to discover the secret of eternal life. He eventually learns that \"Life, which you look for, you will never find. For when the gods created man, they let death be his share, and life withheld in their own hands\".[3][4] However, because of his great building projects, his account of Siduri's advice, and what the immortal man Utnapishtim told him about the Great Flood, Gilgamesh's fame survived well after his death with expanding interest in the Gilgamesh story which has been translated into many languages and is featured in works of popular fiction.", "Gilgamesh\nStarting in the late twentieth century, the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" began to be read again in Iraq. Saddam Hussein, the former President of Iraq, had a lifelong fascination with Gilgamesh. Hussein's first novel \"Zabibah and the King\" (2000) is an allegory for the Gulf War set in ancient Assyria that blends elements of the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" and the \"One Thousand and One Nights\". Like Gilgamesh, the king at the beginning of the novel is a brutal tyrant who misuses his power and oppresses his people, but, through the aid of a commoner woman named Zabibah, he grows into a more just ruler. When the United States pressured Hussein to step down in February 2003, Hussein gave a speech to a group of his generals posing the idea in a positive light by comparing himself to the epic hero.", "Epic poetry\nThe oldest epic recognized is the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" (), which was recorded In ancient Sumer during the Neo-Sumerian Empire. The poem details the exploits of Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk. Although recognized as a historical figure, Gilgamesh, as represented in the epic, is a largely legendary or mythical figure.", "Epic of Gilgamesh\nThis tablet is mainly an Akkadian translation of an earlier Sumerian poem, Gilgamesh and the Netherworld (also known as \"Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld\" and variants), although it has been suggested that it is derived from an unknown version of that story.[5]:42 The contents of this last tablet are inconsistent with previous ones: Enkidu is still alive, despite having died earlier in the epic. Because of this, its lack of integration with the other tablets, and the fact that it is almost a copy of an earlier version, it has been referred to as an 'inorganic appendage' to the epic.[19] Alternatively, it has been suggested that \"its purpose, though crudely handled, is to explain to Gilgamesh (and the reader) the various fates of the dead in the Afterlife\" and in \"an awkward attempt to bring closure\",[20] it both connects the Gilgamesh of the epic with the Gilgamesh who is the King of the Netherworld,[21] and is \"a dramatic capstone whereby the twelve-tablet epic ends on one and the same theme, that of \"seeing\" (= understanding, discovery, etc.), with which it began.\"[22]", "Epic of Gilgamesh\nThe Epic of Gilgamesh has inspired many works of literature, art, and music, as Theodore Ziolkowski points out in his book Gilgamesh Among Us: Modern Encounters With the Ancient Epic (2011).[36][37] It was only after World War I that the Gilgamesh epic reached a modern audience, and only after World War II that it was featured in a variety of genres.[37]", "Epic of Gilgamesh\nRoyal Epics of Uruk a series in Sumerian Literature Enmerkar of Uruk Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta Enmerkar and En-suhgir-ana Lugalbanda of Uruk Lugalbanda in the Mountain Cave Lugalbanda and the Anzud Bird Dumuzid and Gilgamesh of Uruk Dumuzid of Uruk tablets Epic of Gilgamesh tabletsvt" ]

[ "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nSt James' Anglican Church is a heritage-listed Anglican church precinct at 19 Tank Street, Morpeth, City of Maitland, New South Wales, Australia. The original design has been attributed to Edward Charles Close, with later additions by Edmund Blacket and John Horbury Hunt and built from 1837 to 1875 by E.C. Close and James Sherwood. The precinct also includes the St. James' rectory and parish hall (formerly schoolhouse). The property is vested in the Trustees of Church Property for the Diocese of Newcastle.[1]It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 27 January 2017.[1]" ]

[ "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nIn 1848 Bishop William Tyrrell, first Bishop of Newcastle, arrived from England via Sydney, and took advantage of Close's ready hospitality in using Morpeth as a base for his first efforts within the newly-created Diocese of Newcastle. So convenient did he find the locality, and so superior did he think the modest St. James' to his Cathedral, the larger but tumbledown convict-built Christ Church Cathedral high on the hill at Newcastle, that he chose Morpeth for his place of residence, effectively making it the centre of the Diocese. This centrality persisted during Tyrrell's lifetime, as it was to do until the partial completion of the first stage of Christ Church Cathedral in 1902 and the 1920s relocation of the Bishops to Newcastle.[1]", "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nWhile most structural elements of St. James' Anglican Church, Morpeth are not rare in terms of execution and fabric, the John Horbury Hunt-designed hammerbeam truss roof is one of few in NSW, and is radically different from his other roof designs. This roof design, integral to the church, indicates that the church is of state heritage significance for its rarity value.[1]", "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nThe St. James' Anglican Church Group, Morpeth is also of state heritage significance for its potential to contribute to an understanding of the manner in which the original church was enlarged and altered by prominent 19th century architects, and also the way in which the fabric has been adapted by succeeding generations. The hall (1849), originally the parish school has the potential to contribute to an understanding of the manner in which denominational educational institutions were affected by the establishment of National Schools (later called Public Schools) by the colonial government, particularly through the influence of Sir Henry Parkes.[1]", "St James' Church, Church Kirk\nSt James' Church is in St James' Road, Church, Hyndburn, Lancashire, England. It was an active Anglican parish church in the deanery of Accrington, the archdeaconry of Blackburn, and the diocese of Blackburn until November 2015 when it was closed. The church is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II* listed building.", "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nThe St. James' Anglican Church Group, Morpeth is of state heritage significance for the Horbury Hunt-designed hammerbeam truss roof with boarded ceiling within the church, which is significant for the integrity of its design and skill involved in its execution. Other moveable heritage items that are significant include the sandstone pulpit, a replica of the 13th century example in Beaulieu Abbey, Hampshire, and the ornately-carved stone baptismal font, designed by architect Edmund Blacket and installed in 1864.[1]", "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nThe group constitutes a tangible and legible link to the early European settlement of the Morpeth township and with the Church of England in Australia (now known as the Anglican Church of Australia), a nationally important institution.[1]", "Church of St James, Liverpool\nSt James' Church is an Anglican church in St James Place, Toxteth, Liverpool, England. It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II* listed building. Having been declared redundant in 1974, it returned to active use in 2010.", "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nThe prominent siting of the group in the township of Morpeth is evidence of the initial town plan prepared by the private founder of Morpeth, Lieutenant Edward Charles Close. Its position demonstrates the historic importance of religious observance in the early European settlement of regional NSW. This is emphasised by the fact that the church was one of the first permanent buildings to be established at Morpeth, a settlement important in the history of NSW, while the rectory and parish hall are also among the earliest buildings in the township. Inspired by the example of English church properties, Close deliberately made the group visually prominent so as to mark the location of the township when viewed from river vessels and from the approach roads, a function it continues to perform. The group both marks the entry to the township and demonstrates the central role of the Church of England in the establishment of Morpeth, a settlement important in the history of NSW.[1]", "St Andrew's Anglican Church, Walcha\nSt Andrew's Anglican Church is an heritage-listed former Anglican church located at South Street, Walcha in the Walcha Shire, New South Wales, Australia. The church is also known as St. Andrew's Anglican Church (former), St Andrew's and St Andrews. The site was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.", "St John's Anglican Church, Dalby\nSt John's Anglican Church is a heritage-listed church at 153 Cunningham Street, Dalby, Western Downs Region, Queensland, Australia. It is the third church of that name on the site and was designed by Henry James (Harry) Marks and built in the 1920s. It is also known as St John's Church of England. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 14 August 2008.", "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nThe St. James' Anglican Church Group, Morpeth is of state heritage significance for its strong association with the prolific 19th century architects Edmund Blacket and John Horbury Hunt, both of whom are recognised as having made important contributions to the development of ecclesiastical buildings in NSW, and especially in the Hunter Region.[1]", "St Matthew's Anglican Church, Drayton\nSt Matthew's Anglican Church is a heritage-listed church at Beatrice Street, Drayton, once a town but now a suburb of Toowoomba in Toowoomba Region, Queensland, Australia. It was designed by James Marks and built from 1886 to 1887 by Seath, Hobart and Watson. It is also known as St Matthew's Church of England and is the second church of that name in Drayton. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992.", "St Luke's Anglican Church, Liverpool\nSt Luke's Anglican Church is a heritage-listed church at Elizabeth Drive, Liverpool, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It was designed by Francis Greenway and built from 1818 to 1820 by James Smith. The property is owned by the Anglican Parish of Liverpool and is the oldest still existing Anglican church in Australia. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.", "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nThe St. James Anglican Church Group, Morpeth is of state significance for its association with Lieutenant Edward Charles Close, who conveyed to the Diocese of Newcastle the land on which the church, rectory and hall are located, and substantially funded the erection of the buildings. Close, a capable artist whose works provide invaluable evidence of early colonial life in Sydney, the Illawarra and the Hunter River district, may have designed the church, and potentially the parish hall (originally the parish schoolhouse).[1]", "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nThe St. James' Anglican Church Group, Morpeth is of state significance for its aesthetic characteristics and demonstration of creative and technical achievement.[1]", "St James Anglican Church, Toowoomba\nSt James Church is a heritage-listed Anglican church at 145 Mort Street (on the corner with Russell Street), Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia. It was designed by Richard George Suter and built from 1869 to 1953. It is also known as St James Church of England. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 28 July 2000.", "St Mark's Anglican Church, Warwick\nSt Mark's Anglican Church is a heritage-listed church at 55 Albion Street, Warwick, Southern Downs Region, Queensland, Australia. It is the second church of that name on that site. It was designed by Richard George Suter and built in 1868 by John McCulloch. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992.\nSt Mark's Anglican Church was constructed to designs of prominent Brisbane architect, Richard George Suter from 1868 as the second of the Anglican Churches in Warwick on this site.", "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nWhen in the 1960s the picket fence partially collapsed, it was removed and not replaced. In the early 1970s a City of Westminster gas lamp was brought to Morpeth and installed just outside the entry to the church. In 1972 a columbarium was built, despite the proximity of the cemetery.[1]", "Morpeth, New South Wales\nThe river port grew steadily throughout the 1830s; St James's Church, Tank Street, was built from 1837 to 1840. It was partly designed by John Horbury Hunt and now has a Local Government Heritage listing. A major merchant at this time was James Taylor, who built a bond store circa 1850, located near the bridge and now heritage-listed. The town continued to expand. Morpeth Court House was built circa 1861 in a Greek Revival style; the police station followed in 1879. The construction of the Great Northern Railway in 1857, bypassing Morpeth, meant that Newcastle developed as the regional port. Morpeth became less significant commercially, but still survived as a township with its own history and heritage.", "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nThe St. James' Anglican Church Group, Morpeth is of state significance for its historic association with prolific 19th century architects Edmund Blacket and John Horbury Hunt, both of whom are recognised as having made important contributions to the development of ecclesiastical buildings in NSW, and especially in the Hunter Region.[1]", "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nThis Wikipedia article was originally based on , entry number 01979 in the New South Wales State Heritage Register published by the State of New South Wales and Office of Environment and Heritage 2018 under , accessed on 2 June 2018.", "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nThe intactness of the St. James' Anglican Church Group, Morpeth, as well as the quality of the design and execution of the pulpit and hammerbeam truss roof, indicates that the group is of state heritage significance as an important reference site for understanding the religious and physical development of Morpeth, a township of importance in the development of NSW.[1]", "St James' Church, Birkenhead\nSt James' Church stands on an island site in Birkenhead, Wirral, Merseyside, England. It is an active Anglican parish church in the deanery of Birkenhead, the archdeaconry of Chester, and the diocese of Chester. Its benefice is united with that of St Bede. The church is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II listed building.", "St James' Church, Gawsworth\nSt James' Church is in the village of Gawsworth, Cheshire, England, and is sited near Gawsworth Hall. It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building. It is an active Anglican parish church in the diocese of Chester, the archdeaconry of Macclesfield and the deanery of Macclesfield. Clifton-Taylor includes it in his list of 'best' English parish churches. The authors of the \"Buildings of England\" series describe the church as being \"pretty, but odd\".", "St Thomas' Anglican Church, Mulgoa\nSt Thomas' Anglican Church is an heritage-listed Anglican church located in the western Sydney suburb of in the City of Penrith local government area of New South Wales, Australia. The church forms part of the Diocese of Sydney. It was designed by Reverend Thomas Makinson, first incumbent priest and James Chadley and built from 1836 to 1838 by James Atkinson and William Chisholm (Atkinson also carved the pinnacled reredos himself). It is also known as St. Thomas Anglican Church and St Thomas Church of England. The property is owned by Anglican Church Property Trust. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.", "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nSt James' Anglican Church was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 27 January 2017 having satisfied the following criteria.[1]", "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nThe siting of the St. James' Group in the township is evidence of the initial town plan prepared by Lieutenant Edward Charles Close, founder of Morpeth, a private township important in the physical and economic development of NSW. Its location in a prominent position, both visually and in proximity to the main thoroughfares, demonstrates the historic importance of religious observance in the early European settlement of regional NSW. This is emphasised by the fact that the church, marking the location and entry to the embryonic village, was one of the first permanent buildings to be established at Morpeth, while the rectory (with external bathroom/laundry) and parish hall were among the township's earliest buildings, and are certainly some of the earliest to survive.[1]", "St Paul's Anglican Church, Cleveland\nSt Pauls Anglican Church is a heritage-listed church at Cross Street, Cleveland, City of Redland, Queensland, Australia. It was designed by James Furnival and built in 1873; it was extended in 1924 to a design by Lange Leopold Powell. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992.", "St James' Anglican Church, Morpeth\nThe St. James' Anglican Church Group, Morpeth is of state historical significance as it constitutes a tangible and legible link to the early European settlement of the township and Port of Morpeth, and as such with the early colonisation of NSW.[1]" ]

[ "Demographics of Israel\nThe demographics of Israel are monitored by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. The State of Israel has a population of approximately 8,855,000 inhabitants as of the first half of 2018.[3] Some 74.5% are Jews of all backgrounds (about 6,556,000 individuals), 20.9% are Arab of any religion other than Jewish (about 1,837,000 individuals), while the remaining 4.6% (about 400,000 individuals) are defined as \"others\", including persons of Jewish ancestry deemed non-Jewish by religious law and persons of non-Jewish ancestry who are family members of Jewish immigrants (neither of which are registered at the Ministry of Interior as Jews), Christian non-Arabs, Muslim non-Arabs and all other residents who have neither an ethnic nor religious classification." ]

[ "Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon\nThe strip was a few miles wide, and consisted of about 10% of the total territory of Lebanon, which housed about 150,000 people who lived in 67 villages and towns made up of Shiites, Maronites and Druze (most of whom lived in the town of Hasbaya). In the central zone of the Strip was the Maronite town Marjayoun, which was the capital of the security belt. Residents remaining in the security zone had many contacts with Israel, many of whom have worked there and received various services from Israel.", "Arizona State Museum\nMuseum staff investigate archaeological sites of past occupiers of North America to discover how people lived, what they ate, what they wore and how they created their art. These people lived day-to-day, created homesites and villages that, in many cases, have crumbled or been destroyed by natural forces.", "Top Secret America\nPublished July 19, 2010, this first installment focuses on the U.S. intelligence system's growth and redundancies. It questions its manageability, as it has become \"so large, so unwieldy, and so secretive that no one knows how much money it costs, how many people it employs, how many programs exist within it, or exactly how many agencies do the same work.\" The report states that \"An estimated 854,000 people, nearly 1.5 times as many people as live in Washington, D.C., hold top-secret security clearances.\"", "Israelis in the United Kingdom\nIn 2001 Israel was the 68th most common birthplace for British residents; some 11,892 people born in Israel lived in the UK. It is unknown how many people born in the UK are of Israeli descent, as this was not listed as a separate ethnic group in the 2001 Census. The majority of Israelis in the UK live in London and, in particular, the densely populated Jewish area of Golders Green. The vast majority of Israeli Britons are Jewish. The most common languages amongst the Israeli British community are Hebrew, Arabic and British English.", "Joel Landau (rabbi)\nStarting from June 2011, Landau has served as the executive director of “Israel Up Close Productions” or IUC, a non-profit company that focuses on Israel’s positive impact and quality of life through its advances in medicine, healthcare, education, technology, agriculture, ecology and so on. The non-profit film production company identifies, researches, and reports on how Israeli innovations improve the daily lives of people throughout the world. Their humanitarian initiatives and outreach projects around the globe, demonstrate Israel’s concern for people in need.", "LGBT and rurality\nOther communities of queer farmers prefer to live a more conventional lifestyle with a house and agricultural land of their own. The documentary \"Out Here\" portrays the lives of many rural queer people across the United States, and it shows how many queer people make a living and are making a difference in their communities through agriculture.", "Anna Baltzer\nIn April 2007, Baltzer wrote a piece called \"Whose Responsibility?\" in this article she writes that while internationally people place blame on the Palestinian authority for the flooding that caused five people to drown to death and left many more injured and missing, they are only part of the problem. She stated that per the Palestinian Center for Human Rights, the reason the cesspool collapsed was because of project delays by the Israeli Defense Forces. Her article also states that while Israel had said they would be withdrawing from Gaza, they have not and gives several examples as to why she thinks that Gaza is under the control of Israel and imprisoned by them. Additionally, In May 2007, she wrote an article titled \"\"Dedicated and resilient women on both sides of the Green Line\"\" In this article she writes about the struggles that people who live in Palestine face. One of the examples that she presents is that of her friend Fatima Khaldi. She talks about Fatima's hardships growing up with a physical handicap and without a father, and tells us how despite her incredibly difficult life she became an activist who founded Women for Life\" (WFL), and is empowering other women like her. In an article published in September 2008, Baltzer wrote an article titled \"\"Where are the American voices\"?\". In this publication, she states that America has openly condemned illegal settlements, and yet they continue to provide Israel with 10 million dollars a day. She states that Israel gives money to their citizens if they live in settlements on Palestinian land, and that money comes from American tax dollars.", "Church of Scotland\nIn April 2013, the church published a report entitled \"The Inheritance of Abraham: A Report on the 'Promised' Land\" which included a discussion of Israeli and Jewish claims to the Land of Israel. The report said \"there has been a widespread assumption by many Christians as well as many Jewish people that the Bible supports an essentially Jewish state of Israel. This raises an increasing number of difficulties and current Israeli policies regarding the Palestinians have sharpened this questioning,\" and that \"promises about the Land of Israel were never intended to be taken literally.\" The church responded to criticism by saying that \"The Church has never and is not now denying Israel's right to exist; on the contrary, it is questioning the policies that continue to keep peace a dream in Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territory. This report is against the injustices levelled against the Palestinian people and how land is shared. It is also a reflection of the use or misuse of scripture to claim divine right to land by any group\" and says it must \"refute claims that scripture offers any peoples a privileged claim for possession of a particular territory\".", "Israel and the apartheid analogy\nChris McGreal, \"The Guardian's\" former chief Israel correspondent, compared Israel's Population Registry Law of 1965, which requires all residents of Israel to register their nationality, to South Africa's Apartheid-era Population Registration Act, which categorized South Africans according to racial definitions in order to determine who could live in what land. According to McGreal, the Israeli identification cards determine where people are permitted to live, affects access to some government welfare programs, and has impact on how people are likely to be treated by civil servants and policemen.", "Ruth Lautt\nLautt has questioned the criticisms leveled at Israel by some churches, asking, \"how people feel they have the right in the name of peace and justice, to tell other people not to try to preserve their own lives... You’re not obligated to lay down and die.”", "How to Live (biography)\nAccording to the book's webpage posted by Other Press, \"How to Live\" concerns the following: \"How to get along with people, how to deal with violence, how to adjust to losing someone you love—such questions arise in most people’s lives. They are all versions of a bigger question: How do you live? This question obsessed Renaissance writers, none more than Michel Eyquem de Montaigne, considered by many to be the first truly modern individual. He wrote free-roaming explorations of his thoughts and experience, unlike anything written before. More than four hundred years later, Montaigne’s honesty and charm still draw people to him. Readers come to him in search of companionship, wisdom, and entertainment —and in search of themselves. Just as they will to this spirited and singular biography.\" ", "Russian Jews in Israel\nAn estimated 45,000 illegal immigrants from the Former Soviet Union lived in Israel during the end of 2010, but it is not clear how many of them are actually Jews.", "Michael Franti\nThe film aims to speak multiple generations and to give people a better understanding of the people who still live in war-torn countries. He did not embark on the trip for the film with any special government groups or organizations, but instead bought plane tickets and headed off to Iraq, the Palestinian territories, and Israel armed with nothing more than his guitar and an extreme passion for music and a love of people. He says, \"When I first had the idea for this journey, I had no idea how to get to Iraq and almost no idea how to make a film. After discovering that all you need to get into Iraq is a plane ticket, I prayed that movie making would be that simple...\" From his trip to the Middle East, Franti argued that it was poverty more than religion that created tensions in the Gaza region. \"The poverty was so severe,\" says Franti. \"This really helped me to understand the frustration the Palestinian youth have. Ultimately, my belief is that it is poverty more than religion that creates tensions and frustrations. If you are struggling to feed your family, living on less than US$2 (Dh7.34) a day, as most Gaza residents are, and can see that past the checkpoint in Israel people live like in Los Angeles, then that really is going to cause mounting tensions.\"", "Yahoo! Live\nThe design is similar to the one on Justin.tv. The chat system and video windows are as portable as with ustream.tv. Users can create a channel, authorize their webcam and start broadcasting to the public. Other people can watch, or choose to participate via video, sound or text chat, which can be disabled. Users can also set up profiles and track how many people have watched them stream live, how many broadcasts they have made, and how long they have been on the streaming. Videos are not archived for playback; once it is broadcast, there is no way of recovering the video, and there is no way of streaming other than live, meaning users cannot pre-record videos and then broadcast them.", "Robbie Gringras\nWhen asked about the main message he wishes to deliver in his shows, Gringras replied, “I don’t believe in messages. It is my belief that good art (and good education) is about setting fire to important questions, and not giving self-important answers. I also believe that good art allows for an audience to assume and to interpret many different messages. The fun of art is that many people can draw from it so many different things.”\nPart of Robbie Gringras’s performance art is to show Jewish people how they can connect to the land of Israel. Historically, many artists, musicians, and actors have used performance art to create interest in Israel. Similar figures who have done this include artists Theodore Bikel, Amos Oz, and David D’Or. \nOne of the main goals of Gringras’s shows is to engage his audiences into deep thinking about their connection to Judaism and Israel. He believes it is important to motivate individuals by asking pertinent questions and not necessarily by offering what he terms, “self-important answers.” According to a May 2006 Jewish Exponent article, Gringras describes himself as, \"an educator trying to build intimate and emotional connections to modern Israel. American Jews are having a difficult time coming to grips with the gritty reality. We have to get up close and personal with contemporary Israel\".", "Israeli-occupied territories\nThe strip was a few miles wide, and consisted of about 10% of the total territory of Lebanon, which housed about 150,000 people who lived in 67 villages and towns made up of Shiites, Maronites and Druze (most of whom lived in the town of Hasbaya). In the central zone of the Strip was the Maronite town Marjayoun, which was the capital of the security belt. Residents remaining in the security zone had many contacts with Israel, many of whom have worked there and received various services from Israel.", "TheMarker\nIn relation to the campaign against concentration, \"TheMarker\" wrote extensively about small groups whose members were connected to power and resources. Those included, among others, people with connections to the top political parties, people who worked at Israel's biggest state-owned and private monopolies, such as Israel Electric Corporation and the major banks and many salaried military personnel employed in non-combative positions. The people enjoyed good wages, job security and generous retirement plans, were able to maintain their power regardless of how the economy was doing and, in many cases, pass these privileges onto their children via nepotistic practices.", "Israeli Jews\nIsrael was established as a homeland for the Jewish people and is often referred to as the Jewish state. Israel's Declaration of Independence specifically called for the establishment of a Jewish state with equality of social and political rights, irrespective of religion, race, or sex. The notion that Israel should be constituted in the name of and maintain a special relationship with a particular group of people, the Jewish people, has drawn much controversy vis-à-vis minority groups living in Israel—the large number of Muslim and Christian Palestinians residing in Israel. Nevertheless, through the years many Israeli Jewish nationalists have based the legitimacy of Israel being a Jewish state on the Balfour Declaration and ancient historical ties to the land, asserting that both play particular roles as evidence under international law, as well as a fear that a hostile Arab world might be disrespectful of a Jewish minority—alleging a variety of possible harms up to and including genocide—were Israel to become a post-national \"state for all its citizens\".", "Views on the Arab–Israeli conflict\nPeople of many races, colors and ethnic backgrounds live in Israel. It is pointed out that Israeli Jews come from a wide variety of ethnic backgrounds. In the 1930s, ideas of a 'population exchange' of Arabs and Jews between Arab states and Israel were actually popular among Zionists. In practice, most Jews living in Arab Nations in 1948 have currently left Arab countries: 2/3 have moved to Israel. Zionism allows Arabs, Druze, Bedouin and other non-Jews to live in Israel as well, although by most interpretations it requires a Jewish majority to be established.", "Israeli sculpture\nAt the end of the 1930s, a group called \"The Caananites\" – a broad sculptural movement, primarily literary in nature – was founded in Israel. This group tried to create a direct line between the early peoples living in the Land of Israel, in the second millennium before the Christian Era, and the Jewish people in the Land of Israel in the 20th century, at the same time striving toward the creation of a new-old culture which would separate itself from Jewish tradition. The artist most closely associated with this movement was the sculptor Itzhak Danziger, who returned to the Land of Israel in 1938 after studying art in England. The new nationalism that Danziger's \"Caananite\" art suggested, a nationalism that was anti-European and full of Eastern sensuality and exoticism, reflected the attitude of many of the people living in the Jewish community in the Land of Israel. \"The dream of Danziger's generation\", Amos Keinan wrote after Danziger's death, was \"to merge with the Land of Israel and with the land, to create a specific image with recognizable signs, something that is from here and is us, and imprint the stamp of that something special that is us on history. Aside from nationalism, the artists created sculpture which expressed a symbolic expressionism in the spirit of British sculpture of the same period.", "Standard of living in Israel\nIsrael is cited as having high social mobility due to the volume of Jewish immigrants in recent history. The current state of Israel shows fluid mobility among these Jewish immigrants. A possible reason for this ethnic difference in mobility is the relatively young age of the state of Israel and how it has changed economically and demographically through 21st century industrialization. Traditionally, there have been three endogenous demographics of Israel. These are Ashkenazi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, and Arabs. As the state of Israel was largely established as a home for Jewish people, immigrants of the religion rapidly migrated to Israel over the course of the 20th century. In terms of numbered population, there were 650,000 Jews in Israel in 1948; however, by 1964 there were over 2 million. There are multiple arguments to how this mobility through industrialization occurred. The \"liberal thesis of industrialization\" argues that industrialization will provide a higher rate of upward mobility over downward mobility as well as improved social equality. The view favored by marxists opposes the liberal thesis, arguing that while industrialization did create increased social mobility in Israel, it has lessened over time and only remained for select groups of people. Both of these views show that there has indeed been a history of high social mobility in Israel in comparison to other developed countries; however, the absolute distribution and application of this high rate to all citizens is likely not fully universal.", "Israel\nAs of 2021, Israel's population was at an estimated  people, of whom 74.5% were recorded by the civil government as Jews. Arabs comprised 20.9% of the population, while non-Arab Christians and people who have no religion listed in the civil registry made up 4.6%. Over the last decade, large numbers of migrant workers from Romania, Thailand, China, Africa, and South America have settled in Israel. Exact figures are unknown, as many of them are living in the country illegally, but estimates run in the region of 203,000. By June 2012, approximately 60,000 African migrants had entered Israel. About 92% of Israelis live in urban areas.\nIsrael was established as a homeland for the Jewish people and is often referred to as a Jewish state. The country's Law of Return grants all Jews and those of Jewish ancestry the right to Israeli citizenship. Retention of Israel's population since 1948 is about even or greater, when compared to other countries with mass immigration. Jewish emigration from Israel (called \"yerida\" in Hebrew), primarily to the United States and Canada, is described by demographers as modest, but is often cited by Israeli government ministries as a major threat to Israel's future.", "Israelis\nThe number of Vietnamese people in Israel is estimated at 200–400. Most of them came to Israel between 1976 and 1979, after the Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin granted them political asylum. The Vietnamese people living in Israel are Israeli citizens who also serve in the Israel Defense Forces. Today, the majority of the community lives in the Gush Dan area in the center of Israel but also a few dozen Vietnamese-Israelis or Israelis of Vietnamese origin live in Haifa, Jerusalem and Ofakim.", "Muslim supporters of Israel\nWhen asked what the Qur'an says about the State of Israel, Palazzi replied:\nThe Qur'an cannot deal with the State of Israel as we know it today, since that State came into existing in 1948 only, i.e. many centuries after the Qur'an itself was revealed. However, the Qur'an specifies that the Land of Israel is the homeland of the Jewish people, that God Himself gave that Land to them as heritage and ordered them to live therein. It also announces that – before the end of the time – the Jewish people will come from many different countries to retake possession of that heritage of theirs. Whoever denies this actually denies the Qur'an itself. If he is not a scholar, and in good faith believes what other people say about this issue, he is an ignorant Muslim. If, on the contrary, he is informed about what the Qur'an and openly opposes it, he ceases to be a Muslim.", "Hossein Derakhshan\nI'm going to Israel as a citizen journalist and a peace activist. As a citizen journalist, I'm going to show my 20,000 daily Iranian readers what Israel really looks like and how people live there. The Islamic Republic has long portrayed Israel as an evil state, with a consensual political agenda of killing every single man and woman who prays to Allah, including Iranians. I'm going to challenge that image.", "Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon\nThe strip was a few miles wide, and consisted of about 10% of the total territory of Lebanon, which housed about 150,000 people who lived in 67 villages and towns made up of Shiites, Maronites and Druze (most of whom lived in the town of Hasbaya). In the central zone of the Strip was the Maronite town Marjayoun, which was the capital of the security belt. Residents remaining in the security zone had many contacts with Israel, many of whom have worked there and received various services from Israel.", "Milken Community Schools\nIn partnership with the Alexander Muss Institute for Israel Education (AMIIE), MCHS offers an opportunity for students to learn and live in Israel for the Spring semester of the 10th grade. Through a full academic program, schedule of tiyyulim (field study and trips), personalized Chuggim (individualized activities) and partnership with Israeli teens, Tiferet Israel Fellows learn inside and outside of the classroom and build relationships with the land and people of Israel. The semester abroad is followed by two years of additional programming. The junior year focuses on public presentation skills, training fellows how to best advocate for the State of Israel. The senior year concludes with an intensive seminar based at the Hartman Institute in Jerusalem, examining Israeli cultural and political issues.", "Ukrainophilia\nIn the 1990s many Jewish people emigrated from the former Soviet states, especially from Ukraine, to Israel. Jewish Ukrainians had lived in Ukraine for centuries, having partially assimilated, intermarried and adopted the culture of the people that they lived among. Even today many Ukrainian Jews in Israel feel a sense of connection to and pride with Ukraine, and are still influenced by Ukrainian culture, language and food.", "Timeline of the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict\nAt 6:00am, 670 people living in Gaza who had dual citizenship were given a chance to be escorted by the IDF out of Gaza to their respective embassies in Israel. A 30-minute window was given to people wishing to leave; many people missed this opportunity and remained in Gaza.", "Demographics of Israel\nThe number of Vietnamese people in Israel and their descendants is estimated at 150 to 200.[46] Most of them came to Israel in between 1976–1979, after prime minister Menachem Begin authorized their admission to Israel and granted them political asylum. The Vietnamese people living in Israel are Israeli citizens who also serve in the Israel Defense Forces. Today, the majority of the community lives in the Gush Dan area in the center of Tel Aviv, but also a few dozen Vietnamese-Israelis or Israelis of Vietnamese origin live in Haifa, Jerusalem, and Ofakim." ]

[ "Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser\nNeisser was born in the Silesian town of Schweidnitz (now Świdnica, in Poland), the son of a well-known Jewish physician, Dr. Moritz Neisser. After he completed the elementary school in Münsterberg, Neisser enrolled in the St. Maria Magdalena School in Breslau (now Wrocław, in Poland). In this school, he was a contemporary of another great name in the history of medicine, Paul Ehrlich. He obtained the Abitur in 1872." ]

[ "Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser\nIn 1898 Albert Neisser published clinical trials on serum therapy in patients with syphilis. He injected cell free serum from patients with syphilis into patients who were admitted for other medical conditions. Most of these patients were prostitutes, who were neither informed about the experiment nor asked for their consent. When some of them contracted syphilis Neisser argued that the women did not contract syphilis as a result of his serum injections but contracted the disease because they worked as prostitutes.[1]", "Ulric Neisser\nUlric Gustav Neisser was born in Kiel, Germany, on December 8, 1928. Neisser's father, Hans Neisser, was a distinguished Jewish economist who had predicted Hitler's militaristic actions in Europe and as a precaution Hans emigrated to the United States of America in 1933. Neisser's mother, Charlotte (\"Lotte\") Neisser, was a lapsed Catholic who had been very active in women's movement in Germany and had a degree in sociology. Neisser's parents married in 1923. Neisser also had an older sister, Marianne, who was born in 1924. Neisser was a chubby little kid so he adopted a name that translates exactly into that, \"Der kleine Dickie\". This later was reduced to just \"Dick.\"", "Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser\nNeisser was also the co-discoverer of the causative agent of leprosy. In 1879 the Norwegian physician Gerhard Armauer Hansen gave to young Neisser (who had visited him in Norway to examine some 100 leprosy patients) some tissue samples of his patients. Neisser successfully stained the bacteria and announced his findings in 1880, claiming to have discovered the pathogenesis of leprosy. There was some conflict between Neisser and Hansen, because Hansen had failed to culture the organism and demonstrate unequivocally its link to leprosy, although he had observed the bacterium since 1872.", "Ulric Neisser\nUlric Gustav Neisser (December 8, 1928 – February 17, 2012) was a German-born American psychologist and member of the US National Academy of Sciences. He has been referred to as the \"father of cognitive psychology.\" Neisser researched and wrote about perception and memory. He posited that a person's mental processes could be measured and subsequently analyzed. In 1967, Neisser published \"Cognitive Psychology\", which he later said was considered an attack on behaviorist psychological paradigms. \"Cognitive Psychology\" brought Neisser instant fame and recognition in the field of psychology. While \"Cognitive Psychology\" was considered unconventional, it was Neisser's \"Cognition and Reality\" that contained some of his most controversial ideas. A main theme in \"Cognition and Reality\" is Neisser's advocacy for experiments on perception occurring in natural (\"ecologically valid\") settings. Neisser postulated that memory is, largely, reconstructed and not a snap shot of the moment. Neisser illustrated this during one of his highly publicized studies on people's memories of the Challenger explosion. In his later career, he summed up current research on human intelligence and edited the first major scholarly monograph on the Flynn effect. A \"Review of General Psychology\" survey, published in 2002, ranked Neisser as the 32nd most cited psychologist of the 20th century.", "Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser\nNeisser began to study medicine at the University of Breslau, but later moved to Erlangen, completing his studies in 1877. Initially Neisser wanted to be an internist, but did not find a suitable place. He found work, however as an assistant of the dermatologist Oskar Simon (1845–1892), concentrating on sexually transmitted diseases and leprosy. During the following two years he studied and obtained experimental evidence about the pathogen for gonorrhea, Neisseria gonorrhoeae.", "Guidelines for human subject research\nIn 1898, Neisser published his results from the clinical experiments he conducted, triggering a public outcry in which Neisser was accused of “maliciously inoculating innocent children with syphilis poison.” Neisser defended his actions, arguing that the prostitutes contracted syphilis from their line of work rather than his experiments, and had the general support of academic physicians. One notable exception was the German psychiatrist Albert Moll, who believed informed consent to be necessary in human trials.", "Jacob Moritz Blumberg\nBlumberg was born in the Province of Posen and educated at the University of Breslau (Wrocław) where he received his doctorate in 1896. He went on to complete further training with Polish surgeon Jan Mikulicz-Radecki at the surgical clinic in Breslau, under German physician Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser, the discoverer of \"Neisseria gonorrhoeae\", at the dermatological clinic, and under German physician Albert Fränkel at the women's clinic. He also trained with Paul Zweifel at the women's clinic in Leipzig. trained with Paul Zweifel and invented the Blumberg sign.", "Ulric Neisser\nGeorge A. Miller supervised Neisser's senior thesis research, which helped him gain admission to the master's program at Swarthmore College. Neisser wanted to attend Swarthmore College because that was where Wolfgang Kohler, one of the founders of Gestalt psychology, was a faculty member. Instead of working with Wolfgang Kohler he ended up working with Kohler's assistant, Hans Wallach. Neisser had also met and became friends with a new assistant professor, Henry Gleitman. Neisser graduated earning his master's degree in 1952.", "Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser\nAs a scientific leader, Neisser was also very active. In the field of public health, he promoted vigorously preventive and educational measures to the public, and the better sanitary control of prostitutes, in order to combat venereal diseases. He was one of the founder of the Deutsche Gesellschaft zur Bekämpfung der Geschlechtskrankheiten (German Society for the Fight Against Venereal Diseases) in 1902, and of the Deutsche Dermatologische Gesellschaft (German Dermatological Society) in 1888.", "Max Jessner\nJessner did his dermatological training at clinics in Breslau (now Wroclaw) under Albert Neisser.", "Ulric Neisser\nNeisser's name originally had an \"h\" on the end (Ulrich), but he believed that it was too German and most of his friends could not properly pronounce his name, so he eventually dropped the \"h\". Lindzey and Runyan also noted that Neisser also had the nickname \"Dick.\" Neisser stated that both \"Ulric\" (without the \"h\") and \"Dick\" were natural to him.", "Neisser Bent\nNeisser S. Bent Vázquez (born August 7, 1976 in Nueva Gerona, Isla de la Juventud) is a former international backstroke swimmer from Cuba, who swam at the 1996 and 2000 Olympics. At the '96 Games, he won the bronze medal in the 100 m backstroke, just behind fellow countryman Rodolfo Falcón.", "Ulric Neisser\nIn 1981, Neisser coined the term \"repisodic\" memory. The term originates from a case study conducted on John Dean, a former advisor to Richard Nixon. The case study compares and contrasts testimony given by Dean on the subject of the Watergate scandal in person to recorded conversations of Dean. Neisser identifies that Dean's memories were largely ego-centric, focusing more so on his roles and importance in the situations. Neisser identifies, however, that Dean's memories are neither episodic (autobiographical: times, places, etc.), nor semantic (general knowledge). Instead, Neisser illustrated that Dean was describing particular episodes (conversations), but when compared to the tapes was largely incorrect. Ultimately, this would lead Neisser to distinguish Dean's memories as \"repisodic\", or as Neisser states in his case study, \"what seems to be a remembered episode actually represents a repeated series of events, and thus reflects a genuinely existing state of affairs\". Neisser identified Dean's testimony as a common error in memory, wherein, individuals will mend together repeated experiences or events into a single memory. The John Dean case study illustrated Neisser's belief that memory is constructed, an important aspect of cognitive psychology.", "Neisseria\nThe genus \"Neisseria\" is named after the German bacteriologist Albert Neisser, who in 1879 discovered its first example, \"Neisseria gonorrheae\", the pathogen which causes the human disease gonorrhea. Neisser also codiscovered the pathogen that causes leprosy, \"Mycobacterium leprae\". These discoveries were made possible by the development of new staining techniques which he helped to develop.", "Nazi human experimentation\nThe issue of informed consent had previously been controversial in German medicine in 1900, when Dr. Albert Neisser infected patients (mainly prostitutes) with syphilis without their consent. Despite Neisser's support from most of the academic community, public opinion, led by psychiatrist Albert Moll, was against Neisser. While Neisser went on to be fined by the Royal Disciplinary Court, Moll developed \"a legally based, positivistic contract theory of the patient-doctor relationship\" that was not adopted into German law. Eventually, the minister for religious, educational, and medical affairs issued a directive stating that medical interventions other than for diagnosis, healing, and immunization were excluded under all circumstances if \"the human subject was a minor or not competent for other reasons\", or if the subject had not given his or her \"unambiguous consent\" after a \"proper explanation of the possible negative consequences\" of the intervention, though this was not legally binding.", "Ulric Neisser\nNeisser attended Harvard in the late 1940s working toward a psychology major. Neisser graduated summa cum laude in 1950. He had become an \"infracaninophile,\" which translates to \"underdog-lover\". Neisser had written that his enthusiasm had far outweighed his skill in playing baseball, he said that he was the \"kid who was always chosen last\" to play. He had contributed this as to why he had a \"lifelong sympathy with the underdog\". Neisser also stated that this was probably a contributing factor as to why he was drawn to Gestalt psychology; he considered it to be an underdog in the department.", "Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser\nNeisser died of septicemia on 30 July 1916, at the age of 61 years, in Breslau.", "Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser\nIn 1882 Neisser was appointed professor extraordinarius by the University at the age of 29, and worked as a dermatologist in the university hospital of Breslau. Later he was promoted to the director of the hospital. In the following year he married Toni Neisser, née Kauffmann.", "Kersten Neisser\nKersten Neisser (later Köpke and then Kriesel, born 4 May 1956 in Halle, Saxony-Anhalt) is a German rower.", "Ulric Neisser\nNeisser went on to obtain his doctorate from Harvard's Department of Social Relations in 1956. According to Fancher and Rutherford, he completed his dissertation in Psychophysics. He spent a year afterwards as an instructor at Harvard. He went on to teach at Brandeis and Emory Universities, before establishing himself at Cornell. While at Brandeis University, located in Waltham, Neisser expanded his psychological horizon according to Fancher and Rutherford. Fancher and Rutherford also wrote that Neisser's department chair was Abraham Maslow. According to Cutting, Neisser felt a \"deep sympathy for the idealistic humanism\" of Abraham Maslow. Maslow had also been profoundly interested by Gestalt psychology.", "Ulric Neisser\nNeisser's main goal growing up was to fit in and succeed in America. He took a particular interest in baseball, which is thought to have played an \"indirect but important role in the psychological interests\" of his. Neisser's appeal for baseball enlightened him to an idea he would later call a \"flashbulb memory\".", "Ulric Neisser\nThe concept of flashbulb memories is first described by Brown and Kulik in their 1977 paper on memories of John F. Kennedy's assassination. The flashbulb memory concept is derived from the idea that high emotional arousal, in conjunction with surprise, stress, and significance, will produce a vivid, accurate memory of the moment someone learns of an event. Neisser sought to challenge this conception of memory by undertaking a study of individual's memories of the Challenger Space Shuttle explosion. Immediately following the Challenger explosion in January 1986, Neisser distributed a questionnaire to a freshman classroom asking participants to identify key information relating to where they were, who they were with, what time it was, when the Challenger explosion occurred. Three years later, Neisser surveyed the now senior students using the same survey to examine the accuracy of their memory. Neisser found that, indeed, there were some considerable lapses in the memories of the students despite the student's confidence in the accuracy of their memories. Neisser's findings challenged the conception that flashbulb memories are virtually without error. Neisser continued to conduct research on flashbulb memories in an effort to re-define how we construct the concept of memory.", "Ulric Neisser\nOliver Selfridge, a young computer scientist at MIT's Lincoln Laboratories, was the next individual to influence Neisser. Selfridge had been an advocate of machine intelligence. Neisser and Selfridge had become friends, which was crucial for Neisser's career. Fancher and Rutherford explain that Neisser had become a part-time consultant in Selfridge's lab, where the two had begun to work on a program together. Selfridge along with Neisser produced the \"pandemonium model of pattern recognition, which appeared in Scientific American in 1950.\" After working with Selfridge, Neisser received multiple grants and began to work in different areas involving thinking, soon after he moved to the University of Pennsylvania. This is where he would write \"Cognitive Psychology\".", "Ulric Neisser\nNeisser continued his research on the construction of memory by studying individuals' recollections of the 1989 California earthquake. In this study, Neisser examined the difference in memory between individuals that experience the event, as opposed to individuals who heard about the event. Neisser examined subjects in Atlanta and the University of California campuses in Berkeley and Santa Cruz. Neisser issued surveys to procure the emotional impact of the earthquake on the individual in addition to accounts of the individual's memories of the earthquake to better identify the association between memory and emotion. In the spring of 1991, Neisser contacted participants to compare their current accounts of the earthquake with their previous accounts of the earthquake. Neisser found that, in comparison to participants in Atlanta, the California students generally had better and more accurate recollections of the earthquake.", "Guidelines for human subject research\nIn 1892, Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser, a German physician who is credited with the discovery of Neisseria gonorrhoeae, performed two sets of clinical trials attempting to find a method of prevention for syphilis. Neisser first inserted serum obtained from a single patient who had begun exhibiting the early signs of syphilis under the skin of four female patients, similar to the procedure for smallpox inoculation. Neisser did not obtain consent from these patients, but none of them developed the disease. Neisser then conducted the second set of trials on four prostitutes. This time, the serums were injected intravenously and each serum was obtained from a different syphilis patient, each at various stages of the disease. The prostitutes from the second set of trials also neither consented nor were informed of the experimentation. Unlike the first set of trials, all four of the subjects developed syphilis at varying times after the injection.", "Michael Anton Biermer\nIn 1851 he earned his doctorate from the University of Würzburg, where he was a student of Rudolf Virchow. Later he was a professor at Bern (from 1861), Zurich (from 1867) and Breslau (1874–91). Two of his better known students were surgeon Theodor Kocher (1841-1917) in Zurich, and dermatologist Albert Neisser (1855-1916) in Breslau.", "Gerhard Armauer Hansen\nIn 1879 Hansen gave tissue samples to Albert Neisser, who then successfully stained the bacteria and announced his findings in 1880, claiming to have discovered the disease-causing organism. There was some dispute between Neisser and Hansen, Hansen as discoverer of the bacillus and Neisser as identifier of it as the etiological agent. Neisser tried to downplay the assistance of Hansen. Hansen's claim was weakened by his failure to produce a pure microbiological culture in an artificial medium, or to prove that the rod-shaped organisms were infectious. Further Hansen had attempted to infect at least one female patient without consent and although no damage was caused, that case ended in court and Hansen lost his post at the hospital.", "Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser\nAlbert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser (22 January 1855, Schweidnitz – 30 July 1916, Breslau) was a German physician who discovered the causative agent (pathogen) of gonorrhea, a strain of bacteria that was named in his honour (Neisseria gonorrhoeae).", "Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser\nIn 1905 and 1906 Neisser travelled to Java, in order to study the possible transmission of syphilis from apes to humans. He later cooperated with August Paul von Wassermann (1866–1925) to develop the famous diagnostic test for detecting Treponema pallidum infections, and also in the testing of the first chemotherapeutic agent for syphilis, Salvarsan, which was discovered by his former school fellow Paul Ehrlich in 1910. In 1907, Neisser was promoted to professor ordinarius of dermatology and sexually transmitted diseases at Breslau." ]

