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Setting the stage for possible advances in pain treatment, researchers at The Johns Hopkins University and the University of Maryland report they have pinpointed two molecules involved in perpetuating chronic pain in mice. The molecules, they say, also appear to have a role in the phenomenon that causes uninjured areas of the body to be more sensitive to pain when an area nearby has been hurt. A summary of the research will be published on Jan. 23 in the journal Neuron. “With the identification of these molecules, we have some additional targets that we can try to block to decrease chronic pain,” says Xinzhong Dong, Ph.D., associate professor of neuroscience at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and an early career scientist at Howard Hughes Medical Institute. “We found that persistent pain doesn’t always originate in the brain, as some had believed, which is important information for designing less addictive drugs to fight it.” Chronic pain that persists for weeks, months or years after an underlying injury or condition is resolved afflicts an estimated 20 to 25 percent of the population worldwide and about 116 million people in the U.S., costing Americans a total of $600 billion in medical interventions and lost productivity. It can be caused by everything from nerve injuries and osteoarthritis to cancer and stress. In their new research, the scientists focused on a system of pain-sensing nerves within the faces of mice, known collectively as the trigeminal nerve. The trigeminal nerve is a large bundle of tens of thousands of nerve cells. Each cell is a long “wire” with a hub at its center; the hubs are grouped together into a larger hub. On one side of this hub, three smaller bundles of wires — V1, V2 and V3 — branch off. Each bundle contains individual pain-sensing wires that split off to cover a specific territory of the face. Signals are sent through the wires to the hubs of the cells and then travel to the spinal cord through a separate set of bundles. From the spinal cord, the signals are relayed to the brain, which interprets them as pain. When the researchers pinched the V2 branch of the trigeminal nerve for a prolonged period of time, they found that the V2 and V3 territories were extra sensitive to additional pain. This spreading of pain to uninjured areas is typical of those experiencing chronic pain, but it can also be experienced during acute injuries, as when a thumb is hit with a hammer and the whole hand throbs with pain. To figure out why, the researchers studied pain-sensing nerves in the skin of mouse ears. The smaller branches of the trigeminal V3 reach up into the skin of the lower ear. But an entirely different set of nerves is responsible for the skin of the upper ear. This distinction allowed the researchers to compare the responses of two unrelated groups of nerves that are in close proximity to each other. To overcome the difficulty of monitoring nerve responses, Dong’s team inserted a gene into the DNA of mice so that the primary sensory nerve cells would glow green when activated. The pain-sensing nerves of the face are a subset of these. When skin patches were then bathed in a dose of capsaicin — the active ingredient in hot peppers — the pain-sensing nerves lit up in both regions of the ear. But the V3 nerves in the lower ear were much brighter than those of the upper ear. The researchers concluded that pinching the connected-but-separate V2 branch of the trigeminal nerve had somehow sensitized the V3 nerves to “overreact” to the same amount of stimulus. (Watch nerves light up in this video.) Applying capsaicin again to different areas, the researchers found that more nerve branches coming from a pinched V2 nerve lit up than those coming from an uninjured one. This suggests that nerves that don’t normally respond to pain can modify themselves during prolonged injury, adding to the pain signals being sent to the brain. Knowing from previous studies that the protein TRPV1 is needed to activate pain-sensing nerve cells, the researchers next looked at its activity in the trigeminal nerve. They showed it was hyperactive in injured V2 nerve branches and in uninjured V3 branches, as well as in the branches that extended beyond the hub of the trigeminal nerve cell and into the spinal cord. Next, University of Maryland experts in the neurological signaling molecule serotonin, aware that serotonin is involved in chronic pain, investigated its role in the TRPV1 activation study. The team, led by Feng Wei, M.D., Ph.D., blocked the production of serotonin, which is released from the brain stem into the spinal cord, and found that TRPV1 hyperactivity nearly disappeared. Says Dong: “Chronic pain seems to cause serotonin to be released by the brain into the spinal cord. There, it acts on the trigeminal nerve at large, making TRPV1 hyperactive throughout its branches, even causing some non-pain-sensing nerve cells to start responding to pain. Hyperactive TRPV1 causes the nerves to fire more frequently, sending additional pain signals to the brain.”

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Rationality is the quality or state of being reasonable, based on facts or reason. Rationality implies the conformity of one's beliefs with one's reasons to believe, or of one's actions with one's reasons for action. "Rationality" has different specialized meanings in philosophy, economics, sociology, psychology, evolutionary biology, and political science. - Max Weber - Richard Brandt - Theoretical and practical - Artificial intelligence - International relations To determine what behavior is the most rational, one needs to make several key assumptions, and also needs a quantifiable formulation of the problem. When the goal or problem involves making a decision, rationality factors in how much information is available (e.g. complete or incomplete knowledge). Collectively, the formulation and background assumptions are the model within which rationality applies. Illustrating the relativity of rationality: if one accepts a model in which benefitting oneself is optimal, then rationality is equated with behavior that is self-interested to the point of being selfish; whereas if one accepts a model in which benefiting the group is optimal, then purely selfish behavior is deemed irrational. It is thus meaningless to assert rationality without also specifying the background model assumptions describing how the problem is framed and formulated. The German sociologist Max Weber proposed an interpretation of social action that distinguished between four different idealized types of rationality. The first, which he called Zweckrational or purposive/instrumental rationality, is related to the expectations about the behavior of other human beings or objects in the environment. These expectations serve as means for a particular actor to attain ends, ends which Weber noted were "rationally pursued and calculated." The second type, Weber called Wertrational or value/belief-oriented. Here the action is undertaken for what one might call reasons intrinsic to the actor: some ethical, aesthetic, religious or other motive, independent of whether it will lead to success. The third type was affectual, determined by an actor's specific affect, feeling, or emotion—to which Weber himself said that this was a kind of rationality that was on the borderline of what he considered "meaningfully oriented." The fourth was traditional or conventional, determined by ingrained habituation. Weber emphasized that it was very unusual to find only one of these orientations: combinations were the norm. His usage also makes clear that he considered the first two as more significant than the others, and it is arguable that the third and fourth are subtypes of the first two. The advantage in Weber's interpretation of rationality is that it avoids a value-laden assessment, say, that certain kinds of beliefs are irrational. Instead, Weber suggests that a ground or motive can be given—for religious or affect reasons, for example—that may meet the criterion of explanation or justification even if it is not an explanation that fits the Zweckrational orientation of means and ends. The opposite is therefore also true: some means-ends explanations will not satisfy those whose grounds for action are Wertrational. Weber's constructions of rationality have been critiqued both from a Habermasian (1984) perspective (as devoid of social context and under-theorised in terms of social power) and also from a feminist perspective (Eagleton, 2003) whereby Weber's rationality constructs are viewed as imbued with masculine values and oriented toward the maintenance of male power. An alternative position on rationality (which includes both bounded rationality, as well as the affective and value-based arguments of Weber) can be found in the critique of Etzioni (1988), who reframes thought on decision-making to argue for a reversal of the position put forward by Weber. Etzioni illustrates how purposive/instrumental reasoning is subordinated by normative considerations (ideas on how people 'ought' to behave) and affective considerations (as a support system for the development of human relationships). In the psychology of reasoning, psychologists and cognitive scientists have defended different positions on human rationality. One prominent view, due to Philip Johnson-Laird and Ruth M. J. Byrne among others is that humans are rational in principle but they err in practice, that is, humans have the competence to be rational but their performance is limited by various factors. However, it has been argued that many standard tests of reasoning, such as those on the conjunction fallacy, on the Wason selection task, or the base rate fallacy suffer from methodological and conceptual problems. This has led to disputes in psychology over whether researchers should (only) use standard rules of logic, probability theory and statistics, or rational choice theory as norms of good reasoning. Opponents of this view, such as Gerd Gigerenzer, favor a conception of bounded rationality, especially for tasks under high uncertainty. Richard Brandt proposed a "reforming definition" of rationality, arguing someone is rational if their notions survive a form of cognitive-psychotherapy. Abulof argues that rationality has become an "essentially contested concept," as its "proper use… inevitably involves endless disputes." He identifies "four fronts" for the disputes about the meaning of rationality: - The purpose, or function, of ascribing rationality: Is it descriptive/explanatory, prescriptive or subjunctive (rationality "as if" real)? - The subject of rationality: What, or who, is rational: the choice, the act, or the choosing actor? - Cognition: What is the quality of the cognitive decision-making process: minimal (calculative intentionality) or optimal (expected-utility)? - Rationale: Is rationality merely instrumental, that is, agnostic about the logic of human action and its motivations (instrumental rationality) or does it substantially inform them (substantive rationality, focusing on material maximization)? It is believed by some philosophers (notably A. C. Grayling) that a good rationale must be independent of emotions, personal feelings or any kind of instincts. Any process of evaluation or analysis, that may be called rational, is expected to be highly objective, logical and "mechanical". If these minimum requirements are not satisfied i.e. if a person has been, even slightly, influenced by personal emotions, feelings, instincts, or culturally specific moral codes and norms, then the analysis may be termed irrational, due to the injection of subjective bias. Modern cognitive science and neuroscience show that studying the role of emotion in mental function (including topics ranging from flashes of scientific insight to making future plans), that no human has ever satisfied this criterion, except perhaps a person with no affective feelings, for example an individual with a massively damaged amygdala or severe psychopathy. Thus, such an idealized form of rationality is best exemplified by computers, and not people. However, scholars may productively appeal to the idealization as a point of reference. Theoretical and practical Kant had distinguished theoretical from practical reason. Rationality theorist Jesús Mosterín makes a parallel distinction between theoretical and practical rationality, although, according to him, reason and rationality are not the same: reason would be a psychological faculty, whereas rationality is an optimizing strategy. Humans are not rational by definition, but they can think and behave rationally or not, depending on whether they apply, explicitly or implicitly, the strategy of theoretical and practical rationality to the thoughts they accept and to the actions they perform. The distinction is also described as that between epistemic rationality, the attempt to form beliefs in an unbiased manner, and instrumental rationality. Theoretical rationality has a formal component that reduces to logical consistency and a material component that reduces to empirical support, relying on our inborn mechanisms of signal detection and interpretation. Mosterín distinguishes between involuntary and implicit belief, on the one hand, and voluntary and explicit acceptance, on the other. Theoretical rationality can more properly be said to regulate our acceptances than our beliefs. Practical rationality is the strategy for living one’s best possible life, achieving your most important goals and your own preferences in as far as possible. As the study of arguments that are correct in virtue of their form, logic is of fundamental importance in the study of rationality. The study of rationality in logic is more concerned with epistemic rationality, that is, attaining beliefs in a rational manner, than instrumental rationality. Rationality plays a key role and there are several strands to this. Firstly, there is the concept of instrumentality—basically the idea that people and organisations are instrumentally rational—that is, adopt the best actions to achieve their goals. Secondly, there is an axiomatic concept that rationality is a matter of being logically consistent within your preferences and beliefs. Thirdly, people have focused on accuracy of beliefs and full use of information—in this view a person who is not rational has beliefs that don't fully use the information they have. Debates within economic sociology also arise as to whether or not people or organizations are "really" rational, as well as whether it makes sense to model them as such in formal models. Some have argued that a kind of bounded rationality makes more sense for such models. Others think that any kind of rationality along the lines of rational choice theory is a useless concept for understanding human behavior; the term homo economicus (economic man: the imaginary man being assumed in economic models who is logically consistent but amoral) was coined largely in honor of this view. Behavioral economics aims to account for economic actors as they actually are, allowing for psychological biases, rather than assuming idealized instrumental rationality. Within artificial intelligence, a rational agent is typically one that maximizes its expected utility, given its current knowledge. Utility is the usefulness of the consequences of its actions. The utility function is arbitrarily defined by the designer, but should be a function of "performance", which is the directly measurable consequences, such as winning or losing money. In order to make a safe agent that plays defensively, a nonlinear function of performance is often desired, so that the reward for winning is lower than the punishment for losing. An agent might be rational within its own problem area, but finding the rational decision for arbitrarily complex problems is not practically possible. The rationality of human thought is a key problem in the psychology of reasoning. There is an ongoing debate over the merits of using “rationality” in the study of international relations (IR). Some scholars hold it indispensable. Others are more critical. Still, the pervasive and persistent usage of "rationality" in political science and IR is beyond dispute. "Rationality" remains ubiquitous in this field. Abulof finds that Some 40% of all scholarly references to "foreign policy" allude to "rationality"—and this ratio goes up to more than half of pertinent academic publications in the 2000s. He further argues that when it comes to concrete security and foreign policies, IR employment of rationality borders on "malpractice": rationality-based descriptions are largely either false or unfalsifiable; many observers fail to explicate the meaning of "rationality" they employ; and the concept is frequently used politically to distinguish between "us and them."

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May 9, 2018 Did you know you can achieve accomplish and achieve anything with effort, patience and the right mindset? According to Carol Dweck, our mindsets are malleable, and you can support the development of a growth mindset when working with students and parents alike. In her book, Mindset: The New Psychology of Success, Dweck defines two distinct mindsets and how they contribute to our success and failure. On one end of the spectrum is the FIXED mindset and the GROWTH mindset lies on the other end. This webinar will challenge and provide you with the tools you need to stretch yourself like a rubber band beyond your wildest expectations. We will examine two mindsets using a power -point presentation to see how they contribute to success and failure. Additionally, the course will provide you with the opportunity to learn all you want to know or able to be by positively altering your thought processes as a result of the intense interaction we will have in this class. The presentor will start off by examining research on babies, the research on mind sets, the importance of the brain and how if functions and specific ways to foster a growth mind set. The course will finally look at new neuroscience studies of the brain that shows that you are in control of your abilities and that you are responsible to develop and sharpen your skills and abilities. This class will provide you with told and steps you can take to continually strive for excellence in an all that you do by exemplifying the GROWTH mindset. This course objective is to transform, motivate and inspire you to continually reach out for the stars because you have the gusto, grit and perseverance to do whatever it takes! Are you ready to dive into the BRAINIOLOGY?

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The pigs had been lying dead in the lab for an hour — no blood was circulating in their bodies, their hearts were still, their brain waves flat. Then a group of Yale scientists pumped a custom-made solution into the dead pigs’ bodies with a device similar to a heart-lung machine. What happened next adds questions to what science considers the wall between life and death. Although the pigs were not considered conscious in any way, their seemingly dead cells revived. Their hearts began to beat as the solution, which the scientists called OrganEx, circulated in veins and arteries. Cells in their organs, including the heart, liver, kidneys and brain, were functioning again, and the animals never got stiff like a typical dead pig. Other pigs, dead for an hour, were treated with ECMO, a machine that pumped blood through their bodies. They became stiff, their organs swelled and became damaged, their blood vessels collapsed, and they had purple spots on their backs where blood pooled. The group reported its results Wednesday in Nature. The researchers say their goals are to one day increase the supply of human organs for transplant by allowing doctors to obtain viable organs long after death. And, they say, they hope their technology might also be used to prevent severe damage to hearts after a devastating heart attack or brains after a major stroke. But the findings are just a first step, said Stephen Latham, a bioethicist at Yale University who worked closely with the group. The technology, he emphasized, is “very far away from use in humans.” The group, led by Dr. Nenad Sestan, professor of neuroscience, of comparative medicine, of genetics and of psychiatry at the Yale School of Medicine, was stunned by its ability to revive cells. “We did not know what to expect,” said Dr. David Andrijevic, also a neuroscientist at Yale and one of the authors of the paper. “Everything we restored was incredible to us.” Others not associated with the work were similarly astonished. “It’s unbelievable, mind blowing,” said Nita Farahany, a Duke law professor who studies ethical, legal and social implications of emerging technologies. And, Dr. Farahany added, the work raises questions about the definition of death. “We presume death is a thing, it is a state of being,” she said. “Are there forms of death that are reversible? Or not?” The work began a few years ago when the group did a similar experiment with brains from dead pigs from a slaughterhouse. Four hours after the pigs died, the group infused a solution similar to OrganEx that they called BrainEx and saw that brain cells that should be dead could be revived. That led them to ask if they could revive an entire body, said Dr. Zvonimir Vrselja, another member of the Yale team. The OrganEx solution contained nutrients, anti-inflammatory medications, drugs to prevent cell death, nerve blockers — substances that dampen the activity of neurons and prevented any possibility of the pigs regaining consciousness — and an artificial hemoglobin mixed with each animal’s own blood. When they treated the dead pigs, the investigators took precautions to make sure the animals did not suffer. The pigs were anesthetized before they were killed by stopping their hearts, and the deep anesthesia continued throughout the experiment. In addition, the nerve blockers in the OrganEx solution stop nerves from firing in order to ensure the brain was not active. The researchers also chilled the animals to slow chemical reactions. Individual brain cells were alive, but there was no indication of any organized global nerve activity in the brain. There was one startling finding: The pigs treated with OrganEx jerked their heads when the researchers injected an iodine contrast solution for imaging. Dr. Latham emphasized that while the reason for the movement was not known, there was no indication of any involvement of the brain. Yale has filed for a patent on the technology. The next step, Dr. Sestan said, will be to see if the organs function properly and could be successfully transplanted. Some time after that, the researchers hope to test whether the method can repair damaged hearts or brains. The journal Nature asked two independent experts to write commentaries about the study. In one, Dr. Robert Porte, a transplant surgeon at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands, discussed the possible use of the system to expand the pool of organs available for transplant. In a telephone interview, he explained that OrganEx might in the future be used in situations in which patients are not brain-dead but brain injured to the extent that life support is futile. In most countries, Dr. Porte said, there is a five-minute “no touch” policy after the respirator is turned off and before transplant surgeons remove organs. But, he said, “before you rush to the O.R., additional minutes will pass by,” and by that time organs can be so damaged as to be unusable. And sometimes patients don’t die immediately when life support is ceased, but their hearts beat too feebly for their organs to stay healthy. “In most countries, transplant teams wait two hours” for patients to die, Dr. Porte said. Then, he said, if the patient is not yet dead, they do not try to retrieve organs. As a result, 50 to 60 percent of patients who died after life support was ceased and whose families wanted to donate their organs cannot be donors. If OrganEx could revive those organs, Dr. Porte said, the effect “would be huge” — a vast increase in the number of organs available for transplant. The other comment was by Brendan Parent, a lawyer and ethicist who is director of transplant ethics and policy research at New York University’s Grossman School of Medicine. In a telephone interview, he discussed what he said were “tricky questions around life and death” that OrganEx raises. “By the accepted medical and legal definition of death, these pigs were dead,” Mr. Parent said. But, he added, “a critical question is: What function and what kind of function would change things?” Would the pigs still be dead if the group did not use nerve blockers in its solution and their brains functioned again? That would create ethical problems if the goal was to preserve organs for transplant and the pigs regained some degree of consciousness during the process. But restoring brain functions could be the goal if the patient had had a severe stroke or was a drowning victim. “If we are going to get this technology to a point where it can help people, we will have to see what happens in the brain without nerve blockers,” Mr. Parent said. In his opinion, the method would eventually have to be tried on people who could benefit, like stroke or drowning victims. But that would require a lot of deliberation by ethicists, neurologists and neuroscientists. “How we get there is going to be a critical question,” Mr. Parent said. “When does the data we have justify making this jump?” Another issue is the implications OrganEx might have for the definition of death. If OrganEx continues to show that the length of time after blood and oxygen deprivation before which cells cannot recover is much longer than previously thought, then there has to be a change in the time when it is determined that a person is dead. “It’s weird but no different than what we went through with the development of the ventilator,” Mr. Parent said. “There is a whole population of people who in a different era might have been called dead,” he said.

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At first glance, Down syndrome and Alzheimer’s disease, two severe brain abnormalities, may seem to have little in common. Down syndrome is a hereditary disease, the source of which has long been recognized — a triplication of chromosome 21. By contrast, the overwhelming majority of Alzheimer’s cases (more than 95 percent) do not have a clear-cut genetic source. Instead, the disease, which usually becomes clinically apparent late in life, is caused by a perplexing constellation of factors. While these have been the focus of intense study for more than 100 years, few conclusive answers have come to light. In new research, Antonella Caccamo and her colleagues explore a number of critical factors that appear to link the two illnesses. The current project will use Down syndrom (DS) as a window into the underlying mechanisms that may give rise to Alzheimer’s pathology. Using this complementary approach, her $3.1 million NIH grant will explore the effects of a critical protein complex known as mTOR. In the healthy brain, mTOR is involved in a range of essential physiological processes. mTOR is a regulator of protein synthesis and degradation. It plays a critical role in cell growth, longevity and the formation of the cytoskeleton, which provides living cells with their shape and structure, and mTOR is vital to maintaining the proper energy balance in many tissues throughout the body. mTOR is also implicated in synaptic plasticity, neuronal recovery and the retention of memory. Caccamo is a researcher in the ASU-Banner Neurodegenerative Disease Research Center. Much of her research focuses on investigating Down syndrome molecular alterations in the brain in order to shed new light on Alzheimer’s disease (AD). “The ultimate goal of my research is to identify novel and clinically translatable targets, thus aiding in the development of new treatments for AD,” Caccamo said. Learning from mTOR Disruption of the mTOR pathway has been implicated in diseases including cancer, obesity and cardiovascular disease. Dysregulation of mTOR also plays an important role in diabetes and aging, two known risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease. Irregularities in mTOR functioning are linked to other neurodegenerative diseases and have been shown to give rise to two distinct neuropathologies: depositions in the brain of plaques composed of the protein amyloid beta (Aβ), and accumulations of another protein — known as tau — that aggregates within neuronal cell bodies, forming neurofibrillary tangles. Plaques and tangles are the classic hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease. Intriguingly, they also occur in the brains of virtually all patients with Down syndrome, some 60 percent of whom go on to develop Alzheimer’s disease by age 60. Interestingly, APP (amyloid precursor protein), a protein that when cleaved generates beta amyloid (Aβ), the toxic protein that accumulates in AD and DS brains, is located on chromosome 21, the same chromosome that is triplicated in Down syndrome. Could disruption of the vital mTOR pathway offer clues to the development of plaques and tangles and the onset of dementia in both DS and AD patients? Is mTOR dysregulation also linked with a particular form of cell death known as necroptosis, likewise implicated in AD and DS pathology? Most importantly, can the investigation of the molecular drivers of AD pathology in DS patients provide a new window into the early mechanisms underlying the development of sporadic Alzheimer’s, the form of the disease that commonly strikes aging adults? These are some of the important questions Caccamo’s new study intends to address. Alzheimer’s disease remains the only leading killer lacking any means of treatment, prevention or cure. The disease is pitiless in its systematic destruction of brain functioning, wiping memories clean and robbing the brain of its essential capacities, ultimately resulting in death — typically within eight to 10 years of clinical diagnosis, though in some cases, Alzheimer’s can drag on for as long as 20 years. The emotional toll on patients, caregivers and society is immense and rapidly mounting. Additionally, the staggering economic burden currently figures in the hundreds of billions of dollars in the U.S. alone and is projected to top $1 trillion by 2050. The need for viable treatments and preventive strategies could not be more acute. Today, researchers know that the onset of Alzheimer’s begins decades before its telltale signs become apparent. Some have gone so far as to say that while AD is usually thought of as a disease of old age, it may also be associated with adolescence when the early signposts of the disease are planted in the seemingly healthy brain. Many in the field believe that the best hope for arresting the ominous trajectory of the disease lies in identifying causal mechanisms at the earliest stage, and developing effective means of intervention before the brain is irreparably damaged. Caccamo believes that mTOR dysregulation may be one such early mechanism, giving rise to AD pathology in aging adults as well as DS patients. Research has demonstrated that mTOR is hyperactive in specific brain regions in both AD and DS patients. mTOR hyperactivity is further associated with tau pathology as well as low levels of TSC2, a critical gene product that is believed to keep mTOR hyperactivity in check. Finally, preliminary data from Caccamo’s research indicates that cell loss in DS patients results in part from necroptosis, a unique form of cell suicide linked with dysregulation of mTOR. This combination of factors has led to the central hypothesis of the new study: Dysfunction of the TSC2 complex causes an increase in mTOR activity in DS, leading to AD-like neurodegeneration by inducing necroptosis. Streams and tributaries of Alzheimer’s pathology Caccamo’s new project, entitled "Identify common mechanisms of neurodegeneration between Alzheimer’s disease and Down syndrome," addresses these issues on several fronts. The first aim of the project is to identify the molecular mechanisms underlying mTOR hyperactivity in DS. Here, the association of dysfunctional TSC2 with mTOR hyperactivity is explored. What might be causing the downregulation of TSC2 leading to mTOR hyperactivity? Three possibilities are experimentally probed: the presence of epigenetic changes in TSC2 and mTOR, alteration of the turnover rate of the TSC2 protein and newly detected proteins that may likewise contribute to destabilizing the delicate TSC2/mTOR axis. The second aim of the study is to determine the role of hyperactive mTOR in the development of AD-like phenomena in DS. Here, the hypothesis of hyperactive mTOR leading to AD pathologies, particularly Aβ plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, is explored using Ts65Dn mice, a genetic model of Down syndrome. Caccamo’s preliminary results show that mTOR hyperactivity precedes an increase in Aβ and tau levels and degeneration of cholinergic neurons in mice. By subtly increasing or decreasing mTOR signaling, the study will test the effects of reducing mTOR on Aβ and tau levels as well as degeneration of neurons in the mice. Further, increased mTOR levels will be examined to see if such changes increase AD-like pathology and cognitive deficits. Finally, the study will identify additional proteins falling under the regulation of hyperactive mTOR in DS. Although the death of nerve cells in both Alzheimer’s and DS brains is a well-recognized occurrence associated with impaired cognitive ability, the mechanisms leading to cell death are still not well understood. The third aim of the new study will be to examine how mTOR hyperactivity contributes to neuronal loss. Earlier work by Caccamo and others suggests that a form of programmed cell death known as necroptosis contributes to the neurodegeneration typically observed in AD brains. The third phase of the new study will investigate the hypothesis that hyperactive mTOR helps set this neurodegeneration process in motion by activating necroptosis pathways in the brain. Systematically modulating mTOR activity and necroptosis signaling in mouse neurons will be used to test this hypothesis. In addition to improving the understanding of the mechanisms leading to cell death in DS and AD, the research will help elucidate possible therapeutic targets for these two tragic afflictions. Researchers have much to learn from in-depth studies like these, which delve into mTOR’s profound influence on the brain, in sickness and in health. In addition to its relevance in neurodegenerative disease, mTOR’s crucial role in the aging process may shed new light on other foundational issues in neuroscience. More Science and technology Chemist joins ASU to tackle problems surrounding polymers, sustainability Trained as a chemist, Associate Professor Yoan Simon’s research straddles synthetic organic chemistry, materials science,… A ceramic renaissance Rising from the smoky embrace of kilns, ceramics played a significant role during the Renaissance era, with the resurgence of… ASU-based space workforce training program expands to Australia and New Zealand The Milo Space Science Institute, led by Arizona State University, will offer its space workforce training program to university…

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Assessment in the early years: physical, social and emotional development The second in a series, this article presents research evidence on why supporting and assessing young children’s physical, social and emotional development alongside their cognitive skills is essential for successful early learning and assessment. Social and emotional development Children’s ability to form healthy relationships, through understanding and developing behavioural expectations for both themselves and others, includes skills such as empathy, self-regulation, prosocial behaviour and emotion identification. Research suggests that solid foundations in social and emotional development are crucial for wider development: - five-year-olds with strong prosocial skills score higher in areas of learning including emergent literacy, emergent numeracy, working memory, mental flexibility and emotion identification1 - longitudinal studies have revealed significant associations between young children’s self-regulation skills and later academic success 2 - neuroscience studies have shown that the areas in the brain for cognition and emotion are interlinked and work together to inform a child’s behaviour.3 How has Covid-19 affected children’s social and emotional development? From spring 2020 to autumn 2021, Reception children made less progress than expected in all areas of learning including social and emotional development. In a study into the impact of Covid-19, personal, social and emotional development (PSED) was raised by teachers and parents as a prominent learning concern upon the start of school in September 2020. Moreover, early years children who were able to attend school more frequently during the third lockdown (January-March 2021) were noticeably more advanced in their learning and development, particularly in PSED, than peers with lower attendance. While there may be other confounding factors which influenced regular attendance during the third lockdown, this research suggests that a focus on PSED could be important in closing learning gaps.4 Results from IELS5 suggest that physical development, consisting of both gross and fine motor skills, plays an important role in a child’s holistic development at age five: - fine and gross motor development were positively related to emergent numeracy, emergent literacy, emotion identification and mental flexibility - physical development, particularly fine motor skills, was positively related to children’s ability to stay on task during assessments. How has Covid-19 affected children’s physical development? Emerging evidence suggests the physical development of young children is likely to have been negatively affected by the Covid-19 pandemic. This is especially true for vulnerable groups, including children from disadvantaged backgrounds and those from UK ethnic minorities. Lifestyle change during the pandemic is thought to be a contributing factor in reduced physical activity among early years children.6,7 How can we support the assessment and development of social, emotional and physical development in the early years? Rather than viewing social, emotional and physical development as separate to cognitive skills, they should be embedded into classroom learning and assessment, particularly to support children in the early years to recover from the impact of school closures. A variety of strategies can be utilised. - Access to larger spaces (indoor and outdoor) is essential for supporting and assessing children’s gross motor skills to give them freedom to move; where possible these spaces should be available more frequently so that children can practise these skills on their own terms rather than during dedicated sessions. - Increased opportunities, resources and spaces for children to be on their own or come together in pairs or small and large groups will enable them to practise self-regulation strategies as well as essential prosocial skills such as listening, sharing feelings and negotiating. - Teacher support, such as explicit structured teaching, teacher-led discussions and scaffolding should be provided alongside the space and opportunity for children to practise these independently during free-flow play. Such provision increases the likelihood of accurate assessment: observing children in play and self-select activities rather than in more planned ‘on-demand’ assessment activities allows for more authentic contexts where children’s skills are more accurately determined.

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A new high-density EEG captures the brain’s neural activity at a higher spatial resolution than ever before, report researchers. The next-generation brain-interface technology—the first non-invasive, high-resolution system of its kind—offers higher density and coverage than any existing system and has the potential to revolutionize future clinical and neuroscience research as well as brain-computer interfaces, scientists say. To test the system, researchers had 16 participants view pattern-reversing black and white checkerboards while wearing the new “super-Nyquist density” EEG. They compared the results from all electrodes to results when using only a subset of the electrodes, which is an accepted standard for EEG density. The results, which appear in Scientific Reports, show that the system captured more information from the visual cortex than any of the four standard versions tested. “These results are crucial in showing that EEG has enormous potential for future research,” says lead author Amanda K. Robinson, a postdoctoral fellow in the psychology department at Carnegie Mellon University and the Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition at the time of the study. “Ultimately, capturing more neural information with EEG means we can make better inferences about what is happening inside the brain. This has the potential to improve source detection, for example in localizing the source of seizures in epilepsy.” To create the new tool, researchers modified an EEG head cap from a 128-electrolode system, which increased its sensor density by two to three folds over occipitotemporal brain regions. They designed the experiments to use visual stimuli with low, medium, and high spatial frequency content. They then used a visual paradigm designed to elicit neural responses with differing spatial frequencies in the brain and examined how the new EEG performed. The subtle patterns of neural activity uncovered by the new system were closely related to a model of primary visual cortex. This “opens doors for utilizing higher-density EEG systems for clinical and neuroscientific applications,” says Pulkit Grover, assistant professor of electrical and computer engineering. “It also validates some of our fundamental information-theoretic studies in the past few years. Additional researchers from Carnegie Mellon the University of Pittsburgh participated in the study. Early financial support to modify and test the new EEG came from Carnegie Mellon’s BrainHub initiative and ProSEED program. Instrumentation of the novel cap was in part funded by the SONIC center of the Semiconductor Research Corporation. Source: Carnegie Mellon University

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There are about 100 billion neurons in the adult human brain. Neurons communicate with each other by means of electrical signals flowing through them. However, a neuron cannot receive this electrical signal from the thalamus and transmit it to the region of interest. Neurons need to cooperate with each other while maintaining this electrical conduction. Neurons include gaps called apt synaptic spaces (and no, the brain of people you think to be “empty brains does not consist entirely of these spaces). Neurons consist of a cell body and protrusions branching from the body. These extensions are called “axons’’. Information input is provided by dendrites at the end of the extension, passes through the cell nucleus, goes a long way in the axons and comes to the end terminals. This is the space we have just mentioned after the end terminals. So, how does the electrical pulse move through this gap? How is it transmitted to the next neuron? What is neurochemical? The end terminals of neurons are like vesicles containing small molecules. The molecules in these vesicles are chemicals that determine our “mood hal. These molecular compounds, which are called ‘neurotransmitters’ in simple molecular structures and ‘neuropeptides’ in long molecular structures, are synthesized from amino acids in our bodies. Neurons also transmit the necessary message with chemical compounds that are transmitted from one neuron to the other recipient in synaptic spaces during the electrical signals they send to each other. In fact, these neurochemicals determine our sad, irritable, obsessive, happy, confident, careful or careless behavior. Neurochemicals pass through transmission channels called ‘pathways’. Not every neurochemical brain is released from every neuron end. The pathways through which these chemicals pass are of great importance in determining the human mood. According to research and articles on mice, the main neurochemicals and pathways that operate learning and memory systems are as follows: Glutamate is one of the leading neurochemical systems related to learning and memory. Glutamate is known as the stimulating neurotransmitter agent of the central nervous system. If it works very effectively, the person shows an aggressive, restless psychological state. Research has been conducted on the effect of glutamate deficiency on the reduction of cognitive functions. Gamma-aminobutyric acid is the natural sedative of the brain. It works in the opposite direction with glutamate. In this way, instead of being aggressive, nervous, ready to have a panic attack at any moment, we live as balanced people who control their nerves and joy. The less active GABA causes severe panic and severe stress even in a small problem. What does dopamine do? All emotions related to pleasure, reward, feeling of accomplishment and enjoyment of life pass through the mesocorticolimbic pathway, which is also difficult to read or say. Pleasure and joy are mediated by dopamine released in this region. Excessive activity of dopamine is manifested by symptoms such as hearing voices and delusion within the head. Negative symptoms associated with decreased cognitive functions also indicate decreased dopamine delivery. Acetylcholine, which provides communication between the hippocampus and the ‘septum’ of the brain, regulates learning and memory processes. Lack of acetylcholine in this pathway leads to learning difficulties and memory blur. Acetylcholine deficiency causes dementia and Alzheimer’s disease in later stages. Although it is named as ‘happiness hormone’, serotonin is not a hormone. It has also been scientifically proven that people who receive external serotonin supplements do not experience the feeling of extra happiness, aliveness or vitality. The main task of serotonin is to dream. Regulates sleep and alertness. It makes people feel sleepy during the evening. (All of this has a relative relationship with happiness, yes.) An important part of the serotonin in the brain is in the rafe core in the brain. Serotonin, travels from the rafe core to the spinal canal by its own paths. Serotonin, which is released in the pathway up to the spinal cord, contributes particularly to pain control. Herbal medicines taken with the idea that serotonin increases happiness sometimes cause very serious results. Serotonin syndrome is a great risk for children and it is important to focus on expert recommendations and exercises for serotonin-enhancing activities. This neurotransmitter, also known as noradrenaline, determines the state of alertness, excitement and emotion in the brain. It is responsible for the regulation of blood pressure and heart rate. Starts from the locus serulens, just above the brainstem, mediating nerve conduction through a large pathway system that reaches many places within the brain shell. Excessive norepinephrine activity leads to anxiety, irritability and spine. Excessive self-confidence, meaningless laughter crises, excessive speech and risky behavior manifests itself in mania. Slow or inadequate release of norepinephrine causes self-insecurity, depressive mood, self-blame and low energy. HOW WILL WE USE THIS INFORMATION IN EDUCATION? We love to use the brain knowledge while preparing a special, individual education program for our children. Preparing brain-based trainings is not very common in our country. In the examples of educational psychology brain-based learning programs in the world, we observed that neurotransmitters are the most important issue to be overlooked. What is a neurotransmitter? The best answer to the question is: Neurotransmitters are the hormones of the brain and they make the transmission between nerves easy and fast. This means that no matter how effective the program we are preparing, if the brain hormones are not at the required level, learning will not be fast. So we will give you little information about which hormones affect learning, symptoms when they are not at the appropriate level and what will be done to eliminate these problems. Glutamate is higher than normal in individuals with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder and may cause dyslexia. This leads to problems in the field of reading. Glutamate is an amino acid found in meat products and is not as toxic as claimed. Glutamate is an important brain hormone for learning and memory in the brain. Keeping meat products in our child’s nutrition is very important for this brain hormone to fulfill its tasks. Gamma-aminobutyric acid, one of the by-products of glutamate, is also the building block of the GABA hormone. GABA levels were found to be low in individuals with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder. This makes it difficult for people with ADHD to remain calm. The presence of rice, green beans, sweet potatoes, spinach, chestnuts and especially probiotic foods in our nutrition program will increase the amount of GABA. It is also important to increase the amount of GABA in sports and especially yoga. Dopamine deficiency is seen in individuals with autism spectrum disorder. There are also studies suggesting that dopamine deficiency also exists under problem behaviors such as self-mutilation (auto-mutilation). Dopamine excess is seen in individuals with dyslexia. High dopamine causes plenty of daytime thinking, making it difficult to concentrate on the outside world. We need plenty of sunshine and fresh air to reduce reluctance, lack of motivation and increase dopamine levels. This shows that we need to increase our parking hours with our child. We need plenty of high-quality protein, so we need to put eggs, meat and dairy products, pulses, bananas, nuts and avocado in our children’s diet. Since all of these are digested and synthesized in the intestines, we should include delicious foods such as pickle with probiotic content, pickle juice, vinegar, kefir and probiotic yogurt in the nutrition of our children. In addition, saturated fats, carbohydrates and high-sugar foods should keep our children away. Dopamine is thought to increase more when consuming foods such as chocolate and saturated fat, carbohydrates and sugars. These substances mimic dopamine at first. It makes us feel happy and motivated. However, it reduces motivation and happiness from the first moment to a low level during the withdrawal. This leads to a desire to consume more. These foods make us feel unhappy by being upside down by dopamine levels. And of course the same goes for tea and coffee, but we didn’t even have to tell you that you didn’t make your children drink tea or coffee. Let’s play games where we get excited with exaggerated reactions to remind our child how dotamine is as well as motivation to increase motivation. During the game, let us express our happiness and pleasure of the activity verbally. Thus, we pass on to our child how happy and motivated it is to do a job as a model. It is also important to teach motivation by setting short- and long-term goals with our children, and celebrating what we accomplish and visualize. Running, playing, exercising and meditating or worshiping with our child are also activities that raise dopamine. Acetylcholine hormone that provides myelination is also higher than normal in individuals with ADHD and dyslexia like glutamate. Acetylcholine levels are also different in people with intellectual disabilities. Since learning in the brain is due to myelination, the abnormal in their level makes learning difficult. min B-5 that help convert choline to acetylcholine should not be forgotten. In the training program, activities that simultaneously increase the level of focus and alertness should be added. In order to reduce the aggressiveness in acetylcholine deficiency, drama and social story studies can be conducted on methods of coping with anger. The reason for the claims that the intestine is the second brain: Serotonin. Since serotonin is produced in the intestine, an imbalance in the intestinal flora prevents us from relaxing and being happy by reducing serotonin production. Therefore, consuming probiotic foods keeps our intestinal flora in balance, making us happy and comfortable. A happy and peaceful individual’s focus and learning skills reach a better level. In addition, since the sleep hormone melatonin is also synthesized from serotonin, our sleep quality will increase and the persistence of learning will increase thanks to comfortable sleep. Studies show that differences in serotonin levels seen in some individuals with autism lead to sleep and learning problems. In order to achieve the optimal level of acetylcholine, we should add choline-rich foods such as egg yolk, offal, and soy to our nutrition routine. Meat, milk, mushrooms, peanuts and vegetables with vita Being in the sun and nature, touching the soil is the fastest way to increase serotonin. Again, instead of shopping malls, we need to go to the parks and take off our shoes and run around in the grass. Spending time in prayer or meditation, sporting and socializing increases serotonin. In our diet, animal proteins such as meat, fish, chicken and eggs are again very important. In addition to this, nuts and chickpeas, especially pumpkin seeds, increase serotonin. We do not forget to take vitamin B6. Neurrepinephrine levels were found to be low in children with autism. This disrupts the levels of physical arousal. Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline shortage, causes anxiety. High levels of anxiety prevent learning persistence. Since it is made from serotonin, everything we do to increase serotonin is also valid here. In addition, we need to consume foods containing vitamin C, D, B6 and folic acid for the synthesis of serotonin.

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BYU researchers have created a miniaturized, portable version of a tool now capable of analyzing Mars’ atmosphere — and that’s just one of its myriad possible uses. For decades mass spectrometers have offered a relatively fast and highly sensitive way to analyze and detect chemical compounds. But their bulky size has been a hindrance, limiting their in-field potential. But after spending 12 years exploring the problem, BYU chemistry professor Daniel Austin, joined by electrical engineering professor Aaron Hawkins and other colleagues, has developed a much smaller spectrometer that still has the capabilities of its larger counterparts. “The goal was to take what would otherwise be a huge, benchtop instrument to something that’s small enough to carry with you,” said Austin, whose team’s findings were recently published in the Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry. Though smaller spectrometers have been developed in the past, they’ve generally been less sensitive and more likely to break down. But a small spectrometer whose capacity and strength isn’t minimized by its size, Austin said, opens up a world of potential applications, including the following: - A miniaturized mass spectrometer could detect and find chemical weapons, minimizing danger to soldiers in a given region. - In the homeland security realm, miniaturized mass spectrometers could help detect explosives in airports or elsewhere. - For forensic investigators, portable spectrometers could help with a range of on-site needs, including determining whether a white powder is an illegal drug or something benign. “Because mass spectrometers are typically large and expensive and require technicians to operate, not many people can get access to them,” said Yuan Tian, a study co-author and recent BYU chemistry Ph.D. grad. “But miniaturized mass spectrometers aim at overcoming these traditional problems by reducing their physical size, weight and cost.” That, in turn, “provides a faster and simpler way for compound analysis,” added fellow co-author and chemistry Ph.D. grad Ailin Li. Ion trap mass spectrometers typically work by metal electrodes creating an electric field. That electric field has a radio frequency signal applied to it, which traps ions. Scientists gather samples, ionize them, trap the ions and then eject and detect those ions based on their masses, which then tells them the chemical composition of the sample. Austin and his colleagues use a process called microlithography on ceramic and glass plates to miniaturize the ion traps. The space between the plates is less than a millimeter and is “where the action happens,” Austin said, adding that the resulting device is a hundred times lighter and smaller than a conventional ion trap. This specific project was funded in part by the National Science Foundation, and related research has also been funded by NASA and the U.S. Department of Defense. The team’s spectrometer is now being eyed for commercial development. “Portable mass spectrometry will enable lots of applications that you just can’t do right now,” Austin said. “There’s a lot of new science that can be done with an instrument that can be taken anywhere. Instead of sending samples to a distant lab and waiting for results, a portable instrument can give immediate results, allowing quick decisions.” Learn more: BYU-created mini tool has massive potential The Latest on: Portable mass spectrometry [google_news title=”” keyword=”portable mass spectrometry” num_posts=”10″ blurb_length=”0″ show_thumb=”left”] - How do mass spectrometry and omics impact neurosciences?on January 29, 2024 at 4:00 pm How is mass spectrometry important in the broad omics field that you specialize in? Mass spectrometry plays an important role in many different areas. Its functionality is a tool that can be ... - Rapid communications in mass spectrometry : RCMon January 8, 2024 at 4:00 pm Rapid screening of synthetic cathinones as trace residues and in authentic seizures using a portable mass spectrometer equipped with desorption electrospray ionization. - Experts use 3D printing to devise advance mass spectrometer componentson January 4, 2024 at 4:00 pm This achievement aligns with a 20-year quest to develop a 3D-printed, portable mass spectrometer, opening doors to unprecedented possibilities in scientific exploration. Looking ahead, the MIT ... - Researchers 3D Print Components for a Portable Mass Spectrometeron January 4, 2024 at 4:00 pm This lightweight, cheap, yet precise quadrupole is one important step in Luis Fernando Velásquez-García’s 20-year quest to produce a 3D-printed, portable mass spectrometer. “We are not the first ones ... - Mass Spectrometry Centreon October 20, 2023 at 5:03 am The Ulster University Mass Spectometry Centre facility uses mass spectrometry techniques to support your research needs for the characterisation and quantitation of proteins and small molecules in a ... - Mass Spectrometry Made Simple; or, How to Weigh a Molecule (Even Though There Isn’t a Way to Weigh a Molecule)on August 23, 2023 at 9:26 pm What does an exploding car and a motorboat have in common with mass spectrometry? Lee Polite of Axion Anyaltical Labs and his entertaining analogies return to ACS Webinars for another journey through ... - Portable Mass Spectrometry Made Easyon June 14, 2023 at 7:26 am It has simple-to-use software that sets up samples and analyzes data without prior mass spectrometry (MS) experience. The sample from the reaction flow is diluted for analysis in the MiD MS detector ... - Mass spectrometryon July 13, 2022 at 10:01 am This instrument may also be used in ESI mode. The Waters LCT Classic instrument analyses samples in both positive and negative ESI modes, it can be used as a liquid chromatography mass spectrometer ... - pQA Portable Quadrupole Analyzer for Mass Spectrometryon February 5, 2021 at 2:15 am The portable gas analyzer can perform analysis to sub-parts ... of small levels of the dissolved species through it and into a high-precision quadrupole mass spectrometer’s ion source. A manual ... via Google News and Bing News

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Mobile App Screenshots Mobile App Storyboards This mobile application was created for the Texas A&M Galveston Sea Camp in conjunction with their Camp Program Coordinator, Lorena Elsor, as a graduate level project. It is an eco-friendly initiative to encourage responsible beach-going habits, as well as familiarizing users with the natural flora and fauna of Texas beaches. The app allows users to take something from the beach without leaving a human trace. Users will be encouraged to take nothing but a picture and reduce the human impact of taking shells and organic materials that eventually damages the shoreline. Although created for the Texas A&M Galveston Sea Camp, it could be a supplemental tool for marine biology or aquatic science classes in schools or universities. I created the Storyline training module as a follow-up project this year with the idea that mobile apps would be great for either pre-training or a take-away from training. Having the training at your fingertips to update your team, or in this case, help identify native species would be an added bonus to any training. Providing training with a sister-app is a tool I hope to provide in my role as an instructional designer. I used the Backwards Design Model of instructional design to create the Storyline learning module. This theory has designers identify the desired results before planning instruction. The desired goal of the learning module was to familiarize students with the mobile application before going out into the "field" to explore. The training accomplishes this by presenting and assessing safety content first, and then introducing the mobile applications features and content.

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Bridgeway Math has a special one-year course that should be very useful for students in junior high who have a shaky foundation in math or gaps in their learning. It reviews basics that should have been learned in first grade through sixth or seventh grade, up through what I would consider a pre-pre-algebra level. This is a mastery course along the same lines as Alpha Omega’s LifePacs and A.C.E.’s Paces. Students can work independently through worktexts which contain instruction, practice problems, and self-assessments. Self-assessments are taken by students for them to determine for themselves whether or not they are ready to take the actual tests. Tests are given to students by the teacher. (In Bridgeway Math, tests need to be removed from the back of the student books in advance.) No teaching is required. While LifePac and Pace courses typically come in ten or twelve smaller workbooks, Bridgeway Math combines six Success Math PAKs into each of two worktexts. The worktexts are titled Bridgeway Math 1: Math Foundations and Bridgeway Math 2: Pre-Algebra. The entire course consists of the two student worktexts and a teacher answer key. The Success Math PAKs function like units in a typical textbook. However, a student should not progress to the next unit/PAK without achieving a score of 80% or higher on the previous unit. Bridgeway Math 1 is designed to bring older students up to speed by reviewing basic math concepts that might not have been mastered. It begins with the concept of place value then moves immediately into addition with carrying. It skips over simple addition and subtraction since those usually aren’t areas of difficulty. It works on rounding, estimating, multiplication and division—again jumping past basic math facts. Similarly, the first worktext takes students through fractions (including finding least common denominators), decimals, and many types of word problems. Instruction on concepts is brief. It teaches the algorithms or strategies without expanding into conceptual explanations as to why they work. Bridgeway Math 1 might work if students just need to apply themselves to mastering lower level math skills. However, students who have struggled with math in the past might not have grasped concepts when they were taught in a previous course, and they might need a hands-on approach or another form of explanation this time around as well. This book gives parents an easy way to breeze through a number of years of math instruction and, at the very least, identify problem areas. As long as additional instruction is provided when needed, this is a relatively efficient way to help a student catch up. I can see this first book as also being useful in situations where students have been switched from program to program and might have missed something along the way. Because Bridgeway Math assumes that students have already been through basic math and it skips some foundational topics like addition and subtraction facts, it cannot serve as your primary source of instruction for students have never been taught those topics. Bridgeway Math 2: Pre-Algebra begins with fractions, decimals, and percents, taking fractions and decimals further than in Bridgeway Math 1. It moves on to proportions, probability, tables, graphs, mean/median/mode, measurement, word problems, angles, triangles, geometric shapes, area, perimeter, volume, exponents, square roots, scientific notation, the Pythagorean Theorem, and working with positive and negative numbers. The final Success Math PAK in both worktexts reviews concepts taught throughout each respective books. Even though the second volume is labeled “pre-algebra,” the content is not as challenging as most pre-algebra courses for average students such as Saxon Math 87 or BJU Press’s Pre-Algebra. Most pre-algebra courses spend more time on algebra and geometry than does Bridgeway Math. Unless you plan to use a very simple first-year algebra course, I would recommend following the second book with another pre-algebra course. If you do so, most topics will be covered at a deeper level than in Bridgeway Math. While there might be repetition, it will reinforce learning and take students into more complex levels of math. Worktexts, printed in black-and-white, are consumable and include enough space for students to show their work for each problem. Scattered black-and-white illustrations follow a different theme in each Success Math PAK. The themes are loosely connected to math to show how math is used in real life. For example, space shuttles are the theme in the first PAK, and images gradually tell the story of space shuttles. Images don’t tie directly to the math on a particular page. Some of the other themes are the Leaning Tower of Pisa, sports, music, the World Trade Center’s twin towers, and volcanoes. In addition to the illustrations, the worktexts also feature occasional quotes from well-known people such as F. Scott Fitzgerald’s remark, “Never confuse a single defeat with a final defeat.” (I’m not convinced that these are helpful.) The teacher answer key has one page of instructions, then the rest of the book consists or reduced images of student pages (reduce to fit two student pages on each page of the teacher answer key) with answers overprinted. Answer keys for the tests are together at the back of the book rather than following each PAK. You can purchase the worktexts individually if you don’t need both, but you will still need the same teacher answer key with either book. This course caught my attention because it is one of the rare options for helping students catch up in math. Its self-instructional design should be great for self-motivated students who prefer to work on their own.

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1. Developmental interplay between beliefs, functional brain networks, and school trajectories Why do some adolescents avoid challenges, while others thrive at challenging school tasks? Why are some students more resilient to setbacks at school than others? In this project, we investigate the interplay between beliefs that students have about their abilities (mindset), how their functional brain networks for processing errors and feedback develop, and their actual learning trajectories and well-being in school. We longitudinally follow children from the first until the third year of high school, and assess their motivational profile using questionnaires, their learning behavior using computer tasks (a math task with self-adjusted difficulty and an explore/exploit task) and using fMRI, how their brain prioritizes different types of feedback and anticipates on effort and reward. 2. Intervention RCT: Influencing beliefs to stimulate resilient learning behavior at school In this project, we developed an intervention in which adolescents experience the malleability of their own brain activity, and that they have influence on their own learning processes. We use portable EEG-neurofeedback to create this experience, and developed different interactive neurofeedback games in collaboration with Waag Technology & Society. 3. Motivation and the social environment: the role of peers and parents It is known that adolescents are highly flexible in goal-directed behaviour and adolescents’ beliefs and goals are likely to be strongly influenced by peers and parents. This project moves beyond the level of individual students. The overall aim is to investigate how peers and parents influence both early (12-14 years old) and late adolescents’ (15-17 years old) ability beliefs, goal orientation and study motivation. To investigate the role of parents and peers, we assess social networks at school, use diary techniques and observations of peer-to-peer and parent-child interactions during learning. 4. The role of ability beliefs in effort investment, stress and failure attribution: physiological mechanisms Making mistakes is inherent to learning. Students, however, may hold different views on what these mistakes mean to them. In this project, we addresses the underlying (electro)physiological correlates of confrontation with errors and helpless attributions, in relation to ability beliefs. Electrocardiograms (ECG) and Encephalo-Electrograms (EEG) are measured in undergraduate students while they perform a math task (Math Effort Task; MET, in which participants choose their own difficulty levels) and a stop signal task. 5. Understanding the motivation-performance cycle Education is an important contributor to young people’s development. To optimize the learning process in youth, understanding the underlying mechanisms is essential. However, numerous motivational and cognitive variables are known to affect learning, which all change continuously and mutually influence each other. Existing learning theories typically focus on a limited set of variables, and capture just one direction of causality (e.g., intrinsic motivation increases performance). In this project, we will develop a new cyclical model of learning, grounded in a network approach, linking sub-networks of motivation, effort-related behaviours (i.e., perseverance), and performance. All variables can mutually influence each other, and each outcome can be the starting point for a new learning cycle. The model will highlight which interventions seem most promising depending on where a learner is in the cycle, thereby informing teachers where and when best to intervene. We will tackle the cycle of motivation, effort, and performance by analysing longitudinal datasets covering different components of the cycle. These datasets cross boundaries between the lab and educational practice, and between the global North (the Netherlands) and the global South (Peru) communities. 6. Exploring the possibilities of portable neurotechnology for educational research and practice In the past few decades, neuroscience and cognitive psychology have produced a rich body of research on memory, learning and attention, but for the most part the translational value of this work to classroom practices has been limited. A major challenge for translation is that neuroscience research is typically conducted in artificial and highly controlled laboratory settings. Interestingly, recent developments in portable neurotechnology (e.g. electroencephalography (EEG) and functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS)) now allow taking neuroscience research out of the lab and into working classrooms and other real-life settings. Moreover, portable technologies enable research in young children, and in areas of the world where access to advanced research labs is limited. In this recently founded Emerging Field Group, we will jointly explore the use of portable brain technologies to increase the ecological validity and worldwide implementation of educational neuroscience research. 7. How neuroscience impacts society Neuroscience research and neuro-imaging in particular is popular in the media and in diverse daily-life settings such as the educational practice. This makes it very important to safeguard accurate and realistic communication about neuroscience results, and to investigate the public impact of neuroscience. In 2015, we published the book “Kijken in het brein” (“Looking into the brain”) to help the general public to separate myths from the promising directions in our field. In addition, we investigate neuroscience communication and the impact of developments in neuroscience on society (in collaboration with the Athena Institute). For example, we recently studied public perceptions of the ‘teenage brain’, and how these views impact adolescent behavior. 8. Social Educational Neuroscience Amsterdam (SENSA) Together with a team of VU researchers, we jointly tackle urgent issues at the intersection of social psychology, developmental psychology, cognitive neuroscience and educational neuroscience. We focus on investigating the behavioral and brain mechanisms of social and motivational processes in educational settings from childhood to adolescence. We integrate lab-based experimental approaches with more ecologically valid methods, for example by using portable neuroimaging techniques that can be applied in the classroom while students are interacting. This project is funded by the Ammodo Science Award for Groundbreaking Research 2020. For more information see: https://socialeducationalneuroscience.com/

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Adults often perceive young children’s play fighting and use of war toys as violent or aggressive behaviour rather than beneficial to their development. Movies (e.g., Star Wars), books (e.g., Harry Potter), national figures (e.g. military forces), community helpers (e.g., police officers), professional sports (e.g., rugby) and commercial toys (e.g., Nerf guns) influence young children’s desire to engage in such play. In spite of that, educational programs often either discourage or ban this controversial form of play resulting in contrasting societal messaging for young children related to the appropriateness of play fighting and war toys. For example, fencing, an international sport, where those who excel are awarded medals, features three types of bladed weapons maneuvered in actions representative of fighting. Further, police officers use stun guns, firearms, and tear gas, yet are often recognized as instrumental for any society seeking to protect citizens. A closer look at the characteristics of children’s play fighting and use of war toys will indicate that the behaviour is voluntary, choreographed, enjoyable and usually proceeds with caution and care. Parents and educators struggle with the appropriateness of young children’s play fighting,1 and interest in war toys (e.g., guns, swords, bombs, light sabers and blasters) in home and school settings. Play fighting with symbolic weapons or war toys is a form of socio-dramatic play predominantly observed amongst boys ages three to six years. Play fighting is defined as verbally and physically cooperative play behaviour involving at least two children, where all participants enjoyably and voluntarily engage in reciprocal role-playing that includes aggressive make-believe themes, actions, and words; yet lacks intent to harm either emotionally or physically. Play fighting encompasses superhero play,2 “bad guy” play,3 active pretend play,4 physically active and imaginative play,5 rough-and-tumble play,6,7,8 and war play. Educators are pressured to disregard the benefits of aggressive socio-dramatic play resulting in prohibition of various forms of the play, particularly play fighting4,9 and engagement with war toys. However, the elimination of play fighting and war toys by parents and educators may have a significant impact on young children’s development. Research suggests that the optimal education and development of young children, particularly boys, is not being met when playful aggressive tendencies are forbidden.4,6,7,10 Further, educational programs that restrict play types may foster play deficits, which inadvertently will leave children unprepared for future experiences.11 While educators are often uncomfortable with play fighting and with war toys, it can be argued that the omission of these forms of play in early childhood programs limits opportunities for development of social, emotional, physical, cognitive and communicative abilities in young children. Play fighting generates central social learning experiences which support children as they practice controlled and motivated competitive and cooperative behaviour among peers.6 Understandably, this form of play is controversial. Carlsson-Paige suggest that war play is detrimental to child development due to its imitative nature rather than the creation of novel play experiences.12 Nevertheless, research supports dramatic and sociodramtic play as important to child development2,5 with two key elements of sociodramatic play being imitation and make-believe.1 Professional organizations have influenced early childhood practice when considering exposure to fighting and war toys. For example, developmentally appropriate practice, the initiative by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), supports and encourages the presence of certain forms of uniforms and images in the classroom, yet bans weapons and actions symbolic of, or believed to glorify, violence. Educator training and development often does not delineate playful aggression from serious aggression perpetuated by the aspiration to decrease violence in all forms13 and promote legislative efforts for the standardization of manufacturing physically and psychologically safe commercial toys.14 For example, Watson and Peng15 suggest that toy gun play is not associated with many positive behaviours, while Fry16 noted that play fighting and serious fighting can be categorized into separate types of behaviour in young children. Hellendoorn and Harinck17 differentiated play fighting as make-believe-aggression and rough-and-tumble since playful aggression should not be considered real aggression. Educators may discourage or ban play fighting and war toys because they perceive the play fighting as detrimental to child development rather than beneficial3,4,8 and the war toys as symbols of violence. It is important to recognize that play fighting and play with war toys lack intent to harm. Participants may sustain injuries, but such injuries are due to the nature of play, and not the purpose. This is an important distinction when identifying serious aggression, where the manifestation of behaviour holds the purpose of explicitly intending to injure or destroy and such behaviour is directed towards another with the intent to harm.18,19 However, children who exhibit significantly higher rates of antisocial behaviour and negative emotion display more violent actions during pretend play and engage in more frequent antisocial behaviour outside the context of their play.20 Additional support is needed for young children who lack age-appropriate prosocial skills and emotional regulation. Key Research Questions Smilansky21 suggests socio-dramatic play involves the cooperative interaction of at least two children, who act out roles both verbally and physically, with two key elements: imitation and make-believe. The acceptance or suppression of socio-dramatic play is determined by the knowledge and perceptions of early childhood educators. For greater understanding researchers should consider to what extent play fighting and war toys are accepted in the home and educational settings along with the contextual components that influence acceptance or suppression. Recent Research Results Parents and educators often misinterpret or are uncomfortable with play fighting due to its resemblance to serious aggression and difficulty recognizing subtle differences between the two.3,7 Playful aggression is a common component in socio-dramatic play — typically among boys.6,10,22,23 If playful aggression is supported, it is highly beneficial to child development.3 The act of pretending to be aggressive is not equivalent to being aggressive.3 Role reversal, cooperation, voluntary engagement, chasing and fleeing, restrained physical contact, smiling and laughing are common characteristics of playful aggression.16 Within this framework of understanding, play fighting and war toys can be considered components of socio-dramatic play.3 This suggests that early childhood educators need opportunities to enhance their understanding of the benefits of pretend play, including aggressive dramatic play themes such as fighting and war, in order to more effectively support play. Although there is abundant literature supporting forms of socio-dramatic play commonly perceived as appropriate (i.e., house keeping, community helpers), little is known of how to support aggressive socio-dramatic play such as play fighting1 and the use of war toys in the classroom. Research is needed to develop a cohesive terminology that clearly identifies various types of aggressive socio-dramatic play, targets the developmental benefits of each type, and distinguishes various toys and actions characteristic of aggressively representative play. Research findings to date have supported the inclusion of aggressive socio-dramatic play in early childhood education, yet minimal practical guidance for educators is offered to aid in the development of strategies and clear tactics for supervising play fighting and war toy play. Research demonstrates distinct differences between serious aggressive behaviour and playful aggressive behaviour, with intent to harm being the major factor of serious aggression. Research further demonstrates playful aggressive behaviour as a neglected, yet important element of socio-dramatic play, especially for young boys. Children who engage in play fighting are simply pretending to be aggressive as they develop a fighting theme that commonly involves symbolic weapons or war toys. They frequently exchange roles, collaboratively develop storylines, and repeat sequences in an effort to perfect their physical movements and the social dynamics of their play. Participants enjoyably and voluntarily engage in reciprocal role-playing that includes aggressive make-believe themes, actions, words and weapons; yet lacks intent to harm either emotionally or physically. However, educators must be cognizant of supervision, a key component for supporting play fighting. As with learning to cut with scissors, writing with a sharp pencil, and climbing on playground equipment, young children need the establishment of clear guidelines and reinforcement or redirection from educators to ensure their safety is assured within developmentally appropriate play. Implications for Parents, Services and Policy Without a full understanding of the distinct difference between serious and symbolic aggression educators may react with conflicting messages to young children regarding the appropriateness of engaging in socio-dramatic play involving play fighting and war toys. This confusion often results in educators who are pressured to disregard the benefits of aggressive socio-dramatic play by banning play fighting4,9 and war toys. Inconsistent rules and guidelines relating to the role of play fighting and war toys in early childhood education contribute to the struggle to recognize benefits and support children’s engagement. Educators who hold a foundation of understanding will be better able to communicate the importance of not only allowing playful aggression but also supporting it with the inclusion of war toys in early childhood programs. - Pellis SM, Pellis VC. Rough-and-tumble play and the development of the social brain. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2007;16:95-98. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00483.x. - Bauer KL, Dettore E. Superhero play: What’s a teacher to do? Early Childhood Education Journal. 1997;25(1):17-21. doi:10.1023/A:1025677730004. - Logue ME, Detour A. “You be the bad guy”: A new role for teachers in supporting children’s dramatic play. Early Childhood Research & Practice. 2011;13(1):1-16. - Logue ME, Harvey H. Preschool teachers’ views of active play. Journal of Research in Childhood Education. 2010;24(1):32-49. doi:10.1080/02568540903439375. - Parsons A, Howe N. Superhero toys and boys’ physically active and imaginative play. Journal of Research in Childhood Education. 2006;20:802-806. doi:10.1080/02568540609594568. - Jarvis P. Monsters, magic and mr psycho: A biocultural approach to rough and tumble play in the early years of primary school. Early Years: An International Journal of Research and Development. 2007;27(2):171-188. doi:10.1080/09575140701425324. - Pellegrini AD. Rough-and-tumble play: Developmental and educational significance. Educational Psychologist. 1987;22:23-43. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2201_2. - Tannock MT. Rough and tumble play: An investigation of the perceptions of educators and young children. Early Childhood Education Journal. 2008;35:357-361. doi:10.1007/s10643-007-0196-1. - Carlson FM. Rough play: One of the most challenging behaviours. Young Children. 2011:18-25. - DiPietro JA. Rough and tumble play: A function of gender. Developmental Psychology. 1981;17(1):50-58. doi:10.1037/0012-16188.8.131.52. - Sutton-Smith B. Play as adaptive potentiation. Sportswissenschaft. 1975;5:103-118. - Carlsson-Paige N. Young children and war play. Educational Leadership. 1987;45:80-84. - Violence in children’s Lives; A Position Statement of the National Association for the Education of Young Children; http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/ PSMEVI98.PDF; Adopted July 1993. - Media Violence in Children’s Lives; A Position Statement of the National Association for the Education of Young Children; http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/ PSMEVI98.PDF; Adopted April 1990; Reaffirmed July 1994. - Watson MW, Peng Y. The relation between toy gun play and childrens’ aggressive behavior. Early Education and Development. 1994;3:370-389. - Fry DP. Differences between playfighting and serious fighting among Zapotec children. Ethology and Sociobiology. 1987;(8)4:285-306. doi:10.1016/0162-3095(87)90020-X. - Hellendoorn J, Harinck, FJH. War toy play and aggression in Dutch kindergarten children. Social Development. 1997;6(3):340-354. doi:10.1111/j. - Bandura A. Social learning theory of aggression. The Journal of Communication. 1978; 28(3):12-29. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1978.tb01621.x. - Roberton T, Daffern M, Bucks RS. Emotion regulation and aggression. Aggression and Violent Behaviour. 2011;17:72-82. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2011.09.006. - Dunn J, Hughes C. “I got some swords and you’re dead!”: Violent fantasy, antisocial behavior, friendship, and moral sensibility in young children. Child Development. 2001;72:491-505. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00292. - Smilansky S. Sociodramatic play: Its relevance to behaviour and achievement in school. In: Klugman E, Smilansky S, ed. Children’s play and learning: Perspectives and policy implications. Columbia University: Teachers College Press; 1990:18-42. - Humphreys AP, Smith PK. Rough-and-tumble play friendship and dominance in school children: Evidence for continuity and change with age. Child Development. 1987;58: 201-212. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1987.tb03500.x. - Pellegrini AD. Elementary-school children’s rough-and-tumble play. Early Childhood Quarterly. 1989;4:245-260. doi:10.1016/S0885-2006(89)80006-7. How to cite this article: Hart JL, Tannock MT. Young Children’s Play Fighting and Use of War Toys. In: Tremblay RE, Boivin M, Peters RDeV, eds. Smith PK, topic ed. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development [online]. https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/play/according-experts/young-childrens-play-fighting-and-use-war-toys. Published: June 2013. Accessed February 26, 2024.Text copied to the clipboard ✓

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Aspects of human nature - like our capacity for language, reasoning or emotions - are amenable to scientific analysis that looks at where they come from and how they work, using tools like evolutionary biology, genetics, or neuroscience. But not everything about us that is important is innate. Many deeply entrenched features and characteristics of human life are contingent not essential. They come from our human history, not our human biology. Such aspects of the human condition - like marriage, sports, and war - resist scientific analysis and must be studied in a more humanistic way.

