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doc600

Equilateral triangle

A version of the isoperimetric inequality for triangles states that the triangle of greatest area among all those with a given perimeter is equilateral.[12]

doc601

Equilateral triangle

Viviani's theorem states that, for any interior point P in an equilateral triangle with distances d, e, and f from the sides and altitude h,

doc602

Equilateral triangle

independent of the location of P.[13]

doc603

Equilateral triangle

Pompeiu's theorem states that, if P is an arbitrary point in an equilateral triangle ABC, then there exists a triangle with sides of lengths PA, PB, and PC. That is, PA, PB, and PC satisfy the triangle inequality that any two of them sum to at least as great as the third.

doc604

Equilateral triangle

By Euler's inequality, the equilateral triangle has the smallest ratio R/r of the circumradius to the inradius of any triangle: specifically, R/r = 2.[14]:p.198

doc605

Equilateral triangle

The triangle of largest area of all those inscribed in a given circle is equilateral; and the triangle of smallest area of all those circumscribed around a given circle is equilateral.[15]

doc606

Equilateral triangle

The ratio of the area of the incircle to the area of an equilateral triangle, π 3 3 {\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{3{\sqrt {3}}}}} , is larger than that of any non-equilateral triangle.[16]:Theorem 4.1

doc607

Equilateral triangle

The ratio of the area to the square of the perimeter of an equilateral triangle, 1 12 3 , {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{12{\sqrt {3}}}},} is larger than that for any other triangle.[12]

doc608

Equilateral triangle

If a segment splits an equilateral triangle into two regions with equal perimeters and with areas A1 and A2 , then[11]:p.151,#J26

doc609

Equilateral triangle

If a triangle is placed in the complex plane with complex vertices z1, z2, and z3, then for either non-real cube root ω {\displaystyle \omega } of 1 the triangle is equilateral if and only if[17]:Lemma 2

doc610

Equilateral triangle

Given a point P in the interior of an equilateral triangle, the ratio of the sum of its distances from the vertices to the sum of its distances from the sides is greater than or equal to 2, equality holding when P is the centroid. In no other triangle is there a point for which this ratio is as small as 2.[18] This is the Erdős–Mordell inequality; a stronger variant of it is Barrow's inequality, which replaces the perpendicular distances to the sides with the distances from P to the points where the angle bisectors of ∠APB, ∠BPC, and ∠CPA cross the sides (A, B, and C being the vertices).

doc611

Equilateral triangle

For any point P in the plane, with distances p, q, and t from the vertices A, B, and C respectively,[19]

doc612

Equilateral triangle

For any point P on the inscribed circle of an equilateral triangle, with distances p, q, and t from the vertices,[19]

doc613

Equilateral triangle

For any point P on the minor arc BC of the circumcircle, with distances p, q, and t from A, B, and C respectively,[13]:170[19]

doc614

Equilateral triangle

moreover, if point D on side BC divides PA into segments PD and DA with DA having length z and PD having length y, then[13]:172

doc615

Equilateral triangle

which also equals t 3 − q 3 t 2 − q 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {t^{3}-q^{3}}{t^{2}-q^{2}}}} if t ≠ q; and

doc616

Equilateral triangle

which is the optic equation.

doc617

Equilateral triangle

There are numerous triangle inequalities that hold with equality if and only if the triangle is equilateral.

doc618

Equilateral triangle

An equilateral triangle is the most symmetrical triangle, having 3 lines of reflection and rotational symmetry of order 3 about its center. Its symmetry group is the dihedral group of order 6 D3.

doc619

Equilateral triangle

Equilateral triangles are the only triangles whose Steiner inellipse is a circle (specifically, it is the incircle).

doc620

Equilateral triangle

The integer-sided equilateral triangle is the only triangle with integer sides and three rational angles as measured in degrees.[20]

doc621

Equilateral triangle

Equilateral triangles are found in many other geometric constructs. The intersection of circles whose centers are a radius width apart is a pair of equilateral arches, each of which can be inscribed with an equilateral triangle. They form faces of regular and uniform polyhedra. Three of the five Platonic solids are composed of equilateral triangles. In particular, the regular tetrahedron has four equilateral triangles for faces and can be considered the three-dimensional analogue of the shape. The plane can be tiled using equilateral triangles giving the triangular tiling.

doc622

Equilateral triangle

An equilateral triangle is easily constructed using a compass and straightedge, as 3 is a Fermat prime. Draw a straight line, and place the point of the compass on one end of the line, and swing an arc from that point to the other point of the line segment. Repeat with the other side of the line. Finally, connect the point where the two arcs intersect with each end of the line segment

doc623

Equilateral triangle

An alternative method is to draw a circle with radius r, place the point of the compass on the circle and draw another circle with the same radius. The two circles will intersect in two points. An equilateral triangle can be constructed by taking the two centers of the circles and either of the points of intersection.

