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<s>[INST] What causes What I need to know about Cirrhosis ? [/INST] Causes of cirrhosis include - heavy alcohol use - some drugs, medicines, and harmful chemicals - infections - chronic hepatitis B, C, or Dviral infections that attack the liver - autoimmune hepatitis, which causes the bodys immune system to destroy liver cells - nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, which is often caused by obesity - diseases that damage or destroy bile ductstubes that carry bile from the liver Some inherited diseasesdiseases that are passed from parent to childcan cause cirrhosis: - hemochromatosis, a disease that causes iron to collect in the liver - Wilson disease, a condition that causes copper to build up in the liver - porphyria, a disorder that affects the skin, bone marrow, and liver </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the symptoms of What I need to know about Cirrhosis ? [/INST] You may have no symptoms in the early stages of cirrhosis. As cirrhosis gets worse you may - feel tired or weak - lose your appetite - feel sick to your stomach - lose weight - notice red, spider-shaped blood vessels under your skin Cirrhosis can lead to other serious problems: - You may bruise or bleed easily, or have nosebleeds. - Bloating or swelling may occur as fluid builds up in your legs or abdomenthe area between your chest and hips. Fluid buildup in your legs is called edema; buildup in your abdomen is called ascites. - Medicines, including those you can buy over the counter such as vitamins and herbal supplements, may have a stronger effect on you. Your liver does not break medicines down as quickly as a healthy liver would. - Waste materials from food may build up in your blood or brain and cause confusion or difficulty thinking. - Blood pressure may increase in the vein entering your liver, a condition called portal hypertension. - Enlarged veins, called varices, may develop in your esophagus and stomach. Varices can bleed suddenly, causing you to throw up blood or pass blood in a bowel movement. - Your kidneys may not work properly or may fail. - Your skin and the whites of your eyes may turn yellow, a condition called jaundice. - You may develop severe itching. - You may develop gallstones. In the early stages, cirrhosis causes your liver to swell. Then, as more scar tissue replaces healthy tissue, your liver shrinks. A small number of people with cirrhosis also get liver cancer. </s></s>

<s>[INST] How to diagnose What I need to know about Cirrhosis ? [/INST] Your doctor will examine you and may perform - blood tests to see whether your liver is working properly - imaging tests, which may show the size of your liver and show swelling or shrinkage - a liver biopsy, in which a doctor uses a needle to take a small piece of liver tissue to view with a microscope to look for scar tissue </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the treatments for What I need to know about Cirrhosis ? [/INST] Once you have cirrhosis, nothing can make all the scar tissue go away. But treating the cause will keep cirrhosis from getting worse. For example, if cirrhosis is from heavy alcohol use, the treatment is to completely stop drinking alcohol. If cirrhosis is caused by hepatitis C, then the hepatitis C virus is treated with medicine. Your doctor will suggest treatment based on the cause of your cirrhosis and your symptoms. Being diagnosed early and carefully following a treatment plan can help many people with cirrhosis. In the late stages of cirrhosis, certain treatments may not be effective. In that case, your doctor will work with you to prevent or manage the problems that cirrhosis can cause. What if the cirrhosis treatment doesnt work? If too much scar tissue forms, your liver could fail. Then you will need a liver transplant. A liver transplant can return you to good health. For information about liver transplantation, see the booklet What I need to know about Liver Transplantation from the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the treatments for What I need to know about Cirrhosis ? [/INST] If too much scar tissue forms, your liver could fail. Then you will need a liver transplant. A liver transplant can return you to good health. For information about liver transplantation, see the booklet What I need to know about Liver Transplantation from the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). </s></s>

<s>[INST] How to prevent What I need to know about Cirrhosis ? [/INST] To prevent cirrhosis, - see your doctor for treatment of your liver disease. Many of the causes of cirrhosis are treatable. Early treatment may prevent cirrhosis. - try to keep your weight in the normal range. Being overweight can make several liver diseases worse. - do not drink any alcohol. Alcohol can harm liver cells. Drinking large amounts of alcohol over many years is one of the major causes of cirrhosis. - do not use illegal drugs, which can increase your chances of getting hepatitis B or hepatitis C. - see your doctor if you have hepatitis. Treatments for hepatitis B, C, and D are available. If you are on treatment, carefully follow your treatment directions. - if you have autoimmune hepatitis, take your medicines and have regular checkups as recommended by your doctor or a liver specialist. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for What I need to know about Cirrhosis ? [/INST] - Cirrhosis is scarring of the liver. Scar tissue replaces healthy liver tissue. - Some common causes of cirrhosis include heavy alcohol use, hepatitis infections, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. - In the early stages of cirrhosis, you may have no symptoms. As the disease gets worse, cirrhosis can cause serious problems. - Once you have cirrhosis, nothing can make all the scar tissue go away. But treatment can prevent cirrhosis from getting worse. - If too much scar tissue forms and your liver fails, you will need a liver transplant. - You can take steps to prevent cirrhosis or keep it from getting worse. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Monogenic Forms of Diabetes: Neonatal Diabetes Mellitus and Maturity-onset Diabetes of the Young ? [/INST] NDM is a monogenic form of diabetes that occurs in the first 6 months of life. It is a rare condition occurring in only one in 100,000 to 500,000 live births. Infants with NDM do not produce enough insulin, leading to an increase in blood glucose. NDM can be mistaken for the much more common type 1 diabetes, but type 1 diabetes usually occurs later than the first 6 months of life. In about half of those with NDM, the condition is lifelong and is called permanent neonatal diabetes mellitus (PNDM). In the rest of those with NDM, the condition is transient and disappears during infancy but can reappear later in life; this type of NDM is called transient neonatal diabetes mellitus (TNDM). Specific genes that can cause NDM have been identified. More information about each type of NDM is provided in the appendix. Symptoms of NDM include thirst, frequent urination, and dehydration. NDM can be diagnosed by finding elevated levels of glucose in blood or urine. In severe cases, the deficiency of insulin may cause the body to produce an excess of acid, resulting in a potentially life-threatening condition called ketoacidosis. Most fetuses with NDM do not grow well in the womb and newborns are much smaller than those of the same gestational age, a condition called intrauterine growth restriction. After birth, some infants fail to gain weight and grow as rapidly as other infants of the same age and sex. Appropriate therapy improves and may normalize growth and development. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Monogenic Forms of Diabetes: Neonatal Diabetes Mellitus and Maturity-onset Diabetes of the Young ? [/INST] MODY is a monogenic form of diabetes that usually first occurs during adolescence or early adulthood. However, MODY sometimes remains undiagnosed until later in life. A number of different gene mutations have been shown to cause MODY, all of which limit the ability of the pancreas to produce insulin. This process leads to the high blood glucose levels characteristic of diabetes and, in time, may damage body tissues, particularly the eyes, kidneys, nerves, and blood vessels. MODY accounts for about 1 to 5 percent of all cases of diabetes in the United States. Family members of people with MODY are at greatly increased risk for the condition. People with MODY may have only mild or no symptoms of diabetes and their hyperglycemia may only be discovered during routine blood tests. MODY may be confused with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. People with MODY are generally not overweight and do not have other risk factors for type 2 diabetes, such as high blood pressure or abnormal blood fat levels. While both type 2 diabetes and MODY can run in families, people with MODY typically have a family history of diabetes in multiple successive generations, meaning that MODY is present in a grandparent, a parent, and a child. Unlike people with type 1 diabetes who always require insulin, people with MODY can often be treated with oral diabetes medications. Treatment varies depending on the genetic mutation that has caused the MODY. More information about each type of MODY is provided in the appendix. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Monogenic Forms of Diabetes: Neonatal Diabetes Mellitus and Maturity-onset Diabetes of the Young ? [/INST] Testing for monogenic diabetes involves providing a blood sample from which DNA is isolated. The DNA is analyzed for changes in the genes that cause monogenic diabetes. Abnormal results can determine the gene responsible for diabetes in a particular individual or show whether someone is likely to develop a monogenic form of diabetes in the future. Genetic testing can also be helpful in selecting the most appropriate treatment for individuals with monogenic diabetes. Prenatal testing can diagnose these conditions in unborn children. Most forms of monogenic diabetes are caused by dominant mutations, meaning that the condition can be passed on to children when only one parent is affected. In contrast, if the mutation is a recessive mutation, a disease gene must be inherited from both parents for diabetes to occur. For recessive forms of monogenic diabetes, testing can indicate whether parents or siblings without disease are carriers for recessive genetic conditions that could be inherited by their children. If you suspect that you or a member of your family may have a monogenic form of diabetes, you should seek help from health care professionals-physicians and genetic counselors-who have specialized knowledge and experience in this area. They can determine whether genetic testing is appropriate, select the genetic tests that should be performed, and provide information about the basic principles of genetics, genetic testing options, and confidentiality issues. They also can review the test results with the patient or parent after testing, make recommendations about how to proceed, and discuss testing options for other family members. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for Monogenic Forms of Diabetes: Neonatal Diabetes Mellitus and Maturity-onset Diabetes of the Young ? [/INST] - Mutations in single genes can cause rare forms of diabetes. - Genetic testing can identify many forms of monogenic diabetes. - A physician evaluates whether genetic testing is appropriate. - A correct diagnosis aided by genetic testing can lead to optimal treatment. - Recent research results show that people with certain forms of monogenic diabetes can be treated with oral diabetes medications instead of insulin injections. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Gallstones ? [/INST] Gallstones are hard particles that develop in the gallbladder. The gallbladder is a small, pear-shaped organ located in the upper right abdomenthe area between the chest and hipsbelow the liver. Gallstones can range in size from a grain of sand to a golf ball. The gallbladder can develop a single large gallstone, hundreds of tiny stones, or both small and large stones. Gallstones can cause sudden pain in the upper right abdomen. This pain, called a gallbladder attack or biliary colic, occurs when gallstones block the ducts of the biliary tract. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Gallstones ? [/INST] The biliary tract consists of the gallbladder and the bile ducts. The bile ducts carry bile and other digestive enzymes from the liver and pancreas to the duodenumthe fi rst part of the small intestine. The liver produces bilea fl uid that carries toxins and waste products out of the body and helps the body digest fats and the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. Bile mostly consists of cholesterol, bile salts, and bilirubin. Bilirubin, a reddish-yellow substance, forms when hemoglobin from red blood cells breaks down. Most bilirubin is excreted through bile. The bile ducts of the biliary tract include the hepatic ducts, the common bile duct, the pancreatic duct, and the cystic duct. The gallbladder stores bile. Eating signals the gallbladder to contract and empty bile through the cystic duct and common bile duct into the duodenum to mix with food. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What causes Gallstones ? [/INST] Imbalances in the substances that make up bile cause gallstones. Gallstones may form if bile contains too much cholesterol, too much bilirubin, or not enough bile salts. Scientists do not fully understand why these imbalances occur. Gallstones also may form if the gallbladder does not empty completely or often enough. The two types of gallstones are cholesterol and pigment stones: - Cholesterol stones, usually yellow-green in color, consist primarily of hardened cholesterol. In the United States, more than 80 percent of gallstones are cholesterol stones.1 - Pigment stones, dark in color, are made of bilirubin. </s></s>

<s>[INST] Who is at risk for Gallstones? ? [/INST] Certain people have a higher risk of developing gallstones than others:2 - Women are more likely to develop gallstones than men. Extra estrogen can increase cholesterol levels in bile and decrease gallbladder contractions, which may cause gallstones to form. Women may have extra estrogen due to pregnancy, hormone replacement therapy, or birth control pills. - People over age 40 are more likely to develop gallstones than younger people. - People with a family history of gallstones have a higher risk. - American Indians have genetic factors that increase the amount of cholesterol in their bile. In fact, American Indians have the highest rate of gallstones in the United Statesalmost 65 percent of women and 30 percent of men have gallstones. - Mexican Americans are at higher risk of developing gallstones. Other factors that affect a persons risk of gallstones include2 - Obesity. People who are obese, especially women, have increased risk of developing gallstones. Obesity increases the amount of cholesterol in bile, which can cause stone formation. - Rapid weight loss. As the body breaks down fat during prolonged fasting and rapid weight loss, the liver secretes extra cholesterol into bile. Rapid weight loss can also prevent the gallbladder from emptying properly. Low-calorie diets and bariatric surgerysurgery that limits the amount of food a person can eat or digestlead to rapid weight loss and increased risk of gallstones. - Diet. Research suggests diets high in calories and refi ned carbohydrates and low in fi ber increase the risk of gallstones. Refi ned carbohydrates are grains processed to remove bran and germ, which contain nutrients and fiber. Examples of refi ned carbohydrates include white bread and white rice. - Certain intestinal diseases. Diseases that affect normal absorption of nutrients, such as Crohns disease, are associated with gallstones. - Metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and insulin resistance. These conditions increase the risk of gallstones. Metabolic syndrome also increases the risk of gallstone complications. Metabolic syndrome is a group of traits and medical conditions linked to being overweight or obese that puts people at risk for heart disease and type 2 diabetes. More information about these conditions is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Insulin Resistance and Prediabetes. - cirrhosisa condition in which the liver slowly deteriorates and malfunctions due to chronic, or long lasting, injury - infections in the bile ducts - severe hemolytic anemiasconditions in which red blood cells are continuously broken down, such as sickle cell anemia </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the symptoms of Gallstones ? [/INST] Many people with gallstones do not have symptoms. Gallstones that do not cause symptoms are called asymptomatic, or silent, gallstones. Silent gallstones do not interfere with the function of the gallbladder, liver, or pancreas. If gallstones block the bile ducts, pressure increases in the gallbladder, causing a gallbladder attack. The pain usually lasts from 1 to several hours.1 Gallbladder attacks often follow heavy meals, and they usually occur in the evening or during the night. Gallbladder attacks usually stop when gallstones move and no longer block the bile ducts. However, if any of the bile ducts remain blocked for more than a few hours, complications can occur. Complications include infl ammation, or swelling, of the gallbladder and severe damage or infection of the gallbladder, bile ducts, or liver. A gallstone that becomes lodged in the common bile duct near the duodenum and blocks the pancreatic duct can cause gallstone pancreatitisin flammation of the pancreas. Left untreated, blockages of the bile ducts or pancreatic duct can be fatal. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Gallstones ? [/INST] People who think they have had a gallbladder attack should notify their health care provider. Although these attacks usually resolve as gallstones move, complications can develop if the bile ducts remain blocked. People with any of the following symptoms during or after a gallbladder attack should see a health care provider immediately: - abdominal pain lasting more than 5 hours - nausea and vomiting - fevereven a low-grade feveror chills - yellowish color of the skin or whites of the eyes, called jaundice - tea-colored urine and light-colored stools These symptoms may be signs of serious infection or infl ammation of the gallbladder, liver, or pancreas. </s></s>