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Do the Math: the Difference Between Chinese and American Teachers A new study finds that while American teachers know more about theories of teaching, Chinese teachers can do the math For the past 20 years, studies of math achievement have shown that Chinese (and other East Asian) children consistently outperform their American counterparts in almost every area. Explanations have focused on differences ranging from number-word systems and parental expectations to student motivation and curriculum content. Now a study published in Contemporary Educational Psychology by Teachers College Professor Stephen Peverly and former TC students Zheng Zhou of St. John's University and Tao Xin of Beijing Normal University suggests that Asian teachers simply know more about math. In a comparison of 162 third-grade mathematics teachers in the US and the People's Republic of China, the researchers found that while American teachers were more knowledgeable about general educational theories and classroom skills, Chinese teachers had stronger knowledge of the subject matter they were teaching, as well as a better understanding of the overall elementary curriculum that their students had covered and would cover in later years. The difference was partly attributed to the fact that most U.S. teacher preparation programs focus on how to teach mathematics rather than on mathematics itself -- and that once U.S. teachers become certified they do not often have the opportunity to improve their knowledge of the subject. The study's authors also suggest that many U.S. math teachers are not adequately prepared to teach their subject because they, themselves, were poorly educated in math in elementary and secondary school The study focused on teachers' level of knowledge about concepts, computations and word problems involving fractions; their skills in teaching fractions in a way that ensures student comprehension; and their knowledge of more general issues such as child development, learning theories, and classroom management. Researchers looked at both the content teachers said they would assign to their students and the way they presented the concepts. While both Chinese and American teachers used similar methods to teach fractions-'"using hands-on learning tools, folding pieces of paper, coloring in geometric shapes.-'"there was a big difference in the information each group presented. Most of the American teachers in the study, when asked to about their teaching methods, rarely mentioned content. Chinese teachers, on the other hand, spoke in great detail about the content they present to students, and that content demonstrated a deep understanding of the subject matter as well as knowledge of the entire elementary mathematics curriculum. Overall, Chinese teachers had a better understanding of the mathematical concepts they were teaching than did their U.S. counterparts. The study confirmed findings of a previous study that found that U.S. teachers do not have "a profound understanding of fundamental mathematics." This, despite the fact that all the American teachers in the study held a bachelor's degree and more than half had obtained a master's degree, while most of the Chinese teachers were trained, after junior high school, at a three-year teacher-training school where they studied subjects equivalent to those offered in high school. American teachers also had taken more courses on teaching methods and general educational and psychological principles related to teaching than did Chinese teachers. The researchers found that more experienced American teachers were better able to identify important points for teaching fraction concepts. For Chinese teachers, however, mastery of this skill did not depend on experience, with less experienced Chinese teachers demonstrating the same proficiency as their more experienced counterparts. Chinese teachers also showed a better understanding than American teachers of their students' prior mathematics knowledge relating to fractions. The Chinese teachers reviewed concepts students had studied previously and found opportunities to lay the groundwork for what students would be learning later. American teachers rarely displayed the same understanding. American teachers, on the other hand, were more knowledgeable than Chinese teachers about concepts covered in educational psychology texts. Researchers summarized that while Chinese teachers were effective in providing instruction based on how well they knew the subject matter, their limited understanding of underlying psychological aspects of learning could be problematic. This limitation could possibly lead to problems related to student motivation, spontaneity, and creativity among other things. American teachers' comparative lack of understanding of the subject matter revealed that teacher preparation programs in the U.S. should focus more on increasing understanding of the subject and that in-service training should be improved. Published Tuesday, Dec. 12, 2006

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By Rodney Glasgow Editor’s Note: This article was originally published in Volume 2 of “Think Differently and Deeply” (2015). I have begun my middle school Religion class the same way for all of the three years that I have been the teacher. Students pair up, and they discuss a given question with their partner. Tell your partner about your religion. What is your religion? How do you practice it? Then, they find another student, and they prepare to discuss a new question. How do you believe the world began? Three minutes later, they find a different student. Talk about a time when you experienced something that you could not explain. They switch partners again to discuss, What do you think God looks like? This continues for a few more rounds of questions, and ends with: How have you seen people using or practicing religion around you? Although I start my class the same way every time, each time is a different experience. This exchange of stories and ideas between students is a novelty for each Religion section. Students present their answers to these questions to the whole class aided by a creative slideshow, and after each presentation the class must ask two questions of the student about something that interests them from what they heard. That begins our exploration of Genesis and the founding of Judeo-Christian beliefs. When I created this opening unit, I surely had James Banks whispering in my ear. The transformation approach to curriculum development that he describes in his “Four Approaches to Multicultural Education” is evident here. The transformation approach restructures curriculum to include multiple perspectives. (1) It often involves doing what I did—throwing out the existing curriculum and reimagining the course altogether. The other three approaches all speak to some aspect of the foundations of multicultural education: the contributions approach (heroes and holidays), the additive approach (stand alone units and cultural days, weeks, or months), and the social action approach (using what is learned to actively address a current real world issue). As Sonia Nieto tells us: “Multicultural education is a process of comprehensive school reform and basic education for all students. It challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in schools and society and accepts and affirms the pluralism (ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious, economic, and gender, among others) that students, their communities, and teachers represent. Multicultural education permeates the curriculum and instructional strategies used in schools, as well as the interactions among teachers, students, and parents, and the very way that schools conceptualize the nature of teaching and learning. Because it uses critical pedagogy as its underlying philosophy and focuses on knowledge, reflection, and action (praxis) as the basis for social change, multicultural education promotes the democratic principles of social justice.” (2) Multicultural education is an idea born of the ’70s that gained popularity in the ’90s. More recently, the nomenclature has shifted as the philosophy has deepened. Instead of talking about multicultural education, which most confuse with simply addressing race in the classroom, educational leaders are now focusing on inclusive pedagogy. Inclusive pedagogy or inclusive teaching describes instructional strategies used to create engaging learning environments. Inclusive teaching equips students to learn from differences in perspectives, learning differences, cultural and social backgrounds, and exceptionalities in the classroom. Practitioners of inclusive pedagogy vary course design and assessments to give students a number of ways to demonstrate their mastery of the course content and skills. Inclusive teaching brings students’ experiences into the classroom. The instructor not only delivers the content but also develops the students. (3) Multicultural education’s main focus can be said to be on what we teach, where inclusive pedagogy’s main focus is on how we teach. Where multicultural education has been mainly applied to race and, in its more broad moments, gender, inclusive pedagogy encompasses the totality of an individual’s identity, including learning preferences and lived experience. Quite simply, inclusive pedagogy asks us to know the stories in the room and to use those stories to engage the learner thus deepening the learning. Inclusive pedagogy is brain-based and research informed. It relies on the importance of relevance (4) and novelty (5) in creating learning and aiding memory storage and retrieval. Our brains fire up when we can say, “Here is how this relates to me,” or “Here is why I need to know this,” or “Here is where I can connect my story with this information.” Our brains become more alert in those moments when we are encountering information that we have not previously considered. In the faculty lounge, we call it the power of “whoa!” and “a-ha!” I have experienced “whoa” moments and “a-ha” moments often in my classroom. In that first week of Religion class, there are always a few. I am thinking of the student who, in describing her own spiritual beliefs to the class, disclosed that she was a medium. You could feel the interest build in the room. Some students were thinking, “Whoa! A medium! I wonder if there are spirits in this room. Does she see them?” Other students were thinking, “Whoa! What is a medium?” Novelty walked right in the room and excited their brains, and the learning happened. One student raised his hand to ask her, “What is a medium?” She answered confidently. Another wanted to know when she discovered her abilities, and another wanted to know if she was frightened by it. A fourth student asked, “Why is it called a medium?” And here is where, as a teacher, relevance and shared experience comes in. I sneakily asked, “Where else have we heard the word medium?” Students responded that items are often sized small, medium, or large. They then recalled that medium is another term for being in the middle, and they decided that a medium is someone who is in the middle of this world and the spirit world, able to communicate with both. They will forget many things about Religion 6. That will not be one of them! Now, when this class discusses what it means to be spiritual, or if miracles exist, or what happens after life, they will have a different perspective than their own to consider. Inclusive pedagogy’s call for multiple perspectives as a learning tool is nothing new. Dewey, the great educational philosopher of the early 20th century, already told us that “…it is the office of the school environment to balance the various elements in the social environment, and to see to it that each individual gets an opportunity to escape from the limitations of the social group in which he was born, and to come into living contact with a broader environment.” (6) Indeed, Horace Mann, the Father of American Education, began this dialogue in the 19th century when he urged us to see education as the great equalizer of diverse experiences. Inclusive pedagogy is applicable to each classroom and every discipline. There is always space to broaden the perspective and widen the lens. My middle school Religion class always ends the same way. Students write an essay or produce a work of art that explains how their thoughts about God have either changed or been solidified since the start of the course. And in that way, the class ends in a different place for each student that I, as their teacher, must recognize and honor. By releasing myself from being a “sage on the stage” to become a co-creator of educational opportunities with my students, everyone in my classroom is a better teacher and stronger learner. 1) J.A. Banks. An Introduction to Multicultural Education 2nd ed. (Boston 1999). 2) S. Nieto. Affirming Diversity: The Sociopolitical Context of Multicultural Education (2nd ed.). (New York 1996). 3) S. Radford-Hill. “Practicing Inclusive Pedagogy. (2014). https://www.luther.edu/ideas-creationsblog/?story_id=548097 4) University College London. “Novelty Aids Learning.” ScienceDaily (4 August 2006). www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/08/060804084518.htm 5) Bernard, S. (2010) http://www.edutopia.org/neuroscience-brain-based-learning-relevanceimproves-engagement 6) J. Dewey (1916). Democracy and Education. New York: Simon & Brown (1997).

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In this note we are going to try to answer some of the most common questions about what a Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is like and what it consists of. The basics of a Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is, first of all, a form of psychological treatment. It can be applied to many areas and problems, not just the office. In the office, typically everything begins when a person does not feel well emotionally or has a behavior problem and therefore decides to consult a psychologist. Thus, the patient arrives and explains his problem to the psychologist who, based on what the patient tells him, will first try to understand it and then help him find a solution with the means of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. Next, we are going to develop a series of important points that describe how the treatment is carried out. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy has three major stages In Cognitive Behavioral Therapy we organize ourselves in three phases: evaluation, treatment and follow-up. During the first stage, the psychological evaluation, we take care of knowing the patient and understanding the problems for which they consult. If there is a diagnosis such as Depression, Bipolarity or Social Phobia we try to find it at this time. In general, what we discover in these first interviews we explain to the patient, in this way he begins to know his problem and gives us his point of view. Very important: during this phase, the patient and the therapist talk and agree on the treatment goals and prioritize them. The psychological evaluation lasts between 3 and 5 sessions. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is a scientific approach Although it seems strange, not all therapies applied by psychologists have a scientific basis. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy itself is a scientific therapy, which does not mean that it is infallible but that the procedures applied are investigated with rigorous experimental methods, today closely linked to advances in neuroscience. That is why we are more likely to achieve the objectives. A scientifically validated procedure does not guarantee success but makes it much more likely. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is practical and works for objectives In Cognitive Behavioral Therapy we focus on solving the current problems of the person, the reasons that afflict them today and make them suffer. In some cases, when it is necessary to understand the current problem, we ask for information about the past; But the accent of treatment is on solving today’s difficulties. The dialogues between the patient and the therapist are guided by practical objectives. It is not at all a spontaneous talk without direction, but we orient ourselves by the reasons that brought the patient to treatment. On the other hand, we don’t just talk. We teach the patient a set of exercises that will help him manage and solve problems. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is a treatment approach applicable to different problems and areas. In the clinic, in the office, it is not only used for specific problems such as phobias or depressions but it is also effective in the treatment of vital crises, family and relationship problems, non-specific emotional distress. In addition, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is applicable to different areas of the office, such as school or work. In short, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is a form of practical-oriented psychological treatment, based on scientific knowledge and with a wide spectrum of application. Its main objective is to alleviate human suffering using procedures validated by science.

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Some think big. But for Russ Kerschmann, thinking small has made all the difference. He’s the scientist who invented a brand new imaging technology that allows microscopists to view the three-dimensional (3-D) architecture of objects. His is a grass roots success story that began on his kitchen table 15 years ago. Kerschmann, an anatomic pathologist, began work on a project that would eventually become the core technology of his company, Resolution Sciences Corporation, Inc. (Resolution), based in Corte Madera, California. This forward-thinking technology is called digital volumetric imaging (DVI) and has altered the way microscopists study images by transforming biological tissue and materials science into high fidelity, 3-D digital replicas. Before the introduction of DVI, all scientists and researchers were bound by the traditional glass slide-based method that offered only a two-dimensional (2-D) perspective of images. The amount of distortion introduced made it nearly impossible to re-assemble the hundreds or thousands of tissue sections into one good image. Instead, with the introduction of DVI, the entire sample is now stained with a fluorochrome dye, embedded in a specially formulated polymer, and physically sectioned on a precision-controlled robotic microtome. “When it comes to doing 3-D reconstruction on samples of many cubic millimeters, serial glass slides were the predominant way that people tried to do that. No one in the 150 years of optical microscopy had been successful in making a truly high-fidelity rendering of a biopsy-size piece of tissue in 3-D,” Kerschmann said. Thanks to his creation, scientists can see inside the 3-D structure of samples many cubic millimeters in volume, and can conduct accurate measurements and analyses by investigating the approximately 1,000 to 3,000 virtual sections in each DVI set, that are imaged at as little as 1/4 of a micron resolution. An important tool in this process is the company’s software program RESView, that enables researchers to rotate samples in 3-D space and digitally cut into the data, examining a 2-D image along any axis, effectively establishing integrated 2-D and 3-D information. The price tag on this Windows NT or 2000 workstation is just under $24,000, and includes all the hardware, software, initial licensing fees, and upgrades. Customers can expect to pay $1,000 per sample for processing and will receive their images on CD-Rom or DVD. The tissues are dyed with a multicolored stain and technicians capture the color and bring it all the way through to the data. The technology is exciting for many of Resolution’s clients including Douglas Chinn, Principle Member of the Technology Staff for Sandia National Laboratories, California. Sandia has incorporated DVI into its research and development protocols for imaging of micromachine parts, and Chinn has designed special structures for inclusion on his micromachine wafers. “The idea of having a 3-D image of a mechanical part clicked immediately, so I sent them one of our gears made with lithography electroplating and molding (LIGA) and they sliced it up and imaged it, and demonstrated the new part with their computer. It was obvious this would allow us to see things that we really don’t have any technique to see,” said Chinn. “What we can do with Resolution Sciences data sets that we can’t do with any other technology is match the 3-D data sets to a computer-aided design (CAD) model–and that is very powerful for the designers. Here we have a technique that effectively measures the entire surface of the device at once, so we get a color map out of the computer and the colors indicate how the real object varies from the CAD model.” He added that designers normally prepare drawings, and through an arduous and complex process, produce a real part. “There’s always some kind of variance, but now we can see instantaneously how the part varies from the design. The next step is to match data sets from each wafer to the other, so we can compare wafer 1 to wafer 2 and see how consistent our manufacturing processing is. This is very powerful.” “I was looking at blood vessel networks in skin that had been irradiated with therapeutic laser light,” Kerschmann said of his days in the late 1980s as a research fellow for Wellman Laboratories of Photomedicine at Massachusetts General Hospital, “and the research group wanted to know where the threshold damage was occurring. They were asking me, for example, if the first damage occurs at the vessel branch points and all I had at the time was standard glass slides. It became clear I could not answer that question because vessel branch points are very three-dimensional in their arrangement in skin.” It was time to put his B.A. in neuroscience, M.S. in microbiology, M.D. from the University of Massachusetts, and clinical fellowship in pathology from Harvard to the test. Kerschmann began to develop DVI while working at the University of Massachusetts and later went on to work at the University of California, always hoping it would someday be valuable enough to stand on its own. That day finally arrived in 1997 when the first investors appeared, and the result continues to please the inventor. Resolution was later awarded a $1.6 million grant from The National Institute of Standards and Technology, that partially funds its National Digital Tissue Repository (NDTR), a web-based collection of standard digital, biological tissue images available for purchase online. The program features high quality, 3-D DVI images of commonly used biological tissue samples that can be previewed interactively on the web. Resolution also won 5th place in Nikon’s Small World Photography Competition last year, for the submission of an image containing a sample of a coated magazine cover. Another winning image will appear in Nikon’s Small World Calendar later this year. Though Resolution originally thought they would launch the innovative technology to the clinical field, they ultimately decided that commercializing it within the research community would be their focus. Today, their primary goal is to introduce the technology to more pharmaceutical and material manufacturing companies. They’re currently working with Genentech, Genetics Institute/Wyeth-Ayerst Research, Sandia National Laboratories, and GlaxoSmithKline Pharmaceuticals, among others. Resolution’s relationship with Sandia National Laboratories continues to develop, and Chinn’s expectations keep growing. “What we have got is conventional scanning electron microscopy (SEM), optical microscopes, various surface profilometers, and some interferometer-type scopes. The problem with all of these imaging techniques is that they’re 2-D. Even the interferometry scopes–I call them 2 1/2-D, not true 3-D. We need information about all sides of the part. We need precision of measurement to better than a micron over these very distances of, say, a thousand microns. We also need to know information about surface finish and how the front of the part relates to the back of the part.” Science and technology develop simultaneously, and, according to Kerschmann, the electronic age has been “absolutely critical” for his research and development. “I sat on this technology for almost a decade before trying to commercialize it. The amount of information generated is immense.” His company takes pride in teaching customers about their own products and helping them save money by providing “a better understanding of how the components of material fit together.” Manufacturers can potentially reduce the amount of materials needed to produce their products, and drive down their operating costs. The DVI technology has applications in numerous areas of science, including genome research. Resolution works closely with collaborator Scott Fraser, director of the Biomedical Imaging Center at California Institute of Technology. Of Fraser, Kerschmann says, “He’s doing a lot of imaging of embryos with our systems, including vertebrae embryos, and he’s using it [our technology] to look at knock-out mutation changes in the entire embryo. We have the only technology that can image an entire embryo at cellular level resolution.” We’ve been able to image gene expression distributions in entire embryos using fluorescent proteins. They can use it to track the migration of different cell types in the development of embryos.” Though Kerschmann proclaimed his discovery of how to make the chemistry and tissue block work to get a sharp image a “Eureka moment”, he’s not done yet. What does the future hold for this scientist turned entrepreneur? This time, he’s thinking big: “I’m hoping our technology will be widely used in industry and academia and will be the standard practice for 3-D microscopy of large amounts of samples.”

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As education leaders begin to look beyond the pandemic, some students are opting into online learning for good. When officials at Fort Smith Public Schools in Arkansas began preparing an online-only option for fall 2020, they expected to have about 500 sign-ups from the district’s 14,000 students. Instead, online enrollment hit 3,500. “As we got closer, we were surprised to see our estimate keep growing,” says Gary Udouj, director of career education and district innovation for FSPS. “We were very quickly training staff and getting our resources together to make sure all of our students had the technology they needed.” The district paid teachers a $500 stipend to complete a virtual training program standardized on a single learning management system, and it implemented a third-party online curriculum. “We were definitely building the airplane as we were taking off,” Udouj says. A remarkable achievement considering that, when the pandemic first hit last spring, many students lacked internet connectivity, and in trying to fill the gap, the district had to distribute 4,000 paper instruction packets each week. Since then, FSPS educators have delivered 2,500 mobile hotspots to students and their families, turned school parking lots into Wi-Fi access hubs and ensured that all students have their own Chromebooks. Much of the district’s online instruction has been delivered via Zoom, and teachers frequently make use of free, game-based learning platforms such as Kahoot. “The students are very tech savvy,” says Samantha Hall, assistant director of district innovation. “When you teach them the basics, they learn very quickly.” The district then hired teachers, many internally, specifically to staff the virtual program. Now, as officials plan to make the virtual option permanent, they are seeking ways to continuously improve. The district is running focus groups with parents to obtain valuable feedback, and next year teachers will create a district-built virtual curriculum around state standards. “We’ve been looking at a virtual option for a few years,” notes Martin Mahan, deputy superintendent. “We’ve found there’s a certain population of students who thrive in a virtual setting, and the pandemic has forced us to look at things through a different lens. We’re trying to find the value in every assignment, and this really caused us to look more at what is being taught, and how.” Virtual Learning Provides a Better Fit for Some Students Fort Smith Public Schools is not alone. While many parents, students and teachers across the country have leapt at the opportunity to get back into physical classrooms as quickly as possible, others have found virtual learning to be a great fit. This has led a number of school districts to seize the moment and accelerate plans for virtual-only schools that will continue to educate students remotely, even after the pandemic ends. A fall 2020 RAND survey of district leaders found that 1 in 5 schools have already adopted or plan to adopt virtual schooling after the pandemic. “Many students who would never have seen themselves as online students realized the model was working better for them,” says Joseph South, chief learning officer for ISTE, an organization that advocates for technology in education. “Some are realizing that this is how they want school to go for them, and the districts realize they can either lose these students or open their own virtual schools at the district level.” South notes that virtual charter schools have existed for years, but individual districts are just now starting to get in on the game. Students, he says, may opt for a district-run virtual school over other online options as a way to stay connected to their communities and participate in extracurricular activities with their friends. But, South says, it is important for new virtual schools to train teachers to tailor instruction for a remote model. “Most schools have robust technology to support virtual learning for students,” South says. “The real issue is professional learning, so teachers can do this well. That’s what is ultimately going to determine their success or failure, much more than the infrastructure.” Educators Emphasize Competency-Based Learning in Online Classes Jordan School District in Utah is launching full virtual elementary, middle and high schools this fall, and it isn’t just replicating in-person instruction. Spencer Campbell, principal of Kelsey Peak Virtual Middle School, says that educators are moving to competency-based learning, letting kids take advantage of the flexibility offered by a remote learning model. “We’re shifting away from an emphasis on the time spent in class,” Campbell says. “Typically, you get 45 minutes in a period, but we’re now looking at learning in terms of the whole week. So, a student who excels in a certain area can finish everything on Monday or Tuesday, and then spend the rest of the week working in an area where they struggle.” The district is leaning on a mix of technologies — including a learning management system, Zoom, Chromebooks and online learning programs — to deliver remote instruction. But more important than the tools themselves are the ways educators are designing their instruction. The district is in the process of implementing a consistent course design across all grades, so that students and parents will know exactly what to expect when they log in. Ross Menlove, principal of Rocky Peak Virtual Elementary School, says teachers are being intentional about getting their students to talk as much as possible. “We recognize that kids need that social interaction,” Menlove says. “They need to be verbal, they need to be talking to each other. We have training around increasing student engagement through conversation.” Menlove adds that students in the virtual schools can choose to come to campus for music class, STEM programs, physical education and one-on-one academic help. This year, around 12,000 of the district’s 60,000 students opted for online learning. Officials expect that number to drop to around 1,200 next year — but, they note, those students will be in a remote model because they want to learn that way, rather than being forced into it by a raging pandemic. “You have students who might not have made this leap on their own, but they’ve been successful with it,” Campbell says. “Going forward, there will be much more student choice, more flexibility and improved instructional design. Teachers will be able to adjust based on what they’ve learned over the past year.” Schools Turn a Temporary Fix into a Permanent Fixture Beth Rayl, chief academic officer at Plymouth-Canton Community Schools in Michigan, was a young teacher in the late ’90s when her principal asked her to learn to teach virtually. At the time, she thought there was no way her students could learn as much from her over the internet as they could in person. Now, Rayl is helping lead the effort to turn P-CCS’ temporary virtual academies into permanent virtual schools. The district was already looking at launching virtual schools before the pandemic hit, Rayl says, as a way to help meet the needs of different learners. “What I learned was, some of the kids who sit in a classroom and don’t share their voice have so much to share,” she says. “When you have a 55- minute bell schedule, it doesn’t always give students space to have that moment. With students for whom the existing system isn’t a right fit, we have to ask, what system could we build that would fit those students’ needs?” For Rayl, the answer is online learning, which allows P-CCS to maximize student success. This year, 3,700 of the district’s 17,000 students participated in virtual academies, and Rayl expects between 700 and 1,000 students to choose virtual learning next fall. To support success in online learning, the district deployed 4,600 new student devices (a mix of Chromebooks and tablets), bringing the district’s total to more than 12,000. It also partnered with Dell for a virtual desktop infrastructure initiative to provide remote access to robust computing resources. And last summer, the district offered 53 professional development sessions on technology and online learning. Rayl has some advice for districts looking to create their own online schools: Listen to your students. For example, she notes that a previous virtual program she supported held an online learning lab at the unlikely hour of 8 p.m. on Fridays at the suggestion of students, and it was a hit. “Sometimes, we need to get out of our own heads as adults and have a conversation with young people and ask what works best for them,” she says. “When we have those conversations, surprising things happen.”

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Dopamine is a feel-good chemical that’s produced in your brain. Essentially, it makes you happy. And your brain releases it with certain activities and behaviors ― many of which you already do every single day. “Whenever we participate in activities that are considered essential from our body’s point of view, our brain releases a large amount of dopamine,” which is meant to encourage you to do this activity more, according to Dr. Kiran F. Rajneesh, the director of the neurological pain division and associate professor of neurology at the Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center. Throughout evolution, dopamine’s task was to “sense reward, learn the place and activity that leads to reward and also motivate you to go to those places to obtain [a] reward,” said Dr. Hitoshi Morikawa, an associate professor in the departments of neuroscience and psychiatry at the University of Texas at Austin. And that is still the case today. In essence, “dopamine is a reward sensor,” Morikawa said. While this reward sensor was and is essential to human survival, evolution has made it so maladaptive behaviors also result in the release of dopamine in humans, both experts said. “Generally, when neuroscientists talk about dopamine, we think about addiction because it is an addiction driver,” Morikawa explained. The hormone makes you want to repeat certain behaviors, turning them into habits ― whether they are healthy or not. (Like substance misuse or smoking, for example.) However, that’s not always the case. The release of this hormone is also part of your body’s daily function. While this is not a cure for any disease or condition, it can be helpful to know when dopamine is released — and when you can expect to feel a little mood boost as a result. Here are a few times when your body releases dopamine: Our prehistoric ancestors knew that food was necessary for survival, in part because of the reward sensor that dopamine activated. This is still true today. In fact, Rajneesh said that any activity that is “evolutionarily protective and essential for our well-being and survival” releases dopamine. Being able to find food and eat that food certainly falls into this category. Some studies even say that eating results in a dopamine release twice: first when the food is eaten and again when the food is in the stomach. Think about it: When you’re parched, a glass of water certainly feels like a reward, so it’s no wonder it also triggers the release of dopamine in your brain. But not all sips of water will release dopamine, Morikawa noted. Instead, you have to really want or need the water — like after a tough workout or on a hot day. “In the middle of summer in Austin, and you’re really thirsty, then drinking water should increase dopamine levels in the brain — that should be one of the most effective ways to increase them,” he said. One really common way that dopamine is released is when praising children for good behaviors, Rajneesh said. Praise triggers a release of dopamine in kids’ brains — and the same goes for praising pets. In these situations, their good behaviors are reinforced by the feel-good nature of that dopamine release, he said. The same is true when adults receive praise, Rajneesh added. So sending a congratulatory email to your colleague or a celebratory text to a friend is actually doing more good than you think. This is especially important for people with certain conditions that are a result of low dopamine levels, like ADHD, according to ADDitude Magazine, an ADHD-focused publication. Playing Video Games Many studies have measured and found that playing video games results in the release of dopamine in the brain for some people, Morikawa noted. While this in itself is not a bad thing, it can become negative if the feeling of playing video games is too positive or too fun, he added. When “elevating dopamine levels, sometimes you get really hooked [onto] certain activities,” Morikawa said. In this case, that activity can be video games, which can lead to problems for people who aren’t professional gamers, he added. (For example, students who should be doing homework instead of playing.) Sex causes a release of endorphins, as Dr. Elizabeth C. Gardner, an orthopedics sports medicine surgeon at Yale Medicine, previously told HuffPost. And studies show it also causes a release of dopamine. During evolution, the dopaminergic system developed to promote the “survival and maintenance of our species,” Morikawa said. In other words, there’s an instinctual reason sex feels so enticing. Our brains are wired to know that sex is important for survival, and the neurons that release dopamine do so when they sense the reward associated with the act. Activities That Enhance Your Well-Being Meditating and other activities can also lead to a release of dopamine, Rajneesh said. “Engaging in activities that enhance your well-being such as yoga, exercise, hobbies [and] games ... can help release dopamine in the brain and further enhance your sense of well-being and health as nature intended it to be,” Rajneesh said.

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A large number of genes has been implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) such as autism, developmental delays, intellectual disabilities and epilepsy, but it is difficult to determine how these genes, individually and as a group, contribute to the disease. A collaboration between the laboratories of Dr. Huda Zoghbi and Dr. Zhandong Liu provides a new level of understanding of NDDs through a novel approach that identifies expression patterns of involved genes in individual cell-types at specific stages of neural development. One cell at a time The team integrated single-cell RNA sequencing data from the developing human prefrontal cortex with genes mutated in NDDs. The analysis revealed that the expression of genes implicated in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and epilepsy was enriched in similar cell-types and cell-type transitions during gestational week 10, a period that is critical for neurons in the prefrontal cortex. This observation indicates a functional overlap between these genes. Further analysis revealed that during this developmental time, ASD genes regulate epilepsy genes, and likely other genes involved in other NDDs. These are exciting findings because they offer a possible explanation for why ASD and epilepsy tend to occur together and provide a clue as to why certain symptoms like seizures are often present in both these disorders, as well as in other NDDs. Although several similar studies have been conducted in recent years, the majority of them have relied on gene expression data collected from bulk brain tissue, making it impossible to identify co-expression patterns at the single cell resolution. An innovation of the Liu and Zoghbi study is that they looked at gene expression data in individual cells. Analyzing single-RNA sequencing data of individual brain cells offered us an unprecedented opportunity to understand the genetic factors contributing to ASD and epilepsy at the single-cell level during a specific developmental time frame,” said Dr. Kaifang Pang, senior postdoctoral fellow in the Liu lab and lead author on the study. “The beauty of this approach lies in its simplicity, which makes it robust and highly reproducible. We think this is an ideal computational framework for future investigations using single-cell RNA sequencing data for exploring the genetic and physiologic factors contributing to other NDD disorders,” said Liu, corresponding author of the work. He is associate professor of pediatrics and neurology at Baylor and investigator at the Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children’s Hospital. Read the complete study in the journal Genome Research. Li Wang, Wei Wang, Jian Zhou and Chao Cheng at Baylor College of Medicine, and Kihoon Han at Korea University, also contributed to this work. Zoghbi is professor of molecular and human genetics, pediatrics and neuroscience and Ralph D. Feigin, M.D. Endowed Chair at Baylor. She also is the director of the Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children’s Hospital, an investigator at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and a member of the Dan L Duncan Comprehensive Cancer Center. The study was funded by the National Institutes of Health, National Science Foundation, Research Institute of Texas, Houston Endowment, Hamill Foundation, Chao Family Foundation, Huffington Foundation and Howard Hughes Medical Institute.

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Our research focuses on human learning – particularly in the perceptual and cognitive domains. Topics of Interest Task characteristics that encourage transfer of learning Inter-individual differences that predict differences in learning generalization Task characteristics that alter the rate with which new perceptual or cognitive tasks are learned How individuals decide if they should engage in learning a new task or cease attempting to learn a previously experienced task For more on the lab’s research… I was recently a guest on the Here We Are Podcast, where I discussed video game and technology use during the physical/social distancing period, and what the lasting effects this period might have on the broader population using them. Several years ago, I was also on an earlier episode of the Here We Are Podcast and discussed some of the work we do in the lab specifically, as well as the broader field of video game research. Click here to listen. This is an accordion element with a series of buttons that open and close related content panels. Video 1: The Curse of Learning Specificity Video 2: The Effects of Action Video Game Play on Vision Video 3: The Effects of Action Video Game Play on Speed of Processing Video 4: The Effects of Action Video Game Play on Multitasking Abilities Video 5: Conclusions - The Effects of Action Video Games on Perception and Cognition You can also view this talk on how advancements in neuroscience are being combined with video game research, and how this may impact the scientific community. Panelists included myself, Dr. Adam Gazzaley of the University of California – San Francisco, and acclaimed video game developer Jonathan Blow.

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The neurophysiological training is based on neurofeedback technique, which helps to self-regulate your own brain activity and increases concentration, motivation, sleep quality, reduces anxiety and overall brain efficacy for any type of challenges. The emotional coping program is inspired by the work of the philosopher Michel Foucault - "Knowledge is power". It is based on understanding the function of emotions to bring you a higher level of harmonie with your emotional self. The mental preparation is build for athletes. It involves the relationship between the mind and the body and how to overcome mental blockages when the body is taken to the mind's limits. What is Neurofeedback? It's an intervention technique that uses the principals of cognitive-behavioral therapies and incorporates them into a practice based on neuroscience. It enables to re-balance the brain activity which is a reflection of all the psychological, emotional and physiological functions. It is a non-invasive technique without risks of major undesired secondary effects.

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THE LINK BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE + RESILIENCE Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize and understand our own emotions, the cause of them and the impact they have on our thoughts and actions and those of others. The skills of emotional intelligence are developable and hold the promise of well-being, happiness and performance. And who among us doesn’t want to feel well, be happy and be the best we can be? In the workplace, research studies suggest that up to 60% of our success is attributed to emotional intelligence. Building the skills and competencies can support us in: • Being self-assured and self-respecting knowing we have strengths and limitations; • Pursuing meaningful learning and growth that is aligned to our personal values; • Expressing ourselves in a way that respects our feelings, thoughts, beliefs, personal rights and values and allows the same for others; • Building mutually satisfying relationships that are characterized by trust and genuine care • Accessing clear thinking, elevated problem solving and decision making • Being flexible in the midst of unpredictable circumstances, ideas and people • Managing stress reactions in adaptive ways • Adopting an optimistic perspective about the future. “We are creatures of emotion long before we are creatures of logic”. Neuroscience supports the observation made by this pioneer of adult education and self-improvement. Humans are wired to MOVE TOWARD that which is rewarding and to MOVE AWAY from that which is perceived as threatening. In both scenarios a cascade of biochemicals are released into our bloodstream anchoring us to an emotional experience which either energizes/revitalizes us or drains/depletes us. And that’s where the Resilience part comes in. Research shows that our emotions are reflected in our heart rhythm patterns which travel to the brain. When our patterns are coherent and in sync, the brain can think clearly and operate from a place of choice and responsible action. Emotions like happiness, satisfaction, joy, excitement, harmony, appreciation are feel-good emotions. When we feel good we tend to do better! When we are under threat, a stress reaction ensues, the heart rhythm pattern is chaotic, the brain shuts down and our ability to think clearly, to problem solve, to stay focused and to manage ourselves in the moment is difficult. Think of a time you were stuck in traffic, running late for a meeting, had misunderstanding with a co-worker, a spouse, one of your children, an aging parent. Think of your emotional state at that time; were you worried, anxious, annoyed, frustrated, angry etc • How well did I manage myself in that situation? • Did I say or do something I wasn’t proud of or later regretted? • Did I ruminate endlessly over what was said or done? • At an energetic level, how did I feel? Emotions experienced in a threat response help us when there is a real threat! Social psychologists however tell us that the brain can’t differentiate between a real or perceived threat. When we experience “negative emotions” we are drained and exhausted. Now more than ever, people and organizations are under siege (aka; threat!); struggling with complex challenges and frequent change due to factors of which we have no real control. The ensuing stress reactions are derailing our individual health, the health of the teams we work on, the organizations we work for, indeed the very health and well-being of our families and society. We are increasingly operating from a deficit position. Building your levels of resilience means you would have the capacity to prepare for, recover from and adapt in the face of stress, challenge or adversity. Emotionally Resilient people are aware of their emotions and value the powerful messages they impart. They are able to name their emotions and shift and change their emotional states more quickly for better results. Emotional resilience underpins good decision making, strategic thinking, innovation, effective communication and improved relationships and as human beings we are hardwired to be connected, to collaborate and support one another. Just feels better doesn’t it!

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The Science of Compassion What makes us want to be good? “Compassion is complex,” says Emiliana Simon Thomas, the former associate director of CCARE, the Center for Compassion And Altruism Research and Education at Stanford University. Brian Knutson, associate professor of psychology and neuroscience at Stanford University, adds: “It’s not quite an emotion, is it? It’s more sophisticated.” Emerging science is exploring how our minds feel for others. “Can we see it?” asks Knutson. “Does it help people to extend compassion? That would be very exciting.” We’re looking into the history of how we study human nature. And we’ll see how we can be better. The news of the world can be depressing. Politics, poverty and war. We live in a seemingly endless cycle of strife, and we often bring it upon ourselves. But there is more to life. The moments where we find something deeper. A relationship … a purpose … a connection. Compassion, it turns out, can be cultivated. Today, we’re exploring what makes us care. Through personal stories, new technologies, cross-cultural relationships, and education. A Personal Story of Compassion When Ken Ingram was about five years old, the arguing with his father began. He said his father called him into the room and asked, “Ken, what color is your mom?” It was about 1968, during the era of civil rights. He said, “Well, she’s white.” Actually, his mother is a fair-skinned black woman. At five, Ken didn’t understand the difference. “He just turned it into this big argument that drove me nuts. I think that set the tenor of my relationship from that point on,” says Ken. Years passed. Tension. Confrontation. Ken went to high school, and the conflicts escalated. “He had this habit,” Ken says. “He would throw me on the ground and put his foot on my throat. Which just is incredibly insulting. But I would suck it up.” Until one day when Ken’s rage caught up with him. In his room were cinderblocks from a makeshift cinderblock bookshelf. “One of them was just sitting there, and I considered grabbing it and cracking him on the head and I knew I wouldn't stop if I started,” he says. “I remember looking him in the eye and it was just this hot, hot rage and the moment I went into kill mode, everything went cold. It just went utterly cold.” In the next moment, Ken saw where he was headed: prison and a wasted life behind bars. Out of self-preservation, he stopped. He left the cinderblock on the floor. The next day he signed up for the Marines. It got him out of the house – away from his father. But after two years as a soldier he again wrestled with his destiny. In his mind, it went like this: He could become a career military officer and kill for a living. Or he could try and find a less violent, more enlightened path. He finished his four-year tour of duty and went back to civilian life. Some time later, he looked up the meaning of compassion. “I realized I didn't really understand what the word meant,” Ken says. “So I went and looked it up in the dictionary.” Compassion. Noun. Sympathetic consciousness of others’ distress together with a desire to alleviate it. He said in reading the words, there was just this spark of understanding. “And I’m like, ‘Oh.’” The Meaning of Compassion If you look at the roots, “passion” means to endure, to suffer. So com-passion is to suffer with. That is, to feel or be in tune with someone’s suffering. Religions throughout the world speak about compassion. But the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet, Tenzin Gyatso, is especially outspoken. “So if you look at all of his messages in all of his central teachings, they go into the Mahayana concept of compassion and great compassion,” says Martin Verhoeven, a Berkeley-based Buddhist scholar and teacher. “And this is called single substance, great compassion. It means the wisdom insight to see we are all interconnected, all interrelated, and therefore that’s the reality.” Tibetan Buddhism is filled with mystical images and occult traditions, but the Dalai Lama says compassion is a human trait – innate to who we are. This ideal is somewhat contrary to our Western culture. Here in the West we take pride in individualism, self-reliance. But compassion is more about interdependence than independence – connection, rather than separation. We asked a few experts to define compassion. “Compassion is a meta-concept that has elements of empathy, sensitivity, kindness, of tolerance built into it,” says Verhoeven. Simon-Thomas, the former associate director of CCARE, adds: “Compassion is complex. There is this empathic part. There is this reappraisal part. There is this caring, nurturing part.” “Compassion is an embodied process. It’s not a disincarnate process. And through that experience of grounding, we’re actually able to perceive suffering,” says Joan Halifax, abbot of the Upaya Zen Center in Santa Fe, New Mexico. “It’s not quite an emotion, is it?” asks Knutson, a Stanford University psychologist and neuroscientist. It’s more sophisticated…It might involve emotion, but then it involves other components, like taking another’s viewpoint, maybe. And thinking about how they might be different in the future, they might be relieved of suffering.” Given this, “Why wouldn’t we want to promote this and make people understand that this type of action has a positive effect?” asks James Doty, CCARE’s founder and director. A Center for Compassion There’s a question on James Doty’s mind: “It always interested me why people behaved the way they behave.” Doty is a neurosurgeon and the director and founder of CCARE, a center for compassion research and training started in 2009 at Stanford. Doty says he grew up in poverty. “My mother was an invalid and my father was an alcoholic. We were on public assistance, essentially, my entire life.” So he noticed when people did or did not offer help. “I would see people who, even as a child, clearly were in a position where they could be very helpful and kind, yet chose not to,” Doty says. “Yet you would see people who were potentially even in more desperate straits in yourself, yet would reach out to you and be very kind. And this paradox always struck me.” In November 2005, the Dalai Lama came to campus. He met some of the world’s top scientists in a public forum. At the time, Bill Mobley was director of Stanford’s Neuroscience Institute. He asked, “Can neuroscientists with their tools and concepts bring to Buddhists, with their wonderful contemplative practices, something special? And vice versa? And can the two of them together be more effective in understanding brain and mind?” A lifelong science fan, the Dalai Lama pushed for collaboration. “Doubt brings question,” he said. And question brings investigation. “Investigation brings satisfactory answer.” James Doty wasn’t there. He had taken a leave from Stanford for a few years, but hearing about the Dalai Lama’s visit made an impression. He knew nothing about the field, and thought back on his own life. “I just wanted to understand – are there ways that we can create techniques that make people more kind?” he asked. Now Doty is a doctor, not a scientist. But he’s got a certain brashness, or power of persuasion. He has a story about applying for medical school as an unlikely candidate – only a 2.53 GPA at UC Irvine and he needed a recommendation from the school’s pre-med committee. “These professors showed up and, as I recall, the head of biological sciences was there and you could see that they were not particularly interested in having a conversation with me. But I had a conversation with them and my conversation was, who gave them the right to decide people’s futures? And where was the evidence that beyond a minimal academic performance, that having a higher GPA had any correlation with whether you were a good doctor, you cared about people? This conversation went on for about an hour, with primarily me talking. And at the end of it, they were actually crying. So what happened was that I ended up getting the highest recommendation they could give,” remembers Doty. Doty is emotional recalling the story. He went on to become a neurosurgeon. He helped fund a medical device company, eventually became its CEO, made millions as an angel investor, and lost most of it in the stock market crash of 2000. This made him reflective. When he returned to Stanford after a leave, Doty began talking with Stanford scientists about how to research compassion. By 2008, he stood before the the Dalai Lama. Doty explained his idea, “which was to really try to understand, in a rigorous way, utilizing the tools of neuroscience and psychology this complex behavior we call compassion and altruism, and see if there were ways we could cultivate it in people,” he says. The Dalai Lama listened and then began talking excitedly with his translator Thupten Jinpa in Tibetan. And at the end of it, Jinpa turned to me and he said, “Jim, his Holiness feels so strongly about the importance of this work that you’re undertaking that he wants to make a personal donation.” The Dalai Lama donated “$150,000, which turned out to be the largest donation he ever gave to a non-Tibetan cause. Two Silicon Valley investors donated another one million dollars each. By March 2009, Doty had enough to start a center at Stanford dedicated to compassion. What would a more compassionate world look like? Would it lead to more understanding and less suspicion of one another? And would that lead to solving conflicts through compromise and empathy? With compassion, would we do better at solving the world’s problems, of malnutrition, poverty, natural disasters and disease? Or is that just a fantasy, and the dark side human nature is always inevitable? If you think about it, the establishment of CCARE was quite remarkable. East meeting West on the prestigious grounds of Stanford. Eastern ideas of oneness co-mingling with Western ideas of science and reason. So how did we get here? One person to ask is a man born to a Roman Catholic family in a Wisconsin town that produced both Joe McCarthy and Harry Houdini. He has many titles: Adjunct professor of comparative religion at GTU, which is the Graduate Theological Union in Berkeley; Professor of Buddhist classics, Dharma and Buddhist University; and also a teacher at the Berkeley Buddhist Monastery. As a young Buddhist monk in the 70s, Verhoeven traveled widely in Asia. “I was kind of shocked by what I encountered,” Verhoeven says. Buddhism, he discovered, was not one entity, but many. From country to country, and even region to region, it changed. He says there were “Buddhisms.” There wasn’t a Buddhism. He realized that as the religion migrated from its birthplace of India into other parts of Asia, there was a two-way impact: Buddhism on the culture; and the culture on Buddhism. “So I began to think, well, what is going to happen, or what is happening as that comes into Europe and America? What’s going to be the mix? What’s going to happen as they encounter each other?” The roots of that encounter, Verhoeven says, go back to Charles Darwin. “If you want to trace it historically,” he says, “the interest in Buddhism almost goes directionally proportional to the crisis of faith that Westerners were experiencing with their religious systems.” In 1859, Darwin published The Origin of Species. The new theory of evolution called into question fundamental Judeo-Christian beliefs. It seemed science was questioning the very existence of God. If God did not exist, then for many, religion no longer had a place. This was a problem. In 1893, the World Parliament of Religions met in Chicago. It was a pivotal moment. Eastern leaders saw Buddhism as the religion that could handle the growing split between science and faith. In the years that followed, a reverse missionary movement took place. Charismatic Eastern teachers came to the U.S. and artfully shaped their message for American consumption. The teachers said Buddhism was “as American as apple pie,” Verhoeven says. “In the sense that it wasn’t incompatible with Judeo-Christian thought. And in fact, it was a transcendence, or a growth above and beyond that.” As new scientific discoveries were made, Buddhist teachers continued to press the point. They said that it did not have the conflict between religion and science that the Western world was experiencing. “They could be deeply spiritual and scientific and rational at the same time - they didn’t have to choose,” Verhoeven says. And so it grew in the West. Now of course, other cultural and historical factors influenced Buddhism’s entry into mainstream American culture. Immigration. The translation of Buddhist scriptures. The arts. In the 1950s, alienated by post-war America, Bay Area Beat poets Gary Snyder, Jack Kerouac, and Allen Ginsberg incorporated Buddhist teachings into their writing. Philosopher Alan Watts, with his books and popular KPFA radio addresses, helped break more ground in mainstream culture. In the decades that followed, more and more Americans looked to Buddhism as a spiritual guide. Today, the dialogue about science and faith continues. At this point in time, science is our holder of truth. The spread of Buddhism is not necessarily religious – the mindfulness aspects of it, the development of consciousness and compassion. They can be separated. They can be secular. Verhoeven says many Buddhist teachers – especially the Dalai Lama – understand this: “And so he’s just being, in a sense, pragmatic and saying, look, most Westerners make sense of things through science. So let’s have the discourse here. That’s very uppaya, meaning “skillful means.” You don’t want to talk about mysticism at this point. You don’t want to talk about ghosts and spirits. That might be a discourse for another culture, but not the United States. So science becomes the one.” Stanford neuroscientist Brian Knutson and I are peering through a window. On the other side is a futuristic, large, white, bleeping machine with a person’s legs sticking out. It’s called a fMRI machine where fMRI stands for functional magnetic resonance imaging. It costs $500 an hour to use, and Knutson depends on it. Instead of just asking subjects, “Do you feel compassionate,” he can look “deep in your brain on a second-to-second basis,” Knutson says. “You know, we didn’t have those kinds of measures over a decade ago. And now that we have functional magnetic resonance imaging, we can actually ask those questions.” Knutson’s lab is one of about 15 groups to receive money from CCARE, Stanford’s center for compassion. They’re doing a pilot study to combine compassion research with brain imaging. “It’s a very new area,” Knutson says. “And a lot of people are getting interested in this, but there are a lot of questions about how you measure this, how you elicit it and so forth." All of this puts Knutson – and Stanford – on the cutting edge. Researchers have been studying the benefits of mindfulness meditation for a while now, but compassion research is brand new. Their peers include researchers at universities in Madison, Berkeley, Chapel Hill, Atlanta and Chicago. Knutson didn’t set out to study compassion. He resisted when CCARE founder James Doty first approached him. “Well, I was thinking that I’m not really the right one to do the research, and that I know much people who are much better than me at this kind of thing,” Knutson says. Before heading up a laboratory of his own, Knutson studied under Paul Ekman, a famous emotion researcher. Like Ekman, Knutson is interested in emotions’ influence on how we act. And like Doty, he believes science had something to learn from Buddhism about this. So when Doty persisted, Knutson finally agreed. “If we can look in the brain and say, ‘okay, so the Buddhists say these components are going into compassion. And we think those components may map onto something that’s happening in the brain. Do they? Can we see it? Does it help people to extend compassion?’ That would be very exciting,” Knutson says. In some ways, Buddhism is like a science, he says. “But they have the brain imaging of introspection so there are very explicit views about what happens when you see something. You taste something. Or you encounter a person that you have a certain attitude towards. Many Buddhists are philosophers. That’s essentially how they’re trained. And so what philosopher wouldn’t be interested in actually empirically testing their worldview?” Knutson and his colleagues recruited Stanford undergrads. In the basement of Stanford’s psychology department, they put them inside a fMRI machine. They showed each undergrad photos of neutral faces. That is, people with neutral expressions. In half the cases, they asked the undergrads to stay neutral. In the other half, they asked the students to offer up compassion which they defined as identifying with the person’s suffering, and wishing them to be free of it. “And you basically have 6 seconds to do this. So it’s not a lot of time,” says Knutson. Six seconds to either stay neutral or conjure up some feeling of compassion for people you’ve never met and whom you don’t know anything about. Knutson didn’t know if the undergrads could do it. After all, they’re not monks who train day in, day out, to feel compassion for all beings. But when asked to extend compassion, the undergrads said they did. And Knutson says it turns out they were right. Here’s how they figured it out. There are three steps to this. One, they showed the neutral faces. Two, they showed a second set of pictures -- paintings of abstract art. Three, just before showing an abstract art picture, the experimenters quickly flashed a neutral face – one of the same faces to which the undergrads had previously either stayed neutral or extended compassion to. The researchers did this quickly, subliminally, so the undergrads wouldn’t notice. Then they asked, on a scale of one to four, how did this painting make you feel? “So if there’s a systematic bias, then that’s going to show up in how you rate the art that comes afterward,” Knutson says. “If it’s a painting that has been paired with a face that you extended compassion, people tend to feel more positive [about those faces]. If it’s a painting that is paired with a face to which they extend neutrality, people tend to feel less positive about those paintings.” In other words, the undergrads rated paintings higher if they felt compassion first. That suggests compassion is something that feels good. “And what these results suggest to us, even though they’re very preliminary and on a small sample, is that even in unschooled undergrads who are not spending 30,000 hours in a cave doing compassion meditation, they can do this and there can be effects that carry over,” Knutson says. Now this is unpublished data; it’s not yet vetted by the larger scientific community. But if it holds up, Knutson can continue using this set-up as a measure for compassion. He’s also analyzing the fMRI scans to see which parts of the brain light up while subjects feel compassion. In addition, Knutson is screening people he calls the super-Olympians of compassion – people who have completed a secluded meditation retreat that lasts a total of three years, three months, and three days. He plans to compare their brain patterns with those of the undergrads. Are their brains different? If so, that might give a hint for how the rest of us can do better, to develop our capacity for compassion. It’s not science for science’s sake. It’s science to help make the world a better place. Remembering An Experiment on Evil Obviously, human nature is complex. But to simplify – there’s good, and there’s bad. Philip Zimbardo is a member of CCARE’s board, and an emeritus professor at Stanford. He considers himself a good person, but he’s spent most of his career focused on the forces of evil. He’s famous for a study called the Stanford Prison Experiment. For one week in August, 1971, he and others took over the basement of Stanford’s psychology building. They turned it into a mock prison. Over an intense six days, otherwise well-adjusted college students transformed into helpless prisoners and cruel guards. The Stanford Prison Experiment asked, in the context of a mock prison, what would happen if you gave some people authority, and took away privileges from others? “Does the goodness of people dominate the situation, or does situations and the situations come to corrupt even good people?” asked Zimbardo. In other words, are people inherently good or bad? Or can situations influence who they are? For the college students who volunteered, this was a job. Fifteen dollars a day for two weeks over summer break. “It’s 1971,” said Zimbardo. “These kids are many of them hippies. Everyone has hair down, the play Hair came out in 1968. Many of these kids are anti-war activists. Many of these kids are involved in civil rights. All of these kids are involved in don’t trust authority of the 70s.” Compassion wasn’t spoken of. The tenor of the time had more to do with mistrust. Against this backdrop, the experiment began. Prisoners were stripped, de-loused and given a smock and stocking cap to wear. During the study, they would not be addressed by name, only by ID numbers. On day 2, the prisoners rebelled. “They barricaded themselves in their cells,” Zimbardo said. “They ripped off their numbers. And suddenly, the guards come to me and they say, what are we doing to do? I say, it’s your prison, what do you want to do? They said, ‘We need reinforcements.’” Role-playing had become real. The guards played psychological mind games on the prisoners. “Just intuitively knowing what would make the prisoners feel helpless and hopeless. A guard would tell a joke and a prisoner would laugh and he would get punished,” Zimbardo said. “The guard would tell another joke, the prisoner wouldn’t laugh and he got punished for not laughing. So essentially what they did was on their own, and I hadn’t thought about it, was create an unpredictable environment, except if you followed the rules you would not get punished.” Over the next few days, the cruelty of the guards grew. They shouted obscenities, they made prisoners clean toilets with their bare hands, and move boxes endlessly back and forth. Prisoners had to do countless numbers of pushups and jumping jacks in smocks with no underwear. Bad prisoners were given time in solitary – a small, dark closet. As punishment for the misbehavior of a comrade, other prisoners had to stand with their arms raised until they dropped from exhaustion. One prisoner decided to stage a hunger strike; he had to sit in solitary with sausages in each hand. Zimbardo says he experienced a psychological transformation: “I think it’s half-way through, I transform from being the principal investigator of the research project, there to observe and collect data, to become superintendent of the Stanford Prison Experiment.” His main concern was now taking care of the prison, not the students’ well being. “And I saw it when I looked at the video tapes where I’m walking down a row of prisoners with my hands behind my back, chest out. This is what military people – this is what authorities do when they’re reviewing their troops. It’s a position I never take. I didn’t even know who it was on the video.” Visiting day. Day three. The parents of prisoner 1037, Rich Yacco, spoke with Zimbardo. “The mother comes in and says I don’t mean to make trouble, sir, but I’ve never seen my son looking so terrible. Well, as prison superintendent, that’s a red alarm, she’s going to make trouble. She says she doesn’t want to make trouble,” said Zimbardo. On Day 4, the guards’ sadistic harrasment escalated to include sexual humiliation. On Day 6, Zimbardo stopped the experiment. But the repercussions went on for decades. Doug Korpi was the first prisoner to break down in the study. He went on to become a forensic psychologist. Another prisoner, Craig Haney, became a professor at UC Santa Cruz, and a leading authority on the psychological effects of incarceration. In the immediate aftermath, Zimbardo testified before Congress about prison issues. Thirty-three years later, it came up again, when U.S. soldiers abused Iraqi prisoners at the Abu Ghraib prison. “Almost anyone could be seduced into behaving in evil ways,” Zimbardo says. “Almost anyone could be a perpetrator of evil. Certainly the majority. That’s the conclusion of all the research.” “People who do evil deeds, except when they’re in that situation, are just like the rest of us,” he says. “They don’t look different. They don’t act different. They look like your Uncle Charlie. They look like your Aunt Minnie. And it’s not until we put Eichmann in charge of Auschwitz that he did these terrible things. Everything we know about him before, everything we know about him since, he was normal. The psychiatrist at his trial in Nuremberg said, he’s more normal than I am.” But it wasn’t until he started writing a book about the Stanford study that he started to think, “Well, what is the flip side of that? Isn’t it true that ordinary people in certain situations can be induced, inspired to do heroic deeds rather than evil deeds?” He decided that instead of trying to find villains, he wanted to find heroes. He says a hero is “somebody who takes action in defense of a moral cause, and you do it without expectation or gain.” James Doty of CCARE asked him to sit on the compassion center’s board. The shift, from evil to good, took Zimbardo nearly 40 years. “The problem is evil is fascinating,” Zimbardo says. “Good is boring. So it’s so easy. It’s easier to like Lucifer than the good angels. The Wicked Witch is more interesting than Glinda, the good witch. So I guess that was the attraction. You want to understand evil so you can undo it. One summer, when CCARE founder James Doty was about 13 years old, he walked into a magic shop. He started talking with a woman there, the owner’s mother. “She said, ‘You know, I like you a lot. If you come here every day for the next six weeks, I’ll teach you something that will change your life.’” So Doty continued showing up. The woman taught him meditation. Doty describes it as a “mindfulness meditation practice in conjunction with a visualization technique, probably combined to some extent with the power of positive thinking and self-hypnosis.” He says the practice changed him. “It changed my brain, if you will, in the sense that I stopped perceiving myself as a victim, but saw that, in fact, I was responsible for my destiny, and it was I who made the decisions and could control that destiny,” says Doty. These days, Doty doesn’t meditate – and he doesn’t care about Buddhism so much. But he is interested in how its practices can help people become kinder and more compassionate. Kelly McGonigal sits cross-legged on top of a lecturer’s table at Stanford University. “We will start with a little bit of breathing, ” she says. “Relax the shoulders away from the ears.” The students in this class are mostly middle-aged and older. They’re not at Stanford for any kind of degree. Rather, they’re here for CCARE’s compassion cultivation class. Where scientific research is CCARE’s right arm, compassion training is its left. “This is a practice called the compassion image,” McGonigal says. CCARE staff worked with the Dalai Lama’s interpreter, Thupten Jinpa, to design the nine-week class. Some of the exercises come from Western psychology, but many are drawn from Tibetan Buddhism. Even so, this is a secular class. There’s no chanting, no icons, no mention of the Buddha, or even Buddhism. Strip away religion, and you make way for mainstream adoption. That’s the theory, anyway. And there’s a precedent. A program called MBSR, which stands for mindfulness based stress reduction. It’s a secular treatment for pain and anxiety that draws from Buddhist mindfulness practices. Started in the 1970s, it’s now institutionalized at hospitals and health centers all over the country. CCARE wants to do the same, but for compassion. Already, it’s offered the compassion course at UC Berkeley, Stanford, the Palo Alto Veterans Administration, and Sharp Healthcare in San Diego. With a one-year teacher training program, the hope is that eventually those students, who come from a variety of backgrounds, including healthcare, education, mental health and public health, will teach the course in their communities. This week’s theme in McGonigal’s class is self-compassion. The class started with the basics of mindfulness, and will end with a difficult practice called tonglen, which involves imagining you are breathing in the world’s suffering, and breathing love back out. McGonigal says students often come to the course with misguided notions: “I’m still getting emails, people wanting to argue that, could we just exclude suffering from the definition of compassion because it would be so much better if we didn’t have to have suffering, and we could just feel compassion without suffering having to be present?” But compassion demands an acknowledgment – that suffering is part of life. “I think people stick it out because if they actually do the practices, you see that there’s something there,” McGonigal says. “You have the experience of touching something that is really interesting and also is not our habitual way of relating to the world.” Deborah Defilippo heard about CCARE when she attended the 2010 discussion between scientists and the Dalai Lama. Researchers talked about the health benefits of meditation. “I am, I guess you could say I’m a type A, high achieving person,” DeFilippo says. “And I’m now catching myself when someone in front of me is driving below the speed limit, saying the phrases that are in almost every single meditation practice that Kelly has. And that is, you say for each individual and yourself and the world, ‘May you be happy. May you be free from pain and suffering. And may you experience joy and peace.’ …It’s like taking a deep breath and a lot of calm does instill within me.” Stanford’s CCARE program has its critics. Some worry this type of secular practice will lose something, and perhaps lack substance. Others say the aspirations of CCARE – to make a more compassionate world -- are too idealistic. They question how much students can learn in nine weeks. But McGonigal says many students do connect what’s taught by CCARE with what’s occurring in their lives. “One of my favorite stories was a man who was in a church setting and a homeless woman had approached this group that was meeting at the church.... And he could feel in himself that little bit of threat or stress arising that would normally have led him to maybe get rid of that person as quickly as possible so that she didn’t disturb the group that was meeting.” The man remembered a lesson from the previous week in class. “He considered the other ways of thinking about her,” McGonigal said. “That, just like him, she was human. She was suffering. Going down the checklist, does this person need help? Do I have the resources to help? And turns out that she had diabetes and she needed food and there wasn’t food available in that moment and the people in the group were able to get her something to eat and the whole thing ended very differently because he was using this framework from the study that we talked about … People can take something from a study and use it in everyday life.” Which is exactly what CCARE founder James Doty wants. “So if we already know that these techniques clearly, and demonstrably, through science can have an impact on the brain, then why not use them?” he asks. “And I would tell people if I could find a drug that would do this, I would use that, too. Or if I found something on the back of a chocolate bar wrapper and it worked, I would use that. It doesn’t matter. It doesn’t matter how we get there.” Shifting the way people interact with each other, with the world, can seem – impossible. But Doty is the kind of person who thrives with impossible odds. “My only interest is finding techniques, whatever they are that can accomplish this goal,” he says. “Which is to promote compassion, kindness, altruism, empathy, because I think fundamentally at the end of the day we are wired for this, it makes us feel better, it makes us healthier and it will allow our species to survive into the future.” The Three-Inch Shift to Compassion Years after Ken Ingram’s father asked him what color his mother was, after Ken joined the military and returned to civilian life, and after he first looked up the definition of the word “compassion,” his father’s health took a turn. “Yeah, my dad got really ill. He got prostate cancer. And when he found out about it, it was in stage 3. I was still, at that point, really pissed at my father. Really, really pissed.” It was around Labor Day weekend of 2009. Ken’s father was in hospice care. “And they called me and my sister and said, we’re not going to be able to take care of him over the weekend,” remembers Ken. “So I took over the first night and I stayed all night at his apartment. Ken remembers his father needing help turning over in the bed. “And I had to pick him up and just shift him a little bit in this bed. And there was this moment of picking him up, all I can say is just, it was this spark of knowingness, like I got him in that moment. Being that close to him physically and getting to know him in that way,” says Ken. Helping his father made him think: “I realized – this is what compassion is. That in spite of all the anger and the righteous indignation that I had over things that he had done that weren’t so cool.” He was trying to help me create my life. And so if I can let go of all the animosity about that, what’s there is that there actually was a connection, there was love. There was a sense of oneness and care. And so compassion was being able to let go of that ego trip that I was on that I was owed something, that something was done to me, me, me, me, me. No, this is a human being who helped me come in the world, helped me learn how to be in the world, helped me learn how to survive in the world, and he needs my help. Can I let go of my anger about it and help him? And it was such a small thing. It wasn’t like I had to move the world, or build a building. It was shift him three inches in the bed.”