doc624

Equilateral triangle

In both methods a by-product is the formation of vesica piscis.

doc625

Equilateral triangle

The proof that the resulting figure is an equilateral triangle is the first proposition in Book I of Euclid's Elements.

doc626

Equilateral triangle

The area formula A = 3 4 a 2 {\displaystyle A={\frac {\sqrt {3}}{4}}a^{2}} in terms of side length a can be derived directly using the Pythagorean theorem or using trigonometry.

doc627

Equilateral triangle

The area of a triangle is half of one side a times the height h from that side:

doc628

Equilateral triangle

The legs of either right triangle formed by an altitude of the equilateral triangle are half of the base a, and the hypotenuse is the side a of the equilateral triangle. The height of an equilateral triangle can be found using the Pythagorean theorem

doc629

Equilateral triangle

Substituting h into the area formula (1/2)ah gives the area formula for the equilateral triangle:

doc630

Equilateral triangle

Using trigonometry, the area of a triangle with any two sides a and b, and an angle C between them is

doc631

Equilateral triangle

Each angle of an equilateral triangle is 60°, so

doc632

Equilateral triangle

The sine of 60° is 3 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\sqrt {3}}{2}}} . Thus

doc633

Equilateral triangle

since all sides of an equilateral triangle are equal.

doc634

Equilateral triangle

Equilateral triangles have frequently appeared in man made constructions:

doc635

The O.C. (season 4)

The fourth and final season of The O.C., an American teen drama television series, aired in the United States from November 2, 2006 to February 22, 2007 and consisted of sixteen episodes. The O.C's final season aired Thursdays at 9:00 p.m. ET in the United States on Fox, a terrestrial television network.[1] Fox tested a new timeslot by airing the second episode on Wednesday at 9:00 p.m. ET against ABC's Lost and CBS's Criminal Minds.[2] With Lost about to enter a three-month hiatus, Fox hoped that changing the timeslot for The O.C. would attract back viewers it had lost since the end of the previous season; however, the move was unsuccessful and the show returned to its Thursday timeslot.[3]

doc636

The O.C. (season 4)

Due to the death of Marissa Cooper in the third-season finale, this was the first and only season without one of the "core four" characters of Marissa, Ryan Atwood, Seth Cohen, and Summer Roberts;[4] however, executive producer Stephanie Savage said that Marissa's death "set up a new direction for the show".[5] The show's creator, Josh Schwartz, promised this season would be different, saying it would "focus on [the] core characters and their relationships".[5] He added that there was no point in worrying about ratings and that he "wanted to get the show back to an earlier place, try to get back to some of the humor and heart of the show that maybe wasn't as evident last year".[1] The season was released on DVD as a five-disc boxed set under the title The O.C.: The Complete Fourth Season on May 22, 2007 by Warner Bros. Home Video.[6] The season was also made available in the American versions of Zune and iTunes Store.[7][8] Before the season premiered on television, it was available through on demand streaming. In the US, streaming was available from October 26, 2006 at 3:01 a.m. ET onwards, through Fox Interactive Media's MySpace and MyFoxLocal stations.[9]

doc637

The O.C. (season 4)

In Canada, the fourth season was simulcast on the terrestrial CTV Television Network. Additionally, as a result of an agreement between Warner Bros. and CTV, the first episode was available to be streamed from October 30, 2006 at 12:00 p.m. ET onwards, through the CTV Broadband Network.[10] In the United Kingdom the season premiered on January 9, 2007 on E4,[11] and in Australia it was broadcast by Network Ten on November 7, 2006 at 8:30 p.m. (local time).[12]

doc638

The O.C. (season 4)

The season was produced by Warner Bros. Television, College Hill Pictures and Wonderland Sound and Vision.[13] The executive producers were Bob DeLaurentis, creator Josh Schwartz and Wonderland co-founders McG and Stephanie Savage.[13] Ian Toynton and John Stephens served as co-executive producers.[14] The staff writers were Schwartz, Savage, Stephens, J.J. Philbin, Leila Gerstein and Mark Fish. The regular directors throughout the season were Toynton, Michael Lange, Norman Buckley and Patrick Norris.[15]

doc639

The O.C. (season 4)