<s>[INST] How to diagnose Gallstones ? [/INST] A health care provider will usually order an ultrasound exam to diagnose gallstones. Other imaging tests may also be used. - Ultrasound exam. Ultrasound uses a device, called a transducer, that bounces safe, painless sound waves off organs to create an image of their structure. A specially trained technician performs the procedure in a health care providers offi ce, outpatient center, or hospital, and a radiologista doctor who specializes in medical imaginginterprets the images. Anesthesia is not needed. If gallstones are present, they will be visible in the image. Ultrasound is the most accurate method to detect gallstones. - Computerized tomography (CT) scan. A CT scan is an x ray that produces pictures of the body. A CT scan may include the injection of a special dye, called contrast medium. CT scans use a combination of x rays and computer technology to create three-dimensional (3-D) images. CT scans require the person to lie on a table that slides into a tunnel-shaped device where the x rays are taken. An x-ray technician performs the procedure in an outpatient center or hospital, and a radiologist interprets the images. Anesthesia is not needed. CT scans can show gallstones or complications, such as infection and blockage of the gallbladder or bile ducts. However, CT scans can miss gallstones that are present. - Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MRI machines use radio waves and magnets to produce detailed pictures of the bodys internal organs and soft tissues without using x rays. A specially trained technician performs the procedure in an outpatient center or hospital, and a radiologist interprets the images. Anesthesia is not needed, though people with a fear of confi ned spaces may receive light sedation. An MRI may include the injection of contrast medium. With most MRI machines, the person lies on a table that slides into a tunnel-shaped device that may be open ended or closed at one end; some newer machines allow the person to lie in a more open space. MRIs can show gallstones in the ducts of the biliary system. - Cholescintigraphy. Cholescintigraphyalso called a hydroxyl iminodiacetic acid scan, HIDA scan, or hepatobiliary scanuses an unharmful radioactive material to produce pictures of the biliary system. In cholescintigraphy, the person lies on an exam table and a health care provider injects a small amount of unharmful radioactive material into a vein in the persons arm. The health care provider may also inject a substance that causes the gallbladder to contract. A special camera takes pictures of the radioactive material as it moves through the biliary system. A specially trained technician performs the procedure in an outpatient center or hospital, and a radiologist interprets the images. Anesthesia is not needed. Cholescintigraphy is used to diagnose abnormal contractions of the gallbladder or obstruction of the bile ducts. - Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). ERCP uses an x ray to look into the bile and pancreatic ducts. After lightly sedating the person, the health care provider inserts an endoscopea small, flexible tube with a light and a camera on the endthrough the mouth into the duodenum and bile ducts. The endoscope is connected to a computer and video monitor. The health care provider injects contrast medium through the tube into the bile ducts, which makes the ducts show up on the monitor. The health care provider performs the procedure in an outpatient center or hospital. ERCP helps the health care provider locate the affected bile duct and the gallstone. The stone is captured in a tiny basket attached to the endoscope and removed. This test is more invasive than other tests and is used selectively. Health care providers also use blood tests to look for signs of infection or in flammation of the bile ducts, gallbladder, pancreas, or liver. A blood test involves drawing blood at a health care providers offi ce or commercial facility and sending the sample to a lab for analysis. Gallstone symptoms may be similar to those of other conditions, such as appendicitis, ulcers, pancreatitis, and gastroesophageal refl ux disease. Sometimes, silent gallstones are found when a person does not have any symptoms. For example, a health care provider may notice gallstones when performing ultrasound for a different reason. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the treatments for Gallstones ? [/INST] If gallstones are not causing symptoms, treatment is usually not needed. However, if a person has a gallbladder attack or other symptoms, a health care provider will usually recommend treatment. A person may be referred to a gastroenterologista doctor who specializes in digestive diseasesfor treatment. If a person has had one gallbladder attack, more episodes will likely follow. The usual treatment for gallstones is surgery to remove the gallbladder. If a person cannot undergo surgery, nonsurgical treatments may be used to dissolve cholesterol gallstones. A health care provider may use ERCP to remove stones in people who cannot undergo surgery or to remove stones from the common bile duct in people who are about to have gallbladder removal surgery. Surgery Surgery to remove the gallbladder, called cholecystectomy, is one of the most common operations performed on adults in the United States. The gallbladder is not an essential organ, which means a person can live normally without a gallbladder. Once the gallbladder is removed, bile flows out of the liver through the hepatic and common bile ducts and directly into the duodenum, instead of being stored in the gallbladder. Surgeons perform two types of cholecystectomy: - Laparoscopic cholecystectomy. In a laparoscopic cholecystectomy, the surgeon makes several tiny incisions in the abdomen and inserts a laparoscopea thin tube with a tiny video camera attached. The camera sends a magni fied image from inside the body to a video monitor, giving the surgeon a close-up view of organs and tissues. While watching the monitor, the surgeon uses instruments to carefully separate the gallbladder from the liver, bile ducts, and other structures. Then the surgeon removes the gallbladder through one of the small incisions. Patients usually receive general anesthesia. Most cholecystectomies are performed with laparoscopy. Many laparoscopic cholecystectomies are performed on an outpatient basis, meaning the person is able to go home the same day. Normal physical activity can usually be resumed in about a week.3 - Open cholecystectomy. An open cholecystectomy is performed when the gallbladder is severely infl amed, infected, or scarred from other operations. In most of these cases, open cholecystectomy is planned from the start. However, a surgeon may perform an open cholecystectomy when problems occur during a laparoscopic cholecystectomy. In these cases, the surgeon must switch to open cholecystectomy as a safety measure for the patient. To perform an open cholecystectomy, the surgeon creates an incision about 4 to 6 inches long in the abdomen to remove the gallbladder.4 Patients usually receive general anesthesia. Recovery from open cholecystectomy may require some people to stay in the hospital for up to a week. Normal physical activity can usually be resumed after about a month.3 A small number of people have softer and more frequent stools after gallbladder removal because bile fl ows into the duodenum more often. Changes in bowel habits are usually temporary; however, they should be discussed with a health care provider. Though complications from gallbladder surgery are rare, the most common complication is injury to the bile ducts. An injured common bile duct can leak bile and cause a painful and possibly dangerous infection. One or more additional operations may be needed to repair the bile ducts. Bile duct injuries occur in less than 1 percent of cholecystectomies.5 Nonsurgical Treatments for Cholesterol Gallstones Nonsurgical treatments are used only in special situations, such as when a person with cholesterol stones has a serious medical condition that prevents surgery. Gallstones often recur within 5 years after nonsurgical treatment.6 Two types of nonsurgical treatments can be used to dissolve cholesterol gallstones: - Oral dissolution therapy. Ursodiol (Actigall) and chenodiol (Chenix) are medications that contain bile acids that can dissolve gallstones. These medications are most effective in dissolving small cholesterol stones. Months or years of treatment may be needed to dissolve all stones. - Shock wave lithotripsy. A machine called a lithotripter is used to crush the gallstone. The lithotripter generates shock waves that pass through the persons body to break the gallstone into smaller pieces. This procedure is used only rarely and may be used along with ursodiol. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for Gallstones ? [/INST] Factors related to eating, diet, and nutrition that increase the risk of gallstones include - obesity - rapid weight loss - diets high in calories and refi ned carbohydrates and low in fi ber People can decrease their risk of gallstones by maintaining a healthy weight through proper diet and nutrition. Ursodiol can help prevent gallstones in people who rapidly lose weight through low-calorie diets or bariatric surgery. People should talk with their health care provider or dietitian about what diet is right for them. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for Gallstones ? [/INST] - Gallstones are hard particles that develop in the gallbladder. - Imbalances in the substances that make up bile cause gallstones. Gallstones may form if bile contains too much cholesterol, too much bilirubin, or not enough bile salts. Scientists do not fully understand why these imbalances occur. - Women, people over age 40, people with a family history of gallstones, American Indians, and Mexican Americans have a higher risk of developing gallstones. - Many people with gallstones do not have symptoms. Gallstones that do not cause symptoms are called asymptomatic, or silent, gallstones. - If gallstones block the bile ducts, pressure increases in the gallbladder, causing a gallbladder attack. - Gallbladder attacks often follow heavy meals, and they usually occur in the evening or during the night. - Gallstone symptoms may be similar to those of other conditions. - If gallstones are not causing symptoms, treatment is usually not needed. However, if a person has a gallbladder attack or other symptoms, a health care provider will usually recommend treatment. - The usual treatment for gallstones is surgery to remove the gallbladder. If a person cannot undergo surgery, nonsurgical treatments may be used to dissolve cholesterol gallstones. A health care provider may use endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) to remove stones in people who cannot undergo surgery or to remove stones from the common bile duct in people who are about to have gallbladder removal surgery. - The gallbladder is not an essential organ, which means a person can live normally without a gallbladder. Once the gallbladder is removed, bile flows out of the liver through the hepatic and common bile ducts and directly into the duodenum, instead of being stored in the gallbladder. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Microscopic Colitis: Collagenous Colitis and Lymphocytic Colitis ? [/INST] Microscopic colitis is an inflammation of the colon that a health care provider can see only with a microscope. Inflammation is the bodys normal response to injury, irritation, or infection of tissues. Microscopic colitis is a type of inflammatory bowel diseasethe general name for diseases that cause irritation and inflammation in the intestines. The two types of microscopic colitis are collagenous colitis and lymphocytic colitis. Health care providers often use the term microscopic colitis to describe both types because their symptoms and treatments are the same. Some scientists believe that collagenous colitis and lymphocytic colitis may be different phases of the same condition rather than separate conditions. In both types of microscopic colitis, an increase in the number of lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, can be seen in the epitheliumthe layer of cells that lines the colon. An increase in the number of white blood cells is a sign of inflammation. The two types of colitis affect the colon tissue in slightly different ways: - Lymphocytic colitis. The number of lymphocytes is higher, and the tissues and lining of the colon are of normal thickness. - Collagenous colitis. The layer of collagen, a threadlike protein, underneath the epithelium builds up and becomes thicker than normal. When looking through a microscope, the health care provider may find variations in lymphocyte numbers and collagen thickness in different parts of the colon. These variations may indicate an overlap of the two types of microscopic colitis. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Microscopic Colitis: Collagenous Colitis and Lymphocytic Colitis ? [/INST] The colon is part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anusa 1-inch-long opening through which stool leaves the body. Organs that make up the GI tract are the - mouth - esophagus - stomach - small intestine - large intestine - anus The first part of the GI tract, called the upper GI tract, includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. The last part of the GI tract, called the lower GI tract, consists of the large intestine and anus. The intestines are sometimes called the bowel. The large intestine is about 5 feet long in adults and includes the colon and rectum. The large intestine changes waste from liquid to a solid matter called stool. Stool passes from the colon to the rectum. The rectum is 6 to 8 inches long in adults and is between the last part of the coloncalled the sigmoid colonand the anus. During a bowel movement, stool moves from the rectum to the anus and out of the body. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What causes Microscopic Colitis: Collagenous Colitis and Lymphocytic Colitis ? [/INST] The exact cause of microscopic colitis is unknown. Several factors may play a role in causing microscopic colitis. However, most scientists believe that microscopic colitis results from an abnormal immune-system response to bacteria that normally live in the colon. Scientists have proposed other causes, including - autoimmune diseases - medications - infections - genetic factors - bile acid malabsorption Autoimmune Diseases Sometimes people with microscopic colitis also have autoimmune diseasesdisorders in which the bodys immune system attacks the bodys own cells and organs. Autoimmune diseases associated with microscopic colitis include - celiac diseasea condition in which people cannot tolerate gluten because it damages the lining of the small intestine and prevents absorption of nutrients. Gluten is a protein found in wheat, rye, and barley. - thyroid diseases such as - Hashimotos diseasea form of chronic, or long lasting, inflammation of the thyroid. - Graves diseasea disease that causes hyperthyroidism. Hyperthyroidism is a disorder that occurs when the thyroid gland makes more thyroid hormone than the body needs. - rheumatoid arthritisa disease that causes pain, swelling, stiffness, and loss of function in the joints when the immune system attacks the membrane lining the joints. - psoriasisa skin disease that causes thick, red skin with flaky, silver-white patches called scales. More information is provided in the NIDDK health topics: - Celiac Disease - Hashimotos Disease - Graves Disease Medications Researchers have not found that medications cause microscopic colitis. However, they have found links between microscopic colitis and certain medications, most commonly - nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen - lansoprazole (Prevacid) - acarbose (Prandase, Precose) - ranitidine (Tritec, Zantac) - sertraline (Zoloft) - ticlopidine (Ticlid) Other medications linked to microscopic colitis include - carbamazepine - clozapine (Clozaril, FazaClo) - dexlansoprazole (Kapidex, Dexilant) - entacapone (Comtan) - esomeprazole (Nexium) - flutamide (Eulexin) - lisinopril (Prinivil, Zestril) - omeprazole (Prilosec) - pantoprazole (Protonix) - paroxetine (Paxil, Pexeva) - rabeprazole (AcipHex) - simvastatin (Zocor) - vinorelbine (Navelbine) Infections Bacteria. Some people get microscopic colitis after an infection with certain harmful bacteria. Harmful bacteria may produce toxins that irritate the lining of the colon. Viruses. Some scientists believe that viral infections that cause inflammation in the GI tract may play a role in causing microscopic colitis. Genetic Factors Some scientists believe that genetic factors may play a role in microscopic colitis. Although researchers have not yet found a gene unique to microscopic colitis, scientists have linked dozens of genes to other types of inflammatory bowel disease, including - Crohns diseasea disorder that causes inflammation and irritation of any part of the GI tract - ulcerative colitisa chronic disease that causes inflammation and ulcers in the inner lining of the large intestine More information is provided in the NIDDK health topics: - Crohns Disease - Ulcerative Colitis Bile Acid Malabsorption Some scientists believe that bile acid malabsorption plays a role in microscopic colitis. Bile acid malabsorption is the intestines inability to completely reabsorb bile acidsacids made by the liver that work with bile to break down fats. Bile is a fluid made by the liver that carries toxins and waste products out of the body and helps the body digest fats. Bile acids that reach the colon can lead to diarrhea. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the symptoms of Microscopic Colitis: Collagenous Colitis and Lymphocytic Colitis ? [/INST] The most common symptom of microscopic colitis is chronic, watery, nonbloody diarrhea. Episodes of diarrhea can last for weeks, months, or even years. However, many people with microscopic colitis may have long periods without diarrhea. Other signs and symptoms of microscopic colitis can include - a strong urgency to have a bowel movement or a need to go to the bathroom quickly - pain, cramping, or bloating in the abdomenthe area between the chest and the hipsthat is usually mild - weight loss - fecal incontinenceaccidental passing of stool or fluid from the rectumespecially at night - nausea - dehydrationa condition that results from not taking in enough liquids to replace fluids lost through diarrhea The symptoms of microscopic colitis can come and go frequently. Sometimes, the symptoms go away without treatment. </s></s>