[ "Gary Johnson 2016 presidential campaign\nJohnson and Weld form the first ticket of any party to feature two governors since the 1948 presidential election.[2] They received nearly 4.5 million votes nationally, dwarfing Johnson's 2012 popular vote total and marking the Libertarians' most successful presidential run to date and the most successful third-party candidacy since Ross Perot in 1996." ]

[ "Gary Johnson 2012 presidential campaign\nThe 2012 presidential campaign of Gary Johnson, the 29th Governor of New Mexico, was announced on April 21, 2011. He declared his candidacy for the 2012 Republican Party nomination for President of the United States. On December 28, 2011, Johnson withdrew his candidacy for the Republican nomination, and declared his candidacy for the 2012 presidential nomination of the Libertarian Party. The 2012 Libertarian National Convention was held during the first weekend of May 2012. On May 5, 2012, after promoting his libertarian-oriented political positions to delegates, Johnson received the most votes at the convention and became the official 2012 Libertarian presidential nominee. On November 6, 2012, Johnson received just under 1% of the popular vote in the general election, amounting to more than 1.2 million votes, more than double what the Barr/Root ticket received in 2008. This was the most successful result for a third-party presidential candidacy since 2000, and the best in the Libertarian Party's history by vote number at the time. (Johnson ran again in 2016 and received nearly four times his 2012 vote total.)", "2016 United States presidential election in Alaska\nAlaska also has a history of supporting third-party candidates at the presidential level. Alaska was the second-best state for Ross Perot in the 1992 election, with Ross Perot garnering 28% of the vote. Alaska was Nader's strongest state in the 2000 presidential election, giving him 10% in his presidential bid. Alaska was also the third-best state for Libertarian nominee Gary Johnson in the 2012 election, giving him 2.46% of the vote, behind Johnson's home state of New Mexico, and Montana. For this reason, Alaska has been considered to be one of Libertarian party nominee Gary Johnson's strongest states in the 2016 election.", "Gary Johnson 2012 presidential campaign\nNovember 1, 2012 CNN poll includes Johnson. 5.1% of 796 likely voters indicated that they would vote for Gary Johnson.", "Political positions of Gary Johnson\nGary Johnson was the governor of New Mexico from 1995 to 2003 and ran for president in 2012 and 2016. In December 2011 he announced he would pursue the presidential nomination of the Libertarian Party for the 2012 general election. The Libertarian National Convention in May, 2012 chose Johnson as the party's candidate. In November 2014, Johnson announced he would pursue the presidential nomination of the Libertarian Party for the 2016 general election. Johnson has taken positions on many political issues as revealed through his public comments, his gubernatorial record, his Our America Initiative and his campaigns to win the Republican and Libertarian nominations.", "Wheeler County, Oregon\nIn the 2016 presidential election, 72.25 percent of voters went for Republican president-elect Donald Trump, 18.95 percent for Democrat Hillary Clinton, 5.62 percent for Libertarian Gary Johnson, and the remainder were either write-ins or voted for other candidates. In the 2012 presidential election, 63.52 percent of voters went for Mitt Romney, 31.00 percent for president-elect Barack Obama and 5.48 percent for other candidates. In the 2008 presidential election, 61.33% of Wheeler County voters voted for Republican John McCain, while 34.61% voted for Obama and 4.06% of voters either voted for a Third Party candidate or wrote in a candidate. In the 2004 presidential election, 69.5% of Wheeler Country voters voted for George W. Bush, while 27.8% voted for John Kerry, and 2.7% of voters either voted for a Third Party candidate or wrote in a candidate.", "New Mexico\nNew Mexico had been considered a swing state, whose population has favored both Democratic and Republican presidential candidates, but it became more of a Democratic stronghold after the presidential election of 2008. The governor is Michelle Lujan Grisham (D), who succeeded Susana Martinez (R) on January 1, 2019 after she served two terms as governor from 2011 to 2019. Gary Johnson served as governor from 1995 to 2003. Johnson served as a Republican, but in 2012 and 2016, he ran for President from the Libertarian Party. In previous presidential elections, Al Gore carried the state (by 366 votes) in 2000; George W. Bush won New Mexico's five electoral votes in 2004, and the state's electoral votes were won by Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton in 2008, 2012, and 2016. Since achieving statehood in 1912, New Mexico has been carried by the national popular vote victor in every presidential election of the past 104 years, except 1976, when Gerald Ford won the state by 2%, but lost the national popular vote by 2%.", "Gary Johnson 2016 presidential campaign\nJohnson ran as the Libertarian presidential nominee in the 2012 election. In that race, he finished with the third highest popular vote total, nearly 1.3 million votes, and garnered nearly 1% of the popular vote.[3] Johnson's vote total was the highest received by any LP candidate—for any office—in the party's history.[4][5] Shortly after the election, Johnson began to express interest in running for the Libertarian nomination again in the 2016 election.[6][7][8]", "Gary Johnson 2016 presidential campaign\nThis article is part of a series about Gary Johnson Political positions Electoral history Our America Initiative Governor of New Mexico 1994 election 1998 re-election Presidential campaigns 2012 Convention Election 2016 Primaries Convention Election Endorsements 2018 U.S. Senate campaign vt", "Gary Johnson\nAlthough Johnson had focused the majority of his campaign activities on the New Hampshire primary, he announced on November 29, 2011 that he would no longer campaign there due to his inability to gain traction with less than a month until the primary. There was speculation in the media that he might run as a Libertarian Party candidate instead. Johnson acknowledged that he was considering such a move. In December, \"Politico\" reported that Johnson would quit the Republican primaries and announce his intention to seek the Libertarian Party nomination at a December 28 press conference. He also encouraged his supporters to vote for Ron Paul in 2012 Republican presidential primaries.\nOn December 28, 2011, Johnson formally withdrew his candidacy for the Republican presidential nomination, and declared his candidacy for the 2012 presidential nomination of the Libertarian Party in Santa Fe, New Mexico. On May 5, 2012, at the 2012 Libertarian National Convention, Johnson received the Libertarian Party's official nomination for president in the 2012 election, by a vote of 419 votes to 152 votes for second-place candidate R. Lee Wrights. In his acceptance speech, Johnson asked the convention's delegates to nominate as his running mate Judge Jim Gray of California. Gray subsequently received the party's vice-presidential nomination on the first ballot.", "1980 United States presidential election\nThe Clark–Koch ticket received 921,128 votes (1.1% of the total nationwide). This was the highest overall number of votes earned by a Libertarian candidate until the 2012 election, when Gary Johnson and James P. Gray became the first Libertarian ticket to earn more than a million votes, albeit with a lower overall vote percentage than Clark–Koch. It remained the highest percentage of popular votes a Libertarian Party candidate received in a presidential race until Johnson and William Weld became the first Libertarian ticket to receive more than 3 percent of the popular vote in 2016. His strongest support was in Alaska, where he came in third place with 11.7% of the vote, finishing ahead of independent candidate John Anderson and receiving almost half as many votes as Jimmy Carter.", "Gary Johnson 2016 presidential campaign\nGary Johnson received 4,489,233 total votes and 3.27% of the national vote,[116] coming third in the nation and setting a record for the Libertarian Party's best ever electoral result in the process. In terms of the Libertarian Party's electoral history, he bested Ed Clark's previous record-setting 1.06% percent of the total vote in the 1980 presidential election,[117] as well as his own record-setting 1,275,923 votes in the 2012 presidential election.[118] His share of the national vote was also the highest for a third-party candidate since Ross Perot's 8.4% showing in the 1996 presidential election. The highest percentage of votes received by Johnson was in New Mexico (where he was governor from 1995-2003), where he received 9.3%.[119]", "Big Boi\nIn an interview with New York City's Hot 97, Big Boi stated that the day after the 2012 U.S. presidential election, a white woman approached him at an airport and congratulated him on \"his win last night\" (referring to Barack Obama winning re-election), to which Big Boi responded, \"Bitch, I voted for Gary Johnson.\" He has since confirmed his libertarian political ideologies.", "Gary Johnson\nJohnson ran again for President in 2016, once again winning the Libertarian nomination and naming former Republican Governor of Massachusetts Bill Weld as his running mate. Johnson received nearly 4.5 million votes (3.27% of the total vote), which is the most for a third party presidential candidate since 1996 and the highest national vote share for a Libertarian candidate in history. \nAfter the 2016 presidential election, Johnson stated he will not run for the presidency again. Johnson ran for the U.S. Senate in the 2018 New Mexico senate race against incumbent Democratic senator Martin Heinrich, coming third with 15.38% of the statewide vote (107,201 votes).", "O'Hare, Chicago\nIn the 2016 presidential election, the O'Hare area cast 2,300 votes for Hillary Clinton, 1,966 votes Donald Trump, 112 votes for Gary Johnson and 62 votes for Jill Stein. In the 2012 presidential election, the O'Hare area cast 2,241 votes for Barack Obama and 1,769 votes for Mitt Romney.", "Gary Johnson 2012 presidential campaign\nFollowing Paul’s failure to receive the Republican nomination, Johnson actively sought, and, to at least some level, received the support of Paul's libertarian minded supporters for his own campaign. Paul himself did not officially endorse anybody, though in an October 2012 interview Paul hinted, but did not confirm that he was planning on voting for Johnson.", "1914 California gubernatorial election\nThe California gubernatorial election, 1914 was held on November 3, 1914. Hiram Johnson was elected in 1910 as a member of the Republican Party. Dissatisfaction with the conservatism of the Taft administration led many Republicans to join former President Roosevelt's Progressive Party, with Johnson served as the Vice-Presidential candidate in the 1912 presidential election. Despite losing the general election, and winning California by less than 200 votes, Johnson was supremely popular in California. He was re-elected in 1914 as governor under the Progressive Party ticket, nearly tripling his vote from 1910 as a Republican, and was elected and reelected as Senator many times until his death in 1945.", "2012 United States presidential election\nGary Johnson's popular vote total set a Libertarian Party record, and his popular vote percentage was the second-best showing for a Libertarian in a presidential election, trailing only Ed Clark's in 1980. Johnson would go on to beat this record in the 2016 presidential election, winning the most votes for the Libertarian ticket in history. At the time, Green Party candidate Jill Stein's popular vote total made her the most successful female presidential candidate in a general election in United States history. This was later surpassed by Hillary Clinton in the 2016 election.", "2016 United States elections\nThe United States presidential election of 2016 was the 58th quadrennial presidential election. The electoral vote distribution was determined by the 2010 census from which presidential electors electing the President and Vice President were chosen; a simple majority (270) of the 538 electoral votes were required to win. Former President Barack Obama, a member of the Democratic Party, was ineligible to be elected to a third term due to term limits established by the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution. Businessman and reality television personality Donald Trump of New York won the Republican Party's presidential nomination on July 19, 2016, after defeating Texas Senator Ted Cruz, Ohio Governor John Kasich, Florida Senator Marco Rubio, and several other candidates in the Republican primary elections. Former Secretary of State, First Lady and New York Senator Hillary Clinton won the Democratic Party's presidential nomination on July 26, 2016, after defeating Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders and others in the Democratic primary elections. This was the first election with a female presidential nominee from a major political party, as well as the first election since 1944 that had major party presidential nominees from the same home state. Clinton won the popular vote, taking 48% of the vote compared to Trump's 46% of the vote, but Trump won the electoral vote and thus the presidency. Libertarian Gary Johnson won 3.3% of the popular vote, the strongest performance by a third party presidential nominee since the 1996 election. Trump won the states of Michigan, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Florida, Ohio, and Iowa, all of which were won by Obama in 2008 and 2012. The election is one of five presidential elections in American history in which the winner of the popular vote did not win the presidency.", "2016 United States presidential election in Minnesota\nThe following had write-in status:\nMinnesota voted 6.2% less Democratic from the 2012 presidential election, a much larger shift than the nation at large. Donald Trump only increased his vote share compared to Mitt Romney in 2012 by 2,726 votes. The difference in Democratic voting was largely attributed to Independent or Write-In candidates. The most significant Independent gains went to Gary Johnson with 3.84% of the vote (+2.64% over 2012), Evan McMullin with 1.8% of the vote (+1.8% over 2012), and Jill Stein with 1.26% of the vote (+0.82% over 2012). These three candidates account for 5.26% of the swing. This election marked the first time since 1952 that the Democratic candidate performed worse in Minnesota than in the nation at large. Hillary Clinton won the national popular vote by 2.1% but won Minnesota by just 1.5%, or 44,765 votes. Minnesota has been a primarily Democratic state in national elections since 1932.", "Iowa Democratic Party\nDemocratic presidential candidates were historically unsuccessful in capturing the state's electoral votes. In fact the Republican Party's presidential nominee captured Iowa's electoral votes from 1856 to 1908. Democrat Woodrow Wilson won Iowa in the 1912 presidential election. Twenty years passed before another Democrat, Franklin D. Roosevelt, won the state. With the exception of Lyndon B. Johnson's landslide election win in the 1964 presidential election the Democratic nominee for president did not win Iowa's electoral votes from 1952 to 1984. Since the 1988 presidential election Democrats have had success in capturing Iowa's electoral votes.", "Libertarian Party (United States)\nDuring the 2016 presidential election, Gary Johnson and vice presidential candidate Bill Weld received a record percentage of 3.28% of the popular vote (4,488,919 votes), getting 9.34% in New Mexico, where Johnson had previously been elected Governor. In the 2012 presidential election, Johnson and running mate Jim Gray received 1,275,821 votes (1%).Source:", "Gary Johnson 2012 presidential campaign\nOn Election Day, Johnson received 1,275,951 votes nationally (0.99% of the popular vote), setting a record for the most votes won by a Libertarian Party presidential nominee. Johnson's best showing was in his home state of New Mexico, where he received 3.55% of the popular vote.", "2016 United States presidential election in Montana\nTrump's margin was 20.5 percentage points, exceeding Mitt Romney's 13.7 point win in 2012, and John McCain's 2.4 point win in 2008. Republicans have won Montana in every presidential election since 1996. Libertarian nominee and third-party candidate Gary Johnson received 5.6% of the vote.", "List of third party performances in United States presidential elections\nCongressman John B. Anderson received 5,719,850 votes, for 6.6% of the vote, as an independent candidate for President. Libertarian Party candidate Ed Clark won 921,128 votes, or 1.1% of the total. No other Libertarian candidate has ever gotten more than 0.5% in a presidential election until Gary Johnson won 1% in 2012.", "2016 United States presidential election in Utah\nThe state of Utah has given its electoral votes to the Republican ticket in every election year since 1968 and only once voted for a Democratic candidate in elections since 1952. The state has a majority Mormon population which voted 78% to 21% for Mitt Romney in 2012. This very heavily contributed to Mitt Romney winning the state by a margin of 73% to 25% in the 2012 election. However, Donald Trump's criticism of Romney's Mormon faith on the campaign trail in 2016 angered many Republican voters. Polls suggested that Utah might be a strong state for Libertarian candidate Gary Johnson as a protest vote against Trump. As a result, Larry Sabato's online election forecaster, Sabato's Crystal Ball, downgraded their rating of the Utah contest from \"Safe Republican\" to \"Likely Republican\" on June 23.", "Gary Johnson 2012 presidential campaign\nJohnson finished with over 1.2 million votes, an all-time Libertarian Party record in terms of raw total, and 0.99% of the popular vote, the party's second-best showing ever in vote percentage in a presidential election, behind that of Ed Clark in 1980. In his home state of New Mexico, Johnson received 3.55% of the vote.", "Gary Johnson 2012 presidential campaign\nOn April 30, 2012 Johnson formally endorsed retired California Superior Court judge Jim Gray as his choice for running mate on the LP ticket in anticipation of receiving the nomination at the 2012 Libertarian National Convention in May 2012.\nOn May 5, 2012, at the Libertarian National Convention, Johnson received the Libertarian Party's official nomination for President of the United States by a vote of 419 votes to 152 votes for second-place candidate Lee Wrights.\nFollowing his nomination, Johnson asked the convention's delegates to nominate as his vice-presidential running-mate Judge Jim Gray of California. Gray won the vice-presidential nomination on the first ballot.", "Christopher R. Barron\nBefore the 2012 Republican primary, Barron helped organize the \"Draft Cheney 2012\" movement, which was to convince the former vice president Cheney to seek the Republican presidential nomination in 2012. Early in the 2012 Republican primary process, Barron endorsed Herman Cain for the 2012 U.S. presidential election. After Cain dropped out, Barron endorsed Republican and later Libertarian Party presidential candidate Gary Johnson for the 2012 U.S. presidential election, saying he was \"refusing to settle\". He was a delegate to the 2012 Libertarian National Convention. In the 2012 Republican primary in the District of Columbia, Barron voted for Ron Paul. In October 2012, however, he announced he had decided to support and vote for Mitt Romney for President, even while continuing to serve as a D.C. elector for Johnson.", "1836 United States presidential election\nThe Whig strategy failed, as Van Buren won a majority of the electoral and popular vote. Van Buren's victory made him the third sitting vice president to win election as president, a feat that was not duplicated until the 1988 presidential election. Harrison finished in second place in both the popular and electoral vote, and his strong showing in the election helped him win his party's nomination in the 1840 presidential election. As Virginia's electors refused to vote for Johnson, the vice president was elected by the United States Senate, marking the first and (to date) only such occurrence. The Senate decided between Johnson and Francis Granger, who were the top two vice presidential electoral vote winners. Johnson was elected on the first ballot." ]

[ "Roman Republic\nThe Roman Republic (Latin: Rēs pūblica Rōmāna, Classical Latin:[ˈreːs ˈpuːb.lɪ.ka roːˈmaː.na]; Italian: Repubblica romana) was the era of classical Roman civilization beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom, traditionally dated to 509 BC, and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire. It was during this period that Rome's control expanded from the city's immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world." ]

[ "Isis\nIsis's cult reached Italy and the Roman sphere of influence at some point in the second century BCE. It was one of many cults that were introduced to Rome as the Roman Republic's territory expanded in the last centuries BCE. Authorities in the Republic tried to define which cults were acceptable and which were not, as a way of defining Roman cultural identity amid the cultural changes brought on by Rome's expansion. In Isis's case, shrines and altars to her were set up on the Capitoline Hill, at the heart of the city, by private persons in the early first century BCE. The independence of her cult from the control of Roman authorities made it potentially unsettling to them. In the 50s and 40s BCE, when the crisis of the Roman Republic made many Romans fear that peace among the gods was being disrupted, the Roman Senate destroyed these shrines, although it did not ban Isis from the city outright.", "Ancient Greece\nThe Antigonid Kingdom became involved in a war with the Roman Republic in the late 3rd century. Although the First Macedonian War was inconclusive, the Romans, in typical fashion, continued to make war on Macedon until it was completely absorbed into the Roman Republic (by 149 BC). In the east the unwieldy Seleucid Empire gradually disintegrated, although a rump survived until 64 BC, whilst the Ptolemaic Kingdom continued in Egypt until 30 BC, when it too was conquered by the Romans. The Aetolian league grew wary of Roman involvement in Greece, and sided with the Seleucids in the Roman–Seleucid War; when the Romans were victorious, the league was effectively absorbed into the Republic. Although the Achaean league outlasted both the Aetolian league and Macedon, it was also soon defeated and absorbed by the Romans in 146 BC, bringing an end to the independence of all of Greece.", "List of fictional Romans\nThis article is a list of fictional characters in written fiction and other forms of media set during the period of the Roman Republic and/or the Roman Empire. This list is subcategorised by the position of each character - whether they are actual Roman citizens, Roman provincials (non-Romans who were not actual slaves) or slaves.", "Res publica\nRoman authors would also use the phrase \"res publica\" in the sense of the era when Rome was governed as a republic, that is the era between the Roman Kingdom and the Roman Empire. So in this case \"res publica\" does distinctly \"not\" refer to the Roman \"Empire\", but to what is generally described as the Roman Republic.", "Roman Republic (19th century)\nAs a result, Oudinot was able to regroup and await reinforcements; time proved to be on his side, and Mazzini's attempt at diplomacy proved fatal to the Roman Republic. A letter from Louis Napoleon encouraged Oudinot and assured him of French reinforcements. The French government sent Ferdinand de Lesseps to negotiate a more formal ceasefire. Neapolitan troops sympathetic to the Papacy entered Roman Republic territory, and de Lesseps suggested that Oudinot's forces in their current position might protect the city from the converging approach of an Austrian army with the Neapolitan force: the Roman Triumvirate agreed. Many Italians from outside the Papal States went to Rome to fight for the Republic: among them was Goffredo Mameli, who had tried to form a common state joining Roman Republic and Tuscany, and who died of a wound suffered in the defense of Rome.", "Roman law\nThe constitution of the Roman Republic was not formal or even official. Its constitution was largely unwritten, and was constantly evolving throughout the life of the Republic. Throughout the 1st century BC, the power and legitimacy of the Roman constitution was progressively eroding. Even Roman constitutionalists, such as the senator Cicero, lost a willingness to remain faithful to it towards the end of the republic. When the Roman Republic ultimately fell in the years following the Battle of Actium and Mark Antony's suicide, what was left of the Roman constitution died along with the Republic. The first Roman Emperor, Augustus, attempted to manufacture the appearance of a constitution that still governed the Empire, by utilising that constitution's institutions to lend legitimacy to the Principate, e.g. reusing prior grants of greater imperium to substantiate Augustus' greater imperium over the Imperial provinces and the prorogation of different magistracies to justify Augustus' receipt of tribunician power. The belief in a surviving constitution lasted well into the life of the Roman Empire.", "List of censors of the Roman Republic\nWith the solidification of Augustus' rule, the Roman Republic came to an end. The office of censor nominally continued a small way into the Roman Republic, for example in 14 AD when Caesar Augustus held the office with Tiberius Julius Caesar.", "Constitutional reforms of Augustus\nThe Constitutional reforms of Augustus were a series of laws that were enacted by the Roman Emperor Augustus between 30 BC and 2 BC, which transformed the Constitution of the Roman Republic into the Constitution of the Roman Empire. The era that began when Augustus (then named Imp. Caesar Divi Filius, but often called Octavian by historians) defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the final war of the Roman Republic in 30 BC, and ended when the Roman Senate granted Augustus the title \"\"Pater Patriae\"\" in 2 BC.", "Roman Constitution\nOver the years, the Roman constitution continuously evolved. By the late 5th century BC, the Constitution of the Roman Kingdom had given way to the Constitution of the Roman Republic. By 27 BC, the Constitution of the Roman Republic had transformed into the Constitution of the Roman Empire. By 300 AD, the Constitution of the Roman Empire had been reformed into the Constitution of the Late Roman Empire. The actual changes, however, were quite gradual. Together, these four constitutions formed four epochs in the continuous evolution of one master constitution.", "History of human sexuality\nLike other aspects of Roman life, sexuality was supported and regulated by traditional Roman religion, both the public cult of the state and private religious practices and magic. Cicero held that the desire to procreate \"(libido)\" was \"the seedbed of the republic,\" as it was the cause for the first form of social institution, marriage, which in turn created the family, regarded by the Romans as the building block of civilization. Roman law penalized sex crimes \"(stuprum)\", particularly rape, as well as adultery. A Roman husband, however, committed the crime of adultery only when his sexual partner was a married woman.", "Direct democracy\nAlso relevant to the history of direct democracy is the history of Ancient Rome, specifically the Roman Republic, beginning around 509 BC. Rome displayed many aspects of democracy, both direct and indirect, from the era of Roman monarchy all the way to the collapse of the Roman Empire. Indeed, the Senate, formed in the first days of the city, lasted through the Kingdom, Republic, and Empire, and even continued after the decline of Western Rome; and its structure and regulations continue to influence legislative bodies worldwide. As to direct democracy, the ancient Roman Republic had a system of citizen lawmaking, or citizen formulation and passage of law, and a citizen veto of legislature-made law. Many historians mark the end of the Republic with the passage of a law named the \"Lex Titia\", 27 November 43 BC, which eliminated many oversight provisions.", "Roman Republic (19th century)\nThe Constitutional Assembly convened on 8 February and proclaimed the \"Roman Republic\" after midnight on 9 February. According to Jasper Ridley: \"When the name of Carlo Luciano Bonaparte, who was a member for Viterbo, was called, he replied to the roll-call by calling out \"Long live the Republic!\"\" (\"Viva la Repubblica!\"). That a Roman Republic was a foretaste of wider expectations was expressed in the acclamation of Giuseppe Mazzini as a Roman citizen.", "Roman Republic (disambiguation)\nThe Roman Republic was the phase of Ancient Roman civilization characterized by a republican form of government. ", "Republic of Florence\nThe city of Florence was established in 59 B.C. by Julius Caesar. Before the death of Matilda of Tuscany in 1115, the city had been part of the Marquisate of Tuscany founded in 846 A.D. The city did not submit readily to her successor Rabodo (r. 1116-1119), who was killed in a dispute with the city. It is not known precisely when the city formed its own government independent of the marquisate. The first official mention of the Florentine republic was in 1138, when several cities around Tuscany formed a league against Henry X of Bavaria. The country was nominally part of the Holy Roman Empire.", "Roman Republic\nEarly Roman literature was influenced heavily by Greek authors. From the mid-Republic, Roman authors followed Greek models, to produce free-verse and verse-form plays and other in Latin; for example, Livius Andronicus wrote tragedies and comedies. The earliest Latin works to have survived intact are the comedies of Plautus, written during the mid-Republic. Works of well-known, popular playwrights were sometimes commissioned for performance at religious festivals; many of these were Satyr plays, based on Greek models and Greek myths. Lucretius, in his On the Nature of Things explicated the tenets of Epicurean philosophy. Towards the end of the Republic, Virgil's epic poem, the Aeneid, built on Homer's ancient Greek epic, the Iliad, to make the Trojan prince Aeneas an ancestor of the Roman people.", "Legacy of the Roman Empire\nAncient Roman architecture, largely indebted to ancient Greek architecture of the Hellenistic period, has made a consistent impact on the architecture of the Western world, particularly during the Italian Renaissance of the 15th century. Roman law and republican politics (from the age of the Roman Republic) have left an enduring legacy, influencing the city-state republics of the Medieval period as well as the early United States and other modern democratic republics. The Julian calendar of ancient Rome formed the basis of the standard modern Gregorian calendar, while Roman inventions and engineering, such as the construction of concrete domes, continued to influence various peoples after the fall of Rome. Roman models of colonialism and of warfare also became influential.", "Silva Ciminia\nTo the Romans of the Republic, the forest was as much feared as the trackless Hercynian Forest would be when they encountered that. In 310 BCE the Roman Senate, even after the rout of the Etruscans at Sutrium, charged the consul Fabius Maximus Rullianus not to enter this woodland in pursuit of the Etruscans, and when it emerged that he had done so, all Rome was struck with terror. The Silva formed a natural barrier between Ancient Rome and Etruria.", "Republicanism\nThe Greek historian Polybius, writing in the mid-2nd century BCE, emphasized (in Book 6) the role played by the Roman Republic as an institutional form in the dramatic rise of Rome's hegemony over the Mediterranean. In his writing on the constitution of the Roman Republic, Polybius described the system as being a \"mixed\" form of government. Specifically, Polybius described the Roman system as a mixture of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy with the Roman Republic constituted in such a manner that it applied the strengths of each system to offset the weaknesses of the others. In his view, the mixed system of the Roman Republic provided the Romans with a much greater level of domestic tranquility than would have been experienced under another form of government. Furthermore, Polybius argued, the comparative level of domestic tranquility the Romans enjoyed allowed them to conquer the Mediterranean. Polybius exerted a great influence on Cicero as he wrote his politico-philosophical works in the 1st century BCE. In one of these works, \"De re publica\", Cicero linked the Roman concept of \"res publica\" to the Greek \"politeia\".", "Ancient Roman architecture\nAncient Roman architecture adopted the external language of classical Greek architecture for the purposes of the ancient Romans, but was different from Greek buildings, becoming a new architectural style. The two styles are often considered one body of classical architecture. Roman architecture flourished in the Roman Republic and even more so under the Empire, when the great majority of surviving buildings were constructed. It used new materials, particularly concrete, and newer technologies such as the arch and the dome to make buildings that were typically strong and well-engineered. Large numbers remain in some form across the empire, sometimes complete and still in use to this day.", "Roman Ghetto\nWhen the Roman Republic was formed in 1798 and took over the Papal States, it annulled the requirement for Jews to live only in the ghetto; and a Tree of Liberty was planted in Piazza delle Cinque Scole (\"Piazza of the Five Synagogues\"). However, when the Papal States were restored in 1799, the ghetto was reestablished and Jews who had left were compelled to return to the ghetto.", "Free state (government)\nThe republican sense of the term derives from \"libera res publica\" (literally, \"the free public thing/affair\"), a term used by Roman historians for the period of the Roman Republic, though not all \"free states\" have been republics. The historical German free states and the Orange Free State of Southern Africa were republican in form, however the Congo Free State and Irish Free State were governed under forms of monarchy.", "Hannibal's Children\nOne chapter and several generations later, the Romans have long since reestablished their republic. These Romans, largely out of need, have adopted a practice of Cultural Romanization more pronounced than the historical Romans did: large numbers of Germans have been adopted into the Roman society, forming a large proportion of both the legions and the Senate. A series of auspicious omens prompt the Senate to send a delegation south into Latium. The expedition leaders are subtly but immediately at cross purposes: the commander, Marcus Scipio, a scion of the ancient patrician Cornelii Scipiones family, is wholly motivated by a desire to reestablish the Republic in the Mediterranean basin. His deputy, Titus Norbanus, one of the newer, Germanic Romans, seeks personal glory, at least in part to ensure that the Germans (particularly his own family) remain as powerful within the expanded Republic as they do under the current scheme.", "Democracy\nEven though the Roman Republic contributed significantly to many aspects of democracy, only a minority of Romans were citizens with votes in elections for representatives. The votes of the powerful were given more weight through a system of gerrymandering, so most high officials, including members of the Senate, came from a few wealthy and noble families. In addition, the Roman Republic was the first government in the western world to have a Republic as a nation-state, although it didn't have much of a democracy. The Romans invented the concept of classics and many works from Ancient Greece were preserved. Additionally, the Roman model of governance inspired many political thinkers over the centuries, and today's modern representative democracies imitate more the Roman than the Greek models because it was a state in which supreme power was held by the people and their elected representatives, and which had an elected or nominated leader. Other cultures, such as the Iroquois Nation in the Americas between around 1450 and 1600 AD also developed a form of democratic society before they came in contact with the Europeans. This indicates that forms of democracy may have been invented in other societies around the world.", "Civic virtue\nAuthority for this ideal was found once more among the classical, and especially the Roman, political authors and historians. But since the Roman writers wrote during a time when the Roman republican ideal was fading away, its forms but not its spirit or substance being preserved in the Roman Empire, the 18th-century American and French revolutionaries read them with a spirit to determine how the Roman republic failed, and how to avoid repeating that failure. In his \"Reflections on the Rise and Fall of the Antient Republicks\", the English Whig historian Edward Wortley Montagu sought to describe \"the principal causes of that degeneracy of manners, which reduc'd those once brave and free people into the most abject slavery.\" Following this reading of Roman ideals, the American revolutionary Charles Lee envisioned a Spartan, egalitarian society where every man was a soldier and master of his own land, and where people were \"instructed from early infancy to deem themselves property of the State... (and) were ever ready to sacrifice their concerns to her interests.\" The agrarianism of Thomas Jefferson represents a similar belief system; Jefferson believed that the ideal republic was composed of independent, rural agriculturalists rather than urban tradesmen.\nThese widely held ideals led American revolutionaries to found institutions such as the Society of the Cincinnati, named after the Roman farmer and dictator Cincinnatus, who according to Livy left his farm to lead the army of the Roman republic during a crisis, and voluntarily returned to his plow once the crisis had passed. About Cincinnatus, Livy writes:", "Roman Republic (19th century)\nThe Roman Republic was a short-lived state declared on 9 February 1849, when the government of the Papal States was temporarily replaced by a republican government due to Pope Pius IX's flight to Gaeta. The republic was led by Carlo Armellini, Giuseppe Mazzini, and Aurelio Saffi. Together they formed a triumvirate, a reflection of a form of government seen in the ancient Roman Republic.", "History of assassination\nJulius Caesar was one of the three leaders of the First Triumvirate of the Roman Republic. After the other two members of the Triumvirate died, Julius Caesar became so popular he was proclaimed 'Dictator for Life', but the senate of the Roman Republic saw this as the end of the Republic, so, on the Ides of March (March 15) of 44 BC, the Roman Senate, including Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger who was a friend of Caesar went to the Senate, and when Caesar arrived, they stabbed him to death. When he was dying, Caesar is said to (in a play by Shakesphere) have looked at Brutus and say \"Et tu, Brute?\", or \"And you, Brutus?\". However, there is no record as to whether or not Caesar actually said these things. Soon after this, the Second Triumvirate was formed, ending in the collapse of the Roman Republic and the creation of the Roman Empire by Augustus Caesar.", "Republicanism\nThe modern term \"republic\", despite its derivation, is not synonymous with the Roman \"res publica\". Among the several meanings of the term \"res publica\", it is most often translated \"republic\" where the Latin expression refers to the Roman state, and its form of government, between the era of the Kings and the era of the Emperors. This Roman Republic would, by a modern understanding of the word, still be defined as a true republic, even if not coinciding entirely. Thus, Enlightenment philosophers saw the Roman Republic as an ideal system because it included features like a systematic separation of powers.", "Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)\nThe Habsburg rule in several parts of Italy continued in various forms but came to an end with the campaigns of the French Revolutionaries in 1792–1797, when a series of sister republics were set up with local support by Napoleon and then united into the Italian Republic (Napoleonic) under his Presidency. In 1805 the Republic became a new Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic), in personal union with France.", "Roman villa\nA Roman villa was a country house built for the upper class in the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, similar in form to the hacienda estates in the colonies of the Spanish Empire.", "History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic\nThe history of the Constitution of the Roman Republic is a study of the ancient Roman Republic that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the Roman Republic in 509 BC until the founding of the Roman Empire in 27 BC. The constitutional history of the Roman Republic can be divided into five phases. The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Kingdom in 509 BC, and the final phase ended with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Republic, and thus created the Roman Empire, in 27 BC. Throughout the history of the republic, the constitutional evolution was driven by the struggle between the aristocracy and the ordinary citizens." ]