The fourth season had star billing for eight major roles. Rachel Bilson as Summer, Adam Brody as Seth, Melinda Clarke as Julie, Peter Gallagher as Sandy, Benjamin McKenzie as Ryan, and Kelly Rowan as Kirsten all returned to the main cast.[13] Former main cast member Mischa Barton did not return because her character, Marissa, died in the third season finale.[16] Autumn Reeser as recent high school graduate Taylor Townsend, and Willa Holland as Marissa's younger sister Kaitlin both joined the main cast, having previously held recurring roles. Other cast members returning in recurring roles include Cam Gigandet as Volchok,[17] Erin Foster as Heather, Michael Nouri as Summer's father Dr. Neil Roberts,[18] Paula Trickey as Taylor's mother Veronica, and Ashley Hartman who starred as Holly Fischer in the first season. Additionally former main cast member Tate Donovan returned as Jimmy Cooper in a non-canonical appearance.[19]

doc640

The O.C. (season 4)

Actors who left the cast include Ryan Donowho (Johnny), Jeri Ryan (Charlotte), Shaun Duke (Henry Griffin), Kayla Ewell (Casey), and Nikki Reed (Sadie). New members who joined the cast include Kevin Sorbo as Ryan's father Frank;[20] Gary Grubbs as an oil merchant who calls himself The Bullit;[21] Brandon Quinn as Bullit's son Spencer; Chris Pratt as an environmental activist nicknamed Che;[22] and Wayne Dalglish and Corey Price as Luke Ward's younger twin brothers Brad and Eric.[23] New guest stars who joined in recurring roles include Tia Carrere as Dean Torres,[24] singer Chris Brown as lonely band geek Will Tutt,[22] Henri Lubatti as Taylor's ex-husband Henri-Michel de Momourant,[18] and Steve-O in a cameo role as an unnamed marine.[24]

doc641

The O.C. (season 4)

While ratings were lower than those of the third season, the final season is generally regarded by fans and critics as an improvement on the third. Variety's Josef Adalian said that "[the show] is once again in great creative shape". He added that "the scripts are snappy, the plots make sense, the acting's solid, [and] the music is appropriately indie" but criticized Fox for "throwing away" the show by giving it the Thursday 9:00 p.m. timeslot.[25] The difficult timeslot Adalian was referring to was against two other very popular shows, CSI and Grey's Anatomy.[26] With a later start to the season in November the premiere attracted 3.4 million viewers,[2] which was a series low and marked a 55 percent decrease in the 18–49 demographic, from the third season premiere.[27] The first half of the season averaged 4.06 million viewers,[28] with the season as a whole averaging 4.6 million viewers.[29] This increase was mostly due to 6.7 million viewers, 76 percent more than the season average, tuning in to see the final ever installment of The O.C.[30]

doc642

The O.C. (season 4)

Due to a combination of low ratings and the death of Marissa in season three, it was rumored that the show would not return for a fifth season.[31] In June 2006, Fox confirmed that "the current order for The O.C. is 16 episodes", but added that there was a chance to add more installments.[32] In September 2006, Rachel Bilson said that she felt "like the show is over",[5] and co-star Kelly Rowan stated that many of the cast realized the show was close to being cancelled. Rowan said that "when [the fourth season] was picked up for just 16 episodes this year the cast had a feeling the end was near".[33] On January 3, 2007, Fox announced that The O.C. was to be cancelled. In a statement, Schwartz said "This feels like the best time to bring the show to its close" adding that "what better time to go out than creatively on top".[34] A campaign was launched to save the show and over half a million people signed an official petition at www.fox.com/oc/savetheoc.[35] There were rumors that the show would be saved, and a move to the CW Television Network was mooted; however, CW president Dawn Ostroff, whose company is partly owned by Warner Bros, confirmed in January 2007 that while the move was discussed, it was decided against.[36]

doc643

The O.C. (season 4)

Schwartz said that the cancellation of the show "was really creatively liberating, not worrying about ratings."[37] Belinda Acosta of The Austin Chronicle agreed praising the show's "new energy" and its ability to successfully cover "the transition between high school and college that other series have stumbled over".[38] Entertainment Weekly's Ken Tucker commented that the fourth season was "a succession of terrific subplots" and praised new main cast member Taylor "as a fine, funny love interest for Ryan".[39] Greg Elwell of DVD Talk described Bullit as "the breakout character of the season" but commented that the seasons "dark opening (...) didn't do much to keep viewers around".[40] IGN's Eric Goldman was also critical saying that "as amusing as Che was, his inclusion into some later episodes gets a bit tired". Goldman also commented that "the second half of Season 4 wasn't quite as solid as the first [half]"; however, he added that while the fourth season had to prove itself again as an enjoyable watch "Josh Schwartz rose to this challenge (...) once again creating a show that was witty and self-aware".[41]

doc644

The O.C. (season 4)