<s>[INST] How to diagnose Microscopic Colitis: Collagenous Colitis and Lymphocytic Colitis ? [/INST] A pathologista doctor who specializes in examining tissues to diagnose diseasesdiagnoses microscopic colitis based on the findings of multiple biopsies taken throughout the colon. Biopsy is a procedure that involves taking small pieces of tissue for examination with a microscope. The pathologist examines the colon tissue samples in a lab. Many patients can have both lymphocytic colitis and collagenous colitis in different parts of their colon. To help diagnose microscopic colitis, a gastroenterologista doctor who specializes in digestive diseasesbegins with - a medical and family history - a physical exam The gastroenterologist may perform a series of medical tests to rule out other bowel diseasessuch as irritable bowel syndrome, celiac disease, Crohns disease, ulcerative colitis, and infectious colitisthat cause symptoms similar to those of microscopic colitis. These medical tests include - lab tests - imaging tests of the intestines - endoscopy of the intestines Medical and Family History The gastroenterologist will ask the patient to provide a medical and family history, a review of the symptoms, a description of eating habits, and a list of prescription and over-the-counter medications in order to help diagnose microscopic colitis. The gastroenterologist will also ask the patient about current and past medical conditions. Physical Exam A physical exam may help diagnose microscopic colitis and rule out other diseases. During a physical exam, the gastroenterologist usually - examines the patients body - taps on specific areas of the patients abdomen Lab Tests Lab tests may include - blood tests - stool tests Blood tests. A blood test involves drawing blood at a health care providers office or a commercial facility and sending the sample to a lab for analysis. A health care provider may use blood tests to help look for changes in red and white blood cell counts. - Red blood cells. When red blood cells are fewer or smaller than normal, a person may have anemiaa condition that prevents the bodys cells from getting enough oxygen. - White blood cells. When the white blood cell count is higher than normal, a person may have inflammation or infection somewhere in the body. Stool tests. A stool test is the analysis of a sample of stool. A health care provider will give the patient a container for catching and storing the stool. The patient returns the sample to the health care provider or a commercial facility that will send the sample to a lab for analysis. Health care providers commonly order stool tests to rule out other causes of GI diseases, such as different types of infectionsincluding bacteria or parasitesor bleeding, and help determine the cause of symptoms. Imaging Tests of the Intestines Imaging tests of the intestines may include the following: - computerized tomography (CT) scan - magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - upper GI series Specially trained technicians perform these tests at an outpatient center or a hospital, and a radiologista doctor who specializes in medical imaginginterprets the images. A patient does not need anesthesia. Health care providers use imaging tests to show physical abnormalities and to diagnose certain bowel diseases, in some cases. CT scan. CT scans use a combination of x rays and computer technology to create images. For a CT scan, a health care provider may give the patient a solution to drink and an injection of a special dye, called contrast medium. CT scans require the patient to lie on a table that slides into a tunnel-shaped device where the technician takes the x rays. MRI. MRI is a test that takes pictures of the bodys internal organs and soft tissues without using x rays. Although a patient does not need anesthesia for an MRI, some patients with a fear of confined spaces may receive light sedation, taken by mouth. An MRI may include a solution to drink and injection of contrast medium. With most MRI machines, the patient will lie on a table that slides into a tunnel-shaped device that may be open ended or closed at one end. Some machines allow the patient to lie in a more open space. During an MRI, the patient, although usually awake, must remain perfectly still while the technician takes the images, which usually takes only a few minutes. The technician will take a sequence of images to create a detailed picture of the intestines. During sequencing, the patient will hear loud mechanical knocking and humming noises. Upper GI series. This test is an x-ray exam that provides a look at the shape of the upper GI tract. A patient should not eat or drink before the procedure, as directed by the health care provider. Patients should ask their health care provider about how to prepare for an upper GI series. During the procedure, the patient will stand or sit in front of an x-ray machine and drink barium, a chalky liquid. Barium coats the upper GI tract so the radiologist and gastroenterologist can see the organs shapes more clearly on x rays. A patient may experience bloating and nausea for a short time after the test. For several days afterward, barium liquid in the GI tract causes white or light-colored stools. A health care provider will give the patient specific instructions about eating and drinking after the test. More information is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Upper GI Series. Endoscopy of the Intestines Endoscopy of the intestines may include - colonoscopy with biopsy - flexible sigmoidoscopy with biopsy - upper GI endoscopy with biopsy A gastroenterologist performs these tests at a hospital or an outpatient center. Colonoscopy with biopsy. Colonoscopy is a test that uses a long, flexible, narrow tube with a light and tiny camera on one end, called a colonoscope or scope, to look inside the rectum and entire colon. In most cases, light anesthesia and pain medication help patients relax for the test. The medical staff will monitor a patients vital signs and try to make him or her as comfortable as possible. A nurse or technician places an intravenous (IV) needle in a vein in the arm or hand to give anesthesia. For the test, the patient will lie on a table while the gastroenterologist inserts a colonoscope into the anus and slowly guides it through the rectum and into the colon. The scope inflates the large intestine with air to give the gastroenterologist a better view. The camera sends a video image of the intestinal lining to a computer screen, allowing the gastroenterologist to carefully examine the tissues lining the colon and rectum. The gastroenterologist may move the patient several times and adjust the scope for better viewing. Once the scope has reached the opening to the small intestine, the gastroenterologist slowly withdraws it and examines the lining of the colon and rectum again. A colonoscopy can show irritated and swollen tissue, ulcers, and abnormal growths such as polypsextra pieces of tissue that grow on the lining of the intestine. If the lining of the rectum and colon appears normal, the gastroenterologist may suspect microscopic colitis and will biopsy multiple areas of the colon. A health care provider will provide written bowel prep instructions to follow at home before the test. The health care provider will also explain what the patient can expect after the test and give discharge instructions. Flexible sigmoidoscopy with biopsy. Flexible sigmoidoscopy is a test that uses a flexible, narrow tube with a light and tiny camera on one end, called a sigmoidoscope or scope, to look inside the rectum and the sigmoid colon. A patient does not usually need anesthesia. For the test, the patient will lie on a table while the gastroenterologist inserts the sigmoidoscope into the anus and slowly guides it through the rectum and into the sigmoid colon. The scope inflates the large intestine with air to give the gastroenterologist a better view. The camera sends a video image of the intestinal lining to a computer screen, allowing the gastroenterologist to carefully examine the tissues lining the sigmoid colon and rectum. The gastroenterologist may ask the patient to move several times and adjust the scope for better viewing. Once the scope reaches the end of the sigmoid colon, the gastroenterologist slowly withdraws it while carefully examining the lining of the sigmoid colon and rectum again. The gastroenterologist will look for signs of bowel diseases and conditions such as irritated and swollen tissue, ulcers, and polyps. If the lining of the rectum and colon appears normal, the gastroenterologist may suspect microscopic colitis and will biopsy multiple areas of the colon. A health care provider will provide written bowel prep instructions to follow at home before the test. The health care provider will also explain what the patient can expect after the test and give discharge instructions. Upper GI endoscopy with biopsy. Upper GI endoscopy is a test that uses a flexible, narrow tube with a light and tiny camera on one end, called an endoscope or a scope, to look inside the upper GI tract. The gastroenterologist carefully feeds the endoscope down the esophagus and into the stomach and first part of the small intestine, called the duodenum. A small camera mounted on the endoscope transmits a video image to a monitor, allowing close examination of the intestinal lining. A health care provider may give a patient a liquid anesthetic to gargle or may spray anesthetic on the back of the patients throat. A health care provider will place an IV needle in a vein in the arm or hand to administer sedation. Sedatives help patients stay relaxed and comfortable. This test can show blockages or other conditions in the upper small intestine. A gastroenterologist may biopsy the lining of the small intestine during an upper GI endoscopy. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the treatments for Microscopic Colitis: Collagenous Colitis and Lymphocytic Colitis ? [/INST] Treatment depends on the severity of symptoms. The gastroenterologist will - review the medications the person is taking - make recommendations to change or stop certain medications - recommend that the person quit smoking The gastroenterologist may prescribe medications to help control symptoms. Medications are almost always effective in treating microscopic colitis. The gastroenterologist may recommend eating, diet, and nutrition changes. In rare cases, the gastroenterologist may recommend surgery. Medications The gastroenterologist may prescribe one or more of the following: - antidiarrheal medications such as bismuth subsalicylate (Kaopectate, Pepto-Bismol), diphenoxylate/atropine (Lomotil), and loperamide - corticosteroids such as budesonide (Entocort) and prednisone - anti-inflammatory medications such as mesalamine and sulfasalazine (Azulfidine) - cholestyramine resin (Locholest, Questran)a medication that blocks bile acids - antibiotics such as metronidazole (Flagyl) and erythromycin - immunomodulators such as mercaptopurine (Purinethol), azathioprine (Azasan, Imuran), and methotrexate (Rheumatrex, Trexall) - anti-TNF therapies such as infliximab (Remicade) and adalimumab (Humira) Corticosteroids are medications that decrease inflammation and reduce the activity of the immune system. These medications can have many side effects. Scientists have shown that budesonide is safer, with fewer side effects, than prednisone. Most health care providers consider budesonide the best medication for treating microscopic colitis. Patients with microscopic colitis generally achieve relief through treatment with medications, although relapses can occur. Some patients may need long-term treatment if they continue to have relapses. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for Microscopic Colitis: Collagenous Colitis and Lymphocytic Colitis ? [/INST] To help reduce symptoms, a health care provider may recommend the following dietary changes: - avoid foods and drinks that contain caffeine or artificial sugars - drink plenty of liquids to prevent dehydration during episodes of diarrhea - eat a milk-free diet if the person is also lactose intolerant - eat a gluten-free diet People should talk with their health care provider or dietitian about what type of diet is right for them. Surgery When the symptoms of microscopic colitis are severe and medications arent effective, a gastroenterologist may recommend surgery to remove the colon. Surgery is a rare treatment for microscopic colitis. The gastroenterologist will exclude other causes of symptoms before considering surgery. </s></s>

<s>[INST] How to prevent Microscopic Colitis: Collagenous Colitis and Lymphocytic Colitis ? [/INST] Researchers do not know how to prevent microscopic colitis. However, researchers do believe that people who follow the recommendations of their health care provider may be able to prevent relapses of microscopic colitis. </s></s>

<s>[INST] Who is at risk for Microscopic Colitis: Collagenous Colitis and Lymphocytic Colitis? ? [/INST] No. Unlike the other inflammatory bowel diseases, such as Crohns disease and ulcerative colitis, microscopic colitis does not increase a persons risk of getting colon cancer. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for Microscopic Colitis: Collagenous Colitis and Lymphocytic Colitis ? [/INST] - Microscopic colitis is an inflammation of the colon that a health care provider can see only with a microscope. - The two types of microscopic colitis are collagenous colitis and lymphocytic colitis. - The exact cause of microscopic colitis is unknown. - Microscopic colitis is most common in females age 50 years or older. - The most common symptom of microscopic colitis is chronic, watery, nonbloody diarrhea. - A pathologista doctor who specializes in diagnosing diseasesdiagnoses microscopic colitis based on the findings of multiple biopsies taken throughout the colon. - Treatment depends on the severity of symptoms. - The gastroenterologist may prescribe medications to help control symptoms. - Medications are almost always effective in treating microscopic colitis. - The gastroenterologist may recommend eating, diet, and nutrition changes. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Fecal Incontinence ? [/INST] Fecal incontinence, also called a bowel control problem, is the accidental passing of solid or liquid stool or mucus from the rectum. Fecal incontinence includes the inability to hold a bowel movement until reaching a toilet as well as passing stool into ones underwear without being aware of it happening. Stool, also called feces, is solid waste that is passed as a bowel movement and includes undigested food, bacteria, mucus, and dead cells. Mucus is a clear liquid that coats and protects tissues in the digestive system. Fecal incontinence can be upsetting and embarrassing. Many people with fecal incontinence feel ashamed and try to hide the problem. However, people with fecal incontinence should not be afraid or embarrassed to talk with their health care provider. Fecal incontinence is often caused by a medical problem and treatment is available. </s></s>

<s>[INST] Who is at risk for Fecal Incontinence? ? [/INST] Nearly 18 million U.S. adultsabout one in 12have fecal incontinence.1 People of any age can have a bowel control problem, though fecal incontinence is more common in older adults. Fecal incontinence is slightly more common among women. Having any of the following can increase the risk: - diarrhea, which is passing loose, watery stools three or more times a day - urgency, or the sensation of having very little time to get to the toilet for a bowel movement - a disease or injury that damages the nervous system - poor overall health from multiple chronic, or long lasting, illnesses - a difficult childbirth with injuries to the pelvic floorthe muscles, ligaments, and tissues that support the uterus, vagina, bladder, and rectum </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Fecal Incontinence ? [/INST] The GI tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. The movement of muscles in the GI tract, along with the release of hormones and enzymes, allows for the digestion of food. Organs that make up the GI tract are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestinewhich includes the appendix, cecum, colon, and rectumand anus. The intestines are sometimes called the bowel. The last part of the GI tractcalled the lower GI tractconsists of the large intestine and anus. The large intestine absorbs water and any remaining nutrients from partially digested food passed from the small intestine. The large intestine then changes waste from liquid to stool. Stool passes from the colon to the rectum. The rectum is located between the last part of the coloncalled the sigmoid colonand the anus. The rectum stores stool prior to a bowel movement. During a bowel movement, stool moves from the rectum to the anus, the opening through which stool leaves the body. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What causes Fecal Incontinence ? [/INST] Fecal incontinence has many causes, including - diarrhea - constipation - muscle damage or weakness - nerve damage - loss of stretch in the rectum - childbirth by vaginal delivery - hemorrhoids and rectal prolapse - rectocele - inactivity Diarrhea Diarrhea can cause fecal incontinence. Loose stools fill the rectum quickly and are more difficult to hold than solid stools. Diarrhea increases the chance of not reaching a bathroom in time. Constipation Constipation can lead to large, hard stools that stretch the rectum and cause the internal sphincter muscles to relax by reflex. Watery stool builds up behind the hard stool and may leak out around the hard stool, leading to fecal incontinence. The type of constipation that is most likely to lead to fecal incontinence occurs when people are unable to relax their external sphincter and pelvic floor muscles when straining to have a bowel movement, often mistakenly squeezing these muscles instead of relaxing them. This squeezing makes it difficult to pass stool and may lead to a large amount of stool in the rectum. This type of constipation, called dyssynergic defecation or disordered defecation, is a result of faulty learning. For example, children or adults who have pain when having a bowel movement may unconsciously learn to squeeze their muscles to delay the bowel movement and avoid pain. Muscle Damage or Weakness Injury to one or both of the sphincter muscles can cause fecal incontinence. If these muscles, called the external and internal anal sphincter muscles, are damaged or weakened, they may not be strong enough to keep the anus closed and prevent stool from leaking. Trauma, childbirth injuries, cancer surgery, and hemorrhoid surgery are possible causes of injury to the sphincters. Hemorrhoids are swollen blood vessels in and around the anus and lower rectum. Nerve Damage The anal sphincter muscles wont open and close properly if the nerves that control them are damaged. Likewise, if the nerves that sense stool in the rectum are damaged, a person may not feel the urge to go to the bathroom. Both types of nerve damage can lead to fecal incontinence. Possible sources of nerve damage are childbirth; a long-term habit of straining to pass stool; spinal cord injury; and diseases, such as diabetes and multiple sclerosis, that affect the nerves that go to the sphincter muscles and rectum. Brain injuries from stroke, head trauma, or certain diseases can also cause fecal incontinence. Loss of Stretch in the Rectum Normally, the rectum stretches to hold stool until a person has a bowel movement. Rectal surgery, radiation treatment, and inflammatory bowel diseaseschronic disorders that cause irritation and sores on the lining of the digestive systemcan cause the rectal walls to become stiff. The rectum then cant stretch as much to hold stool, increasing the risk of fecal incontinence. Childbirth by Vaginal Delivery Childbirth sometimes causes injuries to muscles and nerves in the pelvic floor. The risk is greater if forceps are used to help deliver the baby or if an episiotomya cut in the vaginal area to prevent the babys head from tearing the vagina during birthis performed. Fecal incontinence related to childbirth can appear soon after delivery or many years later. Hemorrhoids and Rectal Prolapse External hemorrhoids, which develop under the skin around the anus, can prevent the anal sphincter muscles from closing completely. Rectal prolapse, a condition that causes the rectum to drop down through the anus, can also prevent the anal sphincter muscles from closing well enough to prevent leakage. Small amounts of mucus or liquid stool can then leak through the anus. Rectocele Rectocele is a condition that causes the rectum to protrude through the vagina. Rectocele can happen when the thin layer of muscles separating the rectum from the vagina becomes weak. For women with rectocele, straining to have a bowel movement may be less effective because rectocele reduces the amount of downward force through the anus. The result may be retention of stool in the rectum. More research is needed to be sure rectocele increases the risk of fecal incontinence. Inactivity People who are inactive, especially those who spend many hours a day sitting or lying down, have an increased risk of retaining a large amount of stool in the rectum. Liquid stool can then leak around the more solid stool. Frail, older adults are most likely to develop constipation-related fecal incontinence for this reason. </s></s>