[ "Heart of Darkness\nWhen Conrad began to write the novella, eight years after returning from Africa, he drew inspiration from his travel journals.[6] He described Heart of Darkness as \"a wild story\" of a journalist who becomes manager of a station in the (African) interior and makes himself worshipped by a tribe of savages. Thus described, the subject seems comic but is not.[7] The tale was first published as a three-part serial, in February, March and April 1899, in Blackwood's Magazine (February 1899 was the magazine's 1000th issue: special edition). Later in 1902, Heart of Darkness was included in the book Youth: a Narrative, and Two Other Stories (published on 13 November 1902, by William Blackwood)." ]

[ "Trigon (comics)\nAs part of DC Villains Month, Trigon replaced the Teen Titans as the main characters in their book for one issue named #23.1 with Deathstroke taking over #23.2. The Teen Titans book resumed publishing after Villains Month concluded. Though unconfirmed, the Villains Month event leaves Trigon's origins in question. Long ago, in another universe, a trinity of beings called the Divine attempted to eradicate the concept of evil through an item known as the Heart of Darkness. When the Divine return to a world they believed liberated, they find it in utter chaos along with the being they believe to be responsible, only because he appears not to be one of the planet's inhabitants. As they had done billions of times before, they sentence him and his two guards to the Heart of Darkness, that would feed on their evils. However, they were horrified when the stranger not only resisted but consumed the Heart of Darkness, along with the evils of a billion worlds, which heralded the true birth of Trigon. Now driven by an insatiable hunger for evil, Trigon moves slowly from universe to universe, spreading his devastating brand of evil in order to sate a hunger that knows no end.", "Epic Horse\nThe first book, \"Rider in the Dark\" was published as a hardcover in the US on September 7, 2004. The paperback was published about two years later on January 24, 2006 along with a new cover. The second book, \"The Horse From the Sea\" was published about half a year after \"Rider in the Dark\" on April 26, 2005. The paperback version had a cover change and published on August 8, 2006. The last book, \"Heart of Fire\" has only been released as a hardcover after publication on October 10, 2006.", "History of modern literature\nIn 1902 Joseph Conrad published \"Heart of Darkness\", which threw representations of civilised society into sharp contrast with representations of the jungle and played both of them in relation to the human heart and soul.", "The Dark Heart of Time\nThe Dark Heart of Time: A Tarzan novel is a novel by American writer Philip José Farmer, authorized by Edgar Rice Burroughs, Inc. Published in 1999, the book was first announced under the title \"Tarzan's Greatest Secret\" in 1997. A 2018 reissue of the novel will mark the book's first hardcover edition, and will be retitled as \"Tarzan and the Dark Heart of Time\".", "Concerto Fantastique\nWhen the Pulitzer board demanded an alternative, threatening to forego a music prize for the year, the jury submitted Wayne Peterson's \"The Face of the Night, the Heart of the Dark\". In an upset to the jury, the board selected \"The Face of the Night, the Heart of the Dark\" over \"Concerto Fantastique\" as the winner.", "Heart of Darkness\nLiterary critic Harold Bloom wrote that Heart of Darkness had been analysed more than any other work of literature that is studied in universities and colleges, which he attributed to Conrad's \"unique propensity for ambiguity\" but it was not a big success during Conrad's life.[16][17] When it was published as a single volume in 1902 with two novellas, \"Youth\" and \"The End of the Tether\", it received the least commentary from critics.[17] F. R. Leavis referred to Heart of Darkness as a \"minor work\" and criticised its \"adjectival insistence upon inexpressible and incomprehensible mystery\".[18] Conrad did not consider it to be particularly notable.[17] By the 1960s, it was a standard assignment in many college and high school English courses.", "List of villains in VR Troopers\nDark Heart (voiced by Kerrigan Mahan in the first appearance, Richard Epcar in the second appearance) used to be Tyler Steele, father of Ryan Steele. Dark Heart was the fiercest of the mutants in Grimlord's army as well as a key lieutenant. His battle with Ryan resulted in failure however. With Grimlord disappointed, he arranged for Dark Heart's execution. Dark Heart escaped with Ryan's help and joined him in assaulting the Virtual Dungeon. Both of them managed to escape before the Virtual Dungeon self-destructed and Dark Heart was eventually restored to human form after being wounded by Decimator. However, his freedom was short lived as Grimlord transported him back to Virtual Reality as Grimlord still needed Tyler Steele for his next plot. Outside of that, Dark Heart fits the category of Zelton's army.", "Dark Mind, Dark Heart\n\"Dark Mind, Dark Heart\" contains the following tales:", "Victoria Holmes\nVictoria is also the author of the books \"Rider in the Dark\", published in 2004, \"The Horse from the Sea\", published in 2005, and \"Heart of Fire\", published in 2006, collectively referred to as the Epic Horse series.", "List of items in Once Upon a Time\nThe Dark One's Dagger is a blade belonging to the Dark One's evolving victim, whose name is inscribed. It is also later revealed to be a broken half of the sword Excalibur. After Nimue turned dark, Merlin tethered her to it, turning the broken half of Excalibur into the Dark One's Dagger. Anyone who wields the Dark One's Dagger can control the Dark One. A Dark One can cleave themselves of the Dagger's control and retain their powers, so long as they have the Sorcerer's hat when it aligns with the night sky, and the heart of someone who knew them before they became the Dark One. The only other way for a Dark One to survive, but lose their powers is to be kissed by their true love; however, this doesn't work in the Land Without Magic. The more evil deeds a Dark One performs, the more their heart blackens, until eventually, their original self vanishes and the Dark One is all they are.", "The Dark Heart of Uukrul\nThe Dark Heart of Uukrul is a first-person perspective, turn-based fantasy computer role-playing game written by Ian Boswell and Martin Buis of Digital Studios Limited, and published by Brøderbund. The game was released in 1989 on the Apple II and in 1990 on the IBM PC.", "Heart of Darkness\nOriginally issued as a three-part serial story in Blackwood's Magazine to celebrate the thousandth edition of the magazine,[4] Heart of Darkness has been widely re-published and translated into many languages. Most famously, the story provided the inspiration for Francis Ford Coppola's 1979 film Apocalypse Now. In 1998, the Modern Library ranked Heart of Darkness 67th on their list of the 100 best novels in English of the twentieth century.[5]", "Re-Edition Texts: Heart of Darkness\nRe-Editioned Texts: Heart of Darkness is a novel by Stephanie Syjuco, with 12 reproduced versions of Joseph Conrad's novel \"Heart of Darkness\". Each version of the novel includes Joseph Conrad's \"Heart of Darkness\" opened in different online sources and printed without any changes. Each version is unique to the other 11. Differences include Font size, Font type, advertisements, and even mistakes.", "Cannibal Women in the Avocado Jungle of Death\nThe film ends happily for the trio of main characters: Bunny and Jim are to be married, and Jean-Pierre has enrolled at Dr. Hunt's university as a feminist studies major, becoming in the process the ideal companion for Hunt.The film's plot loosely parallels that of novel \"Heart of Darkness\" by Joseph Conrad, as well as \"Apocalypse Now\", which was also partly based on \"Heart of Darkness\". Both \"Heart of Darkness\" and \"Apocalypse Now\" feature a character named Kurtz who has gone deep into the jungle to become the deranged leader of a group of \"savages\"; these peoples engage in barbaric rites as an alternative to the rigid and restrictive values of the outside world. The name of the character Ford Maddox, one of the men who recruits Margo to enter the jungle, refers to author Ford Madox Ford, who collaborated on three novels with Conrad (though not on \"Heart of Darkness\"). When Kurtz and Hunt battle with fencing swords, Kurtz is stabbed, and her dying words are: \"You don't know what it's like, trying to face David Letterman with a book on male insensitivity ... All right, I was exploiting the Piranha women. You don't know what it was like. David Letterman, God, the horror ... the horror of that show ... the horror.\" In \"Heart of Darkness\", Kurtz's dying words are: \"The horror! The horror!\"", "Universe of Kingdom Hearts\nWhen Heartless are created, the body and soul of those with strong hearts that have lost their hearts to darkness become another type of creature called . As they lack hearts possessing light and darkness, they are \"nothing\", yet still exist within the \"Kingdom Hearts\" universe. Despite this, Nobodies have the potential to gain new hearts of their own through time, separate from their original selves. Nobodies typically assume malformed, inhuman shapes; however, the members of Organization XIII, a group of Nobodies central to the plot of the series, keep their human forms because they possessed strong hearts as humans and thus remember their original existence. Most members of the Organization control one type of Nobody suited to their fighting style. ", "Heart of Darkness (horse)\nHeart of Darkness was being prepared for a run in the Dewhurst Stakes when he fractured a cannon bone in a training gallop.", "List of villains in VR Troopers\nRenegade (voiced by Scott Page-Pagter) was a master assassin and marksman dressed in red spandex with white armor and fancied himself as one of the best. When it came to hunting down the rogue robot Dark Heart, Grimlord sent Renegade. When his head was damaged by Ryan, Renegade gained an upgraded head with a winged snake ornament on his forehead. Renegade also lost on his first encounter with Dark Heart; but after their second encounter, he successfully defeated and damaged Dark Heart. Renegade made further appearances in the show. Now with an upgraded and specially made handgun, to fight Ryan, Renegade proved very formidable and would have won against Ryan if the Ghost Biker hadn't saved Ryan. Renegade fits the category of Zelton's army since Zelton briefly took the form of him.", "Universe of Kingdom Hearts\nThe are creatures born from the darkness of people's hearts, lacking a body or soul, serving as the most common type of enemy the player encounters in the \"Kingdom Hearts\" series. Their name is derived from their lack of a heart, despite originating from people's hearts. When darkness consumes a character's heart, they become corrupted and turn into Heartless. The Heartless act as forces of darkness, seeking to consume more hearts, including those of worlds.", "Heart of Empire\nHeart of Empire,\" or \"the Legacy of Luther Arkwright is a limited series by Bryan Talbot, published in nine monthly parts in 1999 by American company Dark Horse Comics.", "The Face of the Night, the Heart of the Dark\nThe awarding of the Pulitzer Prize to \"The Face of the Night, the Heart of the Dark\" gained considerable notoriety in the classical music community. The music jury, comprising George Perle, Roger Reynolds, and Harvey Sollberger, originally submitted only one work for consideration—Ralph Shapey's \"Concerto Fantastique\"—despite Pulitzer rules requiring the jury to submit three works for board consideration. However, George Perle, who had served on previous Pulitzer Prize for Music juries, claimed that he was not aware of such provision. When the Pulitzer board demanded an alternative, threatening to forego a music prize for the year, the jury submitted Peterson's \"The Face of the Night, the Heart of the Dark\". In an upset to the jury, the board selected \"The Face of the Night, the Heart of the Dark\" over \"Concerto Fantastique\".", "Re-Edition Texts: Heart of Darkness\n\"Heart of Darkness\" is a novel told in the first person perspective that surrounds the character Marlow as he retells the story of when he traveled through Africa for his trade company. The novel alludes to Africa as a place of darkness, thus the title referring to being in the heart of Africa or heart of \"Darkness\". The novel describes Africa as a place of evil, and violent natives. The character Kurtz displays the effects of living in such a place for a long time. Kurtz grows ill and eventually passes, but he shows his passions for how much he loved Africa and how much he didn't want to leave. At one point he leaves wood for the steamer ship in a hut, and after the ship takes on all the wood, they are attacked by the natives. Later it is discovered that Kurtz organized the attack so that he could stay in Africa. Kurtz had grown to love his life in Africa and the culture, for example when the ship picks him up, there's a woman watching as the ship leaves, and that woman is Kurtz significant other.", "Broken Heart (Once Upon a Time)\nIn the Vault of the Dark One, the Darkness enters Hook, making him remember all of the darkest moments of his life, including the time when Rumplestiltskin killed Milah and took his hand, when Rumplestiltskin took his heart as part of a (failed) plan to absorb Emma into Merlin's hat, and when Emma became the Dark One. This causes him to scream in agony, before he emerges outside of the Vault from dark energy, as the newest Dark One. Like Emma, he is greeted by a manifestation of Rumplestiltskin, who offers Hook a chance to seek revenge on the living Rumplestiltskin, but Hook is reluctant to take up the challenge, knowing what the manifestation is, and not wanting to give in to the darkness.", "Heart of Darkness\nIn King Leopold's Ghost (1998), Adam Hochschild wrote that literary scholars have made too much of the psychological aspects of Heart of Darkness, while paying scant attention to Conrad's accurate recounting of the horror arising from the methods and effects of colonialism in the Congo Free State. \"Heart of Darkness is experience ... pushed a little (and only very little) beyond the actual facts of the case\".[19] Other critiques include Hugh Curtler's Achebe on Conrad: Racism and Greatness in Heart of Darkness (1997).[20] The French philosopher Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe called Heart of Darkness \"one of the greatest texts of Western literature\" and used Conrad's tale for a reflection on \"The Horror of the West\".[21]", "List of villains in VR Troopers\nUpon arriving in Virtual Reality, Grimlord soon assembled a fierce army of mutants and cyborgs commanding them from a place of authority. In the first season, this was the Virtual Dungeon. In the second season, it was the orbiting Virtual Dark Fortress. He also appointed several mutants and cyborgs as authority figures themselves including General Ivar and Colonel Icebot. In perhaps the greatest irony, Grimlord transformed Tyler into Dark Heart, yet Dark Heart turned traitor after Ryan freed him from execution. When Ryan and Dark Heart confronted Grimlord, he ended up escaping after setting the Virtual Dungeon to self-destruct. When Dark Heart regressed back to Tyler Steele, Grimlord abducted Tyler with his magic as he still needed Tyler for his next plot.", "Broken Heart (Once Upon a Time)\nWhen Hook says that the manifestation is lying, that there's no way to go back to Storybrooke, the manifestation taunts him by saying that he could use the Dark Curse to return. When Hook says that he would never use Emma's heart to enact the Curse, the manifestation says that for Dark Ones, \"there is always a loophole.\" Suddenly, Emma appears as the other Dark One, to convince Hook that they can work together to stop the Darkness by bonding together in love, and their kiss causes the manifestation of Rumplestiltskin to disappear. Later that night, Hook feels the \"pull\" of Excalibur towards the Dagger of the Dark One, despite Emma's claim that Excalibur had disappeared. When he calls Emma back, she admits that she has Excalibur, because Hook told her that he couldn't resist the darkness, making Hook furious with her lack of trust in him. Hook tells her that he had always trusted her, and that he was the one who told Emma's parents that she had to decide on her own not to crush Merida's heart in the past, before disappearing. Later on, Emma is forced to summon him with the Excalibur fragment later, just to have a conversation, angering him even more by the fact that she had used Excalibur to \"force\" him to come. She gives him Excalibur so that he can be in control of himself and they share a kiss.", "Dark Rivers of the Heart\nDark Rivers of the Heart is a novel by Dean Koontz, published in 1994.", "Heart of Darkness (video game)\nHeart of Darkness is a cinematic platform video game developed by Amazing Studio, published by Infogrames Multimedia in Europe and Interplay Productions in North America and distributed by Tantrum Entertainment and Infogrames for PlayStation and Microsoft Windows. A Game Boy Advance port was announced in 2001 but it was never released.", "Heart of Darkness (Once Upon a Time)\n\"Heart of Darkness\" was co-written by Andrew Chambliss and Ian B. Goldberg, while \"V\" veteran, Dean White, returned to direct the installment. The episode was included in \"Reawakened: A Once Upon a Time Tale\" – a novelization of the first season – which was published by Hyperion Books in 2013.", "Characters of Kingdom Hearts\nNine years before the events of the first game, Xehanort splits his host-body into the Heartless \"Ansem\" and Organization XIII's leader Xemnas. Retaining his human mind as a Heartless, and later regaining his human appearance after possessing Riku, Ansem uses Maleficent to gather the Princesses of Heart and produce the Keyhole to Kingdom Hearts, which he determines to be the ultimate reservoir of darkness. Upon opening the door to Kingdom Hearts, he is confounded and destroyed by the light within. In \"Chain of Memories\", it is revealed that Ansem's presence still lingers within Riku's heart, which causes Riku to assume Ansem's physical appearance when he taps into his dark powers, as shown in \"Kingdom Hearts II\". The presence is destroyed when Ansem the Wise's heart-encoding machine malfunctions and explodes, returning Riku to normal." ]

[ "WWE Championship\nThe WWE Championship was the first world championship introduced into the promotion in 1963. The inaugural champion was Buddy Rogers, and there have been 50 different official champions overall and 11 vacancies.[2] The longest reigning champion is Bruno Sammartino, who held the title from May 17, 1963 to January 18, 1971, for a total of 2,803 days (7 years, 8 months, and 1 day); Sammartino also holds the record for longest combined reign at 4,040 days.[102] André the Giant is the shortest reigning champion, officially holding the title for 1 minute, 48 seconds.[1] The youngest champion is Brock Lesnar, who won the title at the age of 25, while the oldest champion is Vince McMahon, who won it at the age of 54. John Cena holds the record for most reigns with 13." ]

[ "WWE Intercontinental Championship\nThere have been 81 different champions. Chris Jericho has the most reigns with nine. Pedro Morales held the championship for a record total of 619 days and The Honky Tonk Man had the longest uninterrupted reign at 454 days, from June 2, 1987 until August 29, 1988. Dean Douglas had the shortest reign at just 13 minutes 52 seconds. Chyna is the only woman in WWE history to win the title. The youngest champion was Jeff Hardy, who won the championship at 23 years old, while the oldest champion was Ric Flair, who won the championship at Unforgiven in 2005 at the age of 56. There have been 10 vacancies throughout the title's history.", "WWE United States Championship\nThe inaugural champion was Harley Race. There have been 92 different champions, with Ric Flair having the most reigns at six. The longest-reigning champion was Lex Luger who held the title for 523 days from May 22, 1989, to October 27, 1990. The shortest-reigning champion was \"Stunning\" Steve Austin who held the title for approximately five minutes. Dean Ambrose is the longest-reigning champion under the WWE banner at 351 days from May 19, 2013, to May 5, 2014. Booker T and Seth Rollins are the only two men to have held both the United States Championship and a world championship simultaneously; in Booker T's case, the world title was the WCW World Heavyweight Championship, while Rollins held the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. (Both Lex Luger and Goldberg were the United States Champion when they won their first world championship, but unlike Booker T and Rollins, they vacated the United States Championship after winning their world championships.) Terry Funk is the oldest champion in the title's history, winning the title at the age of 56 on September 22, 2000, while David Flair is the youngest at the age of 20 on July 5, 1999.", "WWE United Kingdom Championship Special\nOn December 15, 2016, at The O2 Arena, Triple H announced that the following month WWE would crown its inaugural United Kingdom Champion. A tournament to crown the inaugural champion occurred on the United Kingdom Championship Tournament event which took place over two days on January 14 and 15. The tournament and championship were won by Tyler Bate. With the victory, 19 year old Bate became the youngest singles champion in WWE history and the second youngest champion overall behind René Duprée (10-years old Nicholas later became the youngest of all time at WrestleMania 34).", "List of WWE Raw Women's Champions\nOverall, there have been 14 reigns between 6 champions. Charlotte Flair is tied with Sasha Banks for the most reigns at four. Alexa Bliss' second reign is the longest at 223 days and she has the longest combined reign at 398 days. Banks' fourth reign is the shortest at 8 days (9 days as recognized by WWE). Nia Jax is the oldest champion, winning the title at the age of 33, while Banks is the youngest when she first won the title at 24 years old.", "WWE Raw Women's Championship\nAs of 23, 2021, there have been 14 reigns between 6 champions. Charlotte Flair, then known simply as Charlotte, was the inaugural champion. She is tied with Sasha Banks for the most reigns at four. Alexa Bliss' second reign is the longest at 223 days and she has the longest combined reign at 398 days (WWE recognizes 222 days and 396 days, respectively). Banks' fourth reign is the shortest at 8 days. Nia Jax is the oldest champion, winning the championship at the age of 33, while Banks is the youngest as she won the title at 24 years old.", "List of WWE European Champions\nThe WWE European Championship is a former professional wrestling title competed for in World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). The title was created on February 26, 1997. The first champion was The British Bulldog who defeated Owen Hart in a tournament final. The title was retired briefly in April 1999 by then-champion Shane McMahon, who wanted to retire as an \"undefeated champion\". McMahon reintroduced the championship two months later and gave it to Mideon, who saw the title belt in Shane's travel bag and asked if he could have it. The title was finally retired on July 22, 2002 when WWE Intercontinental Champion Rob Van Dam defeated European Champion Jeff Hardy to unify the European title into the Intercontinental title. There have been a total of 27 recognized champions who have had a combined 37 official reigns. This is a chronological list of wrestlers that have been WWE European Champion by ring name.", "Vengeance (2002)\nAfter winning the WWE Undisputed Championship, The Rock then entered a feud with the number one contender Brock Lesnar for the upcoming SummerSlam event. Lesnar went on to win the match and become the youngest champion in the title's history. It was also the last match for The Rock as an active WWE wrestler, and his final reign as WWE Champion until winning the title at the Royal Rumble in 2013, prior to being a full-time actor in Hollywood.", "Raw (WWE brand)\nThe 2005 draft was held on the June 6 episode of Raw. The first draft lottery pick was then WWE Champion John Cena, thus moving the WWE Championship to Raw and having two titles on the brand. Eventually, then World Heavyweight Champion Batista was deafted to SmackDown as the last draft pick, leaving only the WWE Championship on Raw. On the 2008 draft lottery, CM Punk got drafted to Raw and then won the World Heavyweight Championship from Edge, who was a SmackDown wrestler. Triple H, who was the WWE Champion at the time, got drafted to SmackDown while Kane, who was the then ECW Champion, got drafted to Raw. After the draft lottery in 2009, the WWE Championship was brought back to Raw when Triple H was drafted from SmackDown while the World Heavyweight Championship was brought back to SmackDown when Edge defeated John Cena to win the title at Backlash.", "Tyler Bate\nTyler Bate (born 7 March 1997) is an English professional wrestler currently signed to WWE, where he appears on their NXT UK brand. He is a former WWE United Kingdom Champion and NXT Tag Team Champion. His win of the United Kingdom Championship at age 19 made him the youngest singles champion in WWE history, and its youngest inaugural champion. He and Trent Seven form the tag team \"Moustache Mountain\" and have collectively held the RPW Undisputed British Tag Team Championship in Revolution Pro Wrestling, the Progress Tag Team Championship in Progress Wrestling, the Chikara Campeonatos de Parejas in Chikara, and the NXT Tag Team Championship. Bate, Seven, and Pete Dunne collectively form \"British Strong Style\".", "WWE Cruiserweight Championship\nAs of 23, 2021, there have been eleven reigns between nine champions and one vacancy. The inaugural champion was T.J. Perkins. The oldest champion is The Brian Kendrick, winning the title at 37 years old, while the youngest champion is Rich Swann when he won it at 25. Neville and Enzo Amore have the most reigns at two. Neville also has the longest reign at 197 days (196 days as recognized by WWE), while Akira Tozawa has the shortest reign at 6 days (5 days as recognized by WWE). Neville also has the longest combined reign at 232 days (231 days as recognized by WWE).", "List of WWE SmackDown Women's Champions\nOverall, there have been 11 reigns between 7 champions and 1 vacancy. Charlotte Flair holds the record for the longest reign at 147 days while Naomi has the shortest reign at 9 days (WWE recognizes 146 days and 8 days, respectively). Flair and Becky Lynch are tied for the longest combined reign at 175 days (although WWE recognizes 173 days for Flair). Alexa Bliss, Naomi, Flair, and Lynch are tied with the most reigns at two. Asuka is the oldest champion, having won the title at 37, while Bliss is the youngest when she won it at 25.", "WWE SmackDown Women's Championship\nAs of 23, 2021, overall there have been 11 reigns between 7 champions and 1 vacancy. Becky Lynch was the inaugural champion. Charlotte Flair holds the record for the longest reign at 147 days, while Naomi has the shortest reign at 9 days (WWE recognizes 146 days and 8 days, respectively). Flair and Lynch are tied for the longest combined reign at 175 days (although WWE recognizes 173 days for Flair). Alexa Bliss, Naomi, Flair, and Lynch are tied with the most reigns at two. Asuka is the oldest champion, having won the title at 37, while Bliss is the youngest, having won it at 25.", "List of WWE Women's Champions\nAs recognized by the WWE, the inaugural champion was The Fabulous Moolah, who won the title on September 18, 1956, which at that time was the NWA World Women's Championship (which still exists today). While she was still champion, it became the WWF Women's Championship in 1984. In May 2002, after the WWF was renamed to WWE, the championship became the WWE Women's Championship. At the start of the brand extension that began in March 2002, the Women's Championship was defended on any brand until it became exclusive to Raw in September that year. It was the only women's championship in the WWE until SmackDown created the WWE Divas Championship as a counterpart title in July 2008. The titles switched brands in April 2009. On September 19, 2010, at Night of Champions, the Women's Championship was unified with the WWE Divas Championship, retiring the Women's Championship.", "Randy Orton\nOrton became a member of the stable Evolution shortly after his WWE debut, which quickly led to an Intercontinental Championship reign, his first title with the company. He also acquired the moniker \"The Legend Killer\" during a storyline where he began disrespecting and then physically attacking WWE Hall of Famers and wrestling veterans. At age 24, he became the youngest world champion in WWE history after he won the World Heavyweight Championship from Chris Benoit . With this win, he departed from Evolution and a feud with his former stablemates began. In 2006, Orton joined forces with Edge in a tag team known as Rated-RKO. Together, they held the World Tag Team Championship. After Rated-RKO disbanded in mid-2007, Orton gained two WWE Championship reigns in one night, when at 27 he became the second youngest two-time WWE Champion. He formed the group The Legacy with Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase in 2008. It disbanded in 2010 and Orton returned to singles competition. From 2013 to 2015, Orton was aligned with The Authority, who named him the \"face of the WWE\". In late 2016, he joined The Wyatt Family, winning the SmackDown Tag Team Championship with stablemates Bray Wyatt and Luke Harper before turning on Wyatt in February 2017. He won his first United States Championship in 2018, becoming the eighteenth overall Grand Slam Champion after already having been the Seventeenth Triple Crown Champion.", "World Heavyweight Championship (WWE)\nThe following is a list of dates indicating the transitions of the World Heavyweight Championship between the Raw and SmackDown brands.\nThe inaugural champion was Triple H, and there were 25 different champions overall. The longest reigning champion was Batista who held the title from April 3, 2005, to January 10, 2006, for a total of 282 days. Triple H holds the record for longest combined reigns at 616 days. The shortest reigning champion was Randy Orton in his fourth reign, who immediately retired the championship upon winning it and unifying it with the WWE Championship. He was also the youngest champion, at the age of 24. The oldest champion was The Undertaker who won at the age of 44. Edge held the title the most times with seven championship reigns. There were six vacancies throughout the title's history.", "WWE United Kingdom Championship\nAs of 23, 2021, there have been two reigns. The inaugural champion was Tyler Bate, who won the inaugural tournament. Bate is also the youngest champion, winning the title at 19 years old, while the oldest champion is Pete Dunne, winning the title at 23. Dunne has the longest reign at + days, while Bate has the shortest at 125 days.", "Beth Phoenix\nElizabeth Copeland (née Kociański) (born November 24, 1980) is an American professional wrestler and color commentator, better known by her ring name Beth Phoenix. She is currently signed to WWE under a Legends contract, where she is a former WWE Divas Champion, a three-time WWE Women's Champion, and the youngest person to ever be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame.", "King of the Ring (2002)\nDue to defeating the Intercontinental Champion Rob Van Dam in the finals of the King of the Ring tournament, Brock Lesnar feuded with Van Dam over the Intercontinental Championship. At Vengeance, Van Dam defeated Lesnar by disqualification to retain the title. After the event, Lesnar joined the \"SmackDown!\" brand and began feuding with the WWE Undisputed Champion The Rock as he had won the King of the Ring tournament and earned the right to challenge for the WWE Undisputed Championship at SummerSlam becoming the first winner of the King of the Ring tournament to have done so since Mabel in 1995. At SummerSlam, Lesnar defeated The Rock for the WWE Undisputed Championship. and became the youngest champion in the title's history.", "List of WWE Cruiserweight Champions\nOverall, there have been 11 reigns between 9 champions and one vacancy. Neville and Enzo Amore have the most reigns at two. Neville's first reign is the longest reign at 197 days and he also has the longest combined reign at 232 days (196 days and 231 days, respectively, as recognized by WWE). Akira Tozawa has the shortest reign at 6 days (5 days as recognized by WWE). The oldest champion is The Brian Kendrick, winning the title at 37 years old, while the youngest champion is Rich Swann when he won it at 25.", "List of current champions in WWE\nAt the top of WWE's championship hierarchy are the WWE Universal Championship on Raw and the WWE Championship on SmackDown. The Universal Championship is held by record two-time champion Brock Lesnar, who won the vacant title by defeating Braun Strowman at Crown Jewel on November 2, 2018; previous champion Roman Reigns had to relinquish the title due to illness (leukemia). The WWE Champion is Daniel Bryan, who is in his fourth reign. He won the title on the November 13, 2018, episode of SmackDown Live by defeating AJ Styles.", "Bo Dallas\nWhile in WWE's developmental territories Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW) and NXT, he was a three-time FCW Florida Heavyweight Champion, a two-time FCW Florida Tag Team Champion with his older brother Bray Wyatt, and the youngest NXT Champion in WWE history at age 22. He has since teamed with Curtis Axel as part of The B-Team, with whom he held the Raw Tag Team Championship once with.", "WWE Raw Women's Championship\nOn April 3, 2016, WWE Hall of Famer Lita appeared during the WrestleMania 32 pre-show and, after recapping the history of women's professional wrestling in WWE, unveiled the brand-new championship and declared that WWE's women would no longer be referred to as WWE Divas, but as \"WWE Superstars\" just as their male counterparts are. This came after the term \"Diva\" was scrutinized by some commentators, fans, and several past and present WWE female performers, including then-Divas Champion Charlotte, who were in favor of changing the championship to the Women's Championship. It was also changed because some WWE female wrestlers felt it diminished their athletic abilities in the ring and relegated them to \"eye candy\". Lita then announced that the winner of the Divas Championship triple threat match between Charlotte, Becky Lynch, and Sasha Banks later that night would become the first-ever WWE Women's Champion, subsequently retiring the Divas Championship. Charlotte, the final Divas Champion, became the inaugural WWE Women's Champion when she defeated Sasha Banks and Becky Lynch. ", "List of WWE Women's Champions\nThe Fabulous Moolah's first reign is the longest reign, and is officially recognized to be 10,170 days, due to WWE not recognizing title changes between 1956 and 1984 (her first reign's real number is 3,651 days, which is still the longest reign). Moolah technically also has the most reigns at 8, but since the WWE does not recognize the title changes between 1956 and 1984, Moolah only has 4 reigns and Trish Stratus has the most reigns with 7. Mickie James has the shortest reign with 1 hour. Wendi Richter is the youngest champion at the age of 22 years and 10 months, and Moolah is the oldest at the age of 76 years and 106 days. Bertha Faye is the heaviest champion and The Kat is the lightest champion. Chyna is the only undefeated champion. The final champion was Layla, in her first and only reign.", "Undisputed championship\nImmediately following Summerslam 2011, the brand extension officially ended, meaning that both the WWE Champion and the World Heavyweight Champion could appear on both \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\". In November 2013, then World Heavyweight Champion John Cena made a challenge to then WWE Champion Randy Orton to determine an undisputed world champion; the match would take place at the pay-per-view the following month. Randy Orton defeated John Cena in a TLC match and unified the titles. Subsequently, the World Heavyweight Championship was retired and the WWE Championship was renamed the WWE World Heavyweight Championship and retained its lineage. Like the WWE Undisputed Championship, the WWE World Heavyweight Championship was represented by the belts of its two predecessors until a singular belt design was commissioned in August 2014. In June 2016, the championship was reverted to being called the WWE Championship before WWE reintroduced the brand extension the following month. The WWE Champion was drafted to SmackDown and it was renamed the WWE World Championship though reverted to WWE Championship in December 2016. In response, Raw created their own world championship, the WWE Universal Championship. With this, WWE no longer has an undisputed world champion as there are two world championships in the promotion again.", "History of WWE\nThe two top stars of the Attitude Era, Stone Cold Steve Austin and The Rock, eventually left the company in 2003 and 2004 respectively, while newcomers such as Brock Lesnar, who would become the youngest WWE Champion and Randy Orton, who became the youngest World Heavyweight Champion, saw huge success. Triple H would also be featured prominently during this time, winning several of his fourteen world championships, as would The Undertaker whose WrestleMania win streak started gaining fame. Eddie Guerrero, Rey Mysterio, Kurt Angle, Chris Benoit, Edge, Brock Lesnar, Randy Orton, John Cena, Batista, John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield, and Rob Van Dam were also given main event opportunities and all ended up becoming multiple-time world champions. From mid 2002 to 2003, WWE brought several prominent WCW stars to the company, including Eric Bischoff, Scott Steiner, Goldberg, Kevin Nash and Ric Flair. The Great American Bash, originally a WCW pay-per-view event, made its debut in WWE.", "SummerSlam (2002)\nThe main event was for the WWE Undisputed Championship between The Rock and Brock Lesnar. Lesnar dominated early with some power moves. The Rock went for the Sharpshooter. Lesnar's manager Paul Heyman got involved in the match, as he was attacked by The Rock, who executed a Rock Bottom through a broadcast table on Heyman. The Rock and Brock Lesnar gave each other a \"Rock Bottom\". The match came to an end when Lesnar stopped a People's Elbow and a \"Rock Bottom\" and then executed the \"F-5\" on The Rock for the win and the title. Lesnar remained the youngest world champion in WWE history until Randy Orton won the World Heavyweight Championship in 2004, although Lesnar remains the youngest WWE Champion in history.", "World Heavyweight Championship (WWE)\nFollowing the end of the first brand extension in 2011, both the World Heavyweight Champion and WWE Champion could appear on both \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\". In 2013, the night after Survivor Series, then-World Heavyweight Champion John Cena made a challenge to then-WWE Champion Randy Orton to determine an undisputed WWE world champion. Randy Orton defeated John Cena in a TLC match at the pay-per-view on December 15, 2013, to unify the titles. Subsequently, the WWE Championship was renamed WWE World Heavyweight Championship. The unified championship retained the lineage of the WWE Championship, and the World Heavyweight Championship was retired. With his victory over John Cena, Randy Orton became the final World Heavyweight Champion. Like with the Undisputed Championship, the Big Gold Belt was used in tandem with the WWE Championship belt to represent the WWE World Heavyweight Championship until a single belt was presented to then champion Brock Lesnar in August 2014. ", "Undisputed championship\nWith the purchase of WCW during the previous year, WWE's roster had doubled in size and with newly obtained properties and a desire to further expand, the promotion was essentially divided in what became known as the WWE Brand Extension. This resulted in WWE's two main programs, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\", becoming distinct brands, acting as complementing promotions under WWE. The WWE Undisputed Championship was then consequently shared between both brands and soon conflict began brewing over the title. In late August 2002, after becoming the youngest WWE world champion at the time by winning the WWE Undisputed Championship, Brock Lesnar and his title were made exclusive to SmackDown. To remedy this, the Big Gold Belt was brought back the following month to represent the new World Heavyweight Championship and became \"Raw's\" top championship, thus making the WWE Championship no longer undisputed.", "List of World Heavyweight Champions (WWE)\nThe championship was contested in professional wrestling matches, in which participants execute scripted finishes. The first champion was Triple H, who was awarded the title on September 2, 2002 by Eric Bischoff, then-General Manager of Raw, and he also holds the record for longest combined reign at 616 days. Overall, there have been 25 different official champions, with Edge having the most reigns at seven. The longest single reign was held by Batista, lasting 282 days. The final holder was Randy Orton, who was also the youngest champion at the age of 24 when he first won the championship. The Undertaker was the oldest champion when he won the title for the third time at the age of 44 years." ]

[ "History of time in the United States\nThe history of standard time in the United States began November 18, 1883, when United States and Canadian railroads instituted standard time in time zones. Before then, time of day was a local matter, and most cities and towns used some form of local solar time, maintained by some well-known clock (for example, on a church steeple or in a jeweler's window). The new standard time system was not immediately embraced by all." ]