Ever since the earthquake destroyed their home, the Cohens have taken temporary residence at the Roberts' home. Sandy and Kirsten search for a new home. Summer must choose between touring with GEORGE and her future with Seth. Taylor and Ryan determine their future together. Julie must decide whether to marry Frank or Bullit. Before Ryan leaves Newport, as he turns out of the driveway, he remembers the first time he met Marissa.

doc645

The O.C. (season 4)

The DVD release of season four was released by Warner Bros. in the US on 22 May 2007 after it had completed broadcast on television. As well as every episode from the season, the DVD release features bonus material including unaired scenes, featurettes, and audio commentary on the series finale.

doc646

List of Keeping Up with the Kardashians episodes

Keeping Up with the Kardashians is an American reality television series that has aired on E! since October 14, 2007. The series has aired thirteen seasons, and focuses on the personal and professional lives of the Kardashian–Jenner family. Its premise was originated with Ryan Seacrest, who additionally serves as an executive producer. The series focuses on sisters Kourtney, Kim, and Khloé Kardashian.

doc647

List of Keeping Up with the Kardashians episodes

It additionally places emphasis on their brother Rob Kardashian, their mother Kris Jenner, their step-parent Caitlyn Jenner, their half-sisters Kendall and Kylie Jenner, and Kourtney's now ex-boyfriend, Scott Disick. Khloé's ex-husband Lamar Odom developed a major position as part of the supporting cast in the fourth season, though he was not a regular cast member in following seasons, and rarely appeared in season eight while attempting to fix his marriage with Khloé.[1] In seasons eight and nine, Caitlyn's children Brody and Brandon, and Brandon's wife, Leah became recurring cast members.

doc648

List of Keeping Up with the Kardashians episodes

Keeping Up with the Kardashians is often criticized for emphasizing the "famous for being famous" concept and appearing to fabricate aspects of its storyline. The series has produced the spin-offs Kourtney and Kim Take Miami, Kourtney and Kim Take New York, Khloé & Lamar, Kourtney and Khloé Take The Hamptons, Dash Dolls, I Am Cait, Kocktails with Khloé, Revenge Body with Khloé Kardashian, Rob & Chyna, and Life of Kylie.

doc649

List of Keeping Up with the Kardashians episodes

As of December 10, 2017 (2017-12-10), 205 original episodes of Keeping Up with the Kardashians have aired concluding the fourteen seasons.

doc650

Crossing the Bar

"Crossing the Bar" is an 1889 poem by Alfred, Lord Tennyson. It is considered that Tennyson wrote it in elegy; the poem has a tone of finality and the narrator uses an extended metaphor to compare death with crossing the "sandbar" between river of life, with its outgoing "flood", and the ocean that lies beyond [death], the "boundless deep", to which we return.

doc651

Crossing the Bar

Tennyson is believed to have written the poem (after suffering a serious illness) while on the sea, crossing the Solent from Aldworth to Farringford on the Isle of Wight. Separately, it has been suggested he may have written it on a yacht anchored in Salcombe. "The words", he said, "came in a moment".[1] Shortly before he died, Tennyson told his son Hallam to "put 'Crossing the Bar' at the end of all editions of my poems".[1]

doc652

Crossing the Bar

The poem contains four stanzas that generally alternate between long and short lines. Tennyson employs a traditional ABAB rhyme scheme. Scholars have noted that the form of the poem follows the content: the wavelike quality of the long-then-short lines parallels the narrative thread of the poem.

doc653

Crossing the Bar

The extended metaphor of "crossing of bar" represents traveling serenely and securely from life through death. The Pilot is a metaphor for God, whom the speaker hopes to meet face to face. Tennyson explained, "The Pilot has been on board all the while, but in the dark I have not seen him…[He is] that Divine and Unseen Who is always guiding us."[1]

doc654

Crossing the Bar

The words have been set to music by Sir Hubert Parry, Sir Joseph Barnby and Dr. George Hewson, organist at St Patrick's Cathedral Dublin.

doc655

Crossing the Bar

In 2014, Ian Assersohn wrote a new setting of the words for male voices. Assersohn's piece "Crossing the Bar" won the Composers' Competition at the Cornwall International Male Voice Choir Festival, from a field of 40 entries.[2] Assersohn is the Musical Director of Epsom Male Voice Choir,[3] and the choir sang the world première of "Crossing the Bar" in Truro Cathedral at the Festival Opening International Gala Concert on Thursday 30 April 2015.[4]

doc656

Crossing the Bar

A lovely folk music inspired setting for the poem with a refrain was created by Rani Arbo, an American bluegrass musician. The music was written at the time her husband's grandmother as passing away. Peter Amidon has used her melody to create a choral setting.

