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" In August 1941, Himmler vomited after a demonstration of a mass-shooting of Jews in Minsk arranged by Nebe. Regaining his composure, Himmler decided that alternative methods of killing should be found. He told Heydrich that he was concerned for the mental health of the SS men. Himmler turned to Nebe to devise a more ""convenient"" method of killing, particularly one that would spare executioners elements of their grisly task. Murder with carbon monoxide gas, already in use in the Reich as part of the euthanasia program, was contemplated, but deemed too cumbersome for the mobile killing operations in the occupied Soviet Union. |
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" Nebe decided to try experimenting by murdering Soviet mental patients, first with explosives near Minsk, and then with automobile exhaust at Mogilev. The idea of using gas was partly inspired by an incident in Nebe's past. One night after a party, Nebe had driven home drunk, parked in his garage, and fallen asleep with the engine running, thus nearly dying of carbon monoxide poisoning from the exhaust fumes. To conduct the experiments, he ordered chemist Albert Widmann, a member of the criminal-technical institute of the RKPA, to come to Minsk with of explosives and exhaust hoses. The next day Widmann, Nebe, and an explosives expert carried out their first experiment in prepared bunkers in the Minsk area. According to testimony presented at Widmann's postwar trial: |
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" Two days later, Nebe and Widmann carried out another killing experiment: five psychiatric patients from Mogilev were placed in a hermetically sealed room, with pipes leading to the outside. At first, exhausts from a passenger vehicle were vented into the room, so that the carbon monoxide would kill those inside. However, this method failed to kill the patients, so a truck was added; the patients were dead within 15 minutes. Nebe and Widmann concluded that killing with explosives was impractical, while gassing ""held promise"", as vehicles were readily available, and could be used as needed. |
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" After these experimental killings, Nebe thought of remodelling a vehicle with a hermetically sealed cabin for killing. The carbon monoxide from the vehicle's exhaust would be channelled into the sealed cabin in which the victims stood. He discussed the technical aspects of the idea with a specialist from Kripo's Technology Institute and together they brought the proposal before Heydrich, who adopted it. |
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" The Wehrmacht's aggressive rear security doctrine, and the use of the ""security threat"" to disguise genocidal policies, resulted in close cooperation between the army and the security apparatus behind the front lines. Nebe, as the ""Einsatzgruppe B"" commander, participated in a three-day field conference at Mogilev in late September 1941. Organised by General Max von Schenckendorff, chief of Army Group Centre's rear area, the conference was to serve as an ""exchange of experiences"" for the Wehrmacht rear unit commanders. |
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" Participating officers were selected on the basis of their ""achievements and experiences"" in security operations already undertaken. In addition to Nebe, the speakers included: Higher SS and Police Leader Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski; Max Montua, commander of Police Regiment Center; Hermann Fegelein, commander of the SS Cavalry Brigade; and Gustav Lombard, commander of the 1st SS Cavalry Regiment. Nebe's talk focused on the role of the SD in the common fight against ""partisans"" and ""plunderers"". He also covered the ""Jewish question"", with particular consideration to the anti-partisan movement. Following the conference, a 16-page executive summary was distributed to the Wehrmacht troops and police units in the rear area. There was a dramatic increase in atrocities against Jews and other civilians in the last three months of 1941. |
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" Under Nebe's command, ""Einsatzgruppe B"" committed public hangings to terrorise the local population. An ""Einsatzgruppe B"" report, dated 9 October 1941, stated that, due to suspected partisan activity near Demidov, all male residents aged fifteen to fifty-five were put in a camp to be screened. Seventeen people were identified as ""partisans"" and ""Communists"" and five were hanged in front of 400 local residents assembled to watch; the rest were shot. Through 14 November 1941, ""Einsatzgruppe B"" reported the killing of 45,467 people; thereafter, Nebe returned to Berlin and resumed his duties as head of the Kripo. |
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" Following the assassination of Heydrich, Nebe assumed the additional post of President of the International Criminal Police Commission, the organization today known as Interpol, in June 1942. After the ""Anschluss"" in 1938, the organization had fallen under the control of Nazi Germany and was headed by Heydrich until his death. Nebe served in this capacity until June 1943, when he was replaced by Ernst Kaltenbrunner. |
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" In March 1944, after the ""Great Escape"" from Stalag Luft III prisoner-of-war camp, Nebe was ordered by Heinrich Müller, Chief of the Gestapo, to select and kill fifty of the seventy-three recaptured prisoners in what became known as the ""Stalag Luft III murders"". Also in 1944, Nebe suggested that the Roma interned at Auschwitz would be good subjects for medical experiments at the Dachau concentration camp, after Himmler had asked Ernst-Robert Grawitz, a high-ranking SS physician, for advice. |
