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In cryptography, a proof of knowledge is an interactive proof in which the prover succeeds in 'convincing' a verifier that the prover knows something. What it means for a machine to 'know something' is defined in terms of computation. A machine 'knows something', if this something can be computed, given the machine as an input. As the program of the prover does not necessarily spit out the knowledge itself (as is the case for zero-knowledge proofs) a machine with a different program, called the knowledge extractor is introduced to capture this idea. We are mostly interested in what can be proven by polynomial time bounded machines. In this case the set of knowledge elements is limited to a set of witnesses of some language in NP. Let be a statement of language in NP, and the set of witnesses for x that should be accepted in the proof. This allows us to define the following relation: . A proof of knowledge for relation with knowledge error is a two
party protocol with a prover and a verifier with the following two properties:
Completeness: If , then the prover who knows witness for succeeds in convincing the verifier of his knowledge. More formally: , i.e. given the interaction between the prover P and the verifier V, the probability that the verifier is convinced is 1. Validity: Validity requires that the success probability of a knowledge extractor in extracting the witness, given oracle access to a possibly malicious prover , must be at least as high as the success probability of the prover in convincing the verifier. | [
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This property guarantees that no prover that doesn't know the witness can succeed in convincing the verifier. Details on the definition
This is a more rigorous definition of Validity:
Let be a witness relation, the set of all witnesses for public value , and the knowledge error. A proof of knowledge is -valid if there exists a polynomial-time machine , given oracle access to , such that for every , it is the case that and
The result signifies that the Turing machine did not come to a conclusion. The knowledge error denotes the probability that the verifier might accept , even though the prover does in fact not know a witness . The knowledge extractor is used to express what is meant by the knowledge of a Turing machine. If can extract from , we say that knows the value of . This definition of the validity property is a combination of the validity and strong validity properties. For small knowledge errors , such as e.g. or it can be seen as being stronger than the soundness of ordinary interactive proofs. Relation to general interactive proofs
In order to define a specific proof of knowledge, one need not only define the language, but also the witnesses the verifier should know. In some cases proving membership in a language may be easy, while computing a specific witness may be hard. This is best explained using an example:
Let be a cyclic group with generator in which solving the discrete logarithm problem is believed to be hard. Deciding membership of the language is trivial, as every is in . | [
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However, finding the witness such that holds corresponds to solving the discrete logarithm problem. Protocols
Schnorr protocol
One of the simplest and frequently used proofs of knowledge, the proof of knowledge of a discrete logarithm, is due to Schnorr. The protocol is defined for a cyclic group of order with generator . In order to prove knowledge of , the prover interacts with the verifier as follows:
In the first round the prover commits himself to randomness ; therefore the first message is also called commitment. The verifier replies with a challenge chosen at random. After receiving , the prover sends the third and last message (the response) reduced modulo the order of the group. The verifier accepts, if . We can see this is a valid proof of knowledge because it has an extractor that works as follows:
Simulate the prover to output . The prover is now in state . Generate random value and input it to the prover. It outputs . Rewind the prover to state . Now generate a different random value and input it to the prover to get . Output . Since , the output of the extractor is precisely . This protocol happens to be zero-knowledge, though that property is not required for a proof of knowledge. Sigma protocols
Protocols which have the above three-move structure (commitment, challenge and response) are called sigma protocols. The Greek letter visualizes the flow of the protocol. Sigma protocols exist for proving various statements, such as those pertaining to discrete logarithms. | [
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Using these proofs, the prover can not only prove the knowledge of the discrete logarithm, but also that the discrete logarithm is of a specific form. For instance, it is possible to prove that two logarithms of and with respect to bases and are equal or fulfill some other linear relation. For a and b elements of , we say that the prover proves knowledge of and such that and . Equality corresponds to the special case where a = 1 and b = 0. As can be trivially computed from this is equivalent to proving knowledge of an x such that . This is the intuition behind the following notation, which is commonly used to express what exactly is proven by a proof of knowledge. states that the prover knows an x that fulfills the relation above. Applications
Proofs of knowledge are useful tool for the construction of identification protocols, and in their non-interactive variant, signature schemes. Such schemes are:
Schnorr signature
They are also used in the construction of group signature and anonymous digital credential systems. See also
Cryptographic protocol
Zero-knowledge proof
Interactive proof system
Topics in cryptography
Zero-knowledge password proof
Soundness (interactive proof)
References
Computational complexity theory
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Voice-over translation is an audiovisual translation technique in which, unlike in dubbing, actor voices are recorded over the original audio track which can be heard in the background. This method of translation is most often used in documentaries and news reports to translate words of foreign-language interviewees in countries where subtitling is not the norm. In some countries, most notably in Eastern Europe, Mongolia, Vietnam and Cambodia, it is commonly used to translate many movies. Movies
A typical voice-over translation is usually done by a single male or female voice artist. It is slow paced, therefore shortened but fully intelligible, usually trailing the original dialogue by a few seconds. The original audio can thus be heard to some extent, allowing the viewer to grasp the actors' voices, yet due to the lack of synchronisation between original dialogue and a voice-over, original music is usually a victim of lowering the original track's volume. The voice-over usually contains only a hint of emotion, as many of the interpreters try to sound "transparent" to the audience. Any text appearing on the screen is also usually read out by the interpreter, although in more recent times, it is sometimes carried with subtitles covering any on-screen text. Dmitriy Puchkov has been very outspoken about simultaneous interpretation, stating that it should be abandoned in favour of a more precise translation, with thorough efforts to research and find Russian equivalents in cases of lexical gaps, and maintains numerous lists of gaffes made by interpreters, including highly experienced ones such as Mikhalev. | [
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However, others have commented that the creativity of good interpreters can make the film more enjoyable, though deviating from the filmmaker's original intentions. In Russia
Called Gavrilov translation ( perevod Gavrilova ) or single-voice translation (), the technique takes its name from Andrey Gavrilov, one of the most prominent artists in the area. The term is used to refer to single-voice dubs in general, but not necessarily only those performed by Gavrilov himself. Such dubbing used to be ubiquitous in Russian-speaking countries on films shown on cable television and sold on video, especially illegal copies, and are sometimes included as additional audio tracks on DVDs sold in the region, along with dubbing performed by multiple actors. During the early years of the Brezhnev era, when availability of foreign films was severely restricted, Goskino, the USSR State Committee for Cinematography, held closed-door screenings of many Western films, open mainly to workers in the film industry, politicians, and other members of the elite. Those screenings were interpreted simultaneously by interpreters who specialised in films, where an effective conveyance of humour, idioms, and other subtleties of speech were required. Some of the most prolific "Gavrilov translators" began their careers at such screenings, including Andrey Gavrilov himself, as well as Aleksey Mikhalyov and Leonid Volodarskiy. Their services were also used at film festivals, where Western films were accessible to a larger public, and allowed the interpreters to gain further recognition. | [
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With the introduction of VCRs in the 1970s, and the subsequent boom in illegal unlicensed videocassette sales, which were the only means of seeing Western films available to the general public, the same interpreters began to lend their voices to these tapes. Many of their voices had a distinct nasal quality, most pronounced in Volodarskiy, which led to the rise of an urban legend that the interpreters wore a noseclip so that the authorities would not be able to identify them by their voice and arrest them. Interviews with many of the interpreters revealed that this was not true, and that authorities generally turned a blind eye to them, focusing their efforts on the distributors of the tapes instead. This was also due to the lack of specific law forbidding the work of these interpreters, and they could only be prosecuted under the relatively minor offence of illicit work. The three aforementioned interpreters, Gavrilov, Mikhalev, and Volodarskiy, were the leading names in film dubbing in the last decades of the 20th century, with dubs done by each of them numbering in the thousands. Many of these dubs were made using simultaneous interpretation, due to time constraints caused by competition among the distributors to be the first to release a new production, as well as the sheer volume of new films. Whenever possible, however, the interpreters preferred to watch the films a few times first, making notes on the more difficult parts of the dialogue, and only then record a dub, which also allowed them to refuse dubbing movies they didn't like. | [
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While each of the interpreters dubbed a wide range of films, with many films being available in multiple versions done by different interpreters, the big names usually had specific film genres that they were known to excel at. Gavrilov, for instance, was usually heard in action films, including Total Recall and Die Hard; Mikhalev specialised in comedy and drama, most notably A Streetcar Named Desire and The Silence of the Lambs; while Volodarskiy, who is most readily associated not with a particular genre, but with the nasal intonation of his voice, is best remembered for his dubbing of Star Wars. It is unclear why the term "Gavrilov translation" came to bear Gavrilov's name, despite Mikhalev being the most celebrated of the interpreters, though the popular nature of films dubbed by Gavrilov may be the most likely explanation. Other notable names of the period include Vasiliy Gorchakov, Mikhail Ivanov, Grigoriy Libergal, and Yuriy Zhivov. After perestroika and the collapse of the Soviet Union, when restrictions on Western films were lifted, movie theatres, the state television channels, and eventually DVD releases primarily employed multiple-voice dubbings done by professional actors. However, cable television and the thriving unauthorized video industry continued fuelling demand for Gavrilov translations. This period marked a significant drop in the quality of such dubbings, as the intense competition between the numerous infringement groups and the lack of available funds resulted in releases with non-professional in-house dubbing. | [
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This was further exacerbated by the death of Mikhalev in 1994 and fewer recordings being produced by many of the other skilled veterans of the industry, who pursued alternative career paths. Numerous well-regarded newcomers took their place, including Alexey Medvedev, Petr Glants, Peter Kartsev, Pavel Sanayev, Sergey Vizgunov, and most famously Dmitry "Goblin" Puchkov. The latter is notorious for his direct translation of profanity, as well as alternative "funny translations" of Hollywood blockbusters, such as Star Wars: Storm in the Glass after Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. In later years, however, the use of Russian mat (profanity) in the dubbings had been a great source of controversy. While many unlicensed recordings do not shy away from translating expletives literally, Gavrilov, Mikhalev, and Volodarskiy have all stated that they feel that Russian mat is more emotionally charged and less publicly acceptable than English obscenities, and would only use it in their dubs when they felt it was absolutely crucial to the film's plot. In Poland
Voice-over translation is the traditional translation method in Polish television and DVDs (which most of the time provide the original audio track), except for children's material, especially animation, which is often fully dubbed. The word lektor ("reader") is used to refer to the translation. Voice-over is the preferred form of dubbing among Polish broadcasters due to being very cheap to produce, and because of its wide use, it seems to be widely accepted by most of the audience. | [
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Although attempts to introduce full dubs to Polish television met with some protests, the negative reviews were mostly limited to online communities, in which the preferred form of translation are subtitles; dubbed movies are usually accepted among people who are not fans of the original versions. Voice-over is generally preferred over subtitles – an opinion poll conducted in 2008 shown only 19% of Poles supports the switch to subtitling in television; TVP tried to introduce subtitled versions of The Suite Life of Zack & Cody and Radio Free Roscoe, which, due to low ratings, were later replaced with their existing, fully dubbed versions. Since then, outside some special cases, only some anime titles aired with only subtitles, as being the most acceptable form among otaku. The most notable readers are Stanisław Olejniczak, Janusz Szydłowski, Piotr Borowiec and Maciej Gudowski. Tomasz Knapik, who died in 2021, was also named notable. In Bulgaria
Voice-over translation is also common, but each film (or episode) is normally voiced by professional actors. The voice artists try to match the original voice and preserve the intonation. The main reason for the use of this type of translation is that unlike synchronized voice translation, it takes a relatively short time to produce, as there is no need to synchronize the voices with the character's lip movements, which is compensated by the quieted original audio. When there is no speaking in the film for some time, the original sound is turned up. | [
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In later years, as more films are distributed with separate full mix and music+effects tracks, some voice-over translations in Bulgaria have been produced by only turning down the voice track, in this way not affecting the other sounds. One actor always reads the translation crew's names over the show's ending credits (except for when there are dialogues over the credits). At the end of the 1980s, as VCRs began spreading in Bulgaria, it was common to have an English language film in German, with a voice-over by a single person (usually male). These films were most often filmed inside a cinema with a hand-held camera, or low-quality copies of preview releases (similar to a bootleg Region 5 releases). In the mid-90s, the voice-over became more professional, using a female voice actor for the corresponding parts, and with the actors trying to match the intonation of the original characters. Sample
See also
Lector
Benshi
Dub localization
References
External links
Profiles of the most prominent "Gavrilov translators" with audio samples of their work
Translation
Film sound production
Cinema of Russia | [
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The Journal of Symbolic Computation is a peer-reviewed monthly scientific journal covering all aspects of symbolic computation published by Academic Press and then by Elsevier. It is targeted to both mathematicians and computer scientists. It was established in 1985 by Bruno Buchberger, who served as its editor until 1994. The journal covers a wide variety of topics, including:
Computer algebra, for which it is considered the top journal
Computational geometry
Automated theorem proving
Applications of symbolic computation in education, science, and industry
According to the Journal Citation Reports, its 2020 impact factor is 0.847. The journal is abstracted and indexed by Scopus and the Science Citation Index. See also
Higher-Order and Symbolic Computation
International Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic Computation
References
External links
Mathematics journals
Computer science journals
Publications established in 1985
Elsevier academic journals
Monthly journals
English-language journals
Computer algebra | [
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] |
Tinker, previously stylized as TINKER, is a suite of computer software applications for molecular dynamics simulation. The codes provide a complete and general set of tools for molecular mechanics and molecular dynamics, with some special features for biomolecules. The core of the software is a modular set of callable routines which allow manipulating coordinates and evaluating potential energy and derivatives via straightforward means. Tinker works on Windows, macOS, Linux and Unix. The source code is available free of charge to non-commercial users under a proprietary license. The code is written in portable FORTRAN 77, Fortran 95 or CUDA with common extensions, and some C.
Core developers are: (a) the Jay Ponder lab, at the Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri. Laboratory head Ponder is Full Professor of Chemistry, and of Biochemistry & Molecular Biophysics; (b) the Pengyu Ren lab , at the Department of Biomedical Engineering University of Texas in Austin, Austin, Texas. Laboratory head Ren is Full Professor of Biomedical Engineering; (c) Jean-Philip Piquemal's research team at Laboratoire de Chimie Théorique, Department of Chemistry, Sorbonne University, Paris, France. Research team head Piquemal is Full Professor of Theoretical Chemistry. | [
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Features
The Tinker package is based on several related codes: (a) the canonical Tinker, version 8, (b) the Tinker9 package as a direct extension of canonical Tinker to GPU systems, (c) the Tinker-HP package for massively parallel MPI applications on hybrid CPU and GPU-based systems, (d) Tinker-FFE for visualization of Tinker calculations via a Java-based graphical interface, and (e) the Tinker-OpenMM package for Tinker's use with GPUs via an interface for the OpenMM software. All of the Tinker codes are available from the TinkerTools organization site on GitHub. Additional information is available from the TinkerTools community web site. Programs are provided to perform many functions including:
energy minimizing over Cartesian coordinates, torsional angles, or rigid bodies via conjugate gradient, variable metric or a truncated Newton method
molecular, stochastic, and rigid body dynamics with periodic boundaries and control of temperature and pressure
normal mode vibrational analysis
distance geometry including an efficient random pairwise metrization
building protein and nucleic acid structures from sequence
simulated annealing with various cooling protocols
analysis and breakdown of single point potential energies
verification of analytical derivatives of standard and user defined potentials
location of a transition state between two minima
full energy surface search via a Conformation Scanning method
free energy calculations via free energy perturbation or weighted histogram analysis
fitting of intermolecular potential parameters to structural and thermodynamic data
global optimizing via energy surface smoothing, including a Potential Smoothing and Search (PSS) method
Awards
Tinker-HP received the 2018 Atos-Joseph Fourier Prize in High Performance Computing. | [
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] |
See also
List of software for Monte Carlo molecular modeling
Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling
Molecular dynamics
Molecular geometry
Molecular design software
Comparison of force field implementations
References
License
External links
Science software
Molecular dynamics software
Monte Carlo molecular modelling software
Washington University in St. Louis | [
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The Vassal Engine is a game engine for building and playing online adaptations of board games, tabletop games and card games. It allows users to play in real time over a live Internet connection, and also by email (PbeM). It runs on all platforms, and is free, open-source software. For example, there is a Star Wars Miniatures module, where players can play with up to three others in a digital replica of the table-top game. It is written in Java and the source code is available from GitHub under the LGPL open source license. History
Vassal began as VASL (Virtual Advanced Squad Leader), an application for playing Advanced Squad Leader. Available modules
Vassal modules exist for over 1000 games, some of which are listed here. A more comprehensive, but not exhaustive, list of modules exists on the Vassal module site list. Tabletops
Star Wars: X-Wing Miniatures Game Presently the most commonly played Vassal module, with over 30% of total traffic. V40k, a Warhammer 40,000 module. Star Wars: Armada
Warmachine and Hordes
Malifaux
Battlefleet Gothic
Boardgames
Advanced Squad Leader (VASL)
Twilight Struggle
Monopoly
Diplomacy
HeroQuest
Pandemic
Space Hulk
Shadows over Camelot
Memoir 44
Victory in the Pacific
World in Flames
Gloomhaven
Card games
Playing Cards
Bridge/Hearts
Up Front
Copyright and licensing
In September 2008, Games Workshop issued a cease-and-desist order regarding V40k to Tim Davis, the V40k module maintainer at that time. The module is still played. Games Workshop has also issued a cease-and-desist order regarding Space Hulk. Similar projects
Similar engines for making board games include ZunTzu and Boardgame.io. | [
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] |
References
External links
Official Vassal website
GitHub page for the engine
2002 software
Free game engines
Free software projects
Free software programmed in Java (programming language) | [
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The Gudjonsson suggestibility scale (GSS) is a psychological test that measures suggestibility of a subject. It was created in 1983 by Icelandic psychologist Gísli Hannes Guðjónsson. It involves reading a short story to the subject and testing recall. This test has been used in court cases in several jurisdictions but has been the subject of various criticisms. History
The Gudjonsson suggestibility scale (GSS) was created in 1983 by Icelandic psychologist Gísli Hannes Guðjónsson. Given his large number of publications on suggestibility, Gísli was often called as an expert witness in court cases where the suggestibility of those involved in the case was crucial to the proceedings. To measure suggestibility, Gísli created a scale that was relatively straightforward and could be administered in a wide variety of settings. He noticed that while there was a significant body of research on the effects of leading questions on suggestibility, less was known about the effects of "specific instruction" and "interpersonal pressure". Previous methods of measuring suggestibility were primarily aimed at "hypnotic phenomena"; however, Gísli's scale was the first created to be used specifically in conjunction with interrogative events. His test relies on two different aspects of interrogative suggestibility: it measures how much an interrogated person yields to leading questions, as well as how much an interrogated person shifts their responses when additional interrogative pressure is applied. The test is designed specifically to measure the effects of suggestive questions and instructions. Although originally developed in English, the scale has been translated into several different languages, including Portuguese, Italian, Dutch, and Polish. | [
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Method
The GSS involves reading a short story to the subject, followed by a general recall activity, a test, and a retest. It begins with a short story being read to the subject:
Anna Thomson of South Croydon was on holiday in Spain when she was held up outside her hotel and robbed of her handbag, which contained $50 worth of traveler's checks and her passport. She screamed for help and attempted to put up a fight by kicking one of the assailants in the shins. A police car shortly arrived and the woman was taken to the nearest police station, where she was interviewed by Detective Sergeant Delgado. The woman reported that she had been attacked by three men, one of whom she described as oriental looking. The men were said to be slim and in their early twenties. The police officer was touched by the woman’s story and advised her to contact the British Embassy. Six days later, the police recovered the lady’s handbag, but the contents were never found. Three men were subsequently charged, two of whom were convicted and given prison sentences. Only one had had previous convictions for similar offences. The lady returned to Britain with her husband Simon and two friends but remained frightened of being out on her own. The subject is instructed to listen carefully to the story being read to them because they will have to report what they remember afterward. After the researcher reads the story aloud to the participant, the subject is asked to engage in free recall in which they report everything remembered of what was just read. | [
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To make the assessment more difficult, subjects may be asked to report these facts after 50 minutes in addition to immediately following the story. This part of the assessment is scored based on how many facts the subject recalls correctly. The second part of the assessment consists of the actual scale. It consists of twenty questions regarding the short story: fifteen questions being suggestive and five being neutral. The fifteen suggestive questions can be separated into three types of suggestibility: leading questions, affirmative questions, and false alternative questions. Their purpose is to measure how much a participant "yields" to suggestive questions. Leading questions contained some "salient precedence" and are worded in such a way that they seem plausible and lend themselves to an affirmative answer. A leading question on the GSS would ask, "Did the woman's glasses break in the struggle?" Affirmative questions were those that presented facts that did not appear in the story, but that contain an affirmative response bias. An example of an affirmative question would be "Were the assailants convicted six weeks after their arrest?" False alternative questions also contain information not present in the story; however, these questions focus specifically on objects, people, and events not found in the story. One of these questions would be, "Did the woman hit one of the assailants with her fist or handbag?" The five neutral questions contain a correct answer that is affirmative; the correct answer is yes. After 1987, the GSS was altered so that these five questions were included in the shift score as well. | [
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This version is referred to as the Gudjonsson suggestibility scale 2, or GSS2. The twenty questions are dispersed within the assessment in order to conceal its aim. The person under interrogation is told in a "forceful manner" that there are errors in their story, and they must answer the questions a second time. After answering the initial questionnaire, the subjects are told that they made a certain number of errors and are instructed to go over the assessment again and correct any errors they detect. Any changes made in the suggestive questions are recorded. Scoring
Scoring can be broken down into two main categories: memory recall and suggestibility. Memory recall refers to the number of facts the subject correctly remembered during the free recall. Each fact is worth one point, and the subject can earn a maximum of forty points for this section. The suggestibility section is broken into three subcategories-yield, shift, and total. Yield refers to the number of suggestive questions answered incorrectly, based on the original story. With each question being worth one point, subjects can score up to fifteen points on this section. If the subject engaged in two recall activities, the score for the second trial is not included in the scoring. Shift refers to any notable significant change in the participant's answers after they were told to go over their original answers and correct their mistakes. Subjects can also score up to fifteen points on this section. The total score refers to the sum of both the Yield and Shift scores. | [
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In a sample of 195 people, the Yield 1 mean score was 4.9, with a standard deviation of 3.0. The Yield 2 mean score was 6.9, with a standard deviation of 3.4. The average Shift score was 3.6, with a standard deviation of 2.7. For total suggestibility (Yield + Shift), the average score was 8.5, with a standard deviation of 4.3. The average memory recall score was 19.2, with a standard deviation of 8.0. Measures of reliability and validity
Internal consistency scores between Yield 1 and Shift for the GSS range from −.23 to .28. Internal consistency for the fifteen Yield and fifteen Shift questions were reportedly 0.77 and 0.67, respectively. The GSS2 showed higher internal consistency than the GSS1. Test-retest reliability was reportedly 0.55. Overall, Shift scores showed the lowest internal consistency, at 0.11. Other scores were significant. External validity, tested with the Portuguese version of the GSS, showed no correlation between interrogative suggestibility and factors of personality, nor interrogative suggestibility and anxiety. Immediate recall and delayed recall correlated negatively with all suggestibility scores. Uses in the justice system
Use in criminal proceedings
The GSS is used most often in criminal justice systems. The human memory has been known to be unreliable, as is eyewitness testimony. But Western countries rely strongly on such testimony, and wrongful convictions based on incorrect eyewitness testimony have been publicized, raising this as an issue to the wider public. The GSS allows psychologists to identify individuals who may be susceptible to giving false accounts of events when questioned. | [
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The GSS could be useful in a situation where a defendant is being interrogated or cross-examined. There is evidence that GSS scores vary between inmates and the general population. In the general population, high scores on the GSS are associated with an increased likelihood of false confession. Pires (2014) studied 40 Portuguese prisoners and found that inmates had higher suggestibility scores than the general population. This group had the lowest scores in the immediate recall portion of the GSS, suggesting that their higher suggestibility was due to their lower memory capacity. Possible explanations for this may be that the inmates participated in the study voluntarily, and were told that participation would have no negative effect on them. Therefore, even for inmates with antisocial personality disorder, the study took place in a "cooperative atmosphere". Inmates who had a negative attitude toward the test situation or the examiner had decreased vulnerability to suggestion. Additionally, repeat offenders were more resistant to interrogative pressure than those without prior convictions; this may be due to their experience in interrogation settings. Studies have found that GSS scores are higher in people who confess to crimes they did not commit, than in people who are more resistant to police questioning. The use of the GSS in court proceedings has been met with mixed responses. In the United States, courts in many states have ruled that the GSS does not meet either the Frye standard or the Daubert standard for the admissibility of expert testimony. | [
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In Soares v. Massachusetts(2001), for example, the Massachusetts Appeals Court stated that the case was "devoid of evidence demonstrating either the scientific validity or reliability of the GSS as a measure of susceptibility to suggestion or appropriate applications of the test results." In the same year, the Wisconsin Supreme Court, in Summers v. Wisconsin affirmed the trial court's decision to exclude the defense's expert testimony on the GSS because it was "vague regarding what information or insights the expert could offer that would assist the jury and the scientific bases of these insights." Despite these decisions, the GSS has been permitted to be used in several court cases. For example, in Oregon v. Romero (2003), the Oregon Court of Appeals held that the testimony of a defense expert about the results of a Gudjonsson suggestibility test—offered in support of the defendant's claim that her confession to police was involuntary—met "the threshold for admissibility" because "It would have been probative, relevant, and helpful to the trier of fact." Experts have linked GSS suggestibility to the voluntary aspect of Miranda waivers during legal proceedings. Despite this, there are very few appellate cases in which the GSS has been presented to a court with any reference to whether a waiver of Miranda rights by a suspect was voluntary. Rogers (2010) specifically examined the GSS in terms of its ability to predict people's ability to understand and agree to Mirand rights. | [
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This study found that suggestibility, as assessed by the GSS, appeared to be unrelated to "Miranda comprehension, reasoning, and detainees' perceptions of police coercion". Defendants with high compliance were found to have significantly lower Miranda comprehension and ability to reason about exercising Miranda rights when compared to counterparts with low compliance. Use in juvenile delinquency proceedings
Scores of adolescents in the justice system differ from those of adults. Richardson (1995), administered the GSS to 65 juvenile offenders. When matched with adult offenders on IQ and memory, juveniles were much more susceptible to giving into interrogative pressure (Shift), specifically by changing their answers after they were given negative feedback. Their answers to the leading questions, however, were no more affected by suggestibility than their adult cohorts. These results were likely not due to memory capacity, as studies have shown that information that children can retrieve during free recall increases with age and is equal to adults by around age 12. Singh (1992) compared non-offending adults and adolescents, and showed that adolescents still showed higher suggestibility scores than adults. A study comparing delinquent adolescents to normal adults found the same results Researchers suggest that police interviewers not place adolescent suspects and witnesses under excessive pressure by criticizing their answers. Critiques
Use with people with intellectual disabilities
Use of the GSS with people who have an intellectual disability has been met with criticism. This controversy is partially due to the large memory component of the GSS. | [
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Research has shown that the high levels of suggestibility demonstrated by people with intellectual disabilities are related to poor memory for the information presented in the GSS. People with intellectual disabilities have difficulty remembering aspects of the fictional story of GSS because it is not relevant to them. When those with intellectual disabilities are tested based on events that are of personal significance to them, suggestibility decreases significantly. In terms of false confession, which involves a situation in which the defendant was not present, the GSS might have more relevance to confessions than it does to witness testimony. Another context in which the GSS is sometimes used is as part of the assessment of whether people accused of a crime have the capacity to plead to the charge. Despite this perceived usefulness, it is advised that the GSS not be used in court, as their results may not accurately represent their ability to understand the charges against them or to stand trial. Internal consistency reliability
One issue with the GSS is internal consistency reliability, specifically in regards to the Shift portion of the measure. Both Shift-positive and Shift-negative are associated with levels of internal consistency reliability of x2 < .60. Internal Shift scores have been reported as x2 = .60, which is "unacceptably low". These numbers serve as a possible explanation for why studies have not found "theoretically meaningful correlations" between the Shift sub-scale and other external criteria. Researchers argue against the use of a Total suggestibility composite due to evidence that Yield 1 and Shift scores do not significantly correlate with each other. | [
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This absence of a correlation is problematic because it "suggests that yielding to a leading question and yielding to negative feedback from an interviewer operate under completely different processes". Other researchers have found that there are two types of suggestibility: direct and indirect. The failure to take these into account may have led to methodological problems with the GSS. Researchers suggest that until these issues have been addressed, the GSS should only be limited to the Yield sub-scale. Effects of cognitive load on suggestibility
Drake et al. (2013) aimed to discover the effects that increasing cognitive load had on suggestibility scores on the GSS, and specifically attempts at faking interrogative suggestibility. The study was conducted using 80 undergraduate students, each of whom were assigned to one of four conditions from a combination of instruction type (genuine or instructed faking) and concurrent task (yes or no). Findings showed that instructed fakers not performing a concurrent task scored significantly higher on yield 1 compared with "genuine interviewees". Instructed fakers who were performing a concurrent task scored significantly lower on yield 1 scores. Genuines (non-fakers) did not exhibit this pattern in response to cognitive load differences. These results suggest that an increase in cognitive load may indicate an attempt at faking on the yield portion of the GSS. Increasing cognitive load may facilitate the detection of deception because it is more difficult to act deceptively under these conditions. Validity
One possible issue with the GSS is its validity – whether it measures genuine "internalization of the suggested materials" or simply "compliance with the interrogator". | [
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To test this, Mastroberardino (2013) conducted two experiments. In the first, participants were administered the GSS2 and then immediately performed a "source identification task" for the items on the scale. In the second experiment, half of the participants were administered this identification task immediately while the other have were administered it after 24 hours. Both experiments found a higher proportion of compliant responses. Participants internalized more suggested information after yield 1, and made more compliant responses during the shift portion of the assessment. In the second experiment, participants in the delayed condition internalized less material than those in the immediate condition. These results support the idea that different processes underlie the yield 1 and shift parts of the GSS2-yield 1 may include internalization of suggested materials and compliance, while shift may be due mostly to compliance with the interrogator. The GSS is not able to differentiate between compliance and suggestibility, as the outcome behaviors of these two cognitive processes are the same. Suggestibility and false memory
Leavitt (1997) compared suggestibility (evaluated by the GSS) in participants who recovered memories of sexual assault to that of those without a history of sexual trauma. The results of this study showed that those who had recovered memories had a lower average suggestibility scores than those who did not have a history of sexual abuse – 6.7 versus 10.6. These results suggest that suggestibility does not play as large a role in the formation of memories than previously assumed. References
Psychological tests and scales
Interrogation techniques | [
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The MOPy fish is a freeware cyberpet, released in October 1997 for Microsoft Windows by The Global Beach Group on behalf of Hewlett-Packard. It had been downloaded more than 10 million times as of the year 2000. Based on the blood parrot cichlid fish, the MOPy fish has a complex behavior pattern. History and Behavior
First released in 1997, the MOPy fish program was featured in the 2001 edition of the Guinness World Records as the most downloaded cyberpet. The MOPy fish can remember how it has been treated over the last week, and alters its behavior to correspond with the effort put into its care. It will, for example, become aggressive if not fed in five days, and may act depressed when starved for as many as ten days. If the MOPy fish is neglected and not fed for three weeks, it will fall sick and die. When the fish dies, all the MOPy points accumulated will be lost and the fish can only be brought back to life via a built-in menu. However, since MOPy fish is controlled by the operating system calendar, the fish can optionally also be brought back to life by manipulating the computer's date entry. Different versions of MOPy fish are still available for download at several websites. MOPy Points
For each original document the user sends to their printer, they earn MOPy (Multiple Original Printouts) points. The user can spend points on accessories for the fish's environment, making it happier and enhancing the appearance of the screensaver. | [
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The available accessories are as follows:
20 points: Baby fish
800 points: Rock and plant
1600 points: Bubbles
2400 points: Thermometer
3200 points: Aphrodisiac Fish Food
The Aphrodisiac Fish Food must be downloaded using a key that you automatically receive upon obtaining 3200 points. HP no longer offers this download, but it can still be retrieved from the website of Bill Greganti, who authored some add-ons and patches for the program. Greganti also offers a download of the original MOPy Fish program and a hack to accumulate points. Compatibility
Problems have been seen when running MOPy Fish on Windows XP and above, especially on 64-bit versions of the operating system, which do not support 16-bit software programs. On some 32-bit versions of Windows, "mopyfish" may not appear in the screen saver list, or will not start after the specified wait time. One known fix is to rename the mopyfish.scr file located in the Windows directory to SSmopyfish.scr. This works because some versions of Windows will only index screensaver files beginning with "SS". References
External links
Global Beach website
MOPyFish.net - Courtesy Archive.org
Bill Greganti's Mopyfish Hacks Website
1997 software
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A dump analyzer is a programming tool which is used for understanding a machine readable core dump. The GNU utils , , , and the powerful can all be used to look inside core files. Introspector is a core dump analyzer for a compiler. References
Debugging | [
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In group theory, a branch of mathematics, Frattini's argument is an important lemma in the structure theory of finite groups. It is named after Giovanni Frattini, who used it in a paper from 1885 when defining the Frattini subgroup of a group. The argument was taken by Frattini, as he himself admits, from a paper of Alfredo Capelli dated 1884. Frattini's Argument
Statement
If is a finite group with normal subgroup , and if is a Sylow p-subgroup of , then
where denotes the normalizer of in and means the product of group subsets. Proof
The group is a Sylow -subgroup of , so every Sylow -subgroup of is an -conjugate of , that is, it is of the form , for some (see Sylow theorems). Let be any element of . Since is normal in , the subgroup is contained in . This means that is a Sylow -subgroup of . Then by the above, it must be -conjugate to : that is, for some
,
and so
. Thus,
,
and therefore . But was arbitrary, and so
Applications
Frattini's argument can be used as part of a proof that any finite nilpotent group is a direct product of its Sylow subgroups. By applying Frattini's argument to , it can be shown that whenever is a finite group and is a Sylow -subgroup of . More generally, if a subgroup contains for some Sylow -subgroup of , then is self-normalizing, i.e. . External links
Frattini's Argument on ProofWiki
References
(See Chapter 10, especially Section 10.4.) Lemmas in group theory
Articles containing proofs | [
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is an arcade video game developed by Konami and released in 1983. It was licensed to Gottlieb in the United States. Juno First combines elements of vertically scrolling shooters and fixed shooters, using a slightly tilted perspective similar to Nintendo's Radar Scope from 1979. Juno First was ported to the Commodore 64 and Atari 8-bit family by Greg Hiscott and published by Datasoft in 1983 and 1984 respectively. Gameplay
Juno First presents a set number of enemies per level, but they do not make a gallery formation like Galaga or Space Invaders. Instead, the player's ship can move forward and backward (in addition to left and right) to hunt enemies in an orientation that is vertical, but has some horizon-oriented tilt. This style of gameplay would be re-used in a later Konami shooter, Axelay. The player destroys waves of enemies to finish levels. Starting formations vary from stage to stage. In addition, the player can pick up a humanoid, upon which the screen will have a red tint. While this happens, every enemy the player shoots will earn the player 200 more points than the previous enemy destroyed. The original score for shooting an enemy while in humanoid mode depends on the stage. Legacy
An unofficial hobbyist port—with the same name as the original—was made available for the Atari 2600. See also
Radar Scope (1979)
Beamrider (1983)
References
External links
Juno First at the Arcade History database
1983 video games
Arcade video games
Atari 8-bit family games
Commodore 64 games
Datasoft games
Konami arcade games
Konami games
MSX games
Vertically scrolling shooters
Video games developed in Japan | [
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Net-SNMP is a suite of software for using and deploying the SNMP protocol (v1, v2c and v3 and the AgentX subagent protocol). It supports IPv4, IPv6, IPX, AAL5, Unix domain sockets and other transports. It contains a generic client library, a suite of command line applications, a highly extensible SNMP agent, perl modules and python modules. Distribution
Net-SNMP is housed on SourceForge and is usually in the top 100 projects in the SourceForge ranking system. It was the March 2005 SourceForge Project of the Month. It is very widely distributed and comes included with many operating systems including most distributions of Linux, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, Solaris, and OS X. It is also available from the Net-SNMP web site. History
Steve Waldbusser of CMU started a freely available SNMP tool kit in 1992. The package was later abandoned by CMU and Wes Hardaker at UC Davis renamed it to UCD-SNMP and extended it to meet the network management needs of the Electrical Engineering department there. Eventually Mr. Hardaker left the university and realized that the project was now network wide and thus renamed it to Net-SNMP to reflect its distributed development. The roots of the Net-SNMP project are long and a full description can be found on the Net-SNMP history page. SNMP Applications Included With Net-SNMP
Snmpget
The command snmpget uses the snmpget application to retrieve information associated with a specific object identifier (OID) from a target device. | [
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Example
An example of snmpget usage (this will retrieve a specific OID 'sysUpTime' under the community string 'demopublic', with 'test.net-snmp.org' as the host name of the agent to query:
Snmpwalk
The command snmpwalk uses the SNMP GETNEXT request to query a network for a tree of information. An object identifier (OID) may be given on the command line. This OID specifies which portion of the object identifier space will be searched using GETNEXT requests. All variables in the subtree below the given OID are queried and their values presented to the user. If no OID argument is present, snmpwalk will search the subtree rooted at SNMPv2-SMI::mib-2 (including any MIB object values from other MIB modules, that are defined as lying within this subtree). Example
An example of snmpwalk usage (this will retrieve all of the variables under the system OID):
References
snmpwalk man page
Application layer protocols
Internet protocols
Internet Standards
Multi-agent systems
Network management
Software using the BSD license
System administration
Free network management software
Internet Protocol based network software | [
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The normal-inverse Gaussian distribution (NIG) is a continuous probability distribution that is defined as the normal variance-mean mixture where the mixing density is the inverse Gaussian distribution. The NIG distribution was noted by Blaesild in 1977 as a subclass of the generalised hyperbolic distribution discovered by Ole Barndorff-Nielsen. In the next year Barndorff-Nielsen published the NIG in another paper. It was introduced in the mathematical finance literature in 1997. The parameters of the normal-inverse Gaussian distribution are often used to construct a heaviness and skewness plot called the NIG-triangle. Properties
Moments
The fact that there is a simple expression for the moment generating function implies that simple expressions for all moments are available. Linear transformation
This class is closed under affine transformations, since it is a particular case of the Generalized hyperbolic distribution, which has the same property. If
then
Summation
This class is infinitely divisible, since it is a particular case of the Generalized hyperbolic distribution, which has the same property. Convolution
The class of normal-inverse Gaussian distributions is closed under convolution in the following sense: if and are independent random variables that are NIG-distributed with the same values of the parameters and , but possibly different values of the location and scale parameters, , and , respectively, then is NIG-distributed with parameters and
Related distributions
The class of NIG distributions is a flexible system of distributions that includes fat-tailed and skewed distributions, and the normal distribution, arises as a special case by setting and letting . Stochastic process
The normal-inverse Gaussian distribution can also be seen as the marginal distribution of the normal-inverse Gaussian process which provides an alternative way of explicitly constructing it. | [
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Starting with a drifting Brownian motion (Wiener process), , we can define the inverse Gaussian process Then given a second independent drifting Brownian motion, , the normal-inverse Gaussian process is the time-changed process . The process at time has the normal-inverse Gaussian distribution described above. The NIG process is a particular instance of the more general class of Lévy processes. As a variance-mean mixture
Let denote the inverse Gaussian distribution and denote the normal distribution. Let , where ; and let , then follows the NIG distribution, with parameters, . This can be used to generate NIG variates by ancestral sampling. It can also be used to derive an EM algorithm for maximum-likelihood estimation of the NIG parameters. References
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Chess Titans is a chess game with 3D graphics developed by Oberon Games and included in Windows Vista and Windows 7 Home Premium, Business/Professional, Enterprise, and Ultimate. It is a fully animated, photorealistic interactive game with ten difficulty levels. It can be played by two participants, or one player against the computer. History
The game was publicly introduced in Windows Vista build 5219. Another chess program known simply as Chess was bundled in Microsoft Entertainment Pack 4. It was developed by David Norris, a former Microsoft employee and author of the chess engine "Ziggurat". Graphics
The game is fully animated and designed for Windows Aero with its glass-like view. The game features a photorealistic board which can be rotated in 3D, and themes are available for the chess pieces and board. It showcases the 3D capabilities of Vista. Gameplay
The game can be played with either a mouse and a keyboard or any gamepad controller for Windows. It can also be played through Windows Media Center, using the remote control provided with TV Tuner Cards, and certain laptops as well. On each player's turn, Chess Titans displays the last move made by the opponent. The player can also click on a chess piece to highlight all valid moves for that piece. These features can be turned off in the Options dialog box. Player vs. computer
Chess Titans has ten difficulty levels, which can be selected from the Options dialog box. The player can also choose whether to play as black or white. | [
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When playing against the computer for the first time, the player is prompted to choose an initial difficulty level of Beginner (level 2), Intermediate (level 5), or Advanced (level 8). Chess Titans keeps a record of how many games the player has won, drawn, and lost against the computer at each difficulty level. Player vs. player
In a two-player game, the chess board automatically turns 180 degrees for the opposite player after each move. This option can be turned off. Chess Titans saves all two-player game scores. See also
List of games included with Windows
References
2006 video games
Chess software
Windows games
Windows-only games
Microsoft games
Video games developed in the United States
Windows Vista
Windows 7 | [
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The variance-gamma distribution, generalized Laplace distribution or Bessel function distribution is a continuous probability distribution that is defined as the normal variance-mean mixture where the mixing density is the gamma distribution. The tails of the distribution decrease more slowly than the normal distribution. It is therefore suitable to model phenomena where numerically large values are more probable than is the case for the normal distribution. Examples are returns from financial assets and turbulent wind speeds. The distribution was introduced in the financial literature by Madan and Seneta. The variance-gamma distributions form a subclass of the generalised hyperbolic distributions. The fact that there is a simple expression for the moment generating function implies that simple expressions for all moments are available. The class of variance-gamma distributions is closed under convolution in the following sense. If and are independent random variables that are variance-gamma distributed with the same values of the parameters and , but possibly different values of the other parameters, , and , respectively, then is variance-gamma distributed with parameters , , and . The variance-gamma distribution can also be expressed in terms of three inputs parameters (C,G,M) denoted after the initials of its founders. If the "C", here, parameter is integer then the distribution has a closed form 2-EPT distribution. See 2-EPT Probability Density Function. Under this restriction closed form option prices can be derived. If , and , the distribution becomes a Laplace distribution with scale parameter . As long as , alternative choices of and will produce distributions related to the Laplace distribution, with skewness, scale and location depending on the other parameters. | [
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] |
For a symmetric variance-gamma distribution, the kurtosis can be given by . See also Variance gamma process. Notes
Continuous distributions | [
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An object manager is a concept, and often a piece of software, found in object-oriented programming. The object manager provides rules for retention, naming and security of objects. Object (computer science) | [
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The Ljung–Box test (named for Greta M. Ljung and George E. P. Box) is a type of statistical test of whether any of a group of autocorrelations of a time series are different from zero. Instead of testing randomness at each distinct lag, it tests the "overall" randomness based on a number of lags, and is therefore a portmanteau test. This test is sometimes known as the Ljung–Box Q test, and it is closely connected to the Box–Pierce test (which is named after George E. P. Box and David A. Pierce). In fact, the Ljung–Box test statistic was described explicitly in the paper that led to the use of the Box–Pierce statistic, and from which that statistic takes its name. The Box–Pierce test statistic is a simplified version of the Ljung–Box statistic for which subsequent simulation studies have shown poor performance. The Ljung–Box test is widely applied in econometrics and other applications of time series analysis. A similar assessment can be also carried out with the Breusch–Godfrey test and the Durbin–Watson test. Formal definition
The Ljung–Box test may be defined as:
H0: The data are independently distributed (i.e. the correlations in the population from which the sample is taken are 0, so that any observed correlations in the data result from randomness of the sampling process). Ha: The data are not independently distributed; they exhibit serial correlation. The test statistic is:
where n is the sample size, is the sample autocorrelation at lag k, and h is the number of lags being tested. Under the statistic Q asymptotically follows a . | [
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For significance level α, the critical region for rejection of the hypothesis of randomness is:
where is the (1 − α)-quantile of the chi-squared distribution with h degrees of freedom. The Ljung–Box test is commonly used in autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) modeling. Note that it is applied to the residuals of a fitted ARIMA model, not the original series, and in such applications the hypothesis actually being tested is that the residuals from the ARIMA model have no autocorrelation. When testing the residuals of an estimated ARIMA model, the degrees of freedom need to be adjusted to reflect the parameter estimation. For example, for an ARIMA(p,0,q) model, the degrees of freedom should be set to . Box–Pierce test
The Box–Pierce test uses the test statistic, in the notation outlined above, given by
and it uses the same critical region as defined above. Simulation studies have shown that the distribution for the Ljung–Box statistic is closer to a distribution than is the distribution for the Box–Pierce statistic for all sample sizes including small ones. Implementations in statistics packages
R: the Box.test function in the stats package
Python: the acorr_ljungbox function in the statsmodels package
Julia: the Ljung–Box tests and the Box–Pierce tests are available in the HypothesisTests package. See also
Q-statistic
Wald–Wolfowitz runs test
Breusch–Godfrey test
Durbin–Watson test
References
Further reading
External links
Time series statistical tests
Time domain analysis
de:Box-Ljung-Test | [
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Arm span or reach (sometimes referred to as wingspan, or spelled "armspan") is the physical measurement of the length from one end of an individual's arms (measured at the fingertips) to the other when raised parallel to the ground at shoulder height at a 90° angle. The arm span measurement is usually very close to the person's height. Age, sex, and ethnicity have to be taken into account to best predict height from arm span. Arm span is sometimes used when a height measurement is needed but the individual cannot stand on a traditional stadiometer or against a wall due to abnormalities of the back or legs, such as scoliosis, osteoporosis, amputations, or those who are confined to a bed or wheelchair. Other, possibly more accurate measuring techniques include knee length or recumbent length when possible. Because any decrease in height will cause an increase in the ratio of arm span to height, a large span to height ratio may sometimes be an indicator of a health problem that caused a vertical height loss such as postural changes due to ageing or any spinal conditions such as Degenerative Disc Disease. Arm span in sports
An above-average reach is advantageous in sports such as basketball, tennis, boxing, mixed martial arts, volleyball, discus throw, fencing, rock climbing, and swimming. For instance, boxer Sonny Liston, while 185 cm (6 ft 1 in) tall, had a reach of 213 cm (7 ft 0 in). | [
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Another example is UFC former Light heavyweight Champion Jon Jones, who is 193 cm (6 ft 4 in) tall, but has an advantageous reach of 215 cm (7 ft 0.5 in). This unusually long reach allowed them to hit opposing fighters from relatively safe distances where they could not reach them. However, a long arm span is mechanically disadvantageous on the bench press. Procedure
The most common and easily accessible method of measuring armspan uses the demi-span. Using a tape measure, measure from the individual's sternal notch (center of the breastbone) to their middle finger as it is stretched out to one side, then double the demi-span for the actual armspan measurement. Demi-span is used because measuring from fingertip to fingertip is difficult, requiring two people or markings on a wall. Height estimation
For bed-ridden patients, direct measurement of height is typically impractical. Since on average, a person's arm-span and height are equal, the measured span may be used as a good estimate of height. See also
Ape index
Human body
Marfan syndrome – high limbs to height ratio
References
Further reading
Anthropometry
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GumTree is an open-source scientific workbench for performing scientific experiments under a distributed network environment. It provides a multi-platform graphical user interface for instrument data acquisition, online or offline data visualisation and analysis. GumTree is designed to provide a highly Integrated Scientific Experiment Environment (ISEE), allowing interaction between different components within the workbench. Several instrument control server systems including TANGO, EPICS and SICS have been adapted to GumTree. Current developments include acquisition, control and analysis on neutron and synchrotron beamlines. In the future it will be extended telescope control and other scientific instruments with distributed hardware. History
GumTree was first started as a small graphical user interface project to fulfill the IT requirement for the Neutron Beam Instrument Project (NBIP) at ANSTO. Later in the year, the GumTree project has been approved to go open source for international collaboration. 02/2004 GumTree project started
08/2004 GumTree was approved to go open source
09/2005 GumTree 1.0 milestone 7 released
03/2006 GumTree has received the Best Open Source RCP Application from the Eclipse Foundation
01/2007 Codehaus has accepted to host the GumTree Project on their website
09/2008 GumTree 1.0 released
Architecture
GumTree is based on the Eclipse Rich Client Platform (RCP). In order to support scientific operations, GumTree extends RCP with data handling framework and visualisation toolkit as part of the GumTree platform API. GumTree Extension
Adapting GumTree on a particular instrument requires special customisation to fit the scientific workbench to its instrument ecosystem. Customisation of GumTree can be achieved by adding new plug-ins to the existing GumTree application. | [
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In a broader sense, the common base of GumTree is a generic platform which provides all the necessary infrastructure to realise the ISEE concept for the scientific instrument. This platform, known as the GumTree Platform, is built and modelled upon an award-winning Java based universal platform called Eclipse. The GumTree Platform consists of an Eclipse Rich Client Platform (RCP) application, and an application framework for handling data exchange, experiment life cycle, device control (via distributed control system e.g. TANGO), application accessibility, data visualisation, and data analysis. All services from the platform can be extended and modified to suit any particular scientific instrument. A developer adds a GumTree workbench (or RCP based GumTree application) which integrates all services provided by the GumTree Platform. The GumTree Platform encourages developers to encapsulate the knowledge of an experiment method or procedure in the workbench. External links
Official GumTree website (at web.archive.org) - Project Information, News and Issue Tracking
SourceForge project page - GumTree project at SF.net. GumTree M7 – New and Noteworthy - Available features from the latest GumTree release. Free science software | [
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Covestro AG is a German company which produces a variety of polyurethane and polycarbonate based raw materials. Products include isocyanates and polyols for cellular foams, thermoplastic polyurethane and polycarbonate pellets, as well as polyurethane based additives used in the formulation of coatings and adhesives. It is a Bayer spin off formed in the fall of 2015 and was formerly called Bayer MaterialScience, Bayer's materials science division. Covestro shares were first offered on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange in October 2015. Bayer sold its entire remaining stake in May 2018, Bayer's pension fund had a 6.8% stake managed separately. The main industries served are automotive manufacturing and supply, electrical engineering and electronics, construction and home products, and sports and leisure. Their products include coatings and adhesives, polyurethanes that are used in thermal insulation, electrical housings, and as a component of footwear and mattresses, and polycarbonates such as Covestro's Makrolon, which are highly impact-resistant plastics. Covestro polyurethane was used in the 2014 official FIFA World Cup football. Before 2019, Covestro enjoyed rapid earnings growth following supply shortages of chemicals used in foams. Financials
In 2015, the company netted USD revenues of $13.46B, net income of $382M and an operating margin of 5.1%. In 2018, the company's revenues were $16.29B, net income of $2B, and operating margin of 15.5%. In Q1 of 2019, a drop in revenue and net income was seen, with revenues down at $3.54B compared to 2018's Q1 of $4.21B, a 16% drop. | [
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Q2 2019 revenues also saw a 16.9% drop from Q2 2018's $4.3B to $3.58B. Likewise with Net income, Q2 2019 also dropped from Q2 2018's $672M to $210M. Among the 3 key segments of the company, Polyurethanes (PUs), Polycarbonates (PCs), and Coatings/Adhesives/Specialties, Polyurethanes experienced 70.5% drop in EBITDA Q2 2019 compared to Q2 2018 due to needing to drop prices from increased supply and competition. Revenues dropped from $2.19B to $1.66B in Q2 2019 as a result. The next biggest drop in key segments was Polycarbonates from revenues $1.18B to $1B Q2 2019 over past year. The price drop of PUs and PCs were -26.8% and -18.8% respectively. According to the report, demand drop of the auto industry led to a drop in volumes for PCs while construction and electronics industries grew. See also
Linde Group
Bayer
BASF
Lanxess
Viverso
References
External links
Official website
2015 establishments in Germany
Chemical companies of Germany
Chemical companies established in 2015
Companies based in North Rhine-Westphalia
Companies listed on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange
Corporate spin-offs
Former Bayer subsidiaries | [
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NirmaLabs is a high-tech incubator located at Nirma University campus in Ahmedabad, India. A not-for-profit Section 25 company, NirmaLabs was set up by Nirma Education and Research Foundation (NERF). NirmaLabs is a brain child of Dr. Madhu Mehta (a father of telecom revolution in India). The Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, lists NirmaLabs as a Technology Business Incubator. NirmaLabs' Spin off Companies:
RapidRadio Solutions Pvt. Ltd.
Acton Bio-tech
Orizin Technologies Pvt. Ltd.
Axio Biosolutions Pvt. Ltd.
Anaxee Tech Pvt. Ltd
See also
Business plan
Entrepreneurship
List of business incubators
Science park
Startup
Venture capital
References
External links
Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India
RapidRadio Solutions Pvt.Ltd. Institutes of Nirma University of Science & Technology
Radio-frequency identification
Business incubators of India | [
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CESNET (Czech Education and Scientific NETwork) is developer and operator of national e-infrastructure for science, research, development and education in Czech Republic. The CESNET association was founded in 1996 by Czech public universities and the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic. An important part of CESNET's activities is research of advanced network technologies and applications from hybrid networking, programmable hardware, metacomputing to middleware and video transmissions. CESNET fulfils the role of NREN within the Czech Republic and represents it in international organisations such as the GÉANT Association (established through a merger between TERENA and DANTE), EGI and GLIF. CESNET is involved in the implementation of the European backbone network project called GÉANT. Within the Czech Republic CESNET fulfils the role of a coordinator of large infrastructures involved in the field of information technology. CESNET e-Infrastructure
The CESNET e-infrastructure is a complex system of interconnected tools that provides a wide range of services necessary for transmission, storage and data processing. These include, for example, performance computing clusters with programs used in many areas, a large data repository used for data storage and sharing, multimedia communication tools making cooperation between distributed teams easier, and other services. These modern IT services are used for scientific and research work, and for problem solving focusing on a wide range of disciplines which are not confined to natural sciences, such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and computer science, but also include, for example, humanitarian sciences and art. | [
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The extensive e-infrastructure is composed of four basic logically coherent components:
• high throughput communication infrastructure with a transfer speed of 100 Gbit/s (CESNET2),
• grid infrastructure suitable for high performance computing,
• data storage infrastructure,
• infrastructure allowing collaboration between distributed teams and end user mobility. The CESNET e-infrastructure includes institutions such as public, state and private universities, institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, university hospitals, scientific and other libraries, technological and innovation centres and science parks, important cultural institutions and many other scientific and research institutions. The total number of individual users with access to the CESNET e-infrastructure in the Czech Republic is about 450 thousand persons. Thanks to a direct connection with GÉANT, the backbone network for science, research and education, and also thanks to a connection to research networks in other world regions provided by GÉANT (Internet2 and ESnet in the USA, AfricaConnect in Africa, TEIN in Asia and CLARA in the Pacific and Latin America), the CESNET e- infrastructure even allows cooperation and operation of demanding and unique applications and data sharing in the multinational and international scientific community. The CESNET e-infrastructure is included in the Czech Roadmap showing large infrastructures used for research, experimental development and innovation of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport of the Czech Republic. History
During the 1990s, the so-called national networks for science, research and education were established in the majority of European countries, the aim of which was to serve the specific needs of scientific and academic communities. | [
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The beginning of academic networks in the Czech Republic dates back to 1991, when a mainframe computer was installed in the computing centre of the Czech Technical University, which was then connected to the EARN (European Academic Research Network) academic network. The transfer speed was 9.6 kbit/s, and it was the first opportunity to access the global network infrastructure from the country. In 1992, the transfer speed doubled and was divided into two independent channels. One channel continued to be used for the EARN network, and the other one was used for the Internet. The Czech Republic was officially connected to the Internet on 13 February 1992. The academic community showed a huge interest in being connected to the network. Representatives of universities and institutes of the Academy of Sciences met to discuss the technical solutions for the network that would be used to connect their institutions. The result was a project called FESNET (Federal Education and Scientific NETwork), which was supported by the Department of Education. After the split of Czechoslovakia in 1993, the CESNET project was modified, and the CESNET network was put into operation at the beginning of 1993. From 1992 to 1999 CESNET supported a commercial network, but this activity was sold in early 1999 and from that time CESNET was fully focused on academic networking. Putting research results into practice
The CESNET e-infrastructure is being purposefully built according to the specific needs of the research, scientific and academic community in the Czech Republic (which differ significantly from ordinary corporate ICT support requirements). | [
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The development and gradual modernisation of the e-infrastructure is to a great extent the result of own CESNET research and development. The result of original technical solutions are several national patents, one European patent and three patents registered with the United States Department of Commerce - United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). CESNET holds 18 utility models and is the author of several functional models and prototypes authorised software. CESNET, as a non-profit organisation, handled the actual transfer of research and development achievements into practice by establishing the spin-off companies INVEA-TECH a.s. and Comprimato Systems, s.r.o., and by concluding applicable licensing agreements. References
Travel map showing large Czech infrastructures for research, experimental development and innovation of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports
Membership organisations of the GÉANT Association
Merger between Dante and Terena
GLIF member organisations
Participation of the CESNET Association in the international Elixir project
Member organisation of XiFi international project
National Coordinator of IP mobility support and eduroam.org roaming
External links
Official site
Current members
Current network load
GÉANT Association webpage
Webpage of the European backbone network GÉANT
Internet in the Czech Republic
National research and education networks | [
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Paloozaville is an animated/live-action series for children and their parents on the Video On Demand network, Mag Rack. The Mag Rack original series was created exclusively for On Demand and stars John Lithgow as Paloozaville's absent-minded mayor. The show is based on Lithgow's best selling children's books. Every episode begins with a boredom crisis that is subsequently solved by co-host Suza Palooza (Carmen De La Paz) and her team of kids. Every episode has a different theme centering on arts and crafts, music, history, dance, literature, and drama. The series strives to create educational children's entertainment that will allow parents to spend time with their children and learn at the same time. External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20060822014311/http://www.magrack.com/paloozaville/
Video on demand
2000s American children's television series
American television series with live action and animation | [
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In linguistics, Old Dutch or Old Low Franconian is the set of Franconian dialects (i.e. dialects that evolved from Frankish) spoken in the Low Countries during the Early Middle Ages, from around the 5th to the 12th century. Old Dutch is mostly recorded on fragmentary relics, and words have been reconstructed from Middle Dutch and Old Dutch loanwords in French. Old Dutch is regarded as the primary stage in the development of a separate Dutch language. It was spoken by the descendants of the Salian Franks who occupied what is now the southern Netherlands, northern Belgium, part of northern France, and parts of the Lower Rhine regions of Germany. It evolved into Middle Dutch around the 12th century. The inhabitants of northern Dutch provinces, including Groningen, Friesland, and the coast of North Holland, spoke Old Frisian, and some in the east (Achterhoek, Overijssel, and Drenthe) spoke Old Saxon. Terminology
Within the field of historical philology, the terminology for the oldest historical phase of the Dutch language traditionally includes both Old Dutch as well as Old Low Franconian. In English linguistic publications, Old Netherlandic is occasionally used in addition to the aforementioned terms. Old Low Franconian, derives from the linguistic category first devised by the German linguist Wilhelm Braune (1850–1926), who used the term Franconian as a wastebasket taxon for the early West Germanic texts that he could not readily classify as belonging to either Saxon, Alemannic or Bavarian and assumed to derive from the language of the Franks. | [
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He subsequently further divided this new grouping into Low, Middle and High Franconian based on the absence or presence of the Second Germanic consonant shift. With the exception of Dutch, modern linguistic research has challenged the direct diachronical connection to Old Frankish for most of the varieties grouped under the broader "Franconian" category. Nevertheless, the traditional terminology of the West Germanic varieties along assumed Late Classical tribal lines, typical of 19th and early 20th century Germanic linguistics, remains common. Within historical linguistics Old Low Franconian is synonymous with Old Dutch. Depending on the author, the temporal boundary between Old Dutch and Old Frankish is either defined by the onset of the Second Germanic consonant shift in Eastern Frankish, the assimilation of an unattested coastal dialect showing North Sea Germanic-features by West Frankish during the closing of the 9th century, or a combination of both. Some linguists use the terms Old Low Franconian or West Frankish to specifically refer to the (very sparsely attested) varieties of Old Dutch spoken prior its assimilation of the coastal dialect. Old Dutch itself is further divided into Old West Dutch and Old East Dutch, with the descendants of Old West Dutch forming the dominant basis of the Middle Dutch literary language and Old East Dutch forming a noticeable substrate within the easternmost Dutch dialects, such as Limburgish. The practice of using Low Franconian in place of Dutch is exclusive to the Old Dutch period, the subsequent stage of the Dutch language, Middle Dutch, is not referred to as Middle Low Franconian nor does this term exist as a synonym or alternative to Middle Dutch. | [
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Origins and characteristics
Before the advent of Old Dutch or any of the Germanic languages, Germanic dialects were mutually intelligible. The North Sea Germanic dialects were spoken in the whole of the coastal parts of the Netherlands and Belgium. Old Frisian was one of these dialects, and elements of it survived through the Frisian language, spoken in the province of Friesland in the North of the Netherlands. In the rest of the coastal region, these dialects were mostly displaced following the withdrawal to England of the migrating Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who gave rise to Old English. It was largely replaced by Weser-Rhine Germanic dialects, spoken by the Salian Franks. It spread from northern Belgium and the southern Netherlands to the coast and evolved into Old Dutch. It has, however, a North sea Germanic substrate. Linguists typically date this transition to around the 5th century. Relation with other West Germanic languages
Central Franconian and Old High German
Old Dutch is divided into Old West Low Franconian and Old East Low Franconian (Limburgian); however, these varieties are very closely related, the divergence being that the latter shares more traits with neighboring historical forms of Central Franconian dialects such as Ripuarian and Moselle Franconian. While both forms of Low Franconian were instrumental to the framing of Middle Dutch, Old East Low Franconian did not contribute much to Standard Dutch, which is based on the consolidated dialects of Holland and Brabant. | [
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During the Merovingian period, the Central Franconian dialects were influenced by Old Low Franconian (Old Dutch), resulting in certain linguistic loans which yielded a slight overlap of vocabulary, most of which relates to warfare. In addition is the subsumption of the High German consonant shift, a set of phonological changes beginning around the 5th or 6th century that partially influenced Old Dutch, and extensively influenced Central Franconian and other Old High German dialects. Old Saxon, Old English and Old Frisian
Old English, Old Frisian and (to a lesser degree) Old Saxon share the application of the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law. Old Dutch was considerably less affected than those other three languages, but a dialect continuum formed/existed between Old Dutch, Old Saxon and Old Frisian. Despite sharing some particular features, a number of disparities separate Old Saxon, Old Frisian, Old English and Old Dutch. One such difference is that Old Dutch used -a as its plural a-stem noun ending, while Old Saxon and Old English employed -as or -os. Much of the grammatical variation between Old Dutch and Old Saxon is similar to that between Old Dutch and Old High German. Relation to Middle Dutch
Old Dutch naturally evolved into Middle Dutch with some distinctions that approximate those found in most medieval West Germanic languages. The year 1150 is often cited as the time of the discontinuity, but it actually marks a time of profuse Dutch writing whose language is patently different from Old Dutch. The most notable difference between Old and Middle Dutch is in a feature of speech known as vowel reduction. | [
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] |
Round vowels in word-final syllables are rather frequent in Old Dutch, but in Middle Dutch, they are reduced to a schwa:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Old Dutch ! ! Middle Dutch ! ! English
|-
| vogala || vogele || bird (fowl)
|-
| daga / dago || daghe || days (nominative/genitive)
|-
| brecan || breken || to break
|-
| gescrivona || ghescreven || written (past participle)
|}
The following is a translation of Psalm 55:18, taken from the Wachtendonck Psalms; it shows the evolution of Dutch, from the original Old Dutch, written 900, to modern Dutch, but so accurately copies the Latin word order of the original that there is little information that can be garnered on Old Dutch syntax. In Modern Dutch, recasting is necessary to form a coherent sentence. {| class="wikitable"
|-
! Old Dutch
| Irlōsin sal an frithe sēla mīna fan thēn thia ginācont mi, wanda under managon he was mit mi. |-
! Middle Dutch
| Erlosen sal hi in vrede siele mine van dien die genaken mi, want onder menegen hi was met mi. |-
! Modern Dutch (with old word order)
| Verlossen zal hij in vrede ziel mijn van zij die genaken mij, want onder menigen hij was met mij. |-
! Modern Dutch (with new word order)
| Hij zal mijn ziel verlossen in vrede van hen die mij genaken, want onder menigen was hij met mij. |-
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English
| He will deliver my soul in peace from those who attack me, for, amongst many, he was with me. |}
Surviving texts
Old Dutch texts are extremely rare and much more limited than for related languages like Old English and Old High German. Most of the earliest texts written in the Netherlands were written in Latin, rather than Old Dutch. Some of the Latin texts, however, contained Old Dutch words interspersed with the Latin text. Also, it is hard to determine whether a text actually was written in Old Dutch, as the Germanic languages spoken at that time were not standardised and were much more similar to one another. Oldest word (108)
Several words that are known to have developed in the Netherlands before Old Dutch was spoken have been found, and they are sometimes called (English: "Old Netherlandic" or "Old Dutch") in a geographic sense. The oldest known example, (English: "mudflat"), had already been mentioned in AD 108 by Tacitus. The word exclusively referred to the region and ground type that is now known as the Wadden Sea. However, since the word existed long before Old Dutch did (and even before its parent language, Frankish), it cannot be considered part of the vocabulary of Old Dutch but rather of Proto-Germanic. Bergakker inscription (425–450)
This sentence has been interpreted as "[property] of Haþuþewaz. I bestow upon the choosers of the swords". | [
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It was discovered on a sword sheath, excavated in 1996 in the Dutch village of Bergakker and is perhaps better described as Frankish than Old Dutch (Frankish was the direct parent language of Old Dutch). The text however, shows the beginning of Old Dutch morphology. The word ann, found in the partially-translated inscription is coined as the oldest Dutch by linguists Nicoline van der Sijs and Tanneke Schoonheim from Genootschap Onze Taal. They attribute that word to the ancestor of the modern Dutch verb root gun, through the addition of the prefix ge-. (An English cognate probably survives in to own (up) in the sense of 'to acknowledge, concede'.) Its modern meaning is roughly "to think someone deserves something, to derive satisfaction from someone else's success", and it is commonly translated as "grant" or "bestow". Salic Law (6th century)
Glosses to the Salic law code (the Malbergse glossen) contain several Old Dutch words and this full sentence, which is likely the earliest in the language. It translates as "I declare, I free you, half-free" and was written in the early 6th century. The phrase was used to free a serf. A lito (English: half-free) was a form of serf in the feudal system, a half-free farmer, who was connected to the land of the lord for whom he worked but not owned by that lord. In contrast, a slave was fully owned by the lord. | [
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The Old Dutch word and the Modern Dutch counterpart laat are both etymologically and in meaning undoubtedly related to the verb root laat (English: 'let go', 'release'), which may indicate the fairly free status of such person in relation to that a slave. Note that the Old Dutch word lito is particularly recognisable in the verb's past tense lieten. Utrecht Baptismal Vow (8th century)
The Utrecht Baptismal Vow, or Old Saxon Baptismal Vow, is a 9th-century baptismal vow that was found in a monastery library in the German city of Mainz but was written in the Dutch city of Utrecht. The sentence translates as "And I renounce all the deeds and words of the devil, Thunear, Wōden and Saxnōt, and all those fiends that are their companions". It mentions three Germanic pagan gods of the early Saxons which the reader is to forsake: Uuôden ("Woden"), Thunaer and Saxnōt. Scholar Rudolf Simek comments that the vow is of particular interest because it is the sole instance of the god Saxnōt mentioned in a religious context. One of many baptismal vows, it is now archived in the Vatican Codex pal. 577. Sometimes interpreteted as Old Saxon, a number of Dutch and German scholars have concluded the Baptismal Vow was actually written in the 8th century in Old Dutch. The difficulty in establishing whether the text was written in Old Saxon or Old Franconian is that those languages were very much alike. | [
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The Wachtendonck Psalms (10th century)
The Wachtendonck Psalms are a collection of Latin psalms, with a translation in an eastern variety of Old Dutch (Old East Low Franconian) which contains a number of Old High German elements. The example sentence above translates as "He will deliver my soul in peace from those who attack me, for, amongst many, he was with me." Probably based on a Central Franconian original, very little remains of the psalms. They were named after a manuscript that has not survived but was the source from which scholars believe the surviving fragments must have been copied. The manuscript was once owned by Canon Arnold Wachtendonck. The surviving fragments are handwritten copies made by the Renaissance scholar Justus Lipsius in the sixteenth century. Lipsius made a number of separate copies of what appeared to be the same material, but the versions do not always agree. In addition, scholars conclude that the numerous errors and inconsistencies in the fragments point not only to some carelessness or inattentiveness by the Renaissance scholars but also to errors in the now-lost manuscript out of which the material was copied. The language of the Psalms suggests that they were originally written in the 10th century. The Leiden Willeram (1100)
This example sentence taken from the Leiden Willeram translates as "All night long on my bed I looked for the one my heart loves; I looked for him but did not find him". | [
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The manuscript, now in the library of the Leiden University in the Netherlands, contains an Old Dutch translation of an Old High German (East Frankish) commentary on Song of Solomon, written by the German abbot Williram of Ebersberg. The translation was done by a monk of the Abbey of Egmond, and so the manuscript's other name is Egmond Willeram. The text represents an imperfect attempt to translate the original into the local Old Dutch vernacular. The text contains many Old Dutch words as well as mistranslated words since the scribe must have been unfamiliar with some Old High German words in the original. It could nevertheless be regarded as the first book written in Old Dutch. However, since the book never left the abbey, it cannot be regarded as the start of a Dutch literature and did not influence later works. Hebban olla vogala (1100)
Arguably the most famous text containing Old Dutch, the fragment is translated as "All birds have started making nests, except me and you, what are we waiting for?" The text is dated from around 1100 and written by a West Flemish monk in a convent in Rochester, England. For a long time, the sentence was commonly but erroneously considered to be the earliest in Dutch. However, it could be considered the oldest Dutch non-religious poetry. The text is usually considered a West Flemish dialect, but certain Ingvaeonic forms might be expected in any of the coastal dialects of Old English, Old Frisian, Old Saxon or Old Dutch. | [
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However, the -n of the third-person plural hebban, which is absent in both Old English and Frisian, identifies the language as Old Dutch (Old High German habent uses a different stem). Hagunnan and hi(c) have a prothetic h, which points also to West Flemish in which the h was frequently dropped or, in the written language, added before vowels (compare abent in the Latin version). However, it has been postulated that the text could equally well be Old English, more specifically Old Kentish. The Rhinelandic Rhyming Bible (12th century)
Translated as "Mention one king or earl who wants to believe in their god, what they say is a lie, that's how the people are being deceived", this fragment comes from an important source for Old Dutch: the Rhinelandic Rhyming Bible (Dutch: ; German: ). The verse translation of biblical histories is attested only in a series of fragments from different writers. It contains Low German (Low Saxon), Old Dutch (Low Franconian) and High German (Rhine-Franconian) elements. It was likely composed in the northwest of Germany in the early 12th century, possibly in Werden Abbey, near Essen. Phonology
Early sound developments
Phonologically, Old Dutch stands in between Old Saxon and Old High German, sharing some innovations with the latter, and others with the former. Characteristics shared with Old Saxon
The Old Germanic diphthongs ai and au become the long vowels ē and ō. Examples: hēm, slōt. | [
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There are, however, several examples that show that a diphthong ei remained in some cases. Loss of Proto-Germanic z word-finally in single-syllable words, e.g. thi vs Old High German thir/dir < PG *þiz (dative of the second-person singular pronoun). Characteristics shared with Old High German
The West Germanic ō () and ē (, from Proto-Germanic ē2) become diphthongs uo and ie in stressed syllables. Old Dutch fluot versus Old Saxon flōd, Old Dutch hier versus Old Saxon hēr. The h-sound in consonant clusters at the beginning of a word disappears around the 9th century while it is retained in the northern languages. Examples include Old Dutch ringis ("ring", genitive), Old High German ring versus Old Saxon and Old English hring, or ros ("steed") versus Old English hros ("horse"). j is lost when following two consonants, with -jan becoming -en. It is most prominent in ja- and jō-stem nouns and adjectives, and in verbs of the first weak class. Characteristics not shared with Old Saxon or Old High German
Final obstruent devoicing. This later spread to the other Germanic dialects (as well as several Romance languages such as Old French and Old Occitan). h disappears between vowels (shared with the Anglo-Frisian languages). Old Dutch thion, Old English þēon versus Old High German dîhan, or Old Dutch (ge)sian, Old English sēon versus Old High German sehan. (The h in modern German sehen became mute only in later stages of German.) | [
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The sound combination hs () becomes a geminated ss. Example: Old Dutch vusso versus Old Saxon fohs, Old High German fuhs. (A development shared by the Middle Franconian dialects of High German: compare Luxembourgish Fuuss. The Anglo-Frisian languages instead shift hs to ks: compare Old English fox, Old Frisian foks.) Consonants
The table below lists the consonantal phonemes of Old Dutch. For descriptions of the sounds and definitions of the terms, follow the links on the headings. Notes:
were most likely bilabial whereas were most likely labiodental. could have been either dental or alveolar . had a velar allophone when it occurred before the velars . had a velarised allophone between a back vowel and or . It might have also been used in other environments, as it is the case in Modern Dutch. was likely dental , but it could have also been alveolar , as it is the case in Modern Icelandic. was most likely alveolar, either a trill or a tap . Most consonants could be geminated. Notably, geminated gave , and geminated probably gave . Geminated resulted in . In the course of the Old Dutch period the voiceless spirants gained voiced allophones when positioned at the beginning of a syllable. The change is faithfully reflected for , the other two allophones continuing to be written as before. In the Wachtendonck Psalms, it is very rare, but much later, it can be seen in the spelling of Dutch toponyms. Thus, the sound change was taking place during the 10th and 11th century. | [
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also occurred word-medially as an independent phoneme, developed from Proto-Germanic , the fricative allophone of . After , was realized as a plosive . Postvocalic was realized as velar . Final-obstruent devoicing
Final-obstruent devoicing of Proto-Germanic to occurred across the West Germanic languages, and thus also in Old Dutch. Old Dutch spelling also reveals final devoicing of other consonants, namely:
> : wort ("word", nominative) versus wordes (genitive)
> : weh ("way", accusative) versus wege ("way", dative)
Final devoicing was countered by the syllable-initial voicing of voiceless fricatives, which made and allophones of each other. Final devoicing appears much earlier in Old Dutch than it does Old Saxon and Old High German. In fact, by judging from the find at Bergakker, it would seem that the language already had inherited this characteristic from Old Frankish whereas Old Saxon and Old High German are known to have maintained word-final voiced obstruents much later (at least 900). Vowels
Notes:
Phonetic realisation of differed by area. In most areas, it was probably realised phonetically as central or front or a diphthong before a vowel, but it was probably retained as back or in others (at least in Limburg). While there is no direct evidence for this in Old Dutch, it can be inferred by later developments in Middle Dutch. Long vowels were rare in unstressed syllables and occurred mostly because of suffixation or compounding. and were originally umlaut allophones of and before or in the following syllable. | [
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They were, however, partly phonemicised when the conditioning sounds were gradually lost over time. Sometimes, the fronting was reverted later. Regardless of phonemic distinction, they were still written as u and o. As in northwestern High German, was lowered to by the end of the Old Dutch period and is no longer distinguished from (likely ) in writing. In western dialects, the two phonemes eventually merge. and were also similar in articulation, but they did not merge except in some small and frequently used monosyllables (such as bin > ben, 'I am'). They, however, merged consistently when they were later lengthened in open syllables. The backness of and is unknown. They may have been front , central , back or mixed (for example, was back whereas was front , as in modern Dutch). probably had a rounded allophone before velarised . It eventually merged with in this position, as in Low Saxon, but in Dutch, the velar vocalised, creating a diphthong. In unstressed syllables, only three vowels seem to have been reliably distinguished: open, front and back. In the Wachtendonck Psalms, the e and i merged in unstressed syllables, as did o and u. That led to variants like dagi and dage ("day", dative singular) and tungon and tungun ("tongue", genitive, dative, accusative singular and nominative, dative, accusative plural). | [
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The forms with e and o are generally found later on, showing the gradual reduction of the articulatory distinction, eventually merging into a schwa (). A short phrase from the gospel book of Munsterbilzen Abbey, written around 1130, still shows several unstressed vowels distinguished:
Tesi samanunga was edele unde scona
This community was noble and pure
That was a late monument, however, as the merging of all unstressed short vowels was already well underway by that time. Most likely, the difference was maintained only in spelling traditions, but it had been mostly lost in speech. With the introduction of new scribal traditions in the 12th and 13th century, the practices were abandoned, and unstressed vowels were consistently written as e from that time onward. Notes:
The closing diphthongs and occurred systematically only in the southeastern dialects, having merged with and elsewhere. The other dialects retained only , in words where earlier had been affected by umlaut (which prevented it from becoming in many Old Dutch dialects, but not in Old Saxon). The situation for the front opening diphthongs is somewhat unclear, but it seems similar to the situation for unstressed short vowels. Words written with io in Old High German are often found written with ia or even ie in Old Dutch. They had likely merged with each other already during the Old Dutch period. Similarly eventually merged with the other opening diphthongs in some dialects. In the others, it merged with in most cases (after having passed through an intermediate stage such as ). | [
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There also existed 'long' diphthongs and , but these were treated as two-syllable sequences of a long vowel followed by a short one, not as proper diphthongs. Orthography
Old Dutch was spelt using the Latin alphabet. The length of a vowel was generally not represented in writing probably because the missionaries, who were the ones capable of writing and teaching how to write, tended to base the written language on Latin, which also did not make a distinction in writing: dag "day" (short vowel), thahton "they thought" (long vowel). Later on, the long vowels were sometimes marked with a macron to indicate a long vowel: ā. In some texts long vowels were indicated by simply doubling the vowel in question, as in the placename Heembeke and personal name Oodhelmus (both from charters written in 941 and 797 respectively). c is used for when it is followed by u, o or a: cuning 'king' (modern koning). In front of i or e, the earlier texts (especially names in Latin deeds and charters) used ch. By the later tenth century, the newer letter k (which was rarely used in Latin) was starting to replace this spelling: kēron 'to turn around' (mod. keren). It is not exactly clear how c was pronounced before i or e in Old Dutch. In the Latin orthography of the time, c before front vowels stood for an affricate ; it is quite likely that early Dutch spelling followed that pronunciation. | [
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g represented or its allophone : brengan 'to bring', segghan 'to say', wege 'way' (dative). h represents and its allophone : holto 'wood' (mod. hout), naht 'night' (mod. nacht). i is used for both the vowels and and the consonant : ik 'I' (mod. ik), iār 'year' (mod. jaar). qu always represents : quāmon 'they came' (mod. kwamen). s represented the consonant and later also . th is used to indicate : thāhton 'they thought' (mod. dachten). Occasionally, dh is used for . u represented the vowels and or the consonant : uusso 'foxes' (genitive plural). uu was normally used to represent . It evolved into the separate letter w during the later Middle Ages. See W#History. z rarely appears, and when it does, it is pronounced : quezzodos 'you hurt' (past tense, now kwetste). Grammar
Nouns
Old Dutch may have preserved at least four of the six cases of Proto-Germanic: nominative, accusative, genitive and dative. A fifth case, the instrumental, could have also existed. The a declension
The -s ending in the masculine plural was preserved in the coastal dialects, as can be seen in the Hebban Olla Vogala text where nestas is used instead of nesta. Later on, the -s ending entered Hollandic dialects and became part of the modern standard language. | [
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The o declension & weak feminine declension
During the Old Dutch period, the distinction between the feminine ō-stems and ōn-stems began to disappear, when endings of one were transferred to the other declension and vice versa, as part of a larger process in which the distinction between the strong and weak inflection was being lost not only in feminine nouns but also in adjectives. The process is shown in a more advanced stage in Middle Dutch. The i declension
The weak masculine and neuter declensions
Verbs
Old Dutch reflects an intermediate stage between Old Saxon and Old High German. Like Old High German, it preserved the three different verb endings in the plural (-on, -et and -unt) while the more northern languages have the same verb ending in all three persons. However, like Old Saxon, it had only two classes of weak verb, with only a few relic verbs of the third weak class, but the third class had still largely been preserved in Old High German. See also
Middle Dutch
Dutch
Low Franconian languages
References
Bibliography
External links
Old Dutch dictionary (nl)
Languages attested from the 6th century
History of the Dutch language
West Germanic languages
Low Franconian languages
Languages of the Netherlands
Languages of Belgium
Languages of Germany
Dutch, Old
Languages of France | [
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The EditDroid is a computerized analog non-linear editing (NLE) system which was developed by Lucasfilm spin-off company, the Droid Works and Convergence Corporation who formed a joint venture company. The company existed up through the mid-'80s to the early '90s in an attempt to move from analog editing methods to digital. EditDroid debuted at the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) 62nd Annual meeting in Las Vegas in 1984 concurrent with another editing tool that would compete with the EditDroid for all its years in production, the Montage Picture Processor. The EditDroid was never a commercial success and after the close of The Droid Works in 1987 and subsequent redevelopment of the product for seven years, the software was eventually sold to Avid Technology in 1993. Only 24 EditDroid systems were ever produced. Features
The system is LaserDisc-based, relying on several LaserDisc players and a database system which queues up the clips in the order needed from the LaserDisc players in the most efficient way, so as to minimize skipping. This however isn't always possible. So if the edits aren't sufficiently close, the system isn't always fast enough to cue up the next clip. It has three screens connected to it: one Sun-1 computer display as the graphical UI for the product, one small preview video monitor, and one large rear-projected monitor containing "the cut" which was controlled by a custom controller. The controller, called the TouchPad, features a KEM-style shuttle knob, a trackball, and a host of buttons with LED labels that changes in function depending on what the system was doing. | [
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The EditDroid pioneered the use of the graphical display for editing—introducing the timeline as well as digital picture icons to identify raw source clips. Once the entire movie has been edited, an Edit Decision List of marked frames is turned over to a film laboratory where the actual pieces of film are spliced together in the correct order. The EditDroid is obsolete by market standards, as the market for nonlinear editing systems has changed radically since its inception, with computer-based products like Final Cut Pro ranging entirely from the consumer to professional markets. In many respects the EditDroid was a concept demonstration of the future of editing, with a LaserDisc being a good 1980s simulation of what digital access would eventually become, and an editing interface and workflow that was more like today's methods than any of the videotape linear or analog nonlinear products leading up to the Avid/1 in 1990. Advantages and disadvantages
There are numerous advantages of using a digital editing solution over the older analog solutions, such as the Moviola. Not only is it much faster to locate the clips needed, keeping track of what can in some cases amount to a staggering amount of footage, is also much easier digitally. Also, editing film digitally is a non-destructive process, whereas the analog process requires the actual cutting and taping together of pieces of film as well as manual syncing of sound. Aside from the technological advantages of digital editing, in his book In the Blink of an Eye, editor Walter Murch mourns the loss of the older analog solutions. | [
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Analog editing requires the editor to frequently move back and forth or scrub in the source material to gain an overview, thus increasing one's familiarity with it. Since undoing an edit is such a laborious process, there is a high incentive to get the best edit cut the first time. This process which is not necessary to the same extent with NLE solutions in which one edit point can be made and undone very quickly. Furthermore, LaserDisc has a fixed resolution, whereas film can be focused to look ideal at any display size. While the LaserDisc format was brought to market in the late 1970s, first with the name of DiscoVision and later as LaserVision, and despite persistent promises from the Music Corporation of America, a cheap method of recording LaserDiscs never surfaced. This lack made it exceedingly difficult and cumbersome to create the needed LaserDiscs for the EditDroid. Also at this time, the storage available on a hard disk was prohibitively small and extremely expensive. Furthermore, many potential customers of the EditDroid were disappointed by the fact that while Lucasfilm Ltd. were the creators of the EditDroid, George Lucas had never in fact used the EditDroid on a movie. This fact stood in contrast to the fact that the EditDroid had been shown with Return of the Jedi clips on numerous occasions at tradeshows and at demonstrations. Lucas eventually used his EditDroids in the early '90s on his series The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles. See also
SoundDroid
References
Further reading
. . . External links
Droidmaker
. . Timeline, the history of editing (John Buck 2018). | [
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(incl complete Editdroid storyline)(Tablo Books ). (Free public access to Timeline, the history of editing Analog 1)
Film and video technology
Film editing
Lucasfilm
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On many computer operating systems, a computer process terminates its execution by making an exit system call. More generally, an exit in a multithreading environment means that a thread of execution has stopped running. For resource management, the operating system reclaims resources (memory, files, etc.) that were used by the process. The process is said to be a dead process after it terminates. How it works
Under Unix and Unix-like operating systems, a process is started when its parent process executes a fork system call. The parent process may then wait for the child process to terminate, or may continue execution (possibly forking off other child processes). When the child process terminates ("dies"), either normally by calling exit, or abnormally due to a fatal exception or signal (e.g., SIGTERM, SIGINT, SIGKILL), an exit status is returned to the operating system and a SIGCHLD signal is sent to the parent process. The exit status can then be retrieved by the parent process via the wait system call. Most operating systems allow the terminating process to provide a specific exit status to the system, which is made available to the parent process. Typically this is an integer value, although some operating systems (e.g., Plan 9 from Bell Labs) allow a character string to be returned. Systems returning an integer value commonly use a zero value to indicate successful execution and non-zero values to indicate error conditions. Other systems (e.g., OpenVMS) use even-numbered values for success and odd values for errors. | [
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Still other systems (e.g., IBM z/OS and its predecessors) use ranges of integer values to indicate success, warning, and error completion results. Clean up
The exit operation typically performs clean-up operations within the process space before returning control back to the operating system. Some systems and programming languages allow user subroutines to be registered so that they are invoked at program termination before the process actually terminates for good. As the final step of termination, a primitive system exit call is invoked, informing the operating system that the process has terminated and allows it to reclaim the resources used by the process. It is sometimes possible to bypass the usual cleanup; C99 offers the _exit() function which terminates the current process without any extra program clean-up. This may be used, for example, in a fork-exec routine when the exec call fails to replace the child process; calling atexit routines would erroneously release resources belonging to the parent. Orphans and zombies
Some operating systems handle a child process whose parent process has terminated in a special manner. Such an orphan process becomes a child of a special root process, which then waits for the child process to terminate. Likewise, a similar strategy is used to deal with a zombie process, which is a child process that has terminated but whose exit status is ignored by its parent process. Such a process becomes the child of a special parent process, which retrieves the child's exit status and allows the operating system to complete the termination of the dead process. Dealing with these special cases keeps the system process table in a consistent state. | [
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Examples
The following programs terminate and return a success exit status to the system. COBOL:
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION. PROGRAM-ID. SUCCESS-PROGRAM. PROCEDURE DIVISION. MAIN. MOVE ZERO TO RETURN-CODE. END PROGRAM. Fortran:
program wiki
call exit(0)
end program wiki
Java:
public class Success
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.exit(0);
}
}
Pascal:
program wiki;
begin
ExitCode := 0;
exit
end. | [
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DR-DOS batch file:
exit 0
Perl:
#!/usr/bin/env perl
exit;
PHP:
<?php
exit(0);
Python:
#!/usr/bin/env python3
import sys
sys.exit(0)
Unix shell:
exit 0
DOS assembly:
; For MASM/TASM
.MODEL SMALL
.STACK
.CODE
main PROC NEAR
MOV AH, 4Ch ; Service 4Ch - Terminate with Error Code
MOV AL, 0 ; Error code
INT 21h ; Interrupt 21h - DOS General Interrupts
main ENDP
END main ; Starts at main
Some programmers may prepare everything for INT 21h at once:
MOV AX, 4C00h ; replace the 00 with your error code in HEX
Linux 32-bit x86 Assembly:
; For NASM
MOV AL, 1 ; Function 1: exit()
MOV EBX, 0 ; Return code
INT 80h ; # Passes control to interrupt vector
# invokes system call—in this case system call
# number 1 with argument 0
# For GAS
.text
.global _start
_start:
movl $1, %eax # System call number 1: exit()
movl $0, %ebx # Exits with exit status 0
int $0x80 # Passes control to interrupt vector
# invokes system call—in this case system call
# number 1 with argument 0
Linux 64-bit x86 64 Assembly: for FASM
format ELF64 executable 3
entry start
segment readable executable
start:
; STUFF
; exiting
mov eax, 60 ; sys_exit syscall number: 60
xor edi, edi ; set exit status to 0 (`xor edi, edi` is equal to `mov edi, 0` )
syscall ; call it
OS X 64-bit x86 64 Assembly: for NASM
global _main
section .text
_main:
mov rax, 0x02000001 ; sys_exit syscall number: 1 (add 0x02000000 for OS X)
xor rdi, rdi ; set exit status to 0 (`xor rdi, rdi` is equal to `mov rdi, 0` )
syscall ; call exit()
Windows
On Windows, a program can terminate itself by calling ExitProcess or RtlExitUserProcess function. | [
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See also
exit (command)
Child process
Execution
Exit status
Fork
Kill command
Orphan process
Process
Parent process
SIGCHLD
Task
Thread
Wait
References
External links
C++ reference for std::exit
Articles with example C code
C standard library
Process (computing)
POSIX
Process termination functions | [
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Hansa Carrier was a container ship. On 27 May 1990, en route from Korea to the United States, the ship encountered a storm which caused the loss of 21 40-foot cargo containers south of the Alaska Peninsula, near . Five of these cargo containers contained 61,000 Nike shoes, each of which carried a unique serial number which later made it possible to clearly identify them as part of the spilled cargo. Importance to oceanography
The "Great Shoe Spill of 1990" was one of the several occasions when shipping accidents have contributed to the knowledge of ocean currents and aided scientists and amateur researchers in their endeavours. After hearing of the accident, oceanic scientist Curtis Ebbesmeyer seized the opportunity: He established links with beachcombers and formed a network of people reporting the landfall of the contents of this and other spills. Using OSCURS (Ocean Surface Currents Simulation), a computer simulator developed by oceanographer Jim Ingraham, Ebbesmeyer tracked the oceanic movement of the Hansa Carrier spill and other flotsam, including 34,000 ice hockey gloves washed off the Hyundai Seattle in 1994. In the case of the Hansa Carrier spill, reports from beachcombers revealed that the first 200 shoes started arriving at the northern Washington coast around Thanksgiving 1990, about 6 months after the spill. Beachcomber finds in January–February 1991 off Vancouver Island and in March 1991 in Queen Charlotte Sound showed that the aggregate mass of shoes next floated northward with the winter Davidson Current. | [
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] |
The normal spring wind transition from southerly winds of winter to northerly winds of summer off the Pacific northwest coast must have occurred at the end of March 1991, because the next batch of recoveries was reported to the south off Oregon in April and May, indicating that a sharp reversal of currents had moved the flotilla to the south. See also
The North Pacific Gyre is the part of the Pacific Ocean where the spill took place
References
Ebbesmeyer, Curtis C., and Ingraham, W. James, Jr.; Shoe Spill in the North Pacific, Eos (Transactions of the American Geophysical Union), 73:361, 1992. External links
How Nikes, toys and hockey gear help ocean science
If the Shoe Fits – Alaska Science Forum
Beachcombers' Alert
1988 ships
Oceanographic instrumentation
Container ships
Maritime incidents in 1990 | [
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Slovakization or Slovakisation is a form of either forced or voluntary cultural assimilation, during which non-Slovak nationals give up their culture and language in favor of the Slovak one. This process has relied most heavily on intimidation and harassment by state authorities. In the past the process has been greatly aided by deprivation of collective rights for minorities and ethnic cleansing, but in the last decades its promotion has been limited to the adoption of anti-minority policies and anti-minority hate speech. The process itself is limited mostly to Slovakia, where Slovaks constitute the absolute majority by means of population and legislation power as well. Slovakization is most often used in relation to Hungarians, who constitute the most prominent minority of Slovakia, but it also affects Germans, Poles, Ukrainians, Rusyns (Ruthenians), and Jews. Hungarians
After World War I
The process of slovakization was present in the Kingdom of Hungary presumably ever since the appearance of the Slovak nation itself, but up until the foundation of Czechoslovakia the process was entirely voluntary. This early form of slovakization can be observed in detail in noble families' personal correspondence. Another example of pre-World War I Slovakization is the assimilation of the Habans, a Hutterite group settled in the Nagylévárd (today's Veľké Leváre) area in the 16th century, into the Slovak majority. The accelerated, forced nature of slovakization began with the defeat of the remaining Hungarian armies in 1919, which laid foundations to the creation of Czechoslovakia, a state in which the Slovaks have gained a de facto political power for the first time in the nation's history. | [
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The Paris Peace Conference concluded by the Treaty of Trianon in 1920 set the southern border of Czechoslovakia for strategic and economic reasons much further south than the Slovak-Hungarian language border. Consequently, fully Hungarian-populated areas were annexed to the newly created state. Czechoslovakia provided a large education network for the Hungarian minority. Hungarians, for example, had 31 kindergartens, 806 elementary schools, 46 secondary schools, 576 Hungarian libraries at schools in the 1930s and a Department of Hungarian literature was created at the Charles University of Prague. The number of Hungarian elementary schools increased from 720 in 1923/1924 to the above number 806. The Hungarian University in Bratislava/Pozsony was immediately closed after formation of Czechoslovakia
According to the 1910 census conducted by the Central Statistical Office of Hungary, there were 884,309 people with Hungarian as a mother tongue, constituting 30.2% of the population, in what is now Slovakia compared to the 9.7% number recorded in the 2001 census, amounting to a 3 fold decrease in the percentage of Hungarians. The first Slovak census in 1919 in what is now Slovakia recorded 689,565 Hungarians constituting 23.59% of the population. According to the first Czechoslovak census in 1921 there were 650,597 Hungarians in Slovakia, constituting 21.68% of the population. The Czechoslovak census of 1930 recorded 571,952 Hungarians. All censuses from the period are disputed, and some give conflicting data for example in Kosice according to the Czechoslovak censuses 15-20% of the population was Hungarian. However, during the parliamentary elections the Ethnic Hungarian parties got 35-45% of the total votes (excluding those Hungarians who voted for the Communists or the Social democrats). | [
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The whole matter is complicated by the fact that there was a high percentage of bilingual and similarly "Slovak-Hungarian" persons who could claim being both Slovak and Hungarian. Slovak sources usually do not deny that many Hungarian teachers (replaced in Slovak schools by Slovak and Czech teachers), railwaymen (on strike against new Czechoslovak republic in February 1919), postmen, policemen, soldiers and civil clerks (replaced by Czech and Slovak soldiers, policemen and clerks) were forced to leave or left for Hungary voluntarily, the numbers however are unclear but census do show a rapid decline in the number of people with Hungarian as a mother tongue. Some teachers and civil servants were expelled from Czechoslovakia while some left due to the harsh circumstances. There are many examples of Hungarians who were forced to leave their homes from this territory (two famous ones are the families of Béla Hamvas, and of Albert Szent-Györgyi). The high number of refugees (and even more from Romania) necessitated entire new housing projects in Budapest (Mária-Valéria telep, Pongrácz-telep), which gave shelter to refugees numbering at least in the ten-thousands. De-Magyarization
Under the Austro-Hungarian Empire there was strong anti-Hungarian sentiment among certain sections of the Czech and Slovak population and this persisted to some extent in Czechoslovakia once it was formed. It seemed to hit the city of Pressburg (soon to be renamed Bratislava) most intensely. | [
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One of the first measures brought by Samuel Zoch, the newly appointed župan of the city was the forced disbandment of the only Hungarian university in Czechoslovakia (Elisabeth Science University), and the intimidation of its professors by the police in 1919, immediately after the formation of the new country. Most of the professors and former students then left Pressburg for Budapest (with the university later being re-established in Pécs). Zoch had previously stated "...but the question of minorities will be fully solved only after our public perception of morality will condemn ethnic oppression just as much as the oppression of religion". According to Varsik, the university was not closed by the župan because local politicians did not have such powers. Elisabeth University was founded in 1912 and began teaching only in 1914. The university was not the only Hungarian graduate school in the territory of contemporary Slovakia, but it had to serve to also all students from Upper Hungary inhabited by Slovak majority. However, in compliance with the education policy of the Hungarian government, which did not allow Slovak high schools, the university did not even have a Slovak language department. In 1919, a new Czechoslovak university was founded in parallel and adopted space and limited inventory of unfinished faculty of medicine. Hungarian professors refused to promise loyalty to the new state, as was necessary for teachers and state employees, and were retired after being provided financial compensation. Thereafter, the university was closed by official government decree and replaced by Comenius University which remained the only the university in mid-war Slovakia for the majority population. | [
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On 3 February 1919, the day before the moving of Vavro Šrobár's government to Bratislava, a strike began which affected key infrastructure and sectors of industry. The strike had initially social character. Thereafter, it was politicized and joined with national demands of Hungarian and German workers. On 12 February 1919, Hungarian nationalistic circles exploited a demonstration organized by the Council of Workers. The demonstration went out of control and after a physical attack on the Italian commander Riccardo Barreca, a military patrol dispersed the crowd by shooting, leaving 7 dead and 23 wounded. Another aspect of the anti-Hungarian sentiment was the hatred of all the statues and monuments representing Austria-Hungary or Hungarian historical people. National socialist MPs of the Czechoslovak National Assembly called for the conservation of such works of art, moving and preserving them in suitable places as early as 1920. The hatred however was not limited to sculptures only: Hungarian books were burned in Poprad and possibly other locations as well. Concurrently some of the statues were destroyed as well: the millennium monument along with the Árpád statue in Devín was blown up using dynamite,. The statue of Maria Theresa in Bratislava was preserved until October 1921 when information about attempts to restore monarchy spread in successor states of Austro-Hungarian Empire. In the atmosphere of partial mobilization, martial law and fresh memories to invasion by Béla Kun's army, it was brought down using ropes tied to trucks. | [
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In Slovakia, memorials were destroyed mainly after intervention of Red Guards of Béla Kun in spring and summer 1919, when statues of Lajos Kossuth were destroyed in Rožňava, Lučenec, Dobšiná and Nové Zámky, as well as a statue of Ferenc Rákóczi in Brezno and numerous others. In almost all of these cases the perpetrators were soldiers of the Czechoslovak legion. The idleness of state authorities encouraged destroyers of statues. The government started to act only when the mob had begun to take over shops and properties of German entrepreneurs. Thereafter, Czechoslovak army and police intervened and destruction of symbols of monarchy stopped for nearly a year. In the revolutionary period between the creation of Czechoslovakia and the first free parliamentary elections in 1920, legislative power was held by temporary, the revolutionary (un-elected) Czechoslovak National Council (later The Czechoslovak National Assembly). The revolutionary parliament without participation of minorities also adopted a new constitution. The constitution guaranteed equal rights for all citizens regardless of gender, nationality or religion. In comparison with the previous state in the Kingdom of Hungary it also extended political rights to individuals of Hungarian nationality, by introducing universal suffrage, removing voting criteria based on property size and benefits based on titles and functions or education (typical for previous Hungarian elections) and granted full women's suffrage (including for Hungarian women), which was not introduced in Hungary until 1945. Later on, all minorities gained the right to use their languages in municipalities where they constituted at least 20% of the population even in communication with government offices and courts. | [
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According to Béla Angyal, due to gerrymandering and disproportionate distribution of population between Bohemia and Slovakia the Hungarians had little representation in the National Assembly and thus their influence on the politics of Czechoslovakia remained limited. The same considerations limited the Slovak intelligentsia's political power as well. On the other hand, Hungarians founded numerous parties including pro-Czechoslovak parties, founded parties with agrarian, social-democratic, Christian-socialist and other orientations, were active as sections of statewide Czechoslovak parties, had opportunities to participate in government and in the 1920s Hungarian members of parliament participated in adoption of several important laws with statewide impact. The aftermath of World War II
"Re-Slovakization"
After World War II, the size of Hungarian population was decreased by Czechoslovak-Hungarian population exchange and expulsion of Hungarians who came to after the First Vienna Award or committed crimes according to Decree of Slovak National Council No. 33/1945 Zb. about people tribunals. Due to the proclamation of the "Košice Government Program", the German and Hungarian population living in the reborn Czechoslovakia were subjected to various forms of persecution, including: expulsions, deportations, internments, peoples court procedures, citizenship revocations, property confiscation, condemnation to forced labour camps, and forced changes of ethnicity referred to as "reslovakization." {{quote box
| width = 30em
| bgcolor = #c6dbf7
| align = left
| quote = "...in Slovakia, the party is breaking into factions. One of the factions is headed by the Representative of the Soviet of Plenipotentiaries, G. Husák. This faction includes Clementis, Novomecký and in general the Slovak intelligentsia and students. | [
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It displays a sharply nacionalistic, anti-Semitic, anti-Hungarian character. ... Anti-Semitism generally is widespread in the party"
| source = — A letter from Mátyás Rákosi to Joseph Stalin, dated 25, September 1948.
}} In 1946 the process of "Reslovakization" (or re-Slovakization), the forced acceptance of Slovak ethnicity, was engaged by the Czechoslovak government with the objective of eliminating the Hungarian ethnicity. The Slovak Commissioner of the Interior on June 17, 1946 (decree No.20,000/1946) initiated the "Reslovakization" program. This process based upon the Czechoslovak assumption that in fact there never had been any Hungarians in South Slovakia, only "Hungarianized Slovaks" who lost their Slovak national identity through the centuries of Hungarian rule. As Anton Granatier, officer of the Resettlement Bureau said: „We want to be the national state of Slovaks and Czechs, and we will be. This monumental programme includes re−slovakization, already under way in whole Slovakia! Within the scope of this action everyone who feels to be Slovak by origin will have the chance to declare it freely whether they want to become Slovaks with all its consequences or want to share the fate of those without citizenship.“ In the spring and summer of 1945, a series of decrees stripped Hungarians of property, from all civil rights and from their citizenship. Hungary itself gave the Slovaks equal rights and demanded the same solution to the issue from Czechoslovakia. | [
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Since Hungarians in Slovakia were deprived of many rights, and were the target of discrimination, they were pressured into having their ethnicity officially changed to Slovak, otherwise they dropped out of the pension, social, and healthcare system. 400,000 (sources differ) stateless Hungarians applied for, and eventually 344,609 Hungarians received a re-Slovakization certificate by the Central Committee for Reslovakization, and thereby Czechoslovak citizenship. Therefore, the number of Hungarians in Slovakia dropped to 350,000. According to Russian archives, 20,000 Hungarians declared themselves as Slovak at the beginning of the year 1949, and eventually 360,000 Hungarians changed their ethnicity to Slovak, according to Slovak historians. The fear was so big among the Hungarian population, that only 350,000-367,000 claimed themselves Hungarian in the 1950 census, and only after ten years -when the reslovakization program was revoked- began to rose and reached 518000. The official results of re-slovakization action were summarized in the final report of the Re-slovakization Commission. The commission received 197,916 application forms related to 449,914 people. 83,739 applicants declared Slovak nationality also before 1930 and they were not considered to be re-slovakizants. From the remaining 366,175 candidates, the commission accepted 284,814 and refused 81,361 candidates for various reasons. An important issue with the slovakization procedure was, that the "reslovakized" Hungarians did not take the forcible change of ethnicity seriously, because it is impossible to force someone to forget his culture and language suddenly. A Slovak journalist wrote the following about the "reslovaklized" city of Nové Zámky ():
After October 1948
With the disappearance of Edvard Beneš from the political scene, the Czechoslovak government issued decree No. | [
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76/1948 on April 13, 1948, allowing those Hungarians still living in Czechoslovakia, to reinstate Czechoslovak citizenship. A year later, Hungarians were allowed to send their children to Hungarian schools, which had been reopened for the first time since 1945, although Hungarians remaining in Slovakia were subjected to extremely heavy pressure to assimilate, and complaints reached Moscow about forced enrollment of Hungarian children in Slovak schools. Most Slovakized Hungarians gradually readopted their Hungarian ethnicity. As a result, "The Re-Slovakization Commission" ceased operations in December 1948. Despite their promises to settle the issue of the Hungarians in Slovakia, in 1948 Czech and Slovak ruling circles still maintained the hope that they could deport the Hungarians from Slovakia. According to a 1948 poll conducted among the Slovak population 55% were for "resettlement" (deportation) of the Hungarians, 24% said "don't know", 21% were against. Under slogans for the struggle with class enemies, the process of dispersing dense Hungarian settlements continued in 1948 and 1949. By October 1949 preparations were made to deport 600 Hungarian families. Finally, on 25 July 1949, Czechoslovak and Hungarian delegations met in Štrbské pleso and signed so-called Štrba protocol () which ended the law disputes between Hungarian and Czechoslovak property and legal question and compensation of deported Hungarians. The current Slovak-Hungarian political standpoint on the expulsions
In 2002 before Slovakia and Hungary joined the European Union in 2004, Hungarian politician Viktor Orbán demanded the repeal of the Beneš decrees, but the European Parliament asserted that "the decrees did not constitute an insurmountable obstacle to accession." | [
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Slovak politician Monika Beňová-Flašiková accused the Hungarian politicians for pushing "revanchist" policies which could destabilize Europe. Later on the Hungarian members of the Slovak parliament requested for compensation and for a symbolic apology to the victims of the expulsions. As an answer, the Slovak government adopted a resolution in September 2007 which declared that the Beneš decrees are inalterable. During Socialism
Czechoslovakia (being a Socialist country at that time) financed the following purely Hungarian institutions for the Hungarians in Czechoslovakia as of early 1989: 386 kindergartens, 131 elementary schools, 98 secondary schools, 2 theaters, 1 special Hungarian language publishing house (6 publishing houses also publishing Hungarian literature) and 24 newspapers and journals. The first Hungarian-language university in Slovakia was opened only in 2004 - the Selye János University. According to The Minorities at Risk Project:
Since the independence of Slovakia
Hungarian minority parties
The Party of the Hungarian Coalition (SMK) and Most–Híd are the major Hungarian minority parties in Slovak politics. Since 1993 a Hungarian minority party has always been a member of the parliament. As of 2012, a Hungarian minority party spent 10 out of 19 years in government. Mečiar Government
Under Communism, the Hungarian minority issue was confined invariably to the position of Slovaks within the Czechoslovak state, and therefore it was ignored in any systematic way. But the fall of Communism reinforced national identities and demolished the ideology of 'the socialist unity of nations'. The break-up of Czechoslovakia was a process of national redefinition and assertion in Slovakia. | [
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Under the premiership of Mečiar prone to populism, exclusivist Slovak nationalism,
and the use of extralegal measures, independent Slovakia approached
authoritarianism. Mečiar turned the Hungarian minority into a scapegoat for Slovakia's bad economic situation. Numerous articles and books containing anti-Hungarian propaganda appeared, and the Hungarians were accused for the destruction of the 'first Slovak state', and for the ‘one-millennium-long oppression’ of Slovak nation. During the redrawing of the administrative boundaries of Slovakia, Hungarian politicians suggested two models; the so-called 'Komárno proposals'. The first proposal was a full ethnic autonomy of the southern Slovak districts with Hungarian majority, while the second suggestion was to create three counties in southern Slovakia to bring together the main centers of Hungarian population. Although a territorial unit of this name existed before 1918, the borders proposed by SMK were significantly different. The proposed region would have encompassed a very long slice of southern Slovakia, with the explicit aim to create an administrative unit with ethnic-Hungarian majority. Hungarian minority politicians and intellectuals thought that such kind of administrative unit is essential for the long-term survival of the Hungarian minority. Both proposals were rejected by the Slovak government in favour of an eight county model of north-south (and not east-west) governance, which has been seen to weaken the electoral power of Hungarians. According to Miklós Duray, a politician of the Party of the Hungarian Coalition: "Administrative jurisdictions of Slovakia were geographically modified in a clear case of gerrymandering. The administrative system governed by laws created in 1991, included 17 primary jurisdictions and 2 secondary jurisdictions, with a majority Hungarian population. | [
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The 1996 law eliminated this system of administration. In the reorganized system only 2 primary administrative jurisdictions have a Hungarian majority population (Dunajská Streda and Komárno). Furthermore, 8 secondary administrative jurisdictions were created, 5 with Hungarian populations in the 10 to 30 per cent range. In 1998, these jurisdictions had regional self governing communities, where the diminished proportion of Hungarians made certain they played a subordinate role in self government." After the regions became autonomous in 2002, SMK was able to take power in the Nitra Region and it became part of the ruling coalition in several other regions. Before the Slovak independence two main issues appeared regarding language: the right to use non-Slovakized versions of women's names and the use of bilingual street signs. Non Slovaks were forced to Slovakize female personal names in official documents by attaching the Slovak feminine suffix '-ová'. Members of ethnic minorities were restricted in their choice of given names, as registry offices accepted only names from a limited list only. After ten years wrangling, the second Dzurinda cabinet eased these restrictions. The use of the Hungarian language
The Slovak Constitution from 1992 asserts that the ‘state language’ on the territory of the Slovak Republic is Slovak. At the same time this constitution entails explicit provisions for minorities, including language right. | [
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These provisions were reinforced in 2001. International treaties like the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (ratified by Slovakia in 1995) or the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ratified by Slovakia in 2001) and the 1995 Treaty on Good Neighbourly Relations and Friendly Cooperations between Slovakia and Hungary protect the language rights of minorities. Article 34. of the 1992 constitution asserts that "citizens of ethnic minorities have the right to be educated in their language, the right to use it in dealings with authorities, and the right to participate in the solution of affairs concerning national minorities and ethnic groups". These provisions afford a high standard of protection, but still, these legislative instruments do not warrant the implementation of the postulated rights. In most cases the disfrancishement evolves when there is insufficient political will to legislate the provisions as laws. This happened between 1992 and 1998 (i.e. under Mečiar's government). Slovak nationalist demands for a language law detaining the use of Hungarian in public institutions already appeared in 1990. Finally, the Meciar government pushed through legislation restricting the use of minority languages in public institutions. In 1995, the Slovak Parliament passed Act No 270 on the State Language of Slovakia, which came into power on 1 January 1996. This act revoked the more tolerant Act No 428 passed in 1990. The 1995 act emphasized the significance of the Slovak language for Slovak nationalism and statehood, by consolidating the exclusivist monolingualism. | [
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