doc657

Crossing the Bar

Sunset and evening star, And one clear call for me! And may there be no moaning of the bar, When I put out to sea, But such a tide as moving seems asleep, Too full for sound and foam, When that which drew from out the boundless deep Turns again home. Twilight and evening bell, And after that the dark! And may there be no sadness of farewell, When I embark; For tho' from out our bourne of Time and Place The flood may bear me far, I hope to see my Pilot face to face When I have crost the bar.

doc658

Sharecropping

Sharecropping is a form of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crops produced on their portion of land. Sharecropping has a long history and there are a wide range of different situations and types of agreements that have used a form of the system. Some are governed by tradition, and others by law. Legal contract systems such as the Italian mezzadria, the French métayage, the Spanish mediero, or the Islamic system of muqasat, occur widely.[citation needed]

doc659

Sharecropping

Sharecropping has benefits and costs for both the owners and the tenant. Everyone encourages the cropper to remain on the land, solving the harvest rush problem[clarification needed]. At the same time, since the cropper pays in shares of his harvest, owners and croppers share the risks of harvests being large or small and of prices being high or low. Because tenants benefit from larger harvests, they have an incentive to work harder and invest in better methods than in a slave plantation system. However, by dividing the working force into many individual workers, large farms no longer benefit from economies of scale. On the whole, sharecropping was not as economically efficient as the gang agriculture of slave plantations.[1]

doc660

Sharecropping

In the U.S., "tenant" farmers own their own mules and equipment, and "sharecroppers" do not, and thus sharecroppers are poorer and of lower status. Sharecropping occurred extensively in Scotland, Ireland and colonial Africa, and came into wide use in the Southern United States during the Reconstruction era (1865–1877). The South had been devastated by war - planters had ample land but little money for wages or taxes. At the same time, most of the former slaves had labor but no money and no land - they rejected the kind of gang labor that typified slavery. A solution was the sharecropping system focused on cotton, which was the only crop that could generate cash for the croppers, landowners, merchants and the tax collector. Poor white farmers, who previously had done little cotton farming, needed cash as well and became sharecroppers.[2]

doc661

Sharecropping

Jeffery Paige made a distinction between centralized sharecropping found on cotton plantations and the decentralized sharecropping with other crops. The former is characterized by political conservatism and long lasting tenure. Tenants are tied to the landlord through the plantation store. Their work is heavily supervised as slave plantations were. This form of tenure tends to be replaced by wage slavery as markets penetrate. Decentralized sharecropping involves virtually no role for the landlord: plots are scattered, peasants manage their own labor and the landowners do not manufacture the crops. Leases are very short which leads to peasant radicalism. This form of tenure becomes more common when markets penetrate.[3]

doc662

Sharecropping

Use of the sharecropper system has also been identified in England[4] (as the practice of "farming to halves"). It is still used in many rural poor areas today, notably in Pakistan and India.

doc663

Sharecropping

Although there is a perception that sharecropping was exploitative, "evidence from around the world suggests that sharecropping is often a way for differently endowed enterprises to pool resources to mutual benefit, overcoming credit restraints and helping to manage risk."[5] According to Dr. Hunter, "a few acres to the cottage would make the labourers too independent."[6]

doc664

Sharecropping

It can have more than a passing similarity to serfdom or indenture, particularly where associated with large debts at a plantation store that effectively tie down the workers and their family to the land. It has therefore been seen as an issue of land reform in contexts such as the Mexican Revolution. However, Nyambara states that Eurocentric historiographical devices such as 'feudalism' or 'slavery' often qualified by weak prefixes like 'semi-' or 'quasi-' are not helpful in understanding the antecedents and functions of sharecropping in Africa.[7]

doc665

Sharecropping

Sharecropping agreements can however be made fairly, as a form of tenant farming or sharefarming that has a variable rental payment, paid in arrears. There are three different types of contracts.[8]

doc666

Sharecropping

The advantages of sharecropping in other situations include enabling access for women[9] to arable land where ownership rights are vested only in men.