[ "North American Football Union\nThe North American SuperLiga was a club tournament between two North American zone leagues that ran from 2007-2010. It was an official tournament sanctioned by CONCACAF, but not organized by the federation. When zone qualifiers were used for the CONCACAF Champions Cup, Bermudian clubs played against Mexican and/or American clubs.", "Western Caribbean Zone\nIn the nineteenth century, North American concerns began the construction of railroads in much of Central America, which necessarily started on the contested zone of the Western Caribbean. In the process of this and the development of the fruit companies, North American and particularly New English contacts and influence continued. While the international engagement began with the fruit companies which dominated the economy of the Atlantic side of most Central American countries, in the 1970s they were joined by multi-national textile companies which established large-scale workshops (maquiladoras) to produce clothing for the international market. Many of the shops are owned by Asian (especially Korean) concerns, though their target markets remain in North American.", "Effects of time zones on North American broadcasting\nCanadian broadcasting networks, with six time zones and a much larger percentage of its audience residing in the Mountain Time Zone than in the Central Time Zone, are sometimes able to avoid the issues that affect American programming by airing pre-recorded programs on local time. CBC Television and CTV created delay centres in Calgary in the early 1960s in order to allow programming to air in each time zone based on the region.", "Zoning (Australian rules football)\nThe VFL formally adopted metropolitan zoning for the 1916 season under laws which required a player to play for the club in his zone he lived, unless he:Metropolitan zoning has been seen by historians of the VFL as improving the competitive balance of the league in the years following World War I. When Footscray, Hawthorn and North Melbourne were admitted for the 1925 season, they were allocated zones. Over time, boundaries were changed to cope with demographic shifts.", "Wake Island Time Zone\nThe zone includes the U.S. territory of Wake Island and is two hours ahead of Chamorro Time Zone, 17 hours ahead of North American Eastern Time Zone, 23 hours ahead of Samoa Time Zone, and 24 hours ahead of Howland and Baker Islands.", "1973 CONCACAF Champions' Cup\nThe teams were split in 3 zones (North American, Central American and Caribbean), each one qualifying the winner to the final tournament. As no clubs entered in the North American section, the winner of the two remaining zones gained the qualification to the final, but both Central American teams withdrew; therefore the final was scratched and the Caribbean winner, SV Transvaal from Suriname, won the tournament, and became for the first time CONCACAF champion.", "Korean conflict\nOn November 1, 2018, buffer zones were established across the DMZ to help ensure the end of hostility on land, sea and air.[126] The buffer zones stretch from the north of Deokjeok Island to the south of Cho Island in the West Sea and the north of Sokcho city and south of Tongchon County in the East (Yellow) Sea.[126][127] In addition, no fly zones were established along the DMZ.[126][127]", "Division of Korea\nOn November 1, 2018, buffer zones were established across the DMZ to help ensure the end of hostility on land, sea and air.[72][73] The buffer zones stretch from the north of Deokjeok Island to the south of Cho Island in the West Sea and the north of Sokcho city and south of Tongchon County in the East (Yellow) Sea.[73][72] In addition, no fly zones were established as well.[72][73]", "Morris County, New Jersey\nFrom 1611 to 1614, the Dutch established the colony of New Netherland, which claimed territory between the 40th and 45th parallel north, a zone which included northern New Jersey. Dutch forts were established along the Hudson River beginning in 1613. As the years went by, more forts were established to trade with Native Americans.", "1931 International Lawn Tennis Challenge\nThe 1931 International Lawn Tennis Challenge was the 26th edition of what is now known as the Davis Cup. Due to an increase in South American entries, the Americas Zone was split into the North/Central American Zone and the South American Zone. The winner of each sub-zone would play to determine who moved to the Inter-Zonal round. 22 teams would enter the Europe Zone, while 7 would enter the Americas Zone. These included first-time entries from Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay, although Brazil withdrew without playing a tie, and Paraguay would not play their second tie until 1982. This year also marked the first time that ties were played in South America.", "1997 CONCACAF Champions' Cup\nThe teams were split into 3 zones (North, Central and Caribbean). The North American zone qualified 3 teams direct into the quarterfinals and 2 teams played a play-off to get a 4th spot in the quarterfinals. The Central American zone played a regional tournament to get 3 spots in the quarterfinal. The winner of the Caribbean zone got a place in the quarterfinals.", "1974 CONCACAF Champions' Cup\nThe teams were split in 3 zones (North American, Central American and Caribbean), each one qualifying the winner to the final tournament. As no clubs entered in the North American section, the winner of the two remaining zones gained the qualification to the final.\nMunicipal from Guatemala won the tournament, and became for the first time CONCACAF champion.", "South Baden\nAt the Yalta Conference in 1945, France was allocated an occupation zone for the administration of post-war Germany. The south-west of Germany – previously consisting of Baden, Württemberg and the Prussian province of Hohenzollern – was divided between France in the south and the United States in the north. The border between the two zones was set so that the Autobahn connecting Karlsruhe and Munich (today the A8) was completely contained within the American zone; Bavaria was also placed under American administration. In the French zone, Hohenzollern and the southern half of Württemberg were merged to form Württemberg-Hohenzollern. The southern half of Baden was established as South Baden on 1 December 1945. Freiburg was designated as the capital of South Baden; the former capital of Baden (Karlsruhe) was in the American zone.", "Chamorro Time Zone\nThe zone is two hours behind Wake Island Time Zone and 15 hours ahead of North American Eastern Time Zone.", "Dreger Clock\nAnother unusual feature of this clock is the fact that originally, Andrew Dreger Sr. set it to display the solar time of the international cities rather than the, by then accepted, time zone times. This means the minute hands of the international cities were not always pointing to the same minute. In 1933 when the Dreger Clock was completed, the time zone standard was well established, however solar time was the setting used, as seen in early photos of the clock in some of the historical articles about the clock. When the clock was moved to Knott's Berry Farm in 1952-53, the clock faces were adjusted to the time zone standard, where all minute hands are in agreement, and only the hour hands are different.", "North American land mammal age\nThe North American land mammal ages (NALMA) establishes a geologic timescale for North American fauna beginning during the Late Cretaceous and continuing through to the present. These periods are referred to as ages or intervals (or stages when referring to the rock strata of that age) and were established using geographic place names where fossil materials were obtained.", "List of North Carolina Tar Heels football All-Americans\nSince the establishment of the team in 1888, North Carolina has had 68 players honored a total of 85 times as an All-American for their performance on the field of play. Included in these selections are fourteen consensus selections, three of which were unanimous selections. The most recent All-Americans from North Carolina a came after the 2013 season, when Eric Ebron and Ryan Switzer were each named First Team All-America by various selectors.", "Eichenberg station\nAfter the end of World War II, Eichenberg was a border station. Here there were controls between the British and American zone until 1 November 1948, when they were abolished to the north (in the British zone); a year later, they were also abolished to the south (in the U.S. zone). Rail services between Eichenberg and Arenshausen (in the Russian zone) were closed. A re-opening of the line was rejected by the western authorities because Eichenberg station was congested due to the controls. Under the Helmstedt agreement of 1949, the line would have been re-opened, but this was not implemented. The tracks between Eichenberg and Arenshausen were dismantled from 1948.", "States of Germany\nBetween 1945 and 1947, new states were established in all four zones of occupation: Bremen, Hesse, Württemberg-Baden, and Bavaria in the American zone; Hamburg, Schleswig-Holstein, Lower Saxony, and North Rhine-Westphalia in the British zone; Rhineland-Palatinate, Baden, Württemberg-Hohenzollern and the Saarland which later received a special status in the French zone; Mecklenburg(-Vorpommern), Brandenburg, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia in the Soviet zone.", "Union Latino Americana\nThe ULA organized Latin America into 22 zones. Each of the 21 Latin American countries constituted a zone. The 22nd zone was represented by the United States. The ULA, was a framework for the implementation of Pan-American ideology. All the zones were bonded by the same constitution and internal rules and regulations. On September 30, 1934 Sigma Delta Alpha, a fraternity established on the island of Puerto Rico joined the Union. It was renamed Phi Sigma Alpha. By 1937, the ULA had several well-established and functional zones including: ", "Time in Indonesia\nThe Indonesian archipelago geographically stretches across three time zones from in Aceh to in Western Papua. However, the Indonesian government only recognizes three time zones in its territory:\nThe boundary between the western and central time zones established is a line running north between Java and Bali through the center of Kalimantan. The border between central and eastern time zones runs north from the eastern tip of Timor to the eastern tip of Sulawesi.", "Rundfunk der DDR\nWhen the three Western occupation sectors in Berlin were established, the American zone gained the station Rundfunk im amerikanischen Sektor (RIAS), while the British zone established the Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk (NWDR) which also broadcast in their zone. In 1948, control of the NWDR was transferred to the provisional government in West Germany (later becoming Sender Freies Berlin), while RIAS remained under direct American control.", "Grand National Teams\nThe extended, grass-roots tournament was re-established in 1973, when about 1500 teams participated. Initial stages were contested in the 25 geographically defined ACBL Districts. Champions of eight Zones were determined in a semifinal stage, who qualified for the final stage at one of the North American NABC meets.", "Newfoundland Time Zone\nThis time zone exists because of the location of the island and the fact that it was a separate dominion when the time zones were established. The island of Newfoundland lies squarely in the eastern half of the Atlantic Time Zone, exactly three and a half hours from Greenwich. Since it was separate from Canada, it had the right to adopt its own time zone. While the entire province lies west of the standard meridian for a half-hour time zone, 52.5 degrees west longitude, this is also the near exact meridian of St. John's, the province's capital and largest city. In 1963, the Newfoundland government attempted to bring the province into conformity with the other Atlantic provinces, but withdrew in the face of stiff public opposition.", "Time zone\nTimekeeping on the American railroads in the mid-19th century was somewhat confused. Each railroad used its own standard time, usually based on the local time of its headquarters or most important terminus, and the railroad's train schedules were published using its own time. Some junctions served by several railroads had a clock for each railroad, each showing a different time.\nCharles F. Dowd proposed a system of one-hour standard time zones for American railroads about 1863, although he published nothing on the matter at that time and did not consult railroad officials until 1869. In 1870 he proposed four ideal time zones (having north–south borders), the first centered on Washington, D.C., but by 1872 the first was centered on the meridian 75° W of Greenwich, with geographic borders (for example, sections of the Appalachian Mountains). Dowd's system was never accepted by American railroads. Instead, U.S. and Canadian railroads implemented a version proposed by William F. Allen, the editor of the \"Traveler's Official Railway Guide\". The borders of its time zones ran through railroad stations, often in major cities. For example, the border between its Eastern and Central time zones ran through Detroit, Buffalo, Pittsburgh, Atlanta, and Charleston. It was inaugurated on Sunday, , also called \"The Day of Two Noons\", when each railroad station clock was reset as standard-time noon was reached within each time zone. The zones were named Intercolonial, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific. Within a year 85% of all cities with populations over 10,000, about 200 cities, were using standard time. A notable exception was Detroit (which is about halfway between the meridians of eastern time and central time) which kept local time until 1900, then tried Central Standard Time, local mean time, and Eastern Standard Time before a May 1915 ordinance settled on EST and was ratified by popular vote in August 1916. The confusion of times came to an end when Standard zone time was formally adopted by the U.S. Congress in the Standard Time Act of March 19, 1918.", "September 2018 inter-Korean summit\nOn 1 November 2018, officials from the South Korea's Ministry of Defense confirmed that buffer zones were established across the DMZ by the North and South Korean militaries. In compliance with Comprehensive Military Agreement, the buffer zones help ensure that both Koreas will ban hostility on land, sea and air. The buffer zones stretch from the north of Deokjeok Island to the south of Cho Island in the West Sea and the north of Sokcho city and south of Tongchon County in the East (Yellow) Sea. Both North and South Korea are prohibited from conducting live-fire artillery drills and regiment-level field maneuvering exercises or those by bigger units within 5 kilometers of the Military Demarcation Line (MDL). No-fly zones have also been established along the DMZ to ban the operation of drones, helicopters and other aircraft over an area up to 40 km away from the MDL. Both Koreas also established \"peace zones\" near their disputed Yellow Sea border. A buffer zone was also established in the Yellow Sea's Northern Limit Line (NLL).", "Effects of time zones on North American broadcasting\nSimilarly, media coverage of New Year's Eve celebrations in New York City often leave the Central Time Zone out. \"Late Night with Conan O'Brien\", though produced in New York City, when broadcast on New Year's Eve took advantage of its later time slot (11:37 p.m. Central time) to lampoon this inconsistency by presenting a New Year's celebration for the Central Time Zone. In some locations, New Year's Eve celebrations held in New York might be repeatedly performed live or delayed one hour to correspond to the Central Time Zone. News channels such as CNN and sports channels such as ESPN that frequently broadcast live events offer a single feed that airs in all time zones. About 80 percent of the U.S. population reside in the Central and Eastern time zones, where the nation's largest city (and the main anchor of television programming) New York is located.", "Los Angeles metropolitan area\nWhen the subduction zone ceased about 55 million years ago, the Farallon Plate was split into two distinctive plates which can still be observed today as the Juan de Fuca Plate and the Cocos Plate. Both were part of the same plate, but were discovered independently before this connection was made. At the time of this break off, the Pacific Plate had a general north west movement while the North American Plate had a general south east movement. This created a new fault zone when a weak point gave way between these two plates. This is the beginnings of the infamous San Andreas Fault. The San Andreas Fault is a right-lateral strike strip transverse fault. When this fault was just created, a volcano from the ancient subduction zone was situated about 3/4th on the Pacific Plate and 1/4th on the North American plate somewhere in what is today Central California. Nearly 55 million years later, this volcano was offset by about 250 miles. It is the largest known offset of the San Andreas Fault and it help geologist determine important information such as average slip movement and the age of the fault. The northern part of this offset is now called Pinnacles National Park near Soledad, California. The other half of Pinnacles is in Three Points, California in Los Angeles County.", "Effects of time zones on North American broadcasting\nThe scheduling of television programming in North America (namely the United States, Canada, and Mexico) must cope with different time zones. The United States (excluding territories) has six time zones (Hawaii–Aleutian, Alaska, Pacific, Mountain, Central and Eastern), with further variation in the observance of daylight saving time. Canada also has six time zones (Pacific, Mountain, Central, Eastern, Atlantic and Newfoundland). Mexico has four time zones (Pacific, Mountain, Central, and Eastern). This requires broadcast and pay television networks in each country to shift programs in time to show them in different regions.", "Eastern Time Zone\nEffects of time zones on North American broadcasting" ]

[ "ESL Pro League\nESL Pro League (formerly ESL ESEA Pro League; shortened as EPL) is a Counter-Strike: Global Offensive (CS:GO) professional league based in two continents, North America and Europe, currently comprising 26 teams: 14 in Europe and 12 in North America. The EPL is considered to be the premier professional CS:GO league in the world (along with FACEIT's Esports Championship Series) and one of the major professional leagues in eSports. The ESL Pro League began as a venture between ESL (formerly Electronic Sports League) and E-Sports Entertainment Association League (ESEA). Its inaugural season started on May 4, 2015.[1]" ]

[ "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive\nThe \"Global Offensive\" professional scene consists of tournaments hosted by third-party organisations and Valve-organised or co-sponsored tournaments, referred to as . Majors have larger prize pools; originally set at $250,000, the prize pools for majors have risen, with MLG Columbus 2016 having the first pool of $1,000,000.", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive\nIn 2014, the \"first large match fixing scandal\" in the \"Global Offensive\" community took place, where team iBuyPower purposefully lost a match against NetCodeGuides.com. The team was later banned by Valve, though ESL unbanned the team from their tournaments in 2017. They are still unable to play in Majors.", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive\nIn October 2015, a number of professional eSports organization with \"Counter-Strike\" teams announced the formation of a trade union that set several demands for future tournament attendance. The announcement was a publicly posted email written by Natus Vincere CEO Alexander Kokhanovsky that was sent to organizers of major esports events. Among these demands was notice that teams part of the union would not attend a tournament with a prize pool of less than $75,000 for \"Counter-Strike: Global Offensive\" and $100,000 for \"Dota 2\". Among the teams that were announced were Natus Vincere, Team Liquid, Counter Logic Gaming, Cloud9, Virtus.pro, Team SoloMid, Fnatic, Ninjas in Pyjamas, Titan, and Team EnVyUs. In 2016, the World eSports Association (WESA) was founded by ESL and many eSports teams, including Fnatic, Natus Vincere, Team EnVyUs, and FaZe Clan, though the latter-most left soon after its formation. In the announcement statement, WESA said they would \"further professionalize eSports by introducing elements of player representation, standardized regulations, and revenue sharing for teams\". Alongside this, they also plan to help the fans and organizers by \"seeking to create predictable schedules\".", "GuardiaN\nBefore the release of \"Global Offensive\" was released in 2012, the Slovak played both \"CS\" and \"CS:S\" professionally. He was first introduced to \"Counter-Strike\" by his brother, who bought the game on a CD when it was not well known at the time.", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive\nCounter-Strike: Global Offensive (CS:GO) is a multiplayer first-person shooter video game developed by Hidden Path Entertainment and Valve Corporation. It is the fourth game in the \"Counter-Strike\" series and was released for Microsoft Windows, OS X, Xbox 360, and PlayStation 3 in August 2012, with the Linux version released in September 2014. Originally released as a retail product, \"Global Offensive\" became free to play in December 2018.", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive\nSince the official release of \"Global Offensive\", Valve has continued to update the game in multiple ways, including introducing new maps and weapons, and releasing balancing changes. One of the major additions to the game post-release was the \"Arms Deal\" update. Released on August 13, 2013, it added cosmetic weapon finishes, dubbed as skins. These items were then obtainable by unboxing cases using in-game keys, of which were only accessible through in-game microtransactions. They can also be obtained in similar ways to the items in \"Team Fortress 2\" and \"Dota 2\" in the sense that they are dropped randomly. \"Global Offensive\" has Steam Workshop support, allowing users to upload user-created content, such as maps, weapon finishes and custom gameplay scenarios. Popular skins are added to the game and are obtainable by unboxing them from in-game cases. The creators of the skins are paid when their item is added to a case. These skins helped form a virtual economy for \"Global Offensive\".", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Major Championships\nSince then, the Major circuit has expanded significantly, now posing a 1,000,000 prize pool and features twenty-four teams from around the world. The Major Championships are considered to be the most important and prestigious tournaments in the Global Offensive scene.", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Major Championships\nUnlike traditional sports or other esports leagues, Valve's policy on a spot in a Major is based on whichever the majority of the players are on rather than the team itself. For instance, at the ELEAGUE Major 2017, Team EnVyUs placed ninth, meaning it would have an automatic berth at the next Major qualifier. However, before the next Major, three of EnVyUs's players transferred to G2 Esports, meaning G2 Esports would take EnVyUs's spot at the qualifier.", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Major Championships\nOn September 16, 2013, Valve Corporation announced a 250,000 community-funded prize pool for its first Major; the money was funded through The Arms Deal Update, which offers players in-game items and announced the tournament will take place in Sweden and will be hosted by DreamHack. The tournament took place in late November would later be won by the Swedish team Fnatic. After the 2013 Major, Valve would make the Major a triannual event, with all six Majors featuring the same 250,000 prize pool.", "Faceit\nOn February 22, 2018, Valve Corporation, the developers and owners of the Counter-Strike, announced that FACEIT would host the thirteenth Global Offensive major, the , that will start in mid-September and will end on September 23, 2018. It would be the first Major hosted by FACEIT and the first Major hosted in the United Kingdom. It will have a 1,000,000 prize pool and the New Champions stage will be held in Wembley Arena. In the finals, Astralis defeated Natus Vincere for its second Major title.", "2013 DreamHack Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Championship\nCommentators", "2013 DreamHack Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Championship\nHosts", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Major Championships\nPrior to Valve being involved with Counter-Strike tournaments, players and organizations had earlier versions of Majors, with the most prominent organizations hosting the Majors being Cyberathlete Professional League (CPL), World Cyber Games (WCG), Electronic Sports World Cup (ESWC), World eSports Masters (WEM), and Intel Extreme Masters (IEM). All the earlier Majors were from the first version of Counter-Strike. Swedish teams dominated, most notably SK Gaming, but the roster known as the Golden Five were the most successful lineup. Many other teams from other parts of the world would go on the win championships, such as Team 3D from the United States with CPL Winter 2002 and WCG 2004, NoA from Norway with CPL Winter 2004, mibr from Brazil with ESWC 2006, and WeMade FOX from South Korea with WEM 2010.", "Intel Extreme Masters Season XIII – World Championship\nValve Corporation awarded ESL a Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Major Championship for the first time in nearly two and a half years. This tournament will feature twenty-four teams from around the world, fourteen of which were directly invited from their top fourteen placements from the and another ten teams qualifying from their respective regional qualifiers.", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Major Championships\nThe older a sticker gets, the more expensive it tends becomes as that stickers become rarer to buy and with Valve not releasing any capsules for old tournaments, with an iBUYPOWER holo sticker from Katowice 2014 going for an average of 4,500.", "2013 DreamHack Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Championship\nThe 2013 DreamHack SteelSeries Counter Strike: Global Offensive Championship or simply DreamHack Winter 2013 was the first \"\" to be sponsored by Valve. The competition was held during the Winter 2013 DreamHack digital festival at the Elmia Exhibition and Convention Centre in Jönköping, Sweden. Six invitees joined ten qualifiers to form the sixteen team event. Community funding helped to build the US$250,000 prizepool. The tournament had a peak 145,000 concurrent viewers on twitch.tv and the in-game viewing client.", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Major Championships\nA controversial form of the group stage came from ESL One Cologne 2015. Initially, the first three matches started out the same way as the GSL format intended, so that the winner of the group was determined. However, teams were then reassigned afterwards so that the two losers played from different groups and then the decider match would also be teams from different groups.", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Major Championships\nThe Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Major Championships, commonly known as Majors, are (CS:GO) esports tournaments sponsored by Valve Corporation, the game's developer. The Majors were first introduced in 2013 and took place in Jönköping, Sweden and was hosted by DreamHack with a total prize pool of 250,000. Six teams were directly invited, six teams were invited based on previous tournament results, and another four teams came from direct qualifiers. ", "MLG Major Championship: Columbus\nMLG \"Counter-Strike: Global Offensive\" Major Championship: Columbus, also referred to as MLG Columbus 2016 was the eighth \"\" held by Major League Gaming (MLG) throughout March 29 to April 3, 2016 in the Nationwide Arena in Columbus, Ohio, US. It was the first \"CS:GO\" Major in North America as well as the first run by Major League Gaming, who previously ran an exhibition \"CS:GO\" tournament at X Games Aspen 2015. It was also the very first CS:GO major in which ESL or DreamHack was not the organizer. It was announced on February 23, 2016 that MLG Columbus 2016 would be the first \"Counter-Strike\" tournament with a $1,000,000 prize pool.", "Cloud9\nCloud9 formed when Jack Etienne bought the former Quantic Gaming \"League of Legends\" roster. Following the success of the Cloud9 LoL team in the North American League of Legends Championship Series\",\" the team was able to expand to field rosters in other esports. In 2015, Cloud9's \"Heroes of the Storm\" team won the first Heroes of the Storm World Championship, becoming the inaugural winner of the championship. In 2018, Cloud9's Counter-Strike: Global Offensive roster became the first American team to win a major championship, securing a 2-1 victory against FaZe Clan in the ELEAGUE Boston: Major 2018 final.", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive\n\"Counter-Strike: Global Offensive\" received generally positive reception from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Since the game's release, \"Global Offensive\" has been steadily at the top of the Steam charts in terms of most concurrent players. The game won the fan's choice \"eSports Game of the Year\" award at The Game Awards 2015.", "Fnatic\nWhen Fnatic switched to \"Counter Strike: Global Offensive\", they became one of the top teams in the world. In order to complete the roster, Fnatic announced that Xyp9x & JOKERN will join them to compete in \"Counter Strike: Global Offensive\". The team was able to finish in the 3rd/4th position of the EMS Season 1 Finals.", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Major Championships\nOn February 23, 2016, with the Major coming up, Valve announced a huge increase in the prize pool at one million dollars. All future Majors would feature the upgraded prize pool. However, Valve would reduce the number of Majors each year from three to two.", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Major Championships\nAcross the Majors, only fourteen players have attended every Major: Paweł \"byali\" Bieliński, René \"cajunb\" Borg, Andreas \"Xyp9x\" Højsleth, Jarosław \"pashaBiceps\" Jarząbkowski, Freddy \"KRIMZ\" Johansson, Olof \"olofmeister\" Kajbjer, Filip \"NEO\" Kubski, Richard \"shox\" Papillon, Janusz \"Snax\" Pogorzelski, Peter \"dupreeh\" Rothmann, Nicolai \"dev1ce\" Reedtz, Robin \"flusha\" Rönnquist, Danylo \"Zeus\" Teslenko, and Jesper \"JW\" Wecksell. Of those fourteen, only one has been a Legend every single Major: olofmeister, first with LGB eSports, then with Fnatic, then with FaZe Clan.", "DreamHack Open Cluj-Napoca 2015\nDreamHack Open Cluj-Napoca 2015 was the seventh Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Major Championship that was held from October 28–November 1, 2015 at the Sala Polivalentă in Cluj-Napoca, Romania. It was organized by DreamHack with help from Valve Corporation and the Professional Gamers League. The tournament had a total prize pool of $250,000 USD.", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive\n\"Counter-Strike: Global Offensive\" is the sequel to the popular first-person shooter \"\", developed by Valve Corporation. \"Global Offensive\"s development began when Hidden Path Entertainment attempted to port \"Counter-Strike: Source\" onto video game consoles, prior to the end of their lifespan. During the development, Valve saw the opportunity to turn the port into a full game and expand on the predecessor's gameplay. \"Global Offensive\" began development in March 2010, and was revealed to the public on August 12, 2011. The closed beta started on November 30, 2011, and was initially restricted to around ten thousand people who received a key at events intended to showcase \"Global Offensive\". After issues such as client and server stability were addressed, the beta was opened up to progressively more people, and at E3 2012, Valve announced that \"Global Offensive\" would be released on August 21, 2012, with the open beta starting roughly a month before that. Before the public beta, Valve invited professional \"Counter-Strike\" players to play-test the game and give feedback.", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive\nAs the game and the scene grew in popularity, companies, including WME/IMG and Turner Broadcasting, began to televise \"Global Offensive\" professional games, with the first being ELEAGUE Major 2017, held in the Fox Theatre and broadcast on US cable television network TBS in 2016. On August 22, 2018, Turner announced their further programming of \"Global Offensive\" with \"ELEAGUE’s Esports 101: CSGO\" and \"\" docu-series on the TBS network.", "Counter-Strike\n\"Counter-Strike: Global Offensive\" was the fourth release in the main, Valve-developed \"Counter-Strike\" series in 2012. Much like \"Counter-Strike: Source\" the game runs on the Source engine. It is available on Microsoft Windows, OSX, and Linux, as well as the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 consoles, and is backwards compatible on the Xbox One console.", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Major Championships\nOn December 13, 2017, the general manager of ELEAGUE, the hosts of the ELEAGUE Major: Boston 2018, Christina Alejandre announced a partially new format designed by Valve and ELEAGUE that would expand the number of team in the Major from sixteen to twenty-four. This would also be the first Major that would take place in more than one city.", "2013 DreamHack Counter-Strike: Global Offensive Championship\nAnalyst" ]

[ "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nReigning over 55 years, he was one of the longest-serving rulers during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. Although making numerous policy mistakes during his later years, his aggressive territorial expansions were pivotal in consolidating the state of Qin as the dominant military powerhouse in the late Warring States period. It was the strategic dominance established during his reign that paved the way to Qin's eventual successful unification of China under his great-grandson, Ying Zheng." ]

[ "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nIn 299 BC, King Zhaoxiang invited Lord Mengchang to Qin with the intention of appointing him as chancellor. However, after hearing (perhaps ill-intended) warnings from his ministers that Lord Mengchang was still loyal to his home state of Qi (which had just soured its diplomatic relationship with Qin), King Zhaoxiang ordered Lord Mengchang to be put under house arrest. Desperate, Lord Mengchang sent a messenger to bribe King's Zhaoxiang's favourite concubine, who demanded a snow fox fur coat, which Lord Mengchang had already given to King Zhaoxiang as a gift when he first arrived and had to steal back from the royal vault. Thanks to the pleas of the concubine, Lord Mengchang was released within two days, and he quickly smuggled himself out of Qin, narrowly evading a small army that King Zhaoxiang had ordered to pursue him. In 298 BC, the disgrunted Lord Mengchang, who was now the newly appointed chancellor of Qi, lobbied for a combined force of Qi, Han and Wei and laid siege to the Qin fortification of Hangu Pass. The allied army managed to penetrate past the Hangu Pass all the way to Yanshi (盐氏), forcing Qin to negotiate an armistice that involved returning the previously occupied Fengling and Wusui back to Wei and Han.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nIn 301 BC, Qin again attacked Han, led by King Zhaoxiang's uncle, Wei Ran, and occupied the city of Rang (穰城). The city was later given to Wei Ran, who was made chancellor six years later, as his fief. However, in 298 BC, Qin suffered a setback at Hangu Pass under the combined attack from a three-state alliance of Qi, Han and Wei, and was forced to concede the recently occupied Fengling and Wusui back to Wei and Han.", "Qin (state)\nIn the middle of the 3rd century , Zheng Guo, a hydraulic engineer from the Han state, was sent to Qin to advise King Zhaoxiang of Qin on constructing irrigation canals. Qin had a penchant for building large-scale canals, as evident from its Min River irrigation system. King Zhaoxiang approved Zheng Guo's idea on constructing an even bigger canal. The project was completed in 264  and the canal was named after Zheng. Qin benefitted from the project as it became one of the most fertile states in China due to the good irrigation system, and also because it could now raise more troops as a consequence of increased agricultural yield.", "Qin (state)\nSubsequently, King Zhaoxiang's foreign advisor, Fan Sui, advised the king to abandon those fruitless campaigns against distant states. King Zhaoxiang heeded Fan's advice and changed Qin's foreign policy to adopting good diplomatic relations with distant states (Yan and Qi), while concentrating on attacking nearby states (Zhao, Han and Wei). As a consequence, Qin began to launch constant attacks on Han and Wei over the next decades, conquering several territories in its campaigns. By then, Qin's territories had expanded to beyond the eastern shore of the Yellow River and Han and Wei were reduced to the status of \"buffers\" from Qin for the other states in the east.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nIn 256 BC, Qin struck back at Zhao again, with general Zhao Chan (趙摻) killing 90,000 men and capturing over 20 counties. Zhao would continue to be at war with Qin into the years following King Zhaoxiang's death, including participating in a fruitless anti-Qin offensive by the five-state alliance in 247 BC, and two major victories against Qin invasions in 240 BC and 231 BC (the latter won by general Li Mu), but it never recovered to its formal glory prior to the Battle of Changping. Meanwhile, Qin had fully regained its strength to become the only dominant military power, and went on to capture the Zhao capital Handan in 229 BC and eventually conquer the whole of Zhao in 222 BC.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nIn 288 BC, King Zhaoxiang contacted King Min of Qi and proposed an alliance where both would claim the title \"Di\", and planned to attack the newly strengthened state of Zhao together. However, King Min was persuaded by Su Qin to renounce his Di title, and instead allied with other states to attack Qin, forcing King Zhaoxiang to also renounce his Di title. At the same time, Qi took the opportunity to conquer its rival state of Song, which made itself a major immediate threat in the eyes of other states.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nKing Zhaoxiang of Qin (Chinese:秦昭襄王; 325–251 BC), or King Zhao of Qin (秦昭王), born Ying Ji (Chinese:嬴稷, was the king of Qin from 306 BC to 251 BC. He was the son of King Huiwen and younger brother of King Wu.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nIn 289 BC, King Zhaoxiang sent Bai Qi and Sima Cuo to attack Wei, capturing 61 villages around Zhi. However, in 288 BC, Qin was forced to back down when the five eastern states allied together and threatened to attack Qin again. It did not take long for Qin to strike back, capturing Xinyuan (新垣) and Quyang (曲陽) from Wei in 287 BC, and the former Wei capital Anyi (安邑) in 286 BC. In 283 BC, Qin allied with Zhao and attacked Wei again, capturing Ancheng (安城) with its vanguard reaching near the Wei capital Daliang (大梁).", "The Qin Empire III\nWith the aid of the minister Fan Ju and general Bai Qi, King Zhaoxiang starts making aggressive advances against the other six states in the east. Under his rule, the Qin state destroys the Yiqu state, builds a section of the Great Wall, defeats the Qi and Chu states in battle, forces the Wei and Han states into submission, and inflicts a devastating defeat on the Zhao state at the Battle of Changping. After demonstrating its military power through its victories, in 256 BC the Qin state finally puts an end to the Eastern Zhou dynasty, the nominal suzerain power over the warring states. These events paved the way for the Qin state's eventual unification of China under the Qin dynasty within the next half-century.", "Duke Wen of Eastern Zhou\nJī Jié was born into the large royal Jī family that ruled China since 1046 BC, though by his time the dynasty had become effectively powerless. Their remaining crown land was embroiled in infighting and succession disputes, so that it was split into two factions, led by rival nobles: West Zhou and East Zhou. Jié, as Duke Wen, ruled over the East from Chengzhou, and largely ignored the authority of King Nan of Zhou who resided in Wangcheng and was supported by the western nobles. In 256 BC, however, war broke out between West Zhou under Nan and the state of Qin under King Zhaoxiang of Qin. Qin annexed the West, deposed King Nan and forcibly ended the Zhou dynasty. Many citizens and members of the royal family then fled to East Zhou, where they proclaimed Wen King of China in 255 BC.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nIn 284 BC, King Zhaoxiang sent troops in a five-state alliance of Qin, Yan, Zhao, Wei and Han, led by the Yan general Yue Yi, to attack Qi. Over 70 cities were captured including its capital Linzi (臨淄), leading to the murder of King Min of Qi by his supposed Chu ally.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nIn 266 BC, the Wei national Fan Ju (范雎) fled to Qin after being persecuted and tortured by the Wei chancellor, Wei Qi (魏齊), and vowed revenge upon his home state. He advised King Zhaoxiang about the strategy of \"allying distant states while attacking nearby states\" (遠交近攻). This advice impressed King Zhaoxiang so much that he appointed him as the chancellor of Qin. In 264 BC, King Zhaoxiang sent Bai Qi to attack Han, capturing nine cities including Xingcheng (陘城) and killing 50,000 of the enemy, enabling Qin to blockade the routes around southern Taihang Mountains. In 262 BC, Bai Qi attacked Han and captured Yewang (野王), cutting off the Shangdang region from the Han mainland. King Huanhui of Han was fearful of the Qin military prowess and decided to concede Shangdang, but the local commanders refused to do so and instead surrendered the region to the state of Zhao. The struggle for control of Shangdang triggered direct conflicts between Qin and Zhao, then the two largest military powers among the warring states, leading to the devastating Battle of Changping.", "Lord Mengchang\nIn 299 BC, Lord Mengchang was sent to Qin on an official journey. King Zhaoxiang had heard so much about the young lord that he wanted to appoint him as the new Chancellor of Qin. However, King Zhaoxiang was warned by his ministers that Lord Mengchang was still loyal to his homeland of Qi, and soon put Lord Mengchang under house arrest. Desperate, Lord Mengchang sent a messenger to the king of Qin's beloved concubine for help. In exchange for her aid, the woman asked for the snow fox fur coat which Lord Mengchang had already given to the king as a gift when he first arrived in Qin. It was worth a thousand pieces of gold and there was not its like anywhere. King Zhaoxiang kept it in the royal treasury. One of Lord Mengchang's entourage in Qin was a skilled thief. He disguised himself as a dog and sneaked into the treasury under cover of darkness and retrieved the coat. Within two days, Lord Mengchang was released thanks to the pleas of the concubine. Lord Mengchang hired a chariot, forged his documents and dashed to the borders. By midnight of the next day, he had reached Hangu Pass—the last checkpoint of Qin before entering the territories of Qi. King Zhaoxiang had immediately regretted letting Lord Mengchang go and a small army was chasing him to bring him back. The guards at Hangu Pass would not let anyone pass through until the cock-crow at dawn. Lord Mengchang turned to his entourage for help. One of his aides could imitate all types of sounds. He crowed like a rooster, and this woke up the rest of the roosters. Not knowing that Lord Mengchang was being hunted, the guards at the pass then allowed Lord Mengchang and his entourage to enter Qi territory to safety.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nBai Qi wanted to take advantage of the victory at Changping and immediately lay siege to the Zhao capital of Handan (邯鄲). This frightened the states of Zhao and Han greatly, so they sent Su Dai (蘇代, Su Qin's brother) to bribe Fan Ju (范雎, or Fan Sui 范睢), who was then the Qin chancellor and jealous of Bai Qi's military achievement. Fan Ju persuaded King Zhaoxiang to halt the offensives, citing as the reason that the soldiers needed to rest after years of war. Qin agreed to an armistice in exchange of the states of Zhao and Han conceding lands.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nIn 306 BC, the young King Zhaoxiang ascended to the throne, with his mother Queen Dowager Xuan serving as regent. Knowing Qin could not focus on eradicating Yiqu when it had the hostile eastern states to deal with, and her son's rule was still shaky due to numerous rival princes keen to capture the throne, Queen Dowager Xuan decided to use an approach of pretended conciliation. She invited the king of Yiqu to live long-term in the Ganquan Palace, and consummated a seductive liaison that produced two sons with him. This completely removed the Yiqu King's hostility towards Qin, as the beguiled king had lost all cautiousness around the Queen Dowager. At the same time, King Zhaoxiang was aggressively acting to weaken rival warring states in the east and south, and Queen Dowager Xuan was secretly planning with her son the eventual annihilation of Yiqu.", "Qin dynasty\nNote: King Zhaoxiang of Qin (秦昭襄王) had already been ruling Qin for 51 years when Qin annihilated the Zhou dynasty; however the other six warring states were still independent regimes. Some Chinese historiographers thus used the next year (the 52nd year of King Zhaoxiang of Qin) as the official succession from the Zhou dynasty.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nIn 307 BC, King Nan of Zhou hosted King Wu of Qin, who just returned victorious against Han at the Battle of Yiyang. During the visit, King Wu, a keen wrestler, decided to try lifting the \"dragon-patterned red cauldron\" (龍紋赤鼎) in the Zhou palace. He died from the attempt, bleeding from his eyes and breaking his shin bones. After the childless King Wu died, his hostage half-brother Ying Ji returned to claim the throne as King Zhaoxiang.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nWang Ling's attack on Handan did not go well due to the fierce Zhao resistance, and King Zhaoxiang again decided to invite Bai Qi to command the siege, but Bai Qi again advised him that Qin had a very low chance of winning this campaign. King Zhaoxiang was unhappy to hear Bai Qi's counsel, so he replaced Wang Lin with Wang He and continued the siege. In 257 BC, the Qin army was suffering losses inflicted by reinforcements from the states of Chu and Wei. King Zhaoxiang then personally visited Bai Qi and attempted to coerce him into taking the command position with royal authority. When Bai Qi once again advised abandoning the siege, King Zhaoxiang was so angry that he stripped Bai Qi's titles and exiled him. Fan Ju then falsely accused to King Zhaoxiang that Bai Qi was cursing the King behind his back, so King Zhaoxiang decreed the forced suicide of Bai Qi. This did not improve the situation for the Qin offensive, and the Qin sustained heavy casualties under the combined assault of Wei, Chu and Zhao, and the Qin army was routed and went into a general retreat. The three-state alliance then pursued and attacked Qin, reinforced by the Han army that had recently joined them. The combined forces recaptured Hedong, Anyang, Taiyuan, Pilao, Wu'an, Shangdang and Runan. The Qin expeditionary force lost most of its men in the retreat. King Zhaoxiang's ignoring of Bai Qi's advice had sown bitter fruits at the end.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nParents: Prince Si (公子駟; 356–311 BC), ruled as King Huiwen of Qin (秦惠文王) from 338–311 BC Queen Dowager Xuan, of the Mi clan of Chu (宣太后 羋姓; d. 265 BC) Consorts: Queen Yeyang (葉陽王后) Queen Dowager Tang, of the Tang lineage (唐太后 唐氏), the mother of Prince Zhu Issue: King Zhaoxiang's first son (d. 267 BC). He is also known by his posthumous title, Crown Prince Dao (悼太子). King Zhaoxiang's second son, Prince Zhu (公子柱; 303–251 BC), ruled as King Xiaowen of Qin (秦孝文王) in 251 BC. He is also known by his prior title, Lord Anguo (安國君). A daughter who married King Kaolie of Chu (楚考烈王) and bore Lord Changping (昌平君) in 271 BC", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nIn 283 BC, King Zhaoxiang offered to trade 15 cities in exchange of the jade disc of He, which was in the state of Zhao's possession. King Huiwen of Zhao was attracted by the offer and agreed to the trade. However, the Zhao ambassador Lin Xiangru (藺相如) figured out that Qin never meant to hold up their end of the deal, and managed to return the jade back to Zhao. During the following three years (282 BC to 280 BC), Qin attacked Zhao multiple times, capturing cities such as Shicheng (石城), Lin (藺), Lishi (離石), Qi (祁) and Guanglang (光狼城), killing 20,000 men, and forcing Zhao to agree to send hostages and concede lands in exchange for returning the captured cities. During the armistice meeting held at Mianchi (澠池), King Zhaoxiang attempted to humiliate King Huiwen, but was forced to back down when Lin Xiangru threatened to physically harm the Qin king.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nKing Zhaoxiang reigned as the King of Qin for 57 years, and was responsible for the state of Qin achieving strategic dominance over the other six major states. During his reign, Qin captured the Chu capital Ying in 278 BC, conquered the Xirong state of Yiqu in 272 BC, slaughtered a 450,000-strong Zhao army at Changping in 260 BC, and overthrew the Eastern Zhou dynasty in 256 BC. These aggressive territorial expansions and the strategic weakening of other rival states paved the path for Qin's eventual unification of China three decades later by his great-grandson Ying Zheng.", "Qin (state)\nIn the next five decades after King Huiwen's death, King Zhaoxiang of Qin shifted his attention to northern China after Qin's victories in the south against Chu. In the early years of King Zhaoxiang's reign, the Marquis of Rang (穰侯) served as Qin's chancellor and he actively pushed for military campaigns against the Qi state in the far eastern part of China. However, the marquis had his personal motives, as he intended to use Qin's powerful military to help him conquer a fief in Qi territories, since the lands were not directly linked to Qin and would not be under the Qin government's direct administration.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nBai Qi was furious at this because he believed Qin had just forfeited a chance to annihilate Zhao once and for all, and resigned his position in protest. However, Zhao soon changed its mind and refused to cede the lands it promised, and attempted to lobby an anti-Qin alliance with the other states. King Zhaoxiang then ordered an attack on Zhao in late 259 BC, laying siege to Handan. He wanted Bai Qi to lead the attack, but the still angry Bai Qi bluntly refused to assume the position citing illness. Instead, he advised King Zhaoxiang to call off the siege as the window of opportunity for an easy victory was already gone, because Lord Pingyuan had managed to secure military reinforcements from Chu and Wei, led by the famous Lord Chunshen and Lord Xinling. King Zhaoxiang did not take in his advice and instead appointed Wang Ling (王陵) as the commander of the siege.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nIn 256 BC, Duke Wu of West Zhou (西周武公) allied with other states to stop the Qin offensive on the Han city of Yangcheng. In retaliation, King Zhaoxiang of Qin sent general Jiu to invade West Zhou, successfully breaking into Wangcheng. The Duke Wu was taken to Xianyang to beg for mercy, conceding all his lands. Both King Nan and Duke Wu would die later that year, and the subsequent Duke of West Zhou, Duke Wen (西周文公), was exiled to Danhuju (憚狐聚). Because the Zhou royal court had fallen from power and King Nan had died without a successor, the Eastern Zhou Dynasty collapsed, ending 879 years of Zhou monarchy. The remaining East Zhou state was also conquered by Qin chancellor Lü Buwei seven years later in 249 BC during the reign of King Zhaoxiang's grandson King Zhuangxiang, after Duke Jing of East Zhou attempted to form an anti-Qin alliance with other states.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nDue to this defeat, in 299 BC King Huai of Chu was forced to go to Wu Pass (武關) to negotiate terms with Qin, but along the way was abducted and taken to Xianyang instead. When he refused to cede the territory of the Wu Commandery (巫郡) and Qianzhong Commandery (黔中郡), he was detained as a hostage. King Zhaoxiang then proceeded to invade Chu the next year, capturing 16 cities and killing 50,000 Chu soldiers. King Huai of Chu did manage to escape in 297 BC, when Qin was distracted by a joint siege on Hangu Pass by Wei and Han, but he was recaptured when he was seeking asylum in Wei, after unsuccessfully doing so in the state of Zhao. He died a year later in captivity, and Qin finally returned his corpse back to Chu.", "Qin Shi Huang\nThe rulers of Qin had styled themselves kings from the time of King Huiwen in 325BC. Upon his ascension, Zheng became known as the King of Qin[9][10] or King Zheng of Qin.[14][15] This title made him the nominal equal of the rulers of Shang and of Zhou, the last of whose kings had been deposed by King Zhaoxiang of Qin in 256BC.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nIn 305 BC, two of King Zhaoxiang's older half-brothers, Prince Zhuang (公子壯) and Prince Yong (公子雍), who a year ago were both rival contenders for the throne, conspired to carry out a coup with Queen Huiwen (惠文后, the mother of the late King Wu) and Queen Wu (悼武王后, King Wu's childless wife, who was a princess from Wei) as well as a dozen other lords and court officials who were against King Zhaoxiang's ascension. The rebellion was quickly crushed by Wei Ran, who slaughtered all the conspirators except Queen Wu, who was exiled back to Wei. With the annihilation of the dissidents, King Zhaoxiang's hold to the throne was secured. In the same year, King Zhaoxiang had his coming-of-age ceremony, and began to personally attend state affairs.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nIn 293 BC, the states of Han, Wei and East Zhou allied together to attack Qin. King Zhaoxiang appointed the young Bai Qi as general, and defeated the two major states at Yique, killing 240,000 of the enemy and capturing (then executing) the enemy's supreme commander Gongsun Xi (公孫喜). This was the most devastating blow Qin delivered to the two eastern states to date. In 292 BC，Bai Qi again led the army and attacked Wei, capturing Weicheng (魏城) and sacking Yuanqu (垣邑). Then in 291 BC, Qin attacked Han again and seized the city of Wan (宛城) and Ye (葉). In 290 BC，King Zhaoxiang sent Sima Cuo (司馬錯), who captured Zhi (軹) from Wei and Deng (鄧) from Han, before joining with Bai Qi to seize Yuanqu again. These successive victories forced Wei to concede 400 li of Hedong lands, and Han to concede 200 li of Wusui lands to Qin.", "King Zhaoxiang of Qin\nIn 304 BC, King Zhaoxiang met with King Huai of Chu in Huangqi (黃棘) to negotiate an alliance, ceding Shangyong (上庸) as a gesture. In 303 BC, the states of Qi, Wei and Han broke off their previous alliance with Chu and invaded Chu, forcing Chu to send its crown prince Xiong Heng to Qin as a hostage in exchange for Qin assistance. King Zhaoxiang sent troops to attack Wei and Han, capturing Puban (蒲阪), Yangchun (陽春) and Fengling (封陵) from Wei, and re-capturing Wusui from Han. In 302 BC, King Zhaoxiang met with King Xiang of Wei and Crown Prince Yin of Han (韓太子嬰) in Linjin (臨晉), and agreed to return the seized lands in exchange for the two states denouncing their previous anti-Qin alliance. At the same time, the Chu crown prince secretly fled from Qin back to Chu.", "King Xiaowen of Qin\nXiaowen was a son of the King Zhaoxiang of Qin and Queen Tang and grandson of Queen Dowager Xuan." ]