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" Nebe was involved in the July 20 plot against Adolf Hitler; he was to lead a team of twelve policemen to kill Himmler, but the signal to act never reached him. After the failed assassination attempt, Nebe fled and went into hiding on an island in the Wannsee. He was arrested in January 1945, after a former mistress betrayed him. Nebe was sentenced to death by the People's Court on 2 March and, according to official records, was executed in Berlin at Plötzensee Prison on 21 March 1945 by being hanged with piano wire from a meat hook, in accordance with Hitler's order that the bomb plotters were to be ""hanged like cattle"". |
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" Historians have a uniformly negative view of Nebe and his motives, despite his participation in the 20 July plot. Robert Gellately writes that Nebe's views were virulently racist and antisemitic. Martin Kitchen casts Nebe as an opportunist, who saw the SS as the police force of the future, and as an ""energetic and enthusiastic mass murderer, who seized every opportunity to undertake yet another massacre"". Yet, according to Kitchen, he ""was clearly unable to stand the strain and was posted back to Berlin"". |
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" Comprehensive reports filed by the ""Einsatzgruppen"" have been analyzed by historian Ronald Headland as ""historical 'Messages of Murder'"" that provide insights into the worldview of its leadership. Headland writes that the reports ""bear witness to the fanatic commitment of the ""Einsatzgruppen"" leaders to their mission of extermination""; their ideology and racism are evident in the ""constant debasement of the victims"" and ""ever present racial conceptions concerning Jew, Communists, Gypsies and other 'inferior' elements"". Headland concludes that Nebe was an ambitious man who may have volunteered to lead an ""Einsatzgruppe"" unit for careerist reasons, to get a ""military decoration"", and to curry favor with Heydrich. Any misgivings he may have entertained as to the feasibility of the undertaking failed to prevent him from overseeing the murder of close to 50,000 people in the five months he spent as commander of his unit. |
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" Gerald Reitlinger describes Nebe's reasons for joining the ""Einsatzgruppen"" as ""placation"" and a desire to hold on to his position in the Criminal Police Department, which, since 1934, had been ""invaded by amateur Gestapo men"" and was later taken over by Heydrich. ""If Nebe did in fact retain his office till 1944, it was because of the five months he spent in Russia, or, as his friend Gisevius politely referred to, 'at the front'."" Reitlinger called Nebe a very questionable member of the Resistance Circle at the time of the great bomb plot. |
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" Alex J. Kay writes that ""the role, character and motivation of those involved both in planning—and in some cases carrying out—mass murder and in the conspiracy against Hitler deserve to be investigated more closely"". He places Nebe in this category, with Franz Halder, chief of the OKH, and Georg Thomas, head of the Defence, Economy and Armament Office in the ""Oberkommando der Wehrmacht"" (OKW) (English: Supreme Command). |
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" Several apologetic accounts produced by the conspirators behind the 20 July plot described Nebe as a professional police officer and a dedicated member of the German resistance. In 1947, Hans Gisevius described Nebe's position at the head of ""Einsatzgruppe"" B as a ""brief command at the front"". Gisevius changed his story in the 1960s, when Nebe's role with the ""Einsatzgruppen"" was exposed. In ""Wo ist Nebe?"" (""Where is Nebe"" [1966]), Gisevius claimed that Nebe was reluctant to accept the posting but had been persuaded to take it by the opposition leaders Hans Oster and Ludwig Beck, who had allegedly wanted Nebe to retain a key role in Heydrich's apparatus. Gisevius also claimed that Nebe exaggerated the number of victims in reports to Berlin by adding a zero to the number of those killed. In addition, a Swedish police official active in the Interpol during the war years, Harry Söderman, described Nebe and , a key RSHA figure responsible for persecution of the Roma, in his 1956 book as “professional policemen... very mild Nazis”. |
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" Historian Christian Gerlach, writing about the 20 July conspirators and their complicity in war crimes of the Wehrmacht, refers to Nebe as a ""notorious mass murderer"". He discusses the role of Henning von Tresckow and his adjutant, Fabian von Schlabrendorff, who were members of the resistance and writes: |
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" Gerlach doubts that Nebe falsified ""Einsatzgruppe B"" reports to ""sabotage Hitler's murderous orders"". Gerlach puts Schlabrendorff's claims in the context of bomb plotters' memoirs and ""existing discourse"" on the opposition group within the high command of Army Group Center: ""Especially with reference to the murder of the Jews, [it is said that] 'the SS' had deceived the officers by killing in secret, filing incomplete reports or none at all; if general staff offices protested, the SS threatened them. (...) This is, of course, nonsense."" |