doc667

Sharecropping

It has been pointed out that sharecropping was economically inefficient in a free market. However, many outside factors make it efficient. One factor is slave emancipation: sharecropping provided the freed slaves of the US, Brazil and the late Roman Empire with land access. It is efficient also as a way of escaping inflation, hence its rise in 16th-century France and Italy.[10]

doc668

Sharecropping

It also gave sharecroppers a vested interest in the land, incentivizing hard work and care. However, American plantation were wary of this interest, as they felt that would lead to African Americans demanding rights of partnership. Many black laborers denied the unilateral authority that landowners hoped to achieve, further complicating relations between landowners and sharecroppers.[11]

doc669

Sharecropping

Landlords opt for sharecropping to avoid the administrative costs and shirking that occurs on plantations and haciendas. It is preferred to cash tenancy because cash tenants take all the risks, and any harvest failure will hurt them and not the landlord. Therefore, they tend to demand lower rents than sharecroppers.[12]

doc670

Sharecropping

The practice was harmful to tenants with many cases of high interest rates, unpredictable harvests, and unscrupulous landlords and merchants often keeping tenant farm families severely indebted. The debt was often compounded year on year leaving the cropper vulnerable to intimidation and shortchanging.[13] Nevertheless, it appeared to be inevitable, with no serious alternative unless the croppers left agriculture.[14][15]

doc671

Sharecropping

A new system of credit, the crop lien, became closely associated with sharecropping. Under this system, a planter or merchant extended a line of credit to the sharecropper while taking the year's crop as collateral. The sharecropper could then draw food and supplies all year long. When the crop was harvested, the planter or merchants who held the lien sold the harvest for the sharecropper and settled the debt.

doc672

Sharecropping

In settler colonies of colonial Africa, sharecropping was a feature of the agricultural life. White farmers, who owned most of the land, were frequently unable to work the whole of their farm for lack of capital. They therefore allowed African farmers to work the excess on a sharecropping basis. In South Africa the 1913 Natives' Land Act[16] outlawed the ownership of land by Africans in areas designated for white ownership and effectively reduced the status of most sharecroppers to tenant farmers and then to farm laborers. In the 1960s, generous subsidies to white farmers meant that most farmers could afford to work their entire farms, and sharecropping faded out.

doc673

Sharecropping

The arrangement has reappeared in other African countries in modern times, including Ghana[17] and Zimbabwe.[7]

doc674

Sharecropping

Sharecropping became widespread in the South as a response to economic upheaval caused by the end of slavery during and after Reconstruction.[18][19] Sharecropping was a way for very poor farmers, both white and black, to earn a living from land owned by someone else. The landowner provided land, housing, tools and seed, and perhaps a mule, and a local merchant provided food and supplies on credit. At harvest time, the sharecropper received a share of the crop (from one-third to one-half, with the landowner taking the rest). The cropper used his share to pay off his debt to the merchant.[20]

doc675

Sharecropping

The system started with Blacks when large plantations were subdivided. By the 1880s, white farmers also became sharecroppers. The system was distinct from that of the tenant farmer, who rented the land, provided his own tools and mule, and received half the crop. Landowners provided more supervision to sharecroppers, and less or none to tenant farmers. Sharecropping in the United States probably originated in the Natchez District, roughly centered in Adams County, Mississippi with its county seat, Natchez.[21]

doc676

Sharecropping

Sharecroppers worked a section of the plantation independently, usually growing cotton, tobacco, rice, sugar, and other cash crops, and receiving half of the parcel's output.[22][23] Sharecroppers also often received their farming tools and all other goods from the landowner they were contracted with.[24] Landowners dictated decisions relating to the crop mix, and sharecroppers were often in agreements to sell their portion of the crop back to the landowner, thus being subjected to manipulated prices.[25] In addition to this, landowners, threatening to not renew the lease at the end of the growing season, were able to apply pressure to their tenants.[26] Sharecropping often proved economically problematic, as the landowners held significant economic control.[27]

doc677

Sharecropping

Although the sharecropping system was primarily a post-Civil War development, it did exist in antebellum Mississippi, especially in the northeastern part of the state, an area with few slaves or plantations,[28] and most likely existed in Tennessee.[29] Sharecropping, along with tenant farming, was a dominant form in the cotton South from the 1870s to the 1950s, among both blacks and whites.

doc678

Sharecropping

Following the Civil War of the United States, the South lay in ruins. Plantations and other lands throughout the South were seized by the federal government, and thousands of former slaves, known as freedmen, found themselves free, yet without means to support their families. The situation was made more complex due to General William T. Sherman's Special Field Order Number 15, which in January 1865, announced he would temporarily grant newly freed families 40 acres of land on the islands and coastal regions of Georgia. This policy was also referred to as Forty Acres and a Mule. Many believed that this policy would be extended to all former slaves and their families as repayment for their treatment at the end of the war.