<s>[INST] How to diagnose Fecal Incontinence ? [/INST] Health care providers diagnose fecal incontinence based on a persons medical history, physical exam, and medical test results. In addition to a general medical history, the health care provider may ask the following questions: - When did fecal incontinence start? - How often does fecal incontinence occur? - How much stool leaks? Does the stool just streak the underwear? Does just a little bit of solid or liquid stool leak out or does complete loss of bowel control occur? - Does fecal incontinence involve a strong urge to have a bowel movement or does it happen without warning? - For people with hemorrhoids, do hemorrhoids bulge through the anus? Do the hemorrhoids pull back in by themselves, or do they have to be pushed in with a finger? - How does fecal incontinence affect daily life? - Is fecal incontinence worse after eating? Do certain foods seem to make fecal incontinence worse? - Can passing gas be controlled? People may want to keep a stool diary for several weeks before their appointment so they can answer these questions. A stool diary is a chart for recording daily bowel movement details. A sample stool diary is available on the Bowel Control Awareness Campaign website at www.bowelcontrol.nih.gov. The person may be referred to a doctor who specializes in problems of the digestive system, such as a gastroenterologist, proctologist, or colorectal surgeon, or a doctor who specializes in problems of the urinary and reproductive systems, such as a urologist or urogynecologist. The specialist will perform a physical exam and may suggest one or more of the following tests: - anal manometry - anal ultrasound - magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - defecography - flexible sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy - anal electromyography (EMG) Anal manometry. Anal manometry uses pressure sensors and a balloon that can be inflated in the rectum to check the sensitivity and function of the rectum. Anal manometry also checks the tightness of the anal sphincter muscles around the anus. To prepare for this test, the person should use an enema and not eat anything 2 hours before the test. An enema involves flushing water or a laxative into the anus using a special squirt bottle. A laxative is medication that loosens stool and increases bowel movements. For this test, a thin tube with a balloon on its tip and pressure sensors below the balloon is inserted into the anus until the balloon is in the rectum and pressure sensors are located in the anal canal. The tube is slowly pulled back through the sphincter muscle to measure muscle tone and contractions. No anesthesia is needed for this test, which takes about 30 minutes. Anal ultrasound. Ultrasound uses a device, called a transducer, that bounces safe, painless sound waves off organs to create an image of their structure. An anal ultrasound is specific to the anus and rectum. The procedure is performed in a health care providers office, outpatient center, or hospital by a specially trained technician, and the images are interpreted by a radiologista doctor who specializes in medical imaging. Anesthesia is not needed. The images can show the structure of the anal sphincter muscles. MRI. MRI machines use radio waves and magnets to produce detailed pictures of the bodys internal organs and soft tissues without using x rays. The procedure is performed in an outpatient center or hospital by a specially trained technician, and the images are interpreted by a radiologist. Anesthesia is not needed, though people with a fear of confined spaces may be given medication to help them relax. An MRI may include the injection of special dye, called contrast medium. With most MRI machines, the person lies on a table that slides into a tunnel-shaped device that may be open ended or closed at one end; some newer machines are designed to allow the person to lie in a more open space. MRIs can show problems with the anal sphincter muscles. MRI is an alternative to anal ultrasound that may provide more detailed information, especially about the external anal sphincter. Defecography. This x ray of the area around the anus and rectum shows how well the person can hold and evacuate stool. The test also identifies structural changes in the rectum and anus such as rectocele and rectal prolapse. To prepare for the test, the person uses two enemas and does not eat anything 2 hours prior to the test. During the test, the health care provider fills the rectum with a soft paste that shows up on x rays and is the same consistency as stool. The person sits on a toilet inside an x-ray machine. The person is first asked to pull in and squeeze the sphincter muscles to prevent leakage and then to strain as if having a bowel movement. The radiologist studies the x rays to identify problems with the rectum, anus, and pelvic floor muscles. Flexible sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy. These tests are used to help diagnose problems causing fecal incontinence. The tests are similar, but colonoscopy is used to view the rectum and entire colon, while flexible sigmoidoscopy is used to view just the rectum and lower colon. These tests are performed at a hospital or outpatient center by a gastroenterologist. For both tests, a health care provider will provide written bowel prep instructions to follow at home. The person may be asked to follow a clear liquid diet for 1 to 3 days before either test. A laxative may be required the night before the test. One or more enemas may be required the night before and about 2 hours before the test. In most cases, people will be given light anesthesia, and possibly pain medication, to help them relax during flexible sigmoidoscopy. Anesthesia is used for colonoscopy. For either test, the person will lie on a table while the gastroenterologist inserts a flexible tube into the anus. A small camera on the tube sends a video image of the intestinal lining to a computer screen. The test can show problems in the lower GI tract that may be causing the bowel control problem. The gastroenterologist may also perform a biopsy, a procedure that involves taking a piece of tissue from the bowel lining for examination with a microscope. The person will not feel the biopsy. A pathologista doctor who specializes in diagnosing diseasesexamines the tissue in a lab to confirm the diagnosis. Cramping or bloating may occur during the first hour after these tests. Driving is not permitted for 24 hours after flexible sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy to allow the anesthesia time to wear off. Before the appointment, a person should make plans for a ride home. Full recovery is expected by the next day and the person is able to go back to a normal diet. Anal EMG. Anal EMG checks the health of the pelvic floor muscles and the nerves that control the muscles. The health care provider inserts a very thin needle electrode through the skin into the muscle. The electrode on the needle picks up the electrical activity given off by the muscles and shows it as images on a monitor or sounds through a speaker. An alternative type of anal EMG uses stainless steel plates attached to the sides of a plastic plug instead of a needle. The plug is inserted into the anal canal to measure the electrical activity of the external anal sphincter and other pelvic floor muscles. The average amount of electrical activity when the person relaxes quietly, squeezes to prevent a bowel movement, and strains to have a bowel movement shows whether there is damage to the nerves that control the external sphincter and pelvic floor muscles. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the treatments for Fecal Incontinence ? [/INST] Treatment for fecal incontinence may include one or more of the following: - eating, diet, and nutrition - medications - bowel training - pelvic floor exercises and biofeedback - surgery - electrical stimulation </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for Fecal Incontinence ? [/INST] Dietary changes that may improve fecal incontinence include - Eating the right amount of fiber. Fiber can help with diarrhea and constipation. Fiber is found in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and beans. Fiber supplements sold in a pharmacy or in a health food store are another common source of fiber to treat fecal incontinence. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics recommends consuming 20 to 35 grams of fiber a day for adults and age plus five grams for children. A 7-year-old child, for example, should get 7 plus five, or 12, grams of fiber a day. American adults consume only 15 grams a day on average.2 Fiber should be added to the diet slowly to avoid bloating. - Getting plenty to drink. Drinking eight 8-ounce glasses of liquid a day may help prevent constipation. Water is a good choice. Drinks with caffeine, alcohol, milk, or carbonation should be avoided if they trigger diarrhea. Keeping a Food Diary A food diary can help identify foods that cause diarrhea and increase the risk of fecal incontinence. A food diary should list foods eaten, portion size, and when fecal incontinence occurs. After a few days, the diary may show a link between certain foods and fecal incontinence. Eating less of foods linked to fecal incontinence may improve symptoms. A food diary can also be helpful to a health care provider treating a person with fecal incontinence. Common foods and drinks linked to fecal incontinence include - dairy products such as milk, cheese, and ice cream - drinks and foods containing caffeine - cured or smoked meat such as sausage, ham, and turkey - spicy foods - alcoholic beverages - fruits such as apples, peaches, and pears - fatty and greasy foods - sweeteners in diet drinks and sugarless gum and candy, including sorbitol, xylitol, mannitol, and fructose Examples of Foods That Have Fiber Beans, cereals, and breads Fiber cup of beans (navy, pinto, kidney, etc.), cooked 6.29.6 grams cup of shredded wheat, ready-to-eat cereal 2.73.8 grams cup of 100% bran, ready-to-eat cereal 9.1 grams 1 small oat bran muffin 3.0 grams 1 whole-wheat English muffin 4.4 grams Fruits 1 small apple, with skin 3.6 grams 1 medium pear, with skin 5.5 grams cup of raspberries 4.0 grams cup of stewed prunes 3.8 grams Vegetables cup of winter squash, cooked 2.9 grams 1 medium sweet potato, baked in skin 3.8 grams cup of green peas, cooked 3.54.4 grams 1 small potato, baked, with skin 3.0 grams cup of mixed vegetables, cooked 4.0 grams cup of broccoli, cooked 2.62.8 grams cup of greens (spinach, collards, turnip greens), cooked 2.53.5 grams Medications If diarrhea is causing fecal incontinence, medication may help. Health care providers sometimes recommend using bulk laxatives, such as Citrucel and Metamucil, to develop more solid stools that are easier to control. Antidiarrheal medications such as loperamide or diphenoxylate may be recommended to slow down the bowels and help control the problem. Bowel Training Developing a regular bowel movement pattern can improve fecal incontinence, especially fecal incontinence due to constipation. Bowel training involves trying to have bowel movements at specific times of the day, such as after every meal. Over time, the body becomes used to a regular bowel movement pattern, thus reducing constipation and related fecal incontinence. Persistence is key to successful bowel training. Achieving a regular bowel control pattern can take weeks to months. Pelvic Floor Exercises and Biofeedback Exercises that strengthen the pelvic floor muscles may improve bowel control. Pelvic floor exercises involve squeezing and relaxing pelvic floor muscles 50 to 100 times a day. A health care provider can help with proper technique. Biofeedback therapy may also help a person perform the exercises properly. This therapy also improves a persons awareness of sensations in the rectum, teaching how to coordinate squeezing of the external sphincter muscle with the sensation of rectal filling. Biofeedback training uses special sensors to measure bodily functions. Sensors include pressure or EMG sensors in the anus, pressure sensors in the rectum, and a balloon in the rectum to produce graded sensations of rectal fullness. The measurements are displayed on a video screen as sounds or line graphs. The health care provider uses the information to help the person modify or change abnormal function. The person practices the exercises at home. Success with pelvic floor exercises depends on the cause of fecal incontinence, its severity, and the persons motivation and ability to follow the health care providers recommendations. Surgery Surgery may be an option for fecal incontinence that fails to improve with other treatments or for fecal incontinence caused by pelvic floor or anal sphincter muscle injuries. - Sphincteroplasty, the most common fecal incontinence surgery, reconnects the separated ends of a sphincter muscle torn by childbirth or another injury. Sphincteroplasty is performed at a hospital by a colorectal, gynecological, or general surgeon. - Artificial anal sphincter involves placing an inflatable cuff around the anus and implanting a small pump beneath the skin that the person activates to inflate or deflate the cuff. This surgery is much less common and is performed at a hospital by a specially trained colorectal surgeon. - Nonabsorbable bulking agents can be injected into the wall of the anus to bulk up the tissue around the anus. The bulkier tissues make the opening of the anus narrower so the sphincters are able to close better. The procedure is performed in a health care providers office; anesthesia is not needed. The person can return to normal physical activities 1 week after the procedure. - Bowel diversion is an operation that reroutes the normal movement of stool out of the body when part of the bowel is removed. The operation diverts the lower part of the small intestine or colon to an opening in the wall of the abdomenthe area between the chest and hips. An external pouch is attached to the opening to collect stool. The procedure is performed by a surgeon in a hospital and anesthesia is used. More information about these procedures can be found in the Bowel Diversion fact sheet. Electrical Stimulation Electrical stimulation, also called sacral nerve stimulation or neuromodulation, involves placing electrodes in the sacral nerves to the anus and rectum and continuously stimulating the nerves with electrical pulses. The sacral nerves connect to the part of the spine in the hip area. A battery-operated stimulator is placed beneath the skin. Based on the persons response, the health care provider can adjust the amount of stimulation so it works best for that person. The person can turn the stimulator on or off at any time. The procedure is performed in an outpatient center using local anesthesia. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Fecal Incontinence ? [/INST] Fecal incontinence can cause embarrassment, fear, and loneliness. Taking steps to cope is important. The following tips can help: - carrying a bag with cleanup supplies and a change of clothes when leaving the house. - finding public restrooms before one is needed. - using the toilet before leaving home. - wearing disposable underwear or absorbent pads inserted in the underwear. - using fecal deodorantspills that reduce the smell of stool and gas. Although fecal deodorants are available over the counter, a health care provider can help people find them. Eating tends to trigger contractions of the large intestine that push stool toward the rectum and also cause the rectum to contract for 30 to 60 minutes. Both these events increase the likelihood that a person will pass gas and have a bowel movement soon after eating. This activity may increase if the person is anxious. People with fecal incontinence may want to avoid eating in restaurants or at social gatherings, or they may want to take antidiarrheal medications before eating in these situations. Anal Discomfort The skin around the anus is delicate and sensitive. Constipation and diarrhea or contact between skin and stool can cause pain or itching. The following steps can help relieve anal discomfort: - Washing the anal area after a bowel movement. Washing with water, but not soap, can help prevent discomfort. Soap can dry out the skin, making discomfort worse. Ideally, the anal area should be washed in the shower with lukewarm water or in a sitz batha special plastic tub that allows a person to sit in a few inches of warm water. No-rinse skin cleansers, such as Cavilon, are a good alternative. Wiping with toilet paper further irritates the skin and should be avoided. Premoistened, alcohol-free towelettes are a better choice. - Keeping the anal area dry. The anal area should be allowed to air dry after washing. If time doesnt permit air drying, the anal area can be gently patted dry with a lint-free cloth. - Creating a moisture barrier. A moisture barrier cream that contains ingredients such as dimethiconea type of siliconecan help form a barrier between skin and stool. The anal area should be cleaned before applying barrier cream. However, people should talk with their health care provider before using anal creams and ointments because some can irritate the anus. - Using nonmedicated powders. Nonmedicated talcum powder or cornstarch can also relieve anal discomfort. As with moisture barrier creams, the anal area should be clean and dry before use. - Using wicking pads or disposable underwear. Pads and disposable underwear with a wicking layer can pull moisture away from the skin. - Wearing breathable clothes and underwear. Clothes and underwear should allow air to flow and keep skin dry. Tight clothes or plastic or rubber underwear that blocks air can worsen skin problems. - Changing soiled underwear as soon as possible. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for Fecal Incontinence ? [/INST] - Fecal incontinence, also called a bowel control problem, is the accidental passing of solid or liquid stool or mucus from the rectum. Fecal incontinence includes the inability to hold a bowel movement until reaching a toilet as well as passing stool into ones underwear without being aware of it happening. - Nearly 18 million U.S. adultsabout one in 12have fecal incontinence. People with fecal incontinence should not be afraid or embarrassed to talk with their health care provider. - Fecal incontinence has many causes, including - diarrhea - constipation - muscle damage or weakness - nerve damage - loss of stretch in the rectum - childbirth by vaginal delivery - hemorrhoids and rectal prolapse - rectocele - inactivity - Health care providers diagnose fecal incontinence based on a persons medical history, physical exam, and medical test results. - Treatment for fecal incontinence may include one or more of the following: - eating, diet, and nutrition - medications - bowel training - pelvic floor exercises and biofeedback - surgery - electrical stimulation - A food diary can help identify foods that cause fecal incontinence. - Fecal incontinence can occur in children because of a birth defect or disease, but in most cases it occurs because of constipation. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) What I need to know about Diverticular Disease ? [/INST] Diverticular* disease affects the colon. The colon is part of the large intestine that removes waste from your body. Diverticular disease is made up of two conditions: diverticulosis and diverticulitis. Diverticulosis occurs when pouches, called diverticula, form in the colon. These pouches bulge out like weak spots in a tire. Diverticulitis occurs if the pouches become inflamed. *See the Pronunciation Guide for tips on how to say the words in bold type. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What causes What I need to know about Diverticular Disease ? [/INST] Doctors are not sure what causes diverticular disease. Many think a diet low in fiber is the main cause. Fiber is a part of food that your body cannot digest. It is found in many fruits and vegetables. Fiber stays in the colon and absorbs water, which makes bowel movements easier to pass. Diets low in fiber may cause constipation, which occurs when stools are hard and difficult to pass. Constipation causes your muscles to strain when you pass stool. Straining may cause diverticula to form in the colon. If stool or bacteria get caught in the pouches, diverticulitis can occur. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the symptoms of What I need to know about Diverticular Disease ? [/INST] The symptoms for diverticulosis and diverticulitis are different. Diverticulosis. Many people don't have symptoms, but some people have cramping, bloating, and constipation. Some people also have bleeding, inflammation, and fistulas. If you are bleeding, bright red blood will pass through your rectum. The rectum is the end of the colon that connects to the anus. The rectum and anus are part of the gastrointestinal tract, which is the passage that food goes through. Rectal bleeding is usually painless, but it can be dangerous. You should see a doctor right away. Diverticulitis. People with diverticulitis can have many symptoms. Often pain is felt in the lower part of the abdomen. If you have diverticulitis, you may have fevers, feel sick to your stomach, vomit, or have a change in your bowel habits. </s></s>