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Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory Our neuroscience laboratories contain specialist brain imaging and stimulation equipment, IT, and software. Off-site we have a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) facility which is a shared resource through the Combined Universities Brain Imaging Centre (CUBIC). Experiments undertaken in these labs can use purely behavioural experiments, cognitive modelling, psychophysics, or combinations of cognitive neuroscience (brain imaging, brain stimulation, neurophysiology) techniques. Using these techniques we study brain function and structure and how it supports behaviour throughout the life span. We also use a range of intervention techniques to investigate how the brain adapts to change and how we can improve and enhance functioning in health and diseases. For more detailed information, please see the School of Psychology's Neuroscience Laboratories page (access for University of Surrey staff only), or the Brain and Behaviour Wiki (open to all). Access the laboratories If you want to participate in our research, or for discussion about collaboration and the use of our laboratories, training, technical support, or costs of research please fill in our contact form so we can respond to your enquiry appropriately. University of Surrey School of Psychology staff and students Details on how to access the laboratories and get the training required can be found on the School of Psychology Hub, particularly the Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratories page, and the Brain and Behaviour Wiki. - Electroencephalography (EEG): - EEG monitors the brain’s electrical activity using small electrodes placed in a swimcap-like device. Data is recorded whilst participants perform a task, or in some cases when the participants are at rest or asleep. - We have three wired Brain Products setups that allow use with MRI, TMS and tES, with up to 128 gel or saline based electrodes. - We can also measure physiological signals (EOG, EMG, ECG, GSR, temperature, pulse, acceleration), and track other stimuli such as light or sound. - There are five mobile Neuroelectrics (32 channel neurostimulator-EEG devices) and mBrainTrain setups and the School of Psychology has other mobile EEG setups with BIOPAC Mobita and more Neuroelectrics. - Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): - MRI uses magnetic fields to allow investigation of brain structure, brain function, blood flow and chemical composition. This can be used to research how the brain performs certain functions, what structural or metabolic changes are apparent over time or between individuals, and any differences within clinical populations. - As part of CUBIC we have access to a 3T Siemens Trio MRI Scanner with 32 channel head array, 12 channel head array coil, and CP head coils. We also have a Dummy scanner. - Functional Near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS): - fNIRS uses infra-red light to measure changes in oxygen levels in the blood (related to neural activity) in the brain. - We have an Artinis wearable 24 channel fNIRS. - Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES): - tES uses a weak electrical current to modulate activity of a brain area. These currents are given by electrodes attached to the head, and can be done before or during a task with changes in behaviour or brain activity (see “brain imaging” above) observed. - We have three DC Stimulator Plus, (with setups that allow use in MRI setting) and three Neuroelectrics 32 channel neurostimulator-EEG devices. - Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): - TMS uses a magnetic field to stimulate a small area of the brain. We can use it to investigate how areas in the brain are involved in a task by observing small changes in behaviour or brain activity (see “brain imaging” above) after stimulation. - We have two Magstim Rapid2 Stimulators with EMG interface, a variety of TMS coils (D70, D702,D50 Alpha B.I.), and two BrainSight Neuronavigation systems. - High-performance computing cluster, PCs, laptops and screens for stimulus delivery, data acquisition and analysis.

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Decoding the Impact of Music on Productivity In today's fast-paced world, the quest for enhanced productivity is a common thread connecting individuals and businesses alike. The role of music in enhancing workplace productivity has been widely investigated, yet remains an enigma to many. This blog unravels the fascinating relationship between music and productivity, exploring how different genres can shape our work habits and influence overall performance. Understanding these dynamics may be key to refining your personal workflow or even reshaping your company’s working environment. So let us tune into this melody of knowledge and decode the impact that music has on our productivity. Let's delve deeper into the scientific mechanism underlying the influence of music on cognitive function and consequently, productivity levels. It's crucial to understand specific cognitive functions and mental processes that are triggered when we listen to music. Neurological studies have provided some compelling findings on this subject. Inside the human brain, a complex network of neural pathways facilitate various cognitive functions. These pathways are significantly affected by auditory stimuli, such as music. There is a term in neuroscience called 'Neuroplasticity' which essentially refers to the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. Music, with its intricate patterns of rhythms and melodies, stimulates these neural pathways and can lead to enhanced cognitive functioning. In addition to this, music also influences mood, focus and creativity, all of which have a direct impact on productivity. Therefore, the science behind music and its influence on productivity is more than just an abstract concept. It's a dynamic interplay of neurological, cognitive and emotional processes. Types of Music: Their Unique Impacts on Productivity Commencing with an exploration of diverse music genres, this section delves into the distinct effects of various types such as classical, jazz, and pop on productivity levels. It is worth noting that different types of music can have disparate impacts on an individual's focus levels. Consequently, these variations can lead to differing levels of work output, contingent on an individual's predilections for certain music genres. The significant SEO terms within this context encompass 'types of music', 'productivity levels', 'work output', 'music genres', and ‘individual preferences’. Knowledge inputs from seasoned musicians or sound therapists could augment the understanding of this topic, with added value from using technical terminologies like ‘Timbre’. Ambient Noise vs Silence: Boosting Creativity In exploring the impact of music on productivity, an intriguing aspect to delve into is the constant debate between ambient noise and total silence. The primary question we aim to address is: Does ambient noise truly enhance creativity more than absolute silence does in the workplace? To establish the context, it's paramount to understand the term 'Psychoacoustics'. This study focuses on how humans perceive sound, and it plays a vital role in crafting the ideal workplace environment. Sound or noise levels, especially ambient noise, are seen as a significant factor influencing productivity and creativity levels. It's an area of expertise for acoustic engineers who specialize in designing workplace environments. Their knowledge and findings provide valuable insights into how the right balance of ambient noise can create an environment that stimulates creativity and productivity. On the other hand, advocating for complete silence, some argue that eliminating distractions allows for better concentration, which is a different yet vital aspect of productivity. Regardless of the side, the core objective is to boost creativity and enhance overall productivity in the workplace by modifying its auditory environment. Our musical preferences are largely shaped by the cultural milieu in which we grow up and live. The various musical styles that we favor can have a profound impact not just on our personal lives but also on our professional lives, specifically our work efficiency. This can be better understood by delving into concepts like 'cultural influence', 'musical styles', 'work efficiency', 'music preference', and 'cross-cultural study'. The field of ethnomusicology, which studies music in its social and cultural contexts, can offer enlightening perspectives to understand this phenomenon. Experts in cross-cultural studies can provide valuable insights into how culture influences the types of music we are drawn to. They can also reveal the potential effects this might have on our productivity at work. This underlines the significance of paying attention to the cultural factors that shape our musical tastes.

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Data Science, Computer Science, Mathematics, and Machine Learning Network Science, Graph Theory NetworkX is an open-source library providing flexible data structures and a wide array of algorithms for creating and analyzing networks. The flexibility of the fundamental Graph objects enable users to construct arbitrarily complex networks, supporting a broad range of problems and applications. Network science is a diverse field encompassing a wide range of applications. NetworkX aims to provide a generic interface to the tools and concepts of network science, embracing investigation in many fields. Some common applications include analysis of social networks, biological and ecological applications (analysis of protein structure, population dynamics), neuroscience (analysis of neural networks), machine learning (neural networks in a different context), and many others. Note also that many fundamental computer science concepts and data structures (e.g. search algorithms, trees) are described in terms of network science. Thus many of the algorithms in NetworkX are ubiquitous in scientific computing.

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Despite how easy movies like Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, Men in Black, and Total Recall make it seem, memory manipulation or erasure in humans is still a distant dream in the real world—and for good reason. While many researchers agree it could revolutionize things like PTSD and other mental health treatment—not to mention delete memories of embarrassing and cringe moments in our lives—they are wary of tampering too much. That’s because even our most unpleasant memories can serve important purposes. “Our memories are what make us who we are,” Sheena Josselyn, a memory and learning researcher at the Josselyn Frankland Lab at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto, Canada, told The Daily Beast. “And when we start messing with them, without there being a real imperative to do so, I think that we can really mess things up at the societal level. So I think it’s really important that we do these sorts of interventions very sparingly.” Although we understand very little about how the brain works, research undertaken in the last decade is slowly illuminating the path to understanding how memories form, and how they are stored and retrieved. Studies show it is possible to erase specific memories, create false memories, or reduce the trauma and recall associated with a distressing memory—at least in snails and rodents. While there are currently no drugs or treatments that can achieve memory manipulation in humans, these findings have laid the foundation for future memory manipulation. In 2014, MIT researchers Steve Ramirez and Xu Liu, were able to manipulate a mouse into thinking it had received a shock inside a triangular metal box—effectively inserting an entirely false memory into the mouse’s brain. The researchers put the mice (which had been genetically engineered to render the target area in their brains sensitive to light) in a triangular box, which activated specific neurons in their brains. They then put the mice in a square box, and administered a foot shock while shining a laser on the neurons associated with the triangular box. This was done by first surgically implanting thin laser filaments into the mice’s brains and then activating the laser at the exact moment the shock was administered. The mice immediately started to display fearful behavior in the triangular box—indicating that they remembered experiencing a shock in it, even though that had never happened. Ramirez and Liu’s findings opened the door to newer research and breakthroughs in memory implantation and erasure. More recently, in 2017, researchers at Columbia University Irving Medical Center and McGill University were able to show that it may be possible to effectively eliminate the triggers that bring on distressing recall of a traumatic memory, in some cases. Samuel Schacher, co-author of the study, explained in an interview with Columbia University that a victim who had been mugged in a dark alley would rightly be scared of dark alleys after the incident. But they might also feel fear and distress when they see something that happened to be in the vicinity during the attack like, for instance, a mailbox. The fear induced by the sight of the mailbox is called a non-associative memory. People with trauma-associated disorders such as PTSD may re-experience the fear and distress they felt during the traumatic incident upon coming across sights, sounds, or smells associated with the trauma, due to the formation of these non-associative memories. This obviously impacts their quality of life, and is what memory researchers are trying to find a solution to. Part of the reason is due to the fact that traumatic memories tend to take hold of the brain much more firmly than non-distressing memories. “A critical function of the nervous system is to remember experiences, especially when they are relevant to one’s survival or reproduction,” Schacher, co-author of the Columbia University study, and former professor of neuroscience in the Department of Psychiatry at CUIMC, told The Daily Beast. So threatening events, in particular, are stored in the brain for longer.” He added, “At one point in your life, you may have realized that if you touch fire, you will burn yourself, and it is permanently stored in your brain.” Schacher’s research seeks to reduce the emotional impact of a traumatic memory while keeping the actual memory of the trauma intact. In a study he co-authored published in the journal Current Biology in 2017, his team was able to selectively erase different memories stored in the same neuron in snails. Similarly, Richard Huganir, director of the department of neuroscience at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, was able to show in 2010, that it was possible to reduce the fear associated with a traumatic memory in mice, by removing certain proteins (calcium-permeable AMPARs) from the region of the brain encoding emotional memory. However, no existing drugs are able to remove these proteins in such a targeted manner in humans. But if there were a way to do this, it would work better than methods involving exposure therapy—which involves confronting traumatic memories, thoughts or associations under the guidance of a therapist—that are prone to relapse. “Because it would truly erase the emotional content of the memory, therefore [patients] would not have relapses,” Huganir told The Daily Beast. Along similar lines, Josselyn’s lab in Toronto studies how the brain encodes memory. They have successfully shown how it may be possible to erase fearful memories from the brains of mice, by killing a certain population of brain cells in a targeted way. “We found cells that we thought were really important in a memory, and we killed this very small population of cells in a really targeted way in mice,” Josselyn told The Daily Beast. “And we found that the memory was essentially erased.” Months or years after having suffered a traumatic experience, the memory of the trauma can continue to debilitate a person— often manifesting as PTSD. The disorder is characterized by episodes that bring back the suffering and distress of the original trauma, often triggered by the sight, sound, or something else associated with the trauma. These episodes can include nightmares, flashbacks, fear, severe anxiety, or panic attacks. Erasing the association between a “trigger” and the trauma, or reducing the emotional impact of traumatic memories could offer people who live with the most severe forms of PTSD, or other trauma-induced disorders, some relief. Doing this in a targeted manner that attacks the distressing impact of the memory, while leaving the memory intact, can be incredibly helpful, and reduce many of the concerns related with memory erasure. “In the case of someone suffering from [PTSD], you don’t want to erase the fact that they underwent some trauma,” Schacher said. “You don’t want to erase the memory itself.” For instance, someone who has been abused may find themselves triggered by loud voices, or a perfume similar to something their abuser wore. Schacher’s research shows that it may be possible to remove the association between the trigger (e.g. loud voices or perfume) and the trauma, while keeping the memory of the trauma intact so that they no longer cause distressing flashbacks. Discovering a way to erase memories isn’t the only way this research could illuminate the way forward. Understanding how memories are formed, stored, and retrieved could also help people with memory dysfunction of the opposite kind like Alzheimer’s, dementia, or amnesia. “I think there’s two sides of the coin: too much memory or not enough memory,” Josselyn said. She pointed out that in the early stages of diseases like Alzheimer’s “there are memories, but people can’t seem to find them.” “So if we understand a little bit more about how memories are made, and how to retrieve them, maybe we can help unlock some of these forgotten memories in people with dementia,” she added. Although memory manipulation is still far from being reality, ethical and medical concerns abound. Would we even be ourselves, with enhanced or suppressed memories? There’s also a chance it could actually cause issues like dissociative identity disorder—a response to severe trauma that causes patients to dissociate and shut off from the trauma—or cause an increase in anxiety and panic attacks in the people who have their traumatic memories suppressed. There are also concerns about what might happen if this sort of technology fell into the wrong hands. How might a powerful government or military organization use the ability to erase or even enhance memories? All of a sudden, the thought of a Men in Black-style organization zapping away memories to keep things secret doesn’t seem far-fetched at all. Moreover, there could also be issues surrounding disparity: Who exactly gets to enhance or erase their memories and who doesn’t? If it’s only available to the wealthy and powerful, that means that they are the only ones who can benefit from it. There may very well one day be a class system partially based on access to memory technology. “If we do get general cognitive enhancers that everybody can take, there isn’t going to be equal access to those drugs,” Huganir said. “They’re gonna cost money and so of course they won’t be very equitable. They won’t be available to everybody and there’s also potential for abuse as well.” Although understanding how memories work is critical to treating memory disorders or ease trauma, researchers agree that these treatments must be reserved for those suffering from severe trauma, PTSD, or other memory issues. Tempting as it may be to rid ourselves of the memory of an embarrassing drunk karaoke performance, or rid our minds of memories of our exes, using memory manipulation in those ways could be incredibly damaging otherwise. And science is still a long way off from being able to do this accurately or safety. “I think this type of treatment would only be for incredibly invasive, troubling memories—not just sort of our everyday ‘Yikes, that was horrible!’ sort of memory,” Josselyn said. Although we’re still a long way off from being able to press a button (or more realistically, administer a drug) and reliably wipe a specific memory from a person’s brain, every new finding takes us a step further, shedding light on how memory functions, how it malfunctions, and what to do when that happens.

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The aim of the ‘Box of our Memories – Adult Education Caring for Memory Loss‘ (BooM) project is to improve the availability of reminiscence-based, digital, informal adult education interventions for seniors. The project aims to do this by extending the necessary knowledge, skills and competences for adult educators working in diverse fields from informal carers and family members, to volunteers and educational staff working in museums and archives. Reminiscence therapy is the use of life histories – written, oral, or both – to improve psychological well-being, especially with older persons. There is broadening evidence of the efficacy of non-medicinal interventions to alleviate the stressful effects of dementia, in particular the positive stimulus of interacting with music and digitally mediated imagery. Statistical analysis reveals significant improvement in respect of the pre and post questions about knowledge and skills in respect of dementia, reminiscence and life history, understanding and empathy towards people with dementia, competency in using reminiscence, objects or other tools (including photographs) to support or engage with people with dementia and taking part and leading Memory Box sessions. The challenge presented by these types of intervention is how to make them easily accessible by those with cognitive impairment. [Improving the Quality of Life of Individuals with Dementia Using Personal Digital Media – Nayer K., Coxon S. (2020)]. The Box of our Memories project will benefit an increased number of seniors to go through reminiscence therapy. The so called reminiscence therapy is practiced in some parts of Europe and performed by many residential care facilities in the framework of non-pharmacological treatments for people with cognitive impairments and it is considered to be effective. Download the project leaflet in:

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Dianne Feinstein considers herself an environmentalist. She often boasts about her record in the US Senate, including legislation she spearheaded that resulted in the protection of seven million acres of Southern California desert. But over the past several years, instead of helping to protect pristine wildland in Northern California, the state’s senior senator has been working furiously to block what would become the first marine wilderness on the West Coast. The coastal area in question is a breathtaking inlet at Point Reyes National Seashore in Marin County called Drakes Estero. Inhabited by harbor seals, herons, ospreys, egrets, eelgrass, and other flora and fauna, Drakes Estero is scheduled to become a federally protected marine wilderness at the end of this year under a law enacted by Congress in 1976, known as the Point Reyes Wilderness Act. With more than 2.6 million annual visitors, Point Reyes National Seashore is one of the environmental jewels of the San Francisco Bay Area. Nestled on the Marin shoreline, about 75 minutes northwest of Oakland, the park is one of the most popular destinations in Northern California, and a longtime favorite among East Bay residents. As such, the planned creation of a first-ever marine wilderness — defined as an area of land and water large enough to sustain biological diversity, which would be given the highest level of federal protection — within the national seashore represents yet another chapter in the historic legacy of environmental protection in the state. But Feinstein wants to delay establishment of the wilderness for at least ten years, possibly longer, because she believes that a longtime oyster farm, Drakes Bay Oyster Company, should be allowed to continue operating in Drakes Estero after the farm’s lease expires in November. Feinstein wants US Interior Secretary Ken Salazar to extend the oyster farm’s lease, and Salazar and his department are currently considering the request. A decision is expected this fall. If Salazar extends the oyster farm’s lease, it would be unprecedented. According to research conducted at UC Berkeley’s law school, the US government has never extended the lease of what is considered a non-conforming commercial operation, like an oyster farm, on national parkland designated by Congress to become wilderness. In fact, the only thing keeping Drakes Estero from being a marine wilderness today is the oyster farm — an operation that does not catch wild oysters, but instead grows and harvests them artificially in the estuary, and then sells them on the open market. Environmentalists are concerned that if Salazar gives Feinstein what she wants and establishes the precedent, it could prompt other US senators and Congressional representatives to make similar requests for commercial operations on national parkland in their states. After all, if a Democratic senator can get a Democratic administration to delay the creation of a protected wilderness in California on behalf of a business, then what’s to stop a Republican senator from making the same type of request if a Republican is in the White House? “It would be a travesty,” said Amy Trainer, executive director of The Environmental Action Committee of West Marin, which has led the battle for wilderness protection, along with the Sierra Club and the Audubon Society. “A deal’s a deal. Drakes Estero is supposed to become wilderness.” In response to a request for an interview for this story, the senator’s press office emailed a letter that Feinstein wrote last month to state officials. In the May 22 letter, Feinstein stated that she took up the oyster farm’s cause because she believes that the National Park Service has treated the farm in a “biased and unfair manner.” She pointed to an environmental study by the Park Service and comments made by park officials — concerning the oyster farm’s effects on the estero — that were sharply criticized by the Interior Department’s Office of Inspector General and the National Academy of Sciences for being flawed. Feinstein’s letter, however, did not mention that Park Service officials have apologized for their mistakes and retracted the study. Nor did the letter acknowledge that the oyster farm has repeatedly violated state regulations for aquaculture farming during the past decade. The letter also did not note that the flawed Park Service study was irrelevant as to whether the oyster farm’s lease should be extended. Indeed, under federal law, it doesn’t matter whether the oyster farm has harmed the estero or not, because the estero — meaning estuary or inlet — cannot become a protected marine wilderness as long as there’s a large, active commercial operation in the middle of it. Kevin Lunny, owner of Drakes Bay Oyster Company, has known since before he bought the oyster farm in 2004 that its lease was going to expire in November 2012. Nonetheless, Lunny, a politically connected rancher who also owns an organic, pasture-raised cattle ranch on Point Reyes National Seashore property, has fought to extend the lease, establishing a network of influential friends who have joined his battle against the Park Service. During the past half-decade, he has taken an active role on the boards of several high-powered nonprofits in the sustainable-food movement, including Marin Organic and the Agricultural Institute of Marin, which operates farmers’ markets throughout the Bay Area, including the Grand Lake Farmers’ Market in Oakland. Lunny’s supporters also include wealthy Democratic Party donors who have taken up residence in bucolic West Marin. Among them is Nan T. McEvoy, a former co-owner and chairwoman of the San Francisco Chronicle who is also an influential campaign contributor. McEvoy owns a 550-acre organic olive farm near Point Reyes and has intervened on Lunny’s behalf in his efforts to extend his lease. As for Feinstein, she has arguably fought as hard for the oyster farm as for any other issue on her agenda in the past several years. And evidence has surfaced recently that she hatched a plan to broker a secret backroom deal that would block Drakes Estero from becoming a protected wilderness. Point Reyes became a national seashore in 1962; in fact, the park is celebrating its fiftieth anniversary this year. Drakes Estero, a sprawling, 2,500-acre estuary on the park’s southern, central shore, is named for Sir Francis Drake, the English explorer who landed at Point Reyes in 1579. In 1965, as the park expanded and its popularity grew, the State of California ceded control of coastal areas at Point Reyes to the National Park Service. Seven years later, Charlie Johnson, owner of Johnson’s Oyster Company, which would later become Drakes Bay Oyster Company, sold his coastal property to the Park Service and received a forty-year lease in return. Such transactions have been and are typical for commercial enterprises and personal property surrounded by national parkland. In 1976, Congress passed the Point Reyes Wilderness Act, and President Ford signed it. The Act designated more than 25,000 acres in Point Reyes as wilderness, and more than 8,000 acres as “potential wilderness,” including Drakes Estero. Congress deemed the estero to be potential wilderness because land cannot become true wilderness as long as there’s a commercial business, in this case an oyster farm, operating on it. As such, Drakes Estero would become wilderness once the oyster farm’s lease expired. On a recent spring day, I hiked to the estero during low tide from Drakes Beach. Along the way, Tom Baty, a local fisherman who has been trekking daily throughout Point Reyes National Seashore for the past several decades, pointed out dozens of pieces of plastic from the oyster farm that had washed up on the beach. “There’s another one,” Baty said, scooping it up for his large collection. “They’re all along here.” As we headed inland, through berry brambles and poison oak and over a ridge top, the mouth of Drakes Estero came into view. Dozens of harbor seals were sunbathing on a big sandbar in the middle of the inlet; the estero is a major pupping ground for harbor seals. High overhead, an osprey cruised by its nest. Farther into the estero, the oyster farm’s operations started to become apparent as the tide continued to recede. Throughout much of the 20th century, Johnson’s Oyster Company was a bustling enterprise. Johnson’s family grew oysters in the estero, and then sold them to restaurants and other Bay Area outlets — and to tourists at a rambling shack at the end of a dirt road off Sir Francis Drake Boulevard. But by 2004, the oyster business had lost steam, and so the Johnsons sold it to Lunny, who operates the historic, 1,400-acre G Ranch that sits directly across Sir Francis Drake Boulevard from the estero and the oyster farm. According to public documents, both Johnson and the National Park Service told Lunny that the oyster farm’s lease was going to expire in 2012 and that Drakes Estero was to become a federal marine wilderness — a fact that Lunny admitted in a recent interview for this story. Lunny also knew when he bought the oyster farm that the California Coastal Commission had issued a cease-and-desist letter to the Johnsons for not having proper permits. Yet Lunny decided to invest heavily in the aging, aquaculture business, and to ramp up its operations. According to government data, the oyster farm had produced, on average, about 150,000 pounds of oysters a year in the half-decade before Lunny purchased it, but by 2007, it was pumping out 475,000 pounds annually, Trainer said. Lunny’s oyster farm is big business; it supplies at least 25 percent of the oysters consumed in California, is the largest supplier of oysters in the Bay Area, and is the state’s biggest commercial shellfish operation in terms of production. Under Lunny, the newly named Drakes Bay Oyster Company, like its predecessor, has also run afoul of state regulators. Public records show that the Coastal Commission continued to issue cease-and-desist letters in the years after Lunny bought the oyster farm because he did not have proper permits. In February 2009, Lunny got in more trouble because he was growing and harvesting Manila clams, an invasive species, in the estero without a National Park Service permit. Then in December of that year, the Coastal Commission fined the oyster farm $61,500 for numerous ongoing violations. And last September, the commission sent another reprimand to Lunny, warning about the “adverse impacts” of his company’s boats operating in sensitive harbor seal habitat “during the breeding and pupping season.” Nonetheless, Lunny has successfully portrayed himself in Marin County as the “little guy” fighting against oppressive government bureaucrats who have unfairly targeted him and his thirty employees. “They make us out to be some kind of terrible stewards” of the environment, he said of the Coastal Commission regulators, “which is not the truth.” Lunny’s extensive network of friends and supporters in West Marin also is impressive, and his prominence within the sustainable-foods community has won him much sympathy and praise, creating a situation in which some liberal Democrats, who otherwise would typically side with the environment, are instead firmly in his corner. “West Marin is ground zero for sustainable and organic agriculture,” noted Corey Goodman, who owns a ranch in the nearby town of Marshall. Coastal Commission officials, however, take issue with the allegation that they have persecuted Lunny. “The reality is: He still doesn’t have any permits,” said commission spokeswoman Sarah Christie. “We would have been well within our rights to go after his operation as an enforcement case. But we haven’t. We have bent over backwards … for the operation. Not only have we not persecuted him, we’ve been more than fair.” But in the small coastal towns near the park and Tomales Bay — Marshall, Point Reyes Station, Olema, Inverness Park, Inverness, and Bolinas — state regulators are often looked upon with suspicion, and the National Park Service is viewed by many as a giant with an insatiable appetite. Ranchers, in fact, believe that if the oyster farm’s lease isn’t renewed, they’ll be the next to go. “Almost everybody close to this does have that fear,” Lunny said. “The oyster farm is seen as an example of unbecoming conduct by the Park Service and its distaste for agriculture.” For their part, Park Service officials have stopped talking about the oyster farm as Salazar nears his decision. But they’ve said previously that ranchers, including Lunny, who leases his cattle ranch from the park, are in no danger of losing their leases because they’re on property that was never designated by Congress to be potential wilderness. Many residents and ranchers, however, don’t trust the Park Service because of the missteps it made with Drakes Bay Oyster Company. Lunny’s decision to dramatically increase production at his oyster farm in 2005 and 2006 raised alarm bells at Point Reyes National Seashore. By early 2007, Sarah Allen, a park scientist, and Don Neubacher, the park’s superintendent, began warning publicly that the expanding oyster farm was seriously impacting the harbor seals’ pupping ground. Lunny reacted angrily and swiftly, complaining to the Department of Interior’s Office of Inspector General that Park Service officials were allegedly slandering him and harming his business. Lunny, who also owns a rock quarry and paving business, convinced Steve Kinsey, a Marin County supervisor who represents West Marin and has close ties with the ranching community, to get the rest of the board of supervisors to ask Dianne Feinstein to intervene on the oyster farm’s behalf. Despite her success in protecting Southern California desert, Feinstein also has a record of siding with business over the environment. California Watch reported in 2009 that Feinstein had assisted wealthy Central Valley farmer Stewart Resnick and state agribusiness interests in their attempts to extract more water from the fragile Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta, and thus leave less water for declining salmon populations. And in the summer of 2008, Feinstein received the ammunition she needed to help Lunny in his battle with the Park Service. The Interior Department’s Office of Inspector General issued its report, strongly criticizing Allen and Neubacher for overstating the oyster farm’s impacts on harbor seals. Lunny portrayed the report as vindication of his claims of being persecuted, while Feinstein expressed outrage at the conduct of Park Service officials. The senator also asked the National Academy of Sciences to review an environmental study that the Park Service had done on Drakes Estero and the oyster farm. In May 2009, the academy responded with more fuel for the fire, concluding that the Park Service had manipulated data and exaggerated the oyster farm’s effects on the estero and harbor seals. Neubacher apologized and retracted the environmental study. But the damage had been done. The flawed study and misstatements by park officials helped Lunny and Feinstein change the public conversation from the planned creation of the first marine wilderness on the West Coast to the alleged persecution of a popular oyster farm and its owner. Looking back, some environmentalists now acknowledge that the Park Service’s claims about the oyster farm and the environmental studies it conducted were unnecessary. That’s because it doesn’t matter whether the oyster farm harms Drakes Estero or not (it does have impacts, but their extent remains in dispute). The simple fact is: The estero cannot become a wilderness as long as Lunny’s operation is there. So why did the Park Service do what it did? Lunny claims that Neubacher was determined to stop him from extending his lease and manipulated the science to show that he was greatly harming the environment. “There are some impacts,” he acknowledged of his oyster farm. “But no serious adverse effects.” However, Gordon Bennett, a West Marin environmentalist who has closely monitored the estero controversy, said the Park Service conducted the environmental studies because it was concerned about the massive increase in production at the oyster farm. “Mr. Lunny was engaged in a fairly heavy expansion at that point,” Bennett said. “There was conflict there.” Lunny, however, wasn’t just expanding his oyster operation; he was expanding his network of influential friends. Among them was Nan T. McEvoy, heiress to the Chronicle publishing empire and big-time Democratic Party donor. Since 2000, she has contributed at least $534,900 to federal Democratic campaigns, finance reports show. She also is an influential player in state politics, donating $1 million to Governor Jerry Brown’s two charter schools in Oakland. McEvoy also stirred controversy of her own in the North Bay when she proposed to build a giant windmill at her olive farm. Lunny supported her plan, and she helped him by asking at least one former lawmaker to intervene on his behalf — ex-Congressman Pete McCloskey, the co-sponsor of the 1976 Point Reyes Wilderness Act. Jeff Creque, who works for McEvoy at her olive farm, said she has been a longtime supporter of Lunny’s business and views it as being environmentally sustainable. Her involvement also has paid dividends for Lunny. After being contacted by McEvoy, McCloskey has made numerous public appearances contending that Congress had always intended to allow the oyster farm to remain at Drakes Estero — even though the Wilderness Act does not specifically say so. Lunny’s most vocal supporter, however, is Corey Goodman, an outspoken and now-retired UC Berkeley neuroscience professor. Goodman has been the loudest critic over the past several years of the Park Service and its studies of the estero, publicly condemning park officials and calling their actions “criminal.” In a recent interview, he alleged that the Park Service has been involved in “intentional deception.” Environmentalists, however, contend that Goodman, who does not have a degree in environmental science, has manipulated data on behalf of Lunny’s operation and has routinely made outlandish and unsupported claims. In fact, the federal Marine Mammal Commission concluded last year in a report on Drakes Estero that some of Goodman’s statistical models were flawed and produced “inflated” results. Yet that hasn’t silenced his criticism of the Park Service. “I think the National Park Service needs to show environmental harm, and by hook or by crook, they’re going to show it,” he said in an interview. In 2009, Goodman also co-founded Marin Media Institute, a so-called low-profit company that bought the Point Reyes Light newspaper. Goodman has subsequently left the board of the institute, but he writes columns for the Light, which environmentalists say is solidly pro-Lunny. Last week, the Light featured another piece written by Goodman, criticizing the Park Service. As for Feinstein, the reports from the National Academy of Sciences and Department of Interior emboldened her to take her war against the Park Service to the next level. In 2009, Feinstein introduced legislation in the US Senate that would have automatically extended Lunny’s lease for another ten years. But the proposal sparked concern among senators who recognized that it would set a precedent. So Feinstein backed down and agreed to a compromise that would allow Salazar, who as secretary of the Interior also oversees the Park Service, to make the final determination about Lunny’s application to extend his lease. As part of that decision-making process, the Park Service embarked on a comprehensive environmental study. Last fall, the study’s draft report concluded that allowing Lunny’s lease to expire in 2012 was the “environmentally preferred” option. Feinstein and Goodman immediately ripped the report, alleging that, like the Park Service’s 2007 environmental study, it, too, was riddled with errors. They questioned whether the Park Service could be trusted to conduct an objective analysis. “Missteps by the National Park Service have fundamentally undermined its ability to accurately review this application,” the senator said in a statement after the draft report came out. “It is my hope that the final report, and Secretary Salazar’s decision, will rely on objective findings from the National Academy of Sciences and the Marine Mammal Commission.” Recently, Goodman and Lunny also have begun to argue that Drakes Estero wouldn’t be the first marine wilderness on the West Coast because Estero de Limantour, which is next door and shares the same inlet mouth as Drakes Estero, is already marine wilderness. However, according to Congress, the Park Service, and environmentalists, Limantour is part of Drakes Estero, a multi-pronged estuary, and as long as Lunny’s operation remains there, the area is not true wilderness. As for the Marine Mammal Commission’s report, it did not provide Feinstein with the additional ammunition she sought. Released last November, it not only found flaws in Goodman’s statistical models but also concluded that the oyster farm appears to be harming harbor seals in the estero, but that more study is needed. As for the National Academy of Sciences report — the second one requested by Feinstein concerning Drakes Estero — it has not yet been released. Feinstein, however, apparently isn’t interested in waiting for more reports. Last month, evidence surfaced that the senator had hatched a plan to strike a backroom deal with Salazar to extend Lunny’s lease rather than wait for the National Academy of Sciences and the final environmental study from the Park Service. In a move that would have helped Feinstein broker the deal, Lunny had requested — with the senator’s blessing — that the California Fish and Game Commission reassert the oyster farm’s right to operate in Drakes Estero. According to letters sent to Fish and Game, Lunny and Feinstein contended that the oyster farm falls within “the public right to fish,” as guaranteed by the California Constitution. If the Fish and Game Commission then agreed with this contention, it would have set up a states’ rights issue, in which an influential California agency — Fish and Game — would have been on record saying it wanted Drakes Bay Oyster Company to continue operations. Such a scenario would have pressured Salazar to bow to the will of the state. And that appears to be exactly what Feinstein desired. At a May 23 Fish and Game Commission meeting, former state Assemblyman William Bagley, a Marin County resident who also supports Lunny, said that he had been in discussions with Feinstein’s staff about the senator wanting Fish and Game to reassert Lunny’s rights so that she could force Salazar’s hand, according to a transcript of the meeting. “If she has a resolution from this good board that you intend to continue exercising your jurisdiction to issue leases,” Bagley told the Fish and Game Commission, “she can hand that to the secretary [Salazar] and say, ‘Look, my state wants to exercise its jurisdiction, please let them.’ “That means that the Park Service will be overridden and will receive, from the secretary, orders to issue another land-use permit” to Lunny, Bagley continued. However, Fish and Game staff, along with the state Lands Commission and the Coastal Commission, strongly disagreed with Lunny and Feinstein’s right-to-fish argument. In letters in response to Lunny and Feinstein, the agencies all said emphatically that oyster farming is not fishing; it’s farming because no wild oysters are caught. Instead, the oysters are grown and harvested artificially. The commission unanimously agreed and refused to take up Lunny and Feinstein’s request. As a result, the question of whether Drakes Estero will become the first marine wilderness on the West Coast appears to be solely up to President Obama’s appointee, Ken Salazar. There’s no exact timetable for his decision, but he’s expected to make it before Lunny’s lease expires this November.

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Horticultural Science (i.e., “the green industries”) is the largest segment of plant agriculture, by economic measures, in Massachusetts and New England. Abundant career opportunities exist in the field and in related industries and services. The next generation of students graduating from Land Grant universities will be faced with the challenge to redesign landscapes in response to diminishing supplies of fossil fuels and water as well as greater financial stress in public and private enterprises. Students in Horticultural Science may pursue a variety of careers: - Landscape plant production and use – plant production in greenhouses, outdoor plant production in field and container nurseries of woody landscape, wetland, and native plants; plant propagation by tissue culture and other means, and landscape firms specializing in landscape and garden design, plant installation, and plant maintenance. - Allied commercial businesses – technical and sales representatives for firms specializing in greenhouse and nursery supplies, landscape plant breeding and improvement, production of horticultural substrates and compost, commercial soil testing, production of biological control agents and “biorational” pest control materials, and design and marketing of greenhouses and other major pieces of horticultural equipment. - Retail businesses – garden centers, nurseries, roadside and farm markets, and managers and buyers for national retailers. - Education and recreation ‐ public outreach through state and federal government agencies, education programs providing courses at community colleges, adult education programs, and youth education at vocational and other high schools. Positions of horticulturalist or grounds administrator at botanical gardens, arboreta, public parks, historical sites, zoos and theme parks are also available. Recently, two Horticultural Science students assisted in the building of a pollinator garden, part of the Million Pollinator Gardens initiative. Check out the video here:

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Education Degrees for a Bright Future- Education is one of the most important and rewarding fields in the world. Educators not only teach students the knowledge and skills they need to succeed in life, but also inspire them to pursue their passions and dreams. Education is also a field that is constantly evolving and adapting to the changing needs and demands of society. Therefore, education degrees are among the most in-demand and future-proof degrees in the job market. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), jobs for education, training, and library occupations are projected to grow 5% from 2021 to 2031, faster than the average for all occupations1. This growth is driven by factors such as increasing student enrollment, rising demand for special education services, and expanding online education options1. Table of Contents However, not all education degrees are created equal. Some education degrees may offer more opportunities, benefits, and challenges than others. In this article, we will introduce you to the top 5 education degrees that can guarantee you a good job in the future, based on various criteria such as salary, job outlook, flexibility, and satisfaction. 1. Special Education Special education is a branch of education that focuses on teaching students with disabilities or learning difficulties. Special educators work with students who have physical, mental, emotional, or behavioral challenges that affect their learning and development. Special educators use various strategies and methods to help their students overcome their challenges and achieve their full potential. Special education is one of the most rewarding and challenging education degrees. Special educators make a positive difference in the lives of their students and their families. They also face many difficulties and responsibilities, such as adapting the curriculum, managing individualized education plans (IEPs), collaborating with other professionals, and dealing with legal and ethical issues. Special education is also one of the most in-demand and lucrative education degrees. According to the BLS, jobs for special education teachers are expected to grow 8% from 2021 to 20312, faster than the average for all occupations. The median annual wage for special education teachers was $61,420 in May 20202, higher than the median for all teachers ($60,660)3. Some careers for special education majors include: - Special education teacher - Special education administrator - Special education consultant - Special education advocate - Special education researcher 2. Instructional Design – Education Degrees for a Bright Future Instructional design is a branch of education that focuses on designing, developing, and evaluating effective and engaging learning experiences. Instructional designers use various theories, principles, and technologies to create instructional materials and programs that meet the needs and goals of learners and educators. Instructional designers work in various settings such as schools, colleges, universities, corporations, government agencies, non-profit organizations, and online platforms. Instructional design is one of the most innovative and versatile education degrees. Instructional designers use their creativity and skills to create learning solutions that are relevant, interactive, and accessible. They also have the opportunity to work with diverse learners and educators from different backgrounds, disciplines, and industries. Instructional design is also one of the most high-demand and high-paying education degrees. According to ZipRecruiter4, jobs for instructional designers are expected to grow 11% from 2021 to 20315, faster than the average for all occupations. The average annual salary for instructional designers was $78,699 in August 20214, higher than the average for all occupations ($56,310). Some careers for instructional design majors include: - Instructional designer - Instructional technologist - E-learning developer - Curriculum developer - Learning consultant 3. Educational Leadership Educational leadership is a branch of education that focuses on leading and managing educational organizations and systems. Educational leaders are responsible for setting the vision, mission, and goals of their organizations, and ensuring that they are achieved effectively and efficiently. Educational leaders work in various settings such as schools, colleges, universities, districts, states, and national agencies. Educational leadership is one of the most influential and impactful education degrees. Educational leaders have the power to shape the future of education by making strategic decisions, implementing policies, allocating resources, and fostering collaboration among stakeholders. They also face many challenges and pressures, such as meeting academic standards, improving student outcomes, enhancing teacher quality, and addressing equity and diversity issues. Educational leadership is also one of the most competitive and rewarding education degrees. According to the BLS, jobs for educational administrators are expected to grow 4% from 2021 to 2031, about as fast as the average for all occupations. The median annual wage for educational administrators was $97,500 in May 2020, higher than the median for all occupations ($56,310). Some careers for educational leadership majors include: 4. Educational Psychology Educational psychology is a branch of education that focuses on studying and applying the principles of psychology to enhance learning and teaching. Educational psychologists use various methods and tools to understand how people learn, think, feel, and behave in educational settings. Educational psychologists work in various settings such as schools, colleges, universities, testing centers, research institutes, and private practices. Educational psychology is one of the most fascinating and diverse education degrees. Educational psychologists use their knowledge and skills to address various issues and problems in education, such as learning difficulties, motivation, assessment, curriculum, instruction, behavior, and mental health. They also have the opportunity to work with different populations and groups, such as students, teachers, parents, administrators, and policymakers. Educational psychology is also one of the most high-demand and high-paying education degrees. According to the BLS, jobs for psychologists are expected to grow 10% from 2021 to 2031, faster than the average for all occupations. The median annual wage for psychologists was $82,180 in May 2020, higher than the median for all occupations ($56,310). Some careers for educational psychology majors include: - Educational psychologist - School psychologist - Learning specialist - Educational consultant - Educational researcher 5. STEM Education STEM education is a branch of education that focuses on teaching and learning science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. STEM educators use various approaches and strategies to integrate these disciplines and foster inquiry-based, problem-solving, and collaborative learning. STEM educators work in various settings such as schools, colleges, universities, museums, camps, and online platforms. STEM education is one of the most exciting and important education degrees. STEM educators help students develop the knowledge and skills they need to succeed in the 21st century. STEM educators also contribute to the advancement of science and technology by inspiring the next generation of innovators and leaders. STEM education is also one of the most in-demand and lucrative education degrees. According to the BLS, jobs for STEM teachers are expected to grow 9% from 2021 to 2031, faster than the average for all occupations. The median annual wage for STEM teachers was $62,870 in May 2020, higher than the median for all teachers ($60,660)3. Some careers for STEM education majors include: - STEM teacher - STEM coordinator - STEM curriculum developer - STEM program director - STEM educator

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In our fast-paced world, where stress and mental health challenges are prevalent, we have at our disposal a powerful tool that can contribute significantly to our well-being: Regular exercise. The compelling evidence we will discuss today demonstrates that the more we exercise, the less likely we are to experience symptoms of depression. What is Depression? Depression, a pervasive global health concern, affects millions of lives and demands our attention. In this blog, we embark on a journey to explore a transformative solution that is within our grasp: the profound connection between exercise and depression relief. In a world where stress and mental health struggles have become commonplace, understanding the potential of physical activity to alleviate depression is nothing short of revolutionary. Around 20-25 minutes of moderate exercise per day for five consecutive days, significantly lower the symptoms of depression in adults with physical issues such as diabetes, heart disease, and chronic pain – Jama Network Open. The Science Behind Exercise and Depression: At the heart of the exercise-depression link lies a fascinating interplay of biochemistry and neuroscience. When we engage in physical activity, our bodies release endorphins, often referred to as “feel-good” chemicals. These endorphins act as natural painkillers and mood enhancers, significantly regulating our emotional well-being. Additionally, exercise impacts neurotransmitter balance, particularly serotonin, and dopamine, both vital in modulating mood and emotions. Furthermore, recent studies have shown that physical activity promotes neurogenesis, the growth of new brain cells, fostering resilience against depression. The convergence of scientific research consistently affirms the positive impact of exercise on depression. Numerous studies have demonstrated that individuals who engage in regular physical activity experience lower levels of depressive symptoms compared to those with sedentary lifestyles. These findings underscore the importance of adopting exercise as a fundamental strategy for managing and preventing depression. Notable research has unveiled a direct correlation between increased exercise and decreased depression, offering promising hope for those seeking natural alternatives to traditional treatments. Mechanisms of Action: The benefits of exercise extend beyond mood enhancement. Physical activity acts as a potent stress-reducer by managing cortisol levels, the hormone associated with the body’s stress response. Improved sleep quality, another consequence of regular exercise, contributes significantly to emotional well-being. As our bodies become fitter and stronger, our self-esteem and body image receive a much-needed boost, fostering a positive relationship with ourselves and promoting mental resilience. People without any chronic disease, need to do more intense exercise more than 30 minutes to get improvement in symptoms of depression. Creating an Effective Exercise Regimen: Crafting an exercise routine tailored to individual needs is a pivotal step towards harnessing its depression-alleviating potential. Whether it’s engaging in aerobic exercises, strength training, or mind-body activities like yoga and meditation, the choice of movement should align with personal preferences and goals. Finding the right balance between duration and frequency is essential, and gradual progression ensures sustainability. By integrating exercise into our daily lives, we can unlock a path toward emotional vitality. Around 20-25 minutes of moderate exercise per day for five consecutive days, significantly lower the symptoms of depression in adults with physical issues such as diabetes, heart disease, and chronic pain Moderate exercise means the workout type where it becomes hard enough to speak while exercising, such as playing tennis, biking, and brisk walking. What is Vigorous Exercise? Vigorous exercise means the type of workout which increase breathing rate or heart rate. These mostly include HIIT workouts. Real-life Success Stories: The transformative impact of exercise on mental health is not confined to scientific studies. Countless individuals have shared their inspiring stories of overcoming depression through physical activity. From experiencing increased energy and a renewed sense of purpose to witnessing a notable reduction in depressive symptoms, these personal anecdotes highlight the potential for exercise to be a lifeline for those navigating the challenges of mental health. Integrating Exercise into Mental Health Treatment: Recognizing and addressing barriers that impede the incorporation of exercise into daily life is crucial. Common obstacles, such as lack of time or motivation, can be overcome with thoughtful strategies. Setting realistic goals, enlisting the support of friends or family, and exploring activities that genuinely spark joy are effective ways to surmount these hurdles and embark on a journey toward better mental health. The collaboration between fitness trainers and mental health professionals is a promising avenue for optimizing treatment outcomes. By combining the expertise of these two fields, individuals can access a holistic approach to well-being. Case studies reveal instances where exercise has seamlessly integrated into therapy, amplifying the benefits of both disciplines and offering comprehensive support to those in need. Holistic Approach to Mental Well-being: Exercise is but one piece of the puzzle in the pursuit of holistic mental well-being. Nurturing a harmonious relationship between physical activity, nutrition, and social support contributes to a robust foundation for emotional resilience. By embracing a comprehensive self-care routine that encompasses these elements, individuals can cultivate a balanced and empowered approach to managing depression. In closing, the evidence is resounding: exercise holds the key to reducing depression and fostering mental well-being. From the biochemical marvels that occur within our bodies to the empowering narratives of those who have triumphed over adversity, the journey towards a healthier mind starts with a single step – the decision to move, embrace, and conquer. In conclusion, the research is unequivocal: exercise holds incredible potential for reducing depression and enhancing mental well-being. By incorporating regular physical activity into our lives, we can tap into a natural and effective remedy that has far-reaching benefits. Whether it’s through the release of endorphins, the restoration of neurotransmitter balance, or the growth of new brain cells, exercise offers a holistic approach to combatting depression. As we move forward, let us remember the success stories we’ve heard and the scientific evidence we’ve explored today. By breaking down barriers, seeking professional guidance when necessary, and taking small, consistent steps, we can truly harness the power of exercise to uplift our spirits and reclaim our mental health.

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Nature and Nurture in Personality and Psychopathology A Guide for Clinicians Psychiatry and clinical psychology have long been divided about the roles of nature and nurture in the pathways to psychopathology. Some clinicians offer treatment almost entirely based on neuroscience. Some psychologists offer psychotherapies almost entirely based on the impact of environmental stressors. Paris argues for a balanced middle ground between nature and nurture in human development. This book reviews and integrates research showing that the key to understanding the development of mental disorders lies in interactions between genes and environment. It explores why personality is a key determinant of how people respond to stress, functioning as a kind of psychological immune system. This model represents a shift from overly simple and reductionistic constructs, based primarily on biological risks or on psychosocial risks in development. Instead, it offers a complex and multivariate approach that encourages a broader approach to treatment. This book is essential for all mental health clinicians who are interested in understanding the roles of nature and nurture in the development of psychopathology. Introduction 1.Defining and Measuring Psychopathology 2. Personality and Psychopathology 3. What Genes Can and Cannot Tell Us 4. Neuroscience: Triumphs and Limitations 5. Childhood Adversities and Adult Functioning 6. Resilience: Surviving a Bad Childhood 7. Nature-Nurture Interactions 8. Problems with Causality 9. Implications for Psychotherapy 10. Implications for Prevention and Management "Professor Paris has done it again with another insightful, clearly written, book that highlights core issues that every clinician (and researcher) should be thinking about. Taking us through the evolution of his thinking, Dr. Paris integrates the wide-ranging universe of psychopathology and the nature-nurture debate into a conceptual model that clinicians can understand and embrace." Mark Zimmerman, MD, Professor of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Brown Medical School and Director of Outpatient Psychiatry and Partial Hospital Program, Rhode Island Hospital.

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What frightens you? Climate change? Losing your sight? Genetically modified organisms? Chemicals in products that might harm you? That might harm your children? Donald Trump? Hillary Clinton? Terrorists? The National Security Agency? Your mother? A loud, unexpected noise? Mentally ill people getting their hands on guns? There’s plenty to choose from, as I’m sure you’re all too aware. And as I’m sure you’re also all too aware, we swim in a sea of information that heightens our fears. The social psychologist Peter Gray writes extensively about how healthy it is for children to play freely. A few years ago, Dr. Gray wrote an article titled “The Decline of Play and the Rise of Psychopathology in Children and Adolescents,” which I think accurately captures the content of the piece. In it he argues that over the latter half of the 20th Century, children’s free play declined in large part because parents, educators, public health officials, and others increasingly feared for children’s health and safety. The effect of those fears was the increasing imposition of adult-directed activities on children’s time. And the effect of that shift from child-directed to adult-directed activity corresponds to a rise in child and adolescent psychopathology, in particular the rise of anxiety and depression and the decline in a sense of personal power. Are those fears justified? In a recent report, the Department of Health and Human Service suggests that over the last 80 years, children’s safety has steadily improved. This might have happened precisely because parents and others have been more vigilant because they’ve been increasingly fearful. Yet the improvement has been consistent since the mid-1930s—during the first half of the 20th Century in what has been called the golden era of childhood play when, presumably, dangers were rampant. Before we get caught up in the issues this raises, let me say that fear is a good thing. It will keep you out of trouble. In his book Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers, neuroscientist Robert Sapolsky describes how a zebra who sees a tawny patch in the high grass is better served by instant fright and the urge to flee than pausing to ponder whether that might only be a patch of dry grass and not a lion. In fact, that’s one place where fears come from: natural selection. Zebras who startle are more likely to escape predators than zebras who ponder. Those more inclined to startle and escape are more likely to survive and breed and make more zebras that startle and escape. Neuroscientists such as Joseph LeDoux talk about stimuli and responses that are species-typical. LeDoux reluctantly refers to these as innate—what frightens a zebra or a human without thought. For example, humans and other primates are prone to be frightened by snakes; zebras not so much. The point here is that the things that frighten us (and every other kind of creature) and the way we (and they) respond has a long evolutionary history. That, of course, is true for the full range of our emotions, not just fear. The way we (and other creatures) respond when frightened is captured by the well-known triad: fight, flee, or freeze. And that’s what fear mobilizes in you—all the physiological mechanism you’ll need to do one of those things in order to avoid being eaten or damaged or incapacitated. I don’t want to make it sound as though our innate fears are all instinctive. We learn to avoid dangerous or unpleasant people, places, and things. Once learned, we don’t have to ponder how to respond. We just do. That’s what makes them innate. The classic experiments in conditioning are all about how experimental animals are taught to do or not do certain things based on how scientists manipulate the animals’ environment—the electric shock and the food pellet being particular favorites. The good news is that innate fears can, to some extent, be unlearned in a physiological process called extinction. A lab rat who is taught to associate pain with a particular environment will get stressed out when forced into that environment. But if he or she ceases to experience pain, the anxiety will dissipate or even disappear altogether. Humans engage in psychotherapy, self-help books, and counter-learning experiences of all sorts. Fear can also be a bad thing, of course, because it can get you into trouble. Lions typically hunt in pairs. One frightens a zebra who runs into the paws of a waiting mate. So the fear-induced impulse to flee ought to be tempered by some pondering as to which route his or her flight should take. So if Donald Trump scares you to death, you might want to consider whether fleeing to Hillary Clinton is the best response. Not a recommendation; just a thought. Which brings us to fears we acquire through learning from other humans. A research article titled “Social Learning of Fear” describes how fear can be conditioned not only from direct experience but through paying attention to what’s happening to others. We can acquire fears by seeing others traumatized but also by observing the body language of others who are frightened. In movies there’s the advantage of a soundtrack that plays ominous music as frightening images and frightened actors appear on the screen to let you know that something frightening is about to happen. Having a soundtrack for living would be handy, but isn’t likely any time soon. The significance of the research on the social learning of fear is that directly learned and socially learned fears share many neurocircuits, but socially learned fears enlist circuits for recognition of faces, body language, and other social communication. In other words, it enlists those complex features of our nervous system that make us highly pro-social creatures able to read minds with considerable skill based on facial expression, body language, vocalizations, and so on. And here, too, fear can be a good thing or not. It depends on how you respond. And that has to do with how you experience what you’re feeling as part of what you’re doing. After all, the biological and evolutionary purpose of fear is to get you to do something. Antonio Damasio (Descartes’s Error) describes how our emotions arise from how our nervous system scans our body to make sense of what’s physiologically going on, what’s coming in through our senses, and what our body wants to do about it. Fear is the message: “Predator alert! Do something! Now!” “Fear of Missing Out” is a psychological phenomenon that’s received increasing interest as social media has become more prevalent. Fear of missing out is in the realm of computer addiction. The fear here is the fear of regret that motivates people to remain continually informed of what other people are doing—or at least what they are posting. I don’t think this is a particularly new fear, just one that’s significantly enhanced by smart phones and tablets and other technologies designed to keep people permanently gossiping. You might question whether this really qualifies as fear, but social media has led to other phenomena that clearly do. At last year’s Annual Conference of the British Psychology Society, researcher Pam Ramsden reported the effects of horrific, unedited images available through social media on the emotional state of viewers. A quarter of the nearly 200 participants in the study showed significant signs of post traumatic stress disorder despite having no history of trauma. The significant background to the study is that it has been known for some time that many people’s occupation subjects them to traumatic events that also elicit symptoms of PTSD, particularly health care workers. I’d also note, to return to Dr. Gray and the fear for children, that our increasing exposure to traumatic images in the media generally—social, mass, alternative—is likely to have a similar effect. For some time researchers have reported that the use of frightening news is not only a news publishing mainstay—“if it bleeds, it leads”—it’s also increasing. This has elicited a wide ranging discourse about the culture of fear (Glassner, The Culture of Fear; Linke & Smith, Cultures of Fear). The core argument in this literature is that “if it bleeds, it leads” is not just old newspaper wisdom nor a sad commentary on human nature (whatever that’s supposed to be). Instead it is one of the many methods carefully invoked to traumatize people in order to better control them through a wide variety of methods for disseminating information. The biology of how this works makes perfect sense. Your nervous system works to get you out of trouble when you’re afraid. It’s one of the ways in which it’s good for you—at least when you’re actually in danger. For example, when afraid, your attention is focused on the source of the threat. That zebra is paying close attention to that lion (if it is a lion). Of course, the zebra might not pay much attention to the whereabouts of the lion’s hunting partner. So maybe the smart zebra studies the hunting behavior of lions by watching how other zebra’s get hunted by lions. If they had opposable thumbs, they could invent technologies that record lion kills and then other technologies to broadcast those recordings to other zebras as part of a routine communications methodology that might be called the news cycle. But zebras don’t have opposable thumbs and so don’t have those technologies and so also don’t have a news cycle feeding an unquenchable thirst for information and so are not cursed with the fear of missing out. Instead—and this is why zebras don’t get ulcers—they outrun the lion (but not always) and then their body rolls back on all the charged-up physiology that’s referred to in the neuroscience literature as the fear response. Some of this consists of physiologically releasing the effects of fear, for example by shivering. And fairly soon the zebra is back to its normal life of grazing. It’s called recovery. What happens if you live in an environment that saturates you with information about traumatic events? Lions at every turn? An environment and its associated information cycle that doesn’t let you recover? Humans (and other creatures) not only pay attention differently when frightened, they think differently. An experiment plotted what’s called a response curve for trading off one thing for another. The experiment first established trade offs under normal conditions. When fear was introduced into the experiment, subjects acted irrationally according to the normal trade-offs—“irrationally” meant that their choices weren’t consistent with how they previously made choices under so-called normal conditions. But the choices were internally consistent for being in a state of fear. In other words, the subjects, when frightened, might seem irrational as compared to their normal behavior, but quite rationally for being in a state of fear. The Ramsden study I mentioned earlier that found a quarter of people who viewed traumatic images showed signs of post traumatic stress disorder also found heightened stress and anxiety in the other participants. The point of which is that in experiencing or observing frightening events, your response is not either-or, either blind fear or utter indifference. It’s on a continuum from indifference to panic. Where you land on that continuum will depend on the exact nature of the danger, how capable you think and feel you are to deal with it, and how sensitive you are to threats generally and of that particular kind of threat—all of which come from your personal and family history. For example, in a study of children’s reactions to the 2013 Boston Marathon explosions, the more exposure to media coverage children experienced, the more they developed post traumatic stress symptoms. But children with greater sympathetic nervous system reactivity were even more likely to develop post traumatic stress symptoms. This should be no surprise since the sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the stress response and the fear response. And it should also be no surprise to find out the some people are more easily frightened than others. Some people experience greater trauma than others—in the womb, as they grow up, as they mature. Some people are innately more sensitive—not because of bad luck or bad genes but because trauma in earlier generations gets passed along to later generations. For example, rat mothers who were not nurtured as pups are not good nurturers of their own pups. But are we collectively more easily frightened now than we used to be? That’s what Peter Gray suggests when asking why children’s free play has declined and, as a consequence, why child and adolescent psychopathology has increased. Remember that these are children who are more anxious and have a lower sense of personal power than earlier generations and that these children will likely grow into adulthood more anxious and with a diminished sense of personal power. Dr. Gray is right, of course. The bad news didn’t just fall from the sky. The culture of fear is quite intentional and the intention is to manipulate us to accept a way of life that is not in our interest. The culture of fear is promoted through the dissemination of information, no matter whether the source is corporate or alternative. The extreme is the mobilization of fear in what has been called moral panics by design, where the very life of the culture, nation, way of life is made to seem in danger by our leaders. The life blood of the moral panic is information. Which begs the question, is it possible to be well-informed without being traumatized?

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Engaging students is a complex challenge: using innovative methods can be a significant resource to motivate them and enhance their learning. Thanks to different kinds of studies and research, today there are many tools available that can be used in the school environment: project-based learning, non-formal education, outdoor education, and ICT are some of the many opportunities that can be integrated with traditional teaching methods. The new edition of the course “Innovative teaching methods for teachers, school and adult education staff” took place in Tenerife from 16/04/2023 to 22/04/2023. The participants came from all across Europe, with Irena, Dalija and Ines respectively from OŠ Vladimira Nazora and Trgovacka Skola Zagreb in Croatia. We also had 4 participants from France coming from 3 different schools: Delphine and Catherine from the Lycée Joseph Saverne, Dalila from the Rectorat de Besançon, and Sabine from the Rectorat de Dijon. From Poland, we had Marek teaching at IV High School in Łódź, Asta from Kaunas M. Mažvydas in Lithuania, Valeria and Jona from Odisee Hogeschool Brussel in Belgium. And last but not least, Karen and Mathilde from CPÆ, Professionshøjskolen, Playful Learning Projekt in Denmark. Nowadays, there are a lot of studies and research backing up and putting to light tools that can be used in the school environment: project-based learning, non-formal education, outdoor education, and ICT are some of the many opportunities that can be integrated with traditional teaching methods that would be regarded as more “frontal”. At first, visual strategies and teambuilding games showed the power of Non-Formal Education. In fact, starting from the activities, we explored Kolb’s experiential learning cycle and we learned how it allows passing from reflection to conceptualization and application, giving the student an active role in the learning process. On the other side, Project Based Learning (PBL) allows students to delve into content in a more direct and meaningful way, starting from a topic question and trying to investigate real-world issues. Analyzing the principles of PBL, the participants of the course had the opportunity to discover how teamwork, collaboration, and creativity can help students to discover ways to deal with real problems, learn strategically, and search by themselves for the answers from the start. Allowing the student to learn in other ways than “frontal” by making the student the protagonist of his/her own learning. Thanks to an ICT tool, the teachers had the opportunity to participate in a special type of treasure hunt, discover Tenerife and deepen the power of Outdoor Education in a very funny way. Some of the advantages of Outdoor Education that emerged during the debriefing are, on the one hand, the increase in motivation and creativity, on the other, the improvement of psychophysical well- being thanks to contact with nature, and the consequent reduction of stress. Finally, we explored innovative teaching methods with ICT. We practiced several tools in class, finding out new ways to engage students, assess and display a lesson. This course helped participants to understand how to work with a more innovative approach in their classes, these ICT tools being usable for any teaching subject. By Friday, team spirit was so high that it was difficult to say goodbye. However, our group was very eager to go back and start applying all the many ideas that emerged during the course. Another great week of inspiration was over, but only to be continued back in their countries. Discover more about this course here. Welcome to the ELA Blog. Here you will find articles and photos of our courses and have a look at the topics addressed during the week in Bologna, Palermo and Tenerife. You will also have the chance to take a peek at our projects and check out what we have been up to.