doc679

Sharecropping

An alternative path was selected and enforced. In the summer of 1865, President Andrew Johnson, as one of the first acts of Reconstruction, instead ordered all land under federal control be returned to its previous owners. This meant that plantation and land owners in the South regained their land but lacked a labor force. The solution was sharecropping, which enabled the government to match labor with demand and begin the process of economically rebuilding the nation via labor contracts.

doc680

Sharecropping

In Reconstruction-era United States, sharecropping was one of few options for penniless freedmen to support themselves and their families. Other solutions included the crop-lien system (where the farmer was extended credit for seed and other supplies by the merchant), a rent labor system (where the former slave rents his land but keeps his entire crop), and the wage system (worker earns a fixed wage, but keeps none of their crop). Sharecropping was by far the most economically efficient, as it provided incentives for workers to produce a bigger harvest. It was a stage beyond simple hired labor, because the sharecropper had an annual contract. During Reconstruction, the federal Freedmen's Bureau ordered the arrangements[30] and wrote and enforced the contracts.

doc681

Sharecropping

After the Civil War, plantation owners had to borrow money to farm, at around 15 percent interest. The indebtedness of cotton planters increased through the early 1940s, and the average plantation fell into bankruptcy about every 20 years. It is against this backdrop that the wealthiest owners maintained their concentrated ownership of the land.[31]

doc682

Sharecropping

Croppers were assigned a plot of land to work, and in exchange owed the owner a share of the crop at the end of the season, usually one half. The owner provided the tools and farm animals. Farmers who owned their own mule and plow were at a higher stage, and were called tenant farmers: They paid the landowner less, usually only a third of each crop. In both cases the farmer kept the produce of gardens.

doc683

Sharecropping

The sharecropper purchased seed, tools, and fertilizer, as well as food and clothing, on credit from a local merchant, or sometimes from a plantation store. At harvest time, the cropper would harvest the whole crop and sell it to the merchant who had extended credit. Purchases and the landowner's share were deducted and the cropper kept the difference—or added to his debt.

doc684

Sharecropping

Though the arrangement protected sharecroppers from the negative effects of a bad crop, many sharecroppers (both black and white) remained quite poor. Arrangements typically left a third of the crop to the sharecropper.

doc685

Sharecropping

By the early 1930s, there were 5.5 million white tenants, sharecroppers, and mixed cropping/laborers in the United States; and 3 million blacks.[32][33] In Tennessee, whites made up two thirds or more of the sharecroppers.[29] In Mississippi, by 1900, 36% of all white farmers were tenants or sharecroppers, while 85% of black farmers were.[28]

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Sharecropping

Sharecropping continued to be a significant institution in Tennessee agriculture for more than 60 years after the Civil War, peaking in importance in the early 1930s, when sharecroppers operated approximately one-third of all farm units in the state.[29]

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Sharecropping

The situation of landless farmers who challenged the system in the rural South as late as 1941 has been described thus: "he is at once a target subject of ridicule and vitriolic denunciation; he may even be waylaid by hooded or unhooded leaders of the community, some of whom may be public officials. If a white man persists in 'causing trouble', the night riders may pay him a visit, or the officials may haul him into court; if he is a Negro, a mob may hunt him down."[34]

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Sharecropping

Sharecroppers formed unions in the 1930s, beginning in Tallapoosa County, Alabama in 1931, and Arkansas in 1934. Membership in the Southern Tenant Farmers Union included both blacks and poor whites. As leadership strengthened, meetings became more successful, and protest became more vigorous, landlords responded with a wave of terror.[35]

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Sharecropping

Sharecroppers' strikes in Arkansas and the Missouri Bootheel, the 1939 Missouri Sharecroppers' Strike, were documented in the film Oh Freedom After While.[36] The plight of a sharecropper was addressed in the song Sharecropper's Blues recorded by Charlie Barnet and His Orchestra with vocals by Kay Starr (Decca 24264) in 1944.[37] It was rerecorded and released by Capitol with Starr being backed by the David Beckham Ork" (Capitol Americana 40051).[38] Decca then reissued the Barnet/Star recording.[39]

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Sharecropping

In the 1930s and 1940s, increasing mechanization virtually brought the institution of sharecropping to an end in the United States.[29][40] The sharecropping system in the U.S. increased during the Great Depression with the creation of tenant farmers following the failure of many small farms throughout the Dustbowl. Traditional sharecropping declined after mechanization of farm work became economical in the mid-20th century. As a result, many sharecroppers were forced off the farms, and migrated to cities to work in factories, or become migrant workers in the Western United States during World War II.