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" The historian Waitman Wade Beorn writes that ""some have argued that [Nebe] deliberately inflated the numbers of Jews he reported killed. Yet all evidence indicates that he was quite content to play his role in Nazi genocide and that his subsequent displeasure with the regime may have stemmed from the imminent Nazi defeat but not opposition to the Holocaust"". Bernhard Wehner of the Kripo stated that Nebe was worried the Allies would punish him for his crimes, which was the only reason for joining the resistance. |
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"/ last = Gill / first =Anton / Anton Gill / title = An Honourable Defeat / publishers = HarperCollins, Henry Holt 1994/1995/ |
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"= = = Marowijne District = = = |
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" Marowijne is a district of Suriname, located on the north-east coast. Marowijne's capital city is Albina, with other towns including Moengo and Wanhatti. The district borders the Atlantic Ocean to the north, French Guiana to the east, the Surinamese district of Sipaliwini to the south, and the Surinamese districts of Commewijne and Para to the west. |
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" Marowijne's population is 20,250 and the district has an area of 4,627 km². |
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" During the early 20th century, bauxite was discovered in Marowijne district, leading to a boom in mining that significantly enriched the entire country. The district also has a large tourism industry and is the location of oceanfront resorts. |
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" Marowijne is also home to many Maroon ""palenques."" The Maroons are descendants of slaves who escaped from their Dutch masters centuries ago, particularly slaves who escaped from Suriname's huge plantations during the 18th century. They established autonomy for their interior settlements by a 1785 peace treaty with the Netherlands, which was unable to conquer them. |
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" Marowijne is divided into six resorts (""ressorten""): |
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"= = = East Windsor = = = |
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" East Windsor may refer to: |
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"= = = Eastbrook = = = |
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" Eastbrook could refer to the following: |
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"= = = Nickerie District = = = |
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" Nickerie is a district of Suriname, on the north-west coast. Nickerie's capital city is Nieuw-Nickerie, the second largest city in the country. Other towns include Washabo and Wageningen. The district borders the Atlantic Ocean to the north, the Surinamese district of Coronie to the east, the Surinamese district of Sipaliwini to the south and Guyana to the west. |
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" Nickerie has a population of 36.639 (2004) and an area of 5,353 km². |
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" Relations between Suriname and neighbouring Guyana have always been tense, and border disputes in the south of the country (with occasional sporadic fighting) mean that ports of entry to Guyana from Suriname are few. However, there is a ferry that sails between Molson Creek in Guyana and the district of Nickerie. Nickerie's population includes East Indian, Javanese, Afro-Surinamese, Chinese, and Portuguese people. |
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" Bananas and rice are the main crops grown in Nickerie. |
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" Nickerie is divided into 5 resorts (""ressorten""): |
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"= = = Amelia Edwards = = = |
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" Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards (7 June 1831 – 15 April 1892), also known as Amelia B. Edwards, was an English novelist, journalist, traveller and Egyptologist. Her most successful literary works included the ghost story ""The Phantom Coach"" (1864), the novels ""Barbara's History"" (1864) and ""Lord Brackenbury"" (1880), and the Egyptian travelogue ""A Thousand Miles up the Nile"" (1877). In 1882, she co-founded the Egypt Exploration Fund. She also edited a poetry anthology published in 1878. |
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" Born in London to an Irish mother and a father who had been a British Army officer before becoming a banker, Edwards was educated at home by her mother and showed early promise as a writer. She published her first poem at the age of seven and her first story at the age of twelve. Thereafter came a variety of poetry, stories, and articles in several periodicals, including ""Chambers's Journal"", ""Household Words"", and ""All the Year Round"". She also wrote for the ""Saturday Review"" and the ""Morning Post"". |
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" In addition, Edwards became an artist and would illustrate some of her own writings. She would also paint scenes from other books she had read. She was talented enough at the age of 12 to catch the eye of George Cruikshank, who went as far to offer to teach her, but this talent was not supported by Edwards's parents, who saw it as a lesser profession and the artist way of life as scandalous. This negative decision haunted Edwards through her early life. She would wonder frequently whether art would not have been her true calling. |