<s>[INST] Who is at risk for What I need to know about Diverticular Disease? ? [/INST] Many people get diverticular disease. Starting at age 40, the chance of getting it increases about every 10 years. About half of people between the ages of 60 and 80 have diverticular disease. Almost everyone over 80 has it. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the treatments for What I need to know about Diverticular Disease ? [/INST] Treatment for diverticular disease depends on how serious the problem is and whether you are suffering from diverticulosis or diverticulitis. Most people get better by changing their diet. If you have rectal bleeding, you need to go to the hospital so a doctor can find the part of your colon that is bleeding. The doctor may use a special drug that makes the bleeding stop. The doctor may also decide to operate and remove the part of the colon that is bleeding. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the treatments for What I need to know about Diverticular Disease ? [/INST] Eating high-fiber foods can help relieve symptoms. Sometimes mild pain medications also help. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the treatments for What I need to know about Diverticular Disease ? [/INST] A doctor may prescribe antibiotics and recommend following a liquid diet. Most people get better with this treatment. Some people may need surgery and other treatments. - Surgery. Serious problems from diverticulitis are treated with surgery. Surgeons can clean the abdomen after infections and remove bleeding pouches and fistulas. - Colon resection. If you get diverticulitis many times, your doctor might suggest taking out the part of the colon with diverticula. The healthy sections can be joined together. With the diverticula gone, you may avoid other infections. - Emergency surgery. If you have severe problems, you may need emergency surgery to clear the infection and remove part of the colon. Later, a second surgery rejoins the healthy sections of the colon. The colon is separated for a brief time between surgeries, because rejoining the colon during the first surgery is not always safe. A temporary colostomy is needed between the two surgeries. A colostomy is an opening made on the abdomen where a plastic bag is connected to collect stool after food is digested. The surgeon makes the opening, called a stoma, and connects it to the end of the colon. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) What I need to know about Diverticular Disease ? [/INST] Eat a high-fiber diet to help prevent problems. Talk to your doctor about using fiber products like Benefiber, Citrucel, or Metamucil. Daily use can help you get the fiber you need if you do not get it through your diet. Ask your doctor about which food choices are right for you. Eating foods high in fiber is simple and can help reduce diverticular disease symptoms and problems. Try eating more of the following: - Fruit. Raw apples, peaches, pears, and tangerines. - Vegetables. Fresh broccoli, squash, carrots, and brussels sprouts. - Starchy vegetables. Potatoes, baked beans, kidney beans, and lima beans. - Grains. Whole-wheat bread, brown rice, bran flake cereal, and oatmeal. Talk with your doctor about making diet changes. Learn what to eat and how to put more of these high-fiber foods in your diet. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for What I need to know about Diverticular Disease ? [/INST] - Diverticular disease is more common in people as they grow older. - A low-fiber diet is the most likely cause of the disease. - Most people are treated with a high-fiber diet and pain medication. - Add whole grain foods, high-fiber fruits, and vegetables to your diet. - Contact a doctor if you notice symptoms such as fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, rectal bleeding, or change in bowel habits. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the treatments for Kidney Failure: Choosing a Treatment That's Right for You ? [/INST] If you have advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD), you may soon need treatment to do the work your kidneys can no longer do. Learning about your treatment options for kidney failure will help you make the best choice for you. Each treatment has pros and cons. Your choice of treatment will have a big effect on your daily life, such as continuing to work if you do so currently. Talking with your doctor ahead of time about your options can help you take control of your care. Understanding the treatment you choose and getting used to the idea that you need to have this treatment takes time. If you find your choice of treatment does not fit your lifestyle, talk with your doctor about picking another treatment that fits your needs better. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Kidney Failure: Choosing a Treatment That's Right for You ? [/INST] The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. They are located just below the rib cage, one on each side of the spine. Every day, the two kidneys filter about 120 to 150 quarts of blood to produce about 1 to 2 quarts of urine, composed of wastes and extra fluid. The urine flows from the kidneys to the bladder through two thin tubes of muscle called ureters, one on each side of the bladder. The bladder stores urine. The muscles of the bladder wall remain relaxed while the bladder fills with urine. As the bladder fills to capacity, signals sent to the brain tell a person to find a toilet soon. When the bladder empties, urine flows out of the body through a tube called the urethra, located at the bottom of the bladder. In men the urethra is long, while in women it is short. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Kidney Failure: Choosing a Treatment That's Right for You ? [/INST] Chronic kidney disease means you have damaged kidneys that cannot filter blood normally. Wastes then build up in your blood, harming your body. Kidney disease usually does not get better and may lead to kidney failure. If your kidneys fail, current treatment options can help you live a longer, healthier life. Some people live with kidney disease for years without needing treatment. Others progress quickly to kidney failure. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the treatments for Kidney Failure: Choosing a Treatment That's Right for You ? [/INST] You have three treatment options to choose from to filter your blood. A fourth option offers care without replacing the work of the kidneys. None of these treatments helps the kidneys get better. However, they all can help you feel better. - Hemodialysis uses a machine to move your blood through a filter outside your body, removing wastes. - Peritoneal dialysis uses the lining of your belly to filter your blood inside your body, removing wastes. - Kidney transplantation is surgery to place a healthy kidney from a person who has just died or a living person, usually a family member, into your body to take over the job of filtering your blood. - Conservative management is the choice not to treat kidney failure with dialysis or a transplant. Instead, the focus is on using medicines to keep you comfortable, preserving kidney function through diet, and treating the problems of kidney failure, such as anemiaa shortage of red blood cells that can make you tiredand weak bones. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Kidney Failure: Choosing a Treatment That's Right for You ? [/INST] Purpose of Hemodialysis The purpose of hemodialysis is to filter your blood. This type of dialysis uses a machine to remove harmful wastes and extra fluid, as your kidneys did when they were healthy. Hemodialysis helps control blood pressure and balance important minerals, such as potassium, sodium, calcium, and bicarbonate, in your blood. Hemodialysis is not a cure for kidney failure; however, it can help you feel better and live longer. How Hemodialysis Works Before you can begin dialysis, a surgeon will create a vascular access, usually in your arm. A vascular access lets high volumes of blood flow continuously during hemodialysis treatments to filter the largest possible amounts of blood per treatment. Hemodialysis uses a machine to move your blood through a filter, called a dialyzer, outside your body. A pump on the hemodialysis machine draws your blood through a needle into a tube, a few ounces at a time. Your blood then travels through the tube, which takes it to the dialyzer. Inside the dialyzer, your blood flows through thin fibers that filter out wastes and extra fluid. After the dialyzer filters your blood, another tube carries your blood back to your body. You can do hemodialysis at a dialysis center or in your home. Hemodialysis can replace part of your kidney function. You will also need dietary changes, medicines, and limits on water and other liquids you drink and get from food. Your dietary changes, the number of medicines you need, and limits on liquid will depend on where you receive your treatmentsat a dialysis center or at homeand how often you receive treatmentsthree or more times a week. Pros and Cons of Hemodialysis The pros and cons of hemodialysis differ for each person. What may be bad for one person may be good for another. Following is a list of the general pros and cons of dialysis center and home hemodialysis. Dialysis Center Hemodialysis Pros - Dialysis centers are widely available. - Trained health care providers are with you at all times and help administer the treatment. - You can get to know other people with kidney failure who also need hemodialysis. - You dont have to have a trained partner or keep equipment in your home. Cons - The center arranges everyones treatments and allows few exceptions to the schedule. - You need to travel to the center for treatment. - This treatment has the strictest diet and limits on liquids because the longer time between treatments means wastes and extra fluid can build up in your body. - You may have more frequent ups and downs in how you feel from day to day because of the longer time between sessions. - Feeling better after a treatment may take a few hours. Home Hemodialysis Pros - You can do the treatment at the times you choose; however, you should follow your doctors orders about how many times a week you need treatment. - You dont have to travel to a dialysis center. - You gain a sense of control over your treatment. - You will have fewer ups and downs in how you feel from day to day because of more frequent sessions. - You can do your treatments at times that will let you work outside the home. - You will have a more manageable diet and fewer limits on liquids because the shorter time between sessions prevents the buildup of wastes and extra fluid. - You can take along a hemodialysis machine when traveling. - You can spend more time with your loved ones because you dont have to go to the dialysis center three times a week. Cons - Not all dialysis centers offer home hemodialysis training and support. - You and a family member or friend will have to set aside a week or more at the beginning for training. - Helping with treatments may be stressful for your family or friend. - You need space for storing the hemodialysis machine and supplies at home. - You will need to learn to put dialysis needles into your vascular access. - Medicare and private insurance companies may limit the number of treatments they will pay for when you use home hemodialysis. Few people can afford the costs for additional treatments. Questions to Ask My Doctor You may want to ask your doctor these questions: - Is hemodialysis the best treatment choice for me? Why? - If Im treated at a dialysis center, can I go to the center of my choice? - What should I look for in a dialysis center? - Will my kidney doctor see me at the dialysis center? - What does hemodialysis feel like? - How will hemodialysis affect my ____ [blood pressure, diabetes, other conditions]? - Is home hemodialysis available in my area? What type of training will I need? Who will train my partner and me? - Will I be able to keep working? Can I have treatments at night? Will I be able to care for my children? - How much should I exercise? - Whom do I contact if I have problems? - Who will be on my health care team? How can the members of my health care team help me? - If I do home hemodialysis, will my insurance pay for more than three sessions a week? - With whom can I talk about finances, sex, or family concerns? - How/where can I talk with other people who have faced this decision? More information about Hemodialysis and Home Hemodialysis is provided in the NIDDK health topics, Treatment Methods for Kidney Failure: Hemodialysis and Home Hemodialysis. See also the Kidney Failure Treatment Comparison Chart in this booklet, which compares hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, and transplantation. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Kidney Failure: Choosing a Treatment That's Right for You ? [/INST] Purpose of Peritoneal Dialysis The purpose of peritoneal dialysis is to filter wastes and extra fluid from your body. This type of dialysis uses the lining of your bellythe space in your body that holds your stomach, bowels, and liverto filter your blood. This lining, called the peritoneum, acts to do the work of your kidneys. How Peritoneal Dialysis Works A doctor will place a soft tube, called a catheter, in your belly a few weeks before you start treatment. The catheter stays in your belly permanently. When you start peritoneal dialysis, you will empty a kind of salty water, called dialysis solution, from a plastic bag through the catheter into your belly. When the bag is empty, you can disconnect your catheter from the bag so you can move around and do your normal activities. While the dialysis solution is inside your belly, it soaks up wastes and extra fluid from your body. After a few hours, you drain the used dialysis solution through another tube into a drain bag. You can throw away the used dialysis solution, now filled with wastes and extra fluid, in a toilet or tub. Then you start over with a fresh bag of dialysis solution. The process of emptying the used dialysis solution and refilling your belly with fresh solution is called an exchange. The process goes on continuously, so you always have dialysis solution in your belly soaking up wastes and extra fluid from your body. Types of Peritoneal Dialysis Two types of peritoneal dialysis are available. After you have learned about the types of peritoneal dialysis, you can choose the type that best fits your life. If one schedule or type of peritoneal dialysis does not suit you, talk with your doctor about trying the other type. - Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis does not require a machine and you can do it in any clean, well-lit place. The time period that the dialysis solution is in your belly is the dwell time. With continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis, the dialysis solution stays in your belly for a dwell time of 4 to 6 hours, or more. The process of draining the used dialysis solution and replacing it with fresh solution takes about 30 to 40 minutes. Most people change the dialysis solution at least four times a day and sleep with solution in their belly at night. With continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis, you do not have to wake up and perform dialysis tasks during the night. - Continuous cycler-assisted peritoneal dialysis uses a machine called a cycler to fill and empty your belly three to five times during the night while you sleep. In the morning, you begin one exchange with a dwell time that lasts the entire day. You may do an additional exchange in the middle of the afternoon without the cycler to increase the amount of waste removed and to reduce the amount of fluid left behind in your body. You may need a combination of continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis and continuous cycler-assisted peritoneal dialysis if you weigh more than 175 pounds or if your peritoneum filters wastes slowly. For example, some people use a cycler at night and perform one exchange during the day. Others do four exchanges during the day and use a minicycler to perform one or more exchanges during the night. Youll work with your health care team to find the best schedule for you. Pros and Cons of Peritoneal Dialysis Each type of peritoneal dialysis has pros and cons. Continuous Ambulatory Peritoneal Dialysis Pros - You can do continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis alone. - You can do continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis at the times you choose, as long as you perform the required number of exchanges each day. - You can do continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis in many locations. - You can travel as long as you bring dialysis bags with you or have them delivered to your destination. - You dont need a machine for continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. - You gain a sense of control over your treatment. Cons - Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis can disrupt your daily schedule. - Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis is a continuous treatment, and you should do all exchanges 7 days a week. - Boxes of dialysis solution will take up space in your home. Continuous Cycler-assisted Peritoneal Dialysis Pros - You can do exchanges at night, while you sleep. - You may not have to perform exchanges during the day. Cons - You need a machine. - Your connection to the cycler limits your movement at night. Questions to Ask My Doctor - Is peritoneal dialysis the best treatment choice for me? Why? If yes, which type is best? - What type of training do I need, and how long will it take? - What does peritoneal dialysis feel like? - How will peritoneal dialysis affect my ____ [blood pressure, diabetes, other conditions]? - Will I be able to keep working? Will I be able to care for my children? - How much should I exercise? - Where do I store supplies? - How often do I see my doctor? - Who will be on my health care team? How can the members of my health care team help me? - Whom do I contact if I have problems? - With whom can I talk about finances, sex, or family concerns? - How/where can I talk with other people who have faced this decision? More information about Peritoneal Dialysis is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Treatment Methods for Kidney Failure: Peritoneal Dialysis. See also the Kidney Failure Treatment Comparison Chart, which compares peritoneal dialysis, hemodialysis, and transplantation. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Kidney Failure: Choosing a Treatment That's Right for You ? [/INST] What should I know about kidney transplantation? The purpose of kidney transplantation is to surgically place a healthy kidney from a donora person who has just died or a living person, most often a family memberinto your body. A kidney from someone who has just died is a deceased donor kidney. A kidney from a living person is a living donor kidney. A functioning kidney transplant does a better job of filtering wastes and keeping you healthy than dialysis. How Kidney Transplantation Works Surgeonsdoctors who specialize in surgeryplace most transplanted kidneys in the lower front part of your abdomen. The kidney is connected to an artery, which brings unfiltered blood into the kidney, and a vein, which takes filtered blood out of the kidney. The surgeon also transplants the ureter from the donor to let urine from the new kidney flow to your bladder. Unless your damaged kidneys cause problems such as infection, they can remain in their normal position. The transplanted kidney takes over the job of filtering your blood. Your body normally attacks anything it sees as foreign, so to keep your body from attacking the kidney you need to take medicines called immunosuppressants for as long as the transplanted kidney functions. Pros and Cons of Kidney Transplantation Following is a list of the pros and cons of kidney transplantation. Kidney Transplantation Pros - A transplanted kidney works like a healthy kidney. - If you have a living donor, you can choose the time of your operation. - You may feel healthier and have an improved quality of life. - You have fewer dietary restrictions. - You wont need dialysis. - People who receive a donated kidney have a greater chance of living a longer life than those who stay on dialysis. Cons - Transplantation requires surgery. - You will go through extensive medical testing at the transplant clinic. - You may need to wait years for a deceased donor kidney. - Your body may reject the new kidney, so one transplant may not last a lifetime. - Youll need to take immunosuppressants, which may cause other health problems, for as long as the transplanted kidney functions. Questions to Ask My Doctor You may want to ask your doctor these questions: - Is transplantation the best treatment choice for me? Why? - What are my chances of having a successful transplant? - How do I find out whether a family member or friend can donate? - What are the risks to a family member or friend who donates? - If a family member or friend does not donate, who will place me on a waiting list for a kidney? How long will I have to wait? - How will I know if my donor kidney is working? - How long does a transplanted kidney function? - What side effects do immunosuppressants cause? - Who will be on my transplant team? How can the members of my transplant team help me? - With whom can I talk about finances, sex, or family concerns? - How/where can I talk with other people who have faced this decision? More information about Transplantation is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Treatment Methods for Kidney Failure: Transplantation. See also the Kidney Failure Treatment Comparison Chart, which compares peritoneal dialysis, hemodialysis, and transplantation. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the treatments for Kidney Failure: Choosing a Treatment That's Right for You ? [/INST] Conservative management for kidney failure is the choice to say no to or stop dialysis treatments. For many people, dialysis not only extends life, it also improves the quality of life. For others who have serious conditions in addition to kidney failure, dialysis may seem like a burden that only prolongs suffering. If you have serious conditions in addition to kidney failure, dialysis may not prolong your life or improve the quality of your life. You have the right to say no to or stop dialysis. You may want to speak with your doctor, spouse, family, counselor, or renal social worker, who helps people with kidney disease, to help you make this decision. If you stop dialysis treatments or say you do not want to begin them, you may live for a few weeks or for several months, depending on your health and your remaining kidney function. You may choose to receive care from a hospicea facility or home program designed to meet the physical and emotional needs of the terminally illduring this time. Hospice care focuses on relief of pain and other symptoms. Whether or not you choose to use a hospice, your doctor can give you medicines to make you more comfortable. Your doctor can also give you medicines to treat the problems of kidney failure, such as anemia or weak bones. You may restart dialysis treatment if you change your mind. Advance Directives An advance directive is a statement or document in which you give instructions either to withhold certain treatments, such as dialysis, or to provide them, depending on your wishes and the specific circumstances. Even if you are happy with your quality of life on dialysis, you should think about circumstances that might make you want to stop dialysis treatments. At some point in a medical crisis, you might lose the ability to tell your health care team and loved ones what you want. Advance directives may include - a living will - a durable power of attorney for health care decisions - a do not resuscitate (DNR) ordera legal form that tells your health care team you do not want cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) or other life-sustaining treatment if your heart were to stop or if you were to stop breathing. A living will is a document that details the conditions under which you would want to refuse treatment. You may state that you want your health care team to use all available means to sustain your life, or you may direct that you be withdrawn from dialysis if you fall into a coma from which you most likely wont wake up. In addition to dialysis, you may choose or refuse the following life-sustaining treatments: - CPR - feedings through a tube in your stomach - mechanical or artificial means to help you breathe - medicines to treat infections - surgery - receiving blood Refusing to have CPR is the same as a DNR order. If you choose to have a DNR order, your doctor will place the order in your medical chart. A durable power of attorney for health care decisions or a health care proxy is a document you use to assign a person to make health care decisions for you in the event you cannot make them for yourself. Make sure the person you name understands your values and will follow your instructions. Each state has its own laws on advance directives. You can obtain a form for an advance medical directive thats valid in your state from the National Hospice and Palliative Care Organizationsee For More Information. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for Kidney Failure: Choosing a Treatment That's Right for You ? [/INST] All of the treatment options for kidney failure require changes and restrictions in your diet. Hemodialysis Hemodialysis has the most restrictions. You should watch how much water and other liquids you get from food and drinks and avoid getting too much sodium, often from salt; potassium; and phosphorus. You may find it difficult to limit phosphorus because many foods that are high in phosphorus also provide the protein you need. Hemodialysis can remove protein from the body, so you should eat foods with high-quality protein, such as meat, fish, and eggs. Limit your phosphorus by avoiding foods such as beans, peas, nuts, tea, and colas. You may also need to take a pill called a phosphate binder that keeps phosphorus in your food from entering your bloodstream. Talk with your dialysis centers dietitian to find a hemodialysis meal plan that works for you. More information about nutrition for people who are on hemodialysis is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Eat Right to Feel Right on Hemodialysis. Peritoneal Dialysis Like hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis requires limits on sodium and phosphorus. You may need to take a phosphate binder. The liquid limitations in peritoneal dialysis may not be as strict as those for hemodialysis. In fact, you may need to drink more water and other liquids if your peritoneal dialysis treatments remove too much fluid from your body. Peritoneal dialysis removes potassium from the body, so you may need to eat potassium-rich foods such as potatoes, tomatoes, oranges, and bananas. However, be careful not to eat too much potassium because it can cause an unsteady heartbeat. Peritoneal dialysis removes even more protein than hemodialysis, so eating foods with high-quality protein is important. You may need to limit calories because your body absorbs sugar from the dialysis solution. Kidney Transplantation Kidney transplantation has the fewest restrictions on your diet. You should limit sodium because it can raise your blood pressure. Medicines that you take after the transplant can cause you to gain weight, so you may need to limit calories. Conservative Management The diet for conservative management limits protein. Protein breaks down into waste products the kidneys must remove. Limiting protein may reduce the amount of work the kidneys have to do so they will last longer. Hemodialysis Peritoneal Dialysis Kidney Transplantation In Center Home CAPD CCPD Deceased Living Schedule Three treatments a week for 3 to 5 hours or more. More flexibility in determining your schedule of treatments. Four to six exchanges a day, every day. Three to five exchanges a night, every night, with an additional exchange begun first thing in the morning. You may wait several years before a suitable kidney is available. If a friend or family member is donating, you can schedule the operation when you're both ready. After the operation, you'll have regular checkups with your doctor. Location Dialysis center. Home. Any clean environment that allows solution exchanges. The transplant operation takes place in a hospital. Availability Available in most communities; may require travel in some rural areas. Generally available, but not widely used because of equipment requirements. Widely available. Widely available. Transplant centers are located throughout the country. However, the demand for kidneys is far greater than the supply. Equipment and Supplies No equipment or supplies in the home. Hemodialysis machine connected to plumbing; chair. Bags of dialysis solution take up storage space. Cycling machine; bags of dialysis solution. No equipment or supplies needed. Training Required Little training required; clinic staff perform most tasks. You and a helper must attend several training sessions. You'll need to attend several training sessions. You'll need to learn about your medications and when to take them. Diet Must limit fluids, sodium, potassium, and phosphorus. Must limit sodium and calories. Fewer dietary restrictions. Level of Freedom Little freedom during treatments. Greater freedom on non-treatment days. More freedom to set your own schedule. You're still linked to a machine for several hours a week. You can move around, exercise, work, drive, etc., with solution in your abdomen. You're linked to a machine during the night. You're free from exchanges during the day. Offers the greatest amount of freedom. Level of Responsibility Some patients prefer to let clinic staff perform all tasks. You and your helper are responsible for cleaning and setting up equipment and monitoring vital signs. Can be stressful on family helpers. You must perform exchanges four to six times a day, every day. You must set up your cycler every night. You must take immunosuppressants every day for as long as the transplanted kidney functions. More information about the treatments for kidney failure is provided in the NIDDK health communication program, National Kidney Disease Education Program. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for Kidney Failure: Choosing a Treatment That's Right for You ? [/INST] - You have three treatment options to choose from to filter your blood. A fourth option offers care without replacing the work of the kidneys. - Hemodialysis - Peritoneal dialysis - Kidney transplantation - Conservative management - None of these treatments helps the kidneys get better. However, they all can help you feel better. - Hemodialysis uses a machine to move your blood through a filter outside your body, removing wastes. - Peritoneal dialysis uses the lining of your belly to filter your blood inside your body, removing wastes. - Kidney transplantation is surgery to place a healthy kidney from a person who has just died or a living person, usually a family member, into your body to take over the job of filtering your blood. - Conservative management is the choice not to treat kidney failure with dialysis or a transplant. - All of the treatment options for kidney failure require changes and restrictions in your diet. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) What I need to know about Hirschsprung Disease ? [/INST] Hirschsprung* disease (HD) is a disease of the large intestine that causes severe constipation or intestinal obstruction. Constipation means stool moves through the intestines slower than usual. Bowel movements occur less often than normal and stools are difficult to pass. Some children with HD cant pass stool at all, which can result in the complete blockage of the intestines, a condition called intestinal obstruction. People with HD are born with it and are usually diagnosed when they are infants. Less severe cases are sometimes diagnosed when a child is older. An HD diagnosis in an adult is rare. *See Pronunciation Guide for tips on how to say the words in bold type. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) What I need to know about Hirschsprung Disease ? [/INST] The large intestine, which includes the colon and rectum, is the last part of the digestive tract. The large intestines main job is to absorb water and hold stool. The rectum connects the colon to the anus. Stool passes out of the body through the anus. At birth, the large intestine is about 2 feet long. An adults large intestine is about 5 feet long. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What causes What I need to know about Hirschsprung Disease ? [/INST] People with HD have constipation because they lack nerve cells in a part or all of the large intestine. The nerve cells signal muscles in the large intestine to push stool toward the anus. Without a signal to push stool along, stool will remain in the large intestine. How severe HD is depends on how much of the large intestine is affected. Short-segment HD means only the last part of the large intestine lacks nerve cells. Long-segment HD means most or all of the large intestine, and sometimes the last part of the small intestine, lacks nerve cells. In a person with HD, stool moves through the large intestine until it reaches the part lacking nerve cells. At that point, the stool moves slowly or stops, causing an intestinal obstruction. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What causes What I need to know about Hirschsprung Disease ? [/INST] Before birth, a childs nerve cells normally grow along the intestines in the direction of the anus. With HD, the nerve cells stop growing too soon. Why the nerve cells stop growing is unclear. Some HD is inherited, meaning it is passed from parent to child through genes. HD is not caused by anything a mother did while pregnant. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the symptoms of What I need to know about Hirschsprung Disease ? [/INST] The main symptoms of HD are constipation or intestinal obstruction, usually appearing shortly after birth. Constipation in infants and children is common and usually comes and goes, but if your child has had ongoing constipation since birth, HD may be the problem. Symptoms in Newborns Newborns with HD almost always fail to have their first bowel movement within 48 hours after birth. Other symptoms include - green or brown vomit - explosive stools after a doctor inserts a finger into the rectum - swelling of the belly, also known as the abdomen - lots of gas - bloody diarrhea Symptoms in Toddlers and Older Children Symptoms of HD in toddlers and older children include - not being able to pass stools without laxatives or enemas. A laxative is medicine that loosens stool and increases bowel movements. An enema is performed by flushing water, or sometimes a mild soap solution, into the anus using a special wash bottle. - swelling of the abdomen. - lots of gas. - bloody diarrhea. - slow growth or development. - lack of energy because of a shortage of red blood cells, called anemia. </s></s>

<s>[INST] How to diagnose What I need to know about Hirschsprung Disease ? [/INST] HD is diagnosed based on symptoms and test results. A doctor will perform a physical exam and ask questions about your childs bowel movements. HD is much less likely if parents can identify a time when their childs bowel habits were normal. If HD is suspected, the doctor will do one or more tests. X rays An x ray is a black-and-white picture of the inside of the body. To make the large intestine show up better, the doctor may fill it with barium liquid. Barium liquid is inserted into the large intestine through the anus. If HD is the problem, the last segment of the large intestine will look narrower than normal. Just before this narrow segment, the intestine will look bulged. The bulging is caused by blocked stool stretching the intestine. Manometry During manometry, the doctor inflates a small balloon inside the rectum. Normally, the rectal muscles will relax. If the muscles dont relax, HD may be the problem. This test is most often done in older children and adults. Biopsy Biopsy is the most accurate test for HD. The doctor removes a tiny piece of the large intestine and looks at it with a microscope. If nerve cells are missing, HD is the problem. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the treatments for What I need to know about Hirschsprung Disease ? [/INST] Pull-through Procedure HD is treated with surgery called a pull-through procedure. A surgeon removes the segment of the large intestine lacking nerve cells and connects the healthy segment to the anus. The pull-through procedure is usually done soon after diagnosis. Ostomy surgery An ostomy allows stool to leave the body through an opening in the abdomen. Although most children with HD do not need an ostomy, a child who has been very sick from HD may need an ostomy to get better before the pull-through procedure. For ostomy surgery, the surgeon first takes out the diseased segment of the large intestine. The end of the healthy intestine is moved to an opening in the abdomen where a stoma is created. A stoma is created by rolling the intestines end back on itself, like a shirt cuff, and stitching it to the abdominal wall. An ostomy pouch is attached to the stoma and worn outside the body to collect stool. The pouch will need to be emptied several times each day. If the surgeon removes the entire large intestine and connects the small intestine to the stoma, the surgery is called an ileostomy. If the surgeon leaves part of the large intestine and connects it to the stoma, the surgery is called a colostomy. Later, during the pull-through procedure, the surgeon removes the stoma and closes the abdomen with stitches. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for What I need to know about Hirschsprung Disease ? [/INST] - Hirschsprung disease (HD) is a disease of the large intestine that causes severe constipation or intestinal obstruction. People with HD are born with it. - The large intestine, which includes the colon and rectum, is the last part of the digestive tract. - The cause of HD is unclear. HD is not caused by anything a mother did while pregnant. - The main symptoms of HD are constipation or intestinal obstruction, usually appearing shortly after birth. - Newborns with HD almost always fail to have their first bowel movement within 48 hours after birth. - HD is diagnosed based on symptoms and test results. - HD is treated with surgery called a pull-through procedure. - A child who has been very sick from HD may need an ostomy to get better before the pull-through procedure. - Most children pass stool normally after the pull-through procedure. - People with HD can suffer from an infection of the intestines, called enterocolitis, before or after surgery. - If you have a child with HD, your chance of having more children with HD is greater. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for What I need to know about Physical Activity and Diabetes ? [/INST] - Starting a physical activity program can help you lose weight or keep a healthy weight and keep your blood glucose levels on target. - Always talk with your health care team before you start a new physical activity program. - Ask your health care team if you need to change the amount of medicine you take or the food you eat before any physical activity. - Talk with your health care team about what types of physical activity are safe for you, such as walking, weightlifting, or housework. - To make sure you stay active, find activities you like to do. Ask a friend or family member to be your exercise buddy. - Write down your blood glucose levels and when and how long you are physically active in a record book. - Doctors suggest that you aim for 30 to 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity most days of the week. - Children and adolescents with type 2 diabetes who are 10 to 17 years old should aim for 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous activity every day. - Not all physical activity has to take place at the same time. For example, you might take a walk for 20 minutes, lift hand weights for 10 minutes, and walk up and down the stairs for 5 minutes. - Doing moderate to vigorous aerobic exercise for 30 to 60 minutes a day most days of the week provides many benefits. You can even split up these minutes into several parts. - Start exercising slowly, with 5 to 10 minutes a day, and add a little more time each week. Try walking briskly, hiking, or climbing stairs. - Whether youre a man or a woman, you can do strength training with hand weights, elastic bands, or weight machines two to three times a week. - Stretching exercises are a light to moderate physical activity that both men and women can do. When you stretch, you increase your flexibility, lower your stress, and help prevent sore muscles. - Increase daily activity by spending less time watching TV or at the computer. - Try these simple ways to add light, moderate, or vigorous physical activities in your life every day: - Walk around while you talk on the phone. - Take a walk through your neighborhood. - Do chores, such as work in the garden or rake leaves, clean the house, or wash the car. - If you have type 1 diabetes, try not to do vigorous physical activity when you have ketones in your blood or urine. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Hyperthyroidism ? [/INST] Hyperthyroidism is a disorder that occurs when the thyroid gland makes more thyroid hormone than the body needs. Hyperthyroidism is sometimes called thyrotoxicosis, the technical term for too much thyroid hormone in the blood. Thyroid hormones circulate throughout the body in the bloodstream and act on virtually every tissue and cell in the body. Hyperthyroidism causes many of the bodys functions to speed up. About 1 percent of the U.S. population has hyperthyroidism.1 </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Hyperthyroidism ? [/INST] The thyroid is a 2-inch-long, butterfly-shaped gland weighing less than 1 ounce. Located in the front of the neck below the larynx, or voice box, it has two lobes, one on each side of the windpipe. The thyroid is one of the glands that make up the endocrine system. The glands of the endocrine system produce, store, and release hormones into the bloodstream. The hormones then travel through the body and direct the activity of the bodys cells. The thyroid gland makes two thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). T3 is made from T4 and is the more active hormone, directly affecting the tissues. Thyroid hormones affect metabolism, brain development, breathing, heart and nervous system functions, body temperature, muscle strength, skin dryness, menstrual cycles, weight, and cholesterol levels. Thyroid hormone production is regulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which is made by the pituitary gland in the brain. When thyroid hormone levels in the blood are low, the pituitary releases more TSH. When thyroid hormone levels are high, the pituitary responds by decreasing TSH production. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What causes Hyperthyroidism ? [/INST] Hyperthyroidism has several causes, including - Graves disease - thyroid nodules - thyroiditis, or inflammation of the thyroid - consuming too much iodine - overmedicating with synthetic thyroid hormone, which is used to treat underactive thyroid Rarely, hyperthyroidism is caused by a pituitary adenoma, which is a noncancerous tumor of the pituitary gland. In this case, hyperthyroidism is due to too much TSH. Graves Disease Graves disease, also known as toxic diffuse goiter, is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism in the United States. Graves disease is an autoimmune disorder. Normally, the immune system protects the body from infection by identifying and destroying bacteria, viruses, and other potentially harmful foreign substances. But in autoimmune diseases, the immune system attacks the bodys own cells and organs. With Graves disease, the immune system makes an antibody called thyroid stimulating immunoglobulin (TSI) that attaches to thyroid cells. TSI mimics the action of TSH and stimulates the thyroid to make too much thyroid hormone. More information is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Graves' disease. Thyroid Nodules Thyroid nodules, also called adenomas, are lumps in the thyroid. Thyroid nodules are common and usually noncancerous. About 3 to 7 percent of the U.S. population has them.2 However, nodules may become overactive and produce too much hormone. A single overactive nodule is called a toxic adenoma. Multiple overactive nodules are called toxic multinodular goiter. Often found in older adults, toxic multinodular goiter can produce a large amount of excess thyroid hormone. Thyroiditis Thyroiditis is an inflammation of the thyroid that causes stored thyroid hormone to leak out of the thyroid gland. At first, the leakage raises hormone levels in the blood, leading to hyperthyroidism that lasts for 1 or 2 months. Most people then develop hypothyroidismwhen thyroid hormone levels are too lowbefore the thyroid is completely healed. Several types of thyroiditis can cause hyperthyroidism followed by hypothyroidism: - Subacute thyroiditis. This condition involves painful inflammation and enlargement of the thyroid. Experts are not sure what causes subacute thyroiditis, but it may be related to a viral or bacterial infection. The condition usually goes away on its own in a few months. - Postpartum thyroiditis. This type of thyroiditis develops after a woman gives birth. For more information, see the section titled What happens with pregnancy and thyroid conditions? - Silent thyroiditis. This type of thyroiditis is called silent because it is painless, as is postpartum thyroiditis, even though the thyroid may be enlarged. Like postpartum thyroiditis, silent thyroiditis is probably an autoimmune condition and sometimes develops into permanent hypothyroidism. Consuming Too Much Iodine The thyroid uses iodine to make thyroid hormone, so the amount of iodine consumed influences the amount of thyroid hormone the thyroid makes. In some people, consuming large amounts of iodine may cause the thyroid to make excess thyroid hormone. Sometimes significant amounts of iodine are contained in medicationssuch as amiodarone, which is used to treat heart problemsor in supplements containing seaweed. Some cough syrups also contain large amounts of iodine. See Eating, Diet, and Nutrition for more information on iodine. Overmedicating with Synthetic Thyroid Hormone Some people who take synthetic thyroid hormone for hypothyroidism may take too much. People who take synthetic thyroid hormone should see their health care provider at least once a year to have their thyroid hormone levels checked and follow the health care providers instructions about the dosage. Some other medications may also interact with synthetic thyroid hormone to raise hormone levels in the blood. People who take synthetic thyroid hormone should ask their health care provider about interactions when starting new medications. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the symptoms of Hyperthyroidism ? [/INST] Hyperthyroidism has many symptoms that can vary from person to person. Some common symptoms of hyperthyroidism are - nervousness or irritability - fatigue or muscle weakness - heat intolerance - trouble sleeping - hand tremors - rapid and irregular heartbeat - frequent bowel movements or diarrhea - weight loss - mood swings - goiter, which is an enlarged thyroid that may cause the neck to look swollen and can interfere with normal breathing and swallowing </s></s>

<s>[INST] How to diagnose Hyperthyroidism ? [/INST] Many symptoms of hyperthyroidism are the same as those of other diseases, so hyperthyroidism usually cannot be diagnosed based on symptoms alone. With suspected hyperthyroidism, health care providers take a medical history and perform a thorough physical exam. Health care providers may then use several blood tests, such as the following, to confirm a diagnosis of hyperthyroidism and find its cause: TSH test. The ultrasensitive TSH test is usually the first test a health care provider performs. This test detects even tiny amounts of TSH in the blood and is the most accurate measure of thyroid activity available. The TSH test is especially useful in detecting mild hyperthyroidism. Generally, a TSH reading below normal means a person has hyperthyroidism and a reading above normal means a person has hypothyroidism. Health care providers may conduct additional tests to help confirm the diagnosis or determine the cause of hyperthyroidism. T3 and T4 test. This test shows the levels of T3 and T4 in the blood. With hyperthyroidism, the levels of one or both of these hormones in the blood are higher than normal. Thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulin (TSI) test. This test, also called a thyroidstimulating antibody test, measures the level of TSI in the blood. Most people with Graves disease have this antibody, but people whose hyperthyroidism is caused by other conditions do not. Radioactive iodine uptake test. The radioactive iodine uptake test measures the amount of iodine the thyroid collects from the bloodstream. Measuring the amount of iodine in a persons thyroid helps the health care provider determine what is causing a persons hyperthyroidism. For example, low levels of iodine uptake might be a sign of thyroiditis, whereas high levels could indicate Graves disease. Thyroid scan. A thyroid scan shows how and where iodine is distributed in the thyroid. The images of nodules and other possible irregularities help the health care provider diagnose the cause of a persons hyperthyroidism. More information is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Thyroid Tests. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the treatments for Hyperthyroidism ? [/INST] Health care providers treat hyperthyroidism with medications, radioiodine therapy, or thyroid surgery. The aim of treatment is to bring thyroid hormone levels to a normal state, thus preventing long-term complications, and to relieve uncomfortable symptoms. No single treatment works for everyone. Treatment depends on the cause of hyperthyroidism and how severe it is. When choosing a treatment, health care providers consider a patients age, possible allergies to or side effects of the medications, other conditions such as pregnancy or heart disease, and the availability of an experienced thyroid surgeon. Finding the right specialist for treatment is an important first step. Some professional societies, listed under For More Information, and endocrinology departments in local teaching hospitals can provide the names of local specialists. Medications Beta blockers. Health care providers may prescribe a medication called a beta blocker to reduce symptoms until other treatments take effect. Beta blockers act quickly to relieve many of the symptoms of hyperthyroidism, such as tremors, rapid heartbeat, and nervousness, but do not stop thyroid hormone production. Most people feel better within hours of taking these medications. Antithyroid medications. Antithyroid therapy is the easiest way to treat hyperthyroidism. Antithyroid medications interfere with thyroid hormone production but dont usually have permanent results. Antithyroid medications are not used to treat thyroiditis. Once treatment with antithyroid medications begins, thyroid hormone levels may not move into the normal range for several weeks or months. The average treatment time is about 1 to 2 years, but treatment can continue for many years. Antithyroid medications can cause side effects in some people, including - allergic reactions such as rashes and itching - a decrease in the number of white blood cells in the body, which can lower resistance to infection - liver failure, in rare cases Stop your antithyroid medication and call your health care provider right away if you develop any of the following while taking antithyroid medications: - fatigue - weakness - vague abdominal pain - loss of appetite - skin rash or itching - easy bruising - yellowing of the skin or whites of the eyes, called jaundice - persistent sore throat - fever In the United States, health care providers prescribe the antithyroid medication methimazole (Tapazole, Northyx) for most types of hyperthyroidism. Antithyroid medications and pregnancy. Because pregnant and breastfeeding women cannot receive radioiodine therapy, they are usually treated with an antithyroid medication instead. However, experts agree that women in their first trimester of pregnancy should not take methimazole due to the rare occurrence of damage to the fetus. Another antithyroid medication, propylthiouracil (PTU), is available for women in this stage of pregnancy or for women who are allergic to or intolerant of methimazole and have no other treatment options. Health care providers may prescribe PTU for the first trimester of pregnancy and switch to methimazole for the second and third trimesters. Some women are able to stop taking antithyroid medications in the last 4 to 8 weeks of pregnancy due to the remission of hyperthyroidism that occurs during pregnancy. However these women should continue to be monitored for recurrence of thyroid problems following delivery. Studies have shown that mothers taking antithyroid medications may safely breastfeed. However, they should take only moderate doses, less than 1020 milligrams daily, of the antithyroid medication methimazole. Doses should be divided and taken after feedings, and the infants should be monitored for side effects.4 Women requiring higher doses of the antithyroid medication to control hyperthyroidism should not breastfeed. Radioiodine Therapy Radioactive iodine-131 is a common and effective treatment for hyperthyroidism. In radioiodine therapy, patients take radioactive iodine-131 by mouth. Because the thyroid gland collects iodine to make thyroid hormone, it will collect the radioactive iodine from the bloodstream in the same way. The radioactive iodine gradually destroys the cells that make up the thyroid gland but does not affect other body tissues. More than one round of radioiodine therapy may be needed to bring thyroid hormone production into the normal range. In the meantime, treatment with beta blockers can control symptoms. Almost everyone who receives radioactive iodine treatment eventually develops hypothyroidism. But health care providers consider this an acceptable outcome because hypothyroidism is easier to treat and has fewer long-term complications than hyperthyroidism. People who develop hypothyroidism must take synthetic thyroid hormone. Radioiodine and pregnancy. Although iodine-131 is not known to cause birth defects or infertility, radioiodine therapy is not used in pregnant women or women who are breastfeeding. Radioactive iodine can be harmful to the fetus thyroid and can be passed from mother to child in breast milk. Experts recommend that women wait a year after treatment before becoming pregnant. Thyroid Surgery The least-used treatment is surgery to remove part or most of the thyroid gland. Sometimes surgery may be used to treat - pregnant women who cannot tolerate antithyroid medications - people with large goiters - people who have cancerous thyroid nodules, though hyperthyroidism does not cause cancer Before surgery, the health care provider may prescribe antithyroid medications to temporarily bring a patients thyroid hormone levels into the normal range. This presurgical treatment prevents a condition called thyroid storma sudden, severe worsening of symptomsthat can occur when hyperthyroid patients have general anesthesia. When part of the thyroid is removedas a treatment for toxic nodules, for examplethyroid hormone levels may return to normal. But some surgical patients may still develop hypothyroidism and need to take synthetic thyroxine, a medication that is identical to the hormone, T4, made by the thyroid. If the entire thyroid is removed, lifelong thyroid hormone medication is necessary. After surgery, health care providers will continue to monitor patients thyroid hormone levels. Although uncommon, certain problems can occur in thyroid surgery. The parathyroid glands can be damaged because they are located very close to the thyroid. These glands help control calcium and phosphorus levels in the body. Damage to the laryngeal nerve, also located close to the thyroid, can lead to voice changes or breathing problems. But when surgery is performed by an experienced surgeon, less than 1 percent of patients have permanent complications.5 People who need help finding a surgeon can contact one of the organizations listed under For More Information. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for Hyperthyroidism ? [/INST] Experts recommend that people eat a balanced diet to obtain most nutrients. More information about diet and nutrition is provided by the National Agricultural Library at www.nutrition.gov. Dietary Supplements Iodine is an essential mineral for the thyroid. However, people with autoimmune thyroid disease may be sensitive to harmful side effects from iodine. Taking iodine drops or eating foods containing large amounts of iodinesuch as seaweed, dulse, or kelpmay cause or worsen hyperthyroidism. More information about iodine is provided by the National Library of Medicine in the fact sheet, Iodine in diet, available at www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus. Women need more iodine when they are pregnantabout 250 micrograms a daybecause the baby gets iodine from the mothers diet. In the United States, about 7 percent of pregnant women may not get enough iodine in their diet or through prenatal vitamins.6 Choosing iodized saltsalt supplemented with iodineover plain salt and prenatal vitamins containing iodine will ensure this need is met. To help ensure coordinated and safe care, people should discuss their use of dietary supplements, such as iodine, with their health care provider. Tips for talking with health care providers are available through the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for Hyperthyroidism ? [/INST] - Hyperthyroidism is a disorder that occurs when the thyroid gland makes more thyroid hormone than the body needs. - Hyperthyroidism is most often caused by Graves disease, an autoimmune disorder. Other causes include thyroid nodules, thyroiditis, consuming too much iodine, and overmedicating with synthetic thyroid hormone. - Some symptoms of hyperthyroidism are nervousness or irritability, fatigue or muscle weakness, heat intolerance, trouble sleeping, hand tremors, rapid and irregular heartbeat, frequent bowel movements or diarrhea, weight loss, mood swings, and goiter. - Hyperthyroidism is much more common in women than men. - Hyperthyroidism is also more common in people older than age 60 and is often caused by thyroid nodules. Hyperthyroidism in this age group is sometimes misdiagnosed as depression or dementia. For people older than age 60, subclinical hyperthyroidism increases their chance of developing atrial fibrillation. - Women with hyperthyroidism should discuss their condition with their health care provider before becoming pregnant. - Hyperthyroidism is treated with medications, radioiodine therapy, or thyroid surgery. No single treatment works for everyone. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Polycystic Kidney Disease ? [/INST] Polycystic kidney disease is a genetic disorder that causes numerous cysts to grow in the kidneys. A kidney cyst is an abnormal sac filled with fluid. PKD cysts can greatly enlarge the kidneys while replacing much of their normal structure, resulting in chronic kidney disease (CKD), which causes reduced kidney function over time. CKD may lead to kidney failure, described as end-stage kidney disease or ESRD when treated with a kidney transplant or blood-filtering treatments called dialysis. The two main types of PKD are autosomal dominant PKD and autosomal recessive PKD. PKD cysts are different from the usually harmless simple cysts that often form in the kidneys later in life. PKD cysts are more numerous and cause complications, such as high blood pressure, cysts in the liver, and problems with blood vessels in the brain and heart. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What causes Polycystic Kidney Disease ? [/INST] A gene mutation, or defect, causes polycystic kidney disease. Genes provide instructions for making proteins in the body. A gene mutation is a permanent change in the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence that makes up a gene. In most cases of PKD, a person inherits the gene mutation, meaning a parent passes it on in his or her genes. In the remaining cases, the gene mutation develops spontaneously. In spontaneous cases, neither parent carries a copy of the mutated gene. Researchers have found three different gene mutations associated with PKD. Two of the genes are associated with autosomal dominant PKD. The third gene is associated with autosomal recessive PKD. Gene mutations that cause PKD affect proteins that play a role in kidney development. Genetic Disorders Each cell contains thousands of genes that provide the instructions for making proteins for growth and repair of the body. If a gene has a mutation, the protein made by that gene may not function properly, which sometimes creates a genetic disorder. Not all gene mutations cause a disorder. People inherit two copies of most genes; one copy from each parent. A genetic disorder occurs when one or both parents pass a mutated gene to a child at conception. A genetic disorder can also occur through a spontaneous gene mutation, meaning neither parent carries a copy of the mutated gene. Once a spontaneous gene mutation has occurred, a person can pass it to his or her children. Read more about genes and genetic conditions in the U.S. National Library of Medicines (NLMs) Genetics Home Reference. </s></s>

<s>[INST] How many people are affected by Polycystic Kidney Disease ? [/INST] Estimates of PKDs prevalence range from one in 400 to one in 1,000 people.1 According to the United States Renal Data System, PKD accounts for 2.2 percent of new cases of kidney failure each year in the United States. Annually, eight people per 1 million have kidney failure as a result of PKD.2 Polycystic kidney disease exists around the world and in all races. The disorder occurs equally in women and men, although men are more likely to develop kidney failure from PKD. Women with PKD and high blood pressure who have had more than three pregnancies also have an increased chance of developing kidney failure. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Polycystic Kidney Disease ? [/INST] Autosomal dominant PKD is the most common form of PKD and the most common inherited disorder of the kidneys.3 The term autosomal dominant means a child can get the disorder by inheriting the gene mutation from only one parent. Each child of a parent with an autosomal dominant mutation has a 50 percent chance of inheriting the mutated gene. About 10 percent of autosomal dominant PKD cases occur spontaneously.4 The following chart shows the chance of inheriting an autosomal dominant gene mutation: Health care providers identify most cases of autosomal dominant PKD between the ages of 30 and 50.4 For this reason, health care providers often call autosomal dominant PKD adult PKD. However, the onset of kidney damage and how quickly the disorder progresses varies. In some cases, cysts may form earlier in life and grow quickly, causing symptoms in childhood. The cysts grow out of nephrons, the tiny filtering units inside the kidneys. The cysts eventually separate from the nephrons and continue to enlarge. The kidneys enlarge along with the cystswhich can number in the thousandswhile roughly retaining their kidney shape. In fully developed autosomal dominant PKD, a cyst-filled kidney can weigh as much as 20 to 30 pounds. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the symptoms of Polycystic Kidney Disease ? [/INST] In many cases, PKD does not cause signs or symptoms until cysts are half an inch or larger. When present, the most common symptoms are pain in the back and sidesbetween the ribs and hipsand headaches. The pain can be temporary or persistent, mild or severe. Hematuriablood in the urinemay also be a sign of autosomal dominant PKD. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the complications of Polycystic Kidney Disease ? [/INST] The complications of autosomal dominant PKD include the following: - Pain. Cyst infection, other types of urinary tract infections (UTIs), bleeding into cysts, kidney stones, or stretching of the fibrous tissue around the kidney because of cyst growth can cause pain in the area of the kidneys. - High blood pressure. High blood pressure is present in about half of the people with autosomal dominant PKD and normal kidney function between the ages of 20 and 35.4 Almost 100 percent of people with kidney failure and autosomal dominant PKD have high blood pressure.1 High blood pressuregreater than 140/90 mm Hgincreases the likelihood of heart disease and stroke, as well as adding to the damage already done to the kidneys by the cysts. - Kidney failure. Kidney failure means the kidneys no longer work well enough to maintain health. A person with kidney failure may have the following symptoms: - little or no urination - edemaswelling, usually in the legs, feet, or ankles and less often in the hands or face - drowsiness - fatigue, or feeling tired - generalized itching or numbness - dry skin - headaches - weight loss - appetite loss - nausea - vomiting - sleep problems - trouble concentrating - darkened skin - muscle cramps - shortness of breath - chest pain Untreated kidney failure can lead to coma and death. More than half of people with autosomal dominant PKD progress to kidney failure by age 70.1 - UTIs. Kidney cysts block the flow of urine through the kidneys. Stagnant urine can set the stage for infection. Bacteria enter the urinary tract through the urethra and spread up to the kidneys. Sometimes, the kidney cysts become infected. UTIs may cause scarring in the kidneys. - Kidney stones. About 20 percent of people with autosomal dominant PKD have kidney stones.1 Kidney stones can block the flow of urine and cause pain. - Liver cysts. Liver cysts are the most common nonkidney complication of autosomal dominant PKD.1 Liver cysts generally cause no symptoms. - Pancreatic cysts. PKD can also cause cysts in the pancreas. Pancreatic cysts rarely cause pancreatitisinflammation, or swelling, of the pancreas. - Abnormal heart valves. Abnormal heart valves may occur in up to 25 percent of people with autosomal dominant PKD.1 Insufficient blood flow in the aortathe large artery that carries blood from the heartmay result from the abnormal heart valves. - Diverticula. Diverticula are small pouches, or sacs, that push outward through weak spots in the colon wall. This complication is more common in people with PKD who have kidney failure.1 - Brain aneurysms. An aneurysm is a bulge in the wall of a blood vessel. Aneurysms in the brain might cause headaches that are severe or feel different from other headaches. Brain aneurysms can rupture, or break open, causing bleeding inside the skull. A ruptured aneurysm in the brain is a life-threatening condition and requires immediate medical attention. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Polycystic Kidney Disease ? [/INST] Autosomal recessive PKD is a rare genetic disorder that affects the liver as well as the kidneys. The signs of autosomal recessive PKD frequently appear in the earliest months of life, even in the womb, so health care providers often call it infantile PKD. In an autosomal recessive disorder, the child has to inherit the gene mutation from both parents to have an increased likelihood for the disorder. The chance of a child inheriting autosomal recessive mutations from both parents with a gene mutation is 25 percent, or one in four. If only one parent carries the mutated gene, the child will not get the disorder, although the child may inherit the gene mutation. The child is a carrier of the disorder and can pass the gene mutation to the next generation. Genetic testing can show whether a parent or child is a carrier of the mutated gene. Autosomal recessive disorders do not typically appear in every generation of an affected family. The following chart shows the chance of inheriting an autosomal recessive mutation from parents who both carry the mutated gene: Read more about how people inherit genetic conditions at the NLMs Genetics Home Reference. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the symptoms of Polycystic Kidney Disease ? [/INST] An early sign of autosomal recessive PKD is an enlarged kidney, seen in a fetus or an infant using ultrasound. Kidney function is crucial for early physical development, so children with autosomal recessive PKD and decreased kidney function are usually smaller-than-average size, a condition called growth failure. Some people with autosomal recessive PKD do not develop signs or symptoms until later in childhood or even adulthood. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What are the complications of Polycystic Kidney Disease ? [/INST] Babies with the most severe cases of autosomal recessive PKD often die hours or days after birth because they cannot breathe well enough to sustain life. Their lungs do not develop as they should during the prenatal period. Pressure from enlarged kidneys also contributes to breathing problems. Children born with autosomal recessive PKD often develop kidney failure before reaching adulthood. Liver scarring occurs in all people with autosomal recessive PKD and is usually present at birth. However, liver problems tend to become more of a concern as people with autosomal recessive PKD grow older. Liver scarring can lead to progressive liver dysfunction and other problems. Additional complications of autosomal recessive PKD include high blood pressure and UTIs. </s></s>

<s>[INST] How to prevent Polycystic Kidney Disease ? [/INST] Scientists have not yet found a way to prevent PKD. However, people with PKD may slow the progression of kidney damage caused by high blood pressure through lifestyle changes, diet, and blood pressure medications. People with PKD should be physically active 30 minutes a day most days of the week. See Eating, Diet, and Nutrition for diet advice on lowering blood pressure and slowing the progression of kidney disease in general. If lifestyle and diet changes do not control a persons blood pressure, a health care provider may prescribe one or more blood pressure medications, including ACE inhibitors or ARBs. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for Polycystic Kidney Disease ? [/INST] A dietitian specializes in helping people who have kidney disease choose the right foods and plan healthy meals. People with any kind of kidney disease, including PKD, should talk with a dietitian about foods that should be added to their diet and foods that might be harmful. PKD may require diet changes for blood pressure control. Kidney disease in general also calls for certain diet changes. Following a healthy eating plan can help lower blood pressure. A health care provider may recommend the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) eating plan, which focuses on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and other foods that are heart healthy and lower in sodium, which often comes from salt. The DASH eating plan - is low in fat and cholesterol - features fat-free or low-fat milk and dairy products, fish, poultry, and nuts - suggests less red meat, sweets, added sugars, and sugar-containing beverages - is rich in nutrients, protein, and fiber More information about the DASH eating planis available from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. As your kidneys become more damaged, you may need to eat foods that are lower in phosphorus and potassium. The health care provider will use lab tests to watch your levels. Foods high in potassium include - bananas - oranges - potatoes - tomatoes Lower-potassium foods include - apples - peaches - carrots - green beans Foods higher in phosphorus include - large portions of meat, fish and dairy foods - bran cereals and oatmeal - beans and nuts - colas Lower-phosphorus alternatives include - fresh fruits and vegetables - breads - pasta - rice - corn and rice cereals - light-colored sodas People with kidney disease and high blood pressure should also limit how much sodium they get to 2,300 mg or less each day.5 People with CKD may need to watch how much protein they eat. Everyone needs protein. However, protein breaks down into wastes the kidneys must remove. Large amounts of protein make the kidneys work harder. High-quality proteins such as meat, fish, and eggs create fewer wastes than other sources of protein. Beans, whole grains, soy products, nuts and nut butters, and dairy products can also be good sources of protein. Most people eat more protein than they need. Eating high-quality protein and smaller portions of protein can help protect the kidneys. More information about nutrition for kidney disease is provided in the NIDDK health topics: - Nutrition for Children with Chronic Kidney Disease - Nutrition for Adults with Early Chronic Kidney Disease - Nutrition for Adults with Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease The National Kidney Disease Education Program offers a series of easy-to-read fact sheets about nutrition for people with CKD. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for Polycystic Kidney Disease ? [/INST] - Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is a genetic disorder that causes numerous cysts to grow in the kidneys. - A gene mutation, or defect, causes polycystic kidney disease. - Autosomal dominant PKD is the most common form of PKD and the most common inherited disorder of the kidneys. - Health care providers identify most cases of autosomal dominant PKD between the ages of 30 and 50. - The most common symptoms of PKD are pain in the back and sidesbetween the ribs and hipsand headaches. The pain can be temporary or persistent, mild or severe. Hematuriablood in the urinemay also be a sign of autosomal dominant PKD. - The complications of autosomal dominant PKD include the following: - pain - high blood pressure - kidney failure - urinary tract infections (UTIs) - kidney stones - liver cysts - pancreatic cysts - abnormal heart valves - diverticula - brain aneurysms - A health care provider diagnoses autosomal dominant PKD using imaging tests and genetic testing. - A radiologista doctor who specializes in medical imagingwill interpret the images produced by the following imaging tests: - ultrasound - computerized tomography scans - magnetic resonance imaging - Genetic testing can show whether a persons cells carry a gene mutation that causes autosomal dominant PKD. A health care provider may also use genetic testing results to determine whether someone with a family history of PKD is likely to develop the disorder in the future. Prenatal testing can diagnose autosomal recessive PKD in unborn children. - Although a cure for autosomal dominant PKD is not currently available, treatment can ease symptoms and prolong life. - Autosomal recessive PKD is a rare genetic disorder that affects the liver as well as the kidneys. - The complications of autosomal recessive PKD include the following: - death due to breathing problems - kidney failure - liver scarring - high blood pressure - UTIs - A health care provider diagnoses autosomal recessive PKD with ultrasound imaging, even in a fetus or newborn. - Treatments for autosomal recessive PKD focus on the symptoms and complications. - Scientists have not yet found a way to prevent PKD. However, people with PKD may slow the progression of kidney damage caused by high blood pressure through lifestyle changes, diet, and blood pressure medications. - People with any kind of kidney disease, including PKD, should talk with a dietitian about foods they should add to their diet and foods that might be harmful. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Nutrition for Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease in Adults ? [/INST] CKD usually takes a long time to develop and does not go away. In CKD, the kidneys continue to workjust not as well as they should. Wastes may build up so gradually that the body becomes used to having those wastes in the blood. Salts containing phosphorus and potassium may rise to unsafe levels, causing heart and bone problems. Anemialow red blood cell countcan result from CKD because the kidneys stop making enough erythropoietin, a hormone that causes bone marrow to make red blood cells. After months or years, CKD may progress to permanent kidney failure, which requires a person to have a kidney transplant or regular blood filtering treatments called dialysis. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Nutrition for Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease in Adults ? [/INST] MNT is the use of nutrition counseling by a registered dietitian to help promote a medical or health goal. A health care provider may refer a patient to a registered dietitian to help with the patient's food plan. Many insurance policies cover MNT when recommended by a health care provider. Anyone who qualifies for Medicare can receive a benefit for MNT from a registered dietitian or nutrition professional when a health care provider provides a referral indicating that the person has diabetes or kidney disease. One way to locate a qualified dietitian is to contact the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics at www.eatright.organd click on "Find a Registered Dietitian." Users can enter their address or ZIP code for a list of dietitians in their area. A person looking for dietary advice to prevent kidney damage should click on "Renal (Kidney) Nutrition" in the specialty field. Dietitians who specialize in helping people with CKD are called renal dietitians. Top </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Nutrition for Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease in Adults ? [/INST] As CKD progresses, people often lose their appetites because they find that foods do not taste the same. As a result, they consume fewer caloriesimportant units of energy in foodand may lose too much weight. Renal dietitians can help people with advanced CKD find healthy ways to add calories to their diet if they are losing too much weight. Top </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Nutrition for Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease in Adults ? [/INST] Protein is an essential part of any diet. Proteins help build and maintain muscle, bone, skin, connective tissue, internal organs, and blood. They help fight disease and heal wounds. But proteins also break down into waste products that must be removed from the blood by the kidneys. Eating more protein than the body needs may put an extra burden on the kidneys and cause kidney function to decline faster. Health care providers recommend that people with CKD eat moderate or reduced amounts of protein. However, restricting protein could lead to malnutrition, so people with CKD need to be careful. The typical American diet contains more than enough protein. Learning about portion sizes can help people limit protein intake without endangering their health. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Nutrition for Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease in Adults ? [/INST] Most peoplewith or without CKDcan get the daily protein they need by eating two 3-ounce servings of meat or meat substitute. A 3-ounce serving of meat is about the size of a deck of cards or the palm of a persons hand. A renal dietitian can help people learn about the amount and sources of protein in their diet. Animal protein in egg whites, cheese, chicken, fish, and red meats contain more of the essential nutrients a body needs. With careful meal planning, a well-balanced vegetarian diet can also provide these nutrients. A renal dietitian can help people with advanced CKD make small adjustments in their eating habits that can result in significant protein reduction. For example, people can lower their protein intake by making sandwiches using thinner slices of meat and adding lettuce, cucumber slices, apple slices, and other garnishes. The following table lists some higher-protein foods and suggestions for lower-protein alternatives that are better choices for people with CKD trying to limit their protein intake. Higher- and Lower-protein Foods Based on about a 3 oz. portion Higher-Protein Foods Lower-protein Alternatives Ground beef Halibut Shrimp Salmon Tuna Chicken breast Roasted chicken Chili con carne Beef stew Egg substitutes Tofu Imitation crab meat When kidney function declines to the point where dialysis becomes necessary, patients should include more protein in their diet because dialysis removes large amounts of protein from the blood. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Nutrition for Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease in Adults ? [/INST] Everyone should know about fat sources because eating the wrong kinds of fat and too much fat increases the risk of clogged blood vessels and heart problems. Fat provides energy, helps produce hormonelike substances that regulate blood pressure and other heart functions, and carries fat-soluble vitamins. Everyone needs dietary fat, but some fats are healthier than others. People with CKD are at higher risk of having a heart attack or stroke. Therefore, people with CKD should be especially careful about how dietary fat affects their heart health. People with advanced CKD should talk with a dietitian about healthy and unhealthy sources of fat. Saturated fats and trans-fatty acids can raise blood cholesterol levels and clog blood vessels. Saturated fats are found in animal products such as red meat, poultry, whole milk, and butter. These fats are usually solid at room temperature. Trans-fatty acids are often found in commercially baked goods such as cookies and cakes and in fried foods like doughnuts and french fries. A dietitian can suggest healthy ways to include fat in the diet, especially if more calories are needed. Vegetable oils such as corn or safflower oil are healthier than animal fats such as butter or lard. Hydrogenated vegetable oils should be avoided because they are high in trans-fatty acids. Monounsaturated fatsolive, peanut, and canola oilsare healthy alternatives to animal fats. The table below shows the sources of fats, broken down into three types of fats that should be eaten less often and good fats that can be eaten more often. Sources of Fats Eat Less Often Eat More Often Saturated fats - red meat - poultry - whole milk - butter - lard Monounsaturated fats - corn oil - safflower oil - olive oil - peanut oil - canola oil Trans-fatty acids - commercial baked goods - french fries - doughnuts Hydrogenated vegetable oils - margarine - shortening </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Nutrition for Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease in Adults ? [/INST] Too much sodium in a person's diet can be harmful because it causes blood to hold fluid. People with CKD need to be careful not to let too much fluid build up in their bodies. The extra fluid raises blood pressure and puts a strain on the heart and kidneys. A dietitian can help people find ways to reduce the amount of sodium in their diet. Nutrition labels provide information about the sodium content in food. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration advises that healthy people should limit their daily sodium intake to no more than 2,300 milligrams (mg), the amount found in 1 teaspoon of table salt. People who are at risk for a heart attack or stroke because of a condition such as high blood pressure or kidney disease should limit their daily sodium intake to no more than 1,500 mg. Choosing sodium-free or low-sodium food products will help them reach that goal. Sodium is found in ordinary table salt and many salty seasonings such as soy sauce and teriyaki sauce. Canned foods, some frozen foods, and most processed meats have large amounts of salt. Snack foods such as chips and crackers are also high in salt. Alternative seasonings such as lemon juice, salt-free seasoning mixes, and hot pepper sauce can help people reduce their salt intake. People with advanced CKD should avoid salt substitutes that use potassium, such as AlsoSalt or Nu-Salt, because CKD limits the body's ability to eliminate potassium from the blood. The table below provides some high-sodium foods and suggestions for low-sodium alternatives that are healthier for people with any level of CKD who have high blood pressure. High- and Low-sodium Foods High-sodium Foods Low-sodium Alternatives Salt Regular canned vegetables Hot dogs and canned meat Packaged rice with sauce Packaged noodles with sauce Frozen vegetables with sauce Frozen prepared meals Canned soup Regular tomato sauce Snack foods Salt-free herb seasonings Low-sodium canned foods Frozen vegetables without sauce Fresh, cooked meat Plain rice without sauce Plain noodles without sauce Fresh vegetables without sauce Homemade soup with fresh ingredients Reduced-sodium tomato sauce Unsalted pretzels Unsalted popcorn </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Nutrition for Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease in Adults ? [/INST] Keeping the proper level of potassium in the blood is essential. Potassium keeps the heart beating regularly and muscles working right. Problems can occur when blood potassium levels are either too low or too high. Damaged kidneys allow potassium to build up in the blood, causing serious heart problems. Potassium is found in many fruits and vegetables, such as bananas, potatoes, avocados, and melons. People with advanced CKD may need to avoid some fruits and vegetables. Blood tests can indicate when potassium levels have climbed above normal range. A renal dietitian can help people with advanced CKD find ways to limit the amount of potassium they eat. The potassium content of potatoes and other vegetables can be reduced by boiling them in water. The following table gives examples of some high-potassium foods and suggestions for low-potassium alternatives for people with advanced CKD. High- and Low-potassium Foods High-potassium Foods Low-potassium Alternatives Oranges and orange juice Melons Apricots Bananas Potatoes Tomatoes Sweet potatoes Cooked spinach Cooked broccoli Beans (baked, kidney, lima, pinto) Apples and apple juice Cranberries and cranberry juice Canned pears Strawberries, blueberries, raspberries Plums Pineapple Cabbage Boiled Cauliflower </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Nutrition for Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease in Adults ? [/INST] Damaged kidneys allow phosphorus, a mineral found in many foods, to build up in the blood. Too much phosphorus in the blood pulls calcium from the bones, making the bones weak and likely to break. Too much phosphorus may also make skin itch. Foods such as milk and cheese, dried beans, peas, colas, canned iced teas and lemonade, nuts, and peanut butter are high in phosphorus. A renal dietitian can help people with advanced CKD learn how to limit phosphorus in their diet. As CKD progresses, a person may need to take a phosphate binder such as sevelamer hydrochloride (Renagel), lanthanum carbonate (Fosrenol), calcium acetate (PhosLo), or calcium carbonate (Tums) to control the phosphorus in the blood. These medications act like sponges to soak up, or bind, phosphorus while it is in the stomach. Because it is bound, the phosphorus does not get into the blood. Instead, it is removed from the body in the stool. The table below lists some high-phosphorus foods and suggestions for low-phosphorus alternatives that are healthier for people with advanced CKD. High- and Low-phosphorus Foods High-phosphorus Foods Low-phosphorus Alternatives Dairy foods (milk, cheese, yogurt) Beans (baked, kidney, lima, pinto) Nuts and peanut butter Processed meats (hot dogs, canned meat) Cola Canned iced teas and lemonade Bran cereals Egg yolks Liquid non-dairy creamer Sherbet Cooked rice Rice, wheat, and corn cereals Popcorn Peas Lemon-lime soda Root beer Powdered iced tea and lemonade mixes </s></s>

<s>[INST] What to do for Nutrition for Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease in Adults ? [/INST] - A person may prevent or delay some health problems from chronic kidney disease (CKD) by eating the right foods and avoiding foods high in sodium, potassium, and phosphorus. - The kidneys remove wastes and extra water from the blood and make urine. - Medical nutrition therapy (MNT) is the use of counseling by a registered dietitian to help promote a medical or health goal. - Dietitians who specialize in helping people with CKD are called renal dietitians. - People with advanced CKD often lose their appetites and consume fewer caloriesimportant units of energy in foodand may lose too much weight. - Eating more protein than the body needs may put an extra burden on the kidneys and cause kidney function to decline faster. Most peoplewith or without CKDcan get the daily protein they need by eating two 3-ounce servings of meat or meat substitute. - People with CKD are at higher risk of having a heart attack or stroke. - Everyone needs dietary fat, but some fats are healthier than others. - Too much sodium in a persons diet can be harmful because it causes blood to hold fluid. People with CKD need to be careful not to let too much fluid build up in their bodies. - People with advanced CKD should avoid salt substitutes that use potassium because CKD limits the bodys ability to eliminate potassium from the blood. - Damaged kidneys allow potassium to build up in the blood, causing serious heart problems. Potassium is found in many fruits and vegetables, such as bananas, potatoes, avocados, and melons. - Too much phosphorus in the blood pulls calcium from the bones, making the bones weak and likely to break. - People with advanced CKD may need to limit how much they drink because damaged kidneys can't remove extra fluid. - Many patients find that keeping track of their test results helps them see how their treatment is working. Patients can ask their health care provider for copies of their lab reports and ask to have them explained, noting any results out of the normal range. </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Nutrition for Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease in Adults ? [/INST] The NIDDK Nutrition for Chronic Kidney Disease Series includes three fact sheets: - Nutrition for Early Chronic Kidney Disease in Adults - Nutrition for Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease in Adults - Nutrition for Chronic Kidney Disease in Children </s></s>

<s>[INST] What is (are) Causes of Diabetes ? [/INST] Diabetes is a complex group of diseases with a variety of causes. People with diabetes have high blood glucose, also called high blood sugar or hyperglycemia. Diabetes is a disorder of metabolismthe way the body uses digested food for energy. The digestive tract breaks down carbohydratessugars and starches found in many foodsinto glucose, a form of sugar that enters the bloodstream. With the help of the hormone insulin, cells throughout the body absorb glucose and use it for energy. Diabetes develops when the body doesnt make enough insulin or is not able to use insulin effectively, or both. Insulin is made in the pancreas, an organ located behind the stomach. The pancreas contains clusters of cells called islets. Beta cells within the islets make insulin and release it into the blood. If beta cells dont produce enough insulin, or the body doesnt respond to the insulin that is present, glucose builds up in the blood instead of being absorbed by cells in the body, leading to prediabetes or diabetes. Prediabetes is a condition in which blood glucose levels or A1C levelswhich reflect average blood glucose levelsare higher than normal but not high enough to be diagnosed as diabetes. In diabetes, the bodys cells are starved of energy despite high blood glucose levels. Over time, high blood glucose damages nerves and blood vessels, leading to complications such as heart disease, stroke, kidney disease, blindness, dental disease, and amputations. Other complications of diabetes may include increased susceptibility to other diseases, loss of mobility with aging, depression, and pregnancy problems. No one is certain what starts the processes that cause diabetes, but scientists believe genes and environmental factors interact to cause diabetes in most cases. The two main types of diabetes are type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes. A third type, gestational diabetes, develops only during pregnancy. Other types of diabetes are caused by defects in specific genes, diseases of the pancreas, certain drugs or chemicals, infections, and other conditions. Some people show signs of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. </s></s>