[ "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\n\"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\" was delivered on September 18, 2007, at Carnegie Mellon University's McConomy Auditorium.[23] Over 450 Carnegie Mellon students, staff members, and friends of Pausch attended the lecture, leaving only standing room as this was more than the auditorium could hold.[13] Pausch later commented about this in an interview, saying \"A couple of hundred people in a room, looking and listening and laughing and applauding– hopefully at the appropriate times– that gives a lot of validation to my kids that a lot of people believe in this, and a lot of people who knew me believe that I did my best to try to live this way.\"[13] The first introduction of the speech as well as the series of lectures was given by Indira Nair, the Vice Provost for Education at Carnegie Mellon. Nair first explained the university's aforementioned lecture series called \"Journeys\", in which eight more professors from Carnegie Mellon would share their insights on their professional and personal experiences over the years.[24]" ]

[ "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nNext, Pausch explained his dream of being like Captain Kirk from the Star Trek series, with the slide showing \"Being like Meeting Captain Kirk\".[42] Pausch explained that he realized that there were some things he just could not do, and that was one of them. He eventually changed the goal into meeting William Shatner, the actor who played Captain Kirk.[43] Shatner had written a book on the science of Star Trek, and had gone to Pausch for help with the virtual reality section of the book. Pausch met and worked with Shatner for this purpose.[44] Pausch concluded the section with the story of his becoming an Imagineer at Disney,[45] as well as his achieving the goal of \"being one of those guys who wins stuffed animals\", which was at a carnival with his wife and children.[46]", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nFirst off, Pausch explained his dream of being in zero gravity. As a child, this had been a dream inspired by Apollo 11, and had stayed with him as an adult. When he was the computer science professor at Carnegie Mellon, he learned of a program that NASA has that allows college students to go up into the air in NASA's Vomit Comet, which uses parabolic arcs to simulate the feeling of weightlessness. Faculty members were not allowed to go (Pausch called this a \"brick wall\" he faced), so he had to present himself as a web journalist, because local media was allowed on.[38] Pausch proceeded to begin talking about his second childhood dream, playing in the National Football League.[39] Although Pausch was never a player in the National Football League, he spoke about his childhood experiences with Pop Warner Football and how they had affected his life and taught him lessons.[40] Pausch then moved on to his dream of publishing an article in the World Book Encyclopedia. As a child, Pausch always kept and read a World Book Encyclopedia in his home. As he progressed into a career, he became one of the leading professors in the field of virtual reality. World Book then called Pausch, interested in him writing for the encyclopedia. Currently, the article \"virtual reality\" in the World Book Encyclopedia is the one authored by Pausch.[41]", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nThe Disney-owned publisher Hyperion paid $6.7 million for the rights to publish a book about Pausch called The Last Lecture, co-authored by Pausch and Wall Street Journal reporter Jeffrey Zaslow.[66] The Last Lecture explained Pausch's speech, and the events that led up to it. According to Robert Miller, a publisher for Hyperion Books, the book would \"flesh out his speech\" and show others \"how to deal with mortality\" and how to live well while death is imminent.[67] The book was well-received, eventually earning the number one spot on the New York Times bestseller list in the \"Advice\" category during the week of June 22, 2008. The book remained on the New York Times bestseller list for 80 straight weeks.[68]", "Desney Tan\nTan was born and grew up in the Republic of Singapore. He moved to the United States for high school and received his Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering from the University of Notre Dame in 1996. He then spent sometime in the Singapore Armed Forces. He later attended Carnegie Mellon University, where he earned his PhD in Computer Science in 2004 under the supervision of Randy Pausch, popularly known for delivering \"The Last Lecture: Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\" after being diagnosed with terminal pancreatic cancer.", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nAt the time that Pausch gave the lecture, he was a pancreatic cancer patient. In an interview, Pausch stated that he had felt bloated, and learned that he had a cancerous tumor when doctors performed a CT Scan to check for gallstones.[4] He then underwent pancreaticoduodenectomy surgery (or the \"Whipple procedure\") to try to stop the growth of the cancerous tumor in his body, which later proved to be unsuccessful.[4] The doctors removed his gall bladder, parts of his small intestine, a third of his pancreas, and parts of his stomach, and proceeded to begin an experimental radiation treatment that could possibly increase his chances of survival for another 5 years to 45 percent.[4] Pausch began the radiation treatments in November 2006 and stopped in May 2007, and felt that he was in good health after finishing. In July and August, tests conducted at Johns Hopkins University showed that Pausch was free of cancer.[4] However, in late August of that year, Pausch informed readers of his website that his cancer had returned, saying: \"A recent CT scan showed that there are 10 tumors in my liver, and my spleen is also peppered with small tumors. The doctors say that it is one of the most aggressive recurrences they have ever seen.\"[4] The doctors estimated Pausch had three to six months of good health left to live.[4]", "Randy Pausch\nThe Pittsburgh City Council declared November 19, 2007 to be \"Dr. Randy Pausch Day\".[46] In May 2008, Pausch was listed by Time as one of the World's Top-100 Most Influential People.[1] Randy was named Pittsburgher of the Year 2008.[47] On May 30, 2008, Randy received a letter from then President George W. Bush thanking him for his commitment to the Nation's youth.[48] On February 4, 2009, The Walt Disney Company dedicated a tribute plaque at Walt Disney World near the \"Mad Tea Party\" attraction with a quote by Randy that reads \"Be good at something; It makes you valuable ... Have something to bring to the table, because that will make you more welcome.\"[49] The Walt Disney Company also created the Disney Memorial Pausch Fellowship at Carnegie Mellon University, which will support two graduate students.[50] Per Jared Cohon's announcement on the day of the Last Lecture, a raised pedestrian bridge at CMU that connects the Gates Computer Science building and the Purnell Center for the Arts is named after Pausch, symbolizing the way he linked the two disciplines.[22]", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nPausch was named \"Person of the Week\" on ABC's World News with Charles Gibson on September 21.[60] His \"Last Lecture\" attracted wide attention from the international media,[61] became an Internet hit, and was viewed over a million times in the first month after its delivery.[9] On October 22, 2007, Pausch appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show, where he discussed his situation and recapped his \"Last Lecture\" for millions of TV viewers.[4]", "Randy Pausch\nPausch gave a lecture about time management[35] on November 27, 2007 at the University of Virginia, to an audience of over 850 people.[36] In March 2008, Pausch appeared in a public service announcement video[37] and testified before Congress in support of cancer research.[38] On May 18, 2008, Pausch made a surprise return appearance at Carnegie Mellon, giving a speech at the commencement ceremony,[39] as well as attending the School of Computer Science's diploma ceremony,[40] and on May 19 Pausch appeared on the show Good Morning America.[41] His lecture, \"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\", was nominated at the 2007 YouTube Video Awards.[42][43]", "Randy Pausch\nPausch delivered his \"Last Lecture\", titled \"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\", at CMU on September 18, 2007.[16] He gave an abridged version of his speech on The Oprah Winfrey Show in October 2007.[17][18] The talk was modeled after an ongoing series of lectures where top academics are asked to think deeply about what matters to them, and then give a hypothetical \"final talk\", with a topic such as \"what wisdom would you try to impart to the world if you knew it was your last chance?\" Before speaking, Pausch received a long standing ovation from a large crowd of over 400 colleagues and students. When he motioned them to sit down, saying, \"Make me earn it\", someone in the audience shouted back, \"You did!\"[9][19]", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nPausch was then introduced by Steve Sea-bolt, who was the Vice President of Worldwide Publishing and Marketing at Electronic Arts, in addition to being Pausch's close friend and former co-worker.[25] Sea-bolt began with a joke referring to Electronic Arts,[26] and another joke about a bet he and Pausch had made about how many people would attend the lecture, saying that \"...depending upon whose version of the story you hear, he either owes me 20 dollars or his new Volkswagen.\"[27] Seabolt began the next part of the introduction by talking about Pausch's academic achievements and previous career with the University of Virginia and Electronic Arts.[28] Seabolt concluded his introduction by describing the qualities of Pausch, saying that \"Randy's dedication to making the world a better place is self evident to anyone who has crossed paths with him.\"[29] He described how his accomplishments had affected others, as well as his wife and three children.[30] Seabolt then turned the speech over to Pausch, who was greeted with a standing ovation.[4]", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nPausch based the lecture on the generic \"Last Lecture\" given by some professors, and on the idea of imagining what one would say and what one would want their legacy to be if they could only have one last chance to share their knowledge with the world.[16] Carnegie Mellon had previously had a lecture series titled the \"Last Lecture\", but had renamed the series to \"Journeys\", and had staff talk about their professional experiences.[17] Pausch was offered the lecture around the time when he was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer, and had just received the news that he only had a few months left to live after his unsuccessful treatment for the tumors.[18] Pausch nearly cancelled the lecture due to the terminal cancer, but discussed the issue with his wife and decided to take the one final chance to share his thoughts with the world.[19] Pausch compared it to the final scene of The Natural, in which Roy Hobbs (the main character) overcomes injury and old age to hit one final home run.[20]", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nAfter Pausch finished his lecture, Steve Seabolt, on behalf of Electronic Arts, which is now collaborating with Carnegie Mellon in the development of Alice 3.0,[58] pledged to honor Pausch by creating a memorial scholarship for women in computer science in recognition of Pausch's support and mentoring of women in CS and engineering.[4] Then, university president Jared Cohon called his contributions to the university and to education \"remarkable and stunning\".[59] He then announced that Carnegie Mellon would build a raised pedestrian bridge named for Pausch in honor of his contributions to the university and to the world. This connected Carnegie Mellon's new Computer Science building and the Center for the Arts, a symbol of the way Pausch linked those two areas. Finally, Brown University professor Andries van Dam followed Pausch's last lecture with a tearful and impassioned speech praising him for his courage and leadership, calling him a role model.[59]", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nAs Pausch walked into the standing ovation, he tried to stop the applause, get the audience to sit down, and begin the speech by commenting \"make me earn it\",[31] to which one member of the audience responded \"you did\". He then commented on the irony of his \"last lecture\" in a series that used to be the \"Last Lecture\" series, but was renamed \"Journeys\": \"It's wonderful to be here. What Indira didn’t tell you is that this lecture series used to be called the 'Last Lecture'. If you had one last lecture to give before you died, what would it be? I thought, damn, I finally nailed the venue and they renamed it.\"[32]", "The Last Lecture\nPausch delivered his \"Last Lecture\", titled \"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\", at Carnegie Mellon on September 18, 2007. This talk was modeled after an ongoing series of lectures where top academics are asked to think deeply about what matters to them, and then give a hypothetical \"final talk\", i.e., \"what wisdom would you try to impart to the world if you knew it was your last chance?\"", "The Last Lecture\nThe Last Lecture is a \"New York Times\" best-selling book co-authored by Randy Pausch—a professor of computer science, human-computer interaction, and design at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania—and Jeffrey Zaslow of the \"Wall Street Journal\". The book speaks on a lecture Pausch gave in September 2007 entitled \"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\".", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nBefore beginning part I of the lecture, Pausch explained his story of having pancreatic cancer and only having 3 to 6 months to live, but still made a joke of it by saying that he was still in the best shape of his life (and \"better than most of you [the audience]\"), proceeding to do a series of push-ups on stage while still speaking.[33] Pausch also talked about what he would not cover in the lecture, which included his family and children, religion, spirituality, and his terminal cancer or any other cancer.[34]", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nOn October 6, 2007, Pausch joined the Pittsburgh Steelers for the day during their regular practice, after the organization learned that one of his childhood dreams mentioned in his \"Last Lecture\" was to play in the National Football League.[62] A devoted Star Trek fan, Pausch was invited by film director J. J. Abrams to film a role in the latest Star Trek movie. Abrams heard of Pausch's condition and sent a personal e-mail inviting Pausch to the set. Pausch happily accepted and traveled to Los Angeles, California to shoot his scene. In addition to appearing in the film, he also has a line of dialogue and donated the $217.06 paycheck to charity.[63][64] On April 9, 2008, the ABC network aired an hour-long Diane Sawyer feature on Pausch entitled \"The Last Lecture: A Love Story For Your Life\".[12][65] On July 29, 2008, ABC aired a follow up to the Last Lecture special, remembering Pausch.", "The Last Lecture\nPausch begins by setting up the various topics being discussed. The first of three subjects, his childhood dreams, is introduced by relaying the overall premise of why he is stating his dreams, saying, \"inspiration and permission to dream are huge\". The second topic in \"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\" is titled \"Enabling the Dreams of Others\". In this section, Pausch discusses his creation of the course \"Building Virtual Worlds\" that involves the student development of virtual realities. Through this course, Pausch creates a program called \"Alice- The Infinitely Scalable Dream Factory\" because he wants tens of millions of people to chase their dreams. This software allows kids to make movies and games, giving them the opportunity to learn something hard while still having fun. He believes that \"the best way to teach somebody something is to have them think that they're learning something else.\" For the third and final topic in his lecture, called \"Lessons Learned\", Dr. Pausch reiterates and introduces a few new lessons that he has learned and accumulated over his lifetime. Arguably the most meaningful point Pausch made comes at the very end of his lecture, when he states: \"It's not about how to achieve your dreams, it's about how to lead your life. If you lead your life the right way, the karma will take care of itself, the dreams will come to you.”", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\n\"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\" (also referred to as \"The Last Lecture\"[1]) was a lecture given by Carnegie Mellon University computer science professor Randy Pausch on September 18, 2007,[2] that received a large amount of media coverage, and was the basis for The Last Lecture, a New York Times best-selling book co-authored with Wall Street Journal reporter Jeffrey Zaslow.[3] Pausch had been diagnosed with pancreatic cancer in September 2006. On September 19, 2006, Pausch underwent a pancreaticoduodenectomy to remove the malignant tumor from his pancreas.[4] In August 2007, after doctors discovered that the cancer had recurred, Pausch was given a terminal diagnosis and was told to expect a remaining three to six months of good health.[5]", "Randy Pausch\nPausch was named \"Person of the Week\" on ABC's World News with Charles Gibson on September 21, 2007.[28] His \"Last Lecture\" attracted wide attention from the international media,[29] became an Internet hit, and was viewed over a million times in the first month after its delivery.[30] On October 22, 2007, Pausch appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show where he discussed his situation and summarized his \"Last Lecture\".[18] On October 6, 2007, Pausch joined the Pittsburgh Steelers for the day during their regular practice, after the organization learned that one of his childhood dreams mentioned in his \"Last Lecture\" was to play in the NFL.[31] On April 9, 2008, the ABC network aired an hour-long Diane Sawyer feature on Pausch titled \"The Last Lecture: A Love Story For Your Life\".[32][33] On July 29, 2008, ABC aired a follow-up to the Last Lecture special, remembering Pausch and his famous lecture.[34]", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nBefore Pausch was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer, he was originally going to have his lecture based on the generic academic-style \"Last Lecture,\" and was not expecting his cancer to play a part in the decision. Pausch could not think of a subject for the speech, and was constantly being e-mailed by speech organizers and event organizers from Carnegie Mellon. Pausch was told in August, a month before the lecture, that a poster must be printed and he needed to decide on a subject immediately. The same week, he was told that the prognosis for his pancreatic cancer was to be terminal.[21] Pausch nearly canceled the lecture after hearing the news. He was deciding whether to make the speech, or to stay at home to get his family in order so that they would be set to live a normal life following Pausch's death. Pausch discussed the matter with his wife Jai, who requested that Pausch stay at home. Jai suggested that Pausch should be spending some of his time left with their three children, not giving a speech at his workplace. Pausch decided against this, after explaining that his children would remember him through seeing his lecture.[22]", "Randy Pausch\nPausch learned that he had pancreatic cancer in September 2006, and in August 2007, he was given a terminal diagnosis: \"3 to 6 months of good health left\". He gave an upbeat lecture titled \"The Last Lecture: Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\" on September 18, 2007, at Carnegie Mellon, which became a popular YouTube video and led to other media appearances. He then co-authored a book called The Last Lecture on the same theme, which became a New York Times best-seller.", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nThis led Pausch to conduct a virtual reality class at Carnegie Mellon, to teach others and to help them realize their childhood dreams.[53] In the course, 50 students from the university were separated into random teams of four and were each assigned a project relating to building a virtual world.[54] Each group had two weeks to work on the project, and then presented the project to the group. The teams were then randomized again and a new project began.[55] The project then evolved into something that people came to watch, and helped his students realize their potential.[56] Finally, Pausch gave a few words of advice on how others could achieve their childhood dreams, and who his role models were when he was trying to do so.[57]", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nPausch was known for some lectures in his previous jobs. In his previous career, Pausch was associate professor in the Department of Computer Science at the University of Virginia's School of Engineering and Applied Science in 1997 and 1998, and also worked for The Walt Disney Company as an imagineer and for Electronic Arts.[13] At the University of Virginia, he was known for a lecture on the importance of making technology more friendly to users in which he demonstrated his point by presenting a VCR (otherwise known as a video cassette recorder) that was hard to program and then smashing it with a sledgehammer.[13] He was also known for his lecture on time management which he delivered in 1998 at the University of Virginia, and again in 2007 at the same venue.[14] \"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\" was the first lecture of the nine part \"Journeys\" lecture series conducted by Carnegie Mellon, which also included speakers such as Raj Reddy, Jay Apt, and Jared Cohon, the university president.[15] The series of lectures was focused on university staff members discussing their professional journeys and the decisions and challenges they faced.[15]", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nAfter explaining his childhood dreams, Pausch then began the second part of his speech, which was about how he enabled the dreams of others.[47] He decided to become a professor, and reflected in the speech that there was no better job to enable the childhood dreams of other people.[48] He also mentioned that working for Electronic Arts was \"probably a close second\".[49] Pausch told the audience about how he realized he could enable the dreams of others, due to Tommy Burnett, one of his students at the University of Virginia. Burnett was interested in joining Pausch's research group.[50] Pausch asked Burnett what his childhood dream was while talking about joining the team, and he responded that his dream was to work on the next Star Wars film.[51] Burnett worked on Pausch's virtual reality team while at the University of Virginia, and Pausch helped Burnett to try achieve this dream. When Pausch moved to Carnegie Mellon, his entire team moved with him except Burnett, who had been offered a job by Lucasfilm (the creator of Star Wars). He eventually worked with Lucasfilm on three Star Wars films: The Phantom Menace, Attack of the Clones, and Revenge of the Sith.[52]", "Head fake\nIn his \"Last Lecture\" entitled \"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\" (at Carnegie Mellon on September 18, 2007), Randy Pausch refers extensively to \"head fakes.\" He describes as a \"head fake,\" for example, the phenomenon of parents encouraging their children to play football. Parents tell their children to play sports not because they really want them to become football stars, he says, but to help them develop collaboration and socializing skills. His concluding remarks during the last three or four minutes, present the final head fake of the lecture.", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nDuring the lecture, Pausch was upbeat and humorous, alternating between wisecracks, insights on computer science and engineering education, advice on building multi-disciplinary collaborations, working in groups and interacting with other people, offering inspirational life lessons, and performing push-ups on stage. He also commented on the irony that the \"Last Lecture\" series had recently been renamed as \"Journeys\": \"I thought, damn, I finally nailed the venue and they renamed it.\"[6] After Pausch finished his lecture, Steve Seabolt, on behalf of Electronic Arts, which is now collaborating with CMU in the development of Alice 3.0,[7] pledged to honor Pausch by creating a memorial scholarship for women in computer science,[4] in recognition of Pausch's support and mentoring of women in CS and engineering.", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nPausch then went to the first part of his speech, explaining his childhood dreams and how he accomplished (or tried to accomplish) them. Pausch first explained his childhood, as well as his family life in the 1960s. Pausch stated that he had a \"really good childhood\", and, when going back through his family archive of photographs, had never found a picture of him not smiling.[35] Some of these pictures were shown on the projection as slides, including one of him dreaming. He explained how he was inspired by the Apollo 11 lunar landing in 1969.[36] Pausch then transitioned to a slide which contained a list of his childhood dreams, and explained them. His dreams were being in zero gravity, playing in the National Football League, being the author of a World Book Encyclopedia article, being Captain Kirk, being \"one of the guys who won the big stuffed animals in the amusement park\", and becoming a Disney Imagineer.[37]", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nProfessor Pausch's \"Last Lecture\" has received attention and recognition both from the American media and from news sources around the world.[8] The video of the speech became an Internet sensation, being viewed over a million times in the first month after its delivery on social networking sites such as YouTube, Google video, MySpace, and Facebook.[9] Randy Pausch gave an abridged version of his speech on The Oprah Winfrey Show in October 2007.[10] On April 9, 2008, the ABC network aired an hour-long Diane Sawyer feature on Pausch entitled \"The Last Lecture: A Love Story For Your Life\".[11] Four days after his death from pancreatic cancer on July 25, 2008, ABC aired a tribute to Pausch, remembering his life and his famous lecture.[12]" ]

[ "Randy Pausch\nPausch was an assistant and associate professor in the Department of Computer Science at the University of Virginia's School of Engineering and Applied Science from 1988 until 1997. While there, he completed sabbaticals at Walt Disney Imagineering and Electronic Arts (EA). In 1997, Pausch became Associate Professor of Computer Science, Human-Computer Interaction, and Design at Carnegie Mellon University. In 1998, he was a co-founder, along with Don Marinelli, of CMU's Entertainment Technology Center (ETC), and he started the Building Virtual Worlds[5] course at CMU, which he taught for 10 years. He consulted with Google on user interface design and also consulted with PARC, Imagineering, and Media Metrix.[4] Pausch is also the founder of the Alice software project.[6] He received the National Science Foundation Presidential Young Investigator Award and was a Lilly Foundation Teaching Fellow.[7] Pausch was the author or co-author of five books and over 70 articles." ]

[ "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nFirst off, Pausch explained his dream of being in zero gravity. As a child, this had been a dream inspired by Apollo 11, and had stayed with him as an adult. When he was the computer science professor at Carnegie Mellon, he learned of a program that NASA has that allows college students to go up into the air in NASA's Vomit Comet, which uses parabolic arcs to simulate the feeling of weightlessness. Faculty members were not allowed to go (Pausch called this a \"brick wall\" he faced), so he had to present himself as a web journalist, because local media was allowed on.[38] Pausch proceeded to begin talking about his second childhood dream, playing in the National Football League.[39] Although Pausch was never a player in the National Football League, he spoke about his childhood experiences with Pop Warner Football and how they had affected his life and taught him lessons.[40] Pausch then moved on to his dream of publishing an article in the World Book Encyclopedia. As a child, Pausch always kept and read a World Book Encyclopedia in his home. As he progressed into a career, he became one of the leading professors in the field of virtual reality. World Book then called Pausch, interested in him writing for the encyclopedia. Currently, the article \"virtual reality\" in the World Book Encyclopedia is the one authored by Pausch.[41]", "Jeffrey Zaslow\nIn September 2007, after he attended the final lecture of Carnegie Mellon University Professor Randy Pausch, he collaborated with Pausch on writing \"The Last Lecture\", released in 2008. The book by Pausch and Zaslow, translated into 48 languages, was a #1 \"New York Times\" best-seller, spending more than 110 weeks on the list. Media coverage included \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" and an ABC special hosted by Diane Sawyer. More than five million copies of the book are in print in the U.S.", "Randy Pausch\nQuotations related to Main Page at Wikiquote at Carnegie Mellon University at the University of Virginia by Tara Parker-Pope from the New York Times on July 27, 2008 on Google Scholar on IMDb", "Randy Pausch\nPausch was born in Baltimore, Maryland, and grew up in Columbia, Maryland.[2] After graduating from Oakland Mills High School in Columbia, Pausch received his bachelor's degree in computer science from Brown University in May 1982 and his Ph.D. in computer science from Carnegie Mellon University in August 1988.[3] While completing his doctoral studies, Pausch was briefly employed at Xerox Palo Alto Research Center and Adobe Systems.[4]", "Stephen E. Cross\nIn 1994, Cross joined the faculty of Carnegie Mellon in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, becoming a principal research scientist in its Robotics Institute and Institute for Software Research. In 1996, he became director and CEO of Carnegie Mellon's Software Engineering Institute. While at Carnegie Mellon, Cross promoted more reliable software development practices such as code reuse.", "Venkatesan Guruswami\nVenkatesan Guruswami (born 1976) is a Professor of computer science at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, United States. He did his high schooling at Padma Seshadri Bala Bhavan in Chennai, India. He completed his undergraduate in Computer Science from IIT Madras and his doctorate from Massachusetts Institute of Technology under the supervision of Madhu Sudan in 2001 . After receiving his PhD, he spent a year at UC Berkeley as a Miller Fellow, and then was a member of the faculty at the University of Washington from 2002 to 2009. His primary area of research is computer science, and in particular on error-correcting codes. During 2007-2008, he visited the Institute for Advanced Study as a Member of School of Mathematics. He also visited SCS at Carnegie Mellon University during 2008-09 as a Visiting Faculty. In July 2009, he joined the School of Computer Science at Carnegie Mellon University as Associate Professor in the Computer Science Department.", "Randy Pausch\nThe Pittsburgh City Council declared November 19, 2007 to be \"Dr. Randy Pausch Day\".[46] In May 2008, Pausch was listed by Time as one of the World's Top-100 Most Influential People.[1] Randy was named Pittsburgher of the Year 2008.[47] On May 30, 2008, Randy received a letter from then President George W. Bush thanking him for his commitment to the Nation's youth.[48] On February 4, 2009, The Walt Disney Company dedicated a tribute plaque at Walt Disney World near the \"Mad Tea Party\" attraction with a quote by Randy that reads \"Be good at something; It makes you valuable ... Have something to bring to the table, because that will make you more welcome.\"[49] The Walt Disney Company also created the Disney Memorial Pausch Fellowship at Carnegie Mellon University, which will support two graduate students.[50] Per Jared Cohon's announcement on the day of the Last Lecture, a raised pedestrian bridge at CMU that connects the Gates Computer Science building and the Purnell Center for the Arts is named after Pausch, symbolizing the way he linked the two disciplines.[22]", "Randy Pausch\nThe Randy Pausch Memorial Footbridge was dedicated on October 30, 2009, with Jai, Dylan, Logan, and Chloe Pausch cutting the ribbon.", "Saj-nicole A. Joni\nAt the age of 24, having completed her Ph.D., Saj-nicole joined the applied mathematics faculty of MIT, working closely with Professor Gian-Carlo Rota. Her studies and research in combinatorics contributed to the theoretical foundations of computation. At that time, she was the first woman in the history of MIT to serve on MIT’s applied mathematics faculty. (When she began at MIT, there were no women’s bathrooms in building 2 where the mathematics department was housed). Saj-nicole was also appointed to the mathematics faculty at Carnegie Mellon University, and for several years, she divided her time between these two universities. In 1978, Saj-nicole was honored by Carnegie Mellon University for excellence in teaching. In the early 1980s, Saj-nicole joined the newly forming Computer Science department at Wellesley College, and served as Chairman of that department for several years.", "Randy Pausch\nPausch gave a lecture about time management[35] on November 27, 2007 at the University of Virginia, to an audience of over 850 people.[36] In March 2008, Pausch appeared in a public service announcement video[37] and testified before Congress in support of cancer research.[38] On May 18, 2008, Pausch made a surprise return appearance at Carnegie Mellon, giving a speech at the commencement ceremony,[39] as well as attending the School of Computer Science's diploma ceremony,[40] and on May 19 Pausch appeared on the show Good Morning America.[41] His lecture, \"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\", was nominated at the 2007 YouTube Video Awards.[42][43]", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nAfter Pausch finished his lecture, Steve Seabolt, on behalf of Electronic Arts, which is now collaborating with Carnegie Mellon in the development of Alice 3.0,[58] pledged to honor Pausch by creating a memorial scholarship for women in computer science in recognition of Pausch's support and mentoring of women in CS and engineering.[4] Then, university president Jared Cohon called his contributions to the university and to education \"remarkable and stunning\".[59] He then announced that Carnegie Mellon would build a raised pedestrian bridge named for Pausch in honor of his contributions to the university and to the world. This connected Carnegie Mellon's new Computer Science building and the Center for the Arts, a symbol of the way Pausch linked those two areas. Finally, Brown University professor Andries van Dam followed Pausch's last lecture with a tearful and impassioned speech praising him for his courage and leadership, calling him a role model.[59]", "Chip Walter\nFollowing forays into Hollywood screenwriting and digital media in the early and mid-1990's, Walter wrote his next book in collaboration with William Shatner, well known for his iconic role as Captain Kirk in the original \"Star Trek\" television series, and then later in a series of \"Star Trek\" movies. The book explored the many ways that the technologies predicted in the \"Star Trek\" series, like handheld communicators, virtual reality, wearable computers, humanlike robots and radical life extension were becoming a reality two hundred years before the 23rd century in which the series was set. The book combined reminiscences and history of the original series with explorations of advanced technologies being developed at MIT, Carnegie Mellon University, Xerox PARC, Kurzweil Technologies and as part of the Human Genome Project. Walter knew Carnegie Mellon University professor Randy Pausch and arranged to visit Pausch's lab as part of the book's research. His work was featured in the book's chapter on the Holodeck and virtual reality. Pausch later credited Walter with fulfilling one of his lifelong dreams—meeting Captain Kirk, when he gave his famous \"Last Lecture\" before passing away in 2008 from pancreatic cancer.", "The Last Lecture\nThe Last Lecture is a \"New York Times\" best-selling book co-authored by Randy Pausch—a professor of computer science, human-computer interaction, and design at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania—and Jeffrey Zaslow of the \"Wall Street Journal\". The book speaks on a lecture Pausch gave in September 2007 entitled \"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\".", "Alice (software)\nAlice is an open-source object-based educational programming language with an integrated development environment (IDE). Alice uses a drag and drop environment to create computer animations using 3D models. The software was developed first at University of Virginia in 1994, then Carnegie Mellon (from 1997), by a research group led by Randy Pausch.", "Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science\nAdditionally, the Gates Center connects to the Purnell Center, which houses the School of Drama, via the Randy Pausch Memorial Footbridge. The bridge represents Professor Pausch's own devotion to linking computer science and entertainment, as he was a co-founder of Carnegie Mellon's Entertainment Technology Center.", "Carnegie Mellon University traditions\nIn August 2008, the graduating class of 2008 at the Carnegie Mellon Silicon Valley Campus brought the tradition to California by installing their own version of the fence, and dedicating it to Randy Pausch, who died in that year.", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\n\"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\" (also referred to as \"The Last Lecture\"[1]) was a lecture given by Carnegie Mellon University computer science professor Randy Pausch on September 18, 2007,[2] that received a large amount of media coverage, and was the basis for The Last Lecture, a New York Times best-selling book co-authored with Wall Street Journal reporter Jeffrey Zaslow.[3] Pausch had been diagnosed with pancreatic cancer in September 2006. On September 19, 2006, Pausch underwent a pancreaticoduodenectomy to remove the malignant tumor from his pancreas.[4] In August 2007, after doctors discovered that the cancer had recurred, Pausch was given a terminal diagnosis and was told to expect a remaining three to six months of good health.[5]", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nBefore Pausch was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer, he was originally going to have his lecture based on the generic academic-style \"Last Lecture,\" and was not expecting his cancer to play a part in the decision. Pausch could not think of a subject for the speech, and was constantly being e-mailed by speech organizers and event organizers from Carnegie Mellon. Pausch was told in August, a month before the lecture, that a poster must be printed and he needed to decide on a subject immediately. The same week, he was told that the prognosis for his pancreatic cancer was to be terminal.[21] Pausch nearly canceled the lecture after hearing the news. He was deciding whether to make the speech, or to stay at home to get his family in order so that they would be set to live a normal life following Pausch's death. Pausch discussed the matter with his wife Jai, who requested that Pausch stay at home. Jai suggested that Pausch should be spending some of his time left with their three children, not giving a speech at his workplace. Pausch decided against this, after explaining that his children would remember him through seeing his lecture.[22]", "Reliability of Wikipedia\nCarnegie Mellon Professor Randy Pausch offered the following anecdote in his book \"The Last Lecture\". He was surprised that his entry to \"World Book Encyclopedia\" on virtual reality was accepted without question, so he concluded, \"I now believe Wikipedia is a perfectly fine source for your information, because I know what the quality control is for real encyclopedias.\"", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\n\"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\" was delivered on September 18, 2007, at Carnegie Mellon University's McConomy Auditorium.[23] Over 450 Carnegie Mellon students, staff members, and friends of Pausch attended the lecture, leaving only standing room as this was more than the auditorium could hold.[13] Pausch later commented about this in an interview, saying \"A couple of hundred people in a room, looking and listening and laughing and applauding– hopefully at the appropriate times– that gives a lot of validation to my kids that a lot of people believe in this, and a lot of people who knew me believe that I did my best to try to live this way.\"[13] The first introduction of the speech as well as the series of lectures was given by Indira Nair, the Vice Provost for Education at Carnegie Mellon. Nair first explained the university's aforementioned lecture series called \"Journeys\", in which eight more professors from Carnegie Mellon would share their insights on their professional and personal experiences over the years.[24]", "Randy Pausch\nPausch learned that he had pancreatic cancer in September 2006, and in August 2007, he was given a terminal diagnosis: \"3 to 6 months of good health left\". He gave an upbeat lecture titled \"The Last Lecture: Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\" on September 18, 2007, at Carnegie Mellon, which became a popular YouTube video and led to other media appearances. He then co-authored a book called The Last Lecture on the same theme, which became a New York Times best-seller.", "Carnegie Mellon Silicon Valley\nIn August 2008, the graduating class of 2008 presented a gift to the university by installing their own Carnegie Mellon University fence on the Silicon Valley campus. The fence is a Carnegie Mellon tradition on the main campus where different student organizations repaint a long fence in the middle of the campus to promote a cause or spread a certain message. Members of the class of 2008 collected money to hire a contractor to build and install a 10-foot fence, that was then subsequently painted with images symbolizing the west coast (like the Golden Gate Bridge, or NASA's Hangar One). The fence was dedicated to Randy Pausch who died in 2008 (the top of the fence reads \"Dedicated to Randy Pausch\"). The remaining money was also donated and gift-matched to a total of $1000 to the Randy Pausch Memorial Fund.", "Randy Pausch\nRandolph Frederick Pausch[2] (October 23, 1960– July 25, 2008) was an American professor of computer science, human–computer interaction, and design at Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\nAfter explaining his childhood dreams, Pausch then began the second part of his speech, which was about how he enabled the dreams of others.[47] He decided to become a professor, and reflected in the speech that there was no better job to enable the childhood dreams of other people.[48] He also mentioned that working for Electronic Arts was \"probably a close second\".[49] Pausch told the audience about how he realized he could enable the dreams of others, due to Tommy Burnett, one of his students at the University of Virginia. Burnett was interested in joining Pausch's research group.[50] Pausch asked Burnett what his childhood dream was while talking about joining the team, and he responded that his dream was to work on the next Star Wars film.[51] Burnett worked on Pausch's virtual reality team while at the University of Virginia, and Pausch helped Burnett to try achieve this dream. When Pausch moved to Carnegie Mellon, his entire team moved with him except Burnett, who had been offered a job by Lucasfilm (the creator of Star Wars). He eventually worked with Lucasfilm on three Star Wars films: The Phantom Menace, Attack of the Clones, and Revenge of the Sith.[52]", "S. Thomas Emerson\nIn May 2000, Emerson joined the faculty of Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, PA. He served as a Director of the Donald H. Jones Center for Entrepreneurship of Carnegie Mellon University from 2000 to 2005. He was also David T. and Lindsay J. Morgenthaler Professor of Entrepreneurship at the Carnegie Mellon Tepper School of Business between 2003 and 2009.", "Michael Himes\nThe speech marked the first in an anticipated series named for the talk given by Carnegie Mellon University professor Randy Pausch in September 2007, after Pausch was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer, from which he died in July 2008. (Speaking in Devlin 008 on April 6 at 8:00 p.m. will be BC historian Paul Breines.) The format encourages the speaker to discuss, in Himes’s words, “the issues that matter most and have been truest in life.” Michael Himes also wrote many articles/books after 2002…", "Carnegie Mellon University\nIn 2008, Carnegie Mellon professor Randy Pausch's \"Last Lecture\" became a pop culture phenomenon. Based on a lecture he gave in September 2007 – shortly after he learned his cancer had metastasized – his book quickly rose to the top of bestseller lists around the country. Named in \"Time Magazine\"s \"Time 100\" list of influential people, he died in July 2008 from pancreatic cancer.", "Dan Maynes-Aminzade\nDan received his bachelor's degree from Carnegie Mellon University, where his research advisor was Randy Pausch; his Undergraduate Honors Thesis is titled \"Techniques for Interactive Audience Participation\".", "Jesse Schell\nAfter graduating from the Information Networking Institute at CMU in 1994 with a Masters of Science in Computer Networking and Virtual Reality, Jesse Schell went on to work for Bell Labs. In 1995 he joined Walt Disney Imagineering, where he worked for seven years in capacity of programmer, manager, designer and Creative Director on several projects. These included rides for theme parks, DisneyQuest and the \"first Massively Multiplayer game for kids\" (according to Disney) – Toontown Online. During his time at Disney, he met Carnegie Mellon professor Randy Pausch, who was taking a sabbatical in Jesse's lab. When Randy founded the Entertainment Technology Center at CMU, he invited Jesse to become a faculty member. He joined the faculty in 2002." ]

[ "Hatfield–McCoy feud\nBetween 1880 and 1891, the feud claimed more than a dozen members of the two families. On one occasion, the governors of West Virginia and Kentucky even threatened to have their militias invade each other's states. In response, Kentucky Governor S. B. Buckner sent his Adjutant General Sam Hill to Pike County to investigate the situation.[15] More than a dozen people died and at least 10 people were wounded.[16] A few days after the New Year's Massacre, a posse led by Pike county deputy sheriff Frank Philipps rode out to track down Devil Anse's group across the border into West Virginia. The posse's first victim was Jim Vance, who was killed in the woods after he refused to be arrested. Philipps then made other successive raids on Hatfield homes and supporters and captured three before cornering the rest in Grapevine Creek on 19 January.[17] Unfortunately for Philipps, Devil Anse and other Hatfields were waiting for them with an armed group of their own. A battle ensued between the two parties, and the Hatfields were eventually apprehended.[14] Two Hatfield supporters were killed, and a deputy, Bill Dempsey, was executed by Frank Philipps after they surrendered.[18] Wall Hatfield and eight others were arrested and brought to Kentucky to stand trial for the murder of Alifair McCoy (sometimes spelled Allaphare, Randolph's young daughter), killed during the New Year's Massacre.[19]" ]

[ "Hatfield–McCoy feud\nMark Twain's classic novel The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn includes a bitter feud between two rival families, the Grangerfords and Sheperdsons. Many aspects of this feud emulate the Hatfield–McCoy feud (which was actively raging at the time of the book's publication; many readers believe that Twain's inclusion of this element was a satirical protest of both the H&M feud and of needless feuding and death in general), including one of the Grangerfords' daughters' eloping with a young male member of the Sheperdsons, causing the already-hotly-simmering feud to boil over into a frenzied gun-battle in which many lives are lost on both sides.", "Feud (professional wrestling)\nFeuds are often the result of the friction that is created between faces (the heroic figures) and heels (the malevolent, 'evil' participants). Common causes of feuds are a purported slight or insult, although they can be based on many other things, including conflicting moral codes or simple professional one-upmanship such as the pursuit of a championship. Some of the more popular feuds with audiences involve pitting former allies, particularly tag team partners, against each other. Depending on how popular and entertaining the feud may be, it is usually common practice for a feud to continue on for weeks, usually building toward a match in a supercard.", "Top Secret America\nPublished July 19, 2010, this first installment focuses on the U.S. intelligence system's growth and redundancies. It questions its manageability, as it has become \"so large, so unwieldy, and so secretive that no one knows how much money it costs, how many people it employs, how many programs exist within it, or exactly how many agencies do the same work.\" The report states that \"An estimated 854,000 people, nearly 1.5 times as many people as live in Washington, D.C., hold top-secret security clearances.\"", "Greco Mafia clan\nIn total, eleven members of the two clans died and several others were wounded in the feud, before other Palermo Mafia bosses started to put pressure on Piddu the lieutenant to end the bloody feud, which drew too much attention. Moreover, Piddu was expected to take care for both factions of the feuding clans, after the killing of the bosses of the rival faction. His status depended on how he would manage the situation.", "The Biltmore Agreement\nThis, however, did not end the feud between newspapers and radio. Local newspapers began feuds with local radio stations. Newspapers also refused to publish anything positive about local radio stations, including information concerning programs that the stations aired, or provide any kind of advertising for their station. Newspapers also reported news, suggesting that newspapers were a better news and advertising medium than radio. Many believe that radio gave into this agreement because they feared the power of the newspapers. People understood that this agreement was excessive and unfair to broadcasters. Meanwhile, others valued the Biltmore Agreement for resolving “the troublesome, wasteful and ramifying antagonism between the news press and radio broadcasting.” The agreement broke down within a couple of years, as newspapers discovered how profitable owning radio stations could be.", "Polly Toynbee\nIn 2003 upon the 25th anniversary of Pope John Paul II's papacy, she wrote that he \"is a hate-figure and with good reason… No one can compute how many people have died of Aids as a result of Wojtyla's power, how many woman have died in childbirth needlessly, how many children starved in families too large and poor to feed them. But it is reasonable to suppose these silent, unseen, uncounted deaths at his hand would match that of any self-respecting tyrant or dictator\".", "John G. Schwegmann\nIn the legislature, Schwegmann declared his independence of the leadership. Because of his crusades and feuds, many of his bills were not voted upon or rejected outright. In a 1962 speech, he said, \"How can you win with a stacked house? I came out fighting, and at least I was loyal to the people.\"", "Sandra Cabrera\nShe was the consummate union organizer. For two years before her murder, she used her motorcycle to take her every place in Rosario where her colleagues were working the street, listening to their complaints and planning how to use the union to protect them. After she died this was how many people remembered her; on her bike, distributing condoms, asking about people's problems. She learned how to make statements to the news media that the media would pick up and publish, spreading her message.", "Kitab al-I'tibar\nThe Fatimite court was full of conspiracies and feuds. Usama shows how the power of the caliph was limited by the military rulers and how the instability of the government caused feuds and assassinations For example, in 1150 the Fatimite caliph tried to kill his vizier:", "History of Naples\nOrganised crime is deeply rooted in Naples. The Camorra, the feuding Neapolitan gangs and families, have a long history. During 2004 over 120 people died in Naples in Camorra killings; many of the deaths were related to the drug trade.", "Charles II of Spain\nHowever, the 17th century was a period of crisis for many European states and Spain was not alone in facing these problems. Feuds between those who ruled in Charles' name did little to help but it is debatable how far they or he can be held responsible for long-term trends predating his reign; the Monarchy proved remarkably resilient and when Charles died was largely intact.", "Card Sharks\nContestants alternated responding to questions starting with the champion to gain control of the cards. Similar to another Goodson-Todman game show, \"Family Feud\", survey questions were posed to groups of 100 people, all of whom were typically in a common demographic group of the same profession, marital status, etc. (e.g., \"We asked 100 teachers, 'Has a student ever given you an apple?' How many said they have?\"). Contestants were asked to predict how many of those 100 people responded in a specific manner. Their opponent was then asked whether he or she thought the actual number was higher or lower than the previous contestant's response. The actual number was then revealed, and if the opponent was correct, they played their cards first; otherwise, the contestant to whom the question was posed played first. In the 1980–1981 season, a $500 bonus was awarded to any contestant who provided the exact number of people responding to a specific question.", "Neville–Neville feud\nJ.R. Lander described the Neville–Neville feud as illustrating how the Neville family \"never could and never did work together\". The dispute between the senior and junior branches of the Neville family continued into the Wars of the Roses. During the prolonged conflict that ravaged the English nobility, Westmorland gave his half-brother no support at all; in fact Westmorland's younger brother, Lord John Neville died fighting for the Lancastrian Henry VI at the Battle of Towton in 1461. Salisbury himself was captured at the Battle of Wakefield and instead of being ransomed, he was beheaded by the common people, who \"loved him not.\" Lander also suggested that if had been united as a family behind Salisbury, who supported Richard of York during the Wars of the Roses, York's \"power in the land would have been overwhelming\".", "1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle\nAfter three days of walking, the refugees were picked up by the Arab Legion and driven to Ramallah. Reports vary regarding how many died. Many were elderly people and young children who died from the heat and exhaustion. Morris has written that it was a \"handful and perhaps dozens.\" Glubb wrote that \"nobody will ever know how many children died.\" Nimr al Khatib estimated that 335 died based on hearsay. Walid Khalidi gives a figure of 350, citing Palestinian historian Aref al-Aref. The expulsions clogged the roads eastward. Morris writes that IDF thinking was simple and cogent. They had just taken two major objectives and were out of steam. The Arab Legion had been expected to counter-attack, but the expulsions thwarted it: the roads were now cluttered, and the Legion was suddenly responsible for the welfare of an additional tens of thousands of people.", "Cronaca fiorentina di Marchionne di Coppo Stefani\nThe \"Cronaca fiorentina\" explains that the spice-dealers and \"beccamorti\" sold burial items, such as perfumed spiced goods, benches, caskets, burial palls, biers, and cushions, at outrageously high prices, so that the government finally had to step in and control such prices. It also forbade the custom of ringing bells during a funeral, to limit the knowledge of how many funerals there actually were. Crying out a funeral announcement was also forbidden. Knowing how many funerals there were discouraged the sick as well as the healthy. Priests and friars served the rich, since they were paid large amounts of money for their services, and could become rich themselves. The local authorities then made laws prescribing how many clerics a church could have, usually setting the limit at six. Many rich people died, and many religious processions with relics went through the streets of Florence. The dead would be carried away by four \"beccamorti\" and a tonsured clerk carrying a Christian cross, each wanting to be highly paid.\nBonaiuti makes it clear that the plague killed so many people that certain new customs were put into place. Fruits with a nut center, unhusked almonds, figs, and \"unhealthy\" fruits were forbidden to enter Florence, for fear of bringing in the pestilence. Men would gather and dine together. Each evening a man would provide the cooked meal for ten other men, rotating from night to night as the host. Many times a host would provide dinner for ten, but two or three were missing. Often by the next evening only one of the ten was still present, the other nine having died or having fled the city for villages outside it, to get fresh air, but they took the plague with them and contaminated otherwise healthy villages. Thus the pestilence spread, killing people at an ever faster rate.", "Stanley Cohen (sociologist)\nStates of Denial is an influential book on how people are in denial about racial oppression, slavery and other suffering. Cohen explains how many people, throughout this country, know that racial oppressive acts occur yet deny it. He writes how it seems as if these people only want to signify and realize things that they want, not actual reality. He says that people do know yet do not know that there is suffering and oppression, as if they choose to ignore it rather than talk about such an uneasy topic. Many people assume, and sometimes witness these acts occur, yet when asked will deny anything ever happened. Stanley Cohen writes about how people act blind to reality, due to uncomfortable and uneasy topics. According to Cohen, many people are in touch with the fact that racial oppression still occurs, along with other acts of human suffering, yet deny that those actions happen. The topic of racial oppression being such an uncomfortable topic makes it hard for many to acknowledge that it actually happens to this day. Stanley Cohen's point of the book is to bring awareness to those who do not see the truth being mass incarceration and how society is structured. He wants people to realize how much people choose to ignore in society today, and that it needs to change.", "Paolo Di Lauro\nIn 2004, a Camorra war broke out between the Di Lauro clan and the so-called \"secessionists\" (Italian \"scissionisti\") led by Raffaele Amato, a breakaway fraction from the once all-powerful Di Lauro clan in the northern suburbs of Naples that tried to assert its control over drugs and prostitution rackets in the area. The war, known as the Scampia feud (Italian \"faida di Scampìa\"), resulted in over 60 murders in 2004 and 2005. The feud caused widespread public revulsion against the Camorra and led to a major crackdown by the authorities, resulting in the capture and imprisonment of Paolo Di Lauro and his sons Ciro (b. 1978) and Cosimo (b. 1973) and many of his associates.", "SS Valencia\nEstimates of how many people died in the sinking vary; some sources list that 117 people were killed, while others claim that the number of fatalities was as high as 181. According to the federal report, the official death toll was 136 persons. Only 37 men survived, and every woman and child on \"Valencia\" died in the disaster.", "Hartford circus fire\nWhile many people burned to death, many others died as a result of the ensuing chaos. Sources and investigators differ on how many people were killed and injured. Various people and organizations say it was 167, 168, or 169 persons (the 168 figure is usually based on official tallies that included a collection of body parts that were listed as a \"victim\") with official treated injury estimates running over 700 people. The number of actual injuries is believed to be higher than those figures, since many people were seen that day heading home in shock without seeking treatment in the city.", "Hibakusha\nSome estimates are that 140,000 people in Hiroshima (38.9% of the population) and 70,000 people in Nagasaki (28.0% of the population) died in 1945, but how many died immediately as a result of exposure to the blast, heat, or due to radiation, is unknown. One Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission report discusses 6,882 people examined in Hiroshima, and 6,621 people examined in Nagasaki, who were largely within 2000 meters from the hypocenter, who suffered injuries from the blast and heat but died from complications frequently compounded by acute radiation syndrome (ARS), all within about 20–30 days.", "Marsha P. Johnson\nIn the 1980s Johnson continued her street activism as a respected organizer and marshal with ACT UP. In 1992, when George Segal's Stonewall memorial was moved to Christopher Street from Ohio to recognize the gay liberation movement, Johnson commented, \"How many people have died for these two little statues to be put in the park to recognize gay people? How many years does it take for people to see that we're all brothers and sisters and human beings in the human race? I mean how many years does it take for people to see that we're all in this rat race together.\"", "Greene–Jones War\nStrife between the Greene and Jones families is said by some chroniclers to have begun even before the American Civil War when one of the Greenes' pigs crawled under the fence and onto the Jones property. A Jones killed the pig and stuffed a hole in the fence with its body. Variations on the story of the pig/hog beginnings of vengeance are many. In retribution, Richard Greene, probably not the son of Jeremiah but one of the many other descendants named Richard Greene, broke up a big iron cauldron on the Jones property with an axe. The Greene–Jones War has many similarities to the Hatfield-McCoy feud, and the feuds' beginnings due to the killing of a pig illustrate not only how much the feuds had in common but also the value of pigs and other livestock to early mountain settlers.", "French–Eversole feud\nAmbush was the favored tactic of this feud rather than standard warfare. It was safer for the concealed perpetrators and responsibility for the attacks was more difficult to determine. Many people lived, justifiably, in fear.", "Feud\nDue to the Celtic heritage of many people living in Appalachia, a series of prolonged violent engagements in late nineteenth-century Kentucky and West Virginia were referred to commonly as feuds, a tendency that was partly due to the nineteenth-century popularity of William Shakespeare and Sir Walter Scott, both of whom had written semihistorical accounts of blood feuds. These incidents, the most famous of which was the Hatfield–McCoy feud, were regularly featured in the newspapers of the eastern U.S. between the Reconstruction Era and the early twentieth century, and are seen by some as linked to a Southern culture of honor with its roots in the Scots-Irish forebears of the residents of the area. Another prominent example is the Regulator–Moderator War, which took place between rival factions in the Republic of Texas. It is sometimes considered the largest blood feud in American history.", "Lady Grace Mysteries\nLike her friends Grace and Masou, she is an orphan as her parents died of the sickly plague. In Feud, she talks about how her parents died, pushing back tears as she shows Grace the scars on her neck.", "History of Limerick\nNo statistics exist on how many people in the Limerick area died during the famine. Nationally, the population declined by an average of 20%, half of whom died and half emigrated. While the Great Famine reduced the population of County Limerick by 70,000, the population of the City actually rose slightly, as people fled to the workhouses.", "Kevin Von Erich\nThe Freebirds immediately became the top heels in the company, due to the belief of many fans that their actions cost one of their local heroes the NWA World Heavyweight Championship. As the feud was building, the WCCW television broadcasts were syndicated to television stations all across the United States, giving the promotion millions of viewers each week in the U.S. alone. This changed the face of wrestling and how it was marketed and presented to audiences. The extremely physical nature of the matches between the two factions captivated fans, changing preconceptions about what professional wrestling was and could be. Throughout the next several years, the Freebirds and Von Erichs engaged in numerous high-profile matches that were very physical in nature with the various members of each group feuding over various championships within the promotion. The feud is seen today by many fans and wrestling industry insiders as one of the best worked and most memorable feuds in the history of professional wrestling. This line of drama ended, when Kevin's brother David von Erich, died in Japan from acute enteritis of the upper intestine. This broke up the symmetry of the wrestling rivalry, though eventually the remaining brothers went on to wrestle individually, with varying degrees of success.", "MyCiTi bus stations\nThe artwork at the Woodbridge Island MyCiTi station, entitled \"Shared Celebrations\", consists of vinyl panels covered in colorful circles that graphically represent how many people in the area were born on each day of the year. The size and color of the circle determine how many people were born that day as well as the probable conceptions. The idea behind this design was to connect commuters to the community, through something shared such as birthdays, a personal day of celebration most people acknowledge. One could look that day to see how many local people are celebrating their birthday, or see how many share their birthday. The inspiration behind the design was influenced by party favors once received as children at birthday parties, that often had similar cheerful and colorful patterns.", "The Invasion (professional wrestling)\nThe Invasion storyline was presented with a backdrop of a McMahon feud. In the storyline, the WWF was owned by Vince McMahon, WCW was owned by Shane McMahon, and ECW was owned by Stephanie McMahon. Although the feud did not center completely around the McMahons, the family feud storyline had been done many times before. In addition to this, the Steve Austin versus Vince McMahon feud was to start again when Vince McMahon hit Austin in the back of the head with a chair at No Mercy. As stated by a SLAM! Wrestling synopsis of No Mercy: For fans who didn't catch it the fifth, tenth or twentieth time they've run the angle, \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin and Vince McMahon are about to feud once again... First up was Vincent McMahon labelling Austin with a steel chair as he was waiting to put a dazed RVD away... Three minutes later, it was Shane McMahon's turn to hurl Kurt Angle out of the ring and into a steel ring post. Vince tackled Shane over the announce table and the two began pummeling one another. Back in the ring, Austin laid a \"Stone Cold\" Stunner on to retain the belt as a disgruntled Vince scowled. Gee, how many times have we seen that scenario play itself out before? Austin wins. Vince fumes. Fans snore. Whatever.", "Jones-Liddell feud\nThe Jones-Liddell feud (1847-1870) also known as the Liddell-Jones feud or the Black River War was an ongoing warring dispute between two prominent families from Catahoula Parish, Louisiana. It resulted in the death of at least six people with other estimates suggesting as many as fourteen." ]

[ "Poverty threshold\nIn United States, the poverty thresholds are updated every year by Census Bureau. The threshold in United States are updated and used for statistical purposes. In 2015, in the United States, the poverty threshold for a single person under 65 was an annual income of US$11,770; the threshold for a family group of four, including two children, was US$24,250.[37][38] According to the U.S. Census Bureau data released on 13 September 2011, the nation's poverty rate rose to 15.1 percent in 2010." ]

[ "Poverty in India\nFrom November 2017, the World Bank started reporting poverty rates for all countries using two new international poverty lines: a \"lower middle-income\" line set at $3.20 per day and an \"upper middle-income\" line set at $5.50 per day. India falls in the lower middle-income category. Using the $3.20 per day poverty line, the percentage of the population living in poverty in India was 60% (2011). This means that 763 million people in India were living below this poverty line in 2011.", "Culture of poverty\nThe culture of poverty also emerges as a key concept in Michael Harrington's discussion of American poverty in \"The Other America\" (1962). For Harrington, the culture of poverty is a structural concept defined by social institutions of exclusion that create and perpetuate the cycle of poverty in America.", "Poverty threshold\nIn 1964, in a joint committee economic President's report in the United States, Republicans endorsed the concept of relative poverty: \"No objective definition of poverty exists. ... The definition varies from place to place and time to time. In America as our standard of living rises, so does our idea of what is substandard.\"[27][29]", "Cotton Comes to Harlem (novel)\nAs said in the book, “Harlem is the city of the homeless,” Harlem was an all white community, until the blacks were sent here and given cheap living arrangements. In \"Cotton Comes to Harlem\", the criminals must be made to pay for the crimes or the citizens should be able to afford better living arrangements. The poverty in the city is shown not just by the living standards of the people, but in the number and type of crimes. In the book, the people of Harlem will even steal purses out of the back of a woman's dress to get what today is considered enough money to live off of. In the literary article, The Shape of Poverty in 1966, the author goes into specific details of what the means of living were at that time. It goes on to say that the “majority of the country” was in better standards than it was seven years ago in 1959, but there are actually 1 out of 7 people in America were in “households with money incomes for the year lower than the poverty line”. This can be seen in the hard-boiled novel of this era when there is a distinct difference between the Colonel and his white friends that had enough money to easily tide over their spending to support the Back-to-South movement, while Deke and even the two main detectives had to use impromptu settings to support themselves. The crimes definitely show that drastic measures of the time were needed to fulfill the gap that is within the constant poverty some had, but, as seen by most of the characters, that does not stop them from fighting for what they believe in.", "Poverty\nThe poverty line threshold of $1.90 per day, as set by the World Bank, is controversial. Each nation has its own threshold for absolute poverty line; in the United States, for example, the absolute poverty line was US$15.15 per day in 2010 (US$22,000 per year for a family of four), while in India it was US$1.0 per day and in China the absolute poverty line was US$0.55 per day, each on PPP basis in 2010. These different poverty lines make data comparison between each nation's official reports qualitatively difficult. Some scholars argue that the World Bank method sets the bar too high, others argue it is low. Still others suggest that poverty line misleads as it measures everyone below the poverty line the same, when in reality someone living on $1.20 per day is in a different state of poverty than someone living on $0.20 per day. In other words, the depth and intensity of poverty varies across the world and in any regional populations, and $1.25 per day poverty line and head counts are inadequate measures.", "What Are They Doing in Heaven?\nThe song consists of four verses and a refrain, each four lines long. In both the verses and the refrain, the first three lines rhyme, and the fourth is \"What are they doing now?\" or some small variant of that. The author reflects on friends who were burdened in life by care, or by disease, or by poverty; and wonders what they might now be doing in Heaven, without giving his answer.", "Poverty threshold\nThe poverty threshold, poverty limit or poverty line is the minimum level of income deemed adequate in a particular country.[1] In practice, like the definition of poverty, the official or common understanding of the poverty line is significantly higher in developed countries than in developing countries.[2][3] In 2008, the World Bank came out with a figure (revised largely due to inflation) of $1.25 a day at 2005 purchasing-power parity (PPP).[4] In October 2015, the World Bank updated the international poverty line to $1.90 a day. The new figure of $1.90 is based on ICP purchasing power parity (PPP) calculations and represents the international equivalent of what $1.90 could buy in the US in 2011. The new IPL replaces the $1.25 per day figure, which used 2005 data.[5] Most scholars agree that it better reflects today's reality, particularly new price levels in developing countries.[6] The common international poverty line has in the past been roughly $1 a day.[7] At present the percentage of the global population living under extreme poverty is likely to fall below 10% according to the World Bank projections released in 2015.[8]", "Poverty gap index\nIf you multiply a country's poverty gap index by both the poverty line and the total number of individuals in the country you get the total amount of money needed to bring the poor in the population out of extreme poverty and up to the poverty line, assuming perfect targeting of transfers. For example, suppose a country has 10 million individuals, a poverty line of $500 per year and a poverty gap index of 5%. Then an average increase of $25 per individual per year would eliminate extreme poverty. Note that $25 is 5% of the poverty line. The total increase needed to eliminate poverty is US$250 million—$25 multiplied by 10 million individuals.", "Near poverty\nNear poverty in economics refers to the state of living on an income marginally above the poverty line, defined by the U.S. Census Bureau at an income \"between 100 percent and 125 percent of the poverty line\". The classification was first studied by the U.S. Census in a 2014 report that showed the number of people living just above the poverty line had decreased since the 1960s, believed to be due to an increase in the number of people who have fallen beneath the poverty line.", "Poverty in India\nIndia's proposed but not yet adopted official poverty line, in 2014, was a month in rural areas or a month in cities. The current poverty line is $14 per month ($0.46 per day) in rural areas and $17 per month ($0.56 per day) in urban areas. India's nationwide average poverty line differs from each state's poverty line. For example, in 2011-2012, Puducherry had its highest poverty line of a month in rural and a month in urban areas, while Odisha had the lowest poverty thresholds of a month for rural and a month for its urban areas.", "Poverty in South America\n23.8% of the population is below the poverty line[27] and 4% is very poor, per national surveys; the proportion of Paraguayans living in absolute poverty was 10.3%, as measured in the UN Human Development Index.[28] The problems associated with poverty that this country deals with is migration, language and that there is no standard welfare system. Water and sanitation conditions are also inefficient in rural areas, where the majority of the poor population is concentrated, which leads to the poor getting sick from the unsanitary way of living.[29]", "Primary poverty\nThe poverty line shows points where an individual might find themselves above or below the 'poverty line'- an idea Seebohm Rowntree developed from Charles Booth, the poverty line Rowntree drew has the age of the individual along the bottom, showing main events in the persons life that would affect whether or not they were above or below the poverty line. These events include becoming married; their children beginning to earn; when the children leave home and marry; finally when the individual is above the age where they can work. The three main areas on the line where the individual is said to be below the poverty line are from the ages 515, 3040, and 65+.", "Guatemala\nGuatemala is the largest economy in Central America, with a GDP (PPP) per capita of US$5,200. However, Guatemala faces many social problems and is one of the poorest countries in Latin America. The income distribution is highly unequal with more than half of the population below the national poverty line and just over 400,000 (3.2%) unemployed. The CIA World Fact Book considers 54.0% of the population of Guatemala to be living in poverty in 2009.", "Purchasing power parity\nThe global poverty line is a worldwide count of people who live below an international poverty line, referred to as the dollar-a-day line. This line represents an average of the national poverty lines of the world's poorest countries, expressed in international dollars. These national poverty lines are converted to international currency and the global line is converted back to local currency using the PPP exchange rates from the ICP. PPP exchange rates include data from the sales of high end non-poverty related items which skews the value of food items and necessary goods which is 70 percent of poor peoples' consumption. Angus Deaton argues that PPP indices need to be reweighted for use in poverty measurement; they need to be redefined to reflect local poverty measures, not global measures, weighing local food items and excluding luxury items that are not prevalent or are not of equal value in all localities.", "Poverty in Poland\nIt has been estimated that Poland began its transformation from communist to capitalist economy with about 20% of its population in poverty. Poverty in Poland rose briefly in the period of 1990-1992 and has been largely diminishing since; it did however rise again in the late 1990s, following the slowdown in economic growth. In the years 1994-2001, the subjective poverty line remained relatively stable at about 33%; and the relative poverty line (poverty threshold) rose from 13.5% to 17%. Absolute poverty - as defined by the World Bank, the percentage of population living on less than $4.30 per day - in the period 1997-1999 affected 8.4% of Polish population. Estimates by other sources vary, however. According to Brzeziński (2011), in the years 1998-2003 absolute poverty in Poland has risen by about 8%, reaching (according to the Central Statistical Office (GUS) estimate) 18.1% in 2005, and dropping to 10.6% in 2008; an alternate measure suggests that in the period 2005-2008 absolute poverty fell from 12.3% to 5.6%. Brzeziński (2011) notes that any rise in poverty in the period 1998-2005 was outdone by the drop in poverty in the years 2005-2008.\nAccording to the Polish Central Statistical Office (GUS) 2011 report, the poverty line in Poland has been decreasing in the last few years, down to about 6.5% in 2011. The report notes, however, that this is mostly due to the fact that the nominal value of the poverty line in Poland has not changed since 2006, thus ignoring inflation. If the poverty line were indexed to inflation, the report estimated that 11.4% of Polish households would be below it. The poverty threshold was estimated at 16.7%. Percent of population receiving less than the living wage was estimated at 6.7%. Poverty has decreased as compared to a 2005 report, which had reported both poverty line and poverty threshold at 18.1%, and the percentage of population receiving less than the living wage at 12.3%. In 2003, about 23% of households believed they lived below the poverty line (declaring that they saw their income as insufficient for basic needs).", "Locked in the Poorhouse\nIn Locked in the Poorhouse, one of the two companion volume 30 year updates, Harris observed, “During most of the decade that followed the Kerner Report, America made progress on the principal formats that the report dealt with: race, poverty and inner cities. Then progress stopped and, in some ways, went into reverse. What caused this halt and retreat? First a series of economic shocks and trends had a depressing impact, especially on minorities. And second, the government’s action and inaction bore a good deal of the blame…Today, thirty years after the Kerner report, there is more poverty in America, it is deeper, blacker and browner than before and it is more concentrated in the cities, which have become America’s poorhouses.", "Poverty in South America\nThere are many different reasons why a greater proportion of a country's population may be in poverty than in others, and there are a variety of factors that may explain poverty in South America. Each country has their own internal problems, which leads to their high percentage of poverty, and an overview of poverty in each of these countries in South America (except Chile) follows in the section below.", "Fuel poverty\nThis gave the following definition: fuel poverty is now defined as when a household’s required fuel costs\nare above the median level, and if they were to spend what is required, then the household would be left with a residual income below the official poverty line. Additionally, a Fuel Poverty Indicator has been created, which shows how far into fuel poverty\nhouseholds are, not simply if they are in poverty or not.\nIn Eastern Europe (transition economies), the term energy poverty is sometimes used instead. However, this use of the term (which is about a lack of access to energy services due to economic poverty) can be confused with indicating a lack of any access to energy infrastructure, as has been used by the World Economic Forum when establishing its Energy Poverty Action (EPA) initiative in 2005 to address energy poverty in the developing world by implementing electrification schemes (grid-extension and off-grid).", "Poverty in Australia\nThe Henderson Commission of Inquiry into Poverty also estimated that more than 50% of Aborigines had living standards below the poverty line and less than 20% above it. The infant mortality rates among Aborigines in the period 1973–77 were 63 deaths per thousand live births in the Northern Territory and 71 per thousand in Queensland. This compared with a rate of 62 per thousand in South America, 59 per thousand in Africa, 41 per thousand in Central America, 68 per thousand in Asia, and 15 per thousand amongst non-Aboriginal Australians.", "Poverty in the United States\nWhile the poverty threshold is updated for inflation every year, the basket of food used to determine what constitutes being deprived of a socially acceptable minimum standard of living has not been updated since 1955. As a result, the current poverty line only takes into account food purchases that were common more than 50 years ago, updating their cost using the Consumer Price Index. When methods similar to Orshansky's were used to update the food basket using prices for the year 2000 instead of from nearly a half century earlier, it was found that the poverty line should actually be 200% higher than the official level being used by the government in that year.", "The Heritage Foundation\nA 2011 study on poverty in America was criticized for what critics called an overly narrow definition of poverty. Criticism was published in opinion editorials in \"The New Republic\", \"The Nation\", the Center for American Progress, and \"The Washington Post\".", "Poverty in South America\nCritics of the official INDEC survey charge that both the inflation rate used to measure poverty and the official baseline household budgets themselves are understated, however. The official income poverty line increased 150% between 2001 and early 2010; but most private surveys of household conditions in Argentina estimate it at half again as much as the official threshold,[7] and the effective poverty rate at around 25% of the population.[8][9] Absolute poverty estimates, as measured by the inability to meet a minimum nutritional budget, also differ: this condition includes 3.5% of the population officially, and around 10% per private estimates.[8]", "Poverty in Australia\nThe main way of measuring poverty is to set a poverty line and then determine how many people fall below this line. Poverty lines can be set as either absolute poverty lines or relative poverty lines. Australia does not have an official poverty line, either absolute or relative. The 2012 report entitled Poverty in Australia used two poverty lines and also took account of people's housing costs. One poverty line used by the OECD and in this study, referred to half of the middle income for all households, that is, 50% of median household income and the other is 60% of median income.", "Poverty in India\nFrom November 2017, the World Bank started reporting poverty rates for all countries using two new international poverty lines: a \"lower middle-income\" line set at $3.20 per day and an \"upper middle-income\" line set at $5.50 per day. These are in addition to the earlier poverty line of $1.90 per day. The new lines are supposed to serve two purposes. One, they account for the fact that achieving the same set of capabilities may need a different set of goods and services in different countries and, specifically, a costlier set in richer countries. Second, they allow for cross-country comparisons and benchmarking both within and across developing regions. India falls in the lower middle-income category. Using the $3.20 per day poverty line, the percentage of the population living in poverty in India (2011) was 60%. This means that 763 million people in India were living below this poverty line in 2011.", "Bob Carr\nIt's a faster industrialisation and on a bigger scale than that of America itself in the 19th century. It happened faster, more people are affected, more dramatic effects for the world than even America's rise to industrial dominance. ... Few could be untouched by what it means for the Chinese people – liberated from poverty, historic poverty; few could be reluctant to see this renewed China take its place in the councils of the world.", "Below Poverty Line\nThe Socio Economic Survey conducted during 2002 was based on 13 Socio economic\nindicators (enlisted by Government of India ) indicating the quality of life and by Score-based ranking for all households. Each of the indicators have 0–4 marks. Thus for 13 indicators, the tentative marks obtained by the families are from 0–52 for all the Districts. The Supreme Court of India in Writ Petition No. 196/2001 filed by People's Union for Civil Liberties, the result of Below Poverty Line census 2002 need not be finalised. Later in October 2005 the Government of India informed that based on the advice given by the Additional Solicitor General, it has been decided to finalise the results of Below Poverty Line Census 2002 without deleting the Below Poverty Line families already existing in the Below Poverty Line list of Below Poverty Line Census 1997 and to follow the following procedure for finalisation of Below Poverty Line list.The Government of India then decided that the Below Poverty Line list for 2002 could be finalised as per original guidelines. The Director of Rural Development and Panchayat Raj stated that in the Below Poverty Line survey done in 1991 out of 8,433,000 Rural families 3,446,000 families were identified as Below Poverty Line families. In the Below Poverty Line survey done in the year 1999 out of 9,388,000 rural families 2,737,000 families were identified as Below Poverty Line families. He has stated that if the cut off mark is fixed as 16 the total number of families would be 2,548,000\nfamilies against the total families of 8,665,000 which is lesser than the number of families indicated by Government of India viz. 2,677,000 families. If the cut off mark is fixed as 17 marks, then the total the number of Below Poverty line families would be 3,051,000. This is marginally above the number of families indicated by Government of India. i.e. 2,677,000 families. He has therefore recommended that the cut off marks to arrive at the number of Below Poverty Line families may be fixed at 17 so that no Below Poverty Line family gets left out of the list and requested orders of\nGovernment in this regard. The Government after detailed examination has decided to accept the proposal of the Director of Rural Development and Panchayat Raj and accordingly order to fix the cut off mark as 17 for identification of a family as Below Poverty Line family.8. The Director of Rural Development and Panchayat Raj is requested to take necessary\nfurther action for finalisation of Below Poverty Line List for rural areas of this state as per the procedure laid down by Government of India.", "Poverty in South America\nBy 2013, 11.5% of the population remains under the poverty line.[35]", "Poverty\nIn 1964 in a joint committee economic President's report in the United States, Republicans endorsed the concept of relative poverty. \"No objective definition of poverty exists... The definition varies from place to place and time to time. In America as our standard of living rises, so does our idea of what is substandard.\"", "Economy of the United States\nThe United States has one of the least extensive social safety nets in the developed world, reducing both relative poverty and absolute poverty by considerably less than the mean for wealthy nations. Some experts posit that those in poverty live in conditions rivaling the developing world. A May 2018 report by the U.N. Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights found that over five million people in the United States live \"in ‘Third World’ conditions.\" Over the last three decades the poor in America have been incarcerated at a much higher rate than their counterparts in other developed nations, with penal confinement being \"commonplace for poor men of working age\". Some scholars contend that the shift to neoliberal social and economic policies starting in the late 1970s has expanded the penal state, retrenched the social welfare state, deregulated the economy and criminalized poverty, ultimately \"transforming what it means to be poor in America\".", "Wealth, Poverty and Politics\nNot all reviews were positive. In \"The Washington Post\", Steven Pearlstein argued that Sowell's pinning of the blame for black poverty on multiculturalism and welfare is unconvincing, and added that \"ghetto culture\" cannot explain the problems in white America. Pearlstein wrote that the book \"is filled with such instances of overreach\" and stated, \"What we [...] learn from \"Wealth, Poverty and Politics\" is that there is apparently no level of inequality of income or opportunity that Thomas Sowell would consider unacceptable.\"" ]

[ "West Memphis Three\nAt the time of their arrests, Jessie Misskelley, Jr. was 17 years old, Jason Baldwin was 16 years old, and Damien Echols was 18 years old.[19]" ]

[ "West Memphis Three\nOn February 5, 1994, Misskelley was convicted by a jury of one count of first-degree murder and two counts of second-degree murder.[31] The court sentenced him to life plus 40 years in prison.[32] His conviction was appealed, but the Arkansas Supreme Court affirmed the conviction.[33]", "Richard Ofshe\nOfshe gave testimony in the case of the West Memphis 3, three boys tried and convicted for the murders of three children in the Robin Hood Hills area of West Memphis, Arkansas, United States during 1993. Damien Echols, the alleged ringleader, was sentenced to death. Jessie Misskelley and Jason Baldwin were sentenced to life in prison. The case has received considerable attention. Many critics charge that the arrests and convictions were a miscarriage of justice inspired by a misguided moral panic and that the defendants were wrongfully convicted during a period of intense media scrutiny and so-called \"satanic panic\" of the 1980s and '90s. During Jessie's trial, Ofshe testified that the recording was a \"classic example\" of police coercion. The West Memphis Three were finally released from prison.", "Amy J. Berg\nBerg has directed the 10-minute-long documentary film \"Polarized\" (2007) for Al Gore's Live Earth Pledge. She also produced \"Bhutto\", a documentary feature that played at Sundance 2010. \"West of Memphis\" (2012), produced by Peter Jackson and Damien Echols, documents the story of the West Memphis Three, who were convicted as teenagers of the 1993 murder of three boys in West Memphis, Arkansas. The film has received critical acclaim and won numerous awards at film festivals, including the Sundance Film Festival, where the film premiered in January 2012, and the Toronto International Film Festival.", "Devil's Knot: The True Story of the West Memphis Three\nDevil's Knot: The True Story of the West Memphis Three is a 2002 true crime book by Mara Leveritt, about the 1993 murders of three eight-year-old children and the subsequent trials of three teenagers charged with and convicted of the crimes. The names of the three teens convicted - Damien Echols, Jason Baldwin, and Jessie Misskelley - would come to be known as the West Memphis Three. Leveritt's book revolves around the central idea that the three teenagers' convictions stemmed from \"Satanic panic\" rather than actual evidence. The book also focuses on one of the victim's stepfathers and his possible connection with the murders. All three teenagers convicted were released on August 19, 2011. A film based on the book, \"Devil's Knot\", was released in 2013.", "Paradise Lost 3: Purgatory\nParadise Lost 3: Purgatory is a 2011 American documentary film directed by Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky, and sequel to their films \"\" (1996) and \"\" (2000). The three films are about West Memphis Three, three teenage boys accused of the May 1993 murders and sexual mutilation of three prepubescent boys as a part of an alleged satanic ritual in West Memphis, Arkansas. \"Purgatory\" offers an update on the case of the West Memphis Three, who were all recognized guilty of the murders in 1994 but kept on claiming their innocence since then, before culminating with the trio's attempt at an Alford plea.", "West Memphis Three\nIn 1994, a memorial was erected for the three murder victims. The memorial is located in the playground of Weaver Elementary School in West Memphis, where all three victims were second graders at the time of the crime. In May 2013, for the 20th anniversary of the slayings, Weaver Elementary School principal Sheila Grissom raised funds to refurbish the memorial.[18]", "West Memphis Three\nThe families of the three victims are divided in their opinions as to the guilt or innocence of the West Memphis Three. In 2000, the biological father of Christopher Byers, Rick Murray, expressed his doubts about the guilty verdicts on the West Memphis Three website.[64] In 2007, Pamela Hobbs, the mother of victim Stevie Branch, joined those who have publicly questioned the verdicts, calling for a reopening of the verdicts and further investigation of the evidence.[65] In late 2007, John Mark Byers—who was previously vehement in his belief that Echols, Misskelley, and Baldwin were guilty—also announced that he now believes that they are innocent.[66] \"I had made the comment if it were ever proven the three were innocent, I'd be the first to lead the charge for their freedom,\" said Byers, and take \"every opportunity that I have to voice that the West Memphis Three are innocent and the evidence and proof prove they're innocent.\"[67] Byers has spoken to the media on behalf of the convicted, and has expressed his desire for justice for the families of both the victims and the three accused.[67]", "David Burnett (politician)\nBurnett was the presiding judge in the murder trials of Jessie Misskelley, Damien Echols and Jason Baldwin, collectively known as the West Memphis Three. In February 1994 after a jury convicted Misskelley of one count of first-degree murder and two counts of second-degree murder, Burnett sentenced Misskelley, then 18 years old, to life in prison plus 40 years. In March 1994 after a jury convicted Echols and Baldwin of three counts of capital murder, Burnett sentenced Echols to death and Baldwin, 17 at the time, to life in prison without parole.", "West of Memphis\nAs with the film and its two sequels, \"West of Memphis\" follows the events of the West Memphis Three, a case in which three teenagers (Jessie Misskelley, Damien Echols and Jason Baldwin) were arrested for the murders of three 8-year-old children.", "WM3 (disambiguation)\nWest Memphis Three is three men who – while teenagers – were tried and convicted, in 1994, of the 1993 murders of three boys in West Memphis, Arkansas.", "Joe Berlinger\nBerlinger is best known for the film series \"Paradise Lost\", which documents the murder trial and the subsequent legal battles of three Arkansas teenagers, Damien Echols, Jason Baldwin and Jessie Misskelley Jr., wrongfully convicted of murder. The court convicted the youths (known as the West Memphis Three) of murdering three eight-year-old boys as part of a \"ritual killing,\" although no physical evidence linked the three young men to the crime. \"Paradise Lost\" documents the 20-year ordeal of these three young men from arrest to conviction, through years of unsuccessful legal efforts, to a final successful appeal that resulted in their release in the summer of 2012.", "Free the West Memphis 3\nFree the West Memphis 3 is a compilation album released in October 2000 by Koch Records as a benefit for the legal defense of the West Memphis Three, three men who, while teenagers in 1994, were tried and convicted of the 1993 murders of three boys in West Memphis, Arkansas. The album was organized by guitarist Danny Bland (of the bands Cat Butt, Best Kissers in the World, and the Dwarves), Eddie Spaghetti of the Supersuckers, and Scott Parker, who served as executive producers of the project.", "West Memphis Three\nFollowing a 2010 decision by the Arkansas Supreme Court regarding newly produced DNA evidence and potential juror misconduct,[5] the West Memphis Three negotiated a plea bargain with prosecutors. On August 19, 2011, they entered Alford pleas, which allowed them to assert their innocence while acknowledging that prosecutors have enough evidence to convict them. Judge David Laser accepted the pleas and sentenced the three to time served. They were released with 10-year suspended sentences, having served 18 years and 78 days in prison.[6]", "West Memphis Three\nIn May 1994, the three defendants appealed their convictions;[40] the convictions were upheld on direct appeal.[25][41] In June 1996, Misskelley's lawyer, Dan Stidham, was preparing an appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court.[42]", "Joe Berlinger\nThe pair went on to direct the Paradise Lost Trilogy--\"\" (1996), \"\" (2000), and \"\" (2011), which earned the pair an Academy Award nomination. The trilogy, shot over two decades, focused on the West Memphis Three, a group of teenagers who were wrongfully convicted of the brutal murder of three children. The trilogy raised doubts about the legitimacy of the teenagers' convictions and spurred a movement to release them from prison, where one of the men was awaiting a death sentence. In 2011, the West Memphis Three were released from their respective death and life sentences after filing an Alford Plea with the Federal Court of Arkansas.", "West Memphis Three\nThere have been a number of books about the case, also arguing that the suspects were wrongly convicted: Devil's Knot by Mara Leveritt; Blood of Innocents by Guy Reel; and The Last Pentacle of the Sun: Writings in Support of the West Memphis Three, edited by Brett Alexander Savory & M. W. Anderson, and featuring dark fiction and non-fiction by well-known writers of speculative fiction. In 2005, Damien Echols completed his memoir, Almost Home, Vol 1, offering his perspective of the case.[72] A biography of John Mark Byers by Greg Day was published in May 2012.[73]", "Center on Wrongful Convictions of Youth\nSince its founding by Steven Drizin in 2009, the Center on Wrongful Convictions of Youth's faculty and students have helped free more than twenty wrongfully convicted youth through the post-conviction and habeas process, many of whom were serving life sentences. Its clients have included Brendan Dassey, whose case rose to international prominence via the Netflix series \"Making a Murderer,\" and Damien Echols of the so-called West Memphis Three, whose case rose to prominence via a series of documentary films including HBO's \"Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills\" and Sir Peter Jackson's \"West of Memphis.\"", "Center on Wrongful Convictions of Youth\nIn addition to its high-profile representation of \"Making a Murderer\" subject Brendan Dassey and West Memphis Three member Damien Echols, the CWCY has played a central role in more than twenty cases that have resulted in exoneration through the post-conviction and habeas process. In 2011, CWCY faculty and students used DNA evidence to help exonerate two groups of wrongfully convicted Chicago-area teenagers in widely followed twin murder cases known as the Dixmoor Five and Englewood Four.Both cases involved multiple false confessions from teens. Those cases were nationally noted because in each case, groups of children were convicted of rape-murder charges -- despite DNA evidence excluding all of them at the time of trial -- on the basis of false confessions. Also in 2011, Center faculty and students joined a team of attorneys who won the release of three Arkansas men who had been convicted as teens in the internationally-known case of the West Memphis Three.", "Shodo Harada\nRoshi flew to the United States to perform the Jukai ceremony of Damien Echols. Echols (a member of the \"West Memphis Three\") was wrongly convicted of the 1993 murders of three eight year-old boys in West Memphis, Arkansas. Whilst in prison, Echols began practicing Buddhism.", "West Memphis Three\nThe West Memphis Three are three men who– while teenagers– were tried and convicted, in 1994, of the 1993 murders of three boys in West Memphis, Arkansas. Damien Echols was sentenced to death, Jessie Misskelley, Jr. was sentenced to life imprisonment plus two 20-year sentences, and Jason Baldwin was sentenced to life imprisonment. During the trial, the prosecution asserted that the children were killed as part of a Satanic ritual.[1][2][3]", "Some Kind of Monster (film)\nDirectors Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky filmed a 1994 documentary called \"\" on the West Memphis Three, about three teenagers convicted of murder. Metallica allowed their music to be used in the movie, which was the first time Metallica let any film use their music and the band drew attention to the cases. Following success, the directors eventually were interested in a no-holds-barred look at Metallica, which the band later agreed to and became \"Some Kind of Monster\".", "False confession\nThe West Memphis Three (Damien Echols, Jason Baldwin, and Jessie Misskelley) were convicted for the 1993 murders of three 8-year-old boys. One month after the murders, police interrogated Misskelley, who has an IQ of 72, for five hours before he confessed to the murders, implicating Echols and Baldwin. Misskelley immediately recanted and said he was coerced to confess. Despite that the confession contained massive internal inconsistencies and differed significantly from what the physical evidence revealed, Misskelley and Baldwin were sentenced to life without parole and Echols was sentenced to death. For the next 17 years, they maintained their innocence. In August 2011, DNA evidence was inconclusive and included an unknown contributor. Prosecutors did not throw out the convictions based on other evidence and offered them a deal that they plead guilty in exchange for time served. They accepted, but said that they will continue to clear their names and find the real murderer(s).", "Eddie Vedder\nVedder was a longtime and outspoken supporter for the Free the West Memphis Three movement, a cause that advocated the release of three young men who were convicted in 1994 of the gruesome murders of three boys in West Memphis, Arkansas. In an interview with Larry King on December 19, 2007, Damien Echols, who was then on death row for the murders, said that Vedder had been the \"greatest friend a person could have\" and that he had collaborated with him while in prison. The song \"Army Reserve\" on Pearl Jam's 2006 self-titled album features a lyrical collaboration between Vedder and Echols. On August 19, 2011, Vedder and Natalie Maines attended the release hearing and arranged a celebration party for them afterwards.", "Devil's Knot: The True Story of the West Memphis Three\nAuthor Mara Leveritt makes numerous comparisons of the Memphis Three trials to the Salem Witch Trials, stating that the three Memphis defendants were convicted based on the \"Satanic Craze\" the community was surrounded by after the murders. Actual evidence used by the prosecution during the trials included pictures of Metallica T-shirts worn by Jason Baldwin and books checked out by Damien Echols at his public library; the prosecutions' cases offered little more than circumstantial evidence. Eventually, all three defendants were convicted of the murders, with Jason Baldwin and Jessie Misskelley receiving life sentences without parole, and Damien Echols receiving the death penalty.Atom Egoyan directed the 2013 film adaptation, starring Colin Firth as Ron Lax and Reese Witherspoon as Pamela Hobbs, mother of Steven Branch.", "West of Memphis\nThe West Memphis Three were subsequently convicted of murder and remained in prison for more than 18 years. \"West of Memphis\" focuses on Terry Hobbs, stepfather of Stevie Branch, one of the victims of the 1993 crime, as a potential suspect due to physical evidence linking him to the crime, a history of violent behavior and his lack of an alibi for the time the murders were committed, as well as damaging statements made by his ex-wife, former neighbors, and most recently his own nephew, who claims Hobbs confessed to him. The film reveals that inexplicably Terry Hobbs was not interviewed by police at the time of the murders.", "West Memphis Three\nIn 2007, Echols petitioned for a retrial, based on a statute permitting post-conviction testing of DNA evidence due to technological advances made since 1994 which might provide exoneration for the wrongfully convicted.[43] However, the original trial judge, Judge David Burnett, disallowed presentation of this information in his court. This ruling was in turn thrown out by the Arkansas Supreme Court as to all three defendants on November 4, 2010.[44]", "West Memphis, Arkansas\nThe 1993 murders of three young boys and the subsequent convictions of Damien Echols, Jason Baldwin, and Jessie Misskelley, Jr. brought a lot of unwanted attention to West Memphis. The three young men convicted were known as the West Memphis Three and brought about a great amount of public intrigue. Three documentaries have been made about the incident, the first being \"\". Echols, Baldwin, and Misskelley were released from jail in 2011 after signing an Alford plea which allowed them to plea guilty while maintaining their innocence. They were released with time served and placed on probation until 2021.", "Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky\nOriginally intended to be a documentary about \"three guilty teenagers on trial for murder\", Sinofsky and Berlinger soon decided that their film \"\" would take a different path. \"Paradise Lost\" chronicles the 1993 murders of three 8-year-old boys, Stephen Branch, Christopher Byers, and Michael Moore in rural Arkansas, and argues that the fear and panic of satanism, along with questionable police work, led to the arrests and convictions of three teenagers, Damien Echols, Jason Baldwin, and Jessie Miskelley for the murders, otherwise known as the West Memphis Three. Since its 1996 premier on HBO, the film has helped fuel interest and support for the convicted men. Some believe the three were convicted more for their choices in fashion and music than for actual evidence.", "John E. Douglas\nDouglas was consulted in another controversial case known as the \"West Memphis Three\". In 1993, three eight-year-old boys were murdered and police and the prosecutor's office claimed the children died as a result of a Satanic ritual sacrifice. Three teens were later tried and convicted. Douglas was consulted by the defense in 2006-7, by which time there was new evidence of the three's innocence, and his report concluded that the killings were not related to Satanism but rather were unplanned homicides by a lone adult who knew the victims and felt rage against them. In 2011, the three men were released under an Alford plea.", "Paradise Lost 2: Revelations\n\"Revelations\" takes place five years after the events depicted in the first film, as Damien Echols, one of the West Memphis Three, who were all recognized guilty of the murders in 1994, appeals his lethal injection sentence. It mostly focuses on John Mark Byers, the father of one of the victims who has grown increasingly obsessed with the West Memphis Three, and on a support group who is convinced that the three are innocent. The film was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Nonfiction Special, and was later followed by a third film, \"\", in 2011." ]

[ "Punjabi language\nPunjabi (/pʌnˈdʒɑːbi/;[5] Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬੀ pãṉjābī; Shahmukhi: پنجابی paṉjābī)[6] is an Indo-Aryan language with more than 100million native speakers in the Indian subcontinent and spread with the Punjabi diaspora worldwide. It is the native language of the Punjabi people, an ethnic group of the cultural region of Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, which extends from northwest India through eastern Pakistan." ]

[ "Punjabi language\nPunjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan, being the native language of 44% of its population. It is the provincial language in the Punjab Province.", "Punjabi dialects\nMalwai is spoken in the southern part of Indian Punjab South of river Sutlej and also in Bahawalnagar and Vehari districts of Pakistan. This dialect is spoken in Ludhiana, Moga, Ferozepur, Fazilka,\nMuktsar, Faridkot, Bathinda, Barnala, Sangrur and, Mansa districts of Punjab, India and also in Ganganagar and Hanumangarh districts of Rajasthan and, the Sirsa and, Fatehabad districts of Haryana.\nNot to be confused with the Malvi language, which shares its name.", "British Pakistanis\nAs the majority of Pakistanis in Britain are from Azad Kashmir and Punjab, some common languages spoken amongst Pakistanis in Britain are Punjabi, Potohari, Mirpuri and Hindko, which are closely related dialects of Punjabi. Other Punjabi dialects are also spoken in Britain, making Punjabi the third-most commonly spoken language. Other significant Pakistani languages spoken include Pashto, Saraiki, Sindhi, Balochi and a minority of others. The number of speakers of such languages (as a primary language) in the United Kingdom, based on an Ethnologue report, are shown below. Some of these languages are not only spoken by British Pakistanis, but also by other groups such as British Indians, British Afghans or British Iranians; these are indicated by asterisks.", "India–Pakistan relations\nApart from Hindustani, India and Pakistan also share a distribution of the Punjabi language (written in the Gurmukhi script in Indian Punjab, and the Shahmukhi script in Pakistani Punjab), Kashmiri language and Sindhi language, mainly due to population exchange. These languages belong to a common Indo-Aryan family that are spoken in countries across the subcontinent.", "Punjabi language\nIn India, Punjabi is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. It is the first official language of the Indian State of Punjab. Punjabi also has second language official status in Delhi along with Urdu, and in Haryana. In Pakistan, no regional ethnic language has been granted official status at the national level, and as such Punjabi is not an official language at the national level, even though it is the most spoken language in Pakistan after Urdu, the national language of Pakistan. It is, however, the official provincial language of Punjab, Pakistan, the second largest and the most populous province of Pakistan as well as in Islamabad Capital Territory. The only two official national languages in Pakistan are Urdu and English, which are considered the lingua francas of Pakistan.", "Languages of Ethiopia\nThere are 88 individual languages of Ethiopia according to Ethnologue, with the 1994 Ethiopian census indicating that some 77 tongues were spoken locally. Most of these languages belong to the Afroasiatic family (Semitic and Cushitic languages; Omotic languages are also spoken, though their classification is uncertain). Additionally, Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by what the government calls the \"Nilotic\" people, though scholars distinguish Nilotic from the Surmic languages, Gumuz languages, and Koman languages and spoken in Ethiopia.", "Gujari language\nThe language is mainly spoken in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Delhi and other parts of India. The language is also spoken by Gujjars across Pakistan, including the Azad Kashmir and the Hazara region. In Pakistan organisations and institutions work for the development of Gujari, including a Gujari-language news channel. The government of Jammu and Kashmir has recognized Gujari by including it in the sixth schedule of the state constitution.", "Languages of Pakistan\nSaraiki (Sarā'īkī, also spelt Siraiki, or less often Seraiki) is an Indo-Aryan language of the Lahnda group, spoken in the south-western half of the province of Punjab. Saraiki is to a high degree mutually intelligible with Standard Punjabi and shares with it a large portion of its vocabulary and morphology. At the same time in its phonology it is radically different (particularly in the lack of tones, the preservation of the voiced aspirates and the development of implosive consonants), and has important grammatical features in common with the Sindhi language spoken to the south. Saraiki is the first language of about 20 million people in Pakistan, its territory ranges across southern Punjab, parts of southern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and some border regions of northern Sindh and eastern Balochistan.", "Punjab, Pakistan\nThe major and native language spoken in the Punjab is Punjabi (which is written in a Shahmukhi script in Pakistan) and Punjabis comprise the largest ethnic group in country. Punjabi is the provincial language of Punjab, but is not given any official recognition in the Constitution of Pakistan at the national level.", "Punjab\n The major language spoken in the Punjab is Punjabi. In the Indian Punjab this is written in the Gurmukhi script. Pakistan uses the Shahmukhi script, that is closer to Urdu script. Hindi, written in the Devanagri script, is used widely in the Indian states of Himanchal Pradesh and Haryana. Several dialects of Punjabi are spoken in the different regions. The Majhi dialect is considered to be textbook Punjabi and is shared by both countries.", "Saroba Punjab\nThe language spoken in Saroba Punjab is Punjabi with blend of many diaclects such as wanhari, pothohari and lunhari.", "Rajasthani language\nRajasthani (Devanagari: ) refers to a group of Indo-Aryan languages spoken primarily in the state of Rajasthan\nand adjacent areas of Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh in India. There are also Rajasthani-speakers in the Pakistani provinces of Sindh and Punjab. The Rajasthani language is distinct from neighbouring related Hindi languages. Officially, however, it is considered to be a dialect of Hindi.", "Doabi dialect\nDoabi is a Punjabi dialect spoken in the Doaba. It is spoken in the Indian Punjab and parts of Pakistani Punjab owing to post-1947 migration of Muslim populace from East Punjab. The word \"Do Aabi\" means \"the land between two rivers\" and this dialect was historically spoken between the rivers of the Beas and the Sutlej in the region called Doaba. The region it is now spoken include the Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur, Kapurthala and Nawanshahr districts in Indian Punjab, including the areas known as the Dona and Manjki, and the Toba Tek Singh and Faisalabad districts in Pakistan Punjab where the dialect is known as Faisalabadi Punjabi.", "Standard written English\nJohn H. Fisher, author of \"The Emergence of Standard English\", observes that in Spanish, Italian, French, and English, the written languages became standardised before the spoken languages, and that these provide frames of reference for what is considered standard speech. He said, in an interview for the Children of the Code project:\nI came to the conclusion that all of the discussion of standardisation of language was a discussion of the written forms of language. It had nothing to do with spoken language. We don't have the spoken language standardised yet. When we say that we're speaking Standard English, what we're doing is transferring into our spoken vocabulary and syntax the elements of the written language. What is standard in what you and I are talking now is what we get from our writing.\nThere are grammatical constructions and words that one uses in speech that one generally avoids in written compositions. Even in the most colloquial of online chats, interjections such as \"like\" are rarer than in speech. ", "Provincial languages of Pakistan\nThe provincial languages of Pakistan are a set of languages that are spoken and used in the fourProvinces of Pakistan (Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Balochistan). However, provincial languages have no official status in Pakistan, except Sindhi in Sindh, given the fact that Urdu and English are the official languages of the country. Shown below are the main languages of each the provinces:Urdu is spoken and understood by nearly all Pakistanis, as it is the national language and is officially used in formal governmental, educational purposes, etc. It is the symbol of muslim identity and unity.", "Pwadhi dialect\nPwadhi (Punjabi: ; IAST: [puādī]) is a dialect of the Punjabi language primarily spoken in the Poadh region of Punjab. The dialect is spoken between the Sutlej and Ghaggar river basins in the present day states of Punjab and Haryana, and the union territory of Chandigarh.", "Poadh\nThe dialect of the Punjabi language spoken in Powadh is called Powadhi. The language is a mixture of Punjabi and Haryanvi. It is spoken by the people of Rajpura, Ghanaur and Devigarh region of Patiala district, Banur region, villages of Mohali and some region of Ropar district in Punjab, whereas in Haryana in villages of Ambala and Panchkula district people speak this language. Also region of Ismailabad and Shahbad of Kurukshetra speak this language, also a tehsil of Sadhaura of Yamunanagar district.", "West Punjab\nAt Independence there was a Muslim majority in West Punjab with significant Hindu and Sikh minority. Nearly all of these minorities left West Punjab for India, to be replaced by large numbers of Muslims fleeing from the opposite direction. The official language of West Punjab was Urdu but most of the population spoke Punjabi using the Shahmukhi script. The linguist George Abraham Grierson in his multi volume Linguistic Survey of India (1904–1928) considered the various dialects up to then called \"Western Punjabi\", spoken in North, West, and South of Lahore in what is now Pakistani Punjab, as constituting instead a distinct language from Punjabi. (The local dialect of Lahore is the Majhi dialect of Punjabi, which has long been the basis of standard literary Punjabi.) Grierson proposed to name this putative language \"Lahnda\", and he dubbed as \"Southern Lahnda\" the coherent dialect cluster now known as Saraiki spoken in Multan Dera Ghazi Khan and Bahawalpur division and \"North Lahnda\" now known as Potwari spoken in Rawalpindi division and \"Western Lahnda\" now known as Hindko spoken in the regions bordering Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa.", "Shimla\nHindi is the \"lingua franca\" of the city, it is the principal spoken language of the city and also the most commonly used language for the official purposes. English is also spoken by a sizeable population, and is the second official language of the city. Other than Hindi, Pahari languages are spoken by the ethnic Pahari people, who form a major part of the population in the city. Punjabi language is prevalent among the ethnic Punjabi migrant population of the city, most of whom are refugees from West Punjab, who settled in the city after the Partition of India in 1947.", "Punjabi dialects\nDoabi is spoken in both the Indian Punjab as well as parts of Pakistan Punjab owing to post-1947 migration of Muslim populace from East Punjab. The word \"Do Aabi\" means \"the land between two rivers\" and this dialect is spoken between the rivers of the Beas and the Sutlej in the region called Doaba. Regions it is presently spoken includes the Jalandhar, Kapurthala, Hoshiarpur and Nawanshahr districts in Indian Punjab as well as the Toba Tek Singh and Faisalabad districts in Pakistan Punjab where it is spoken by the erstwhile migrants from Eastern Punjab and their descendants. The dialect is known as Faisalabadi Punjabi in Pakistan.", "Punjabi language\nPwadhi, Powadh, Puadh or Powadha is a region of Punjab and parts of Haryana between the Satluj and Ghaggar rivers. The part lying south, south-east and east of Rupnagar adjacent to Ambala District (Haryana) is Powadhi. The Powadh extends from that part of the Rupnagar District which lies near Satluj to beyond the Ghaggar river in the east up to Kala Amb, which is at the border of the states of Himachal pradesh and Haryana. Parts of Fatehgarh Sahib district, and parts of Patiala districts like Rajpura are also part of Powadh. The language is spoken over a large area in present Punjab as well as Haryana. In Punjab, Kharar, Kurali, Ropar, Nurpurbedi, Morinda, Pail, Rajpura and Samrala are the areas where the Puadhi is spoken and the dialect area also includes Pinjore, Kalka, Ismailabad, Pehowa to Bangar area in Fatehabad district.", "Pakistan\nMore than sixty languages are spoken in Pakistan, including a number of provincial languages. Urdu—the \"lingua franca\" and a symbol of Muslim identity and national unity—is the national language understood by over 75% of Pakistanis. It is the main medium of communication in the country but the primary language of only 8% of Pakistan's population. Urdu and English are the official languages of Pakistan, with English primarily used in official business and government, and in legal contracts; the local variety is known as Pakistani English. The Punjabi language, the most common in Pakistan and the first language of 44.2% of Pakistan's population, is mostly spoken in the Punjab. Saraiki, mainly spoken in South Punjab and Hindko, is predominant in the Hazara region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Pashto is the provincial language of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and is well understood in Sindh and Balochistan. The Sindhi language is commonly spoken in Sindh while the Balochi language is dominant in Balochistan. Brahui, a Dravidian language, is spoken by the Brahui people who live in Balochistan. Gujarati community leaders in Pakistan claim that there are 3 million Gujarati speakers in Karachi. Marwari, a Rajasthani language, is also spoken in parts of Sindh. Various languages such as Shina, Balti, and Burushaski are spoken in Gilgit-Baltistan, whilst languages such as Pahari, Gojri, and Kashmiri are spoken by many in Azad Kashmir.", "Pwadhi dialect\nThe language is spoken over a large area in present Punjab as well as Haryana. Pwadhi is also spoken in other areas: Kharar, Kurali, Ropar, Morinda, Chandigarh, Pail, Rajpura, Samrala in Punjab as well as Ambala, Naraingarh, Sadaura, Panchkula, Shahabad, Barara, Thana Chappar, Mustafabad, Haryana, Pehowa, North of Kaithal and Tohana etc. in Haryana.", "Punjabi language\nDoabi is spoken in both the Indian Punjab as well as parts of Pakistan Punjab owing to post-1947 migration of Muslim populace from East Punjab. The word \"Do Aabi\" means \"the land between two rivers\" and this dialect was historically spoken between the rivers of the Beas and the Sutlej in the region called Doaba. Regions it is presently spoken includes the Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur and Kapurthala districts in Indian Punjab, specifically in the areas known as the Dona and Manjki, as well as the Toba Tek Singh and Faisalabad districts in Pakistan Punjab where the dialect is known as Faisalabadi Punjabi.", "Indo-Canadians\nIndian Canadians speak a variety of languages, reflecting the cultural and ethnic diversity of the Indian subcontinent. The most widely spoken South Asian language in Canada is Punjabi, which is spoken by the people from Punjab State and Chandigarh in India and by the people from Punjab Province or Islamabad Capital Territory in Pakistan. In Canada, Punjabi is a language mainly spoken by South Asian Canadians with ties to the state of Punjab in Northern India.", "Rajasthani language\nThe Rajasthani languages belong to the Western Indo-Aryan language family. However, they are controversially conflated with the Hindi languages of the Central-Zone in the Indian national census, among other places. The varieties of the Rajasthani language are:Most of the Rajasthani languages are chiefly spoken in the state of Rajasthan but are also spoken in Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab. Rajasthani languages are also spoken in the Bahawalpur and Multan sectors of the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Tharparkar district of Sindh. It merges with Riasti and Saraiki in Bahawalpur and Multan areas, respectively. It comes in contact with Sindhi from Dera Rahim Yar Khan through Sukkur and Ummerkot. This language is common in many areas of Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan. Many linguists (Shackle, 1976 and Gusain, 2000) agree that it shares many phonological (implosives), morphological (future tense marker and negation) and syntactic features with Riasti and Saraiki. A distribution of the geographical area can be found in 'Linguistic Survey of India' by George A. Grierson.", "Punjabis\nThe main language of the Punjabi people is Punjabi and its associated dialects, which differ depending on the region of Punjab the speaker is from; there are notable differences in the Lahnda languages, spoken in the Pakistani Punjab. In the Pakistani Punjab, the vast majority still speak Punjabi, even though the language has no governmental support. In the Indian Punjab, most people speak Punjabi. English is sometimes used, and older people who lived in the undivided Punjab may be able to speak and write in Urdu. The Punjabi languages have always absorbed numerous loanwords from surrounding areas and provinces (and from English).", "Gurgaon\nThe main language spoken in Gurgaon is Hindi, though a segment of the population understands and speaks English. The dialect used in Hindi is similar to that of Delhi, and is considered neutral, though the regional influences from the states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab adds an accent to the language. English is spoken with an Indian accent, with a primarily North Indian influence. Since Gurgaon has a large number of international call centres, the employees are usually given formal training in neutral pronunciation in order to be understandable to native English speakers. Haryanvi and Punjabi are other popular languages spoken in the city. The other regional languages include Mewati and Haryanvi.", "Languages of India\nPunjabi, written in the Gurmukhi script in India, is one of the prominent languages of India with about 32 million speakers. In Pakistan it is spoken by over 80 million people and is written in the Shahmukhi alphabet. It is mainly spoken in Punjab but also in neighboring areas. It is an official language of Delhi and Punjab.", "Harappan language\nThe Indus script indicates that it was used to write only one language (if at all). But it is quite possible that multiple languages were spoken in the IVC, similar to how Sumerian and Akkadian co-existed in Mesopotamia for centuries. Jane R. McIntosh suggests one such possibility: Para-Munda was originally the main language of the civilization, especially in the Punjab region. Later, the proto-Dravidian immigrants introduced their language to the area in 5th millennium BC. The Dravidian language was spoken by the new settlers in the southern plains, while Para-Munda remained the main language of those in Punjab." ]

[ "Basal-cell carcinoma\nBasal-cell cancer accounts for at least 32% of all cancers globally.[7][11] Of skin cancers other than melanoma, about 80% are basal-cell cancers.[2] In the United States, about 35% of white males and 25% of white females are affected by BCC at some point in their lives.[2]" ]

[ "Basal-cell carcinoma\nCystic basal-cell carcinoma Micronodular basal-cell carcinoma Superficial basal-cell carcinoma Micrograph of a fibroepithelioma of Pinkus", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nMost sporadic BCC arises in small numbers on sun-exposed skin of people over age 50, although younger people may also be affected. The development of multiple basal-cell cancer at an early age could be indicative of nevoid basal-cell carcinoma syndrome, also known as Gorlin's Syndrome.[58]", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nBasal-cell carcinoma is a common skin cancer and occurs mainly in fair-skinned patients with a family history of this cancer. Sunlight is a factor in about two-thirds of these cancers; therefore, doctors recommend sunscreens with at least SPF 30. However, a Cochrane review examining the effect of solar protection (sunscreen only) in preventing the development of basal-cell carcinoma or cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma found that there was insufficient evidence to demonstrate whether sunscreen was effective for the prevention of either of these keratinocyte-derived cancers.[19] The review did ultimately state that the certainty of these results were low, so future evidence could very well alter this conclusion. One-third occur in non-sun-exposed areas; thus, the pathogenesis is more complex than UV exposure as the cause.", "Basal cell carcinoma, susceptibility to, 6\nBasal cell carcinoma, susceptibility to, 6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BCC6 gene.", "Sebaceous carcinoma\nPatients with ocular sebaceous carcinomas present with nonhealing eyelid tumors that are often misdiagnosed for more common benign conditions such as chalazion or bleproconjunctivitis. Extraocular SGc appears similarly to skin cancers such as basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and benign lesions such a molluscum contagiosum and pyogenic granuloma. Many tumors also share a histological presentation similar to SGC, such as sebaceous adenomas, basal cell carcinomas (BCC), squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) and clear cell tumors. A high level of suspicion is extremely important to prevent treatment delay and increased mortality.", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nBasal-cell carcinoma (BCC), also known as basal-cell cancer, is the most common type of skin cancer.[2] It often appears as a painless raised area of skin, which may be shiny with small blood vessels running over it; or it may present as a raised area with ulceration.[1] Basal-cell cancer grows slowly and can damage the tissue around it but is unlikely to spread to distant areas or to result in death.[7]", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nDermoscopy showing telangiectatic vessels Basal-cell carcinoma", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nSome superficial cancers respond to local therapy with 5-fluorouracil, a chemotherapy agent. Topical treatment with 5% Imiquimod cream, with five applications per week for six weeks has a reported 70–90% success rate at reducing, even removing, the BCC [basal-cell carcinoma]. Both Imiquimod and 5-fluorouracil have received FDA approval, and topical IMQ is approved by the European Medicines Agency for treatment of small superficial basal-cell carcinoma.[45] Off label use of imiquimod on invasive basal-cell carcinoma has been reported. Imiquimod may be used prior to surgery in order to reduce the size of the carcinoma. One can expect a great deal of inflammation with this treatment.[49] Chemotherapy often follows Mohs surgery to eliminate the residual superficial basal-cell carcinoma after the invasive portion is removed. Some advocate the use of imiquimod prior to Mohs surgery to remove the superficial component of the cancer.[50] Removing the residual superficial tumor with surgery alone can result in large and difficult to repair surgical defects. One often waits a month or more after surgery before starting the Imiquimod or 5-fluorouracil to make sure the surgical wound has adequately healed. Some people advocate the use of curettage (see EDC below) first, followed by chemotherapy. These experimental procedures are not standard care. The 2008 study reported that topical IMQ appears effective in the treatment of primary small superficial BCCs but only \"may possibly\" have a role in the treatment of primary nodular BCC.[45]", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nNodular basal-cell carcinoma (also known as \"classic basal-cell carcinoma\") most commonly occurs on the sun-exposed areas of the head and neck.[17]:748[18]:646 Cystic basal-cell carcinoma is morphologically characterized by dome-shaped, blue-gray cystic nodules.[18]:647 Cicatricial basal-cell carcinoma (also known as \"morpheaform basal-cell carcinoma,\" and \"morphoeic basal-cell carcinoma\") is an aggressive variant with a distinct clinical and histologic appearance.[17]:748[18]:647 Infiltrative basal-cell carcinoma is an aggressive type characterized by deep infiltration.[18]:647 Micronodular basal-cell carcinoma is characterized by a micronodular growth pattern.[18]:647 Superficial basal-cell carcinoma (also known as \"superficial multicentric basal-cell carcinoma\") occurs most commonly on the trunk and appears as an erythematous patch.[17]:748[18]:647 Pigmented basal-cell carcinoma exhibits increased melanization.[17]:748[18]:647 About 80% of all basal-cell carcinoma in Chinese are pigmented while this subtype is uncommon in white people. Rodent ulcer (also known as a \"Jacob's ulcer\") is a large skin lesion of nodular basal-cell carcinoma with central necrosis.[17]:748[18]:647 Fibroepithelioma of Pinkus most commonly occurs on the lower back.[17]:748[18]:648 Polypoid basal-cell carcinoma is characterized by exophytic nodules (polyp-like structures) on the head and neck.[18]:648 Pore-like basal-cell carcinoma resembles an enlarged pore or stellate pit.[18]:648 Aberrant basal-cell carcinoma is characterized by the formation of basal-cell carcinoma in the absence of any apparent carcinogenic factor, occurring in odd sites such as the scrotum, vulva, perineum, nipple, and axilla.[18]:648", "Nevoid basal-cell carcinoma syndrome\nNevoid basal-cell carcinoma syndrome (NBCCS), also known as basal-cell nevus syndrome, multiple basal-cell carcinoma syndrome, Gorlin syndrome, and Gorlin–Goltz syndrome, is an inherited medical condition involving defects within multiple body systems such as the skin, nervous system, eyes, endocrine system, and bones. People with this syndrome are particularly prone to developing a common and usually non-life-threatening form of non-melanoma skin cancer. About 10% of people with the condition do not develop basal-cell carcinomas (BCCs). ", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nBasal-cell carcinoma can be divided into three groups, based on the growth patterns.", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nBasal-cell carcinomas are currently considered to have origin from the folliculo-sebaceous-apocrine germ, also known as trichoblast. The differential diagnosis with trichoblastic carcinoma, a rare malignant form of trichoblastoma, can be challenging.[12] Alternatively, one argument is that basal-cell carcinoma is trichoblastic carcinoma.[13] Overexposure to sun leads to the formation of thymine dimers, a form of DNA damage. While DNA repair removes most UV-induced damage, not all crosslinks are excised. There is, therefore, cumulative DNA damage leading to mutations. Apart from the mutagenesis, overexposure to sunlight depresses the local immune system, possibly decreasing immune surveillance for new tumor cells.", "PTCH2\nAlterations in this gene have been associated with nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome, basal cell carcinoma, medulloblastoma, and susceptibility to congenital macrostomia.", "Skin cancer\nThere are three main types of skin cancer: basal-cell skin cancer (basal-cell carcinoma) (BCC), squamous-cell skin cancer (squamous-cell carcinoma) (SCC) and malignant melanoma.", "Melanocortin 1 receptor\nMC1R signalling stimulates antioxidant and DNA repair pathways, as reviewed. There are single nucleotide polymorphisms in MC1R that are associated with predisposition to nonmelanoma skin cancer.\nIt has been reported that variants of MC1R, even in heterozygotes and independent of their effects on pigmentation, are risk factors for basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma A review has discussed the role of some MC1R variants in melanoma and basal and squamous cell carcinomas independent of pigment production.", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nIndividuals with a basal-cell carcinoma typically present with a shiny, pearly skin nodule. However, superficial basal-cell cancer can present as a red patch similar to eczema. Infiltrative or morpheaform basal-cell cancers can present as a skin thickening or scar tissue – making diagnosis difficult without using tactile sensation and a skin biopsy. It is often difficult to visually distinguish basal-cell cancer from acne scar, actinic elastosis, and recent cryodestruction inflammation.", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nSuperficial basal-cell carcinoma, formerly referred to in-situ basal-cell carcinoma, is characterized by a superficial proliferation of neoplastic basal-cells. This tumor is generally responsive to topic chemotherapy, such as imiquimod, or fluorouracil. Infiltrative basal-cell carcinoma, which also encompasses morpheaform and micronodular basal-cell cancer, is more difficult to treat with conservative methods, given its tendency to penetrate into deeper layers of the skin. Nodular basal-cell carcinoma includes most of the remaining categories of basal-cell cancer. It is not unusual to encounter heterogeneous morphologic features within the same tumor.", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nNevoid basal-cell carcinoma syndrome", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nAbout two thirds of basal-cell carcinomas occur on sun-exposed areas of the body. One-third occur on areas of the body that are not exposed to sunlight, emphasizing the genetic susceptibility of basal-cell cancer.", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nTo diagnose basal-cell carcinomas, a skin biopsy is performed for histopathologic analyses. The most common method is a shave biopsy under local anesthesia. Most nodular basal-cell cancers can be diagnosed clinically; however, other variants can be very difficult to distinguish from benign lesions such as intradermal naevus, sebaceomas, fibrous papules, early acne scars, and hypertrophic scarring.[16]", "Skin cancer\nTreatment is dependent on the specific type of cancer, location of the cancer, age of the person, and whether the cancer is primary or a recurrence. For a small basal-cell cancer in a young person, the treatment with the best cure rate (Mohs surgery or CCPDMA) might be indicated. In the case of an elderly frail man with multiple complicating medical problems, a difficult to excise basal-cell cancer of the nose might warrant radiation therapy (slightly lower cure rate) or no treatment at all. Topical chemotherapy might be indicated for large superficial basal-cell carcinoma for good cosmetic outcome, whereas it might be inadequate for invasive nodular basal-cell carcinoma or invasive squamous-cell carcinoma. In general, melanoma is poorly responsive to radiation or chemotherapy.", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nThe following methods are employed in the treatment of basal-cell carcinoma (BCC):", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nBasal-cell carcinomas can often come in association with other lesions of the skin, such as actinic keratosis, seborrheic keratosis, squamous cell carcinoma.[14] In a small proportion of cases, basal-cell carcinoma also develops as a result of basal-cell nevus syndrome, or Gorlin Syndrome, which is also characterized by keratocystic odontogenic tumors of the jaw, palmar or plantar (sole of the foot) pits, calcification of the falx cerebri (in the center line of the brain) and rib abnormalities. The cause of this syndrome is a mutation in the PTCH1 tumor suppressor gene located in chromosome 9q22.3, which inhibits the hedgehog signaling pathway. A mutation in the SMO gene, which is also on the hedgehog pathway, also causes basal-cell carcinoma.[15]", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nIn the United States approximately 3 out of 10 caucasians develop a basal-cell carcinoma during their lifetime.[56] This tumor accounts for approximately 70% of non-melanoma skin cancers. In 80 percent of all cases, basal-cell carcinoma affects the skin of head and neck.[56] Furthermore, there appears to be an increase in the incidence of basal-cell cancer of the trunk in recent years.[56]", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nApproved in 2012, vismodegib is used to treat an advanced form of basal-cell carcinoma.[51]", "Trichoepithelioma\nTrichoepitheliomas consisted of nests of basaloid cells. They lack the myxoid stroma and artefactual clefting seen in basal cell carcinoma. Mitoses are uncommon when compared to basal cell carcinoma.", "Basaloid squamous cell lung carcinoma\nBasaloid squamous cell carcinoma (Bas-SqCC) is an uncommon histological variant of lung cancer composed of cells exhibiting cytological and tissue architectural features of both squamous cell lung carcinoma and basal cell carcinoma.", "Merkel cell polyomavirus\nPossible associations with cervical carcinoma, cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma, Bowen's disease, basal cell skin carcinoma, extrapulmonary small cell carcinoma, and EGFR mutation-driven non-small cell lung cancer have been reported.", "Cancer syndrome\nNevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (NBCCS), also known as Gorlin syndrome, is an autosomal dominant cancer syndrome in which the risk of basal cell carcinoma is very high. The disease is characterized by basal cell nevi, jaw keratocysts and skeletal abnormalities. Estimates of NBCCS prevalence varies, but is approximately 1 in 60000. The presence of basal cell carcinoma is much higher in white than black individuals; 80% and 38%, respectively. Odontogenic keratocysts are found in approximately 75% of individuals with the disease and often occur early in life. The most common skeletal abnormalities occur in the head and face, but other areas are often affected such as the rib cage. The causative genetic mutation of this disease occurs in the PTCH gene, and the product of PTCH is a tumor suppressor involved in cell signaling. Although the exact role of this protein in NBCCS is not known, it is involved in the hedgehog signaling pathway, known to control cell growth and development.[29][30]", "Basal-cell carcinoma\nBasal-cell cancer is a very common skin cancer. It is much more common in fair-skinned individuals with a family history of basal-cell cancer and increases in incidence closer to the equator or at higher altitude. There are approximately 800,000[55] new cases yearly in the United States alone. Up to 30% of Caucasians develop basal-cell carcinomas in their lifetime.[56] In Canada, the most common skin cancer is basal-cell carcinoma (as much as one third of all cancer diagnoses), affecting 1 in 7 individuals over a lifetime.[57]" ]

[ "Thresher shark\nNamed for their exceptionally long, thresher-like heterocercal tail or caudal fins (which can be as long as the total body length), thresher sharks are active predators; the tail is used as a weapon to stun prey. The thresher shark has a short head and a cone-shaped nose. The mouth is generally small, and the teeth range in size from small to large.[6] By far the largest of the three species is the common thresher, Alopias vulpinus, which may reach a length of 6.1 metres (20ft) and a weight of over 500 kilograms (1,100lb). The bigeye thresher, Alopias superciliosus, is next in size, reaching a length of 4.9m (16ft); at just 3m (10ft), the pelagic thresher, Alopias pelagicus, is the smallest." ]

[ "Bigeye thresher\nThe bigeye thresher (\"Alopias superciliosus\") is a species of thresher shark, family Alopiidae, found in temperate and tropical oceans worldwide. Like other thresher sharks, nearly half its total length consists of the elongated upper lobe of the tail fin. Its common name comes from its enormous eyes, which are placed in keyhole-shaped sockets that allow them to be rotated upward. This species can also be distinguished by a pair of deep grooves on the top of its head, from which its scientific name is derived.", "Threshers, pedal powered\nAn addition that can be built to make a thresher more efficient is to make it pedal-powered. This adds two more parts:\nThe pedal-powered thresher developed by the Maya Pedal Project provides a good example of a built-in pedal system to a thresher/mill.", "SpongeBob SquarePants vs. The Big One\nSpongeBob, Patrick, and Squidward are told by the young surfers in the island that the only way to get back to Bikini Bottom is to surf there; unfortunately they do not know how to. Twitch, one of the surfers, tells them that there is one person who can teach them how to surf, Jack Kahuna Laguna. After they find Jack Kahuna Laguna, he comes out of his hut and surfs on an enormous surfboard which astonishes the three. He later says that they have to ride a wave called \"The Big One\", in order to get back home. They practice surfing for some time, then get ready to ride \"The Big One\". Before they set off, Jack Kahuna Laguna announces that The Big One demands a sacrifice.", "Plumbers Don't Wear Ties\nWhen Jane is at the interview, her prospective boss, Paul Mark Thresher (Paul Bokor), tells her that, despite her outstanding qualifications and recommendations, her position was canceled an hour before. When Jane gets very upset about this, Thresher says that \"something can be worked out, after all,\" and asks her to take her clothes off, which appears to be an attempt to lead Jane to have sex with him to get a job. However, when Jane refuses, Thresher attempts to rape her and eventually Jane runs away from him. When John finds her being chased by Thresher, he comes in and saves her, and Thresher, Jane, and John end up in the middle of an abandoned house. Around this time, Harry Armis is replaced by a female narrator named Wilma (Thyra Metz). Later, she is shot multiple times by Armis, who then returns as narrator.", "Bigeye thresher\nThere is conflicting evidence on whether the bigeye thresher is warm-bodied like the common thresher (\"A. vulpinus\"). In a 1971 study, Carey \"et al.\" probed the swimming muscles of two bigeye threshers with a thermistor needle and reported finding a temperature elevation of 1.8 and 4.3 °C (3.8 and 9.1 °F) compared to the ambient environment. However, an anatomical examination conducted by Sepulveda \"et al.\" in 2005 found that though the bigeye thresher possesses the aerobic red muscles responsible for generating heat in the common thresher, these muscles are arranged in two strips along the flanks just beneath the skin, as opposed to near the core of the body. There is also no blood vessel countercurrent exchange system (the rete mirabile) in the trunk to limit the loss of metabolic heat to the water. Based on these differences, the authors questioned earlier measurements and concluded it was unlikely that the bigeye thresher maintains an elevated body temperature. The bigeye thresher does possess a highly developed rete system around its brain and eyes. This is thought to function in buffering those sensitive organs against temperature changes during the shark's daily migrations up and down the water column, which can be as much as 15–16 °C (27–29 °F).", "Mighty Machines\nBackpack Jack, a green recycling truck, explains how he collects all the recycling and sends it through many other machines, so it can be reused again. Big Blue, the sorting machine, shows how all the recycling is compacted. You also get to see how metal is recycled in a junk yard and how a road can be recycled too. This episode was filmed in Toronto, Ontario and Burlington, Ontario.", "How Lucky Can You Get\nIn 2010, the karaoke label Musical Creations released a six track album titled \"How Lucky Can You Get – In the Style of Barbra Streisand\", which featured six different instrumental edits of \"How Lucky Can You Get\". During Streisand's concert tour titled , she sang a live rendition of \"How Lucky Can You Get\" at her shows; she also featured this on her accompanying ninth live album, \"The Music...The Mem'ries...The Magic!\" (2017).", "Can You Tell Me How to Get to Sesame Street?\nAgain, the theme was given a complete makeover in season 33 to coincide with the revamping of the show's structure. It features footage of Big Bird and some kids playing in the park, while blocks featuring clips from the main segments of the season appear as a way to introduce the show's new format. This version had a much rapid, more energetic feel to the song. Also the line \"Can you tell me how to get/How to get to Sesame Street\" was repeated twice in this incarnation rather than the traditional repetition of \"How to get to Sesame Street\" at the end. For seasons 34–37, the theme was modified with more instruments.", "Common thresher\nThe specific epithet \"vulpinus\" is derived from the Latin \"vulpes\" meaning \"fox\", and in some older literature the species name was given incorrectly as \"Alopias vulpes\". \"Fox shark\" is the earliest known English name for this species and is rooted in classical antiquity, from a belief that it was especially cunning. In the mid-19th century, the name \"fox\" was mostly superseded by \"thresher\", referencing the shark's flail-like use of its tail. This species is often known simply as thresher shark or thresher; Henry Bigelow and William Schroeder introduced the name \"common thresher\" in 1945 to differentiate it from the bigeye thresher (\"A. superciliosus\"). It is also known by many other common names, including Atlantic thresher, grayfish, green thresher, long-tailed shark, sea ape, sea fox, slasher, swiveltail, thintail thresher, thrasher shark, and whiptail shark.", "Threshers, pedal powered\nSeeds can be broken and ruined as they go through the thresher, and seed breakage can happen more often with threshers that are the wrong size or design for the type of seed. The wire loops or spikes may have to be adjusted if seeds appear to be broken (\"please see suggestion for spacing\"). Seed breakage also happens with stomping and beating, however if the thresher is not built in an appropriate way for the specific grain, more breakage may occur. If the thresher is well-suited for the size of the grain and stalks, it should have fewer broken seeds than beating or stomping. The most common seed breakage with threshers is with corn/maize, when there is too much moisture in the kernels. This can be reduced by drying kernels more thoroughly before threshing.", "Thresher shark\nThresher sharks are fairly slender, with small dorsal fins and large, recurved pectoral fins. With the exception of the bigeye thresher, these sharks have relatively small eyes positioned to the forward of the head. Coloration ranges from brownish, bluish or purplish gray dorsally with lighter shades ventrally.[7] The three species can be roughly distinguished by the main color of the dorsal surface of the body. Common threshers are dark green, bigeye threshers are brown and pelagic threshers are generally blue. Lighting conditions and water clarity can affect how any one shark appears to an observer, but the color test is generally supported when other features are examined.", "How Lucky Can You Get\nIn terms of the lyrics, Streisand opens the song by humming the first few lines (\"Badodiodiodi / Odiodo\"), followed by the chorus, where she questions, \"Gee, whee, wow, how lucky? / How lucky can you get?\". The short musical interlude in \"How Lucky Can You Get\" switches from a four-bar to an eight-bar phrase, just as it \"returns to its original key\" and the lyrics become \"outwardly straightforward\". During the final two verses of the song, Streisand talks to herself and questions, \"Hey there, gorgeous! / Big success! / What's your secret? / Just lucky I guess\". James Leve, who wrote the biography book \"Kander and Ebb\", referred to these lyrics as ironic and claimed that the music that accompanies the aforementioned four lines was borrowed from Giacomo Puccini's 1896 opera, \"La bohème\".", "Thresher &amp; Glenny\nThe firm traded as Newham and Binham in 1768; by 1777 it was known as Newham and Thresher of 152 the Strand. By 1784, the business was taken over by Richard Thresher, and became official hosier to George III in 1790. Richard Thresher remained a partner until 1805 when George Thresher replaced him, and in 1817 the company was taken over by John Thresher. John Thresher traded as a hosier, mercer and masquerade maker in Panton Street, Haymarket between 1822 and 1835, and in 1827 described himself as “hosier, glover and flannel draper to His Majesty”.", "Common thresher\nCommon threshers are well regarded by sports fishers as one of the strongest fighting sharks alongside the shortfin mako shark (\"Isurus oxyrhinchus\"), and are ranked as game fish by the International Game Fish Association. They are pursued by anglers using rod and reel off California, South Africa, and elsewhere. Frank Mundus has called thresher sharks \"exceedingly stubborn\" and \"pound for pound, a harder fish to whip\" than the mako. Fishing for the common thresher is similar to that for the mako; the recommended equipment is a rod and a big-game reel holding at least 365 m (400 yd) of line. The ideal method is trolling with baitfish, either deep or allowing it to drift.", "Threshers, pedal powered\nAdvantages of the thresher include less physical labour and more efficiency (amount of grain thresher per amount of time). Less seed breakage is also a benefit of using a thresher as opposed to stomping or beating grains. However, more breakage can occur it is not used properly.", "Common thresher\nThe common thresher (\"Alopias vulpinus\"), also known by many names such as Atlantic thresher, big-eye thresher, fox shark, green thresher, swingletail, slasher, swiveltail, thintail thresher, whip-tailed shark and Zorro thresher shark, is the largest species of thresher shark, family Alopiidae, reaching some in length. About half of its length consists of the elongated upper lobe of its caudal fin. With a streamlined body, short pointed snout, and modestly sized eyes, the common thresher resembles (and has often been confused with) the pelagic thresher (\"A. pelagicus\"). It can be distinguished from the latter species by the white of its belly extending in a band over the bases of its pectoral fins. The common thresher is distributed worldwide in tropical and temperate waters, though it prefers cooler temperatures. It can be found both close to shore and in the open ocean, from the surface to a depth of . It is seasonally migratory and spends summers at lower latitudes.", "Pelagic thresher\nThe pelagic thresher (\"Alopias pelagicus\") is a species of thresher shark, family Alopiidae; this group of sharks is characterized by the greatly elongated upper lobes of their caudal fins. The pelagic thresher occurs in the tropical and subtropical waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, usually far from shore, but occasionally entering coastal habitats. It is often confused with the common thresher (\"A. vulpinus\"), even in professional publications, but can be distinguished by the dark, rather than white, color over the bases of its pectoral fins. The smallest of the three thresher species, the pelagic thresher typically measures 3 m (10 ft) long.", "List of parasites of the common thresher\nThe common thresher (\"Alopias vulpinus\") can harbor a number of internal and external parasites:", "How Big Can You Get?: The Music of Cab Calloway\nHow Big Can You Get?: The Music of Cab Calloway is the sixth studio album released by Big Bad Voodoo Daddy.", "Mike Thresher\nMike Thresher was one of six footballing brothers who all played locally for Chard Town in Somerset; Mike also represented the RAF. Pat Beasley signed Thresher in January 1954 from Chard Town for Bristol City. Mike Thresher made his debut at left back in the Third Division South in a 2-0 win at Reading on 27 December 1954. Thresher retained the left back for the rest of the season 1954-55 ahead of Jack Bailey and Norman Jackson. The season ended with Bristol City winning promotion as champions. Thresher continued his full back partnership with Ivor Guy in the Second Division in 1955-56 making 35 appearances. In 1956-57 Mike Thresher was a regular again making 37 appearances at left back alongside both Jack Bailey and Ivor Guy. As the \"Robins\" slipped down the Second Division table finishing in 17th place Thresher made 41 appearances in 1957-58. Thresher partnered new signing Gordon Hopkinson from Doncaster Rovers in the 1958-59 season as City rose to 10th place. Thresher made 41 appearances and starred in the two 4th round FA Cup ties v Blackpool when opposed by an ageing Stanley Matthews. City lost 0-1 in the replaty at Blackpool. Thresher had another new right back partner in Roger Collinson in 1959-60. Thresher made 40 appearances in the relegation season as Bristol City finished bottom of the Second Division. Back in the Third Division in 1960-61 Thresher made 41 appearances and played in all five FA Cup ties as Bristol City reached the 4th round before a 1-5 defeat at Leicester City. Thresher aestablished a new partnership for the next three seasons with Alec Briggs playing at right back. Thresher made 41 appearances as Bristol City finished 6th in 1961-62. THresher made a further 41 appearances in 1962-63. The following season 1963-64 saw Thresher make 39 appearances and score his only League goal in a 1-1 draw at Southend United on 30 November 1963 as Bristol City finished 5th in the Third Division. City again reached the 4th round of the FA Cup this time losing 1-6 at Sunderland with Thresher playing in all five ties. When Bristol City finished runners up and won promotion to the Second Division in 1964-65 Thresher made only 7 appearances losing his place at left back to Alec Briggs as local boy Tony Ford was ever present at right back. Mike Thresher moved to Bath City on a free transfer in July 1965. Subsequently, he rejoined Chard Town.", "Threshers, pedal powered\nThreshing is a key part of agriculture that involves removing the seeds or grain from plants (for example rice or wheat) from the plant stalk. In the case of small farms, threshing is done by beating or crushing the grain by hand or foot, and requires a large amount of hard physical labour. A simple thresher with a crank can be used to make this work much easier for the farmer. In most cases it takes two people to work these: one person to turn the crank and the other to feed the grain through the machine. These threshers can be built using simple materials and can improve the efficiency of grain threshing. They can also be built with pedals, or be attached to a bicycle, so that the person operating it can simply pedal to reduce the work even more and make threshing faster.", "Thresher shark\nThe genus and family name derive from the Greek word alopex, meaning fox. As a result, the long-tailed or common thresher shark, Alopias vulpinus, is also known as the fox shark.[2] The common name is derived from a distinctive, thresher-like tail or caudal fin which can be as long as the body of the shark itself.", "Threshers, pedal powered\nAn attachment to a regular bicycle can be built to allow the bike to be used as the seat, pedals, chain and sprocket of the thresher. The bicycle must be on a stand so that the back wheel is raised off the ground. Plans have been developed to build the attachment and the wheel-stand out of pieces of metal, including a large wheel that can be screwed to the crank section of the thresher (see External links). A drill will be required to make this as well.", "Adelaide Festival of Ideas\nThe 2007 AFOI focussed on our imagined futures and how we might get there: a future with freedom from oppression, where we can live peaceably with our neighbours, on a sustainable earth, with decent work, a long life and a first-rate health care system to tend for us when our health falters. The big question was: how do we get there? How do we bequeath a better world for our children?", "How Blue Can You Get\nIn 1949, Johnny Moore with his brother, Oscar Moore, on guitars, Billy Valentine on piano and vocal, and Johnny Miller on bass recorded \"How Blue Can You Get\" in the West Coast blues-style. It was included on the jazz and blues compilation album \"Singin' the Blues\" (1960). Feather described the song as having \"the type of intimate instrumental setting heard in so many best blues vocal performances of the 1940s\". In 1951, Louis Jordan recorded the song using a big band arrangement.", "Threshers, pedal powered\nThresher are many different designs for threshers and they can be made from wood or metal. The shape of the thresher can vary, but it must include some main parts:", "Euchre game variations\nMost of the rules are the same as with regular Euchre, except how trump is made and how scoring is done. Both are more like bid Euchre. You bid how many tricks you can get going around the table once. The winning bidder picks the trump. The minimum bid is three, and the loners are Little and Big Shooters. With both you go alone, the only difference is in Little Shooter you get partner's best from both of your teammates. With both shooters, the player must get all tricks or they get set.\nAnother difference is if the same card is played, such as both rights bowers, the first one laid is the winner.To win, a team has to get 32 points on a turn when they make trump.\nIf the team gets 32 points didn't make trump, then they need 34 points to win.", "Threshers, pedal powered\nThreshers can be made in a number of ways using simple tools, and can be used in the harvesting of maize/corn, rice, wheat, sorghum, pearl millet, and any other grain or seed that must be separated from a stalk. The attachment of a thresher to a pedal-system can be built with basic materials. Two versions are the pedal-powered thresher which is built as one piece and the attachment to a bicycle for a regular thresher with a crank. Pedal-powered threshers have been suggested or made available to farming communities by governmental or non-governmental organizations. It should be remembered that there are some disadvantages to these threshers and their impact in the specific region should be researched before being suggested.", "Threshers, pedal powered\nThe size and weight of the thresher can be problematic. The thresher may need to be carried, and therefore must be light enough for one person. The suggested weight is 35 kg. On hillside farms it may be difficult to transport the thresher or to set it up properly." ]

[ "British Empire\nBy the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead. Subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain. Although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the world's pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britain's colonies in East and Southeast Asia were occupied by Japan. Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger decolonisation movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire.[17][18][19][20] Fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty." ]

[ "Ottoman clothing\nInteractions between Ottomans and Britons occurred throughout history, but in the 18th century, European visitors and residents in the Ottoman Empire markedly increased, and exploded in the 19th century. As such, fashion is one method to gauge the increased interactions. Historically, Europeans clothing was more delineated between male and female dress. Hose and trousers were reserved for men, and skirts were for women. Conversely, in the Ottoman Empire, male and female dress was more similar. A common item worn by both was the şalvar, a voluminous undergarment in white fabric shaped like what are today called \"harem pants\". To British women traveling in the Ottoman Empire, the şalvar quickly became a symbol of freedom because they observed that Ottoman women had more rights than British women did. Lady Mary Wortley Montague (1689–1762), whose husband was the British Ambassador to Constantinople, noted in her travels in her \"Embassy Letters\" that Ottoman women \"possessed legal property rights and protections that far surpassed the rights of Western women\". These female travelers often gained an intimate view of Ottoman culture, since as women, they had easier access to the Muslim Elite harems than did men. Şalvar successfully spread into Europe at the end of the 19th century as various female suffragists and feminists used şalvar as a symbol of emancipation. Other British women of distinction, such as Lady (Janey) Archibal Campbell (1845–1923), and Lady Ottoline (Violet Anne) Morrell (1873–1938) wore şalvar \"in an attempt to symbolize their refusal of traditional British standards and sexual differences\". Şalvar also spread beyond Europe when Amelia Jenks Bloomer modified these \"Turkish trousers\" to create American \"bloomers\". ", "Punjab, India\nThe Sikh Empire was finally dissolved, after a series of wars with the British at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, into separate princely states and the British province of Punjab, which were granted statehood. Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was formed in Lahore as a direct representative of the British Crown.\nThe Cis-Sutlej states, including Kaithal, Patiala, Jind, Thanesar, Maler Kotla, and Faridkot, were under the suzerainty of the Scindhia dynasty of the Maratha Empire, following the Second Anglo-Maratha War of 1803–1805, when Marathas lost this territory to the British. During the war, some of the states in the region gave their allegiance to British General Gerard Lake. At the conclusion of the Second Anglo-Maratha War, an 1809 agreement with Ranjit Singh, ruler of the Sikh Empire west of the Sutlej, brought these states under formal British protection.", "Empire Gallantry Medal\nIn 1922, the original Medal of the Order of the British Empire was split into two, the Medal of the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry (EGM) awarded for acts of gallantry, and the Medal of the Order of the British Empire for Meritorious Service that is generally known as the British Empire Medal (BEM) awarded for meritorious services and was the lower level award of the Order of the British Empire. The EGM was awarded until 1940, when it was superseded by the George Cross.", "Phyllis Dewar\nIn the mid-1930s, Dewar was the Canadian freestyle record holder in numerous freestyle events including the 100-yard and one-mile races. In international competitions, she won four gold medals at the 1934 British Empire Games and her final gold at the 1938 British Empire Games. She also competed at the 1936 Summer Olympics but did not medal. After ending her swimming career in the late 1930s, Dewar served in the Women's Royal Canadian Naval Service. ", "Zanj Empire\nThe Zanj Empire was a 19th-century political formation established by the Omani sultanate on the Swahili Coast. Known for its slave-trading activities in conjunction with the local Swahili people, at its peak the polity's reach stretched as far as Eastern Congo. Eventually, the \"Empire\" collapsed when the British, intent on ending the slave trade, overtook it and incorporated it into the British Empire in 1896.", "Robert Ranulph Marett\nLivingstone and Kirk were both dedicated to the suppression of the slave trade in Africa, a cause championed by British liberals. It presented a political paradox. Slavery could only be stopped by military opposition to the slavers. If British forces did intervene, the government was accused of building a colonial empire. This contradiction brought down the second premiership of William Gladstone in 1885, when he did not go to the assistance of Charles George Gordon at Khartoum. The latter was attempting to defend the city against Muhammad Ahmad, slaver and new Islamic messiah. Gordon was killed. The tide turned in Britain in favor of empire. After the Battle of Omdurman, 1896, the region was brought into the empire as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.", "Canada at the 1930 British Empire Games\nNewfoundland competed separately at the 1930 British Empire Games, but did not win any medals. Newfoundland also sent a team to the 1934 British Empire Games, but from 1938 has competed as part of Canada. ", "Josiah Henson\nUpper Canada had become a refuge for slaves from the United States after 1793, when Lieutenant-Governor John Graves Simcoe passed \"An Act to prevent further introduction of Slaves, and to limit the Term of Contracts for Servitude within this Province\". The legislation did not immediately end slavery in the colony, but it did prevent the importation of slaves. As a result, any U.S. slave who set foot in what would eventually become Ontario was free. By the time Henson arrived, others had already made Upper Canada home, including Black Loyalists from the American Revolution and refugees from the War of 1812. In 1833, slavery was outlawed in the British Empire. At this time, the Canadians were still a part of colonial British Canada.", "Modern history\nThe King of Portugal's vast territory of Brazil reformed into the independent Empire of Brazil. With the defeat of Napoleonic France, Britain became undoubtedly the most powerful country in the world, and by the end of the First World War controlled a Quarter of the world's population and a third of its surface. However, the power of the British Empire did not end on land, since it had the greatest navy on the planet. Electricity, steel, and petroleum enabled Germany to become a great international power that raced to create empires of its own.", "History of Cyprus since 1878\nHowever, Cyprus' status as a protectorate of the British Empire ended in 1914 when the Ottoman Empire declared war against the Triple Entente powers, which included Great Britain. Cyprus was then annexed by the British Empire on 5 November 1914. During the course of the First World War Britain offered to cede Cyprus to Greece if they would fulfill treaty obligations to attack Bulgaria, but Greece declined. ", "Sterling area\nBefore the First World War, the British pound sterling was the most important international currency, and the City of London was the world's most important financial centre. More than 60 per cent of global trade was financed, invoiced, and settled in sterling, and the largest proportion of official reserves, apart from gold, was held in sterling. Although not all the territories of the British Empire used sterling as their local currency, most of those that did not pegged their local currency at a fixed rate to sterling, as did many foreign countries outside the Empire. When Britain left the gold standard in 1931, many countries that had pegged their currencies to gold pegged their currencies to sterling instead; this group of countries became known as the \"sterling bloc\", though the term \"sterling area\" was used officially from at least 1935. When the Second World War broke out, the sterling bloc countries within the British Empire shared a desire to protect the external value of sterling; legislation was therefore passed throughout the Empire formalising the British sterling bloc countries into a single exchange control area.", "Hatay Province\nMany consider that Alexandretta had been traditionally part of Syria. Maps as far back as 1764 confirm this. During the First World War in which the Ottoman Empire was defeated most of Syria was occupied by the British forces. But when the Armistice of Mudros was signed at the end of the war, Hatay was a still part of the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, after the armistice it was occupied by the British forces an operation which was never accepted by the Ottoman side. Later like the rest of Syria it was handed to France by the British Empire.", "History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser\nWhen the American anger at the British and French intervention was felt at Whitehall, the British government fractured between those who saw the futility of maintaining the British Empire, those who saw the potential threat the Americans posed to the overall British economy should they end financial support of the British economy, and those British interests which still saw a need, a necessity and a reason for maintaining the British Empire. Thus, when the Eisenhower Administration initiated an oil embargo on the British and French, there was immediate panic in the British government. The French however were proving more resolute and flouted American demands stating matter of factly that America had no interest in the Middle East and were duplicitous in their support of Arab nationalism and anti-colonialism.", "British Mauritius\nBritish Mauritius was a British crown colony off the Southeast coast of Africa. Formerly part of the French colonial empire, the crown colony of Mauritius was established after a British invasion in 1810 and the subsequent Treaty of Paris that followed. British rule ended on 12 March 1968, when Mauritius became independent.", "Empire Gallantry Medal\nThe Medal of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire for Gallantry, usually known as the Empire Gallantry Medal (EGM), was a British medal awarded for acts of the gallantry that did not reach the standard required for the Albert Medal and the Edward Medal. King George V introduced it on 29 December 1922. Recipients were entitled to use the post-nominal letters \"EGM\" and as a Medal of the Order of the British Empire it was also divided into military and civil divisions. Unlike appointments to the Order of the British Empire it could be awarded posthumously.", "John Graves Simcoe\nSlavery was thus ended in Upper Canada long before it was abolished in the British Empire as a whole. By 1810, there were no slaves in Upper Canada, but the Crown did not abolish slavery throughout the Empire until 1834.", "Historiography of the British Empire\nHistorians agree that the Empire was not planned by anyone. The concept of the British Empire is a construct and was never a legal entity, unlike the Roman or other European empires. There was no imperial constitution, no office of emperor, no uniformity of laws. So when it began, when it ended, and what stages it went through is a matter of opinion, not official orders or laws. The dividing line was Britain's shift in the 1763–93 period from emphasis on western to eastern territories following U.S. independence. The London bureaucracy governing the colonies also changed, policies to white settler colonies changed and slavery was phased out.", "Rugby Football Union of East Africa\nTo fully understand the history of rugby in the three East African nations of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, it must first be understood that at the time the sport was introduced to the region these three countries were part of the British Empire. East Africa had been divided between the British and German colonial empires until the end of the First World War when the vast majority of German influence was handed to the British. Kenya, Uganda and Zanzibar had been under British influence since the late 19th and early 20th centuries, whilst Tanganyika was transferred to British control in 1919.", "Sultan of Egypt\nFrom 1882 onwards, Egypt's status became deeply convoluted: officially a province of the Ottoman Empire, semi-officially a virtually independent state with its own monarchy, armed forces, and territorial possessions in Sudan, and for practical purposes a British puppet. The legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty in Egypt was finally ended in 1914 when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in First World War. Alarmed that the anti-British Khedive Abbas II would side with the Ottomans, the British deposed him in favor of his uncle Hussein Kamel and declared Egypt a British protectorate. Symbolizing the official end of Ottoman rule, Hussein Kamel took the title Sultan as did his brother Fuad I who succeeded him in 1917, though in reality Egypt remained under British domination. Both Hussein Kamel and Fuad maintained Egypt's claim to Sudan, with Egyptian nationalists declaring both in turn to be the \"Sultan of Egypt and Sudan\".", "British Empire\nIn 1869 the Suez Canal opened under Napoleon III, linking the Mediterranean with the Indian Ocean. Initially the Canal was opposed by the British;[123] but once opened, its strategic value was quickly recognised and became the \"jugular vein of the Empire\".[124] In 1875, the Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma'il Pasha's 44% shareholding in the Suez Canal for £4 million (equivalent to £370million in 2018). Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway, it did give Britain leverage. Joint Anglo-French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882.[125] The French were still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the British position,[126] but a compromise was reached with the 1888 Convention of Constantinople, which made the Canal officially neutral territory.[127]", "Adamawa Region\nBritish explorers were the first Europeans to enter Adamawa territory when they came in 1822. The German Dr. Gustav Nachtigal was the first Westerner to explore the region extensively, which he did between 1869 and 1873. Nachtigal kept a keen eye out to notice what groups lived in the region, what their relations were like with their neighbours, and what resources could possibly be exploited from the area. The British Eduard E. Flegel followed Nachtigal in 1882. He explored the Adamawa emirate, setting up trade and reaching as far south as Banyo. He died in 1883, however, still on expedition, and peaceful contact between the West and the Fulbe empire came to an end. Instead, Germany annexed part of Adama's empire in 1884, and the other part became part of British Nigeria. As far as Europe was concerned, the Adama emirate no longer existed.", "Historiography of the British Empire\nAshley Jackson argued in 2013 that historians have even extended to a third and fourth empire:\nThe first Empire was founded in the 17th century, and based on the migration of large numbers of settlers to the American, as well as the development of the sugar plantation colonies in the West Indies. It ended with the British loss of the American War for Independence. The second Empire had already started to emerge. It was originally designed as a chain of trading ports and naval bases. However, it expanded inland into the control of large numbers of natives when the East India Company proved highly successful in taking control of most of India. India became the keystone of the Second Empire, along with colonies later developed across Africa. A few new settler colonies were also built up in Australia and New Zealand, and to a lesser extent in South Africa. Marshall in 1999 shows the consensus of scholars is clear, for since 1900 the concepts of the First British Empire have \"held their ground in historians' usage without serious challenge.\" In 1988 Peter Marshall says that late-18th-century transformations:\nHistorians, however, debate whether 1783 was a sharp line of demarcation between First and Second, or whether there was an overlap (as argued by Vincent T. Harlow) or whether there was a \"black hole between 1783 and the later birth of the Second Empire. Historian Denis Judd says the \"black hole\" is a fallacy and that there was continuity. Judd writes: It is commonplace to suppose that the successful revolt of the American colonies marked the end of the 'First British Empire'. But this is only a half-truth. In 1783 there was still a substantial Empire left.\" Marshall notes that the exact dating of the two empires varies, with 1783 a typical demarcation point. Thus the story of the American revolt provides a key: \"The Fall of the First British Empire: Origins of the Wars of American Independence\" (1982) by American professors Robert W. Tucker and David Hendrickson, stresses the victorious initiative of the Americans. By contrast Cambridge professor Brendan Simms explores \"Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire, 1714–1783\" (2007) and explains Britain's defeat in terms of alienating the major powers on the Continent.", "Slave codes\nSlavery was restricted throughout the British Empire by the Slave Trade Act of 1807, which prevented trading slaves, but did not actually end slavery. In 1833, the Slavery Abolition Act ended slavery throughout the British Empire.", "Informal empire\nIn the economic sphere, British informal empire was driven by the free trade economic system of the Empire. In the so-called \"Imperialism of Free Trade\" thesis, as articulated by historians Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, the British Empire expanded as much by the growth of informal empire as it did by acquiring formal dominion over colonies. Furthermore, British investment in empire was to be found not only in the formal Empire, but also in the informal empire – and, by Robinson and Gallagher's account, was indeed predominantly located in the informal empire. It is estimated that between 1815 and 1880, £1,187,000,000 in credit had accumulated abroad, but no more than one-sixth was placed in the formal empire. Even by 1913, less than half of the £3,975,000,000 of foreign investment lay inside the formal Empire.", "Sarah Lancashire filmography\nLancashire has appeared in the feature films \"And When Did You Last See Your Father?\" and \"Dad's Army\" and has returned to West End Theatre several times since her 1990 stint in \"Blood Brothers\". Her combined acting credits have earned Lancashire a number of awards and nominations over a career spanning four decades and a prominent status within the British Television Industry of the 21st century. Lancashire was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2017 Birthday Honours for services to drama.", "Military history of Canada\nAfter the cessation of hostilities at the end of the American Revolution, animosity and suspicion continued between the United States and the United Kingdom, erupting in 1812 when the Americans declared war on the British. Among the reasons for the war was British harassment of US ships (including impressment of American seamen into the Royal Navy), a byproduct of British involvement in the ongoing Napoleonic Wars. The Americans did not possess a navy capable of challenging the Royal Navy, and so an invasion of Canada was proposed as the only feasible means of attacking the British Empire. Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would not only bring an end to British support of aboriginal resistance to the westward expansion of the United States, but also finalize their claim to the western territories.", "Austrian Empire\nOn 12 July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was established, comprising 16 sovereigns and countries. This confederation, under French influence, put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, even Francis recognized the new state of things and proclaimed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him. This action was unrecognized by George III of the United Kingdom who was also the Elector of Hanover and had also lost his German territories around Hanover to Napoleon. His claims were later settled by the creation of the Kingdom of Hanover which was held by George's British heirs until Queen Victoria's accession, when it split into the British and Hanoverian royal families.", "British Empire Exhibition\nIn 1920 the British Government decided to site the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Park, on the site of the pleasure gardens created by Sir Edward Watkin in the 1890s. A British Empire Exhibition had first been proposed in 1902, by the British Empire League, and again in 1913. The Russo-Japanese War had prevented the first plan from being developed and World War I put an end to the second, though there had been a Festival of Empire in 1911, held in part at Crystal Palace.", "Colony of Singapore\nThe Colony of Singapore was a British Crown colony that existed from 1946 until 1963, when Singapore became part of Malaysia. When the Empire of Japan surrendered to the Allies at the end of World War II, the island was handed back to the British in 1945. In 1946, the Straits Settlements were dissolved and Singapore together with the Cocos-Keeling and Christmas islands became a separate Crown colony. The colony was governed by the British Empire until it gained partial internal self-governance in 1955.", "19th century\nIt was marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. This paved the way for the growing influence of the British Empire, the Russian Empire, the United States, the German Empire (essentially replacing the Holy Roman Empire), the French colonial empire and Meiji Japan, with the British boasting unchallenged dominance after 1815. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the British and Russian empires expanded greatly, becoming the world's leading powers. The Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. The British Empire grew rapidly in the first half of the century, especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada, Australia, South Africa and heavily populated India, and in the last two decades of the century in Africa. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the world's land and one quarter of the world's population. During the post-Napoleonic era, it enforced what became known as the Pax Britannica, which had ushered in unprecedented globalization and economic integration on a massive scale." ]