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Sharecropping

Typically, a sharecropping agreement would specify which party was expected to cover certain expenses, like seed, fertilizer, weed control, irrigation district assessments, and fuel. Sometimes the sharecropper covered those costs, but they expected a larger share of the crop in return. The agreement would also indicate whether the sharecropper would use his own equipment to raise the crops, or use the landlord's equipment. The agreement would also indicate whether the landlord would pick up his or her share of the crop in the field or whether the sharecropper would deliver it (and where it would be delivered.)

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Sharecropping

For example, a landowner may have a sharecropper farming an irrigated hayfield. The sharecropper uses his own equipment, and covers all the costs of fuel and fertilizer. The landowner pays the irrigation district assessments and does the irrigating himself. The sharecropper cuts and bales the hay, and delivers one-third of the baled hay to the landlord's feedlot. The sharecropper might also leave the landlord's share of the baled hay in the field, where the landlord would fetch it when he wanted hay.

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Another arrangement could have the sharecropper delivering the landlord's share of the product to market, in which case the landlord would get his share in the form of the sale proceeds. In that case, the agreement should indicate the timing of the delivery to market, which can have a significant effect on the ultimate price of some crops. The market timing decision should probably be decided shortly before harvest, so that the landlord has more complete information about the area's harvest, to determine whether the crop will earn more money immediately after harvest, or whether it should be stored until the price rises. Market timing can entail storage costs and losses to spoilage for some crops as well.

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Cooperative farming exists in many forms throughout the United States, Canada, and the rest of the world. Various arrangements can be made through collective bargaining or purchasing to get the best deals on seeds, supplies, and equipment. For example, members of a farmers' cooperative who cannot afford heavy equipment of their own can lease them for nominal fees from the cooperative. Farmers' cooperatives can also allow groups of small farmers and dairymen to manage pricing and prevent undercutting by competitors.

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Sharecropping

The theory of share tenancy was long dominated by Alfred Marshall's famous footnote in Book VI, Chapter X.14 of Principles[41] where he illustrated the inefficiency of agricultural share-contracting. Steven N.S. Cheung (1969),[42] challenged this view, showing that with sufficient competition and in the absence of transaction costs, share tenancy will be equivalent to competitive labor markets and therefore efficient.[43]

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He also showed that in the presence of transaction costs, share-contracting may be preferred to either wage contracts or rent contracts—due to the mitigation of labor shirking and the provision of risk sharing. Joseph Stiglitz (1974,[44] 1988),[45] suggested that if share tenancy is only a labor contract, then it is only pairwise-efficient and that land-to-the-tiller reform would improve social efficiency by removing the necessity for labor contracts in the first place.

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Reid (1973),[46] Murrel (1983),[47] Roumasset (1995)[48] and Allen and Lueck (2004)[49] provided transaction cost theories of share-contracting, wherein tenancy is more of a partnership than a labor contract and both landlord and tenant provide multiple inputs. It has also been argued that the sharecropping institution can be explained by factors such as informational asymmetry (Hallagan, 1978;[50] Allen, 1982;[51] Muthoo, 1998),[52] moral hazard (Reid, 1976;[53] Eswaran and Kotwal, 1985;[54] Ghatak and Pandey, 2000),[55] intertemporal discounting (Roy and Serfes, 2001),[56] price fluctuations (Sen, 2011)[57] or limited liability (Shetty, 1988;[58] Basu, 1992;[59] Sengupta, 1997;[60] Ray and Singh, 2001).[61]

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Pumped Up Kicks

"Pumped Up Kicks" is a song by American indie pop band Foster the People. It was released as the group's debut single in September 2010, and the following year was included on their EP Foster the People and their debut album, Torches. "Pumped Up Kicks" became the group's breakthrough hit and was one of the most popular songs of 2011. The song was written and recorded by frontman Mark Foster while he was working as a commercial jingle writer. Contrasting with the upbeat musical composition, the lyrics describe the homicidal thoughts of a troubled youth.

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Pumped Up Kicks

The track received considerable attention after it was posted online in 2010 as a free download, and it helped the group garner a multi-album record deal with Columbia Records imprint Startime International. "Pumped Up Kicks" proved to be a sleeper hit; in 2011, after receiving significant airplay on modern rock stations, the song crossed-over onto contemporary hit radio stations. The song spent eight consecutive weeks at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the United States, making it the first Billboard Alternative Songs number-one single to crack the U.S. top 5 since Kings of Leon's "Use Somebody" in 2009. The song was widely praised by critics, and it has been licensed for use in a wide range of popular media since its release. "Pumped Up Kicks" received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance.