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A block of Python code is set out as shown here:

Preface xi

Note that keywords are shown in bold font.

In some cases something of particular interest may be highlighted with colour:

Any command line or user input is shown in italics and coloured purple; for example:

Or

Example Code and Sample Solutions

The examples used in this book (along with sample solutions for the exercises at the end of most chapters) are available in a GitHub repository. GitHub provides a web interface to Git, as well as a server environment hosting Git.

Git is a version control system typically used to manage source code files (such as those used to create systems in programming languages such as Python but also Java, C#, C++, Scala etc.). Systems such as Git are very useful for collaborative development as they allow multiple people to work on an implementation and to merge their work together. They also provide a useful historical view of the code (which also allows developers to roll back changes if modifications prove to be unsuitable).

If you already have Git installed on your computer then you can clone (obtain a copy of) the repository locally using:

xii Preface

If you do not have Git then you can obtain a zip file of the examples using

You can of course install Git yourself if you wish. To do this see https://git-scm. com/downloads. Versions of the Git client for Mac OS, Windows and Linux/Unix are available here.

However, many IDEs such as PyCharm come with Git support and so offer another approach to obtaining a Git repository.

For more information on Git see http://git-scm.com/doc. This Git guide provides a very good primer and is highly recommended.

Acknowledgements I would like to thank Phoebe Hunt for creating the pixel images used for the StarshipMeteors game in Chap. 8.

Contents

Introduction 1

Introduction 1

Part I Computer Graphics

Introduction to Computer Graphics 5

Introduction 5

Background 6

The Graphical Computer Era 6

Interactive and Non Interactive Graphics 7

Pixels 8

Bit Map Versus Vector Graphics 10

Buffering 10

Python and Computer Graphics 10

References 11

Online Resources 11

Python Turtle Graphics 13

Introduction 13

The Turtle Graphics Library 13

The Turtle Module 13

Basic Turtle Graphics 14

Drawing Shapes 17

Filling Shapes 19

Other Graphics Libraries 19

3D Graphics 20

PyOpenGL 20

Online Resources 21

Exercises 21

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xiv Contents

Part III Testing

xviii Contents

Working with PyTest 179

Parameterised Tests 183

Online Resources 185

Exercises 185

Mocking for Testing 187

Introduction 187