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The brain chemical dopamine regulates how mice learn to avoid a disagreeable encounter, according to new research from the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania. “We know that dopamine reinforces ‘rewarding’ behaviors, but to our surprise, we have now shown that situations that animals learn to avoid are also regulated by dopamine,” said senior author John Dani, PhD, chair of the department of Neuroscience. The team’s findings are published this month in Cell Reports. Special neurons in the brain send out a burst of dopamine in both negative and positive situations. However, the exact way in which dopamine neurons are wired and connected to the brain center called the hippocampus remains controversial among neuroscientists. Knowing exactly how the neurotransmitter dopamine shapes memory and behavior in association with an event or the surrounding environment is important to better understand such conditions as post-traumatic stress syndrome. “We showed in mice that a special circuit in the hippocampus has flexibility in combining with environmental input to shape behavior during an experiment in which the mice learn to avoid an unpleasant experience,” Dani said. “This is the first time that we have been able to show, as proof of principle, that the dopamine circuitry is also involved in learning to avoid aversive situations. ” In previous animal experiments, when mice experience an unexpected reward, for example discovering a tube in which they can obtain a sugar-water treat, a burst of dopamine is emitted in the brain. The debate among neuroscientists centers on whether the neurotransmitter only shapes behavior when an animal is receiving a positive reward or if the neurotransmitter is also involved in shaping the way an animal learns how to avoid an uncomfortable situation. The team found that if the mice encounter an negative stimuli, a subgroup of neurons fires and releases dopamine in conjunction with the aversive environmental input. They also showed that when the dopamine signal to the hippocampus is chemically blocked in the mice, it prevents them from learning to avoid the negative stimulus. However, if the dopamine signal is chemically boosted in the mice, they remember to avoid the aversive event longer. “The bottom line of our study is that dopamine plays a role in both conditions, and that dopamine enables mice to learn and remember to avoid the negative situation, in this case avoid a light foot shock in one room of a two-room enclosure.” About this neuroscience research Co-authors include postdoctoral fellows Kechun Yang and Theo Tsetsenis, both from Penn, and John Broussard, Baylor University. Funding: This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health (NS21229, DA09411, DA021194, MH067119, DA017173). Source: Karen Kreeger – University of Pennsylvania Image Credit: Image is credited to John Dani, Ph.D., Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania. Original Research: Full open access research for “Dopamine Regulates Aversive Contextual Learning and Associated In Vivo Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus” by John I. Broussard, Kechun Yang, Amber T. Levine, Theodoros Tsetsenis, Daniel Jenson, Fei Cao, Isabella Garcia, Benjamin R. Arenkiel, Fu-Ming Zhou, Mariella De Biasi, and John A. Dani in Cell Reports. Published online February 18 2016 doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2016.01.070 Dopamine Regulates Aversive Contextual Learning and Associated In Vivo Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus Highlights •Molecular approaches verified dopamine innervation of the hippocampus •Inhibitory avoidance (IA) learning induces ex vivo and in vivo LTP in the CA1 •D1-like dopamine receptor inhibition prevents IA induction of LTP •Dopamine activation enhances and inhibition prevents long-term retention of IA Summary Dopamine release during reward-driven behaviors influences synaptic plasticity. However, dopamine innervation and release in the hippocampus and its role during aversive behaviors are controversial. Here, we show that in vivo hippocampal synaptic plasticity in the CA3-CA1 circuit underlies contextual learning during inhibitory avoidance (IA) training. Immunohistochemistry and molecular techniques verified sparse dopaminergic innervation of the hippocampus from the midbrain. The long-term synaptic potentiation (LTP) underlying the learning of IA was assessed with a D1-like dopamine receptor agonist or antagonist in ex vivo hippocampal slices and in vivo in freely moving mice. Inhibition of D1-like dopamine receptors impaired memory of the IA task and prevented the training-induced enhancement of both ex vivo and in vivo LTP induction. The results indicate that dopamine-receptor signaling during an aversive contextual task regulates aversive memory retention and regulates associated synaptic mechanisms in the hippocampus that likely underlie learning. “Dopamine Regulates Aversive Contextual Learning and Associated In Vivo Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus” by John I. Broussard, Kechun Yang, Amber T. Levine, Theodoros Tsetsenis, Daniel Jenson, Fei Cao, Isabella Garcia, Benjamin R. Arenkiel, Fu-Ming Zhou, Mariella De Biasi, and John A. Dani in Cell Reports. Published online February 18 2016 doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2016.01.070

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When you read the reactions to a recent editorial on race and history in the journal Nature, two words come up again and again. The first is “tone-deaf.” The second is “disaster.” The unsigned editorial, which ran on September 4 under the headline “Removing statues of historical figures risks whitewashing history,” struck many readers as being inept, poorly timed, or outright offensive. In response, Nature took the rare step of tweaking the online version of the editorial and changing its headline. (The old version was removed, though Divya Persaud, a planetary scientist, preserved it as a PDF.) The journal also posted selected reader reactions and appended a lengthy apology that described the original version of the piece as “offensive and poorly worded.” Not everyone is satisfied with the journal’s response, though, and the incident leaves open unanswered questions about editorial practices at Nature, the world’s most prestigious scientific publisher. More broadly, it brings up familiar questions about how scientists and scientific institutions should grapple with the long history of racism in science and medicine. This particular editorial deals with monuments that honor troubling figures from the history of science, focusing on J. Marion Sims, a 19th-century gynecologist who performed experimental surgeries, without anesthesia, on the bodies of enslaved women, and who is honored with a large statue in New York City’s Central Park. Recently, civil rights activists have renewed their push to remove the statue. The response from Nature implied that the editorial board supported keeping statues like it in place, because their removal might “whitewash history.” At any political moment, that claim would invite vigorous skepticism: A large statue that unambiguously honors a 19th-century slave-owner — while making no mention of the human beings that he held in bondage and performed experiments on — seems, of course, like it already is the essence of whitewashed history. And protesters haven’t argued that Sims should be erased from history, just that his work should receive a very different kind of contextualization and memorialization. On top of all this, there was the timing. The editorial came just weeks after hundreds of white supremacists marched in Charlottesville, Virginia to defend another controversial statue, setting off violence in the streets and killing a young woman. When Nature posted a link to the editorial on Twitter, the thread quickly exploded with criticisms. “Maybe when I tell people that science is systematically racist, they’ll believe me now,” wrote neuroscience Ph.D. student Christine Liu in one widely circulated tweet, adding “this trash is endorsed by a top journal.” “I’m hard pressed to understand why, when white supremacists are murdering and terrorizing people, this seemed like THE editorial to write,” tweeted astrophysicist Chanda Prescod-Weinstein, and a headline from The Atlantic called the editorial “disastrous.” Scientists wrote messages to Nature editor-in-chief Philip Campbell and at least one called for him to resign. The journal’s response may not have done much to blunt the growing controversy. Scientists who wrote emails to Campbell seem to have mostly received brief, terse form letters in reply. While Nature’s apology says that the journal is “taking steps to ensure that we do not make similar mistakes in the future,” the journal has not chosen to be transparent about what kind of oversight the editorial received, what those future steps might look like, or who may be consulted in the decision-making process. A spokesman for the journal, Mark Staniland, declined to make anyone available for an interview, and the publication chose not to respond to a list of questions provided by Undark via email. A few scientists have called for a boycott. In a letter to the journal, Princeton University oceanographer Sonya Legg announced that “until Nature issues a retraction of this editorial and takes steps to increase the people of color on its editorial staff, I will not submit any manuscripts for publication, nor review any manuscripts, from any of the Nature journals.” In an email to Undark, Legg said that she was following through already on that promise, and that “my immediate colleagues are supporting my decision to submit a planned manuscript to a different journal.” “I believe that when we volunteer our time to review manuscripts, or choose which journal we publish in, we should consider the values of the organization we are supporting through our efforts,” Legg told me. The Georgia Tech biogeochemist Jennifer Glass, who has also publicly decided to boycott Nature, described Nature’s response as “a fake apology — it was as if they didn’t even read our letters.” “It’s really the responsibility of white scientists and white readers of Nature to deal with this,” added Glass, who is white, in an interview with Undark. It’s “not the burden of the scientific community of color to deal with this disaster.” Not everyone was entirely surprised by the incident. “I can’t believe they signed off on that. And then I can,” said Danielle Lee, a biologist at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville and a prominent science blogger who advocates for increased minority representation in scientific and technological fields. She recalled how difficult it has been for her to get answers about a high-profile run-in she had with Springer Nature, which owns Nature, in 2013. “I wouldn’t put my money on anything changing,” Lee told me. The issues at stake here, of course, go far beyond one editorial. The backlash against Nature, like the larger debate about the J. Marion Sims statue in Central Park and other troubling monuments, is also a debate about which voices will get heard in the public sphere and which are ignored; which experiences get highlighted and celebrated, and which are downplayed or forgotten. In an interview with Undark, Deirdre Cooper Owens, a historian at Queens College and the author of a forthcoming book on race, gender, and the history of American gynecology, pointed out that these issues aren’t just historical abstractions, but living legacies, tied closely to issues that often receive too little attention in public conversations. She gave a striking example: J. Marion Sims was working at a time when physicians believed that black people simply felt less pain than many other people. But that bit of pseudo-scientific belief is by no means a relic of history: White doctors today are still less likely to provide pain care for black patients, and they often assess self-reported pain differently for patients, depending on their race. “For me, it is about what do we do to ensure that no other person is treated like Anarcha, Betsey, Lucy, and those other women” who were Sims’ patients, said Cooper Owens. “Because that medical legacy, unfortunately, is still with us.” UPDATE: Following the publication of this column, Nature published two additional responses to the editorial, along with a longer apology from editor-in-chief Philip Campbell. In the apology, Campbell announced that the journal “will appoint a group that will seek external advice to assess further what happened in this particular situation and to firmly guide us in adjusting our published content and internal practices.” Michael Schulson is an American freelance writer covering science, religion, technology, and ethics. His work has been published by Pacific Standard magazine, Aeon, New York magazine, and The Washington Post, among other outlets, and he writes the Matters of Fact and Tracker columns for Undark.

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Two Caltech researchers have received funding for neuroscience projects from the National Institutes of Health's Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) Initiative. "A neuroethological model of sensorimotor processing in animal-animal interactions" Joseph Parker — Assistant Professor of Biology and Biological Engineering Joe Parker is the lead investigator on a project that aims to study the brain circuits that control behavioral interactions between animals. Animals interact with members of their own or other species in the context of social and defensive behaviors, predator-prey relationships, and symbioses. In all of these contexts, execution of the appropriate kind of interaction depends on a neural pathway that transmits information about another organism and generates a behavioral response. The project aims to break ground toward answering big questions, including how does multisensory information, such as odor and touch, combine to create a representation of another animal in the brain? How do these neural representations interact with decision-making circuitry to lead the animal to act? Current animal models, such as the common fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and mice, show limited interactions with other species. Moreover, in flies, it is challenging to image their brains while they are freely interacting with other animals. Parker and his collaborators have found a way to overcome these limitations by using an alternative model species—the rove beetle. These insects have a unique anatomy with a flexible abdomen that is used as an appendage to interact with other species. The mode of abdominal deployment provides a direct readout of the neural processing that happens when the beetle encounters different types of animal. For example, in the species that Parker is pioneering in his lab, Dalotia coriaria, the abdomen contains a chemical defense gland that the beetle targets at other species, such as predatory ants. Parker's group has found that Dalotia can execute complex behaviors using its abdomen even when tethered and walking on a treadmill. His group is now developing tools for behavioral analysis and brain imaging in Dalotia to study its neural circuitry during real-time interactions with other species. "One of the hallmarks of being an animal is that you move through a world filled with other species," says Parker. "How you respond behaviorally is critical to survival, but how the brain categorizes and processes information about other species in the living world is a mystery. Dalotia has awesome potential to answer this question. We are excited that the NIH BRAIN Initiative recognizes the importance of moving beyond traditional model species." Watch Parker's Watson Lecture, titled "How to Deceive Society: An Insect Masterclass" here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pnzrrbVpPBU . Parker is an affiliated faculty member of the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute for Neuroscience at Caltech. "Massively parallel high-speed 3D functional photoacoustic computed tomography of the adult human brain" Lihong Wang — Bren Professor of Medical Engineering and Electrical Engineering Lihong Wang is the principal investigator on a project to develop next-generation tools for imaging the brain with high resolution. Current brain imaging technologies, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography, and ultrasound imaging, all have their own limitations. To address these issues, Wang and his team aim to develop a technology called 3D photoacoustic computed tomography (PACT) that will rapidly image large-scale neural activity in human brains with high sensitivity. In the last two decades, the Wang laboratory has developed similar photoacoustic technology for imaging at multiple spatial scales, ranging from cells to whole lab rodents and human skulls. Recently, Wang developed PACT technology to conduct fast and painless scans that can detect breast cancer with as much accuracy as traditional mammograms. "Photoacoustic imaging of adult human brains is one of the most challenging frontiers in our field," says Wang. "It requires innovation to overcome the signal attenuation and wavefront distortion due to the skull. I'm glad that the NIH has the vision to fund this worthy research direction." Watch Wang's Watson Lecture, titled "The World's Deepest-Penetration and Fastest Optical Cameras" here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mzL6zPivtIQ&feature=emb_title . Wang is an affiliated faculty member of the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute for Neuroscience at Caltech.

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Members of our society will describe us their new society about Women in STEM. What is Women in STEM? Women in STEM is a group formed by students of the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (VU). The idea was born in September 2022, when we realized that there was a lack of awareness about the problem of gender equality in STEM (“Science”, “Technology”, “Engineering” and “Mathematics”). The VU is one of the most progressive universities in the Netherlands on diversity issues. However, as in the rest of the country, there is a huge lack of awareness of the gender gap in the professional field. Over the years, female representation in STEM careers has grown tremendously. Especially in the sciences, there has been a notable increase in female graduates in its various branches. Although this is visible to the naked eye, there is currently no concrete data that would allow a comparison of the percentages. Despite this, the VU has barely 27% of women in faculty or principal investigator positions. This situation is repeated in many organizations and companies in the country. These data suggest the perpetuation of the famous “glass ceiling” in this area. Furthermore, in technology, engineering and mathematics careers, female representation is worryingly low from the initial levels of education. And this situation is not expected to improve in the near future. At Women in STEM we have identified the problem and are working to be part of the change. We firmly believe that the first barrier to overcome in this area is public awareness. Thus, our main objective is to raise awareness of the important role that women have played in the history of science throughout history, and continue to play today. For this, we have organized a corps composed of undergraduate, masters, PhD students as well as professors and workers in the different STEM areas. All these people work together creating physical and digital content, and organizing events, to raise awareness of the essential role of women in STEM as well as the current state of affairs. Activities we are organising In the previous blog post, about queer perspectives in science, we also talked about the discrimination that women in science and other STEM areas continue to suffer (1). For this reason, we organize different activities and events with the main objective of promoting women in STEM with whom girls and young women can identify and be inspired by their success. Being based at VU, we have the opportunity to connect students with female professors, researchers and other professionals, to foster the creation of a network of women who support each other. Since the creation of the group in September 2022 until now (December 2022), we have organized two events open to the public. The first, in collaboration with the VU student association “Black and African Diaspora”, to raise awareness of women with African and Black roots in STEM. During this event entitled “Nights of Drinks and Dialogues: the Influence of Cultural Diversity in STEM Careers”, we had the pleasure of having Dr. Candace Moore participate. Dr. Moore is a software engineer currently researching racial bias in medical instrumentation and artificial intelligence. We had very interesting discussions with her and the other participants! In addition, just a few days ago we organized a panel discussion entitled “Women in Neuroscience panel: Experiences as a Woman in STEM”. For the discussion, we invited four neuroscientists at different points in their careers, who told us about their backgrounds and experiences in a discussion moderated by us. We also talked about work-life balance. In particular, the participation of Irune Guerra San Juan, also a Spanish neuroscientist who is now finishing her doctoral thesis in a collaboration between the Netherlands and the United States. We also had the participation of Vivi Heine, a renowned senior researcher with extensive international experience, Marieke Meijer, a postdoc researcher at the VU and the CNCR center, and Aline Mak, a doctoral candidate also from these two centers. The event was a great success, according to the positive feedback from the more than 40 people in the audience. In the discussion among these four professionals, they all agreed that groups like ours are very necessary. One of the pieces of advice addressed to young women scientists that most struck us was to take advantage of every opportunity without doubting oneself, because we are perfectly capable and deserving of it. The final message we were left with was that creating a support network of women scientists who support each other, believe in themselves and give each other opportunities is key. And that’s not all! We are already organizing the agenda of events for 2023. We have not yet confirmed the dates, so we encourage you to follow us on our social networks, to be updated on the next activities. A couple of hints to get you warmed up… discussion by a CERN scientist, a film festival with a women in STEM theme for the day of women and girls in science, symposiums, debates and panels with professionals from different STEM areas… We have something for everyone! If all this sounds good to you, we’re looking for you! Join the team and help us in our work for women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics. You can register here https://forms.gle/mdSzGKUsPj92QbCD7 or send us a message with your questions. And of course, come to our activities and get inspired by the best professionals, expand your professional network and enjoy the snacks that usually accompany these events. Follow us on our social networks so you don’t miss anything: The STEM Gap: Women and Girls in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (AAUW) https://www.aauw.org/resources/research/the-stem-gap/ Master student in Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience and Public Health International She holds a degree in Philology and a PhD in Translation from the University of the Basque Country. She is currently in a period of professional transition oriented towards communication. Cristina Boers Escuder Biochemist (UAM). Neuroscience MSc Student at VU Amsterdam I am Cristina, half Spanish, half Dutch. I have lived in Madrid almost all my life, and I studied Biochemistry at the Autonomous University of Madrid. There I became fascinated by neuroscience, so I decided to come to Amsterdam to do the Master in Neuroscience at the VU and to explore the other part of me. It has been an amazing experience as I have met super interesting people and learned a lot. I am also the director of the activities and events department of Women in STEM. Next year, I would like to stay here and do a PhD studying astrocyte-neuron communication, my passion within neuroscience.

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In January of 2014, Google acquired DeepMind Technologies for more than $400 million (according to MIT Technology Review) to become Google DeepMind. Google does a great job of picking up companies in the advertising, search, and other services as assigned space without much of a splash, but the purchase of DeepMind Technologies reverberated a bit more than most. Sometimes a Google acquisition is more than just the usurping of a company, but rather a validation of an idea – that there’s something to see, something worth getting behind more than just getting it out of the way to make room for your own project. Visit Google DeepMind’s website, and you’ll find vagueness fit for a post game interview. I take it one game at a time, the fans were great, you win some you lose some. The official mission of Google DeepMind? “We combine the best techniques from machine learning and systems neuroscience to build powerful general-purpose learning algorithms.” Learning algorithms eh? Google’s acquisition of startups is sometimes based on technology, like Nest for example. Additionally, Google acquires companies not always for the product, but for the brainpower of the team behind it. It’s not uncommon for tech super-powers like Facebook, Apple, or Google to purchase a company with no intention of selling the software or product they provide, but rather to bring the brains on board their own ship. And that’s precisely what’s happening with DeepMind. Machine learning is the process used to solve a problem with relatively low or zero input. For example, before acquisition, DeepMind published a paper which described how a program they produced could teach a program how to play seven Atari2600 video games using only the game being played on a screen combined with scores. The computer that learned this skill outperformed expert humans in three of the seven games. So what? What would we be able to do with this technology? The evolution of the technology is called deep learning, which as described above is the process of solving problems with low input. This includes voice recognition, computer vision and language processing. You’ve seen this technology in things like Facebook’s facial recognition software, and you might soon see it used by drones delivering consumer products. At its current state, the technology solves problems slowly and the process is time consuming. But as history has taught us, that will change…and fast. With the DeepMind acquisition came a lot of head turns. Why? A little thing called Artificial Intelligence (AI). The very technology that is considered by some in the computer science industry to be science fiction, was now being sought after at big-ticket prices. Spend a few seconds thinking about it, and it doesn’t take long to figure out that DeepMind is a gateway for Google into the artificial intelligence space. The value of brains containing gaps in algorithms is increasing rapidly as the race to mastering the technology grows. And Google is certainly a leader. According to a product manager, the Google Deep Learning team has less than 50 people, but makes up more than 5% of the world’s leading thinkers in this space. With the power of Android technology development, combined with the possibilities of artificial intelligence, things like face recognition used as passwords on your phone, voice recognition caller ID, and learning how to garden by taking a picture of a tomato plant could all be possible in the near future. Pretty deep stuff. The technology exists already, but being able to produce it at a price point and user experience ideal for the everyday consumer will be the game-changing moment.

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A Bachelor of Arts (BA) in Psychology offers a wide range of career opportunities and avenues for further education and specialization. The scope of BA Psychology is broad, and the skills acquired during the program, such as critical thinking, research, communication, and understanding human behavior, are valuable across various industries. Additionally, individuals can choose to specialize further by pursuing advanced degrees or certifications in specific areas of psychology to enhance their career prospects. Many students pursue advanced degrees in psychology, such as a Master’s or Doctorate, to become licensed psychologists or pursue specialized fields within psychology. Advanced degrees open up opportunities for clinical psychology, counseling psychology, industrial-organizational psychology, educational psychology, research, and academia. Areas of scope for BA Psychology graduates: Counseling and Therapy: With a BA Psychology, graduates can work as counselors or therapists in various settings, such as community mental health centers, schools, rehabilitation centers, or private practices. BA Psychology course graduates can provide counseling services to individuals, couples, families, or groups. Social Services: BA Psychology degree graduates can work in social service agencies, non-profit organizations, or government departments, providing support and assistance to individuals and communities. They can work in areas such as child and youth services, family counseling, substance abuse counseling, or community outreach programs. Education and School Settings: BA Psychology degree graduates can work in educational settings as school counselors, behavior specialists, or student advisors. They can assist students with academic, social, and emotional challenges and provide guidance on career choices. Mental Health and Rehabilitation Centers: Graduates can work in mental health facilities, psychiatric hospitals. Also, in a rehabilitation center, providing support to individuals with mental health disorders or substance abuse issues. BA Psychology course graduates may assist with assessments, treatment planning, and therapy implementation. Non-profit and Community Organizations: BA Psychology degree graduates can work in non-profit organizations. That focused on community development, social advocacy, or mental health initiatives. They can contribute to program planning, implementation, and community outreach. Other Job Options: Human Resources: Graduates can pursue careers in human resources departments. Because they can understand human behavior, motivation, and interpersonal dynamics can be valuable. They can work in recruitment, employee training and development, employee relations, and organizational consulting. Research and Data Analysis: A BA Psychology provides a foundation in research methods and data analysis. Graduates can work as research assistants, data analysts, or research coordinators in academic institutions. Also, they can work in market research firms, or other organizations conducting research. Market Research and Consumer Behavior: Graduates can work in analyzing consumer behavior, and conducting surveys. So that, they can interpret market trends to assist businesses in their marketing strategies and product development. Media and Advertising: With a BA Psychology course, individuals can work in media or advertising agencies, utilizing their understanding of human behavior and motivation to develop effective advertising campaigns or media content. For More Details:

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Are you a successful decision-maker? Do you most of the time make the right choice? If you ask most people these questions, and they’ll probably say they’re doing fine, but without being completely perfect. The lack of perfection is not a surprise to anyone who studies neuroscience since the process of making decisions is known to encounter numerous obstacles. The emotion of emotions can ‘hijack decisions at any time as well as cognitive bias, which could result in us making decisions in accordance with predetermined notions instead of the facts in front of us. It might be shocking to some readers to learn that in the business world, where it’s easy to believe that decisions are taken rationally and with logical reasoning, These biases can be applied precisely the same way as they apply to other decisions that we make. Is cognitive bias a thing? Take a look at the numerous recent instances of unjustified murders of blacks by police in the USA, and this could give an idea of the way that cognitive bias plays out when it comes to the worst instances. Cognitive bias can be defined as the systematic deviation from norms or logic in judgment wherein inferences made about other individuals or situations can result in an unlogical manner. Although we should be wary of making generalizations regarding the shootings that occurred, There isn’t apparent racism behind these incidents; however, it is quite possible that the presence of cognitive bias could have been a significant motive behind the police their actions in the manner they did. Our notion of what is real is founded on our mental biases that often contradict the reality of objective information, i.e., what is actually happening, the actual facts, etc. Our own view of the world is an opinion, and our behavior is determined by what we believe to be true. What impact does this have on our decision-making process? In the scenario that is given, a policeman of color might not have the same level of threat as a white officer in the same circumstance. A lesser degree of cognition bias within this specific instance could result in different choices and different behavior. This helps clarify why you might not make the right choices, whether at work or at home. Your cognitive bias can distort facts, leading to a wrong judgment, an unlogical interpretation as well as “irrationality.” Let’s be clear: we all suffer to a certain degree from cognitive bias. It’s normal. In the event of the many situations that we encounter, cognitive biases can assist us in making the quick decisions that are necessary to conduct the day-to-day business efficiently. But, being aware of the cognitive bias, especially when you are making difficult decisions, can aid in avoiding the errors and lapses of judgment that could result in severe consequences. The majority of readers here won’t encounter life and death situations the way policemen do; however, we all need to make decisions on a daily basis. Therefore by raising our awareness of the process we use to arrive at these decisions and knowing how to overcome some of the biggest problems that can arise from making good decisions, it is clear that we will gain. Since the 1980s, neuroscience has shed more light on the inner workings of the brain. Our understanding of how we make decisions is increasing. A list of the most common cognitive biases has also been created, which will be of interest to everyone working in a profession.

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In January, I presented at a Congressional briefing on neuroscience in education. My hope was to raise awareness about the need to find ways to add training in basic foundational skills to the educational system. Students come to the classroom with varying levels in their capacity to learn and with different profiles of cognitive strengths and weakness that can facilitate or impair learning and academic achievement. Therefore, addressing the underlying cognitive deficits of students with learning disabilities is a key way to help close the achievement gap. Although considerable research has documented that students with learning disabilities have underlying deficits in visual and verbal working memory, executive functions and processing speed that contribute to their poor academic performance (Meltzer,2007; Naglieri, 2008), much of the current interventions are geared toward circumventing these weaknesses rather than remediating them. This may be somewhat due to the fact that although much progress has been achieved in the field of cognitive neuroscience with regard to the relationships between cognitive processes and learning (Naglieri & Das, 2001), there is still much uncertainty about the efficacy of training cognitive skills in directly improving academics. I have set myself on a mission to fill this gap in special education. The good news is that research on the effectiveness of cognitive training continues to progress. As a trans-disciplinarian, I value the collaboration across disciplines and feel that by having cognitive neuroscience and special education blend efforts to create more targeted interventions for special-needs students, we stand to open new pathways to improve education practice. I shared with Congress the striking results of a recent study I conducted in New York City with 40 elementary-school students in grades 2 to 4 with specific learning disabilities who completed a neuroscience computer-based cognitive skills training program called BrainWare Safari. Before I continue, let me note that I am an independent researcher and have no professional relationship with BrainWare. I asked them for permission to use their software as part of my research and have presented my research findings on their website and in webinars. The purpose of the experimental study was to examine the effectiveness of BrainWare Safari on both the cognitive and academic performance of students. Results showed that after 12 weeks of training, the children in the experimental group improved their cognitive functioning by 2.8 years, compared with two months for the control group, with significant growth in each skill area examined including working memory, broad attention, executive function and processing speed. The experimental group increased their General Intelligence Ability (GIA) scores from 63% to 89%, essentially closing the gap to normal performance or to the performance generally expected from typically developing peers. BrainWare Safari did have significant impact on academic performance as well even though the intervention addressed cognitive skills rather than specific reading or math instruction. Reading improved by 0.8 grade equivalent for the experimental group, compared with 0.1 grade equivalent for the control group. Math performance improved 1 grade equivalent, compared with 0.2 equivalent for the control group. In other words, the experimental group became 31% more proficient in reading and 25% more proficient in math at post assessment than they were three months prior. Their counterparts in the non-treatment group became 1% more proficient in reading and 4% more in math (Abitbol Avtzon, 2013). Implications from these results include that training of cognitive processes for students with learning disabilities can result in significant academic performance. As an independent researcher, I aim to continue evaluating the effect of BrainWare Safari on other student populations with special needs and compare and contrast effectiveness levels among other existing cognitive-skill-training programs. Our children deserve brain-informed educational practice. Being helped to develop the capacity to benefit from good teaching and good curriculum is essential to closing the achievement gap. Sarah Avtzon is director of early childhood education for Daemen College’s master’s program in early childhood special education. Avtzon trains faculty, special-education mentors and practicum supervisors in effective instructional strategies for teacher candidates. She also consults in many self-contained and inclusion settings in New York City, presents workshops on various topics in special education. Abitbol Avtzon, S. (2013). The effect of neuroscience cognitive skill training on growth of cognitive deficits associated with learning disabilities in grades 2-4. Learning disabilities: A multidisciplinary journal, Vol 18 (3) Meltzer, L.J. (Ed.). (2007). Executive Function in Education: from theory to practice. Guildford Press, N.Y. Naglieri, J.A. (2008). Best practices in linking cognitive assessment of students with learning disabilities to interventions. In Thoma, A., Grimes, J., (Eds), Best practices in school psychology, p.679-696. National Association of School Psychologists: Bethesda, Md.

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The process of creating a published comic or graphic novel like those you buy at a bookstore typically begins with developing the story details and characters, then creating the visual presentation. This latter step is often a two part process: first creating a quick pencil sketch of word and pictures called a storyboard, and then using that storyboard to guide the creation of final, full color comic panels. However, for a comic that will educate or evaluate, you need to create your lesson plan first to avoid ending up with a fantastic story that does not support your instructional goals. The diagram below represents the four steps to create a branching comic for education: Let’s see how that high-level process is supported by Comic-BEE. Comic-BEE was designed with input from instructional designers – so it guides you through planning a lesson, even if you’ve never done it before. The lesson plan describes what you want to teach or evaluate. You can either create your own lesson plan from scratch or use the NICE Cybersecurity Workforce Framework that describes cybersecurity work and which is integrated into Comic-BEE. Comic-BEE steps you through questions about your topic and audience. The core of the lesson plan is a hierarchy of high-level instructional concepts that each have more specific knowledge, skills & abilities (KSAs). For each KSA you should define at least one Learning Objective, which is a fine-grained, specific learning goal, such as a concrete thing the learner should be able to know or do. When you’ve completed the lesson plan, you have the option of adding Real Life Scenarios, which can be brief summaries of personal experience involving decisions, or scenarios taken from the headlines. Creating Real Life Scenarios can get you thinking about stories and your lesson plan, and the scenarios can be building blocks for your branching script. The branching script in Comic-BEE is rendered as a graph – the individual scenes are nodes in the graph, and the scene’s choices are edges which connect the nodes. Create your script one scene at a time, perhaps using some of the Real Life Scenarios from your lesson plan to get started. In a future blog post, we’ll discuss detailed strategies for writing your script, but remember that you’re writing a comic, not a novel: focus on the who, what, where, when, how and why needed to drive the story. As you’re writing a scene, you want to create several different choices that will lead to different outcomes, some positive, some negative. A choice from one scene is the connection to a related scene, creating your story branches. To ensure alignment with your lesson plan–especially important for a scored comic–associate at least one learning objective to each choice, and rate both the expertise and quality of that choice. As you create your script, select a title for your comic and define your primary characters. This last step will allow you to take advantage of Comic-BEE’s automation capabilities when creating your final comic. Storyboarding is the process to visually lay out a story, using low-fidelity assets – like stick figures in different poses and basic shapes. A storyboard is a quick sketch that helps you figure out how to best tell the story and see what fits in the space: a comic is mostly pictures with a minimum of words. Add just the essentials of what is happening in the scene; don’t get bogged down adding details at this stage. Comic-BEE provides different templates for laying out the different panels that comprise a single scene – from a scene that is just one panel, or up to six panels in a scene. When you add characters and essential props in the storyboard, tag them with names. This tagging will let you automatically swap out the low-fidelity storyboard assets for the full-color assets in your final comic. A preview feature lets you see all the panels for a scene and determine if they are complete, and consider the scene with its question and choices. The links for the choice buttons are live in Preview pages, so you can jump to the next scene and sanity check your storyline: does it make sense or is there a gap in the action, indicating a missing scene (it happens!)? As you begin working on your final comic, use the automation in Comic-BEE to replace all the low-fidelity character and prop assets that you tagged in your storyboard with the full color graphic assets of your choice. Once the basic panels are ready, it is time for you to add details such as backgrounds, floors, the additional props that turn blank space room into an office or classroom, as well as computing devices and interfaces. Preview helps you check continuity between scenes and verify all is complete before you publish your comic. As you can see from the above, Comic-BEE’s integration of the diverse workflows with scaffolding at every step of the comic-creation process enables you to rapidly create branching web comics for education. Sign up for a free trial or request a demo of Comic-BEE today!

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Extreme mood changes associated with Alzheimer's disease may be partially driven by brain inflammation, new research suggests. Historically, the prevailing theory for what causes Alzheimer's disease was that a gradual buildup of abnormal proteins called amyloid-beta and tau in the brain triggers a cascade of events, leading to nerve damage, the death of brain cells, and symptoms of cognitive decline and mood problems. However, emerging evidence suggests that inflammation in the brain may also be involved in the development of the disease. Specific culprits include immune cells called microglia, which normally promote inflammation in response to injury or disease. Activated microglia have been found to interact with amyloid-beta and tau proteins and may influence the progression of Alzheimer's disease. And now, in a study published Nov. 27 in the journal JAMA Network Open, scientists have provided what they say is the first strong evidence that the neuropsychiatric symptoms of Alzheimer's are directly associated with microglia activation. Better understanding the role inflammation plays in the development of Alzheimer's could take us one step closer to developing more targeted treatments for the disease, the researchers say. "Neuropsychiatric symptoms such as irritability, agitation, anxiety and depression are among the most difficult symptoms to treat in patients with Alzheimer's," Dr. Cristiano Aguzzoli, the study's lead author and a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Pittsburgh, said in a statement. "Here, we show for the first time that brain inflammation may be to blame for these symptoms," he said. In the new study, the authors recruited 70 people who had no symptoms of cognitive decline and 39 who were cognitively impaired, either displaying early signs of memory loss known as mild cognitive impairment or dementia caused by Alzheimer's. The participants ranged from age 38 to 87. The authors assessed whether the participants displayed any of the mood problems that are characteristic of Alzheimer's. The researchers also scanned the participants' brains to look for signs of microglial activation, as well as the accumulation of amyloid-beta and tau proteins. People with cognitive impairment were more likely to have amyloid-beta and tau proteins in their brains. For example, amyloid-beta was found in 79% of those with cognitive impairment compared to 30% without. However, even after taking these factors into account, the participants with more severe neuropsychiatric symptoms had a greater level of microglial activation and more substantial signs of inflammation than the participants with milder symptoms. This inflammation specifically affected three regions of the outer layer of the brain. Of the mood symptoms, irritability was most strongly associated with microglial activation, followed by nighttime disturbances and agitation. The authors didn't directly compare whether participants' protein buildup was more or less strongly associated with mood problems than their inflammation levels. So they couldn't determine whether one factor is more influential than the other. However, the researchers think it's possible that both are playing a role. In addition to conducting these tests, the researchers asked the caregivers of the patients with cognitive decline to fill out a questionnaire about their experiences. They found that the caregivers were more likely to report distress when looking after participants with greater levels of brain inflammation, particularly when it was linked to symptoms of irritability. Caregivers were also more likely to report that patients experienced rapid mood swings when the patients had high inflammation levels. Going forward, the authors want to conduct more studies with larger groups of patients, including those who are at later stages of the disease and experience more extreme neuropsychiatric symptoms, such as hallucinations or delusions. This would assess whether the team's findings are more generalizable to the wider population of people with Alzheimer's. In the meantime, they hope this research will act as a springboard for developing new therapies for Alzheimer's and possibly other types of dementia. "Since both neuroinflammation and neuropsychological abnormalities are found in several other types of dementia, including Parkinson’s dementia, we are collaborating with scientists around the world to expand these findings to these other diseases," Dr. Tharick Pascoal, co-senior study author and an associate professor of psychiatry and neurology at the University of Pittsburgh, said in the statement. This article is for informational purposes only and is not meant to offer medical advice. Ever wonder why some people build muscle more easily than others or why freckles come out in the sun? Send us your questions about how the human body works to email@example.com with the subject line "Health Desk Q," and you may see your question answered on the website! Sign up for the Live Science daily newsletter now Get the world’s most fascinating discoveries delivered straight to your inbox. Emily is a health news writer based in London, United Kingdom. She holds a bachelor's degree in biology from Durham University and a master's degree in clinical and therapeutic neuroscience from Oxford University. She has worked in science communication, medical writing and as a local news reporter while undertaking journalism training. In 2018, she was named one of MHP Communications' 30 journalists to watch under 30. (firstname.lastname@example.org)

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Could hearing loss be an early sign of cardiovascular disease? Ongoing research indicates that monitoring your hearing health may help you monitor your heart health as well. Better Hearing Institute (BHI) urges adults of all ages to make a hearing check a healthy heart choice for World Heart Day 2015. In addition to taking the online BHI Hearing Check, check out this slideshow with additional information from BHI: 5 Heart-Healthy Reasons to Get a Hearing Test In advance of World Heart Day on September 29, the Better Hearing Institute (BHI) issued an announcement urging people to check their hearing. The announcement comes in response to a growing body of research showing a link between cardiovascular and hearing health. To help people determine if they need a comprehensive hearing test by a hearing healthcare professional, BHI is offering a free, quick, and confidential online hearing check on its website. BHI reports that Raymond Hull, PhD, professor of communication sciences and disorders in audiology and neurosciences at Wichita State University, recently completed research analyzing 84 years of work from scientists worldwide on the connection between cardiovascular health and the ability to hear and understand what others are saying. Hull’s work, which reviewed 70 scientific studies, confirmed a direct link. This work shows that the auditory system, especially the blood vessels of the inner ear, needs an oxygen-rich nutrient supply. If it doesn’t get it due to cardiovascular health problems, then hearing can be affected. While there are many possible causes of hearing loss, cardiovascular disease appears to exaggerate the impact of those causes and intensify the degree of hearing decline, says Hull. Source: Better Hearing Institute (BHI)

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Wind, invisible, as it passes through the wild limbs of a cypress tree somehow takes shape. It’s a sight that sneaks-up and often leads one to a stand-still. Van Gogh’s brush immortalized the encounter centuries ago, but the phenomenon was familiar well before his time and continues to arrest those willing to pause in a new millennium. What accounts for this experience we vaguely define as “beautiful,” this often transcendent appreciation for something so common yet so specific? These might not seem like questions for science, yet an emerging field called neuroaesthetics seeks to understand art and beauty from a scientific perspective, by defining the roots of beauty in the brain. Chatterjee is a neuroscientist, so readers might expect a mechanistic treatise on beauty constructed from PET scans and clinical trials. But he offers no simple marriage of roses and neurons. To begin filling in the blanks left by neuroscience, he draws from anthropology, evolutionary biology, philosophy and personal anecdotes. In the chapter “Beautiful landscapes,” for instance, Chatterjee discusses the savanna hypothesis, a theory explaining the attraction of young children to savanna-like vistas over other landscapes in side-by-side picture tests. As we grow older, experiences with different environments may alter that preference, but the finding suggests a hardwired attraction to particular landscapes: the lands of our ancestors. “The savanna hypothesis is romantic,” Chatterjee writes. “It invites us to imagine that we humans are yearning for home, expressing a collective unconscious desire to return to our ancestral roots.” Likewise, symmetries, averages and certain repeating patterns are rated as beautiful across cultures, implying that evolution has shaped human preferences for certain stimuli. Chatterjee argues that pleasure-seeking lies at the root of the aesthetic experience. But in trying to explain the pleasure of beauty, the question naturally arises: To what end? What value is there in understanding art’s ties to the brain, when art’s livelihood seems to depend on more than a dash of mystery? As Chatterjee points out, insight is the goal of science and art. His work succeeds by combining both toward a greater appreciation of the human experience. Oxford Univ. Press, $34.95 Buy this book from Amazon.com. Sales generated through the links to Amazon.com contribute to Society for Science & the Public’s programs.

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We are primarily engaged in research and research-related activities. We are happy to send summaries of our research findings, to give talks to interest groups and to send copies of our academic papers if you are unable to find them online. However, we are not able to discuss individual children or offer educational or clinical advice about an individual child. We hope you find these links to external organisations and resources helpful. A series of videos created to Raise Awareness of Language Learning Impairment and how to get help. These are a good introduction to the sorts of problems children can face with language and literacy. Professor Maggie Snowling's research group Information about the York Reading for Meaning intervention for improving children's reading comprehension Professor Dorothy Bishop's 'red flag' guide to help evaluate an intervention Professor Victoria Murphy's research group at the University of Oxford National subject association for EAL and supporting diverse language backgrounds in schools Professionals supporting language and communication development Professor Pam Snow's blog on child and adolescent language and literacy Tips and resources to encourage reading from Oxford University Press Online assessments and resources from Macquarie University Blog by Alex Quigley, author of Closing the Vocabulary Gap and Closing the Reading Gap Help for children with speech, language and communication needs. Resources and ideas for teaching children and young people about all things psychology and neuroscience Blog by Professor Tim Shanahan - series of posts addressing important questions in reading research and its application in the classroom Disclaimer: The inclusion of these links does not necessarily imply endorsement of the views expressed within them.

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It’s a stunning discovery that overturns decades of textbook teaching: researchers at the School of Medicine have determined that the brain is directly connected to the immune system by vessels previously thought not to exist. “I really did not believe there were structures in the body that we were not aware of. I thought the body was mapped,” said Jonathan Kipnis, a professor in the Department of Neuroscience and director of the University’s Center for Brain Immunology and Glia. How these vessels could have escaped detection when the lymphatic system has been so thoroughly mapped throughout the body is surprising on its own. The discovery was made possible by the work of Antoine Louveau, a postdoctoral fellow in Kipnis’ lab. The vessels were detected after Louveau developed a method to mount a mouse’s meninges — the membranes covering the brain — on a single slide so that they could be examined as a whole. After noticing vessel-like patterns in the distribution of immune cells on his slides, he tested for lymphatic vessels and there they were. The impossible existed. “Live imaging of these vessels was crucial to demonstrate their function, and it would not be possible without collaboration with Tajie Harris,” Kipnis noted. Harris is an assistant professor of neuroscience and a member of the Center for Brain Immunology and Glia. Kipnis also saluted the “phenomenal” surgical skills of Igor Smirnov, a research associate in the Kipnis lab whose work was critical to the imaging success of the study. The unexpected presence of the lymphatic vessels raises a tremendous number of questions that now need answers, both about the workings of the brain and the diseases that plague it. For example, take Alzheimer’s disease. “In Alzheimer’s, there are accumulations of big protein chunks in the brain,” Kipnis said. “We think they may be accumulating in the brain because they’re not being efficiently removed by these vessels.” He noted that the vessels look different with age, so the role they play in aging is another avenue to explore. And there’s an enormous array of other neurological diseases, from autism to multiple sclerosis, that must be reconsidered in light of the presence of something science insisted did not exist.

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What is Pranayama? It is the science and practice of breath work within the context of Hatha Yoga. But what does that mean? Let’s break the word down, from its Sanscrit derivation, “:Prana” refers to life force, which is that presence that animates living matter, this can also be perceived as vitality. “Yama” means control, and “Ayama” means extension or expansion. So, therefore, we can understand more clearly that pranayama consists of the active application of methods to extend and expand the vital force energy through the deliberate harnessing of the process of respiration. Humans are unique in that when we breathe we have a choice, we can be inattentive, unconscious of our breathing and allow the intrinsic hardwired mechanisms of the brainstem, and its component parts, the medulla, pons, and midbrain, to maintain this life sustaining function. To assist with your integration of this knowledge, the brainstem resides at the back of the head, at the juncture between the spinal cord joining the CNS brain. However, in addition to this involuntary respiration, we can choose to consciously participate with our breathing influencing the pace, duration, and volume. It is this latter conscious process that the science of pranayama focuses on! With modern neuroscience, we now are much more aware of how our breath can influence our autonomic nervous system, and our central nervous system. Studies have demonstrated that by focusing on influencing our inhalation phase or the exhalation phase, we can impact the homeostatic balance; modulating the (ANS) sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. Therefore, we can modulate our breathing and through this process influence the (ANS) autonomic nervous system. The health implications are tremendous from the full range from hyper sympathetic states: associated with anxiety, panic, to sluggish states, lethargy, hyper-parasympathetic states.

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- animal rights the rights of animals, claimed on ethical grounds, to the same humane treatment and protection from exploitation and abuse that are accorded to humans.[1975-80] * * *rights, primarily against being killed and being treated cruelly, that are thought to be possessed by higher nonhuman animals (e.g., chimpanzees) and many lower ones by virtue of their sentience.Respect for the welfare of animals is a precept of some ancient Eastern religions, including Jainism, which enjoins ahimsa ("noninjury") toward all living things, and Buddhism, which forbids the needless killing of animals, especially (in India) of cows. In the West, traditional Judaism and Christianity taught that animals were created by God for human use, including as food, and many Christian thinkers argued that humans had no moral duties of any kind to animals, even the duty not to treat them cruelly, because they lacked rationality or because they were not, like Man, made in the image of God. This view prevailed until the late 18th century, when ethical philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham applied the principles of utilitarianism to infer a moral duty not to inflict needless suffering on animals. In the latter half of the 20th century, the ethical philosopher Peter Singer and others attempted to show that a duty not to harm animals follows straightforwardly from simple and widely accepted moral principles, such as "It is wrong to cause unnecessary suffering." They also argued that there is no "morally relevant difference" between humans and animals that would justify raising animals, but not humans, for food on "factory farms" or using them in scientific experiments or for product testing (e.g., of cosmetics). An opposing view held that humans have no moral duties to animals because animals are incapable of entering into a hypothetical "moral contract" to respect the interests of other rational beings. The modern animal-rights movement was inspired in part by Singer's work. At the end of the 20th century, it had spawned a large number of groups dedicated to a variety of related causes, including protecting endangered species, protesting against painful or brutal methods of trapping and killing animals (e.g., for furs), preventing the use of animals in laboratory research, and promoting what adherents considered the health benefits and moral virtues of vegetarianism. * * *Introductionmoral or legal entitlements attributed to nonhuman animals, usually because of the complexity of their cognitive, emotional, and social lives or their capacity to experience physical or emotional pain or pleasure. Historically, different views of the scope of animal rights have reflected philosophical and legal developments, scientific conceptions of animal and human nature, and religious and ethical conceptions of the proper relationship between animals and human beings.Philosophical backgroundThe proper treatment of animals is a very old question in the West. Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers debated the place of animals in human morality. The Pythagoreans (Pythagoreanism) (6th–4th century BC) and the Neoplatonists (Neoplatonism) (3rd–6th century AD) urged respect for animals' interests, primarily because they believed in the transmigration of souls between human and animal bodies. In his biological writings, Aristotle (384–322 BC) repeatedly suggested that animals lived for their own sake, but his claim in the Politics that nature made all animals for the sake of humans was unfortunately destined to become his most influential statement on the subject.Aristotle, and later the Stoics, believed the world was populated by an infinity of beings arranged hierarchically according to their complexity and perfection, from the barely living to the merely sentient, the rational, and the wholly spiritual. In this Great Chain of Being, as it came to be known, all forms of life were represented as existing for the sake of those forms higher in the chain. Among corporeal beings, humans, by dint of their rationality, occupied the highest position. The Great Chain of Being became one of the most persistent and powerful, if utterly erroneous, ways of conceiving the universe, dominating scientific, philosophical, and religious thinking until the middle of the 19th century.The Stoics (Stoicism), insisting on the irrationality of all nonhuman animals, regarded them as slaves and accordingly treated them as contemptible and beneath notice. Aggressively advocated by St. Augustine (354–430), these Stoic ideas became embedded in Christian theology. They were absorbed wholesale into Roman law—as reflected in the treatises and codifications of Gaius (fl. 130–180) and Justinian (483–565)—taken up by the legal glossators of Europe in the 11th century, and eventually pressed into English (and, much later, American) common law. Meanwhile, arguments that urged respect for the interests of animals nearly disappeared, and animal welfare remained a relative backwater of philosophical inquiry and legal regulation until the final decades of the 20th century.Animals and the lawIn the 3rd or 4th century AD, the Roman jurist Hermogenianus wrote, “Hominum causa omne jus constitum” (“All law was established for men's sake”). Repeating the phrase, P.A. Fitzgerald's 1966 treatise Salmond on Jurisprudence declared, “The law is made for men and allows no fellowship or bonds of obligation between them and the lower animals.” The most important consequence of this view is that animals have long been categorized as “legal things,” not as “legal persons.” Whereas legal persons have rights of their own, legal things do not. They exist in the law solely as the objects of the rights of legal persons—e.g., as things over which legal persons may exercise property rights. This status, however, often affords animals the indirect protection of laws intended to preserve social morality or the rights of animal owners, such as criminal anticruelty statutes or civil statutes that permit owners to obtain compensation for damages inflicted on their animals. Indeed, this sort of law presently defines the field of “animal law,” which is much broader than animal rights because it encompasses all law that addresses the interests of nonhuman animals—or, more commonly, the interests of the people who own them.A legal thing can become a legal person; this happened whenever human slaves were freed. The former legal thing then possesses his own legal rights and remedies. Parallels have frequently been drawn between the legal status of animals and that of human slaves (slavery). “The truly striking fact about slavery,” the American historian David Brion Davis has written, is theantiquity and almost universal acceptance of the concept of the slave as a human being who is legally owned, used, sold, or otherwise disposed of as if he or she were a domestic animal. This parallel persisted in the similarity of naming slaves, branding them, and even pricing them according to their equivalent in cows, camels, pigs, and chickens.The American jurist Roscoe Pound (Pound, Roscoe) wrote that in ancient Rome a slave “was a thing, and as such, like animals could be the object of rights of property,” and the British historian of Roman law Barry Nicholas has pointed out that in Rome “the slave was a thing…he himself had no rights: he was merely an object of rights, like an animal.”In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, humanitarian reformers in Britain (United Kingdom) and the United States campaigned on behalf of the weak and defenseless, protesting against child labour, debtor's prisons, abusive punishment in public schools, and, inevitably, the cruel treatment of animals. In 1800 the most renowned abolitionist of the period, William Wilberforce (Wilberforce, William), supported a bill to abolish bull- and bearbaiting, which was defeated in the House of Commons. In 1809 Baron Erskine (Erskine, Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron), former lord chancellor of England, who had long been troubled by cruelty to animals, introduced a bill to prohibit cruelty to all domestic animals. Erskine declared that the bill was intended to “consecrate, perhaps, in all nations, and in all ages, that just and eternal principle which binds the whole living world in one harmonious chain, under the dominion of enlightened man, the lord and governor of all.” Although the bill passed the House of Lords, it failed in the House of Commons. Then, in 1821, a bill “to prevent cruel and improper treatment of Cattle” was introduced in the House of Commons, sponsored by Wilberforce and Thomas Fowell Buxton and championed by Irish member of Parliament Richard Martin. The version enacted in 1822, known as Martin's Act, made it a crime to treat a handful of domesticated animals—cattle, oxen, horses, and sheep—cruelly or to inflict unnecessary suffering upon them. However, it did not protect the general welfare of even these animals, much less give them legal rights, and the worst punishment available for any breach was a modest fine. Similar statutes were enacted in all the states of the United States, where there now exists a patchwork of anticruelty and animal-welfare laws. Most states today make at least some abuses of animals a felony. Laws such as the federal Animal Welfare Act (1966), for example, regulate what humans may do to animals in agriculture, biomedical research, entertainment, and other areas. But neither Martin's Act nor any subsequent animal-protection statute has altered the traditional legal status of animals as legal things.The modern animal rights movementThe fundamental principle of the modern animal rights movement is that many nonhuman animals have basic interests that deserve recognition, consideration, and protection. In the view of animal rights advocates, these basic interests give the animals that have them both moral and legal rights.It has been said that the modern animal rights movement is the first social reform movement initiated by philosophers. The Australian philosopher Peter Singer (Singer, Peter) and the American philosopher Tom Regan deserve special mention, not just because their work has been influential but because they represent two major currents of philosophical thought regarding the moral rights of animals. Singer, whose book Animal Liberation (1972) is considered one of the movement's foundational documents, argues that the interests of humans and the interests of animals should be given equal consideration. A utilitarian, Singer holds that actions are morally right to the extent that they maximize pleasure or minimize pain; the key consideration is whether an animal is sentient and can therefore suffer pain or experience pleasure. This point was emphasized by the founder of modern utilitarianism, Jeremy Bentham (Bentham, Jeremy), who wrote of animals, “The question is not, Can they reason?, nor, Can they talk? but, Can they suffer?” Given that animals can suffer, Singer argues that humans have a moral obligation to minimize or avoid causing such suffering, just as they have an obligation to minimize or avoid causing the suffering of other humans. Regan, who is not a utilitarian, argues that at least some animals have basic moral rights because they possess the same advanced cognitive abilities that justify the attribution of basic moral rights to humans. By virtue of these abilities, these animals have not just instrumental but inherent value. In Regan's words, they are “the subject of a life.”Regan, Singer, and other philosophical proponents of animal rights have encountered resistance. Some religious authors argue that animals are not as deserving of moral consideration as humans are because only humans possess an immortal soul. Others claim, as did the Stoics, that because animals are irrational, humans have no duties toward them. Still others locate the morally relevant difference between humans and animals in the ability to talk, the possession of free will, or membership in a moral community (a community whose members are capable of acting morally or immorally). The problem with these counterarguments is that, with the exception of the theological argument—which cannot be demonstrated—none differentiates all humans from all animals.While philosophers catalyzed the modern animal rights movement, they were soon joined by physicians, writers, scientists, academics, lawyers, theologians, psychologists, nurses, veterinarians, and other professionals, who worked within their own fields to promote animal rights. Many professional organizations were established to educate colleagues and the general public regarding the exploitation of animals.At the beginning of the 21st century, lawsuits in the interests of nonhuman animals, sometimes with nonhuman animals named as plaintiffs, became common. Given the key positions that lawyers hold in the creation of public policy and the protection of rights, their increasing interest in animal rights and animal-protection issues was significant. Dozens of law schools (legal education) in Europe, the United States, and elsewhere offered courses in animal law and animal rights; the Animal Legal Defense Fund had created an even greater number of law-student chapters in the United States; and at least three legal journals—Animal Law, Journal of Animal Law, and Journal of Animal Law and Ethics—had been established. Legal scholars were devising and evaluating theories by which nonhuman animals would possess basic legal rights, often for the same reasons as humans do and on the basis of the same legal principles and values. These arguments were powerfully assisted by increasingly sophisticated scientific investigations into the cognitive, emotional, and social capacities of animals and by advances in genetics, neuroscience, physiology, linguistics, psychology, evolution, and ethology, many of which have demonstrated that humans and animals share a broad range of behaviours, capacities, and genetic material.Meanwhile, the increasingly systemic and brutal abuses of animals in modern society—by the billions on factory farms and by the tens of millions in biomedical-research laboratories—spawned thousands of animal rights groups. Some consisted of a mere handful of people interested in local, and more traditional, animal-protection issues, such as animal shelters that care for stray dogs and cats. Others became large national and international organizations, such as PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals) and the Humane Society of the United States, which in the early 21st century had millions of members and a multimillion-dollar annual budget. In all their manifestations, animal rights groups began to inundate legislatures with demands for regulation and reform.Slaves, human and nonhuman, may be indirectly protected through laws intended to protect others. But they remain invisible to civil law, for they have no rights to protect directly until their legal personhood is recognized. This recognition can occur in a variety of ways. British slavery was abolished by judicial decision in the 18th century, and slavery in the British colonies was ended by statute early in the 19th century. By constitutional amendment, the United States ended slavery three decades later. Legal personhood for some animals may be obtained through any of these routes. The first serious direct judicial challenges to the legal thinghood of nonhuman animals may be just a few years away.Steven M. WiseAdditional ReadingThe history of attitudes toward nonhuman animals is traced in Richard Sorabji, Animal Minds and Human Morals (1995). Philosophical arguments both for and against animal rights are explored in Andrew Linzey and P.B. Clarke (eds.), Animal Rights: A Historic Anthology, rev. ed. (2004); R.G. Frey, Interests and Rights: The Case Against Animals (1980); James Rachels, Created from Animals (1999); Tom Regan, The Case for Animal Rights, updated ed. (2004); Tom Regan and Peter Singer (eds.), Animal Rights and Human Obligations, 2nd ed. (1989); and Peter Singer, Animal Liberation, 2nd ed. (1990). Pamela Frasch et al., Animal Law (2000); and Steven M. Wise, Rattling the Cage: Toward Legal Rights for Animals (2000), provide a grounding in the status and history of animal rights within the law.Steven M. Wise * * *

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Homelessness is a pervasive issue that plagues communities across the country, both urban and rural. Social workers can support those experiencing homelessness in a number of ways. They can provide counseling, housing, rent assistance, health care services and employment search assistance to a variety of clients, including those facing eviction or job loss. Advocacy is important in social work pertaining to homelessness as those experiencing it may also be a part of minority or high-risk populations. Social workers are key to helping build frameworks to protect and sustain the long-term needs and interests of people experiencing homelessness. Why Social Work Is Important to Ending Homelessness Homelessness can have a ripple effect on society in terms of social barriers and public health threats. Those experiencing homelesness tend to lack health insurance or adequate funds to afford and access primary care services, according to a 2015 article on barriers to primary care. They also typically prioritize needs such as shelter and food over seeking essential medical services. Contributing factors to homelessness may include poverty, chronic health problems, mental illness, substance abuse and addiction, domestic violence, lack of affordable housing, evictions, deinstitutionalization, decarceration, hospital and armed services discharges, youths who are unaccompanied, trafficking, and trauma. Furthermore, NAEH reported that people experiencing homelessness who have mental health and substance use disorders are more likely to have life-threatening physical illnesses and live in dangerous conditions. It’s important for social workers to play a role in helping individuals facing homelessness by minimizing the effects of homelessness on society. Social workers can advocate for policy change related to housing insecurity, social justice and homelessness, while working on the micro level of case management for vulnerable homeless populations. Social workers can help their clients obtain housing, even if temporary. Becoming a licensed clinical social worker can allow you to counsel clients experiencing homelessnenss for trauma and care for their overall mental health. Advocating For People Experiencing Homelessness: What Social Workers Do On the journey to becoming a social worker, you may ask yourself how to combat homelessness. There are many ways for social workers to advocate for those facing homelessnness, ranging from providing therapy services to promoting social justice. Here are some common steps social workers can take to combat homelessness: Provide affordable housing. Social workers can link clients without homes to temporary housing and transitional shelters to help them have some shelter and rehabilitation. Prevent eviction and assist with rent. Social workers can assist clients with government programs focused on rent assistance and eviction prevention by screening applicants to determine eligibility, interviewing and assessment, and counseling. Provide healthcare and mental health services. Social workers can help their clients find access to health services and help them get Medicaid. Develop employment programs. Social workers can help clients experiencing homelessness to find transitional jobs, individualized placement support and adult education. It’s important to note that in some cases, it takes more than counseling and psychotherapy alone for social workers to fully support their clients. Social workers have a responsibility to address homelessness by navigating systemic barriers of social, political and economic structures that can help stabilize homeless clients. Resources for Social Workers Working to End Homelessness From joining or volunteering for homeless organizations to reading about social justice, social workers and allies can become well-equipped to support people facing homelessness in their community. Explore the resources below. Scholarly Articles and Case Studies Addressing Homelessness Veterans of America – Homeless People. An organization that helps provide emergency shelter, drop-in centers, permanent supportive housing and transitional housing for homeless veterans, among other support services. National Center on Family Homelessnes. A project from the American Institutes for Research designed to respond to homelessness, trauma, poverty and the need for social services. The project is aimed at helping children, youth and families experiencing homelessness navigate complex life situations.

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With so much uncertainty in our lives caused by the pandemic, anxiety predominated in 2020, among many other mental health challenges. After having named anxiety as part of our experience last year, this year we can continue to learn and practice the tools that are going to help us cope with uncertainty. Many people often ask me for tools to get rid of anxiety. Worry or fear of the unknown is a natural response to uncertainty. Some worry can help us meet goals. But too much concern about the future can lead to anxiety. Anxiety can impact how we feel, our actions, thoughts and stay in our body. When we are unable to manage anxiety, it can activate our fight (we do things in overdrive) flight (avoidance) or freeze (immobilize) response. I often tell people that rather than getting rid of anxiety, which is part of our alert system, I can help them learn how to manage their anxiety so anxiety doesn’t overpower them and they can relate to it differently. We can learn to recognize how anxiety shows up and where (as body sensations, thoughts, emotions). When we are able to identify where anxiety shows up or what causes it, we are able to do something about it. The key is knowing our anxiety experience, befriending it and learning the tools to cope with it. Rewire your Anxious Brain is an empowering book that teaches us about the neuroscience of anxiety and how to differentiate between cortex based anxiety (anxiety that shows up as thoughts) and amygdala based anxiety (anxiety that shows up as a body response). Both require different types of interventions that all us can learn. There are many tools at our disposal, some that we may already use and we can turbocharge when anxiety shows up, such as reframing our thoughts, and others like deep breathing. Read along with us so this year we can tackle anxiety as it shows up and prevent it from growing and taking over our lives.

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How neurons are created and integrate with each other is one of biology’s greatest riddles. Researcher Dietmar Schmucker from VIB-KU Leuven unravels a part of the mystery in Science magazine. He describes a mechanism that explains novel aspects of how the wiring of highly branched neurons in the brain works. These new insights into how complex neural networks are formed are very important for understanding and treating neurological diseases. Neurons, or nerve cells It is estimated that a person has 100 billion neurons, or nerve cells. These neurons have thin, elongated, highly branched offshoots called dendrites and axons. They are the body’s information and signal processors. The dendrites receive electrical impulses from the other neurons and conduct these to the cell body. The cell body then decides whether stimuli will or will not be transferred to other cells via the axon. The brain’s wiring is very complex. Although the molecular mechanisms that explain the linear connection between neurons have already been described numerous times, little is as yet known about how the branched wiring works in the brain. The connections between nerve cells Prior research by Dietmar Schmucker and his team lead to the identification of the Dscam1 protein in the fruit fly. The neuron can create many different protein variations, or isoforms, from this same protein. The specific set of isoforms that occurs on a neuron’s cell surface determines the neuron’s unique molecular identity and plays an important role in the establishment of accurate connections. In other words, it describes why certain neurons either come into contact with each other or reject each other. Recent work by Haihuai H and Yoshiaki Kise from Dietmar’s team indicates that different sets of Dscam1 isoforms occur inside one axon, between the newly formed offshoots amongst each other. If this was not the case, then only linear connections could come about between neurons. These results indicate for the first time the significance of why different sets of the same protein variations can occur in one neuron and it could explain mechanistically how this contributes to the complex wiring in our brain. Although this research was done with fruit flies, it also provides new insights that help explain the wiring and complex interactions of the human brain and shine a new light on neurological development disorders such as autism. Thorough knowledge of nerve cell creation and their neural interactions is considered essential knowledge for the future possibility of using stem cell therapy as standard treatment for certain nervous system disorders. Notes about this neuroscience research This research was conducted by the research team headed by Dietmar Schmucker, who leads a research group at the VIB Vesalius Onderzoekscentrum, KU Leuven (Flemish Institute of Biology Vesalius Research Centre, Catholic University of Leuven). This research was co-financed by: VIB start-up funding FWO; BELSPO IUAP VII-20,; JSPS Postdoctoral Fellowship, HFSP Long-Term Fellowship, FWO PhD. Fellowship, Swiss National Science Foundation Postdoctoral Fellowship, Boehringer Ingelheim Fonds PhD Fellowship Contact: Dietmar Schmucker – VIB (the Flanders Institute for Biotechnology) Source:VIB (the Flanders Institute for Biotechnology) press release Image Source: The image is credited to VIB (the Flanders Institute for Biotechnology) and is adapted from the press release Original Research:Abstract for “Cell-intrinsic requirement of Dscam1 isoform diversity for axon collateral formation” by Haihuai He, Yoshiaki Kise, Azadeh Izadifar, Olivier Urwyler, Derya Ayaz, Akhila Parthasarthy, Bing Yan, Maria-Luise Erfurth, Dan Dascenco, and Dietmar Schmucker in Science. Published online May 15 2014 doi:10.1126/science.1251852

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June 14, 2020 | Updated June 18, 2020 The superintendents of Northwest Indiana public schools are committed to promoting a society free of all forms of discrimination and injustice based on race, background or religion. Each of our school districts value our belief and mission statements that emphasize a commitment to providing school environments that give equitable opportunities for all students. We remain dedicated to educating our students so that when they graduate, they are ready to participate in meaningful ways in our democratic society. Collectively, we are outraged and heartbroken by the horrific murder of George Floyd as well as cases of violence and inequitable treatment of people of color. We will not accept systems, structures and behaviors that force black and brown people to fear for their lives. As leaders, we know that education and educators play a vital role in addressing racism and creating the needed change. We have committed to working on cultural competencies and have been addressing the needs for ongoing social emotional learning opportunities for our staff members and students. Last summer, the superintendents of Northwest Indiana public schools sponsored workshops conducted by Dr. Lori DeSautels, a highly respected professor from Butler University and an expert in educational neuroscience. Dr. Lori began the work of showing teachers and principals how to help students feel a sense of purpose and connection as they walk into their classrooms each day. We will continue to expand the ways in which we support educators by providing them with more content focused on advancing equity and dismantling bias. Nelson Mandela once stated, “No one is born hating another person because of the color of his skin, or his background, or his religion. People must learn to hate, and if they learn to hate, they can be taught to love, for love comes more naturally to the human heart than its opposite.” We recognize the need to do more. Increasing graduation rates, acceptance to colleges, trade schools, the military, and the world of work will continue to be our highest academic goal. However, we want our communities to know that we are committed to taking on the role as front-line workers in the fight for equity by educating our students that respect, kindness, and love are the ways to a better society for all. Our children deserve this, and our world needs all of us to participate! Peggy Buffington, School City of Hobart; Larry Veracco, Lake Central School Corporation; Steve Disney, River Forest Community School Corporation; Tom Cripliver, Lake Station Community Schools; Mary Tracy-MacAulay, Hanover Community School Corporation; Amanda Alanis, Portage Township Schools; Scott Miller, School City of Hammond; Stacey Schmidt, Porter Township School Corporation; Cindy Scroggins, School City of Whiting; Aaron Case, East Porter Community; Tony Lux, Crown Point Community School Corporation; Nick Brown, Merrillville Community School Corporation; Rod Gardin, Tri Creek School Corporation; Sharon Johnson Shirley, Lake Ridge New Tech Schools; Nate Kleefisch, MSD of Boone Township; Chip Pettit, Duneland School Corporation; Jeff Hendrix, School Town of Munster; and Mark Francesconi, LaPorte Community School Corporation, are all Northwest Indiana school superintendents. The opinions are the writers’. Source: NWI Times, View article at nwitimes.com here.

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MINNEAPOLIS - A modified ketogenic diet may be worth exploring for people with brain tumors, according to a new study published in the July 7, 2021, online issue of Neurology®, the medical journal of the American Academy of Neurology. The diet is high in fat and low in carbohydrates. The small study found that the diet was safe and feasible for people with brain tumors called astrocytomas. All of the people had completed radiation treatment and chemotherapy. The diet led to changes in the metabolism in the body and the brain. The study was not designed to determine whether the diet could slow down tumor growth or improve survival. "There are not a lot of effective treatments for these types of brain tumors, and survival rates are low, so any new advances are very welcome," said study author Roy E. Strowd, MD, MS, MEd, of Wake Forest School of Medicine in Winston-Salem, N.C., and a Fellow of the American Academy of Neurology. "These cancer cells rely on glucose, or sugar, to divide and grow. Since the ketogenic diet is low in sugar, the body changes what it uses for energy--instead of carbohydrates, it uses what are called ketones. Normal brain cells can survive on ketones, but the theory is that cancer cells cannot use ketones for energy." The study involved 25 people with astrocytomas. They followed a type of ketogenic diet, the modified Atkins diet with intermittent fasting, for eight weeks. The diet includes foods such as bacon, eggs, heavy cream, butter, leafy green vegetables and fish. Participants met with a dietician at the start of the study and then every two weeks. Five days a week they followed the modified Atkins diet, which combined carbohydrate restriction with high amounts of fats. Two days a week they fasted, eating up to 20% of their recommended daily calorie amount. The main goal of the study was to see if people were able to follow the diet with no serious side effects. A total of 21 people completed the study, and 48% followed the diet completely, according to their food records. But urine tests showed that 80% of the people reached the level where their body was primarily using fats and protein for fuel, rather than carbohydrates. The diet was well-tolerated. Two people had serious side effects during the study--one was not related to the diet and one was possibly related. By the end of the study, changes in the metabolism in the body and the brain were seen. Hemoglobin A1c levels, insulin levels, and fat body mass all decreased. Lean body mass increased. Specialized brain scans that detect changes in brain metabolites showed an increase in concentrations of ketones and metabolic changes in the tumor. "Of course more studies are needed to determine whether this diet can prevent the growth of brain tumors and help people live longer, but these results show that the diet can be safe for people with brain tumors and successfully produce changes in the metabolism of the body and the brain," Strowd said. A limitation of the study is that study team members provided a high amount of contact with participants, which may not be feasible in a larger study or in routine clinical care. The study was supported by the philanthropy of Dr. John and Elaine Freeman, Dr. Jon Weingart, the Martz, Redwood and Dalos families, the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health and National Cancer Institutes. Learn more about brain cancer at BrainandLife.org, home of the American Academy of Neurology's free patient and caregiver magazine focused on the intersection of neurologic disease and brain health. Follow Brain & Life® on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram. When posting to social media channels about this research, we encourage you to use the hashtags #Neurology and #AANscience. The American Academy of Neurology is the world's largest association of neurologists and neuroscience professionals, with over 36,000 members. The AAN is dedicated to promoting the highest quality patient-centered neurologic care. A neurologist is a doctor with specialized training in diagnosing, treating and managing disorders of the brain and nervous system such as Alzheimer's disease, stroke, migraine, multiple sclerosis, concussion, Parkinson's disease and epilepsy. For more information about the American Academy of Neurology, visit AAN.com or find us on Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn and YouTube.

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Planning backwards from student desired outcomes eventually leads to identifying teachers’ needs for understanding or learning. I suggest that as teachers study student work and assessments in a PLC, the question, “What do students need us to learn?” emerges. I believe that as teachers we are doing everything we can to have students reach mastery plus. If we knew what to do to gain stronger student learning, we would have done it. Hence, we need to learn something: content, instruction, motivation, personalization, etc. Having identified a desired “different” student achievement outcome from the one we are getting, we next ask, “What student learning production behaviors are needed?” Student actions/behaviors generate learning outcomes. When we know what students need to do to cause the desired learning, we can explore the teacher behaviors/actions that will generate, motivate, and coach those student behaviors. Teacher learning can be generated by questions asked throughout this process: - What goals should we establish for student outcomes? (Are there things about the content depth, breadth, skill sequence that I need to understand better?) - What are the student learning production behaviors that will generate the learning? (Are there proven practices that generate deeper, faster, more internalized learning? Are there optional learning behaviors that can provide for choice and preferences?) - What teacher actions/behaviors are most likely to generate the critical student learning production behaviors? (What do I know about my students that can assist in selecting teacher behaviors? What are the instructional design options? As I take actions what learning will cause me to make adjustments along the way?) Authors Linda Darling-Hammond, Maria E. Hyler and Madelyn Gardner (2017) in Effective Teacher Professional Development reported, “For students to develop mastery of challenging content, problem-solving, effective communication and collaboration, and self-direction, teachers must employ more sophisticated forms of teaching. Effective professional development (PD) is key to teachers learning and refining the pedagogies required to teach these skills… More sophisticated forms of teaching” means gaining teacher behaviors that generate the student learning production behaviors that reward the student with enhanced learning and skills.” We plan from the bottom up and implement from the top down. Here’s an example: Student Learning Outcomes A rubric on student collaboration skills identifies that successful students can: “Consistently and accurately prioritize and monitor individual and team progress toward goals, making sufficient corrections and adjustments when needed and employ a wide range of project management strategies that enhance the group’s effectiveness (e.g., creates timelines, identifies or sets goals, prioritizes and allocates tasks, organizes resource-gathering, monitors progress, and keeps group on task).” What do students need to do and experience to gain these skills? Student Learning Production Behaviors A starter list might include students… - Experimenting with surveys and protocols for assessing group member skills and interest to decide tasks assignments. - Practicing using time management planning strategies. - Reflecting and self- reporting on project progress. - Role-playing verbal skills for giving feedback — practicing with sentence starters. - Tracking improvements made from team members’ input. A teacher seeking these student learning production behaviors would need to engage the students in collaborative tasks of sufficient interest and might provide the following: Teacher Actions and Behaviors - Models of backwards planning from project due date, setting key progress indicators. - Feedback to groups on their plans. - Protocols for giving peer feedback. - Coaching during collaborative tasks providing feedback on students’ communications with each other. - Teaching and modeling consensus reaching strategies. Having identified desired student outcomes, needed student learning production behaviors, and possible teacher actions and behaviors; instructional coaches and school leaders should engage in supporting teachers in learning and refining their practice. Darling-Hammond and Hyler (2017) provide critical guidelines for effective professional development that include1: “Providing coaching and expert support that involve the sharing of expertise about content and evidence-based practices, focused directly on teachers’ individual needs and time for teachers to think about, receive input on, and make changes to their practice. Feedback and reflection help teachers to thoughtfully move toward the expert visions of practice.” How can instructional leaders at all levels partner with teachers to continually engage in educator learning that promotes continuous student present and future success? 1. Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., Gardner, M. (2017). Effective Teacher Professional Development. Palo Alto, CA: Learning Policy Institute.]↩

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Back The fundamental ideas of Leonardo da Vinci are relevant to modern neuroscience The fundamental ideas of Leonardo da Vinci are relevant to modern neuroscience Half a millennium after Leonardo, the continuous search for order in dynamic processes is a cornerstone of modern biology, highlight the authors of an essay published in Current Biology of which Gustavo Deco, director of the Center for Brain and Cognition, is the first author. Finding order in chaos is a hallmark of science and art. In the time of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), the schism between science and art had yet to arise. In fact, Leonardo freely used scientific methods for his art and vice versa; for example, when he used his observations of turbulent, whirling water to guide his artistic imagination. Half a millennium after Leonardo, a cornerstone of modern biology is the continuing search for order in dynamic processes, assert the authors of a recent essay published in Current Biology. A study by Gustavo Deco, director of the Center for Brain and Cognition (CBC) and ICREA research professor with the UPF Department of Information and Communication Technologies (DTIC), together with Martin Kemp (University of Oxford, UK) and Morten L. Kringelbach (University of Oxford, and University of Aarhus, Denmark). “Turbulence is a guiding principle underlying the necessary information processing, supporting Leonardo’s search for order in chaos” The scientific study of turbulence is one of the great triumphs (and problems) of modern day physics. Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976) discovered the fundamental statistical rules of turbulence in 1946, and the Russian mathematician Andrey Kolmogorov (1903-1987) got ahead of him with his revolutionary phenomenological theory of turbulence. “In neuroscience, research has focused on understanding the complex brain dynamics of space-time”, Deco points out. “Recently, turbulence has been shown to be a guiding principle underlying the necessary information processing, supporting Leonardo’s search for order in chaos. Here, we argued that Leonardo’s fundamental ideas are constantly relevant to modern day neuroscience”, he adds. Creative thinking is characterized by operating turbulently Leonardo’s commitment to the study of the turbulence of water went beyond observable physical phenomena. It spread to his thought processes. Leonardo’s non-linear, intertwined ways of thought and representation assumed “what could be described as a turbulent mode of operation. This approach is one of the general characteristics of creative thinking”, the authors suggest. Brain activity displays turbulence “Recently, we were able to use tools developed in turbulence physics to describe how the activity of the entire brain displays turbulence”, Deco highlights. And he adds that this is not surprising since, to survive in a complex world, the brain must mix a large amount of information in space and time. “This is exactly what turbulences are used for. It also provides a general principle of order in complex and apparently chaotic brain dynamics”. As Leonardo sensed, turbulence is characterized by the rich variability of vortices of various sizes that can now be characterized as synchronized local clusters. Following Leonardo, turbulences in modern science are not only a fertile generator to mix things and find order in chaos, but also could be key to understanding the general principles of the processing and transfer of information in the brain. “Turbulence in the brain is found in fluctuations in the local synchronization of neural activity more than in kinetic fluctuations of molecules in fluids. Physical systems are different, but the underlying order obeys similar principles, namely, their apparently chaotic fluctuations appear hierarchically arranged, giving rise to turbulences”, the authors explain. Gustavo Deco, Martin Kemp, Morten L. Kringelbach (2021), “Leonardo da Vinci and the search for order in neuroscience”, Current Biology, 7 June, vol. 31, no. 11, DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.03.098

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AS FEATURED IN CBS LOCAL (Environmental Charter Middle School students participated in this program. EmpowHer is a valued partner of Environmental Charter Schools.) IRWINDALE (CBSLA.com) — Eighty female high school students from low-income, underserved schools in Los Angeles visited UCLA Tuesday for the first-ever “Empower Her: STEMDAY”. The girls received hands-on exposure to research in science and technology, including launching a rocket and dissecting a human brain, and learned about career opportunities for women in a range of fields, from neuroscience to physics. “Empower Her: STEMDAY”, which ran from 9 a.m. to noon, is a one-day event co-sponsored by the UCLA Brain Research Institute in hopes of inspiring young girls to pursue higher education and a career in STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) fields. It features 21 interactive informational stations manned by UCLA graduate students who were demonstrating basic concepts in human brain research, computer science, nanoscience, physics, environmental science and others. Martina DeSalvo, a UCLA neuroscience graduate student, launched the program along with the Empower Her organization, which is a nonprofit focused on empowering women and girls. “We really wanted to get these girls exposed to all of the sciences at a really early age, before they’ve come up with their own stereotypes of whether or not science is a girl thing,”STEMDAY organizer Martina DeSalvo said. Organizers set of a goal of getting girls interested in possible careers in the field of science. “If you look further at how many women are in the science work force, that’s down to twenty-four percent,” DeSalvo said. “So, we just see this gradual drop off in the sciences.”

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Summary: Study demonstrates the importance of a specific type of connection between neurons and may also explain how ketamine shows promise in treating depression. Source: University of Wisconsin-Madison Rather than constantly repainting a new canvas with a picture of the surrounding world each time it takes in information, the human brain appears to build a working model supported by predictions constantly checked and rechecked against the sights and sounds it already expects. Researchers from the University of Wisconsin–Madison have demonstrated the top-down nature of this world view by disrupting it with tiny doses of an anesthetic drug called ketamine. Their study reveals the importance of a specific type of connection between brain cells and may also explain ketamine’s promise as a treatment for depression. A bottom-up understanding of perception has been prevalent for decades and says that sensory information moves from lower-order parts of the brain to “higher” parts that use it to perform executive functions like focusing and planning. But the top-down approach has roots in the 19th century. Now called predictive coding, the idea is that the frontal lobe of the brain makes predictions about what will happen next based on learned associations. “You come to expect that if you hear a bark, you will see a dog,” says Sounak Mohanta, a graduate student in the lab of UW–Madison psychology and neuroscience professor Yuri Saalmann. “We used those sorts of associations to show how predictions affect behavior.” For their study, published recently in the Journal of Neuroscience, the researchers taught 32 volunteers associations that were completely new to them by playing them a three-syllable nonsense word and following it with a picture from an assortment of unique animal-like shapes called greebles. Through feedback, the volunteers learned which sound was paired with which picture. The researchers then tested the volunteers by playing them a sound, showing them a picture, and asking the volunteers to say whether the pair matched. The researchers also mapped the patterns in volunteers’ brains specific to correct sound-shape pairs by recording electrical activity as the sounds and shapes appeared. Once three of these associations were introduced, the predictive qualities of the sounds were skewed in the test subjects’ minds by making a paired greeble follow its matched sound 85 percent of the time, 50 percent of the time or 33 percent of the time. “The stronger our listeners understood a sound was predictive of a certain shape, the quicker they could tell us if the shape we showed them matched the sound,” Saalmann says. “Their reaction times for the 50-percent-predictive sounds were much slower, and slower still for the least predictive sounds.” After hearing the highly predictive sound, activity in the subjects’ frontal lobes would increase, sending a signal down to the sensory centers in the back of the brain and activating the brain cells, called neurons, that represent the anticipated shape. Then, when the shape appeared, those neurons would get even more active and would elicit speedier responses from the viewer. Unless the study subjects were administered ketamine. “This drug, ketamine, blocked that whole set of processes, every one of those steps,” Mohanta says. Neurons communicate by passing chemical signals across tiny gaps between neighboring cells. Each type of signal has a transmitter and receptor. Ketamine interferes with one specific communication channel by blocking NDMA receptors, which are common on the neurons along the pathways from the frontal lobe to sensory centers. This blocks the signal. After a tiny dose of ketamine—set by former UW–Madison anesthesiologist Rob Sanders, now at the University of Sydney in Australia—the highly predictive sound caused different, much noisier and disorganized activity in the frontal lobe. The pathway through the brain that normally prepared sensory centers for the anticipated shape instead stayed relatively quiet. Reaction times for all shapes stretched out, making them more like reaction times for the least-predictive sounds. “The priming signal is lost. The brain no longer benefits from the top-down predictions, and errors happen,” says Saalmann, whose work is supported by the National Institutes of Health. “This experiment Sounak designed means whatever your view on how perception comes together, you need to include the predictions in this feedback process as an important part of brain function.” Poor predictions are a feature of disorders including depression and schizophrenia, in which they can erroneously convince someone the worst is bound to happen or lead to hallucinations. Ketamine has been shown to relieve depression-like symptoms in animal studies, and is being used for clinical studies of depression. “Blocking the negative predictions that are prominent in depressed patients could be how ketamine helps,” Saalmann says. Predictive Feedback, Early Sensory Representations, and Fast Responses to Predicted Stimuli Depend on NMDA Receptors Learned associations between stimuli allow us to model the world and make predictions, crucial for efficient behavior (e.g., hearing a siren, we expect to see an ambulance and quickly make way). While there are theoretical and computational frameworks for prediction, the circuit and receptor-level mechanisms are unclear. Using high-density EEG, Bayesian modeling, and machine learning, we show that inferred “causal” relationships between stimuli and frontal alpha activity account for reaction times (a proxy for predictions) on a trial-by-trial basis in an audiovisual delayed match-to-sample task which elicited predictions. Predictive β feedback activated sensory representations in advance of predicted stimuli. Low-dose ketamine, an NMDAR blocker, but not the control drug dexmedetomidine, perturbed behavioral indices of predictions, their representation in higher-order cortex, feedback to posterior cortex, and pre-activation of sensory templates in higher-order sensory cortex. This study suggests that predictions depend on alpha activity in higher-order cortex, β feedback, and NMDARs, and ketamine blocks access to learned predictive information. We learn the statistical regularities around us, creating associations between sensory stimuli. These associations can be exploited by generating predictions, which enable fast and efficient behavior. When predictions are perturbed, it can negatively influence perception and even contribute to psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia. Here we show that the frontal lobe generates predictions and sends them to posterior brain areas, to activate representations of predicted sensory stimuli before their appearance. Oscillations in neural activity (α and β waves) are vital for these predictive mechanisms. The drug ketamine blocks predictions and the underlying mechanisms. This suggests that the generation of predictions in the frontal lobe, and the feedback pre-activating sensory representations in advance of stimuli, depend on NMDARs. About this depression research news Original Research: Closed access. “Predictive Feedback, Early Sensory Representations, and Fast Responses to Predicted Stimuli Depend on NMDA Receptors” bySounak Mohanta et al . Journal of Neuroscience

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While the number of headlines about machine learning might lead one to think that we just discovered something profoundly new, the reality is that the technology is nearly as old as computing. It’s no coincidence that Alan Turing, one of the most influential computer scientists of all time, started his 1950 treatise on computing with the question “Can machines think?” From our science fiction to our research labs, we have long questioned whether the creation of artificial versions of ourselves will somehow help us uncover the origin of our own consciousness, and more broadly, our role on earth. Unfortunately, the learning curve on AI is really damn steep. By tracing a bit of history, we should hopefully be able to get to the bottom of wtf machine learning really is. If my big-data is big enough can I create intelligence? Our first attempts at replicating ourselves involved jamming machines full of information and hoping for the best. Seriously, there was a time when the prevailing theory of consciousness was that it could arise from just a ton of information connected together. Google could be seen by some as the culmination of this vision, but while the company has indexed 30 trillion webpages, I don’t think anyone expects our search engines to start asking us if there is a god. Rather, the beauty of machine learning is that instead of pretending computers are human and simply feeding them with knowledge, we help computers to reason and then let them generalize what they’ve learned to new information. While not well understood, neural networks, deep learning, and reinforcement learning are all machine learning. They’re all methods of creating generalized systems that can perform analysis on new data. Put a different way, machine learning is one of many artificial intelligence techniques, and things like neural networks and deep learning are just tools that can be used to build better frameworks with broader applications. Back in the 50s, our computing power was limited, we didn’t have access to big-data, and our algorithms were rudimentary. This meant that our ability to advance machine learning research was quite limited. However, that didn’t stop people from trying. Back in 1952, Arthur Samuel made a chess program using a very basic form of AI called alpha beta pruning. This is a method for reducing computational load when working with search trees that represent data, but it’s not always the best strategy for every problem. Even neural networks showed their face in yesteryear with Frank Rosenblatt’s perceptron. A complex sounding model that you should read about anyway The perceptron was way ahead of its time, leveraging neuroscience to advance machine learning. On paper, the idea looked something like the sketch to the right. To understand what it’s doing, you first have to understand that most machine learning problems can be broken down into either classification or regression. Classifiers are used to categorize data, while regression models broadly deal with extrapolating out trends to make predictions. The perceptron is an example of a classifier — it takes a set of data and splits it into multiple sets. In this case, the existence of two traits with respective weights is enough for this object to be classified in the “green” category. Classifiers today separate the spam from your inbox and detect fraud for your bank. Rosenblatt’s model uses a series of inputs, think features like length, weight, color, and assigns each of them a weight. The model then continuously adjusts the weights until an output is reached that falls within an accepted margin of error. For example, one could input that the weight of an object that happens to be an apple is 100 grams. The computer doesn’t know it’s an apple, but the perceptron can classify the object as an apple-like-object or a non-apple-like-object by adjusting the classifier’s weights with respect to a known training set of data. Once the classifier has been tuned, it can ideally be reused on a data set it has never been exposed to before to classify unknown objects. It’s ok, even AI researchers are confused by this stuff The perceptron is just one example of many early advances made in machine learning. Neural networks are sort of like big collections of perceptrons working together, a lot like how our brains and neurons work, which is where the name comes from. Skipping forward a few decades, advancements in AI have continued to be about replicating the way the mind works rather than simply replicating what we perceive its contents to be. Basic, or “shallow”, neural networks are still in use today, but deep learning has caught on as the next big thing. Deep learning models are neural networks with more layers. A totally reasonable reaction to this incredibly unsatisfying explanation is to ask what I mean by layers. To understand this, we have to remember that just because we say a computer can organize cats and humans into two different groups, the computer itself doesn’t process the task the same way a human would. Machine learning frameworks take advantage of the idea of abstraction to accomplish tasks. To a human, faces have eyes. To a computer, faces have pixels that are light and dark that make up some abstraction of lines. Each layer of a deep learning model lets the computer identify another level of abstraction of the same object. Pixels to lines to 2D to 3D geometry. Despite overwhelming stupidity, computers already passed the Turing test This fundamental difference in the way humans and computers evaluate the world presents a serious challenge to creating true artificial intelligence. The Turing test was conceptualized to evaluate our progress in AI, but it largely ignores this reality. Turing’s test is a behaviorist test focused on evaluating the ability of computers to emulate human output. However, mimicry and probabilistic reasoning are, at best, only part of the mystery of intelligence and consciousness. Some believe we successfully passed the Turing test in 2014, when a machine convinced 10 out of 30 scientists that it was human during a five minute keyboard conversation (and yet Siri still tries to search Google for every third thing we ask her). So should I get my jacket for the AI winter? Despite progress, scientists and entrepreneurs alike have been quick to over-promise the capabilities of AI. The resulting boom and bust cycles are commonly referred to as AI winters. We have been able to do some unbelievable things with machine learning, like classify objects in video footage for autonomous cars and predict crop yields with satellite imagery. Long short-term memory is helping our machines deal with time-series for things like sentiment analysis in videos. Reinforcement learning, takes ideas from game theory, and includes a mechanism to assist learning through rewards. Reinforcement learning was a key part of how Alpha Go was able to upset Lee Sodol. That said, despite all progress, the great secret of machine learning is that while we usually know the inputs and outputs of a given problem, and the explicitly programmed code to act as the intermediary, we can’t always identify how the model is going from input to output. Researchers refer to this challenge as the black box problem of machine learning. Before getting too discouraged, we must remember that the human brain itself is a black box. We don’t really know how it works and cannot examine it at all levels of abstraction. I would be labeled crazy if I asked you to dissect a brain and point to the memories held within it. However, not being able to understand something isn’t game over, it’s game on. This post introduced many of the basic concepts underpinning machine learning but leaves plenty on the table for future WTF is pieces. Deep learning, reinforcement learning and neural nets could all stand on their own but hopefully after reading this post you can visualize the field itself and draw connections to many of the companies we cover daily on TechCrunch. More posts from the WTF is series

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When I was in high school, I had a keen interest in nutrition: What food was considered healthy? Was there a schedule of eating I should follow? Three big meals a day or just snacks throughout? How many calories should I consume? Do I eat too much sugar or too much fat? I considered studying Nutritional Sciences in college to dive deeper into these questions and maybe become a specialist in the field. However, a part of me was unsatisfied with the state of the field. There seemed to be inconsistencies and great variability for what is the “correct” nutrition. Fast forward ten years to where I am now: a fifth-year Neuroscience PhD student. It wasn’t until I was on the path to becoming a neuroscientist—someone who studies and researches the nervous system and brain—that I discovered the possibility of connecting eating behavior to neuroscience. I’ve now returned to my interest in eating, but from a new perspective. As I became more familiar with the science of how the brain regulates the feeling of hunger and satiety, it quickly became obvious that eating is more complicated than just acquiring food and digesting it. Recent research has clearly shown a complex and fascinating reciprocal interaction between the brain and the gut. What we eat affects the brain, and the brain in turn affects everything from nutritional status to gut activity to eating behaviors. Critical discoveries over the last few decades about basic eating behaviors have demonstrated how our brains respond to hunger cues and how they know when to tell our body we are full and no longer need to keep eating. For instance, hormones such as leptin and ghrelin are produced in the stomach but also directly interact with the brain to, respectively, decrease and increase appetite. Nevertheless, there are many facets of eating – hunger, satiety, taste, energy balance, pleasure – and, moreover, the brain is a complex and intricate system. So, we keep asking more questions about how various pathways in the brain can have direct effects on certain aspects of eating behavior. My research aims to understand how emotion and eating are connected. Emotion and eating are undoubtedly connected behaviorally if we think about how common it is to reach for a pint of ice cream when we’re sad, how feeling stressed can lead to overeating, or how grief can suppress appetite. The association between emotion and eating is also seen in the fact that eating-related disorders, such as anorexia nervosa and obesity, are very often present with psychiatric conditions like depression and anxiety. By studying specific regions and cells in the brain that are responsible for regulating both emotional and eating behaviors, we hope to identify targets for treatment of eating disorders, or to at least gain a deeper understanding of how to ensure both optimal nutrition and pleasure in eating. The neuroscience of eating is particularly interesting because it gives us an understanding about our eating behaviors: how they evolved and the way they exist in this modern world with its excess of convenient and extremely tasty food. Why is it so hard not reach for another French fry after you’ve already eaten the rest of your meal? How is it that a “second stomach” seems to grow when it’s time for dessert? Mechanisms and signaling processes in the brain affect how you respond to food. Our brains are wired to make us want to eat as much as possible! This is because our brains developed to survive when food was not always a certainty, but often a rather limited resource, one that required physical work to obtain. Eating is certainly a more complex process than it may seem at first glance! Eating and food-related issues are not uncommon. Conditions like anorexia, obesity, diabetes or colitis are all costly and can even be deadly. Some of these affect young people or begin early in life but could be mitigated in the future by understanding better how the brain and gut talk to each other, and how emotions and environment can influence the onset of such conditions. Post by guest writer: Wesley Ilana Schnapp PhD Candidate, Neuroscience GIDP Cai Lab, Dept of Neuroscience University of Arizona

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Era of Brain Technologies How often do we hear predictions not about the end of the world but about how wonderful it will be to live in? The Tom Taps team was fortunate enough to attend The Era of Brain Technologies, a talk by Dr. Ned Sahin at the Mind Museum on November 14, 2014. It was an afternoon of mind-opening discussion on the future of brain technologies and the exciting developments on this area, straight from the perspective of a neuroscientist and a technopreneur. The talk was divided into several topics, but the part we liked the most was his story of how these technologies are being used to address the needs of individuals with autism. Wearable technologies (e.g. Apple iWatch, Samsung Gear, Google Glass) seem to be on the rise and will continue to bloom and be accepted. These technologies, as of now, can be activated or controlled by our voice. What’s interesting, though, is the outset of controlling computers with our thoughts. Researchers from the University of Minnesota and Massachusetts Institute of Technology have shown that this is indeed possible. On top of that, it does not require a person to implant a chip in his brain. “There’s a way to do this, non-invasively”, said Dr. Sahin. That being said gave a sigh of relief from the audience, with piqued interest on how to do it. What if computers could think back to us? What if language is no longer a barrier? Most importantly, what if we can communicate with just our thoughts? While these scenarios are certainly promising, ethical and privacy issues are still a concern. A member of the audience asked how we could compartmentalize our thoughts, with fears that his private thoughts will no longer remain ‘private’. Another one raised the issue of a person’s character. Even more futuristic was the speaker’s own question if court rooms can be replaced with a brain scan. At the end of his topic, Dr. Sahin assured the audience we’re not going towards that dystopic world we’re seeing from movies. He reminded the audience that technology is an enabler for improving our interactions with each other, and ultimately our lives. Technologies on Autism “Autism is not a disease”, Dr. Sahin reiterated. It is a collection of challenges on social engagement, language, motor behaviors, and abstract categories. It is hard to detect, as no blood or genetic test can diagnose it. The only way to identify it is by behavior observation, usually when a child is playing, as early as six months old. Currently in the US, there is 1 in 68 diagnosed with autism. With his background on neuroscience and technology, Dr. Sahin founded Brain Power with a vision to “apply innovations to the most pressing brain-related challenges of the human condition.” Right now, they are developing software and hardware to make Google Glass a neuro-assistive tool for individuals with autism. He shared what they have done so far: -assisting parents to get the attention of the child -creating a gamified environment to encourage the child make eye contact -identifying items through QR codes, encouraging the child to speak and repeat -providing relaxing and calming visuals as alternative stimuli He then showed a video of Billy, a 17-year old with autism interacting with his parents- responding to their call, making eye contact, smiling – all through the technologies developed by Dr. Ned and his team. For us, it was a heartwarming moment. Not only did we see how happy Billy and his parents were, we were delighted to know the great possibilities of improving the communication and interaction for people with autism. We were very impressed seeing the works of Dr. Sahin, fuelling even more our passion to do the same with our own line of applications. At the end of the talk, we had the chance to personally greet and congratulate the speaker and talked about Tom Taps and our advocacy. Plus, we actually got to try wearing Google Glass and taking photos with it by blinking! About the Speaker Dr. Ned Sahin is a neuroscientist and neurotechnology entrepreneur. He hold degrees in neuroscience from Williams College (BA), MIT (Master’s), and Harvard (PhD) and did a year of study at Oxford and post-doctoral fellowships at UCSD Medical School and the Salk Institute in San Diego. He worked at Bell Labs and in startups and a mid-sized company, in Boston, San Diego, London and Dublin; and has been the Principal Investigator for three military contracts/projects for wearable brain monitoring systems to assess and modulate cognitive states. Dr. Sahin founded Brain Power, LLC in October 2013, and the company’s focus is on transforming Google Glass into a device and service to assess the key symptoms of Autism in children, and to coach the children and families in overcoming the accompanying challenges. The Era of Brain Technologies was part of the Executive Talks, a conference series being organized by the First Pacific Leadership Academy (FPLA). Previous speakers were Marshall Goldsmith, Michio Kaku, Azran Osman-Rani, Werner Vogels, Roger Fisk, and Erik Spoelstra. Making of Tom Taps Joben has a wonderful 10-year old son named Tom. Tom, being an energetic and witty kid that he is, has a hard time expressing his feelings, needs and wants as he is non-verbal and was diagnosed with autism when he was 2. Using his software development skills, Joben started tinkering on his iPad and developed a simple communication app that will work best with Tom’s needs. It wasn’t much before, it was very simple, it was mostly black, but the concept behind it answers all of Tom’s needs. He called it Tom’s App for the time being. Tom’s App was simple and easy to use, but has a big room for improvement. He noticed the potential of Tom’s App in helping other kids struggling with being non-verbal, and looked for a team to start working on converting the app into a product. He found two developers in the person of Abby and Xerez, and a graphic designer in Roxy. The three started with Tom’s App with this in mind: To provide a high-quality and affordable mobile communication application that will help kids with special needs to express themselves better. While the passion to use their skills is there, there is no doubt that the team has a lot to learn when it comes to dealing with special needs. They started their learning journey by researching existing hardware and software products . They discovered that the market already has a considerable number of mobile apps targeted to assist people with special needs, and surprisingly, most of these are motivated by the same situation: they know somebody who needs it. This tidbit of information, while being a challenge to the business, was actually inspiring. Having to learn that there are others trying their hardest to provide the best services to people who need it the most, encouraged the team to dedicate time and effort into making this app. Learning from the internet is not enough, however. They needed to get out of the building to talk to people who knew more about the subject matter, learn from their experiences, and identify the pains and needs that are still not addressed by existing solutions. With this, the team visited from one speech therapy centre to another, talking with occupational and speech therapists, teachers and parents alike. Discussions about the app and conversations about their experiences enlightened everybody about the pains and rewards of having a person with special needs in their life. We also had the opportunity to play with the kids at the centre and with much delight, observe how they learned in the school environment. With this newfound knowledge, the team geared up for work. One of the centres visited was ABLE, owned and managed by Teacher On. He taught us about the importance of learning about the self first, and thus we gave much emphasis on the “I” on our first Speak Version. The app Words and Blocks was made to have Tom and the other kids test it and for us to be able to take down notes on their reaction when using a tablet. Abby started development work on the iOS. Initial modules and content were provided by Tom’s mom, Lizle, and Jasmine, a former special education teacher. Roxy, with the help of graphic designer Glomark, drew the first batch of 300 cards in the first version. During this time, the Bubble Sort app, a sorting game, was being developed by Xerez on the side. The whole team was excitedly bustling with work, keeping images of the kids in their minds while doing what they did best. The group started by making low-fidelity designs that will focus on the placement of elements so they can make sure it will work when it comes to making the real thing. The team loved discussing and brainstorming on the possible features of the app. The first design had different colours depending on the preference. It also revolved around having only categories to navigate around the cards. Two months of developing, drawing, discussing and testing led to the first version of the app: a clean, easy-to-use, intuitive and kid-friendly app catering to the communication needs of people with developmental disabilities. Since the team wanted Tom’s App to catch worldwide attention to be used and to be able to help people, something had to be done about the generic name. They wanted to keep the essence of being inspired and continually motivated by Tom, and so the team kept Tom’s name. On the other hand, they felt the need to identify themselves as a technology-driven company, to emphasise their utilisation of the mobile technology, and to pay tribute to this breakthrough that was able to help a lot of people. And so, the team thought: If the 90’s and the early 00’s was the era of “clicking”, the trend now can attest that the era today is the advent of “tapping”. Thus, the team finally called the app “Tom Taps”. Upon deployment, Tom Taps was able to receive warm reception from mothers, fathers, teachers, even with people with special needs. Testimonials, stories, feedback and suggestions were received by mail every now and then. The heartwarming response was a wonderful reward for the work the team put into making the app. It was more interesting to note that people who took notice of the app consist not only of those directly affected by the cause, but also those who want to learn more about the situation. From then, Tom Taps knew that this just evolved from being a side project, to being a full-blown product, to being a worthy advocacy. Tom Taps was invited by the student organisation in St. Scholastica College in Manila to talk about autism and Tom Taps Speak. Being a technology company, the team participated in the first PSIA Softcon as an exhibitor. Tom Taps was able to attract attention as having a product with a unique target audience. As part of the initiative to get involved in the special needs advocacy more, Tom Taps attended 2014’s Angels Walk for Autism, where 10,000 other angels participated in spreading awareness about autism in the world and in the Philippines. The work does not stop on the first version, though. The wonderful suggestions given by the people using the app has to be accomplished, one of these was about having a customisation feature. The team had to re-assess and redo the flow of the app to take into consideration the user experience, the improvement of the existing features and the introduction of the new capabilities. After months of development from scratch, Tom Taps is now on its second version to answer all your needs, and then some. You will now be able to add your own cards and boards using your photos or our pre-made pictures. Now, there is a letter board for those who have a more comfortable time typing. If you can’t say it with anything else, say it with a doodle! Tom Taps Speak Version 2 now has a whiteboard feature for your artistic streaks. If you are a special needs teacher, an occupational or speech therapist, drop a line using the contact form in the website and we’ll give you a free trial for the features stated above. Send us your thoughts, Tom Taps loves having them. Truly, the work never stops, and the team will continue to strive to deliver the service that best fits the needs of the kids who have a lot to say. SoftCon on December 3, 2014 For the past few years, the Philippines has been the host of a growing startup community with the help of the Philippine Software Industry Association (PSIA). The PSIA, together with the government, has been instrumental in helping develop, grow and empower the country’s software industry. One of the initiatives of PSIA is SPRING.ph, a software incubation group to support and educate Filipino startups. Every year, SPRiNG.ph holds four Launchpad events where tech giants coach participating teams in incorporating the Lean Startup and Business Model Canvas principles in their product ideas. It was August 2013 when Tom Taps joined the event and was eventually chosen by the panel for its potential to be a globally-recognised software product. Last year, Tom Taps participated in the quarterly Launchpad Event and was chosen to receive business development assistance from the coaches Being one of the SPRING.ph teams, the group was able to meet and be mentored by different tech personalities. To further boost awareness and promote the booming startup community, PSIA holds an annual software conference called Softcon. The event is held to showcase Filipino corporate companies and startups alike, as well as to talk about the latest software trends, disciplines (agile, lean), and the technology roadmap for the Philippines. Last year, Tom Taps was invited to exhibit the first product called Tom Taps Speak and was able to catch attention for its unique target market and focus. The first ever Softcon was held last October 2013 where Tom Taps participated as one of the exhibitors. On its second year, PSIA is once again inviting startups and corporate companies to participate in the conference entitled, SoftCon 2014: Today’s Trends, Tomorrow’s Solutions. Scheduled this December 3, 2014 at the Inter-Continental Hotel in Manila, a number of tech figures and enthusiasts will be attending to watch, listen and learn about topics on competing in the ASEAN community, learning IT entrepreneurship, developing products with LEAN and more. Tom Taps will be joining the event to show the latest development on our products, specifically Tom Taps Speak Version 2 again, and the team is very excited to find familiar people and make new friends! Tom Taps is inviting you to support the rising Filipino software industry by attending SoftCon 2014. We can’t wait to meet you there! To register and attend the event, visit this link for more details: http://softcon.ph/ To learn and support the startup initiative, go to this link:

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A detailed discussion of some of the paradoxes and tensions that arise as adult education math becomes increasingly regulated in a rapidly evolving digital world; Adult learners make up a significant portion of the world's population, lifelong learning is vital to keeping one active and engaged, and math learning is important for success in different walks of life. The observation ends by noting that instead of the clear benefits, the promotion of lifelong learning of mathematics among adult learners is not high on the national and international agenda. The Troika of Adult Learners, Lifelong Learning, and Mathematics Survey on State-of-the-Art Lifelong Learning for Adult Learners Therefore, lifelong learning provisions for adult learners will help them continue to develop on a personal level, becoming a larger individual. The role of lifelong learning in the lives of adults is clearly evident from a study reported by Brien (2009). The requirement of lifelong learning for the well-being of adults is clearly supported by a publication of AGE (2007). Lifelong Mathematics Learning for Adult Learners Instead of these multi-faceted benefits, adult learners still feel disenchanted with lifelong learning in mathematics. Negative prior experiences with mathematics instruction create legitimate barriers for many adult learners (US Department of Education 2015). As a result, adult learners do not pay enough attention to improving their mathematics learning through their routine activities. Learning from Research - Affective Factors—Obstacles to and Advantages of the Adult Learner - Math Histories - Math Anxiety - Theoretical Framework—The Underpinnings of Adult Math Education - Adult Learning Theory - Mathematics for Citizenship—Improving in Place - Social Issues - Mathematics for Credentialing-Catching Up - Adult Basic and Secondary Education - Developmental Mathematics - Professional Development—The Teacher as Adult Learner - Pre-service Teacher Education - In-service Teacher Education In recent years, many researchers in adult mathematics education have examined various aspects of the phenomenon. Many of the founding members had begun their careers as literacy teachers drawn to numeracy at the behest of their students. This section of the paper will summarize the papers presented on the topics of numeracy for citizenship and, in particular, parenting. In the initial stages of the program, parents worked on math tasks that were a mix of games and calculator activities. Later the children joined them and the parents acted as teacher/leaders of the activities. There is extensive overlap in the mathematical content of the above-mentioned teaching settings. They detail the rationale for the center, the many resources offered, and the success rate of students who benefited from the facility. In fact, most of the research reported at this level is hidden in doctoral dissertations. Of the 109 dissertations indexed since 2000, 37 were in development and 10 of them specifically addressed classroom methods. Adult K-12 teachers from six states participated over the five-year life of the project. As in the other international initiatives, the aim of the project was to build teachers' confidence through a strong conceptual basis for the procedural mathematics they teach (Schmitt and Bingman 2009). This part provided only the briefest overview of the work that has been done in adult mathematics education. Current Paradoxes, Tensions and Potential Strategies - The Disparate and Competing Conceptualisation of Numeracy - Communication (1) (Fig. 2.1) - Identifying the Issue (2) and (3) (Fig. 2.1) - Value Filter (4) (Fig. 2.1) - Intervening Variables (8) (Fig. 2.1) - Numeracy as an Individual Attribute Versus Legislation for National Curricula and ‘One Size In its earliest conceptualisation, numeracy provision was delivered by literacy provision, which influenced its development as a concept, therefore any discussion of the conceptualisation of numeracy would be incomplete without a consideration of this connection. An evolutionary trace of the concept of numeracy (through a literacy lens), initiated with Crowther's definition of numeracy as 'the mirror image of literacy', has been attempted by O'Donoghue (2002). Numeracy behavior is the result of the internal, dynamic interaction of an individual's mathematics with the other elements of numeracy that interact at a given time with a specific context. The individual's frame of reference is a result of their life experiences and the resulting values, beliefs and attitudes. Based on the individual's level of communication and interpretation and guided by the individual's frame of reference, the individual identifies 'the issue'. The consequences of the value filter are then evaluated against the individual's existing beliefs and directed by their motivation ie. This process model of numeracy clearly has mathematics and literacy as components of numeracy. It is not the conceptualization of numeracy that needs to be classified, but rather its implementation in practice. In a situation where an adult is returning to adult basic education for the first time, a conceptualization of numeracy as a component of literacy (formative phase) may well suit their needs. These are the policy environment in which teachers must operate, the conceptualization of numeracy used, and the appropriateness of the teacher training offered. Promoting Lifelong Mathematics Learning Among Adult Learners: Potential Strategies - Promoting Self Directed and Experiential-Learning of Mathematics Among Adults - Involving Adults (Parents) in Mathematics Education of Their Children Too often in the search for solutions, the first reaction is to work toward homogenization, as often illustrated in mathematics education, perhaps it is time to acknowledge that heterogeneity is a valid approach to meeting the needs of older learners. In other words, the challenge for teachers and practitioners in adult mathematics education is to internalize all these concepts and approaches to find effective ways to overcome prevailing barriers so that adult learners can experience success in lifelong mathematics education. Whereas, Frees (2013) notes, “We know that adults learn best through experience, both by drawing on the experience they have and by acquiring new experiences; then synthesize the old with the new to create new meaning.” But the question is how to implement this formula in teaching mathematics to adults. This is not to say that adults should not learn skills and techniques, but that they should understand how such skills and techniques contribute to their personal goals and needs (Johnson 1998, p.229). Considering the potential, mathematics teachers and researchers are supposed to devise ways and techniques to promote self-directed and experiential learning of mathematics among adult learners. For example, results of a study conducted by Cai (2003) indicated that parental involvement is a statistically significant predictor of their children's math achievement and also promotes positive behavior and emotional development. He also identified five parental roles in middle school students' learning of mathematics: motivator, monitor, resource provider, mathematics content advisor, and mathematics learning advisor. Similarly, a study by Civil (2002) reported that students felt that having parents as teachers has proven to be an extremely rich experience and it allows them to learn more about their understanding of mathematics . The time of the hour is that we must use all such findings to entice parents to keep learning mathematics to teach their children. Second, when the parents themselves learn mathematics with an emphasis on understanding, they will become quite vocal about the importance of mathematics education for their children. Therefore, it will be a win-win situation to involve adults (parents) in mathematics education of their children. Helping Adult Learners to Practice Connectivism in Mathematical Learning - Promoting Technology-Based Teaching Learning Activities for Adult Learners - Establishing Lifelong Mathematics Learning Communities for Adult Learners For example, Alan (2012) conducted a study to consider the use of mathematics education software as a means of increasing the achievement rates of adult learners in mathematics in developmental courses and observed that the average student in the MyMathLab/MathXL-based LE course had an average. grade of 2.25 (C) versus the average grade of 1.09 (D) in a traditional LE math course. These results were also supported by the assertion of all the observed students that they were able to identify the areas in which they are lacking and use the time on the computer to "fill in the gaps" in their learning. In parallel with these efforts, we need a new initiative in the form of establishing lifelong mathematics learning communities for adult learners at local, regional, national and international levels. Furthermore, the networking potential of social computing, together with its power to overcome time and space barriers, supports interaction and collaboration between and 2.5 Help adult learners practice connectivism in mathematics learning. These learning communities for the elderly can be established online as well as in the form of traditional organizational establishment. The role of media experts and organizations will be to establish and provide technical support to these communities, while adult learners will care for and run these communities. These institutions will act as a connecting link for adult learners to meet their lifelong mathematical learning needs. In a nutshell, these learning communities will be a viable platform for all those mature learners who are willing to practice mathematical learning on an ongoing basis or look forward to sharing their experiences and expertise to further it. The images or other third-party material in this chapter are included in the work's Creative Commons license, unless otherwise indicated in the credit line; if such material is not included in the work's Creative Commons license and the respective action is not permitted by statutory regulations, users will need to obtain permission from the licensee to duplicate, adapt or reproduce the material. Five possible strategies for promoting lifelong learning in mathematics among adult learners are suggested. Summary and Looking Ahead Schlöglmann (ed.), Learning math to live and work in our world: Proceedings of the 10th international conference on Adults Learning Mathematics (pp. 78–84). Coben (ed.), ALM-6: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Mathematics for Adults - A Research Conference (pp. 82–91). O'Donoghue (ed.), The changing face of adult math education: learning from the past, planning for the future: Proceedings of ALM-13 (pp. 44-54). O'Donoghue (ed.), The changing face of adult math education: learning from the past, planning for the future: Proceedings of ALM-14 (pp. 165–176). Numeracy works for life: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Mathematics for Adults (pp. 154–161). Paper presented at the Tenth International Conference of Adults Learning Mathematics—A Research Forum (ALM-10), June 29–July 2, 2003. Technology in the teaching and learning of mathematics. nctm.org/Standards-and-Positions/Position-Statements/Technology-in-Teaching-and-Learning-Mathematics/. Objectives of mathematics education in mathematics. Schloeglmann (Eds.), Learning mathematics for life and work in our world: Proceedings of ALM-10 (pp. 56–69). O'Donoghue (eds.), Adults learning mathematics-4: Proceedings of ALM-4, the Fourth International Conference of Adults Learning Mathematics - A Research Forum held at the University of Limerick, Ireland, 4-6 July 1997 (pp. 210-217). Coben (Ed.), Adults learning mathematics—a research forum ALM-1: Proceedings of the inaugural conference Adults learning mathematics—a research forum (pp. 11–17).

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For centuries, mental health care has primarily relied on talk therapy and pharmaceuticals aimed at correcting perceived chemical imbalances in the brain. However, recent advances in biotechnology and neuroscience have led to the emergence of a new paradigm in psychiatric research known as Metabolic Psychiatry. This interdisciplinary field combines principles from metabolomics, the large-scale analysis of small molecule metabolites in biological systems, with those from psychiatry, neurology, and related fields, such as genetics and immunology. By analyzing the chemical reactions that occur inside cells and how they relate to physiological functions, metabolic researchers hope to gain insights into the underlying causes of various mental health disorders and develop novel strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. In this article, we will discuss some key advantages offered by Metabolic Psychiatry, including its role in understanding disease mechanisms, identifying new drug targets, offering personalized treatment options, and advancing our knowledge about the links between nutrition, gut bacteria, and cognition. Understanding Disease Mechanisms One of the most significant contributions of Metabolic Psychiatry lies in its capacity to shed light on the molecular events leading to mental health disorders. Traditionally, psychiatric research has focused largely on the activity of proteins, particularly those involved in neural communication, such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. While this line of inquiry has yielded valuable discoveries, it fails to capture the full complexity of cellular physiology, which encompasses numerous other biochemical processes. By contrast, Metabolic Psychiatry emphasizes the importance of metabolism – the set of chemical transformations through which cells convert nutrients into energy and building blocks required for growth, maintenance, and reproduction – in shaping normal brain function and dysfunction alike. Increasing evidence indicates that disruptions in metabolic homeostasis, either inherited or acquired during life, may lead to the manifestation of psychiatric symptoms. For instance, studies have identified abnormalities in metabolic pathways involving lipid biosynthesis, mitochondrial respiration, and glucose utilization in patients with depression, schizophrenia, and autism spectrum disorder. Some examples include reduced expression of genes encoding lipogenic enzymes, such as fatty acid synthase (FAS) and stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD), in postmortem brains from depressed subjects, impaired oxidative phosphorylation in lymphocytes isolated from individuals with schizophrenia, and elevated plasma levels of kynurenine, a tryptophan derivative linked to inflammation and stress responses, among children with autistic traits. By characterizing these metabolic perturbations comprehensively, scientists can begin to understand how they contribute to disease etiology and progression, and possibly guide the identification of suitable interventions. Moreover, metabolic analyses may reveal previously unappreciated relationships between seemingly disparate phenotypes, thereby expanding our knowledge base about psychiatric disorders. For example, a systematic review published in 2019 reported that individuals suffering from bipolar disorder commonly display hyperglycemia, hypoglycemia, and insulin resistance concurrently, suggesting a potential link between mood instability and carbohydrate metabolism. Similarly, a longitudinal follow-up of adolescents with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) found that higher urinary excretions of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), a compound formed upon bacterial degradation of carnitine in the gut, predicted poorer academic performance later in life, independently of ADHD symptoms themselves. As these examples illustrate, metabolic measures offer complementary perspectives onto psychological disorders, enabling clinicians to adopt a more holistic viewpoint towards managing patients’ overall health.

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Table of Contents - 1 A New Approach to Nursing Education - 2 The Essence of Humanistic Learning Theory - 3 Benefits of Humanistic Learning Theory in Nursing Education - 4 Implementing Humanistic Learning Theory in Nursing Education - 5 The Future of Nursing Education: A Humanistic Approach A New Approach to Nursing Education Understanding the Basics of Humanistic Learning Theory When it comes to nursing education, the focus has traditionally been on the acquisition of technical skills and knowledge. However, there is a growing recognition of the importance of a more holistic approach that takes into account the emotional and interpersonal aspects of patient care. This is where the humanistic learning theory comes into play. The Essence of Humanistic Learning Theory Putting the Human Element into Nursing Education The humanistic learning theory emphasizes the importance of the individual and their unique experiences in the learning process. It recognizes that learners are not passive recipients of information but active participants who bring their own perspectives and values to the table. When applied to nursing education, this theory places a strong emphasis on the development of empathy and compassion. It encourages students to view patients as individuals, taking into account their physical, emotional, and social needs. Benefits of Humanistic Learning Theory in Nursing Education Fostering Empathy and Compassion One of the key benefits of humanistic learning theory in nursing education is its ability to foster empathy and compassion among students. By encouraging students to see patients as individuals with unique needs, this approach helps to cultivate a deep sense of empathy and understanding. Through this process, students learn to treat patients with respect, dignity, and compassion. They develop the ability to listen attentively, provide emotional support, and engage in therapeutic communication. This not only improves patient outcomes but also enhances the overall quality of care provided. Promoting Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Another important aspect of humanistic learning theory is its focus on critical thinking and problem-solving. By encouraging students to think independently, question assumptions, and explore alternative perspectives, this approach helps to develop their analytical and problem-solving skills. In the context of nursing education, this translates into the ability to make informed decisions, adapt to changing situations, and provide individualized care. It empowers students to become confident and competent nurses who can navigate complex healthcare environments effectively. Implementing Humanistic Learning Theory in Nursing Education Creating a Supportive Learning Environment Implementing humanistic learning theory in nursing education requires creating a supportive learning environment that encourages collaboration, respect, and open communication. Educators can incorporate various teaching strategies such as case studies, role-plays, and reflective exercises to facilitate active learning and engagement. They can also provide opportunities for students to interact with patients and healthcare professionals from diverse backgrounds to broaden their perspectives and enhance their cultural competence. Integrating Technology and Simulation Technology and simulation can also play a crucial role in implementing humanistic learning theory in nursing education. Virtual patient simulations, for example, allow students to practice their clinical skills and decision-making abilities in a safe and controlled environment. By combining technology with humanistic principles, educators can create realistic scenarios that challenge students to think critically, communicate effectively, and provide compassionate care. This approach helps bridge the gap between theory and practice, preparing students for the complexities of real-world nursing. The Future of Nursing Education: A Humanistic Approach Paving the Way for Empathetic and Compassionate Nurses The humanistic learning theory offers a promising path for the future of nursing education. By placing the human element at the center of the learning process, it equips students with the skills and mindset needed to provide empathetic and compassionate care. As the healthcare landscape continues to evolve, nurses who possess strong interpersonal skills, critical thinking abilities, and a deep sense of empathy will be in high demand. By embracing the principles of humanistic learning theory, nursing education can ensure that future generations of nurses are prepared to meet the challenges and complexities of modern healthcare.

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The immune system consists of cells, tissues, organs, etc. that work as a team to fight off illness, infections and other invaders. When an unsafe substance enters the body, the immune system comes to the fore and launches an attack. Olfaction or the sense of smell is a sense through which odors are perceived and functions in detecting danger, pheromones etc. Researchers from various fields of biology, such as behavior ecology, neuroscience, developmental biology, immunology etc., are trying to understand the connection between the olfactory system and the immune system. Previous studies have reported that sense of smell can regulate immune reactions and certain scents can reduce the effects of stress on immune reactions. Thus, it is important and fascinating to study and understand the relation between sense of smell and immune system at different levels. Stem cells have potential to develop into many different types of cells and acts as a repair system for the body. The Metabolism and Development (MAD) lab at inStem is focused on identifying signals that regulate the development and maintenance of stem cells. The group is interested in learning about how the metabolic condition of progenitors (early descendants of stem cells) and immune cells influences outcomes during development, maintenance, and maturation. The lab uses fruit fly as a model organism to identify metabolic signals and associated sensing systems in order to determine the important chemicals required for metabolism, sensors, and pathways in blood cell development. Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) are highly reactive chemicals formed as a byproduct during metabolism of Oxygen. ROS as a signaling molecule play and important role in blood cell development and maintenance, as reported in both invertebrates and vertebrates. In a recent study, MAD lab led by Dr. Tina Mukherjee looked into the metabolic processes that allow immune progenitor cells to regulate their ROS levels. The study described the use of a molecule required for metabolism playing a critical role in the metabolic balance and growth control of blood progenitor cells. The interesting findings from the study concluded that the sense of smell regulates blood progenitor cells and lymph gland development in fruit flies. The results of the study depicted that blood progenitor cells of fruit fly larvae, which reside in a specialized organ known as the lymph gland, use TCA to generate ROS. The researchers discovered that conditions that cause an increase in progenitor ROS have a negative effect on lymph gland growth. Intriguingly, fruit fly larvae rely on their sense of smell and GABA molecule to moderate blood progenitor ROS. In fruit flies, GABA metabolism via PDK activation maintains TCA activity and blood progenitor ROS balance, as well as normal lymph gland growth. As a result, animals that cannot smell are unable to maintain TCA activity and ROS balance, resulting in lymph gland developmental defects. Olfaction-derived systemic GABA in lymph gland ROS balance and growth control Overall, this research highlights the significance of animal odor sensing and the GABA molecule in the regulation of ROS and blood cell development control. The findings by Dr. Mukherjee and her group suggest that the olfactory system plays a very important developmental role in the regulation of immune progenitor cells and development of lymph gland. The relevance of these research findings to the development of blood cells in higher animals will be an intriguing aspect to investigate.

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As the school year kicks off, it may be worth taking a moment to ask yourself a simple question: Do believe intelligence is flexible or fixed? The way you answer that question could actually influence your learning success, according to a study published by a group of researchers. The study, titled, “Why Do Beliefs about Intelligence Influence Learning Success? A Social Cognitive Model,” used an interdisciplinary approach involving neuroscience, sociology, and psychology to determine why a person’s belief about intelligence (whether it is fixed of flexible) can impact their learning success. “Previous behavioral studies have shown that students who believe that intelligence is a fixed quantity . . . are particularly vulnerable to decreased performance when they realize they are at risk of failing,” writes the study’s main author, Jennifer A. Mangels. “Whereas students who view intelligence as acquirable appear better able to remain effective learners. This research remains important because it sheds light on how a person’s self-beliefs can have a real world impact on a their academic performance. “Entity theorists” believe intelligence is basically set. What is more, as pointed out by the study, entity theorists “ . . . tend to be more concerned with besting others in order to prove their intelligence, leaving them highly vulnerable to negative feedback.” “Incremental theorists,” on the other, “ . . . are more likely to endorse the goal of increasing ability through effort and are more likely to gravitate toward tasks that offer real challenges.” Both of these outlooks fall into a general theory of intelligence or “TOI.” In order to investigate why and how beliefs about intelligence impact academic performance, Mangels relied on brain scans to identify illuminated regions of the brain that are activated during difference processes. In the end, as noted by the author, “[t]he findings from the present study are consistent with the view that entity and incremental theorists differ in how they appraise performance-relevant information.” She continues: “To the extent that entity theorists may have viewed negative feedback as a threat to self-preceptions about ability, rather than as a challenge to improve, they may have engaged less effort in ‘deep’ semantic processing . . . ultimately compromising their ability to correct as many errors on the subsequent retest.” A larger point may be summed up as follows: “Academic success is influenced not only by actual ability, but also by the beliefs and goals individuals bring to an achievement situation.” In other words, this research remains encouraging because it may give students who struggle academically a chance to rebound. Moreover, although the case may not be closed on whether ability can be changed or not, it does appear that one’s beliefs about their ability can change, and that remains an encouraging and insightful fact. Mangels, J. A., et al. (2006). Why do beliefs about intelligence influence learning success? A social cognitive neuroscience model. SCAN, 75 – 86.

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In the previous articles, we introduced the basics of reinforcement learning (RL) and explored its various applications in business. To delve deeper into the inner workings of reinforcement learning algorithms, it is important to understand the critical concept of the Deadly Triad (DT) in reinforcement learning. Understanding the intricacies of the Deadly Triad is critical for anyone who wants to master reinforcement learning algorithms and develop robust and reliable AI systems. In this article, we will learn what the Deadly Triad is, what impact it has on RL systems and how to overcome it. This article is divided into three sections. The first section gives a brief overview of necessary reinforcement learning concepts (deep reinforcement learning and overestimation of Q-values) that contribute to a better understanding of the Deadly Triad concept. In the second section, the basic concept of Deadly Triad is introduced and how it affects the training of reinforcement learning algorithms is explained. And finally, the third section discusses how the Deadly Triad problem can be addressed in the development of robust RL-based AI systems. Advanced Reinforcement Learning: Overview Introduction to Deep Reinforcement Learning Our Reinforcement Learning Terminology blog article explains reinforcement learning using a very simple example where the state and action spaces are small enough to create a Q-table for the reinforcement learning agent. For complex use cases in companies, such as those in this blog article , there will be a very large number of states and actions. So, creating a huge table to store the Q-values is computationally inefficient and requires large memory storage. Therefore, we use function approximators like neural networks to approximate the Q-values and that’s why we refer to these neural networks as Deep Q-Networks. There are multiple benefits of using neural networks in RL: - They can be updated much more efficiently than a Q-table. - They can generalize better to new states and actions that the agent has not seen before. - They can be used to solve problems with continuous state and action spaces. For training of Deep Q-Networks, we collect hundreds of transitions (state, action, reward, next-state, termination) and then select a small batch from it to train the neural network after every few iterations. When we update the neural network, we also update the policy (state-action mapping) used by the agent. For a compact introduction to the definition and terminology behind reinforcement learning, read our basic article on the methodology: Overestimation of Q-values When the agent starts learning in Temporal Difference (TD) learning, the accuracy of the Q-values depends on which actions it has tried and which neighbouring states it has explored. Moreover, at the beginning of training, the agent does not have enough information about the best action in a given state. Therefore, there is no guarantee at the beginning that the best action for the transition to the next state is the action with the highest Q-value! So an action with a maximum Q-value (which is noisy) may be suboptimal. If the agent has not explored the environment sufficiently, the Q-values of the suboptimal actions can be higher than the Q-values of the optimal actions. This is what is meant by overestimating the Q-values.It can lead to the agent making poor decisions and receiving fewer cumulative rewards. Now let’s understand what the Deadly Triad is, how it affects the learning process of RL agents, and how to mitigate its negative effects. For an in-depth technical introduction to reinforcement learning that gives you a basic understanding of reinforcement learning (RL) using a practical example, see our blog post: What is the Deadly Triad? In their book Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction, Sutton and Barto coined the term Deadly Triad to describe three properties of reinforcement learning that can pose significant hurdles to the stable and efficient learning of optimal strategies. These properties are bootstrapping, off-policy learning and function approximation. Together, these three properties shape the landscape in which reinforcement learning algorithms operate. Understanding the interplay between these properties is critical for developing robust and reliable RL systems, especially in scenarios where complex real-world challenges require sophisticated decision strategies. Let's understand each of these properties and their effects: 1. Bootstrapping is a method for using value estimates of one state to update the value estimates of other states. This approach is often used in reinforcement learning algorithms to disseminate knowledge and improve the accuracy of value functions or policy estimates. Bootstrapping plays an important role in the learning process as it allows an agent to use its existing knowledge to refine its understanding of the environment. In the simplest form of TD learning i.e. TD(0) learning, the immediate reward is added to the discounted value of the subsequent state (Bellman Equation). This is then used as a target value to update the current state's value. a) Q(st ,at) = R(st, at) + γ * max(at+1)[Q(st+1, at+1)], where - Q is the q-value - R is the reward - st, and at are the state and the action at time t - γ is the discount factor Gamma Although this method can speed up the learning process, it can introduce biases as well which can lead to overestimation or underestimation of the true value of an action as explained in the previous section. And these biases can then be propagated to other state-action pairs and thus affects the entire learning process. So, it is important to prevent the overestimation of Q-values and bias propagation. 2. Function approximators: In complex reinforcement learning systems, neural networks are mostly used as function approximators, as they allow dealing with larger state spaces. In some use cases, such as autonomous driving, they also play a key role in processing input images to produce the correct state representations. The use of neural networks offers numerous advantages, as mentioned in the previous section, but at the same time leads to non-linearity and approximation errors. This can affect the stability and convergence of the learning process. Therefore, it is important to control how the neural network updates itself and what impact this has on the estimates of the values. 3. Off-Policy-learning involves learning from data generated by a different policy than the current one. One such technique is using experience replay. Experience replay is an RL term used to refer to a small subset of transitions that are used to train a Q-network (as mentioned in the previous section). When we sample transitions, not all of them are generated by the same version of the neural network (or the policy). So, the neural network is updated based on various policies. This is a very powerful technique, as it improves the agent’s generalization ability and learns from suboptimal policies to generate an optimal policy. Although these transitions are very helpful for learning, they are biased toward the policy used to generate those experiences. Sometimes the older transitions can be contradictory to the agent’s current policy. This can impact the convergence and stability of the learning process. Let's see what happens when these three are combined. When we use function approximation, we are basically estimating the state-action values. When combining bootstrapping with neural networks, we are using the value estimate of one state to update the value estimate of another state and thereby also propagating the approximation errors. Since we are using a neural network, we update the parameters of the entire neural network, so we have inadvertently also affected the value estimates for all the other states as well. Now when we combine these two with off-policy learning, i.e., we use transitions from other older policies, we may also introduce a big difference between the current policy and the policy used to generate transitions. So now we have included approximation errors from older policies for bootstrapping as well. Together they amplify the negative effects of each other leading to instability, overestimation of value functions, and ultimately divergence of the learning curve of RL Agents. Now let’s see how we can mitigate these effects. In our Deep Dive, we highlight the interactions between business methods, neuroscience and reinforcement learning in artificial and biological intelligence. How do you deal with the Deadly Triad? Overcoming the challenges posed by the Deadly Triad in reinforcement learning (RL) requires a combination of careful algorithm design, regularisation techniques and strategies to mitigate the negative interactions between function approximation, bootstrapping and off-policy learning. RL researchers have investigated several algorithmic components that contribute to the divergence of the learning process. Here are some of the main approaches to address the Deadly Triad: - Regularisation techniques: Regularization methods can help control the complexity of the learned models and mitigate the impact of function approximation errors. Techniques like weight decay, dropout, and batch normalization can stabilize the training process of neural networks and reduce overfitting, which can contribute to inaccurate value estimates. - Capacity and size: If all the values are stored independently of each other then there will be no divergence. Similarly, if a function approximator (a neural network) is large enough (wider and deeper neural networks) then it might behave similarly to a tabular case. Experimentation showed that the best-performing experiments use the bigger network architectures. - Target networks: This hypothesis suggests that there is less divergence when bootstrapping on separate networks i.e., using another network (target network) to estimate the value of TD(0) target. This decoupling of the target and updating networks can alleviate the issues of error propagation. - Overestimation: Double Deep Q-learning is used to decouple the action selection and the action evaluation which reduces the overestimation. This, when coupled with the previous hypothesis, will reduce divergence even further. - Prioritisation: Prioritization assigns a priority value to each experience in the replay buffer, indicating its relative importance. During the sampling process, experiences with higher priority are more likely to be selected for training the RL agent. To balance the bias introduced by prioritized sampling (as high-priority experiences are sampled more frequently), importance sampling weights are used during the training process. These weights help correct the imbalance and ensure that the learning process remains stable. - Multi-Step: When bootstrapping immediately after a single step, the contraction in the learning update is proportional to gamma, γ. When bootstrapping after two steps, the expected contraction is γ^2. Thus, divergence may reduce when using multi-step updates even when using neural networks. Experimentations showed a reduction in instability with an increase in the number of steps. - Exploration strategies: Proper exploration strategies, such as epsilon-greedy or UCB exploration, can help the agent collect diverse experiences. This is especially important when using off-policy learning, as the agent needs to explore various situations to ensure that its data is representative. These strategies ensure that the agent slowly tries to prioritize valuable and highly rewarding experiences over time. Read about the use of reinforcement learning in industry and other relevant sectors in our technical article: In reinforcement learning, the concept of the Deadly Triad - the convergence of function approximation, bootstrapping and off-policy learning - sheds light on a complex node in the process of optimal decision making. The interplay of these three factors can amplify the challenges for reinforcement learning algorithms, leading to instability, overestimation and suboptimal learning outcomes. By understanding the dynamics, carefully designing algorithms and deeply understanding these interactions, we can develop stable and powerful RL systems for complex real-world situations.

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Table of Contents Epilepsy is related to a group of disorders that is described by a propensity for irregular seizures. There are different sorts of epilepsy. However, the good news is that Epilepsy drugs are available to control this health condition. If you feel unexpected movements like twitching and jerking in your different parts of the body like arms or legs, it can be the reason for epilepsy. The condition causes typically due to unusual electrical action in your brain which is called seizures. However, Seizures are not considered a dangerous condition; they often occur for a short period. But keep in mind, you can get in risk if you have one while driving or some other risky activities. Well, everyone can experience Epilepsy affects differently. If you have Epilepsy, then you must consult to doctor as he/she will help you find the treatment to control its effects. Causes of Epilepsy Health Specialists aren’t sure about what are the causes of epilepsy in many people. Few studies prescribed that Epilepsy sometimes runs through families. Your genes may cause Epilepsy and seizures. However, several health conditions negatively influence the mind that makes it that you get Epilepsy, for example: - Brain infections - Severe head injuries - Changes in brain structure - Stroke diseases - And blood vessel Types of Epilepsy There are numerous types of epilepsy disorders characterized by a particular arrangement of features, for example, the reason behind seizures, what reasons of seizures, what parts of affected and how extreme and successive the seizures are. To classify epilepsy, you can help from your specialist. He/she will help determine what medications might be the best and effective for you. However, experts often characterized Epilepsy in two classes: generalized epilepsy and focal epilepsy. Generalized Epilepsy: With generalized epilepsy, you may experience irregular activities in all areas of your brain. Generalized Epilepsy occurs by a genetic inclination; however, it can also cause by rain infections, lack of oxygen, head injuries. Focal Epilepsy: You experience an abnormal electrical activity that starts to form the smaller or isolated areas of the brain and spreads to different other parts of the brain. Lesions often cause this type of health condition in the brain that can be detected with an MRI Scan. While keeping in mind, in some cases, the reason for Epilepsy and seizures might never be identified. Signs & Symptoms of Epilepsy The signs and Symptoms of Epilepsy in patients act differently. In several situations, you might not know that you are in seizure and Epilepsy. Signs & Symptoms may include: - You feel Jerking movements in arms and legs - Unusual eye and head movements - Body Muscles becoming limp or weak - Irritability upon waking - There might be repetitive movements such as staring, clapping and lip smacking - There can be Changes in cognition or thinking like lack of response to words or sound, confusion in talking. - Get sad and unpleasant for no apparent reason - Loss of consciousness However, Epilepsy is a serious health condition, but don’t worry about this as it can be managed by proper treatment. If you’re encountering any of sign and symptoms which is mention above, then you need to make a meeting with your doctor, who may prescribe you that you are experiencing epilepsy. We are sure he/she help you get the ideal consideration for your condition. Cannabis has been recorded for anti-epileptic impacts since 1881. Today, the CBD capsules are used for epileptic treatment. Several studies prescribed about CBD, it is being used by doctors to treat seizure issue in patients. One research shows that cannabinoids are widely used to treat seizures, especially in children with seizure disorders. Health specialists can work with you to decide the ideal approach to manage your Epilepsy. The initial step to determine the sort and reason for your epilepsy. Your treatment strategy will rely upon this data. Finding the best treatment to manage epilepsy may take some experimentation or trails. Doctors often start treatment for epilepsy with a seizure drug. The objective of treatment with medicine is to search for the correct kind of medication to control your seizures with low side effects. Furthermore, your specialist may prescribe a certain way of life changes to help control Epilepsy indications. If all treatment goes ineffective, then doctors may recommend surgery. In some case, medical procedure & surgery can drastically improve your health condition. If patients prefer epilepsy surgery, before treatment, doctors firstly perform a series to test to highlights the areas of the brain that are affected with seizures. Keep in mind, and it is not comfortable living with epilepsy. Unexpected seizures can negative impacts your daily activities, but the neurosciences Health team can help you navigate your condition so you can take back control of your life.

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The Importance of Character Education for Tweens as Consumers Noha El-Bassiouny (), Ahmed Taher and Ehab Abou Aish Additional contact information Noha El-Bassiouny: Faculty of Management Technology, The German University in Cairo Ahmed Taher: American University in Cairo Ehab Abou Aish: Faculty of Management Technology, The German University in Cairo No 11, Working Papers from The German University in Cairo, Faculty of Management Technology Tweens is a term that denotes a market segment mentality that falls between children at the lower end and teens at the upper end. Tweens marketing strategies are considered critical for most global brands. Advocates against excessive consumerism and materialism polluting innocent childhood, specifically tweens, call for values implantation through character education in the school to breed more educated consumers. The effect of implanting character building programs in schools on the consumer behavior of the exposed children in the marketplace, however, has never been tested before. This research endeavor is, in essence, an overlap between consumer behavior and educational psychology, investigating the link between personality and behavior in the market. It falls under both positivist and interpretive consumer research, specifically the consumer socialization of children. The aim of this work is to develop a conceptual model linking character education to purchasing lifestyles and consumption patterns of the exposed children as consumers. Following, prospects for future research are highlighted. Keywords: Educational psychology; character education; attitudes and lifestyles; opinion-leadership; humanitarianism; ethnocentrism; adolescents and middle schools (search for similar items in EconPapers) JEL-codes: M30 M31 (search for similar items in EconPapers) Pages: 24 pages New Economics Papers: this item is included in nep-cbe, nep-edu, nep-lab and nep-mkt References: View references in EconPapers View complete reference list from CitEc Citations: Track citations by RSS feed Downloads: (external link) http://mgt.guc.edu.eg/wpapers/011bassiouny_taher_aish2008.pdf First version, 2008 (application/pdf) Our link check indicates that this URL is bad, the error code is: 404 Not Found This item may be available elsewhere in EconPapers: Search for items with the same title. Export reference: BibTeX RIS (EndNote, ProCite, RefMan) Persistent link: https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:guc:wpaper:11 Access Statistics for this paper More papers in Working Papers from The German University in Cairo, Faculty of Management Technology Contact information at EDIRC. Bibliographic data for series maintained by Dr.Dina Yousri ().

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By Paul Caine Producer, WTTW’s Chicago Tonight An ambitious new government-led research initiative aims to fully map the human brain.It’s called The Brain Initiative, and the goal is to advance understanding of how the brain works and develop treatments for crippling neurological diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.But for brain researchers, the Holy Grail is to understand the origins of human consciousness. The research challenges are staggering, the consequences of success could be world-changing, from understanding consciousness to behavioral control.Two leading neuroscientists, John Maunsell and Bobby Kasthuri, join us to talk about this potentially groundbreaking project.On Thursday, Maunsell and Kasthuri will be part of a discussion on the BRAIN Initiative at Northwestern University. The BRAIN InitiativePresident Barack Obama announced the launch of the BRAIN (an acronym for Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies) Initiative in April 2013: “We have a chance to improve the lives of not just millions, but billions of people on this planet through the research that’s done in this BRAIN Initiative alone. But it’s going to require a serious effort, a sustained effort. And it’s going to require us as a country to embody and embrace that spirit of discovery that is what made America, America.” The objective of the initiative is to get a better understanding of the human brain with its nearly 100 billion neurons and 100 trillion connections.“It’s a staggering, you could even say, daunting challenge,” said John Maunsell, professor and director of the Grossman Institute for Neuroscience, Quantitative Biology and Human Behavior at The University of Chicago. “The brain has 100 billion brain cells – neurons. That’s almost an inconceivable number, but that’s just the start of the complexity. Every one of those cells looks like a tree. Each human brain has 100,000 miles of cellular wiring and 100 trillion connections, so it really is a very challenging problem.”In the video below, Bobby Kasthuri, a neuroscience researcher at Argonne National Laboratories and assistant professor in the Department of Neurobiology at the University of Chicago, talks about the amount of data that would be produced by mapping the human brain. One of the challenges with mapping the human brain is developing the necessary tools. In the video below, Kasthuri talks about how electron microscopes and a diamond knife are being used to map the brain. It is hoped that the knowledge gained through the BRAIN Initiative will yield to breakthroughs in how neurological and psychiatric diseases are treated.“That’s certainly the hope, and I think that’s a very realistic sort of expectation. It’s very difficult to imagine how to treat something when you really don’t understand how [the brain] works normally,” Maunsell said. “Ultimately, the brain is a machine and it has some disorders, and we really don’t understand the underlying mechanisms, the origins of the scope of things like schizophrenia really are. Once we have a better understanding of the normal functioning brain, we will be in a much better position to understand neurological disorders.”

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Doing History: Investigating with Children in Elementary and Middle Schools, Third Editionoffers a unique perspective on history instruction in the elementary and middle grades. Through case studies of teachers and students in diverse classrooms and from diverse backgrounds, the text shows children engaging in authentic historical investigations, often in the context of an integrated social studies curriculum. The authors begin with the assumption that children can engage in valid forms of historical inquiry-collecting and analyzing data, examining the perspectives of people in the past, considering multiple interpretations, and creating evidence-based historical accounts. Vignettes in each chapter show communities of teachers and students doing history in environments rich in literature, art, writing, discussion, and debate. Teachers and students are shown working together to frame and investigate meaningful historical questions. Students write personal and family histories, analyze primary and secondary sources, examine artifacts, conduct interviews, and create interpretations through drama, narrative, and the arts. The grounding of this book in contemporary sociocultural theory and research makes it particularly useful as a social studies methods text. In each chapter, the authors explain how the teaching demonstrated in the vignettes reflects basic principles of contemporary learning theory; thus they not only provide specific examples of successful activities, but place them in a theoretical context that allows teachers to adapt and apply them in a wide variety of settings. Features include: *Classroom vignettes. Rather than a "cookbook" of lesson ideas, this text illustrates the possibilities (and obstacles) of meaningful teaching and learning in real classroom settings. *Inquiry-oriented instruction. The approaches shown in the classrooms portrayed derive from current theory and research in the field of history education. This text is not a hodge-podge of activities, but a consistent and theoretically grounded illustration of meaningful history instruction. *Diversity of perspectives. This is emphasized in two ways. First, the text helps students look at historical events and trends from multiple perspectives. Second, the classrooms illustrated throughout the book include teachers and students from a variety of backgrounds--this gives the book widespread appeal to educators in a range of settings. *Assessment. Teachers are provided with clear guidance in using multiple forms of assessment to evaluate the specifically historical aspects of children's learning. New in the Third Edition: *Greater attention is given to the role of history education in preparing students for participation in a pluralist democracy. *Connections are made between instructional activities and the aims of citizenship, reflecting the authors' view that history should contribute to deliberation over an evolving common good. *Examples are provided of techniques for scaffolding discussion about controversial issues and for grounding that discussion in historical study. *International comparisons are included to encourage reflection on the range of perspectives on history education across cultures. *Bibliographies are updated to incorporate new scholarship on historical thinking and learning. *New resources are included for children's literature that supports good teaching.Levstik, Linda S. is the author of 'Doing History Investigating With Children in Elementary and Middle Schools', published 2005 under ISBN 9780805850727 and ISBN 0805850724.

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“The days are long, but the years are short.” This was a mantra to myself many afternoons when my boys were small. Now they’re both teenagers, and it seems even more poignant. Because the years were short, they flew by. It didn’t seem like it at the time, especially when I’d given anything for adult company. The feelings of isolation and loneliness often leave me in a weeping heap (I’m sure many parents at home with small children can relate to or remember!). Two things saved me from true loneliness when my boys were tiny: my mother’s group and a local playgroup. Going to those groups every week gave me something to look forward to. But more importantly, they gave me a sense of community, belonging, and connectedness. Some of the women I met became very dear friends, and the shared experience of motherhood turned out to be a true blessing that comes along with having kids. It turns out science has some very compelling evidence for the power of friendship too. A 2010 meta-analysis of 148 studies that tracked 300,000 people for 7 1/2 years after completing surveys of their social connectedness found that, Having friends and social connections means you’ll live longer. The converse is also true. Social isolation is terrible for your health. The influence of social relationships on the risk of death is comparable with well-established risk factors for mortality, such as smoking and alcohol consumption. It exceeds the influence of other risk factors, such as physical inactivity and obesity. The impact of socialising on survival is comparable to quitting smoking! The negative impacts of social isolation were found to be equivalent to, smoking 15 cigarettes a day being an alcoholic or worse than not exercising or more harmful than obesity. In contrast, people with well-established supportive social networks show, lower rates of heart disease less infectious illness because of a stronger immune system lower blood pressure less abnormal inflammatory responses to stress lower rates of dementia. In this study, measures of ‘social connection’ or ‘supportive networks’ included, marriage or partnership status household status (single or two more housemates or family members) contact less than once a month (including face-to-face, telephone, or written/e-mail contact) with their children or other family members or friends, social club, resident groups, religious groups or committee participation. The authors of the 2010 meta-analysis said, “Humans are naturally social. Yet, the modern way of life in industrialised countries greatly reduces the quantity and quality of social relationships. Many people in these countries no longer live in extended families or near each other. Instead, they often live on the other side of the country or even across the world from their relatives. Many also delay getting married and having children. Likewise, more and more people of all ages in developed countries are living alone, and loneliness is becoming increasingly common.” Holt-Lunstad, Smith, Layton 2010 I don’t know about you, but this finding makes me sad. Being socially connected maintains brain health. Research has shown that, People who participate in many different leisure activities have a lower risk of developing dementia (activities include going to clubs, visiting friends or being visited, playing cards and doing community or volunteer work). People with large social networks have a lower risk of dementia. Loneliness is associated with more than double the risk of developing late-life dementia. How do friends or socialising impact the brain on improving health? There are a few theories: Being socially connected to other people may reduce the harmful effects of stress. Friends may encourage healthy behaviours such as eating properly, taking medications, and practising hygiene. Interacting with other people may contribute to ‘cognitive reserve’. Cognitive reserve is a bit of a vague term, but it means how resistant the mind is to brain damage or deterioration. Socialising involves many cognitive functions such as thinking, feeling, sensing, reasoning and intuition. Mentally stimulating activities build up a reserve of healthy brain cells and promote the formation of new synapses (connections between brain cells), which may protect against dementia. Your prescription for brain well-being: socialising! I know from experience it takes courage to get out there, put on a smile and brave rejection when you feel alone and isolated. But remember that the benefits to your mental and physical well-being are as good for you as giving up smoking!! I’m involved in two significant initiatives that include connecting socially for brain health: Join (or start-up) a Walking Book Club. A walking book club combines social activity with exercise and cognitive challenge as you walk and talk about the book with your friends! Organise a Neural Knitworks event. These events combine social activity with mindfulness and cognitive challenge as you craft/knit/weave woolly neurons and natter about neuroscience. Check out Neural Knitworks here. 2023 Research Updates Important New Research The most extensive longitudinal study to date investigating the influence of loneliness on dementia risk was published in 2022 and encompassed over 460,000 participants from the UK BioBank. The study discovered a 26% increased dementia risk associated with social isolation. This outcome was present despite the researchers statistically controlling for the influence of other known risk factors, such as physical inactivity, poor heart health, depression, level of education and genetic vulnerability. True feelings of loneliness were also associated with increased dementia risk. However, that relationship was no longer significant once the researchers controlled for depression, with 75% of the association attributable to depressive symptoms. This finding suggests there is a subtle difference between being socially isolated and feeling lonely. This is a small but important point: Being “alone” is a physical state where you are physically alone. Being “lonely” is an emotional state where you feel alone or disconnected from others. Brain imaging studies have now shown that loneliness can affect the structure and function of key brain regions involved in executive functioning, emotional regulation, memory, self-awareness, motivation, and social perception. This means that your degree of social connectedness can fundamentally change your neural wiring and alter how your brain functions. Feelings of loneliness increase overall mortality risk by 22%, with men experiencing a greater risk than women. However, the relative contribution of societal and biological factors to the increased mortality risk for lonely men is still yet to be determined. The effect of loneliness on our health and well-being became especially evident during the COVID-19 pandemic. The social isolation associated with quarantine has been linked mainly to increases in anxiety disorders and other physical and mental health conditions. Researchers have now shown that people with stronger social connections have a decreased risk of stroke, similar to their lower rates of heart disease. People who report being lonely show increased biological hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease compared to people who aren’t lonely. These brain changes include a more significant accumulation of toxic proteins, altered gene expression and lesions in their white matter. Feeling socially connected also plays a critical role in protecting against mental health disorders. One recent review found that loneliness has a greater impact on mental health and well-being than any other health outcome. Strong social connections and frequent interactions with others are protective against depression and anxiety. This prescribed socialising doesn’t always have to be in person, either! New research has shown that older adults who regularly use technology for social interactions have a 31% lower chance of being classified as socially isolated over four years!

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Recently, several behavioral sciences became increasingly interested in investigating biological and evolutionary foundations of (human) social behavior. In this light, prosocial behavior is seen as a core element of human nature. A central role within this perspective plays the “social brain” that is not only able to communicate with the environment but rather to interact directly with other brains via neuronal mind reading capacities such as empathy. From the perspective of a sociologist, this paper investigates what “social” means in contemporary behavioral and particularly brain sciences. It will be discussed what “social” means in the light of social neuroscience and a glance into the history of social psychology and the brain sciences will show that two thought traditions come together in social neuroscience, combining an individualistic and an evolutionary notion of the “social.” The paper concludes by situating current research on prosocial behavior in broader social discourses about sociality and society, suggesting that to naturalize prosocial aspects in human life is a current trend in today’s behavioral sciences and beyond. Recently, several behavioral sciences, for instance neuroeconomics (e.g., Fehr and Fischbacher, 2003), primatology (e.g., De Waal, 2009) and social neuroscience (e.g., Frith and Frith, 2010), became increasingly interested in investigating biological and evolutionary foundations of (human) social behavior. Scholars from these fields argue that the biology of humans is itself much more prosocial than previously thought. Prosocial behavior is a core element of human nature. It is rooted in each individual, has evolved during the course of evolution, is located in the brain, its genes, functions, hormones and neurotransmitters and is embedded in an environment. A central concept of this new perspective on human nature is the “social brain” (Brothers, 1990) that is not only able to communicate with the environment but rather to interact directly with other brains via neuronal mind reading capacities such as empathy (see Young, 2012a). Taking social neuroscience as an example, this paper explores the notion of “social” in contemporary behavioral sciences and how a new concept of human nature emerges. At the core of this new concept is the notion that default human behavior is prosocial. The paper sets out to investigate what “social” means in social neuroscience. (1), the research field is introduced before a glance in the history of the social sciences shows that “social” is by no means an unambiguous term (2). The historical roots of the social brain are explored (3) and the paper concludes (4) by situating current research on social behavior in broader discourses about sociality and society, suggesting that the trend to look for prosocial aspects in human life, culture and society also takes place in other spheres of society. What is Social Neuroscience? Social neuroscience is much more diverse than this brief perspective paper could picture and hence this paper’s aim can only be to outline general trends within the field. The term “social neuroscience” was first coined by social psychologists Gary Berntson and John Cacioppo in 1992 (Cacioppo and Berntson, 1992). They propose a cooperation between social psychology and neuroscience in order to avoid the pitfalls of reductionism by adding multiple perspectives to given problems. But it took another decade before a field with research groups, professorships, university courses, textbooks, conferences, societies, and journals emerged that calls itself social neuroscience (Matusall et al., 2011). In this process, a second important impetus came from a paper by Ochsner and Lieberman (2001), who should also be named among the founding figures of the field. Many of social neuroscience’s topics of interest fall into the realm of classic social psychology, for instance the study attitudes, prejudices and stereotypes (Matusall, 2012). Interestingly, however, is the field’s new focus on emotion, empathy and altruism (cf. Decety and Ickes, 2009; Singer and Lamm, 2009). Recently, prosocial behavior moved into the center of attention, not only in social neuroscience but also in other behavioral sciences such as primatology and anthropology (cf. De Waal, 2009; Tomasello, 2009). What does Social Mean in Social Neurosciences? In social neuroscience, prosocial behavior is sought in genes, brains and evolutionary past. “Social” is simultaneously understood as a capacity of the organism’s brain to cope with the environment and as an evolutionary advantage of the species. This perspective on the social differs fundamentally from sociology’s perspective, where the social can be anything from the sum of individual actions to power relations or social structures. The list of phenomena having been defined to be social in the course of the history of the social sciences is rather long and diverse as (Greenwood, 1997, p. 3) points out by giving a random collection of those phenomena: “states, families, armies, religious organizations, literary societies, mobs, street brawls, people chatting on a street corner, the Roman Catholic Church, the Renaissance, insect communication, dominance hierarchies among primates, language, financial instruments, and traffic flow in a city.” Thus, “social” is by no means an unambiguous term and for understanding social neuroscience’s notion of “social,” it is crucial to look into the history of experimental social psychology, which is one of social neuroscience’s intellectual parent disciplines. Looking at the questions social neuroscientists tackle in their research, it soon becomes evident that they focus on the way social stimuli are perceived and processed in the brain—no matter whether they study empathy, attitudes toward out-group members or voters’ behavior. This individual-centered approach may be self-evident for social neuroscientists, yet it is a historically contingent approach as will be shown in the next section. Genealogy of a Concept The individualistic perspective on the social has a long tradition in experimental social psychology: since its emergence in the 1920’s, this discipline has understood itself as a branch of individual psychology (Allport, 1924), investigating whether and how the perception and processing of social stimuli differed from the perception and processing of non-social stimuli. In order to apply experimental methods to such questions, social psychologists had to frame their objects of investigation as statistically measurable. In this process, the social was redefined as a quality of countable entities. This perspective differed from theories in 19th century social psychology that connected the social with morality and religion, respectively with institutionalized power (Danziger, 1997). Moreover, the individualist notion of the social had a crucial role in defining and defending the individualistic American Way of Life against collectivist notions of society and the individual (Rose, 1998). The political background of its emergence seems all but forgotten by those employing this notion of social today as a variable investigated by experimental methods. Most social neuroscientists are trained in social psychology and most positions are located in psychology departments. Their research questions and their argumentation stand in the tradition of experimental social psychology. By relocating the “social” in the individual’s brain and neurobiology, social neuroscientists are in line with their predecessors in treating it as an individual capacity. Perspectives from Sociology Looking with the eyes of a sociologist, investigating problems in small pieces, such as brain activation, entails the risk of losing the perspective on the broader picture and taking the small piece for the whole problem (Star, 1983). The experimental design of “social” in social neuroscience research requires rendering research in a quantitative fashion.1 This does not necessarily imply a reduction of complexity in the stimuli presented but in the questions asked. If complex issues such as voters’ emotional reactions to election outcomes or empathy with members of an “out-group” are measured by quantitative tools, it has to be assumed that complex phenomenona can be split up into several problems and thus are not more than the sum of their parts. This approach differs fundamentally from hermeneutic approaches towards complex phenomena, which are more interested in meaning than in mechanisms and which are dominant in humanities and non-quantifying social sciences. To some extent, social neuroscientists seem to be aware of this and pay credit to the problem of complexity by drawing on the notion of levels (Cacioppo and Berntson, 1992; Ochsner and Lieberman, 2001). Cacioppo and Berntson (1992) maintain that although the brain is an essential component of all social beings, brain, behavior and society are each too complex to be reduced to one another. Hence, social neuroscience aims to combine data generated on different levels to reach a better comprehension of social behavior. Yet, knowledge from other disciplines can only be integrated if compatible with the standards of quantifying sciences and qualitative knowledge is difficult to incorporate in such paradigms. History of the Social Brain2 Not only in social psychology, also in the brain sciences, questions about the “social” have a long tradition. The relationship between the brain and the social has been an issue of hot debate ever since the emergence of modern brain science in the late 18th century. In these debates, the pendulum has been swinging happily back and forth between seeing either nature or nurture as responsible for human behavior. Early 19th century’s phrenologists, for instance, defined a cerebral faculty for each human property and thus saw a clear causal direction from brain to behavior, while psychiatrists in the second half of the 19th century made harmful social conditions responsible for psychiatric disorders and thus reversed causal directions (Hagner, 2007). Theories of evolution were central to 19th and early 20th century’s concepts of the brain and the social. These theories were associated with a hierarchical organization of brain areas: the younger, more evolved parts such as intellectual capacities or morality controlled older parts such as drives and emotions (e.g., Jackson, 1884). Not least as a reaction to the role medicine and biological sciences played in Nazi ideology, after the Second World War research in the West was dominated by behaviorism, cybernetics and cognitive science (Hagner, 2007). During that time questions about human interactions did not play a role in mainstream neuroscience and psychology. This began to change slowly in the 1980’s and with even more force in the 1990’s when the social brain returned to the debate in three independent theories about the relationship between brain and social: the social brain hypothesis, the somatic marker hypothesis and the mirror neuron theory, which will be discussed in next section. The Social Brain Since the 1990’s The social brain hypothesis suggests that the size of the neocortex and the group size of mammals living in social groups correlate (Brothers, 1990; Dunbar, 1998). The bigger the group, the more complex the social situations which the brain has to process. Certain cognitive skills evolved to cope with social complexity. Consequently, the way we act in social interactions is determined by evolutionary heritage. The social brain hypothesis does not explicitly discuss the impact of history, culture, society, or life experiences on social cognition abilities in an individual or a group. Only in an evolutionary time frame these factors may have an impact on how future generations may engage with each other (Matusall, 2012). Nor does it answer the “hen and egg” question of whether the complex social groups or the cerebral capacities for processing them was first; or whether both evolved together. What it does is providing an evolutionary explanation for both, human sociality and the species’ big brains. The second theory, the somatic marker hypothesis was introduced by neuropsychiatrist Antonio Damasio and it suggests that positive experiences are connected with positive memories leaving a positive somatic marker, i.e., an incentive for deciding in favor of similar actions in future decision-making processes while negative experiences are connected with negative memories leaving negative a somatic marker, i.e., an alarm bell, leading to deciding against similar actions in future decision-making processes. These markers are acquired during socialization not only through experienced events but also by incorporating norms and rules and can change throughout life if new experiences occur (Damasio et al., 1991). This means a crucial shift in thinking about the social and the brain, which is later taken up by social neurosciences and related disciplines (Cacioppo and Berntson, 2005; Glimcher et al., 2009; Ariely and Berns, 2010). The somatic marker hypothesis couples biology with cultural and social environments. Somatic markers and thus the ability to act socially is part of the biological make-up with which humans are born, yet the way this sociality takes shape depends on the particular beliefs and values of the society one is born into (Damasio, 1994). Around the same time when Damasio developed his somatic marker hypothesis, in Italy a team of neuroscientists reported to have found a neural basis of the capacity of primates to engage with others (di Pellegrino et al., 1992). It followed an ever-increasing interest in these neurons, which were soon named mirror neurons, and their hypothesized function included a growing number of areas of social life (e.g., Gallese, 2003). This theory did not only seem to explain human social behavior, development and learning but also how we participate, for example, in another person’s joy and distress automatically, by biological default. Yet, after the first excitement faded away, mirror neurons became contested (see for instance Hickok, 2008; Gallese et al., 2011) and it is too early to decide whether the mirror neuron theory will become canonical knowledge in the attempt of how mind and brain work. Like other such theories such as the concept of brain plasticity, mirror neuron theory enjoys a broad popularity outside the scientific community—perhaps not least because it provides a biology based on prosociality. The idea of biologically automatic responses to other people’s behavior and even emotions is alluring, since it seems to argue in favor of a prosocial default of human nature. Even though feeling does not automatically lead to acting, being able to empathize may lay a foundation for prosocial action. These three theories and their focus on social aspects of the human condition differ from preceding notions of human nature in one fundamental respect: Homo sapiens are understood as a social and empathic species rather than an individualistic one. Contrary to older models, it is now suggested that it comes quite naturally to humans to act prosocially. Evidence for the prosocial nature of humankind is found in humans’ evolutionary history and the neurobiological and hormonal substrate of the brain. By looking at social behavior from this perspective, it appears that cooperation and altruism are beneficial. Working together, so the argument goes, made life easier and increased the chances of survival of the group’s offspring (see e.g., Brothers, 1990 and Dunbar, 1998). Evolutionary reasoning about prosociality can be summarized as follows: since Homo sapiens are a social species, organized in communities, individuals, who are able to decipher social stimuli and to act in prosocial ways had better chances of reproduction and hence, social brains evolved.3 This evolutionary heritage equips contemporary humans with the tools for coping with the complexity of social organizations and to engage in social relationships. Not everyone acts prosocially all the time, but every healthy person bears in themselves the potential to do so and has the option to act on that potential. This perspective on sociality means a shift in the conceptual framework of what it is the norm and what needs explanation. While protagonists of this new version of human nature do not deny that aggression is as much part of human nature as is empathy, it now becomes marked as the other, the trait which needs to be explained and this also provides a new perspective on pathologies such as psychopathy or autism, which are now defined by their lack of empathy (e.g., Baron-Cohen, 2011; Blair, 2011). But not only pathologies, even everyday behavior such as envy is interpreted in terms of empathy, respectively the lack thereof (e.g., Shamay-Tsoory, 2009). This does not mean that antisocial behavior is no longer a part of this paradigm. Yet, it becomes the other, the non-normal, which needs to be explained. In social neuroscience, the individualistic notion of social rooting in American social psychology and the more collectivist notion of the social rooting in anthropology come together and thus in this framework, social relations are intelligibly investigated within the individual. The focus is not on structures, institutions, power relations, all things that can potentially be changed, but on the social as a biological category—nature—that cannot be changed. Sociality becomes a naturalized, innate quality and thus every “normal” individual is capable of behaving prosocially. At a time when responsibility for social cohesion is de-centralized, the neural capacity for prosociality is found. Social neuroscience’s notion of social relates to a new notion of what human beings are and how they normally act, in short a new version of a biologically based human nature. In this narrative, sociality is the driving force behind human evolution. The notion of “social” employed in social neuroscience research is located in the individual brain, its ability to decode a certain kind of stimuli and to interact with others. It is a noteworthy historical concomitance that the investigation of social interactions via social structures or collective processes is replaced by the investigation of processes that take place within individuals at the same time when, in a broader societal setting, collectivist solutions have been replaced by more individual solution (e.g., in welfare, see for instance Sennett, 2006; Lessenich, 2008). Rabinow (1999) described this development as the transformation towards a “biosociality”—social structures become less important while identities are more and more based on individual (i.e., genetic) attributes than on social or group attributes. Investigating the social via communal genetic make-up or individuals’ brains is rather different from studying the external conditions for a social structure. In this approach, prosocial behavior becomes something innate and thus every normal individual is capable of behaving prosocially. Social neuroscience is an interdisciplinary endeavor aiming to investigate sociality. Taking its methods from social psychology and cognitive neuroscience and its explanatory frame from evolutionary anthropology, it defines the social as both a feature of Homo sapiens’ environment and an inherent human capacity to cope and survive. Doing so, it contributes to a new, prosocial notion of human nature. The lens through which social behavior is studied, has changed. Yet, at the moment, both its focus on quantitative methods and reservations from many arts and social sciences exclude qualitatively operating social science from participating in this endeavor. A methodological and epistemological openness on both sides would be desirable because this could really increase knowledge about social conditions of human nature. Examples for such openness and collaborations can for instance be found in projects on “neurofeminism” (Bluhm et al., 2012; Dussauge and Kaiser, 2012; Einstein, 2012; Matusall, in press). These projects experiment with collaborations bridging the gap between qualitative and quantitative disciplines. Conflict of Interest Statement The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The research was in part funded by ESF grant number 2423, SNF grant number 100011-116725/1 and MINDLab. - ^On the potential dangers of the “mereological fallacy”, see Bennett and Hacker, 2003 and also Krüger, 2010. - ^For more detailed historical analyses of discourses on the social brain and its relationship to society, see the recent work by anthropologist Allan Young: Young, 2011, 2012a,b. For a philosophical perspective on prosociality in neuroeconomics, and particularly a critical examination of the notion of altruistic punishment, see e.g., Klein, 2012. - ^The relationship between prosociality, cooperation, and altruism is complex and by no means uncontested in evolutionary psychology and other behavioral sciences. For overviews over the debate see e.g., Henrich and Henrich, 2006; Boyd and Richerson, 2009. Damasio, A., Tranel, D., and Damasio, H. (1991). “Somatic markers and the guidance of behavior: theory and preliminary testing,” in Frontal Lobe Function and Dysfunction, eds L. Harvey, H. Eisenberg, and A. Benton (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 217–229. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.07.001 Einstein, A. (2012). “Situated neuroscience: exploring biologies of diversity,” in Neurofeminism. Issues at the Intersection of Feminist Theory and Cognitive Science, eds R. Bluhm, A. Jaap Jacobson, and H. L. Maibom (New York, NY: Palgrave MacMillan), 145–174. Klein, R. (2012). “The neurobiology of altruistic punishment. a moral assessment of its social utility,” in Philosophy of Behavioral Biology. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 282, eds K. Plaisance and T. Reydon (Dordrecht: Springer), 297–313. Matusall, S., Kaufmann, I., and Christen, M. (2011). “The emergence of social neuroscience as an academic discipline,” in The Oxford Handbook of Social Neuroscience, eds J. Decety and J. Cacioppo (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 9–27. Shamay-Tsoory, S. (2009). “Empathic processing: its cognitive and affective dimensions and neuroanatomical basis,” in The Social Neuroscience of Empathy, eds J. Decety and W. Ickes (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), 215–232. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhs347 Young, A. (2012a). “Empathic cruelty and the origins of the social brain,” in Critical Neuroscience. A Handbook of the Social and Cultural Context of Neuroscience, eds S. Choudhury, and J. Slaby (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell), 159–176.

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Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the efficacy of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Although the terms “educational psychology” and “school psychology” are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists. Educational psychology is disturbed with the processes of educational achievement in the general population and in sub-populations such as gifted children and those with specific disabilities. Educational psychology can in part be understood through its association with other disciplines. It is informed mainly by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline equivalent to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology in revolve informs a broad range of specialties within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, prospectus development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are generally housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in initial psychology textbooks. High rates of education are necessary for countries to accomplish high levels of economic growth. In theory poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can approve cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. But economists dispute that if the gap in education between a rich and a poor nation is too large, as is the case between the poorest and the richest nations in the world, the transfer of these technologies that drive economic growth becomes hard, thus the economies of the world’s poorest nations be idle. Education technology at a Glimpse Artificial Intelligence Is Not Up To the Mark Spacewalking Astronauts Become Plumbers Impact Of Cyclone Disaster Tomas In Fiji End of the One of the World’s Oldest Languages Discovery Mission Was Successful

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Unveiling the Hidden Link Between Vaping and Anxiety - What Neuroscience Tells Us Vaping has become increasingly popular over the past decade, with many people turning to e-cigarettes as a supposedly safer alternative to traditional smoking. But while vaping may offer some benefits, recent studies have shown that it could be linked to a surprising and concerning side effect: anxiety. The question is, why? What is it about vaping that could be triggering anxiety in some users? To find the answers, we need to turn to the fascinating world of neuroscience, where cutting-edge research is uncovering the hidden connections between our brains, our behavior, and our addiction to nicotine. In this article, we'll explore the latest findings on vaping and anxiety, and take a deep dive into the complex and often mysterious workings of the human brain. So if you're a vaper, a curious observer, or simply interested in the intersection of science and society, read on for a fascinating journey into the hidden link between vaping and anxiety. Nicotine and the Brain's Reward System To understand the link between vaping and anxiety, we first need to look at the role of nicotine in the brain. Nicotine is a highly addictive substance found in tobacco products, including e-cigarettes. When we inhale nicotine, it binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in the brain, triggering the release of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, which is associated with feelings of pleasure and reward. This process is part of the brain's reward system, which is designed to reinforce behaviors that promote survival and well-being, such as eating, drinking, and reproduction. However, when this system is hijacked by addictive substances like nicotine, it can lead to compulsive and harmful behaviors. One of the key ways that nicotine affects the brain is by increasing the activity of the amygdala, a small almond-shaped structure in the brain that is involved in the processing of emotions such as fear and anxiety. Studies have shown that nicotine can activate the amygdala and increase anxiety-related behaviors in animal models, suggesting that the same may be true in humans. Anxiety and the brain Anxiety is a common mental health condition that affects millions of people worldwide. Anxiety disorders are characterized by excessive worry or fear that interferes with daily activities. While the exact causes of anxiety are not fully understood, research has shown that anxiety is linked to changes in brain chemistry and function. The brain has several regions that are involved in the regulation of anxiety, including the prefrontal cortex, the amygdala, and the hippocampus. The prefrontal cortex is involved in decision-making and impulse control, while the amygdala is involved in emotional processing and the hippocampus is involved in memory and learning. Vaping and Anxiety: The Evidence While the evidence linking vaping and anxiety is still emerging, several studies have suggested that there may be a connection. For example, a study published in the journal Nicotine & Tobacco Research in 2017 found that young adults who used e-cigarettes were more likely to experience symptoms of anxiety and depression than those who did not. Another study, published in the journal Addiction in 2020, found that adults who used e-cigarettes were more likely to report symptoms of anxiety and depression than those who did not. The study also found that this association was strongest among those who vaped more frequently.These studies suggest that there may be a link between vaping and anxiety, but they do not prove causation. It is possible that people who are already prone to anxiety are more likely to start vaping, or that other factors such as stress or social isolation may be contributing to both vaping and anxiety. Neuroscience and the Vaping-Anxiety Connection So how does neuroscience help us understand the link between vaping and anxiety? One key area of research is the impact of nicotine on the brain's prefrontal cortex (PFC), a region involved in decision-making, impulse control, and emotional regulation. Studies have shown that nicotine can impair PFC function, leading to poor decision-making and increased impulsivity. This may make it more difficult for people to quit vaping or to resist the urge to vape when experiencing anxiety or stress. Another area of research is the impact of vaping on the brain's stress response system, which includes the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The HPA axis is involved in the body's response to stress and has been shown to play a role in anxiety and other mood disorders. Nicotine has been shown to activate the HPA axis, leading to the release of stress hormones such as cortisol. This may explain why some people experience increased anxiety and stress when vaping. Furthermore, the flavorings and other additives used in e-cigarettes may also play a role in the link between vaping and anxiety. Some studies have suggested that certain flavorings, such as cinnamon and menthol, may have negative effects on the brain, including increased anxiety and depression. What can be done to address the link between vaping and anxiety? Given the potential link between vaping and anxiety, it is important to take steps to address this issue. One approach is to focus on prevention, by educating young people about the potential risks of vaping and encouraging them to avoid these products. Another approach is to provide resources and support for those who are struggling with anxiety or addiction related to vaping. For example, therapy and counseling can help individuals to develop coping strategies and manage their symptoms. Support groups and peer networks can also be helpful for those who are trying to quit vaping. In addition, stricter regulation of e-cigarettes and their marketing could help to reduce their appeal to young people. This could include measures such as raising the legal age for purchasing e-cigarettes, limiting the availability of flavored e-cigarette products, and restricting marketing and advertising targeted towards young people While the link between vaping and anxiety is still being explored, the evidence suggests that there may be a connection. Nicotine, the addictive substance in e-cigarettes, affects the brain's reward system and can activate the amygdala, leading to increased anxiety-related behaviors. Studies have also found an association between vaping and symptoms of anxiety and depression, although more research is needed to establish causation. Neuroscience is helping to shed light on the complex and multifaceted link between vaping and anxiety. Researchers are exploring the impact of nicotine on the brain's prefrontal cortex and stress response system, as well as the potential role of flavorings and other additives in e-cigarettes. If you are a vaper experiencing symptoms of anxiety, it is important to speak with a healthcare provider to discuss treatment options. Quitting vaping may be a helpful step in managing anxiety symptoms, although it can be difficult due to the addictive nature of nicotine. Further research is needed to fully understand the link between vaping and anxiety, and to develop effective interventions for those affected. For more information on the topic, check out our articles The Vaping Trend: How it Impacts Adolescent Development - Insights from Neuroscience and What Makes Vaping addictive? - Truth Unveiled by a Neuroscientist. About the Author She is the creative copywriter at Magnify Media Agency and is currently working on audiovisual projects. She is also interested in psychology, constantly informing herself about human conduct and looking for ways to improve mental health to help others live a fulfilling life. Find her on Instagram here: @aange.cas

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When colleges close, dad and mom are sometimes requested to facilitate the educational of kids at house and may struggle to carry out this task. This is very true for fogeys with limited education and assets. Students who require particular education found it difficult to progress via the curriculum with out tools and support that they require. Polling means that schools that serve a majority of students of colour are far less prone to have entry to the technology needed for remote learning. Only 66% of Black households in the us had home broadband service in 2019. Only 45% of Black Americans owned a desktop or laptop computer pc in 2015. The integration of STEM—Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics—education in the curricula has turn into a precedence in up to date education, the place teachers have a decisive role. Thus, analysis has targeted on teachers’ readiness for STEM education, where the prerequisite is to ensure valid measurements. Editor’s Choice articles are based mostly on suggestions by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the globe. Editors select a small variety of articles recently printed within the journal that they consider might be significantly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work revealed in the numerous analysis areas of the journal. DfE is a ministerial division, supported by 18 businesses and public bodies. - Education refers back to the discipline that’s involved with strategies of educating and studying in faculties or school-like environments, versus various nonformal and informal technique of socialization. - Only 45% of Black Americans owned a desktop or laptop computer computer in 2015. - The visualization reveals the proportion of total education expenditures contributed immediately by households in 15 excessive income nations and 15 low/middle revenue nations . - Visit the SupportHub for answers to frequent questions and to open a help ticket. - Futureskilling entails taking over a forward-thinking mindset, skillset, and toolset to thrive in work and past. It spans the period between the typically universal compulsory major education to the optionally available, selective tertiary, “postsecondary”, or “larger” education of ISCED 5 and 6 (e.g. university), and the ISCED four Further education or vocational school. In India, for example, compulsory education spans over twelve years, with eight years of elementary education, 5 years of main schooling and three years of upper main education. Various states within the republic of India present 12 years of compulsory school education based mostly on a national curriculum framework designed by the National Council of Educational Research and Training. Strictly speaking, for this spending sample to be truly progressive there must be subsidies or income-contingent loans to ensure that low-income college students can even access tertiary education and reap the non-public advantages from this type of funding. There are two necessary sources of long-run cross-country information on education attainment. One In Five Students At Top Universities Consider Dropping Out Over Value Of Living Here we concentrate on enrollment and attendance rates specifically at the main level. Statistics of literacy charges for latest many years are revealed by statistical workplaces. For earlier durations, historians need to reconstruct information from other sources. The commonest methodology is to calculate the share of these people who may sign official paperwork (e.g. courtroom documents). On March 6, Yoeseltse Middle Secondary School in Yoeseltse gewog, Samtse turned the next secondary school . Takiwātanga – In Your Own Time And House For an evaluation of pupil attributes, see intelligence, human; studying principle; psychological testing. Studies have shown that lively learning not often utilized in schools is very efficacious. Studies found that large open online programs supply a pathway to employment that currently bypasses conventional universities and their degree applications while typically being extra related to contemporary economic activities and the students’ interests. Such online Education courses usually are not commonly part of formal education but are usually each completed and selected totally on behalf of the scholar, sometimes with the support of peers over online boards. Deploying, utilizing, and managing various tools or platforms for education sometimes indicate an increase in financial investment. Expenses for education are sometimes massive with many calling for further increases. A consequence of the latter theory is that efficient educating ought to current a selection of educating methods which cover all three studying modalities in order that completely different students have equal alternatives to be taught in a means that is effective for them. Guy Claxton has questioned the extent that studying kinds corresponding to Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic are useful, significantly as they’ll have a tendency to label youngsters and subsequently prohibit learning. Recent analysis has argued, “there is no sufficient evidence base to justify incorporating studying kinds assessments into basic academic follow.” Education began in prehistory, as adults educated the young within the data and skills deemed necessary in their society. In pre-literate societies, this was achieved orally and through imitation. Most Current 2021 Annual Report The idea has been around for a while, however the pandemic bolstered the significance of offering assist to families and students to enhance studying. Faced with declining enrollment, smaller colleges are harnessing innovative ideas — like course sharing — to draw in any other case reluctant college students. Amid grief and outrage over the demise of Adriana Kuch, 14, students have mounted protests, and a faculties superintendent has resigned. This could occur partly through the character of academics and adults by having oblique effects on the development of the student’s personality. Another categorization is decided by the age group of the learners and consists of childhood education, adolescent education, adult education, and aged education. The distinction can be primarily based on the subject, encompassing fields like science education, language education, artwork education, spiritual education, and physical education. The term “various education” is usually used for a variety of instructional methods and approaches outside mainstream pedagogy, for example, just like the emphasis on narration and storytelling found in indigenous education or autodidacticism.

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attachment theory in a sentence 1) Bowen theory is part of attachment theory . 2) attachment theory has always recognized the importance of intimacy. 3) Many psychologists conceive attachment in terms of attachment theory . 4) It makes controversial claims relating to a basis in attachment theory . attachment theory example sentences5) The theory of dependency need has largely been incorporated into attachment theory . 6) The theoretical base is attachment theory . 7) The theory behind AAT is what is known as attachment theory . 8) Building on cognitive behavioral, psychodynamic, and attachment theories . 9) Perhaps the most significant development in contemporary psychoanalytic thought has been attachment theory . 10) A psychologist named John Bowlby eventually developed the attachment theory in 1969. 11) Children and caregivers remained the primary focus of attachment theory for many years. 12) In addition, there is an approach to treating couples based on attachment theory . 13) attachment theory makes no specific claims about the neural processes that make attachment possible. 14) Critics maintain these therapies are not based on an accepted version of attachment theory . example sentences with attachment15) attachment theory posits children instinctively attach to caretakers in order to achieve security and survival. 16) attachment theory has focused on the relationship of the mother and infant after birth. 17) The claim is that the core principles of attachment theory apply to both kinds of relationships. 18) Today, the concept of dependency need is largely interrelated with the concept of attachment theory . 19) The theoretical framework is attachment theory, originally formulated by Bowlby and recently expanded by others. 20) Dr. Stott discusses attachment theory and the attachment issues experienced by high-risk children in foster care. 21) In 1987, Cindy Hazen and Phillip Shaver extended attachment theory to adult romantic relationships. 22) The research on maternal sensitivity follows earlier work in psychoanalytics and is especially rooted in attachment theory . 23) Investigators tend to describe the core principles of attachment theory in light of their own theoretical interests. 24) attachment theory revolutionised thinking on the nature of early attachments and extensive research continues to be undertaken. 25) attachment theory has received increasing attention in this area (e.g., Kirkpatrick, 1992). 26) John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth founded modern attachment theory on studies of children and their caregivers. 27) Similarities such as these led Hazan and Shaver to extend attachment theory to adult romantic relationships. How to use attachment in a sentence28) Hughes cites attachment theory and particularly the work of John Bowlby as theoretical motivations for developmental psychotherapy. 29) When Hazen and Shaver extended attachment theory to adults, they included the idea of working models. 30) A third theory prevalent at the time of Bowlby's development of attachment theory was "dependency". 31) Social policies concerning the care of children were the driving force in Bowlby's development of attachment theory . 32) These aporia seriously infect such contemporary approaches as object relations theory, attachment theory, and cognitive behavioral theory. 33) Understand how intersubjectivity and attachment theory, as well as neuroscience, fit together to repair derailed development. 34) attachment theory was developed by Bowlby as a consequence of his dissatisfaction with existing theories of early relationships. 35) The first early formal statements of attachment theory were presented in three papers in 1958, 1959 and 1960. 36) Research into adult attachment flourished, making attachment theory one of the leading theories for understanding adult romantic relationships. 37) The research currently being done in the last few years in relation to dependency need relates largely to attachment theory . 38) attachment theory explains how students use their positive relationships with adults to organize their experiences (Bowlby 1969). These examples have been automatically selected and may contain sensitive content that does not reflect the opinions or policies of our website. Please inform us about the inappropriate sentences: This site is designed to teach you English words in context with collocations with the help of example sentences. You can easily memorize the word and the meaning of attachment theory and This is a fast way of learning the meaning of attachment theory with example sentences. Always focus on the learning on sentences with attachment theory We believe you will easily learn to write and use the word attachment theory in a sentence. You can practice spelling and usage of the word by getting 10 examples of sentences with attachment theory. 20 examples of simple sentences of attachment theory. We tried to find and publish the the words with Simple Sentences of attachment theory Compound Sentences with attachment theory Complex Sentences with attachment theory Compound-Complex Sentences with attachment theory

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What is UDL in Education? If you’ve been wondering what is UDL in education, then you’ve come to the right place. This style of teaching aims to provide equal opportunity for students of all abilities, by providing multiple modes of access to knowledge. Here, we discuss Principles of UDL, Examples of UDL implementation, and resources to support UDL in your classroom. Let’s get started! -What is UDL? Uninterrupted time on task (UTOT) Time on task is a term used in education that measures the amount of time students spend engaged in learning activities. This is an important aspect of the teaching process because it helps teachers gauge how well their students are engaged and how much time they are able to spend on a particular task. Time on task can be increased by employing active learning strategies and learner-centered design. However, the most effective ways to increase time on task are through a combination of these strategies. The importance of UTOT in education is often overlooked. Many teachers will interrupt students if a pause lasts longer than three seconds. In fact, many studies show that when students are left in silence for longer than three seconds, they are much more likely to volunteer information. A few seconds of silence can have a huge impact on the way a student thinks. Moreover, UTOT is the most effective way to promote higher-order thinking skills in students. Principles of UDL The principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) encourage educators to present information in multiple ways for learners to find it most interesting and engaging. Different learners respond differently to novelty, routine, and group work. Incorporating UDL into course design or specific instructional strategies can help accommodate these differences. Examples of such instructional strategies include: Despite the wide range of needs, UDL encourages teachers to incorporate multiple means of representation when presenting material and asking students to demonstrate their knowledge. The benefits of UDL extend beyond accessibility. For example, a teacher can use a combination of audio, video, and text to engage all learners. They can also include hands-on learning to engage their students. Providing multiple options for representation reduces barriers for all learners. Universal Design for Learning consists of three basic principles. By following these principles, teachers can improve their instructional design and decrease the need for special accommodations for students with disabilities. In addition to reducing barriers to learning, it can increase student engagement and expand subject knowledge. Teachers should follow these principles by using technology to enhance the presentation of content, develop inclusive assessment tools, and ensure that everyone can benefit from a lesson. It’s best to implement these principles step-by-step. Examples of UDL implementation Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a design approach that integrates knowledge of subject areas with child development and individual student needs. It allows students of all learning styles to take in information and express their knowledge and understanding. This approach improves the learning experience for all students and allows them to grow beyond their previous level of knowledge. Examples of UDL implementation in education include student engagement and the use of tools and resources. Read on for examples of UDL implementation in education. Before developing an example of UDL, identify the intended application for the design. Consider best practices in the field, including evidence-based teaching practices and technology standards. Be mindful of diverse user characteristics, such as age, gender, ethnicity, learning style, size, and physical abilities. Consider the unique needs of the target users to develop a better design. And don’t forget to evaluate and adjust your design accordingly. These are just a few of the many ways you can improve your design. Resources for implementing UDL If you’d like to learn about UDL and implement its principles in your classroom, here are some resources for teachers. UDL guidelines are the foundation for UDL implementation. They outline multiple means of representation, action, expression, and engagement. Knowing these guidelines is essential to planning lessons that use UDL principles. Here are two files with the same information: the UDL Framework and the teacher’s guide. If you’re interested in learning more about UDL, we recommend both files. Arendale and Poch provide guidelines for planning and assessing classrooms using UDL. They also provide a ULD task analysis tool template. Higbee and Eaton describe UDL implementation in learning centers and the use of UD to guide academic support programs. UD is not something that can be implemented overnight. Instead, consider it a method that can be implemented slowly. Ultimately, you will see positive results as you continue to implement UDL in your classroom. If you’ve been wondering what is UDL in education, then you’ve come to the right place. This style of teaching aims to provide equal opportunity for students of all abilities, by providing multiple modes of access to knowledge. Here, we discuss Principles of UDL, Examples of UDL implementation, and resources to support UDL in your…

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In March of 2012, myself and twenty other “adept” meditators participated in an experiment at Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School in Boston. The experiment was a collaboration between a young Harvard neuroscientist named David Vago and a Buddhist scholar and mindfulness meditation teacher named Shinzen Young. Over a period of one week, all twenty of us meditated in a makeshift retreat space inside the functional imaging laboratory. On a couple of the afternoons, we completed various behavioral and psychological tests. But the main event happened in the hospital. Every few hours, a meditator was selected from the larger group and taken down the road to the hospital’s MRI facility to have their brain scanned both functionally and anatomically (because of a metal plate in my neck, I didn’t participate in the scanning portion of the experiment). True Rest in the Brain Resting Vago and Young were attempting to tackle one of the biggest problems in neuroscience: what is the real resting state of the brain? In order to look at any kind of brain activity in an MRI study – the recalling of a memory, the movement of a body part, the focusing of attention – the neuroscientist must have a baseline resting condition with which to compare the active state. And so for years neuroscientists would tell subjects in the MRI to let their minds “just wander” between active tasks – as though “mind-wandering” were some sort of idle resting state. But recent research on the “default mode network” of the brain has shown that there is nothing at all restful about mind-wandering. In fact, the “resting” brain is massively activated; in particular, the networks that support something called “self-referential processing” – i.e., the endless ruminative story of me. This is the all-too-familiar part of our brains that engages in constant comparison and scheming and worrying and fantasizing, the part that pours over conversations at a party the night before looking for insults and clues and conclusions. In other words, it is the thinking mind, or at least one aspect of the thinking mind, a mode most of us reflexively revert to when not absorbed by some specific task. True rest, Shinzen Young argues, is something else, something meditators can demonstrate for sustained periods of time, in order to help identify the real ground of sensory experience. And this was what our little group set our minds to doing. Lying flat on their backs with the fMRI humming above them and three Tesla of magnetic activity scouring their brains, each meditator dropped into one of the four different rest meditations taught to them by Young: visual rest, auditory rest, body rest, and an open state known as “do nothing,” where the meditator surrenders all attempt to control his attention and just lets all thoughts come and go, while maintaining awareness. In an experienced meditator this creates a clear, open and spacious mind. When the subjects felt they had stabilized each of these states, they pressed a button. In between each of these active conditions, they would let their minds wander – again, in order to generate a contrast, but also in order to highlight how different mind-wandering was from these other flavors of deeper rest. Except … there was a problem, something Vago hadn’t foreseen. The twenty meditators in the experiment had been chosen for the length and the consistency of their practice. But even here there was a demarcation between intermediate meditators and a few older practitioners who had been meditating for over twenty years. Their minds were different, both in degree, and, it seemed, in kind. They were no longer like the minds of regular folks. The veteran meditators could do each of the resting states perfectly, but when it came to creating a contrasting condition, they were helpless. They had lost the ability to “let their minds wander” because they had long ago shed the habit of entertaining discursive narrative thoughts. They no longer worried about how their hair looked, or their to-do lists, or whether people thought they were annoying. Their minds were largely quiet. When thoughts did come – and of course they did still come – these subjects reported that the thoughts had a different, less fixated character. The thought “This MRI machine is very loud” might arise, but it would quickly evaporate. Thoughts seemed to emerge as-needed in response to different situations and would then disappear crisply into the clear backdrop of consciousness. In other words, these practitioners were always meditating. This turned out to be the least dramatic of Vago’s discoveries. With the two most experienced meditators, something even more surprising happened, something that, to the knowledge of the investigators involved, had never before been captured on any kind of brain imaging technology. Lying on their padded gurneys in the center of the humming MRI in this famous research hospital in the heart of East Boston and Harvard Medical School, each of the two research subjects suddenly … disappeared. The Mystery of “Cessation” Har-Prakash Khalsa, a 52-year old Canadian former mail carrier – and one of the veterans to whom this happened – describes his experience in the fMRI: “It’s a kind of pressure or momentum. I was in one of the rest states, and as I let go of it, I felt myself heading into a much bigger dissolution – a bigger ‘gone’ as Shinzen would call it. It felt impossible to resist. My mind, body and world just collapsed.” A few moments later – blinking, refreshed – Har-Prakash returned to consciousness, not at all sure how he was to supposed to fit this experience into the research protocol. He couldn’t indicate it with a button press even if he wanted to: there was no one present to press the button. This wasn’t rest. It was closer to annihilation. For Har-Prakash, the experience was utterly familiar. He experienced his first cessation in 2003, after a particularly intense meditation retreat, and now they happened all the time. “Sometimes it happens just walking down the street,” he told me. In and out of existence Har-Prakash would strobe, often multiples times a day. It was no wonder he could live “in the moment” – the moment was literally always new. It was like waking up ten times a minute. When I asked Young about the phenomenon he told me they were called “cessations,” or Nirodha, and were an important (and oft debated) theme in Buddhist practice. In fact, one of Young’s main jobs as the teacher of advanced meditators, he said, was to help his students acclimatize to these disconcerting little deaths, which often happened more frequently the longer the students practiced. “It may sound dangerous, but somehow you always continue to function just fine,” Young said. He told me about his own cessations, which, for example, happened while driving his car from his home in Burlington, Vermont, to where he runs a regular meditation retreat in Waterbury, a half-hour away. “I’ll go in and out of cessation a hundred times. Time and space punctuated with nothing. But I’ve never even gotten a ticket, let alone had an accident. And that’s not just my experience. I’ve never seen a Zen master bump into a wall because for a moment, perceptually, he wasn’t there. Remember the material world doesn’t go away, this is all events in sensory experience. It’s consciousness. Causality is still there. Force fields are still there.” Noself and Enlightenment Clearly, Young, like the two veteran practitioners in the MRI, no longer experiences reality the way most humans do. Attempting to describe how exactly his perception has shifted has become something of a journalistic obsession for me. In the mystical literature, commentators use one of a series of shorthands: “self-realized,” “awakened,” “liberated,” and, most loaded of all, “enlightened.” “A very clear experience of cessation,” Young told me, “would bring about classical enlightenment.” Whatever you want to call it, after years of assiduous practice, Young’s sense of identity has shifted. Like the two experienced meditators in the study, he no longer has the same quality of discursive thinking. He spends more and more time in states of emptiness. And he no longer experiences himself to be a separate bounded self – rather, he feels himself to be part of a much larger selfless “doing.” As both an observing journalist and a participating subject, I was in the MRI room while some of these events took place, and I watched Vago carefully. What would he make of these strange permutations of meditative experience? Although over the past ten years hundreds of scientific papers had been published on the neuroscience of meditation, few of them were brave enough to address the explicit goal of Buddhist practice, the end of suffering known as awakening or enlightenment (The name “Buddha” itself means “awakened one”). There are signs that this may be shifting. Indeed, the year before, Vago and a consortium of Harvard colleagues published a paper in the journal Perspectives on Psychological Science called ‘How Does Mindfulness Meditation Work?’ In its review of the different components of mindfulness mechanisms, the authors of the paper include an aspect they call “change in perception of the self.” If in the early stages of meditation, the authors explain, there is a de-identification with some part of mental content. A more “drastic dis-identification” around our core sense of self is said to happen at more advanced stages of practice. “In place of the identification with the static self, there emerges a tendency to identify with the phenomenon of ‘experiencing’ itself.” Both theoretical accounts and experiential reports, the authors write, “ascribe to the change in the perspective on the self a crucial role for development and maturity in meditation.” They then go on to summarize the few neuro-imaging and self-report findings that could shed light on what may be happening in this kind of brain. In a later paper, Vago asks “Can Enlightenment Be Traced to Specific Neural Correlates, Cognition or Behavior?” His careful answer: “No, and (a qualified) Yes.” In science, this is a phenomenon to be explored like any other phenomenon. In someone’s actual living experience, it is a complex and radical re-orientation that time and again is described as the most important of that person’s life. And not just in Buddhism. Although the language is different, throughout history, this shift from self-thoughts to an entry into the stream of consciousness itself has been described in all the world’s contemplative traditions, as well as in the secular literature. There are many ambiguous maps and contradictory descriptions of enlightenment. In Young and in Vago’s hopeful view, a true “science of enlightenment” might be able to bring together and illuminate all the paradigms and experiences that lie at the heart of serious spiritual practice. What Might This, if Anything, Mean for Science? There are obvious mental health applications, for one. As a person’s identity shifts through the practice of meditation, time and again practitioners report dramatic reductions in personal suffering. Pain does not go away, of course. Pain really is part of the human condition. But as, many have said before, one’s relationship to suffering can change. The core dynamic – at least, from the inside – seems to involve an increase in space around all experience in general. Then, as practice deepens, that space pushes the practitioner out and away from a sense of themselves as a separate autonomous individual. In Young’s way of thinking, one of the skills the practitioner develops is equanimity, which he describes as a lack of gripping in the sensory system. It’s All About Equanimity Experiences move more fully through the meditator, stirring up fewer disturbances, returning them more quickly to homeostasis. A sense of lightness emerges, an internal balance and capacity for fulfillment independent of external conditions. As practitioners struggle less with themselves, energy is freed up that can – at least in theory – be directed towards helping others. The desire to do so is one of the ways in which individual happiness and fulfillment is said to increase. These changes seem to happen along a continuum. Right now there is a large scientific interest in mindfulness meditation because it is one way of moving people along this continuum, which even at the accessible end can have a dramatic effect on conditions ranging from stress-related complaints to anxiety, depression, addiction, pain management and more. But more dramatic shifts can happen too. Any science of mind worthy of the name must try to isolate, describe, and understand the full continuum. Otherwise, the paradigm of the power of meditation is missing its cornerstone. Once the full dynamic is better understood, then it may be possible to bring the benefits of serious practice to people who do not have the luxury of meditating full time for twenty years. We may be able to fine-tune our meditation techniques – or, more controversially, use some form of techno-boost, as Young himself has suggested – in a way that allows us to literally change our minds and achieve a deeper level of fulfillment and connection in our lives. A Cross-Fertilization of Science and Contemplation As we get more clarity about the dynamics of human experience, we may reach a time when, in Shinzen Young’s words, “outer physical science could cross-fertilize with inner contemplative disciplines to create a sudden and dramatic increase in global well being.” Young describes this as his “happiest thought.” Such a cross-fertilization could leave us with an enriched neuroscience, new tools for addressing human suffering, and a vastly expanded sense of human potential. How might this cross-fertilization work in practice? I’ve already suggested that scientific understanding could make the benefits of serious meditation more accessible. But this is a two-way street. There’s another possible consequence – namely, that enlightenment itself might affect the scientific practitioner. Young often says the next Buddha may be a team of enlightened neuroscientists. What he means is that deep practice confers a quality of deep seeing. This is both literally true, in the form of extraordinary sensory clarity, and metaphysically true, in the form of insights about the nature of consciousness itself. A Deep Experience of Consciousness That these two may amount to the same thing is captured in a story Young tells about his own teacher, Jōshū Sasaki Rōshi (I’ll risk one last anecdote at this late stage in the article). At 105 years old, Sasaki Rōshi is very likely the world’s oldest living Zen master. A good case could be made that he has been meditating longer than any other human on the planet. One day in a public talk, with Young translating (Young began his monastic training at Mount Kōya south of Osaka and speaks fluent Japanese), the Rōshi asked an unusual question, “Do you know what the number one is?” Before the audience could respond, he answered, “The number one is that which has the number zero as its content.” He went on, “Do you know what the number two is?” and again answered his own question, “The number two is that which has the number one as its content. Do you now what the number three is?” He continued on in this rather baffling vein. As he did, Young, a math geek, says he had a revelation. The Rōshi was articulating a paradoxical dynamic in his experience of consciousness, one described – in different language – by Buddhists and other contemplatives for over two thousand years. Theravada Buddhists call it “The Arising and Passing.” Shinzen has even made a graph of this dynamic that he calls “The Activity of the Source“: In both Young and the Rōshi’s closely-observed moment-to-moment experience, each blip of sensory experience emerges from an empty source (Zero or nothing), and immediately polarizes into an expansive force (arising) and a contractive force (passing). Between them, these two powers shape each nanosecond of perception and action. Again and again, they mutually cancel and reunite, pulsing sensory reality into existence, creating ever-richer states of emptiness that some experienced meditators learn to recognize and even ride (Young once told me this accounts for the bouncy vitality and spontaneity of some Zen monks). All of this represents a shift in the meditator’s locus of identification, away from the content of consciousness – specific sight and sounds and sensations – to the form or contour of consciousness itself. It is a completely different way to know the self and the world, a way to both unite and liberate all experiences and interactions. Anyway, it turns out the Rōshi’s exposition on the foundation of consciousness is remarkably similar to the modern foundation of mathematics, known as “set theory.” When Young pointed this out, there was a long pause before his teacher replied, in an unimpressed Zen deadpan: “Ahh… so the mathematicians have seen that far?” Is This All Bullshit? OBVIOUSLY this similarity may be coincidental, or entirely superficial. It probably is. A lot of people are eager to make comparisons between spirituality and science (usually involving quantum mechanics), a move that in most cases just annoys real scientists. It annoys me as a science writer, that’s why I never do it! My point isn’t about math; it’s about how the intellectual clarity of science, paired with the phenomenological clarity of contemplative training, could make for a powerful combination. At the very least, there is something interesting to learn here about consciousness itself! What might we find as we begin to carefully explore the intersection between our minds and the world around us? Any honest scientist or philosopher will tell you that the relationship between mind and matter is still a mystery, perhaps our greatest mystery. Contemplatives from historic times to the present have argued that as we increase in perceptual sensitivity and openness, we begin to detect a more interactive and integrated relationship between our inner and outer worlds. Is this discernment, or delusion? Only a genuine collaboration between science and advanced contemplation will tell us. Afterword – The Relationship Between Insight and Ethics I published this piece right before the whole Sasaki Roshi scandal blew up. According to many many accusations, the man has been sexually assaulting women for years, sometimes in the name of freeing their ego, as this interview reveals. The whole thing is disgusting and depressing and has generated an enormous amount of pain and suffering among the people he’s hurt and the community that trusted him. And of course, the million-dollar question is this: what can “enlightenment” possibility mean if a person can have such deep insight and still act so inhumanly? I don’t pretend to have anything like a full answer. But I do know that in Buddhism they talk about the “three trainings”: concentration, insight and morality. You can perfect the first two, but the third never ends – there is always room to become a better person, no matter who you are. “Enlightenment” as a word has many facets and interpretations. Within insight meditation, one of these is a technical accomplishment: you have trained your brain to hack the perceptual balloon of sensory reality and collapse the subject-object illusion. This frees people in all kinds of ways. It is also said to synergize and amplify a person’s natural compassion. But not always. There is apparently a word in Zen for “enlightened monster” – for people who get so free of their conditioning that they lose all sense of the human scale. They become a piece of vibrating cosmic rock doing whatever the hell they want. To me the story of the Roshi reinforces the absolute need for ethical training from the get-go, and – as important – the need for all teaching to happen within an egalitarian, transparent community of practitioners able to give honest feedback to people in positions of authority. And – as per this article – it also highlights the need for more clarity around what serious practise actually does and how it works. People really do change their consciousness. If we ever hope to understand the mind – and diminish psycho-emotional anguish and suffering – we need to take these changes seriously. They are part of our human complexity.

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Your first week in an online course is critical to - Establishing a community (social presence in Garrison, 2016), - Creating a meaningful connection between you and your students (teaching presence in Garrison, 2016), - Presenting a coherent big picture over of your course (cognitive presence in Garrison, 2016), - Developing a culture of behaviour and collaboration (character, citizenship, communication in Quinn et al., 2019), and - Engaging in at least one meaningful, creative, team activity (creativity and critical thinking in Fullan & Langworthy, 2013). While we want to promote independent learning, we recognize collaboration’s important role in learning. Creating a strong community helps students connect and engage with their peers (Conrad & Donaldson, 2004; Lehman & Conceicao, 2014) while providing emotional support when students are challenged (Veletsianos, 2020). Also, a community creates a foundation for deeper learning (Quinn et al., 2019; Savin-Baden, 2007), and sows the seeds for effective collaborative learning (Johnson & Johnson, 2009; Nilson & Goodson, 2018). Garrison (2016), in an extensive review of the research, argued that teacher presence is essential to effective online learning; however, this does not mean that the teacher needs to be the star of the show. On the contrary, many online instructors are more effective when creating effective learning environments where students take a lead role in their learning (Boettcher & Conrad, 2021; Dabbagh et al., 2019; Savin-Baden, 2007). Furthermore, because there is a tendency to feel disconnected in an online environment, even if it is synchronous, teachers need to make an extra effort to convey their identity, credibility, and establish themselves as approachable, caring, accepting and supportive (Fisher et al., 2021; Johnson, 2013; Lemov, 2020). Understanding the big picture structure of any course is critical to communicating learning outcomes, articulating how concepts/themes might interact, and connecting the course framework to previous student knowledge (Arnold & Mihut, 2020; Hattie, 2012; McTighe & Thomas, 2003; Thomas & Rieth, 2011). The use of concept mapping, mind maps, advanced organizers and visualization is particularly effective at communicating the overall structure of any course (Hattie, 2015). Developing a clear set of rules for behaving, communicating, and collaborating early in an in-person or online learning environment is essential for creating a productive, thriving learning environment (Fisher et al., 2021; Lemov, 2020). Instructors new to online teaching and learning might not anticipate the distractions that can derail a class, such as inappropriate chat comments, not turning off microphones, turning the camera off and being absent from the room, and indecent background images. Therefore a set of classroom rules should be developed, ideally as a class, so that students understand the boundaries and expectations to support fruitful learning (Hattie, 2015; Lemov, 2020). In addition, a positive list of helpful behaviours can be identified, such as turning on cameras, raising a virtual hand when you wish to participate and engaging in effective listening. During your first class/week, introducing at least one creative activity in your online class that leads to critical thinking and evaluation helps set the norm for the rest of your course (Boettcher & Conrad, 2021; Dabbagh et al., 2019; Savin-Baden, 2007). Ideally, this activity should be interactive, collaborative and productive (Hattie, 2015; Johnson & Johnson, 2009; Nilson & Goodson, 2018). Throughout your course, you should employ a variety of learning activities (Boettcher & Conrad, 2021; Dabbagh et al., 2019) to maintain student interest and engagement, but you want to establish a strong culture of learning right from the start. Based on numerous articles and books on pedagogy and online learning, as well as over a decade teaching online virtual classes, I offer the following general guidelines or suggestions for starting your first class or week: - Add at least 25% to your anticipated time for any activity. Online teaching and learning simply take longer, and you don’t want to create a rushed feeling in your class. - Establishing a calm and friendly atmosphere takes time, but you want to help anxious students relax. If there are problems with technology, stay calm and relaxed. That will help everyone relax. If you feel stressed and unsure, students will quickly recognize it. - Come clean. Tell your students if this is the first time you have taught online or are trying something new. Encourage a growth mindset and the idea of play and learning from mistakes. - Greet students. Just as you would in a face-to-face environment, greet students in a friendly way when they first enter your virtual classroom. Welcome them by name and ask them a fun question in the chat. - Post an agenda for students to understand your intentions and expectations. You may even wish to provide a more detailed lesson plan link to engage students who arrive early. - Take time to establish community. Make it your main priority, even if it takes more time than you had planned. Establishing solid connections will save you time in the long run. - Introduce yourself in a personable way. Students want to know that you are credible, but they also need to know that you are an actual human. - Organization and planning are critical. It is risky to wing it in an online class. Disorganization online is not pretty and not how you want to start a course. When something goes wrong, and it will, it can take quite a bit of time to get everyone back on track. Presenting the big picture, then communicating a clear idea of your lesson with estimated times will help you proceed more smoothly. Have a plan for the - Consolidate your lesson. Setting aside time after your first lesson/week to consolidate your class, communicate expectations for home activities and prepare students for the next class is essential for an online course. Online learning can feel disconnected for students, so you need to summarize and set clear expectations. Students like to know what to expect – what is coming next. - Get feedback early. After my first online course, I asked students for anonymous feedback to determine whether the class was effective. This simple act was instrumental and helpful in addressing any problems early on. - Backup Plan. Sometimes well-thought-out plans do not work because the technology fails, so it is crucial to have a backup plan. For example, you may want to articulate a contingency plan to your students if the internet connection drops: assign a co-host ahead of time lead the class while you are trying to re-connect, set up your phone so you can send an email to the students with directions, and have a careful lesson plan (see number 8 above) so that students could continue on their own without you. Your backup plans will vary depending on the course content and the age of your students. Activity 1: Ideal Teacher Introductions I must admit that I struggle with personal introductions. I oscillate between communicating the credible, knowledgeable side and the more personable fun side. Based on numerous lukewarm introductions, I decided that credibility and fun are both important. I also realized that students could get to know me over time, so I did not have to oversell myself. Ultimately, online teaching is about my students and their learning, not about me. Ultimately, my goal is to communicate that I am credible, approachable, caring, accepting and supportive (Fisher et al., 2021; Johnson, 2013; Lemov, 2020). That is a big ask in an introduction. There are many creative ways to introduce yourself – I have chosen probably the least creative way, slides, simply to reduce the amount of class time focussed on me. Credible Slide. I first present a slide on my teaching and academic background. Here is an example slide. In the slide, I include a professional-looking picture and some key background information that could change depending on the nature of the course. I also share my social media and website link if they want to learn more about me. Fun Slide. I then present a fun slide on my interests and hobbies. Here is an example slide. This slide consists of engaging pictures that introduce a side of me that students are unlikely to know or expect. My experience is that students quite like this slide and are more engaged than they are on my credible slide. To be honest, I am more engaged too. Again, I take no longer than 1-3 minutes – my course is not about me! You would think a simple introduction would be relatively easy to execute, but I managed to find a few challenges. Here are a few suggestions to address these challenges: - Keep your introduction tight, no longer than a minute. Otherwise, you risk losing your students right from the start. - Visuals are better than words. Keep text to a minimum. Visuals are much more engaging. No one wants to see a slide filled with words. - Professional look. Try to make your slide look professional – this is your credibility side. - Add information links if you feel it is beneficial. Link your appropriate online presence and allow students to check you out on their own time. - Social Media links. Be careful about sharing social media links, especially with secondary school students. Please, do not share personal social media accounts. - Have fun with your fun slide [Doc.]. I quite enjoy sharing the non-academic side of myself. Try not to get too carried away, as going off-script can erode student attention. There are many creative ways to introduce yourself, but you need to consider your context and audience, their desire to get to know you, and the time you want to focus on yourself. These teacher introduction resources are intended to stir up your curiosity. - Fun Video Introduction Template [1:26] - Getting to Know You: 7 Creative Ways to Introduce Yourself to Your New Class - 27 Unique Ways Teachers Can Introduce Themselves to Their Students - Why and How to Create a Self Introduction Video Activity 2: Engaging Student Introductions Creating community and social presence is extremely important in forming the foundation of an online class (Conrad & Donaldson, 2004; Lehman & Conceicao, 2014). Organizing student introductions is an essential starting point to forming a solid community. There are several approaches you might take, depending on your student population. If your students are in secondary school, they may not be receptive to formal introductions, so you may want to use ice breakers (see activity six below). Higher education students are typically older and want to know their peers, so the type of formal introduction I describe below could be more appropriate. Keep in mind that older students and adults like fun icebreakers as well. Students of any age can easily create short, introductory videos using their phones, favourite screencasting software (e.g., Screencast-O-Matic), or FlipGrid. The multimedia introduction can be used in an asynchronous course or larger class where there is not enough time to introduce 60-150 students, Once students start working together on collaborative activities or assignments, they will get to know each other better over time, naturally, provided you have set up a safe learning environment. The activity that I have used most often with 25 to 30 students is conducted in two formats. First, I post 3-4 questions for each student to answer. I provide a model answer to the question first, and then each student takes no more than a minute to introduce themselves. Sample questions might be: - Where are you connecting from today? - What do you do for a living (or outside of school)? - What are you passionate about? - What is a key strength that you bring to the classroom? - What is something you want to work on in this class? - What is the main reason for taking this course? This activity takes 25 to 30 minutes, so I sometimes have students break out in smaller, more intimate groups of no more than four to discuss these same questions. I then give students 15 minutes in a breakout room to chat, and I rotate around the rooms to listen. The advantage of this activity is that we spend less time on passive introductions and students are more likely to turn their cameras on. The disadvantage is that we do not hear all student introductions. Here are some of the challenges that I have experienced with student introductions: - Cameras off. Students may not turn on their cameras, limiting their social presence while fostering student distance and disconnection. Encourage students to tune on cameras, especially when they come into class. If a few students do it, then others often follow. - Time. Some students talk for a long time, extending the student introduction time to 45 minutes. None of us are very good at passive listening. That is one reason I shifted to breakout rooms. The other option is to introduce a show and tell feature like a pet, so the audience is more engaged. - Self-conscious students. Some students, especially at the secondary school level, may feel self-conscious and do not want to participate or be put on the spot, which is why small group introductions or ice breakers may be more effective. Alternatively, you could ask students to introduce themselves with a few lines of text in a shared Google Doc or the virtual classroom chat. - Technology problems. Sometimes the technology works well, and student audio or video is unstable. Students can put their information on the chat, but that feels far less personal. Anticipate technology problems ahead of time by sending a set of instructions and tips to students before they come to their first class (see Technology chapter). Here are a few resources that might offer ideas for your student introductions: - 7 Tips for Successful Student Introductions in an Online Class - Course Introductions from the Center for teaching and Learning (Charlotte) - How to introduce yourself in an online class - Three Different Options for Online Student Course Introductions Activity 3: Big Picture Graphic Offering a big picture perspective for a student at the befitting of a course helps them cognitively prepare for their learning. It also provided a framework that they can refer to throughout your course (Arnold & Mihut, 2020; Hattie, 2012; McTighe & Thomas, 2003; Thomas & Rieth, 2011). My approach is relatively straightforward – I present a fairly colourful yet straightforward overview of my course through a short video. After introductions, I introduce and discuss the key themes for my course using a graphic I create in Google Drawings. You can use any tool you wish – I like that students can add comments or questions to my graphic. Here are three examples: Example 1 [Doc.], Example 2 [Doc.], and Example 3 [Doc.]. I’m not particularly talented at creating these graphics (as you may have noticed), but they do the trick and serve my students well. I present them each week to show what we have covered so far and what we need to cover in the future. It provides a sense that we are progressing through the course and making progress. I also get a chance to re-articulate connections among topics. Another area where I have used a big picture graphic is to talk about assessment throughout the course, affording students to visualize expectations and how assignments are connected. Here is an example of a big picture assessment graphic. Notice that I was far more creative in this graphical representation. Finally, I often add a brief video describing the big picture for my course. Here is an example [0:51]. The video is helpful for students trying to decide whether they wish to enroll in my course or students who have missed the first class. Besides being challenged to create visually appealing graphics, I have not experienced any serious difficulties providing the big picture for a course. Sometimes the direction of the course changes, so I have to make revisions. Some instructors work with students to create a big picture profile for a course, which can work quite well as the first activity. Here are a few resources for creating a more engaging big picture graphic for your course - Free templates from Canva to create big picture graphics - Mindomo or Mindmeister for creating Mind Maps - Visme Infographic Templates Activity 4: Posting a Regular Agenda Providing an agenda before class starts seems like a relatively simple activity, perhaps not worth mentioning. However, my experience is that students need and appreciate this simple act before class to help them focus (Arnold & Mihut, 2020; Hattie, 2012; McTighe & Thomas, 2003; Thomas & Rieth, 2011). Essentially the agenda offers key information to ensure they are prepared to start the class, helping students remember to hand in an assignment. Further, it can help student and educator communication, especially if they have missed a task and are behind schedule. Advance access can also help students prepare for a class activity or connect with a team member before class begins. I offer a one or two slide agenda (using Google Slides so that students can add comments or questions) that includes critical resources students will need for the class, what students should have done before class, key learning goals or topics that will be covered in class. Here are some examples of agendas I have used: Agenda 1 [Doc.] and Agenda 2 [Doc.]. - Forgetting to post. One challenge with posting an agenda is remembering to do it. Starting an online virtual class can be a bit hectic with negotiating the technology and making sure that everything you planned is working and ready to go. Sometimes, posting the agenda can be overlooked unless it is a routine. Recently, I have combined this strategy with posting a link to my lesson plan (see Activity 5 below). - Format. Another challenge is choosing the format to display your agenda. I use a link to a Google Doc to make last-minute changes, and students can add questions and comments. Activity 5: Sharing an Online Lesson Plan One of the best decisions I have made regarding online teaching is to create a detailed lesson plan for each class that includes learning goals, activity descriptions and estimated times, and asynchronous or home activities. This strategy allows students to see what they will be doing ahead of time, to anticipate workload and guide me during an online lesson. The lesson plan also helps me keep on track with time, a persistent challenge for me in an online learning environment. A regular lesson plan helps create a shared culture of learning and class structure for students (Fisher et al., 2021; Lemov, 2020) and a consistent connection with the big picture and course learning goals (Arnold & Mihut, 2020; Hattie, 2012; McTighe & Thomas, 2003; Thomas & Rieth, 2011). My lesson plans include the key learning goals addressed in the class, a detailed list of activities with time estimates and resources as required, a break time marker, and a very detailed list of asynchronous or home activities. I create them as Google Docs to edit them on the fly so that students can comment or ask questions. Here are several examples of lesson plans that I used: Lesson Plan 1 [Doc.], Lesson Plan 2 [Doc.], and Lesson Plan 3 [Doc.]. I post my lesson plans on a website (e.g., Technology and the Curriculum); however, they could easily be posted on the learning management system (e.g., Desire to Learn, Google Classroom, Canvas) of your choice. - It takes time. Creating these lesson plans takes time and a fair bit of planning. I would argue that online learning needs to be thoroughly organized because it is more challenging to repair distractions and technological issues that can quickly derail a class. I create a template and then fill it in as I am planning. - The workload for secondary school teachers. The other challenge would be the workload for secondary school teachers who need to create daily instead of weekly lesson plans. In this case, you might try making shorter lesson plans or a weekly lesson plan summary. When I was a secondary school instructor, I created daily lesson plans to keep me organized and on track. - Getting off track. Finally, lessons do not always proceed as expected, so you have to make decisions during the class about skipping activities and still achieving the intended learning goals. Sometimes activities need to be postponed to the following class, which can have a rippled effect on future lesson plans that you may have created ahead of time. Lesson plan design is personal and partially dependent on your experience, subject area, confidence level and teaching approach. Some teachers, like me, need more structure, while others prefer a more open-ended, free-flowing format. Here are a few resources that might be helpful to create lesson plans: - 7 Lesson Plan Templates to Use In Your Online Lessons - Canva lesson plan templates - Daily and weekly lesson plan templates for Word and Google Docs - Google Doc lesson plan templates Activity 6: Icebreakers Can Be Fun Full disclosure. I think icebreaker activities are helpful for student relaxation and engagement while building a social presence and community. However, I do not use them regularly because I like to communicate the content and learning goals as soon as possible. Consequently, I do not spend enough time building connections. I rely on collaborative classroom activities to develop a social presence. I believe this is a mistake. Many students come to an online class, possibly feeling anxious, isolated, and intimidated. Starting things off with a friendly, fun, and safe icebreaker activity helps students relax. In a more relaxed state, they may focus and learn more effectively. Most of the icebreakers I have used are pretty traditional and probably a bit dull (e.g., Two Truths and a Lie, If you were an animal, what you be). However, I have found a few that I think are engaging and helpful (please see the resources section for an extended list of icebreakers to choose from). Some simple and effective icebreakers include: - Collaborative resumé. This icebreaker helps give the group a quick idea of education, work backgrounds, skills sets, hobbies and interests. These could be posted on a Google Slide template to share with the class as a whole. - Share a photo. Students take a picture of their current environment or select an image and describe its significance. These pictures can be posted on a Google Slide for the entire class to peruse. - Accomplished goals. Ask students to share a goal they have achieved in the last year (it does not matter how small) and how that made them feel. The shared achievements can be posted on a Google Slide to share with the class. - What do you want to learn? Students work in teams to articulate what they want to learn in the course on a Google slide. I understand this may not be the most exciting icebreaker, but it can bring small groups of students together by focussing on a specific topic. When Google Slides are used, the desired learning outcomes can be shared with the entire class at the end of the icebreaker or breakout session. You can also ask ice breaker questions (see The Only List of Icebreaker Questions You’ll Ever Need). Some favourites of mine are: - Do you love working/studying from home, or would you rather be in the office? Is there a balance of both that you like best? - If you could learn one new skill, what would it be? - If a movie was made of your life, what genre would it be? Who would play you? - What’s one of the best pieces of advice you’ve ever been given? - What would your superpower be and why? - If you could live anywhere in the world for a year, where would it be? Here are a few of the challenges/decisions you might have to deal with: - Small or large group. You need to decide whether you want a larger or small group icebreaker. Both can work well. A large group involves using chat and can be fun depending on your questions. Small group icebreaker activities are more elaborate and should consist of groups no larger than four students. With larger groups, students feel rushed and perhaps a bit self-conscious. - Too much time. Icebreakers can lead to more extensive small group discussions that could throw the timing of your class off. If that happens, the chances are that your icebreaker activity is working well at increasing social presence and community. Allow extra time for your first icebreakers, but do not let them take over the entire lesson. - Self-conscious students. Some students feel uncomfortable with icebreaker activities – the questions might make them feel vulnerable or exposed. Therefore, select innocuous and safe activities and always offer the option of passing. Make sure that everyone is clear that they do not have to participate and that passing is a perfectly acceptable option. Numerous online resources can provide novel ideas for icebreaker activities. Some sites that I have found helpful are: - 10 Essential Icebreaker Activities for Any Online - 21 Free Fun IceBreakers for Online Teaching - 35 Best Icebreakers for Your Virtual and Hybrid Meetings – Chat Questions - 36 Ridiculously Fun Icebreaker Ideas - The Only List of Icebreaker Questions You’ll Ever Need Activity 7: Establishing Online Culture/Rules Developing a vibrant, safe classroom culture that supports learning is essential to any classroom face-to-face or online (Fisher et al., 2021; Lemov, 2020). The tricky part about online teaching and learning is that educators have less experience and a somewhat limited understanding of the challenges that might arise. We simply have difficulty anticipating online classroom behaviours that we have never experienced before. Some examples include: - Students who post inappropriate comments in the chat. - Distracting or offensive backgrounds. - Microphones left on providing unexpected noise. - Students exiting class well before it is over. - Students logging on but not participating in class. - Weak internet connection preventing participation. - Students not having the right software to participate in an online class. - Students vaping during class. - Students laying in bed while participating in class. Instead of ignoring these potential distractions, you would be wise to develop and agree upon a clear set of online classroom rules. The simplest way to establish a safe structure for your course is to present a clear set of guidelines, easily accessed on your web page and LMS. You would go over these rules in your first class. The type of rules you establish should match the needs of the age group you are teaching. Rules for secondary school students will likely be different from those designed for higher education students. Here are a few guidelines that I have used in my virtual classroom: - Try to come to class 5 minutes early, so you can review the agenda and lesson plan and make sure you are ready to start the class. - If you cannot attend class, please send a notification as soon as possible because I may need to re-arrange teams for breakout room activities. - Turn cameras on when you are working in small breakout rooms to facilitate conversation. - Keep your comments respectful in the chat – if you wish to express a strong opinion, please raise your hand and use your microphone. - Try not to add comments in the chat that distract other students from learning. - Raise your virtual hand if you wish to ask a question. The other good option is to make online classroom rules an activity for students. They can create and hopefully abide by the rules they develop. Reviewing the suggested rules listed in the resource section below can be a good starting point for the activity, and having students create their own rules helps them take control of their learning environment. Here are some potential challenges that you might encounter: Too many rules. You want to be careful not to present too many guidelines as it might convey a controlling tone to your students. Ideally, student discussions can guide the development, review, and revision of the guidelines so that they feel control over the process. Students are more likely to adhere to a set of rules they create. - Not turning on cameras. Students might resist using cameras, even in breakout rooms, so you may want to explain why cameras help build connections and support the learning process. Students who do not use their cameras are generally less involved. Note that cameras can be off in large lectures, so students are afforded the option. - Follow through. You will need to follow up immediately if a guideline/rule is broken. If you do not support your guidelines, there is no point in setting them up in the first place. I’m not saying the process is easy, but follow-through is critical. - 7 Rules for Online Etiquette - 10 Online Classroom Rules For Your Virtual Classroom – for secondary school students - 10 Netiquette guidelines every online student needs to know - The ABCs of Online School Etiquette - The Online Learning idea Book (Vol. 2): There is a seemingly endless list of strategies to use in your online classroom, including those for your first week. These strategies are collected from actual instructors who have used them. Arnold, K., & Mihut, G. (2020). Postsecondary outcomes of innovative high schools: The big picture longitudinal study. Teachers College Record, 122(8), 1-42. https://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentId=23342 Boettcher, J. V., & Conrad, R. M. (2021). The online teaching survival guide: Simple and practical pedagogical tips (3rd Ed.). John Wiley & Sons. Conrad, R. M., & Donaldson, J. A. (2011). Engaging the online learner: Activities and resources for creative instruction. John Wiley & Sons. Dabbagh, N., Marra, R. M., & Howland, J. L. (2018). Meaningful online learning: Integrating strategies, activities, and learning technologies for effective designs. Routledge. Fisher, D., Frey, N., Smith, D., & Hattie, J. (2021). Rebound, grades K-12: A playbook for rebuilding agency, accelerating learning recovery, and rethinking schools. Corwin Press. Fullan, M., & Langworthy, M. (2013). Towards a new end: New pedagogies for deep learning. Collaborative Impact. Garrison, D. R. (2016). E-learning in the 21st century: A community of inquiry framework for research and practice (3rd ed.). Taylor & Francis. Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers. Maximizing impact on learning. Routledge. Hattie, J. (2015). The applicability of Visible Learning to higher education. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 1(1), 79–91. https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000021 Johnson, A. (2013). Excellent! Online teaching: Effective strategies for a successful semester online. Aaron Johnson Publishing. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2009). An educational psychology success story: Social interdependence theory and cooperative learning. Educational Researcher, 38(5), 365–379. https://doi.org/10.3102%2F0013189X09339057 Lehman, R. M., & Conceição, S. C. (2013). Motivating and retaining online students: Research-based strategies that work. John Wiley & Sons. Lemov, D. (2020). Teaching in the online classroom: Surviving and thriving in the new normal. John Wiley & Sons. McTighe, J., & Thomas, R.S. (2003). Backward design for forward action. Educational Leadership, 60(5), 52–55. https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/backward-design-for-forward-action Nilson, L.B., & Goodson, L.A. (2018). Online teaching at its best – Merging instructional design with teaching and learning research. Jossey-Bass. Quinn, J., McEachen, J., Fullan, M., Gardner, M., & Drummy, M. (2019). Dive into deep learning: Tools for engagement. Corwin Press. Savin-Baden, M. (2007). A practical guide to problem-based learning online. Routledge. Thomas, C. N., & Rieth, H. J. (2011). A research synthesis of the literature on multimedia anchored instruction in preservice teacher education. Journal of Special Education Technology, 26(2), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1177/016264341102600201 Veletsianos, G. (2020). Learning online. John Hopkins University Press.

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Over the past two decades, advances in biology and neuroscience have promoted the idea that addiction can be fully understood and addressed as a disease that occurs in the brains of particular vulnerable people. This belief takes biological sciences as the primary domain for understanding and addressing addictive behaviours. But addiction could also be viewed from a psychosocial perspective. Bruce Alexander, a distinguished professor at Simon Fraser University, contextualizes addiction in large social, economic and historical terms and rejects seeing it as primarily a medical condition or a disease. He defines addiction as "overwhelming" and “harmful involvements" (harmful to the person and his/her society) with any pursuit whatsoever, including food, work, internet surfing, shopping, gambling, drug use, and more. Alexander explains that part of what makes us human is our need to be fully ourselves within a larger group—or as he describes it “be free and still belong.” When we feel our need for freedom or our desire to belong are not being met, we can lose more than simply our sense of identity—we may lose our way too and get caught up in replacements, such as eating, shopping, gambling, drug use and a thousand other habits and pursuits. We find the best substitutes we can find no matter how rich or poor we are. Addiction, therefore, is not really about shopping, gambling, drugs or filling our garages with gear and gadgets we rarely use. Instead, it is a reflection of the absence of social connectedness and personal identity. It’s about what happens when we can’t connect meaningfully with other people in our increasingly amorphous world. This lack of interconnectedness between us and a supportive community (what Alexander calls psychosocial dislocation) can create a sense of isolation and disconnectedness. Psychosocial integration is an important part of human life. Social relationships provide us with a set of duties and privileges that define who we are in our own minds. It makes life bearable and even enjoyable. Neither food, nor shelter, nor the attainment of wealth can restore people to well-being. It is psychosocial integration that can do that. In contrast to material poverty, lack of psychosocial integration is like “poverty of the spirit.” So when people experience social disconnection, they look for adaptation. And as Alexander says, addiction is an adaptive response to social disconnection—the loss of (or failure to achieve) psychosocial integration. A wealth of historical, clinical, and quantitative evidence shows that people who lose their identity or their sense of purpose, belonging, or meaning are very likely to become addicted, because addiction provides them with some relief and compensation. Severe addiction, as a kind of exaggerated devotion to an occupation or activity, provides a partial substitute for people who can otherwise be said not to “have a life.” ~Bruce Alexander To think about – or discuss with a friend - Do you think addiction could be a substitute for loss of purpose, belonging and meaning? Why or why not? - What role do you think casinos and lotteries play in our society? Is it possible that they are designed to pacify people and keep them in their place by giving them false hope?

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Compared to most healthcare professionals, massage therapists are among the few who spend the most time with patients. They touch them during the entire session, which is typically 30 to 60 minutes long. The nature of the work and environment allows massage therapists and patients to be more engaged with each other during the session. This potentially develop a better therapeutic relationship. However, more time spent with patients do not necessarily mean better patient-centered care. Sometimes we can default into a “problem-solving” mentality in an attempt to “fix” patients, similar to what the dominant biomedical model in healthcare uses. In recent years, narrative medicine has been emphasized not only in some medical schools in the U.S., the U.K., and Canada, but also in private practices and international health conferences, such as the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP). In fact, IASP presented their first “patient’s voice” in Boston in 2018, which allowed three former patients with chronic pain to share their experiences in living with such pain. Perhaps massage therapy, too, should have a paradigm shift in how practitioners communicate with their patients. What is narrative medicine? While it draws heavily from science, narrative medicine emphasizes on the patients’ narrative to help healthcare professionals . It’s developed from several disciplines and schools of thought, including the humanities (philosophy, literary theory, cultural studies, history, ethics, the arts), patient-centered care, biopsychosocial medicine, and psychoanalysis based on the work of psychiatrist Michael Balint. Dr. Rita Charon from Columbia University in New York City, who is one of the pioneers and advocates of narrative medicine, pointed out that competency in the scientific approach in medicine is not enough because it doesn’t help patients deal with their debilitating condition or find meaning in their suffering. “…physicians need the ability to listen to the narratives of the patient, grasp and honor their meanings, and be moved to act on the patient’s behalf. This is narrative competence, that is, the competence that human beings use to absorb, interpret, and respond to stories,” Charon wrote in JAMA in 2001. Narrative medicine “enables the physician to practice medicine with empathy, reflection, professionalism, and trustworthiness. Such medicine can be called narrative medicine,” she wrote. Rather than having the healthcare profession steer the treatment, narrative medicine allows the patients to participate in the healing process and help the practitioner guide the treatment. In other words, it’s a partnership rather than a top-down chain of command. The term “narrative-based medicine” (or narrative medicine) first appeared in medical literature in the late 1990s, about 20 years after psychiatrist John Engel proposed the biopsychosocial model of health and disease. During most of the 20th century, medical practice was highly biomedical, which emphasizes on the biology of the disease with little or no consideration of environment, culture, and behavior that influence a treatment’s outcome. The framework also teaches medical students to be as objective as possible and to pursue “universal (or near-universal) truths about the causes, treatments, and prevention of disease…,” as Professor Trish Greenhalgh from the University of London said in 2013. She described narrative medicine as being “diametrically opposite” from the biomedical model. It’s “individual, subjective, perspectival, and relentlessly contextual.” Back then, most physicians in the U.S. practiced with emotional detachment. However, since the late 1990s, medical practice and education gradually changed as many physicians were learning how to engage with their patients and their experiences. It’s more than prescribing a pill and sending patients out of the office. Finding meaning with medical narratives As I was writing this section of the story in a cafe on September 2, 2019, I realized that day was exactly a year since cystic fibrosis activist Claire Wineland passed away a week after a double lung transplant at age 21 due to a stroke. A native of Los Angeles, California, she was born with cystic fibrosis, a hereditary disease where some cells in her lungs produce too much mucus, which clogs the airways and increases susceptibility to other infections. She was active on social media since 2010, sharing her experiences mostly within the confines of a hospital room. I knew very little about the disease back then and looked it up online after I read that she passed away in the news. Reading about the of the nature of the disease didn’t ease my sadness I had since it didn’t give me meaning to this young woman’s life. What gave more meaning to me, and perhaps to millions of people who followed her journey, is her story. How is the disease affecting her life as she transitioned from adolescence to adulthood? How did she cope when most of her life was confined to a hospital? How does the disease and environment affect her thinking and self-awareness? How did her experience and narrative affect others with cystic fibrosis? And what can clinicians learn from her narrative? Massage therapists can learn everything there is about pain, from neuroscience to anatomy, but those disciplines by themselves may not give us much meaning to our patients’ experiences. They can explain ascending and descending modulations that contribute to their back pain, or compare the biomechanics of normal and abnormal gait patterns in walking. But what do these mean for patients who have low back pain for many years, have sought many treatments that didn’t reduce their pain or disability, and have a hard time working and doing things they enjoy? Some patients may not be familiar with the narrative medicine approach to massage therapy. Some might engage a little and tell you about their symptoms and point out where they feel it. Some would say little and just want to be “relaxed.” A few might tell you their deeper reasons on why they came—dealing with a death of a parent, taking care of a child with a chronic illness, or having minor trauma from a recent car accident. In her book, “Narrative Medicine: Honoring the Stories of Illness,” Charon compared and contrasted scientific knowledge and narrative knowledge. The former “tries to discover things about the natural world that are universally true or at least appear true to any observer,” and the latter as enabling “an individual to understand particular events befalling another individual not as an instance of something that is universally true but as a singular and meaningful situation.” Also, narrative medicine looks at “individual human beings grappling with the conditions of life” and “attempts to illuminate the universals of the human condition by revealing the particular,” while non-narrative knowledge “attempts to illuminate the universal by transcending the particular.” Neither is better than another. Both are needed in practice. The four divides of narrative medicine Currently, there is no universal definition of narrative-based medicine, but many researchers and clinicians are trying. Charon described it as medicine practiced with the capacity to recognize, absorb, metabolize, interpret, and be moved by stories of illness.” In 2014, a group of international experts in Rome, Italy, agreed that narrative-based medicine is “a fundamental tool to acquire, comprehend and integrate the different points of view of all the participants having a role in the illness experience.” While these are pretty broad terms, narrative medicine is more about the individual—the unique experience and narrative that each person carries. Thus, it is challenging to pinpoint a specific definition of narrative-based medicine when there are so many variables that constitute the practice. However, some experts have identified characteristics that makes up narrative medicine. First, Charon identified “Four Divides” that cause a disconnection between the patient and the clinician: 1. Relation to mortality: Clinicians and patients have a different viewpoint on death, especially if the patient is terminally ill or is fighting to keep breathing for many years. Oftentimes, the clinician is the healthy one to the patient’s perspective (how else could they take care of the sick if clinicians themselves are sick?) and may be more aloof to the patient’s perspective on mortality. While many massage therapists do not to work with patients who are in near-death conditions regularly, “mortality” can be replaced with diseases, stress, and injuries. 2. Context of illness: Clinicians see illness and pain as a biological phenomenon, while patients see them as something that changes their life: how they function, what is their role in society and family, etc. A disease or injury can change patients’ behavior and how well or poor a treatment can be. For example, cultural and religious factors can influence how compliant patients are in taking a medication for certain mental diseases. Some scientists hypothesize that being involved in a religious activity and being among a tribe can lower depressive symptoms, which makes such patients more likely to stick with the medication plan well. In massage therapy, patients may perceive back pain as something that changes how they work, interact with their children or spouse, or participate in their favorite sport or activities. Depending on the patient they work with, therapists should adapt their explanation of pain differently to each individual. 3. Beliefs about disease causality: Charon mentioned that clinicians see an explanation of a disease through “replicable scientific evidence,” while patients may view it based on their personal experience, family lore, or magical thinking or beliefs. She gave an example where a clinician see epilepsy as “abnormal foci of electrical activities in the tissues of the brain,” while Hmong parents of their young daughter might see it as “ancestral spirits ‘unable to settle down’.” Massage therapists may have already encountered this often in practice when patients tell them that their low back pain is caused by an “unstable sacroiliac joint” because their chiropractor or physiotherapist told them so. 4. Shame, blame, and fear: As part of human primal behaviors, both clinicians and patients sometimes show these emotions during a consultation and treatment. Clinicians may be fearful in asking some personal questions pertaining to their patients’ health and lifestyle, while patients may be embarrassed to share certain parts of their lives and behavior. This emotional tug-o-war can affect the outcome of a treatment. For example, some patients might feel vulnerable and uncomfortable to share their health history to a therapist of an opposite gender, and the therapist might miss out an important element that can affect the quality of the treatment. Contrarily, some therapists might blame a poor treatment outcome on patients for whatever reasons rather than exploring why such an outcome happened. The 7 C’s of narrative medicine While the Four Divides addresses the problems in a typical clinical encounter, the Seven C’s zero in on the details on how we should communicate with our patients. Developed by Dr. John Launer, who is a general practitioner and family therapist and teaches at Health Education England in London, the Seven C’s help bring out the patients’ narrative and help clinicians understand the underlying problem and take precautions in how they communicate. Conversation: This is seen as a treatment itself rather than a mean to a treatment. The goal is not to solve the problem but to moving forward to a “problem dissolution through the creation of new stories” by helping the patient think about their problem in different ways. This usually happens during the consultation, and having a conversation puts the patient and the therapist “on a level field.” Curiosity: This does not equate to “prying” or “being nosy.” Instead, being curious about a patient’s problem involves finding out why they came to see the therapist. Circularity: This concept moves the therapist away from a “linear” approach of thinking about the patient’s condition (x causes y). Instead, circularity refers to recognizing that some patterns in human health is an “endless, three-dimensional dance without perceptible beginning or end,” similar to the Kreb cycle or feedback loop in the nervous system for persistent low back pain. The patient’s story is endless cycle of interactions throughout his/her life that contribute to their symptoms. Circularity offers potential change in the patient’s narrative about their condition, building an alternate narrative with different possibilities. Context: Ten patients may come to you for their low back pain problem, but without the content of their condition, their symptoms may be indistinguishable from each other since therapists tend to think low back pain as mostly a biological or structural problem. A patient’s narrative on their condition likely stem from multiple narratives: the media, previous therapists, prior beliefs, family, and friends. This also applies to therapists who have narratives of our own, stemming from our education, practice, biases, and scope of practice. Being aware of how context drive the patient-therapist interaction is crucial during a treatment. Otherwise, we might end up treat those ten patients the same way like an assembly line. Co-Creation: Tying the previous C’s together, co-creation involves both the patient and the therapist to weave their stories together to create new ones. This is not a “share and tell” session. Like in Conversation, co-creation helps the therapist be a participant and a guide of the Conversation. This process gets the therapist to be a participant instead of being detached from the patient’s condition. Caution: Sometimes the narrative medicine approach can backfire, creating more distress for the patient, especially if the patient is seeking the therapist for help within the therapist’s practice (e.g. massage, exercise), not talk therapy. Therapists should be mindful when asking about personal matters. Care: A basic trait of all that narrative medicine needs, we need to keep this in mind—as Dr. John Launer wrote, “Without which nothing else works.” “Lifespan psychologists and developmental psychologists have stressed the importance of considering illness as a non-normative transition of life, which requests the individual to work towards the re-establishment of the normative life balance. “When a person faces a chronic illness, the need to reconstruct their life story connecting the past life with the present experience of illness is strong. “In this particular context, narrative becomes an opportunity to give voice to the disruption and to provide it within a time framework not separated from the other life events which form part of the individual’s autobiographical story.” ~ Fioretti et al. What’s holding back narative medicine in massage therapy? “I think one of the biggest obstacles in both clinical education and practice has to do with both time and value. Most practitioners believe that implementing narrative medicine principles will take an inordinate amount of time during a clinical encounter,” Pam Ressler said in an online interview with Massage & Fitness Magazine. She is a registered nurse and a faculty member at Tufts University School of Medicine in Boston, Massachuetts. “ I think one reason is that initially integrating narrative-based medicine may be perceived as time-consuming, and in the U.S., payment is usually procedure-based, and not time-based. This will continue to evolve, but I think this is a barrier. Another reason is that narrative medicine invites some vulnerability for both the clinician and patient, as we deeply observe the human experience.” Physical therapist James Stark from Bronson Healthcare System in South Haven, Michigan, said that even the biopsychosocial framework of health is lacking in his profession. No one seems to know how to use it in practice. “I suspect that this is because the concepts are so nebulous and there is not a consistent algorithm to follow,” he said. “The role and value of listening and connecting seems to be left out as the time constraints are significant and algorithms are easier to understand. Narrative medicine is a method that helps clinicians get to the heart of the experience of pain and, as such, it acknowledges a [biopsychosocial] perspective.” Ressler explained that clinicians who have been trained in narrative medicine have better patient outcomes when they align the care plan with patients’ values and goals. Even so, there is still another obstacle: the skepticism of narrative medicine in clinical care. Thus, narrative medicine is not taught in many nursing, physical therapy, and medical schools. Although she admitted there’s a lag in modernizing healthcare education, Ressler is optimistic that narrative medicine will be a requirement in the 2020s and beyond. “As clinicians and those involved in healthcare see a greater number of individuals with chronic versus acute conditions, the necessity of integration of narrative-based practices will become more essential in their overall treatment of illness and restoration of health and function,” Ressler said. Stark gave an example of how he used narrative medicine in practice. “Recently, I said to a new patient, ‘I am ready to hear your story now. I want to hear about you, your life, your back pain, and how those things interact,’” Stark said. “Her reply was insightful, and this was the most efficient four minutes of exploration of her issue that I can imagine. When I repeated that story to one of my colleagues, he told me that he would never dare ask that question because the electronic medical record that we use requires so much data that just listening would not allow him to get the required information into the system in an efficient manner. That is a huge barrier.” “Another barrier is social,” Stark added. “It is uncomfortable to hear someone’s story when you do not have an answer to the stated or implied question ‘What do I do to fix this?’ We are not trained to be comfortable with uncertainty. We are trained to have answers.” Is narrative medicine outside of scope of practice? Some clinicians may argue that asking patients to share their stories and explore their beliefs are stepping over their scope of practice. While practicing narrative medicine does have a fine line that clinicians tread on, they can still do so without violating their scope of practice. Ressler argued that the concepts of narrative medicine fits well within healthcare professionals’ scope. “Rita Charon describes narrative-based medicine as medicine practiced with narrative competence ‘to recognize, absorb, interpret, and be moved by the stories of illness.’ This definition can be applied to disciplines other medicine within healt hcare without overstepping scope of practice,” Ressler said. “One’s experience with illness is different than simply the diagnosis of a disease. By learning to listen and observe in a specific way, our insights into understanding the context of a patient’s illness can be amplified and strengthened.” Dr. John Lauer said that healthcare practitioners are not curious enough when working with patients. Patients’ narratives help them avoid making wrong assumptions about the patients. “The essence of a narrative approach is to try and enter the other person’s way of looking at the world and go with it,” Launer said. “If someone wants a practitioner just to ‘do things’, then just do them! But people from all cultures have stories to tell, and if they meet a professional who is genuinely interested in these stories, they will nearly always share them. “My advice is: show an interest, back off if anyone doesn’t seem to like it, but try it again when they trust you more.” What if narrative medicine backfires? Because of their previous experience with health care professionals, some patients may not want to open up with massage therapists and just want to be “work on.” As Launer said, perhaps that is the best approach to go at the moment. If they return to see you repeatedly, then it may be an opportunity to investigate their issue a little more. In such scenarios, Stark suggested a strategy. “David Butler and Lorimer Moseley talked about people whose beliefs are set in sandstone, in sandcastles, or single grains of sand,” Stark said. “Those whose concepts are set in sandstone are very challenging to work with, but remember, even sandstone wears away bit by bit. If you can create a therapeutic alliance, by really listening and empathizing with them, by accepting their story, acknowledging that their concept makes perfect sense from their perspective, sometimes you can get them to accept that there is a different perspective that is also possible. I hope this new perspective is one that can give an actionable plan which includes increased patient autonomy.” Stark finds that the “the sandstone fixed ideas ” are less common among patients who have been living in pain for a long time. “[They] would love it if you were able to ‘fix’ them, but they are wary and distrustful as they have heard this so many times before, I confess that I cannot ‘fix’ them,” he said. “I generally follow up by asking, ‘Why would you expect me to fix you when no one else has been able to?’ Then I ask if they are interested in my help in exploring options to help themselves. Their narrative often allows me much greater access to areas where they are willing to go in this direction.” A word of caution: narrative medicine is not a one-size-fits-all approach nor is it a stand-alone intervention. Ressler said that practitioners must be sensitive to culture nuances and how much each patient prefers to share their narratives. “Use of narrative medicine should always be culturally based, and be layered upon the clinical care being delivered. Many chronic conditions cannot be ‘fixed’ but can be treated and managed effectively,” Ressler said. “While this is not the answer most patients and families want to hear, it is part of the narrative and important for the clinician to pick up on. Narrative medicine is not only helpful for understanding the patient but also for understanding our own frustrations, values, and goals as a clinician. Deep observation in a narrative framework helps a clinician understand and examine how their goals may align or not align with a patient’s.” Piggybacking on Ressler, Launer mentioned that narrative medicine can help clinicians work with patients who are raised from a different culture than their own. From the teachings of the Canadian psychiatrist and anthropologist Laurence Kirmayer, Launer learned about the “contest of interpretations” that clinicians should avoid. “If [patients] insist on their interpretation and I insist on mine, we will get nowhere,” Lauer said. “If I can show an interest in their stories as individuals – how they got to where they are, what happened on the way, what elements contributed to their condition and so forth – their own story may begin to change and so will my story about them. Every narrative has its own internal energy if you don’t try to take it over. That doesn’t exclude doing things as well. You can give an injection or other physical treatment and still continue the conversation.” Allowing patients the time and space to tell their story during a consultation is already a therapeutic process, and such interaction often is a sign of trust development. However, massage therapists are not counselors, psychologists, marriage and family therapists, or any related professionals and should not attempt to cosplay one. Even if one is, the patient is seeking massage therapy for help, not talk therapy. What therapists can do is to ask questions, listen, and give appropriate touch during the session. They should not give our opinion about their situation nor should we interject their story with ours. (“Oh, that happened to me, too!”) “Connecting with the human in front of us is never out of our scope of practice: it is the heart of our practice.” ~ James Stark, PT A native of San Diego for nearly 40 years, Nick Ng is an editor of Massage & Fitness Magazine, an online publication for manual therapists and the public who want to explore the science behind touch, pain, and exercise, and how to apply that in their hands-on practice or daily lives. An alumni from San Diego State University with a B.A. in Graphic Communications, Nick also completed his massage therapy training at International Professional School of Bodywork in San Diego in 2014. When he is not writing or reading, you would likely find him weightlifting at the gym, salsa dancing, or exploring new areas to walk and eat around Southern California.

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This article has been reviewed according to Science X's Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility: New insights on the neural mechanisms underlying compulsive drug use during cocaine addiction by Thamarasee Jeewandara , Medical Xpress Drug addiction is characterized by compulsive drug use among individuals despite adverse consequences underlying such tendencies. However, the specific neural circuits underlying the mechanisms of addictive behavior remain unidentified. In a new study now published in Science Advances, Yang Chen and a research team in medical sciences, biomimetic drugs, and neuroscience in China conducted several experiments with animal models to understand specific neural mechanisms behind cocaine addiction. During the experiments, they implemented a footshock-triggered method of cocaine self-administration among the rats to assess the variability of rodent behavior during the process. The outcomes showed how rats with compulsively habitual cocaine use presented increased neural activity of the anterior insular cortex (aIC) when compared with non-compulsive rats. Chen and colleagues recognized the chemogenic manipulating activity of neurons in the anterior insular cortex (aIC), which received inputs from the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) during compulsive cocaine use. When they suppressed this OFC-aIC neural circuit, the rat behavior changed from triggered compulsive activity to display sensitivity. This work showed how the aIC glutamatergic neurons and the orbitofrontal cortex-anterior insular cortex facilitated a shift towards compulsive cocaine use, which can serve as a therapeutic target to prevent drug addiction. The insular cortex is a complex anatomical hubris in the mammalian brain, which includes an anterior insular cortex (aIC) and a posterior insular cortex (pIC). The researchers showed how the anterior insular cortex is associated with compulsive cocaine use. They demonstrated this by implementing a footshock-triggered cocaine self-administration procedure and combined the process with cluster analysis, immunostaining, fiber photometry, electrophysiology, and chemo-genetics. The outcomes showed how the glutamatergic neurons of the anterior insular cortex and orbitofrontal cortex-anterior insular cortex regions played a key role to regulate compulsive cocaine use. The outcomes provide hitherto unidentified anatomical and functional circuits to therapeutically mediate drug addiction. The rodent experiments The research team conducted experiments with the rats who were trained to self-administer cocaine across 12 days. Under the conditions of freely available cocaine use, rats learned to compulsively self-administer the drug. When the team introduced three days of an hour of footshock-triggered drug administration, they observed that approximately 34% of the rats were shock resistant, while 66% were shock sensitive. The cocaine-sensitive rats quickly reduced self-administration of the drug, while those resistant to the dose kept administering the drug despite the trigger. Further analysis showed the anterior insular cortex neurons of the shock-resistant rats to be hyperactive. The researchers performed specific neural activities to examine the activation of anterior insular neurons in the two groups of rats via trigger assays. Investigating different proteins of interest involved in cocaine addiction The team first studied the c-Fos protein expression specific to brain development in several nonspecific brain regions involved with drug addiction. The rats presenting with drug resistance had an increased number of c-Fos positive neurons in the anterior insular cortex, the orbital frontal cortex, nucleus accumbens and in the central amygdala, in comparison to sensitive rats. While the team positively stained neurons for this protein of interest, they could not be differentiated between drug resistant and sensitive rats in the parietal insular cortex, indicating their exclusion during compulsive cocaine use within the specific brain regions. The team additionally confirmed the relationship between the activated anterior insular cortex neurons and compulsive cocaine use with further experiments to highlight a connection between cocaine use and hyperactivity of the neurons. Additional experiments showed the activation of the anterior insular cortex neurons for compulsive cocaine use. During chemically induced inhibition of the anterior insular cortex, the team noted a significant reduction of compulsive cocaine use among resistant rats alongside a notable restoration of their sensitivity to triggers. However, similar inhibition of the same brain region in already sensitive rats did not affect their use of cocaine during triggers. The outcomes yet again highlighted the necessity of activating the anterior insular cortex for compulsive cocaine use. The role of the anterior insular cortex (aIC) glutamatergic neurons and the OFC-aIC axis Since previous investigations linked the aIC (anterior insular cortex) neurons with glutamatergic properties; glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system, the researchers speculated that this region modulates compulsive cocaine use. They specifically tested this by inhibiting the characteristic neuron subset with a chemogenic assay, which reduced compulsive cocaine use, while inhibiting the aIC glutamatergic neurons among rats already sensitive to cocaine did not alter their drug use. The neuron subtype bidirectionally regulated compulsive cocaine use among the animal models. Further studies showed how the anterior insular cortex received direct inputs from the orbital frontal cortex (OFC-aIC axis). The team used a viral vector system to study the implications of the OFC-aIC pathway during compulsive cocaine use between sensitive and resistant rats. The outcomes highlighted the significance of activating the neural circuit for compulsive drug use. In this way, Yang Chen and colleagues used animal models to show the gating role of glutamatergic neurons of the anterior insular cortex (aIC) and the orbital frontal cortex- anterior insular cortex (OFC-aIC) circuit, during the regulation of compulsive cocaine use. The outcomes highlighted how patients with insula damage could easily quit smoking. The findings can add to the understanding of compulsive drug addiction and the design of related therapies to attenuate the tendency. Yang Chen et al, An orbitofrontal cortex–anterior insular cortex circuit gates compulsive cocaine use, Science Advances (2022). DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abq5745 Billy T. Chen et al, Rescuing cocaine-induced prefrontal cortex hypoactivity prevents compulsive cocaine seeking, Nature (2013). DOI: 10.1038/nature12024 New insights on the neural mechanisms underlying compulsive drug use during cocaine addiction (2023, January 11) retrieved 28 February 2024 This document is subject to copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study or research, no part may be reproduced without the written permission. The content is provided for information purposes only.

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[Jan. 6, 2024: JJ Shavit, The Brighter Side of News] Researchers have found that a well-known gene, Tob, plays an important role in reducing depression, fear, and anxiety. (CREDIT: Creative Commons) In the nuanced landscape of molecular biology, few genes have captured the intrigue of the scientific community as the Tob gene has. Discovered in 1996 in Professor Tadashi Yamamoto’s lab in Japan, Tob’s influence stretches from cancer proliferation to the intricate dance of the cell cycle and the subtleties of immune responses. Today, researchers at the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (OIST) have added a new dimension to Tob’s repertoire: a potential treatment for depression, fear, and anxiety. “This research is about understanding stress-resilience,” Dr. Mohieldin Youssef, a pivotal figure in this groundbreaking study and a former PhD student in OIST’s Cell Signal Unit, elucidated. Prof. Yamamoto, leading the unit, has been at the helm of this discovery journey. “The presence of the gene helps with stress-resilience and if it’s removed, there’s an increase in depression, fear, and anxiety.” Tob, deriving its nomenclature from the Japanese verb “tobu,” to fly or jump, is an immediate-early gene, a classification speaking to its swift activation in the face of stimuli. The gene’s protein levels don’t just increase—they surge, reflecting its readiness to meet cellular demands. “The Tob gene is related to many different phenomena, but working on the brain system is particularly challenging,” Prof. Yamamoto admits. Despite prior suspicions, it is this team’s effort that has crystallized Tob’s role in stress resistance within the brain’s complex circuitry. To illustrate this connection, the OIST researchers embarked on a series of meticulous experiments. They began by exposing mice to stress, which predictably led to increased Tob protein levels. However, the real revelation came from studying mice genetically modified to lack the Tob gene. These mice displayed starkly increased signs of depression, fear, and anxiety. This behavioral change was dramatically observed during the ‘bucket of water’ test—while normal mice swam vigorously seeking escape, Tob-deficient mice remained listlessly afloat, emblematic of despair. An MRI of the hippocampus and the pre-frontal cortex when the Tob gene was removed. This MRI allowed the researchers to determine that the connectivity between the hippocampus and the pre-frontal cortex had been altered. The image is from the press release "Jumping gene found to be strongly linked to depression, fear, and anxiety." (CREDIT: OIST) The lack of the Tob gene also seemed to stunt learning from repetitive exposure to stressors. Mice are typically capable of recognizing that recurrently encountered fear-provoking environments are not as threatening as initially perceived. However, Tob-deficient mice failed to exhibit this adaptive response, remaining consistently paralyzed by fear. In a collaborative stride, OIST’s Dr. Hiroaki Hamada from the Neural Computational Unit brought neuroimaging expertise to the table. MRI analysis revealed that deleting the Tob gene disrupted the neural dialogue between the hippocampus and pre-frontal cortex—regions critical for managing stress resilience. Tob deletion induces fear and depression-like behaviors. This can be explained by the altered functional connectivity between the hippocampus and the pre-frontal cortex. The neurons in the hippocampus showed increased excitation and decreased inhibition. There were also impacts on other genes and proteins. (CREDIT: OIST) The researchers then narrowed their focus to the hippocampus, injecting the Tob gene into this region of Tob-deficient mice. The intervention normalized fear and depression but left anxiety untouched. Conversely, mice lacking the Tob gene specifically in the hippocampal cells—while retaining it elsewhere—experienced normal anxiety levels but heightened fear and depression. “We’ve concluded that the Tob gene within the hippocampus suppresses fear and depression,” Dr. Youssef deduced, “But the suppression of anxiety must be regulated by another part of the brain.” TOB protein expression levels increase in response to stress. Western blotting of TOB expression levels in hippocampal lysates without stress and after 30 min of restraint stress at different times: 15 min, 1 h, 3 h, 5 h after stress exposure (n = 4). D Western blotting of TOB expression levels in hippocampal lysates without stress and after inescapable electric shock for different durations: 15 min, 1 h, 3 h, 5 h post-exposure to stress (n = 3). (CREDIT: OIST) Further exploration into the neuronal function within the hippocampus of these mice disclosed an imbalance between excitation and inhibition, offering a possible explanation for their altered behavior. Moreover, molecular analyses post-stress exposure indicated that the absence of the Tob gene not only has immediate effects but also triggers a cascade of genetic and protein alterations, underscoring Tob’s extensive influence. The implications of these findings extend beyond theoretical genetics; they usher in hope for psychiatric stress-related interventions. The study, published by the prestigious journal Translational Psychiatry, included Western blot analyses that graphically represented the Tob protein's reaction to stress, providing a biochemical testament to the gene's responsive nature. Deletion of Tob alters brain functional connectivity. (CREDIT: OIST) “Uncovering this role of the Tob gene in fear, depression, and anxiety could have vast implications for developing therapeutics for psychiatric stress,” Dr. Youssef posits. The intricate relationship between our genetic makeup and psychological well-being has never been more palpable. With this research, a new path has been illuminated—one that may lead to novel strategies for bolstering mental health resilience, providing a beacon of hope for those grappling with the shadows of psychological stress. Researchers have found that a well-known gene, Tob, plays an important role in reducing depression, fear, and anxiety. This conclusion was drawn after several different experiments involving mice in both cell biology and neuroscience. They also found that the Tob gene within the hippocampus was important for reducing fear and depression, but not anxiety. That seemed to be controlled by another part of the brain. What’s more, the mice without the Tob gene didn’t seem to learn that a place wasn’t so bad—they continued to show increased levels of fear observed as freezing, even after several days. The researchers stated that uncovering this role of the Tob gene in depression, fear, and anxiety could have vast implications for developing therapeutics for psychiatric stress. For more science news stories check out our New Innovations section at The Brighter Side of News. Note: Materials provided above by The Brighter Side of News. Content may be edited for style and length. Like these kind of feel good stories? Get the Brighter Side of News' newsletter.

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Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurological condition that is commonly diagnosed in children and can persist into adulthood. This disorder affects one’s ability to focus, concentrate, and control impulsive behaviors, thus causing difficulties in everyday life. Those with ADHD may also struggle with organization and have difficulty completing tasks. There are a variety of reliable treatment options available today for ADHD symptoms, including traditional treatments like prescription medication and therapy, and emerging alternative therapies, like neurofeedback training. In this article, we will focus on the potential benefits you stand to gain from neurofeedback if you struggle with ADHD symptoms. Table of Contents What is Neurofeedback? Neurofeedback is an innovative approach to treating ADHD that is gaining popularity among patients and clinicians alike. This therapy is a form of science-backed brain training that teaches individuals to self-regulate their brain waves by providing real-time feedback. Neurofeedback works by providing feedback to the patient and their clinician in real time, which reinforces certain responses and creates new neural pathways in the brain. The goal of neurofeedback is for patients to learn how to gain better control of their brain wave patterns through operant conditioning, which helps promote efficient information processing, improved attention, better focus, stronger memory recall, and greater control over impulses. During neurofeedback training sessions, patients sit comfortably while sensors are attached to the scalp. They then engage in a mental activity and the sensors transmit real-time data to the clinician’s computer, which analyzes the brain activity and compares it against data of individuals without ADHD. The clinician then provides guidance and feedback to the patient to support the reduction of their ADHD symptoms. The process is painless and non-invasive, and patients are often amazed at their improved ability to control their thought patterns after receiving treatment. Neurofeedback training has been shown to be effective in reducing ADHD symptoms, including impulsivity, attention span, concentration, and cognitive functioning. Several studies have demonstrated the efficacy of neurofeedback therapy in treating ADHD. For instance, a study published in the Journal of Neurotherapy showed that neurofeedback training is as effective as medication in treating the core symptoms of ADHD. How Brain Activity Relates to ADHD Symptoms Neurofeedback has been shown to be effective at treating many mental health conditions because it addresses the underlying causes of the symptoms rather than just masking them. Believe it or not, many of the symptoms of ADHD can be linked to certain brain wave activities and patterns. Let’s explore the link between brain wave activity and ADHD symptoms and discuss how neurofeedback training can benefit those with this condition. High-Frequency Beta Brain Waves and Impulsive Behaviors Impulsivity is a common symptom that people with ADHD often experience, which can negatively impact their daily lives. Research has consistently shown that individuals with ADHD experience a lower amount of high-frequency beta brain waves compared to those without the same condition. Beta brain waves are commonly produced during periods of efficient information processing and are associated with elevated alertness, focus, and attention. In contrast, low-frequency delta waves are often associated with drowsiness and inattentiveness, obviously making it harder to focus and concentrate. Studies have found that increasing the production of high-frequency beta brain waves can lead to a reduction in impulsive behaviors and an improvement in attention. This is where neurofeedback training comes in. By allowing the individual to understand how their brain is responding in real-time, neurofeedback training can help them learn how to control their brain activity and increase the production of high-frequency beta brain waves. Over time, this can lead to a reduction in impulsive behavior symptoms. It’s important to note that each individual’s brain wave activity is unique, and therefore, neurofeedback training should be tailored to the specific imbalances of each individual. This requires a personalized training protocol that is designed to target the areas that need improvement. Theta Brain Waves and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Recent research has shown that patients suffering from ADHD might have an excess of theta brain waves. As noted earlier, theta brain waves are often associated with drowsiness, inattention, daydreaming, and sleep. An overabundance of theta brain waves can lead to cognitive dysfunction and impulsivity. The excessive amount of theta waves in patients with ADHD may contribute to their symptoms and make it difficult for them to focus, concentrate, and remain organized. Similarly to the beta brain waves, neurofeedback training can improve the theta brain wave activities for individuals with ADHD. Through iterative training and positive reinforcement, individuals can rebalance the electrical activities within their brains and improve the frequency of theta brain waves for more optimal functioning. Neurofeedback Treatment Overview Neurofeedback therapy utilizes electroencephalogram (EEG) biofeedback technology, which measures the electrical activity of the brain. Patients engage in various activities during the neurofeedback training sessions, and the system compares their brain wave patterns to available data in an internal database. Based on that comparison, the system then provides feedback to positively or negatively reinforce certain behaviors or responses. Over time, this type of training helps the brain develop healthier patterns of activity and improve self-regulation. What to Expect at Neurofeedback Session Before starting your first neurofeedback session, you’ll need to undergo a thorough assessment and evaluation process first. The initial step is a medical evaluation, which includes neuropsychological testing and a symptom questionnaire. This assessment provides the healthcare practitioner with necessary information about your medical history, cognitive function, and current symptoms, which are used to determine the appropriate treatment plan. The next step is the EEG measurement via a brain map. In a seated position, you’ll wear a cap lined with electrodes to measure your brain activity during the session. The EEG brain map is used to identify the different frequencies of the participant’s brain waves, monitor any imbalances that need to be addressed, and establish a baseline for your current state of mental functioning. Once the initial information is gathered, your practitioner will develop a personalized neurofeedback treatment plan for you to address your symptoms in the short and long-term. At those subsequent sessions, you’ll utilize the same head cap to monitor your brain’s electrical activity. During each session, you will typically engage in different activities, which may include simple tasks, watching videos, or practicing cognitive exercises. The EEG technology will measure the different frequencies of your brain waves during each activity, thus identifying those that are underperforming or unbalanced. Through the clinician’s guidance and feedback, you’ll be able to address the imbalances and symptoms. The sessions typically last between 10-30 minutes and may be conducted 2-3 times per week. The number of sessions necessary for success can vary, but patients may expect anywhere from 20-40 sessions to get the symptom relief they’re looking for. Efficacy of Neurofeedback for ADHD Neurofeedback therapy has become a popular method for addressing symptoms associated with ADHD. In fact, a study published in the Journal of Attention Disorders found that the use of neurofeedback therapy in conjunction with medication and behavior therapy produced more significant improvements in ADHD symptoms than medication and behavior therapy alone. In many cases, patients have been able to reduce their need for prescription medications after extensive neurofeedback treatment. A study published in the Journal of Pediatric Neurology found that after receiving neurofeedback training, patients with ADHD were able to reduce or even completely discontinue medication use with continued symptom improvement. We should note that not all patients respond to neurofeedback therapy, and it may not be a suitable treatment option for everyone. Still, it’s a good idea to look closer at this treatment technique if you struggle with ADHD symptoms. An Effective Treatment Option with Few Side Effects One of the greatest advantages of neurofeedback therapy is that it does not cause the negative side effects associated with medication or invasive procedures. It is a completely natural, drug-free, and non-invasive form of treatment. Neurofeedback therapy is a highly professional treatment designed to generate long-term symptom relief for individuals who struggle with mental health concerns. It’s an incredibly safe therapy that has tons of benefits to offer you. If you struggle with ADHD, try integrating neurofeedback therapy into your mental health treatment regimen. Author’s BIO: Nellia Melnyk is a researcher, and content creator who has a keen interest in neuroscience and psychology. She has developed an impressive collection of articles and blog posts focused on improving cognitive function, overcoming mental health issues, and enhancing overall brain health. Nellia is committed to helping individuals harness the power of their brains and live their best lives.

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Managers report that many things act as barriers preventing them from listening effectively in the workplace. Distractions from external sources such as endless emails, busyness at work, noise from “open office environments” and time pressures, are high on the list as impediments. Managers also identify what can be described as internal barriers to listening – preconceptions about an individual staff member, assumptions about what the individual wants to talk about, anxiety when the speaker is sharing difficult emotions, and absorption with their own personal issues. Managers report, too, that they tend to try to solve problems before they really know what the employee’s problem is, interrupt people to tell their own stories and have difficulty maintaining their focus on a speaker when they are perceived to be “rambling on”. Added to these difficulties experienced by managers is what Johann Hari describes as our “lost focus” – an ongoing decline in our ability to pay attention for any length of time because of the “fire hose” of information flooding our minds through emails, social media and news broadcasts. In his book, Stolen Focus: Why You Can’t Pay Attention, he highlights our inability to stay-on-topic, be truly present and achieve flow. Research shows that our attention span is diminishing rapidly, making it all the more difficult for managers to engage in “deep listening”. In a recent podcast, Gloria Monk PhD drew on this research to explain “Why our attention spans are shrinking”. The essence of deep listening Joan Halifax, in her book, Standing at the Edge, describes deep listening as truly listening in the present moment with openness and curiosity. She explains that this requires us “to step out of self-absorption, self-deception, distractions” and move away “from the trance of our technological devices”. Joan maintains that deep listening involves “really hearing” someone else by listening “with body, heart, and mind”. In her words, it also involves being able to “listen past the filters of our personal history and our memories” – it involves self-lessness. Too often, we have to tell our stories to legitimate ourselves in the eyes of the other person. Larissa Behrendt, in her novel After Story, has one of her characters describe deep listening as “listening with respect” – not trying to hurry the other person to finish, paying full attention without interrupting the speaker. She reinforces the need to be “ready to listen” – “to prepare the space and listen” so that you can take in the wisdom of the speaker and the story they have to tell. Larissa, Distinguished Professor of Indigenous Studies and Research at UTS, maintains that deep listening has its origins in the ancient cultural ways known as Winanga-Li, where “the silences are as powerful as the words”. Deep listening for Richard Wolf, author of In Tune: Music as a Bridge to Mindfulness, occurs when we “not only hear music but feel it”. This involves feeling the music “with your body and soul”. For Richard, music can help the listener/musician overcome internal barriers to listening by “filtering out” distorting elements such as biases, prejudices, blind-spots and false assumptions. Benefits of deep listening There are many benefits from deep listening that accrue to the listener as well as the person being listened to. I have summarised some of the key benefits that are identified in literature that I have been reading lately: - Facilitating the healing power of storytelling: deep listening enables a person to share their story of pain, suffering and trauma. Annie Brewster details the way this can happen in her book, The Healing Power of Storytelling: Using Personal Narrative to Navigate Illness, Trauma and Loss. It is because of the healing power of storytelling that Annie has established the Health Story Collaborative. Jana Pittman, in her biography Enough: accept yourself just the way you are, highlights the destructive impact of keeping painful things bottled up – you can lose yourself. As someone who has experienced deep pain and suffering – through three miscarriages, a marriage breakdown, media taunting and bullying, “a cervical cancer scare”, multiple injuries destroying her Olympic Dream, battling with financial difficulties and an eating disorder – Jana can readily attest to the healing power that facing her pain and sharing her story has provided her. She maintains that running away from pain can be a “heavy burden” because “bottling it up” is like “carrying it round like a ball and chain”. By facing her pain, embracing it and sharing it, she has found a new release to achieve even greater goals; the alternative, avoidance strategy, “leaves you with a whole lot of defensive walls and only a short ladder”. Larissa Behrendt, in her After Story novel, has one of her characters comment that there is “strength in saying things” because “it’s like a curtain being lifted”. - Achieving resonance: `Ginny Whitelaw, innovator in leadership development, contends that leadership is about achieving resonance with followers, and that it is through listening that leaders capture the energy of followers and thus focus and amplify the collective energy of a team. She explains her underlying principles, and supporting neuroscience, in her book, Resonate: Zen and the Way of Making a Difference. Deep listening for Ginny involves getting on the “same wavelength”, instead of “talking past” the other person. This means, in effect, that energy vibrations of the leader and follower become aligned and therefore amplified. The sensitivity involved in such deep listening changes the listener and enables healing of the storyteller. - Developing empathy: Joan Halifax contends that deep listening develops empathy, motivates compassionate action and obviates self-absorption. She provides examples of deep listening in her book, Standing at the Edge, while recognising that empathy is an “Edge State” – that can lead to significant personal and social contributions, but potentially lead to “empathic distress”. This latter downside of deep listening and the attendant empathic feelings can arise where a person is unable to separate themselves from the sufferer – they effectively “own” the other’s suffering. In her book, Joan describes situations where she has experienced empathic distress, however momentarily, and offers ways to overcome this other-absorption, including her G.R.A.C.E. technique. Ways to develop deep listening There are multiple ways to develop deep listening and, like any art, “practise makes perfect”. However, we each have our personal and historical impediments to achieving deep listening at any point in time. Actively working to cultivate deep listening can be very beneficial for ourselves and others we interact with on a daily basis. Several authors suggest different ways to develop deep listening (apart from consciously practising it in the present moment): - Sounds as an anchor in meditation: meditation often involves choosing an anchor that can enable us to re-focus once we experience distractions during meditation. While our breath is often used as an anchor, sounds can be an alternative. Richard Wolf suggests that focusing in on the sounds of our breath along with the gap between breaths, can effectively cultivate deep listening. We can also tune into our environment, including what he describes as the “room tone”. Richard also encourages the development of “dual awareness” where we not only focus on the sounds of our breath but also become consciously aware of our associated bodily sensations. - Music to quiet the “inner voice”: Richard maintains that playing a musical instrument or listening to music can cultivate deep listening because of the sustained concentration required. You are effectively training yourself to tune into the music (by fully attending to the sounds) and experiencing the music emotionally and bodily. Richard argues that the concentration required quiets the self-critical inner voice and prevents contamination by our “cognitive limitations”. He contends that music enables us to achieve an alignment of mind, body and emotion. Richard suggests that playing an instrument for others not only develops deep listening for the musician but also provides a “stunning variety of sonic, emotional and musical elements” for a discerning audience – a catalyst for deep listening on their part. One can readily picture a young child dancing in a totally uninhibited way to music played by a street performer who is totally absorbed in his or her art. - Tuning into nature: nature provides silence and unique sounds that enable us to experience our interconnectedness to everything, including people who are attempting to gain a “hearing”. Gordon Hempton reminds us that silence in nature does not mean the absence of sounds but “an acoustic state, free of intrusions of modern, man-made noise”. Gordon has recorded his journey as an activist for nature’s “silence” in his book, One Square Inch of Silence: One Man’s Quest to Preserve Quiet. Through his work as a sound recordist and an acoustic ecologist, he has encouraged people to heighten their auditory awareness of the unique “soundtracks” that surround us in nature and to observe “the quiet between the notes” (so that we can better appreciate the value of silence and stillness). Gordon’s crusade for silence and listening to nature is mirrored in the work of Christine Jackman, author of Turning Down the Noise: The Quiet Power of Silence in a Busy World. In a chapter on nature, she highlights the healing power of nature and the need to tune into nature to reduce our “emotional inflammation” and regain our capacity to be quiet and listen. Like Gordon, she contends that when we listen to nature “our listening horizon extends”. Polar photographer, Camille Seaman, maintains that spending time in the stillness and silence of nature “dissolves the veil of separateness” and increases our understanding of, and respect for, our connectedness. - Adopting a “not Knowing” mindset: Joan Halifax recommends cultivating a “beginner’s mind” – the stance of “not knowing”. She maintains that we can never really know and understand the complex mix of emotions another person is experiencing, or the precursor events at different points in their life, or the unique interplay of triggers that were the catalyst for their current psychosomatic state. This perspective accords with the advice of Frank Ostaseski to cultivate a don’t know mind. Robert Wilder discusses the challenges and benefits of living a “not knowing” life in his podcast, The Not-Know-It-All: The Struggle of Not Knowing. - Reflective practice: reflection on our communication experiences can help us to gain insight into the barriers we put in the way of deep listening. If we are honest in our reflections, we can improve our awareness of our habituated behaviours (such as interrupting others) that act as blockages to our deep listening. I have posted a sample of questions for reflection on personal interactions in a previous post. As we grow in mindfulness by spending time observing and listening in nature, reflecting on our interactions, meditating on internal and external sounds and undertaking other mindfulness practices, we can gain awareness of our personal impediments to developing the art of deep listening. For me, some of these impediments are a tendency to deflect the conversation when emotions become intense (on either side of the conversation), to divert the conversation to my own story or to demonstrate knowledge and experience to prop up my sense of self-worth or external credibility. A further reflection (25 August 2023) Reflecting on my behaviour when interrupting somenone’s conversation, I realise that sometimes I come from an “I know” position, not a “don’t know” perspective. I feel I have to explain that I have experienced (directly or indirectly) what they are talking about, read about it or heard someone else talking about it. The net effect is that I don’t reflect back the communicated emotions and divert the conversation onto my issue and away from challenging emotions. I wonder whether this habituated behaviour has resulted from my academic background (the need to be seen to know). By Ron Passfield – Copyright (Creative Commons license, Attribution–Non Commercial–No Derivatives) Disclosure: If you purchase a product through this site, I may earn a commission which will help to pay for the site and the resources to support the blog.

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The arts have played a major role in the development of management theory, practice, and education; and artists’ competencies like creativity, inventiveness, aesthetic appreciation, and a design mindset are increasingly vital for individual and organizational success in a competitive global world. The arts have long been used in teaching to: (a) explore human nature and social structures; (b) facilitate cognitive, socioemotional, and behavioral growth; (c) translate theory into action; (d) provide opportunities for professional development; and (e) enhance individual and systemic creativity and capacities for change. Use of literature and films are curricular mainstays. A review of the history of the arts in management teaching and learning illustrates how the arts have expanded our ways of knowing and defining managerial and leadership effectiveness—and the competencies and training necessary for them. The scholarship of management teaching is large, primarily ‘how-to’ teaching designs and the assessments of them. There is a clear need to expand the research on how and why the arts are and can be used more effectively to educate professionals, enable business growth and new product development, facilitate collaboration and team building, and bring innovative solutions to complex ideas. Research priorities include: the systematic assessments of the state of arts-based management teaching and learning; explorations of stakeholder attitudes and of environmental forces contributing to current educational models and practices; analyses of the learning impact of various pedagogical methods and designs; examining the unique role of the arts in professional education and, especially, in teaching for effective action; mining critical research from education, psychology, creativity studies, and other relevant disciplines to strengthen management teaching and learning; and probing how to teach complex skills like innovative thinking and creativity. Research on new roles and uses for the arts provide a foundation for a creative revisiting of 21st-century management education and training. The Arts and the Art and Science of Management Teaching Joan V. Gallos Developing Leaders: What We Can Learn From the Education, Adult, and Human Resource Development Paradigm Wei-Wen Vera Chang Faced with global challenges, organizations have invested heavily in leadership development, but the impact of such a large investment has been of continual concern. Studies have suggested that effective leadership development relies on the interconnection of the top leader, senior managerial team, line managers, and human resource specialists; however, the perspective of learning and learners has received relatively limited examination. Leadership development must also look at the education, adult, and human resource development (HRD) paradigms. The three key components that comprise the intersection between adult education and HRD are experience, social context, and transformation. Learning directions in leadership development have both external and internal aspects, including using invisible force to accomplish work, managing paradoxical social dynamics, extending self-identity, and integrating multiple factors. For learning approaches, the ACT model, where A stands for acquire and apply, C stands for clean and calibrate, and T stands for transform and transcend, can assist in achieving these.

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Our innovative handheld product rgees PACING GRIPS stimulates the "Touch" sense in your hands to create a powerful neural connection between hands and brain. This connection acts as a feedback mechanism for the optimisation of the running motion, resulting in better running EFFICIENCY and a HEALTHIER exercise. The activation of the "Touch" sense triggered in the one part of our body that holds an over proportionally high number of sensory neurons (our hands), creates an immediate and very conscious sensation throughout hands, arms, shoulders and the upper body following the established neural connection between hands and brain. - The Sensorimotor neural connection between hands and brain The sensorimotor connection between hands and the brain is a fundamental aspect of human physiology that underpins our ability to interact with the world. This intricate neural pathway allows the brain to receive sensory information from the hands and, in turn, send motor commands to manipulate objects and perform intricate tasks. Through a complex network of neurons, the brain continuously processes sensory feedback, such as touch, temperature, and proprioception, to create a real-time perception of the hands' position and condition. This sensorimotor connection plays a pivotal role in daily life, enabling precise movements, dexterity, and fine motor skills. It is crucial in a wide range of activities, from writing and playing musical instruments to crafting and performing surgery. Moreover, the brain's ability to adapt and refine this connection through learning and practice underscores its remarkable plasticity. Understanding the sensorimotor connection between hands and the brain is not only essential for basic neuroscience but also has practical implications in fields like neuro rehabilitation. - The role of hands and arms in running - Upper Body posture The role of upper body posture in running is integral to overall performance and efficiency. Proper posture not only enhances balance and stability but also optimises various physiological aspects of the sport. A balanced upper body acts as a counterbalance to lower limb movements, ensuring smoother strides and minimising energy wastage. Efficient forward motion is achieved by coordinating arm and leg movements, with an upright posture facilitating optimal lung expansion for efficient breathing, enhancing endurance. Engaging core muscles is crucial, as they stabilize the upper body, preventing unnecessary swaying or twisting. Relaxation is equally important, as tense muscles can hinder form and energy conservation. Furthermore, proper upper body posture aids in injury prevention by reducing stress on joints and muscles. To achieve good upper body posture while running, it is vital to keep the head up, shoulders relaxed, and maintain a slight forward lean from the hips, all while allowing the arms to swing naturally.

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Thinking about thinking appears to have special qualities. Reading Sue Gerhardt’s book ‘The Selfish Society’ (she is speaking at the RSA tomorrow) I am struck by the importance in child development of what Peter Fonagy calls learning to ‘mentalise’ - in other words to understand others’ behaviour in terms of their emotions and ways of thinking. In turn Elizabeth Meins from Durham University has research suggesting that if parents talk to babies about their (the baby’s) feelings this seems to accelerate the development of empathy. Connecting to how we feel and think helps us to understand that other people also feel and think. As part of our social brain project we have are testing out a set of simple rules of thumb about cognition with various public sector professionals. Although the evidence is at this stage only suggestive it does indicate that people find the process of thinking about thinking stimulating and powerful. There is also evidence (sorry, too little time to check the source) that children’s learning is enhanced when they spend time thinking about how their brain learns. There are various ways we might explain the power of thinking about thinking. The prosaic explanation is simply that it is inherently interesting, in the way that, say, discussing the origins of the universe might be A psychological explanation would be that thinking about thinking doesn’t just provide us with information but it encourages a deeper more powerful type of introspection. This, I guess, is the idea of ‘mindfulness’, as the practice of meditation is now often called. I am also interested in the neurological processes. What is it that happens when the networks of our brain that are thinking reflect back on themselves? Is it something akin to what happens when we stand between two large mirrors and our image rebounds into the distance? When we think about thinking do our brainwaves (excuse the shorthand) rebound generating more neural connections than occur when we simply think about something outside us? I realise that there is a wealth of literature on this topic, although I’m not sure I’ve seen anything on the neuroscience of thinking about thinking. This is an idea that Matt Grist is exploring in his latest RSA social brain pamphlet so I’m sure he – like me – will be interested in any comments. As we begin to imagine the post-pandemic world, we need to challenge our use of old metaphors to allow for new narratives and better futures to emerge. With the post-Christmas resolutions looming, when we try to address the worst of our seasonal over-indulgences, the question remains: how can we give up bad habits for good?

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About this day For A-level and IB students Biology in Action returns this autumn! Five interactive and engaging sessions delivered by renowned scientists and communicators will inspire and motivate your students. Science writer Helen Pilcher will chair the event, and inspirational biology teacher Leah McClure will deliver a special session with hints and tips for revision and examination success will provide students with the tools to succeed. This is an unmissable and tremendously popular day, and we look forward to welcoming you and your students this autumn. “I don’t remember a better student conference – we thought every speaker was excellent – just the right level, all animated, engaging and well prepared.” Programme & speakers Targeting tau tangles - the race to cure dementia Kevin Moffat, University of Warwick Ageing populations increase dementia cases, notably Alzheimer’s Disease. We have no cure, however ‘oligomeric tau’ is a potential target. Come with me to recognise its actions inside neurons and across synapses – we must understand it if we’re to stop it. About Dr Kevin Moffat For the last thirty-two years Kevin has been a neuro-geneticist at the University of Warwick. Initially developing genetic tools to function map brains, more recently he has been using the fruitfly, Drosophila, to model neurodegenerative disease. His research encompasses neuroscience, physiology and genetics. Astrobiology – The Hunt for Alien Life Lewis Dartnell, University of Westminster ‘Astrobiology’ is the scientific search for life beyond our planet. Tour the planets and moons in our solar system which may offer the best hope, and further afield to alien worlds we’ve discovered around distant stars. Are we alone in the cosmos? About Professor Lewis Dartnell Lewis is an astrobiologist studying how microbial life might persist on the surface of Mars. He appears regularly on the BBC, National Geographic and Discovery channels. Life Changing Helen Pilcher, Author and Science Communicator Ever since our species first evolved, we have been tinkering with nature and altering the course of evolution. Now we share our planet with genetically modified wolves, pizzly bears and cloned polo ponies. Join Helen as she explores the legacy created by this evolutionary mischief-making and explores how humans are changing life on Earth. About Dr Helen Pilcher Dr Helen Pilcher is a tea-drinking, biscuit-nibbling science and comedy writer. Her books include Bring Back the King: the Science of De-extinction and Life Changing: How Humans are Altering Life on Earth. Can our immune system be a personalised cancer cure? John James, University of Warwick Why is cancer so difficult for our immune system to deal with? New drugs and therapies are beginning to overcome this hurdle and truly cure cancer patients, by enhancing their own immune cells to destroy tumours from within. About Dr John James John studied Biochemistry, before completing a PhD in Molecular Immunology focussed on T cells, an essential blood cell-type of our immune system. He develops new tools to reverse-engineer how T cells recognise infected cells and ‘calculate’ the best response to keep us healthy. Live long and prosper? Oyinlola Oyebode, Queen Mary, University of London What can we do to improve our chances of a long and healthy life? Should we be able to choose to do things that might kill us? How can people be persuaded or supported to make choices that will lead to long and healthy lives? In this session we will learn about the dilemmas facing public health decision makers. About Professor Oyinlola Oyebode After degrees in Natural Sciences and Neuroscience, Oyinlola completed training in Public Health in 2014. Now a Professor of Public Health at Queen Mary University of London, she studies the behaviours that can make us healthier.

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The Interactive Empathy and Embodiment (IEE) method is an innovative, sensory design approach to game design and interactive media that is founded on traditional craft techniques (and inputs from acting theory, neuroscience, psychology, disability aesthetics, etc.) to heighten the player-audience's physical experience of gameplay. You can think of sensory design as working inside-to-outside, which starts by defining the player's kinaesthetic state (referring to physical activity-based aesthetics) before designing the mechanisms that evoke the desired sensations. Approaching the game development process from a sensory perspective—as opposed to a rules, objectives and mechanics-driven approach—enables readers to actively explore solutions to the following ideology: What if empathy, not conflict, was the organising principle of game design? Since the need for interactive experiences that promote empathy and reconciliation is at an all-time high. The IEE method therefore hopes to nudge the industry in a more artistically self-aware and conscientious direction in a format that is accessible to everybody. Who is the method for? The IEE method has been written for the entire development (including disciplines like level design, narrative design, programming, audio, engineering, etc.), although it is also serves as a workbook for educational and training purposes. Whether you’re a developer of video games, virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR) or cross reality (XR), a filmmaker, game user researcher (GUR), a gamification and transmedia expert, game theorist, psychologist, or simply interested in experiencing resonant and meaningful interactive art—you’ll find the following insights will awaken a new appreciation for traditional craft, and provide you with an entirely new methodology for influencing the player-audience's kinaesthetic experience of gameplay. What do you get? The IEE method is a professionally written book and comprehensive step-by-step guide for designing games and interactive media, with a particular focus on narrative, art and empathy-driven experiences. The book is composed of two volumes featuring practical exercises that explore everything from traditional art and contemporary media to game art and game design with video and audio links. IEE Volume 1: Shape Language and Composition Fundamentals (Ver. 4 / Feb 2021 / 91-page PDF) serves as a primer for Vol. 2, with a historic look at gaming's artistic heritage. - IEE Volume 2: Method Walkthrough (Ver. 2 / Feb 2021 / 241-page PDF) provides step-by-step instruction for creating games and interactive experiences, from conception through to prototyping. The IEE method can be used in studio training and academic settings, with frequent practical exercises that encourage participants to develop deep structural understandings of personal projects or selected case studies. A work in progress Please note that Interactive Empathy and Embodiment is a work in progress. It may be the culmination of 15+ years of research, practice, and development (not to mention the 2000+ years of traditional craft techniques on which it is founded), it nonetheless requires extensive testing and further development. I’m also eager to know if you feel that your culture or demographic is respectfully represented, or at all. I therefore humbly welcome critiques and feedback that will help expand the framework’s scope to rightfully acknowledge an even wider range of peoples and historic contributions to traditional craft. The advantage of IEE being in a download-able PDF format, over a conventional book, is that it can readily be updated. Please note: I will eventually edit both volumes into a presentable book format once I've had an opportunity to review and implement feedback from the community. I would also be grateful for assistance with proof-reading, editing and translations, since I hope to have the method available in multiple languages. What it's worth The book was written in my spare time for which I am not paid. Completing it has been an immense challenge that took 2-years of writing and 15+ years of development, with the kind support of those mentioned in the Acknowledgements section. You may also be interested to look into my first two books, Drawing Basics and Video Game Art (Watson-Guptill 2012) and Interactive Stories and Video Game Art (CRC Press 2017), which you'll find linked via my website at: www.solarskistudio.com/books About the author Chris Solarski started work in video games at Sony Computer Entertainment’s London Studio as a character and environment artist before making a career-defining detour into figurative oil painting. The unusual mix of game art and classical art eventually resulted in Chris authoring Interactive Empathy and Embodiment—a sensory design method that adapts traditional craft to interactive media with the aim of heightening kinaesthetic empathy and embodiment. Chris has also authored two books on game art and storytelling in games that are endorsed by the likes of Assassin’s Creed founding member Stéphane Assadourian, and Cyberpunk 2077 level designer Max Pears. Chris’ work has been described as gaming’s equivalent to Robert McKee’s screenwriting classic, Story (1997), and compared to Joseph Campbell’s universal storytelling structure. Chris has had the pleasure of presenting at the Smithsonian Museum’s landmark The Art of Video Games exhibition, Disney Research, SXSW, Google and FMX, to name a few. Please visit www.solarskistudio.com for more info. IEE Fundamentals (Ver. 4, 91-page PDF, 4MB) and IEE Walkthrough (Ver. 2, 241-page PDF, 11MB)

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During death, the entire body’s activity grinds to a halt. The heart no longer beats, breathing stops, and electrical activity in the brain is quiet. Within just a few minutes after we reach the absolute end of the line, the body starts to self-decompose through a process called autolysis, or self-digestion. But this process doesn’t necessarily have to happen that quickly. In a massive breakthrough, researchers at Yale University have devised a cell-protective fluid that restores blood circulation and other vital cellular functions to the organs and tissues of deceased pigs, even hours after their deaths. The same technology could be applied to human organs in order to preserve and expand their availability for use as donor organs, which are always in short supply across the world. “All cells do not die immediately, there is a more protracted series of events,” said David Andrijevic, an associate research scientist in neuroscience at Yale School of Medicine and co-lead author of the study. “It is a process in which you can intervene, stop, and restore some cellular function.” Keeping organ death at bay In 2019, the same Yale researchers made headlines earlier after they were able to revive a pig’s brain following death, restoring circulation and certain cellular functions using a technology they dubbed BrainEx. If they could restore cellular function to the dead brain, which is the most vulnerable to degradation after the blood supply is cut, the researchers naturally thought they should be able to do the same for other vital transplantable organs. And it worked. Applying a modified version of BrainEx, called OrganEx, to the whole body of dead pigs, the researchers found that many key cellular functions were still active in the heart, liver, and kidneys even six hours after treatment. For instance, the heart still had electrical activity, meaning it retained the ability to contract and pump blood. The technology involves a device that resembles heart-lung machines, which pump blood and air for a patient during surgery instead of their body’s organs, as well as a special fluid that contains chemicals that promote cellular health, suppress blood clotting and inflammation, and prevent cellular death. “We were also able to restore circulation throughout the body, which amazed us,” said Nenad Sestan, professor of neuroscience at Yale and coordinator of the project. The researchers applied OrganEx to six dead female pigs, whose bodies were left alone for an entire hour after death. After the hour had passed, the researchers hooked the dead pigs up to the fluid-circulating machine and pumped their bodies with the special liquid for six hours. The researchers weren’t allowed to keep the pigs hooked up to the machines any longer due to ethical considerations. Even after all this time, the heart, lungs, liver, and kidneys were still intact and their cells weren’t dying. Many cells were actually burning glucose, which shows they were still metabolically active. Genes involved in DNA repair and metabolism were active, whereas those involved in death and tissue trauma were suppressed. “Under the microscope, it was difficult to tell the difference between a healthy organ and one which had been treated with OrganEx technology after death,” Yale’s Zvonimir Vrselja said. The are numerous ways this technology could touch our lives — and, dare I say, even save our lives. It could, for instance, extend the shelf life of harvested human organs meant for transplantation. Currently, livers survive no more than 12 hours outside the body, while hearts and lungs only last 6 hours tops. Additionally, the technology could prove useful in treating organs or tissues damaged by poor blood flow following a heart attack or stroke. The findings were reported in the journal Nature. Was this helpful?

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MV: Whether digital sentience is possible would seem to matter greatly for our priorities, and so gaining even slightly more refined views on this matter could be quite valuable. Many people appear to treat the possibility, if not indeed the imminence, of digital sentience as a foregone conclusion. David Pearce, in contrast, is skeptical. Mindless Intelligence and Smart Sentience Magnus Vinding interviews David Pearce about digital (in)sentience and the binding problem Pearce has written and spoken elaborately about his views on consciousness. My sense, however, is that these expositions do not always manage to clearly convey the core, and actually very simple reasons underlying Pearce’s skepticism of digital sentience. My aim in this interview is to probe Pearce so as to shed greater — or perhaps most of all simpler — light on why he is skeptical, and thus to hopefully advance the discussions on this issue among altruists working to reduce future suffering. You are skeptical about the possibility of digital sentience. Could you explain why in simple terms? DP: Sure. Perhaps we can start by asking why so many people believe that our machines will become conscious (cf. How is consciousness defined?). Consciousness is widely recognised to be scientifically unexplained. But the computer metaphor of mind seems to offer us clues (cf. Why is the brain like a computer?). As far as I can tell, many if not most believers in digital sentience tend to reason along the following lines. Any well-defined cognitive task that the human mind can perform could also be performed by a programmable digital computer (cf. Turing machine). A classical Turing machine is substrate-neutral. By “substrate-neutral”, we mean that whether a Turing machine is physically constituted of silicon or carbon or gallium oxide (etc) makes no functional difference to the execution of the program it runs. It’s commonly believed that the behaviour of a human brain can, in principle, be emulated on a classical Turing machine. Our conscious minds must be identical with states of the brain. If our minds weren’t identical with brain states, then dualism would be true. Therefore, the behaviour of our minds can in principle be emulated by a digital computer. Moreover, the state-space of all possible minds is immense, embracing not just the consciousness of traditional and enhanced biological lifeforms, but also artificial digital minds and digital superintelligence. Accordingly, the belief that non-biological information-processing machines can’t support consciousness is arbitrary. It’s unjustified carbon chauvinism. I think most believers in digital sentience would recognise that the above considerations are not a rigorous argument for the existence of inorganic machine consciousness. The existence of machine consciousness hasn’t been derived from first principles. The “explanatory gap” is still unbridged. Yet what is the alternative? Well, I'm a scientific rationalist. I’m also an unbeliever in non-trivial digital sentience. Digital computers and the software they run are not phenomenally-bound subjects of experience (cf. The Binding Problem). Ascribing sentience to digital computers or silicon robots is a form of anthropomorphic projection – a projection their designers encourage by giving their creations traditional human names (“Watson”, “Sophia”, “Alexa” etc). Moreover, our biological minds can perform feats that defeat any classical digital computer, ranging from the investigation of state-spaces of consciousness (cf. Psychedelic exploration) to exploring the nature of (dis)value disclosed by the pain-pleasure axis. Digital zombies don’t just lack understanding; they will never know why anything matters. Before defending the claim that digital computers are zombies, I will lay out two background assumptions. My first background assumption might seem scarcely relevant to your question. Perpetual direct realism is false. Inferential realism about the external world is true. The subjective contents of your consciousness aren’t merely a phenomenally thin and subtle serial stream of logico-linguistic thought-episodes playing out behind your forehead, residual after-images when you close your eyes, inner feelings and emotions and so forth. Consciousness is also your entire phenomenal world-simulation – what naïve realists call the "publicly accessible external world". Unless you have the neurological syndromes of simultanagnosia (the inability to see more than one object at once) or akinetopsia (“inability to see motion”), you can simultaneously experience a host of dynamic objects – for example, 22 players on a football pitch, or an advancing pride of hungry lions. These perceptual objects populate your virtual world of experience from the sky above to your body-image below. Consciousness is all you directly know. The external environment is an inference, not a given. Let’s for now postpone discussion of how our skull-bound minds are capable of such an extraordinary feat of real-time virtual world-making. The point is that if you couldn’t experience multiple feature-bound phenomenal objects – i.e. if you were just an aggregate of 86 billion membrane-bound neuronal “pixels” of experience or neuronal feature-processors communicating across chemical and electrical synapses – then you’d be helpless. Compare dreamless sleep. Like your enteric nervous system (the “brain-in-the-gut”), your brain would still be a fabulously complex information-processing system. But you’d risk starving to death or getting eaten. The phenomenenal binding of waking consciousness is immensely adaptive (cf. What is the "purpose" of consciousness). My second assumption is physicalism. I assume the unity of science. All the special sciences (chemistry, molecular biology etc) reduce to physics. In principle, the behaviour of organic macromolecules such as self-replicating DNA can be described entirely in the mathematical language of physics without mentioning “life” at all, though such high-level description is convenient. Complications aside, no element of reality is missing from the mathematical formalism of our best theory of the world, quantum mechanics, or more strictly from tomorrow’s unification of quantum field theory and general relativity. One corollary of physicalism is that only “weak” emergence is permissible. Just as the behaviour of programs running on your PC supervenes on the behaviour of its machine code, likewise the behaviour of biological organisms can in principle be exhaustively reduced to quantum chemistry and thus ultimately to quantum field theory. The conceptual framework of physicalism is traditionally associated with materialism. According to materialism as broadly defined, the intrinsic nature of the physical – more poetically, the mysterious “fire” in the equations – is non-experiential. Indeed, the assumption that quantum field theory describes fields of insentience is normally treated as too trivially obvious to be worth stating. However, this assumption of insentience leads to the Hard Problem of consciousness. But non-materialist physicalism drops this plausible metaphysical assumption. If the intrinsic nature argument is sound, there is no Hard Problem of consciousness: it’s the essence of the physical). However, both “materialist” physicalists and non-materialist physicalists agree: everything that happens in the world is constrained by the mathematical straitjacket of modern physics. Any supposedly emergent phenomenon must be derived, ultimately, from physics. Irreducible “strong” emergence would be akin to magic. Anyhow, the reason I don’t believe in digital minds is that classical computers are incapable of phenomenal binding. If we make the standard assumption that their 1s and 0s and logic gates are non-experiential, then digital computers are zombies. Less obviously, digital computers are zombies if we don’t make this standard assumption! Imagine, fancifully, replacing non-experiential 1 and 0s of computer software with discrete “pixels” of experience. Run the program as before. The upshot will still be a zombie (though technically a micro-experiential zombie. What’s more, neither increasing the complexity of the code nor exponentially increasing the speed of its execution could cause discrete “pixels” somehow to blend into each other in virtue of their functional role, let alone create phenomenally-bound perceptual objects or a unitary self experiencing a unified phenomenal world. The same is true of a connectionist system (cf. Connectionism (Wikipedia)), supposedly more closely modelled on the brain – however well-connected and well-trained the network, and regardless whether its nodes are experiential or non-experiential. The synchronous firing of distributed feature-processors in a “trained up” connectionist system doesn’t generate a unified perceptual object – again on pain of “strong” emergence. AI programmers and roboticists can use workarounds for the inability of classical computers to bind, but they are just – workarounds. The believer in digital sentience can protest that we don’t know that phenomenal minds can’t emerge at some level of computational abstraction in digital computers...and the believer is right! If abstract objects have the causal power to create conscious experience, then digital computer programs might be subjects of experience. But recall we’re here assuming physicalism. If physicalism is true, then even if consciousness is fundamental to the world, we can know that digital computers are at most micro-experiential zombies. Of course, monistic physicalism may be false. “Strong” emergence may be real. But if so, then reality is fundamentally lawless. The scientific world-picture would be false. Yet how do biological minds routinely accomplish binding if phenomenal binding is impossible for classical digital computers (cf. Universal Turing machine). Even if our neurons support rudimentary “pixels” of experience, why aren’t animals like us in the same boat as classical digital computers and classically parallel connectionist systems? I can give you my tentative answer. Naïvely, it’s the reductio ad absurdum of quantum mind: “Schrödinger’s neurons”: Quantum minds. And surprisingly, it’s experimentally falsifiable via interferometry: Quantum mind (Wikipedia) Yet the conjecture I explore may conceivably be of interest only to someone who already feels the force of the binding problem. Plenty of researchers would say it’s a ridiculous solution to a nonexistent problem. I agree it’s a crazy solution; but IMO it’s worth experimentally falsifying. Other researchers just lump phenomenal binding together with the Hard Problem (cf. How to categorise the binding problem) as one big insoluble mystery they suppose can be quarantined from the rest of scientific knowledge. Their defeatism and optimism alike are premature. MV: Thanks, David. A lot to discuss there, obviously. Perhaps the most crucial point to really appreciate in order to understand your skepticism is that you are a strict monist about reality. That is, the mind is not something over and above the physical, but rather identical with it (which is really not an intuitive way for us to think). And so if “the mental” and “the physical” are essentially the same ontological thing, or phenomenon, under two different descriptions, then there must, roughly speaking, also be a match in terms of their topological properties. As Mike Johnson explained your view: “consciousness is ‘ontologically unitary’, and so only a physical property that implies ontological unity ... could physically instantiate consciousness.” (Principia Qualia, p. 73). (Note that “consciousness” here refers to an ordered, composite mind; not phenomenality more generally.) Conversely, a system that is physically discrete or disconnected — say, a computer composed of billiard balls that bump into each other, or lighthouses that exchange signals across hundreds of kilometers — could not, in your view, support a unitary mind. In terms of the analogy of thinking about consciousness as waves, your view is roughly that we should think of a unitary mind as a large, composite wave of sorts, akin to a song, whereas disconnected “pixels of experience” are like discrete microscopic proto-waves, akin to tiny disjoint blobs of sound. (And elsewhere you quote Seth Lloyd saying something similar about classical versus quantum computations: “A classical computation is like a solo voice – one line of pure tones succeeding each other. A quantum computation is like a symphony – many lines of tones interfering with one another.”) This is why you say that “computer software with discrete ‘pixels’ of experience … will still be … a micro-experiential zombie”, and why you say that “even if consciousness is fundamental to the world, we can know that digital computers are at most micro-experiential zombies” — it’s because of this physical discreteness, or “disconnectedness”. And this is where it seems to me that the computational view of mind is also starkly at odds with common sense, as well as with monism. For it seems highly counterintuitive to claim that billiard balls bumping into each other, or lighthouses separated by hundreds of kilometers that exchange discrete signals, could, even in principle, mediate a unitary mind. I wonder whether most people who hold a computational view of mind are really willing to bite this bullet. (Such views have also been elaborately criticized by Mike Johnson and Scott Aaronson — critiques that I have seen no compelling replies to.) It also seems non-monistic in that it appears impossible to give a plausible account of where a unitary mind is supposed to be found in this picture (e.g. in a picture with discrete computations occurring serially over long distances), except perhaps as a separate, dualist phenomenon that we somehow map onto physically discrete computations occurring over time, which seems to me inelegant and unparsimonious. Not to mention that it gives rise to an explosion of minds, as we can then see minds in a vast set of computations that are somehow causally connected across time and space, with the same computations being included in many distinct minds. This picture is at odds with a monist view that implies a one-to-one correspondence between concrete physical state and concrete mental state — or rather, which sees these two sides as distinct descriptions of the exact same reality. The question is then how phenomenal binding could occur. You explore a quantum mind hypothesis involving quantum coherence. So what are your reasons for thinking that quantum coherence is necessary for phenomenal binding? Why would, say, electromagnetic fields in a synchronous state not be enough? DP: Thanks Magnus. Yes, I’m a monistic physicalist. Only the physical is real. However, the intrinsic nature of the physical - the “fire” in the equations - is an open question. A minimum requirement of any scientific account of reality is empirical adequacy. The only empirical (“relating to experience”) evidence that one can access is the content of one’s own consciousness. Consciousness isn’t awareness of one’s surroundings (cf. Perceptual consciousness). The external world isn’t “perceived”; it’s theoretically inferred. If (1) perceptual direct realism is false and (2) sentience is scientifically irreducible to insentience, then the ontology of our most intellectually prestigious theory of the world, scientific materialism, is inconsistent with the entirety of the empirical evidence. This claim sounds wildly extravagant, but I’m not trying to be sensationalist. We need to confront the intellectual scandal at the heart of contemporary science. If physicists and chemists understood the properties of matter and energy, then the empirical evidence shouldn’t exist – none of it – any more than ghosts or fairies. “Observation” shouldn’t exist. You should be a zombie. I should be a zombie. Something is fundamentally wrong with our scientific conceptual scheme. Subjective experience can’t be bracketed off from the rest of natural science and left to philosophers as the “Hard Problem”. One response to this catastrophic empirical failure is eliminativism. Anti-realists about consciousness recognise that the existence of consciousness is inconsistent with materialism. However, eliminativists suppose that the only way to save monistic physicalism is to disavow their own consciousness. Let’s not investigate eliminative materialism here (cf. Consciousness Realism). For there is another way besides denialism to save the ontological unity of science: non-materialist physicalism. Unlike eliminativism, non-materialist physicalism is empirically adequate. I don’t know if non-materialist physicalism is true. If science can’t account for the empirical evidence, why not abandon monistic physicalism? David Chalmers has explored some kind of naturalistic dualism. However, abandoning physicalism would leave the technological successes of our science-based civilisation wholly unexplained: a miracle in all but name. So instead I prefer to discard the metaphysical assumption that generates the Hard Problem in the first instance. Oversimplifying, let’s assume that quantum physics is formally complete. According to the intrinsic nature argument, outlined early last century by philosopher Betrand Russell and physicist Arthur Eddington, physics exhaustively describes the structural-relational properties of the universe. Galileo’s “mathematicisation of Nature” has culminated in the triumph of the Standard Model. Yet physics is silent on the intrinsic nature of the physical: physics doesn’t deal in essences, but equations. As it stands, the mathematical apparatus of modern physics can be harnessed to describe either a materialist or idealist ontology. Only an ontology of idealism is consistent with the empirical evidence, i.e. the existence, diverse content and causal efficacy of conscious minds. If we transpose the mathematical apparatus of physics onto an idealist ontology, then the Hard Problem of consciousness doesn’t arise. Within this post-materialist conceptual framework, philosophical talk of the “easy” problems and “hard” problem of consciousness is interpreted as the by-product of bad metaphysics and a false theory of perception. Intuitively, for sure, quantum field theory describes fields of insentience. It’s foot-stampingly obvious. Yet the hypothesis that the world’s fundamental fields are non-experiential isn’t a scientific discovery; rather, it’s a powerful philosophical intuition – an intuition I instinctively share. Yet if history teaches us anything, human intuition can’t be trusted. According to the rival hypothesis of non-materialist physicalism, subjective experience discloses the essence of the physical. For sure, biological minds are special; but they're not ontologically special. The intrinsic nature of the physical doesn’t differ inside and outside one's head. Non-experiential fields of insentience don’t inexplicably metamorphose into fields of sentience inside one's skull. Rather, what does make biological consciousness special is non-psychotic phenomenal binding. Virtual world-making is extremely fitness-enhancing. Crudely, non-psychotic binding is what consciousness is evolutionarily “for”. Allow me to clarify one point. Yes, as you remark, I believe that our minds disclose a tiny part of the intrinsic nature of the physical. But I wouldn’t say that “mind is identical with the physical”. Most of the world’s fundamental quantum fields are not minds. Digital computers are not minds. The cosmos is not a mind. A hydrogen atom in intergalactic space is not a mind. When dreamlessly asleep, you’re not a mind either. You mention electromagnetic radiation. Let’s assume an incoherent light source. Electromagnetic fields have an instantaneous amplitude and phase that vary randomly with respect to time and position. So electromagnetic fields aren’t minds either (cf. Electromagnetic theories of consciousness). Instead, most of the world’s primordial experience is akin to what philosopher-psychologist William James called “mind dust”. Like pre-scientific animism, traditional panpsychism and idealism have tended to overpopulate the world with minds. If non-materialist physicalism is true, then minds are comparatively sparse, through horrifically dense and proliferating here on Earth. In recent years, some otherwise hard-nosed scientists have flirted with – or even embraced – consciousness fundamentalism as a solution to the Hard Problem. This conjecture is sometimes known as “constitutive panpsychism” or “constitutive Russellian monism”. “Panpsychism” can suggest property dualism. The intrinsic nature argument is a rejection of any kind of dualism. So I prefer philosopher Grover Maxwell’s term, “non-materialist physicalism”. The world’s fundamental physical properties are experiential. Both materialist and non-materialist physicalism face a powerful objection. On the face of it, there is a structural mismatch between the properties of our phenomenally bound minds and the properties of the central nervous system as revealed by neuroscience (cf. philosopher Eric Schwitzgebel’s review of Luke Roelof’s "Combining Minds: How to Think about Composite Subjectivity”: Composite Subjectivity). We are packs of decohered, membrane-bound neurons. Regardless of connectivity and connection weights, a pack of discrete neurons separated by synaptic clefts isn’t a phenomenal mind. Admittedly, the structural mismatch isn’t total. When one experiences a cat, distributed neuronal feature-processors (edge-detectors, motion-detectors, colour-mediating neurons, etc) fire in synchrony. But neuroscanning doesn’t detect a feature-bound cat. As you say, Mike Johnson puts the point well in "Principia Qualia", as does Scott Aaronson in his review of neuroscientist Giulio Tononi’s Integrated Information Theory. My tentative solution to the binding problem is highly counterintuitive. Once again, I should stress: this is only a conjecture, not an affirmation of belief. Recall that physicists working on the foundations of quantum mechanics are mystified by the measurement problem (cf. The Measurement Problem). The wavefunction evolves deterministically in accordance with the Schrödinger equation as a linear superposition of different states. Yet individual observations never find a superposition of multiple values, but instead yield a single measured value. These definite outcomes are found to be in accordance with the Born rule. Why? The one thing that essentially everyone agrees on because it’s blindingly self-evident is that observations and experiments do have definite outcomes – even if (as Everettians propose) non-unique definite outcomes. How else could one even begin to do science if there were no determinate results on which to build theories? And yet (the relativistic generalisation of) the Schrödinger equation makes the existence of determinate results an enigma. Unmodified, the Schrödinger equation tells us that superpositions (“cat states”) should be ubiquitous – which (naively) would make science impossible and (naively) isn't what we observe. However, two separate questions should be distinguished: 1) How can science explain the existence of phenomenally unified subjects, i.e. “observers” who can make observations of pointer-dial readings, experimental screens and cats within their world-simulations? In other words, how can science explain the existence of vehicles of quasi-perceptual experience like our minds? 2) Why is the subjective content of our observations always determinate, e.g. I observe a live cat, a spin-up electron and so forth? In my tentative view, the Hard Problem of consciousness, the binding problem in neuroscience and the measurement problem in QM are different facets of the same mystery. Just possibly, they share a solution. Our determinate, phenomenally-bound observations exemplify(!) the superposition principle, not its breakdown. Quantum superpositions (“cat states”) are(1) individual states, not classical aggregates;If you think, “But that’s absurd!”, well, I think so too. (2) all one knows, and all one will ever know; (3) make the experience of definite outcomes possible; (4) what we all are; (5) the basis of science – classical Newtonian physics as much as quantum field theory. But a better response is, “That’s absurd, and I can show it’s wrong via molecular matter-wave interferometry (cf. Schrödinger neurons: Experimental Protocol). Either way, I think we should trust the formalism of unitary-only quantum mechanics over perceptual naïve realism. “It is the theory that decides what can be observed”, said Einstein, anticipating Kuhn. Quantum theory determines the very nature of our phenomenally-bound “observations”. If so, then the superposition principle underpins one’s subjective experience of definite, well-defined classical outcomes (“observations”), whether of, say, a phenomenally-bound cat, or the detection of a spin-up electron that has passed through a Stern-Gerlach device, or anything else. The reader who knows a bit about decoherence (cf. Quantum decoherence) might wonder what professional physicists make of this. Incredulity, I suspect! Over the years, quite a few researchers (and New Age mystics and science popularisers) have at least briefly wondered whether two classically impossible forms of holism could be related, i.e. quantum superpositions and the holism of our phenomenally-bound minds. The professional consensus is the idea isn’t a viable solution. Yes, consciousness and binding are mysterious, but introspection of one’s own thought-episodes if nothing else shows that the dynamical timescale of our mental lives is scores if not hundreds of milliseconds. The average cortical neuron fires around 200 times per second. By the same token, our phenomenal world-simulations lag the external environment they track by scores if not hundreds of milliseconds too. By contrast, if we assume the unitary Schrödinger evolution, the effective lifetime of coherent neuronal superpositions in the central nervous system can be only femtoseconds or less. The timescale is wrong by a dozen orders of magnitude or more. Decoherence means the phase angles of the components of individual neuronal superpositions get scrambled to the environment absurdly fast. So we have reached an impasse. Classicality is a recipe for micro-experiential zombies. And decoherence is too powerful, rapid and uncontrollable to allow unified quantum minds. You’re too hot. Maybe so. But I think this dismissal is too quick. Experimental (dis)confirmation of the “Schrödinger neurons” conjecture is needed – not back-of-an-envelope calculations of decoherence timescales followed by claims of a reductio ad absurdum: Max Tegmark's rebuttal of quantum mind is often cited (cf. "The Importance of Quantum Decoherence in Brain Processes). Recall that according to the intrinsic nature argument, experience discloses the essence of the physical. The intrinsic nature argument isn’t focused on dynamical timescales, but rather on the intrinsic, experiential nature of individual quantum states. If classical physics were true, then non-materialist physicalism would entail we are micro-experiential zombies. Classical physics is false. So instead, we are quantum minds running subjectively classical world-simulations. Or so I reckon: Let’s step back a moment. What would an empirically successful post-materialist science entail? Any new scientific paradigm must (1) explain all the empirical successes of the old theory, (2) resolve its failures and anomalies and (3) make truly novel, precise and experimentally falsifiable predictions that can (dis)confirm the theory to the satisfaction of proponents and critics alike. Non-materialist physicalism satisfies these criteria. If the phenomenal binding of experience into perceptual objects and definite outcomes is not a classical phenomenon, then the interference signature will tell us. Rephrased, this is an empirical question to be resolved experimentally by the normal methods of science. I don’t know the answer; I’m highly curious. MV: So it is because only quantum coherent states could constitute the “ontological unity” of a unitary, “bound” mind. Decoherent states are not and could not, on your view, be ontologically unitary in the required sense? DP: Yes. Let’s assume, provisionally, non-materialist physicalism: experience discloses the intrinsic nature of the physical. Non-materialist physicalism entails that all and only the world’s fundamental physical properties are experiential. So what’s it like, subjectively, to instantiate coherent superpositions of electric current running in opposite directions, or macromolecules in a superposition of two distinct locations – i.e. classically impossible “Schrödinger kittens” that experimentalists have created? Most relevantly here, what’s it like, subjectively, to instantiate coherent superpositions of neuronal feature-processors that temporally coarse-grained neuroscanning identifies as firing synchronously when you experience a perceptual object? Is it like experiencing, say, a cat? I don’t know. The obvious answer is, “Nothing at all!” because the effective sub-femtosecond lifetime of neuronal superpositions is too short. But if it’s not like anything to instantiate coherent superpositions of neuronal feature-processors, then non-materialist physicalism is false and the Hard Problem returns. Superpositions are individual states – i.e. fundamental physical features of the world – not mere unbound aggregates of classical mind-dust. On this story, decoherence (cf. Quantum decoherence) explains phenomenal unbinding. If we are looking for a perfect structural match between the formalism of physics and phenomenology, the sub-femto realm is where we’ll find it. Schrödinger himself was a perceptual direct realist – expressly so. Schrödinger speaks of the health status of his eponymous cat being settled by “direct observation”. But as far as I can tell, only the vehicle of neuronal superpositions allows subjectively classical content – our everyday world of experience. One critical response might run as follows. Suppose for the sake of argument that non-materialist physicalism is true. Suppose that "dynamical collapse" theories are false and neuronal superpositions are both real and experiential. Their "ontological unity" is worthless; such fleeting superpositions yield only psychotic binding, mere functionless "noise", not the promised perfect structural match Their existence doesn't explain the well-ordered, law-like virtual world of one's everyday experience. I'd respond by invoking Zurek. More selection pressure in Zurek's sense (cf. Quantum Darwinism) plays out over every second of our existence than over four billion years of natural selection as conceived by Darwin. Such ferocious selection pressure explains the emergence from quantum bedrock of gross, dynamically stable patterns – the quasi-classical, seemingly decohered neurons suggested by today's crude tools of neuroscanning. I'd love to read a paper "Quantum Darwinism in the CNS". Sadly, I'm not capable of writing it. Let's assume wavefunction realism. From a qubit to Schrödinger’s cat, an ignorance interpretation of the wavefunction doesn't work. To use the simplest example of a qubit, it's not the case that an electron is in a state of being either spin-up or spin-down but we don't know which. Rather, it's in a coherent superposition of both states simultaneously. Likewise with short-lived neuronal superpositions that have vastly more components: coherent superpositions are individual states. If non-materialist physicalism is true, then we are dealing with superpositions of micro-experiences. But by hypothesis, the superposition principle still holds – we're just transposing the formalism, not adding to it. If unitary-only quantum mechanics is correct, then the entire multiverse exists as a gigantic superposition. Decoherence is never totally complete. So the multiverse does have an ontological unity. But neither the multiverse nor a dreamlessly asleep brain is a mind. How come? Well, if decoherence weren't often functionally suppressed, then e.g. digital computers couldn't work. Despite their quantum hardware, which depends on quantum physics, their operation depends on effectively decohered classical bits. Both decohered neurons and the decohered bits of a classical Turing machine are the recipe for micro-experiential zombies. Anyhow, assume that our minds are indeed made of individual “cat states”. One should always say that the "effective" lifetime of neuronal superpositions is femtoseconds or less because it’s misleading to say such superpositions are literally destroyed by decoherence. Instead, their components get decoupled and acquire phases from their immediate extraneural surroundings. Environmentally-induced decoherence – the scrambling of phase coherence to the environment – turns a coherent quantum superposition into effectively decohered mind-dust. When dreamlessly asleep, we are effectively just packs of neurons. MV: So in other words, you are essentially saying that binding/unity between decohered states is ultimately no more tenable than binding/unity between, say, two billiard balls separated by a hundred miles? Because they are in a sense similarly ontologically separate? DP: Yes! Technically, pedantically, quantum entanglement is pervasive in Nature. But this isn't why believers in the emergence of digital minds think that phenomenally-bound consciousness will arise in classical digital computers. In Newtonian physics, classicality is fundamental. In no-collapse quantum mechanics, classicality is derived – or rather the decoherence program attempts to show how it can be derived. Digital computing depends on effectively classical, decohered individual bits of information, whether as implemented in Turing's original tape set-up, a modern digital computer, or indeed if the world's population of skull-bound minds agree to participate in an experiment to see if a global mind can emerge from a supposed global brain. One can't create perceptual objects, let alone unified minds, from classical mind-dust even if strictly the motes of decohered "dust" are only effectively classical, i.e. phase information has leaked away into the environment. If the 1s and 0s of a digital computer are treated as discrete micro-experiential pixels, then when running a program, we don't need to consider the possibility of coherent superpositions of 1s and 0s / micro-experiences. If the bits weren't effectively classical and discrete, then the program wouldn't execute. Tomorrow's artificial quantum computers are different. But they aren't what believers in the emergence of digital minds envisage. MV: So to summarize, your argument is roughly the following: (1) observed phenomenal binding, or a unitary mind, combined with (2) an empirically well-motivated monistic physicalism, means that (3) we must look for a unitary physical state as the “mediator”, or rather the physical description, of mind [since the ontological identity from (2) implies that the ontological unity from (1) must be paralleled in our physical description], and it seems that (4) only quantum coherent states could truly fit the bill of such ontological unity in physical terms. DP: 1 to 4, yes! MV: Cool. And in step 4 in particular, to spell that out more clearly, the reasoning is roughly that classical states are effectively (spatiotemporally) serial, discrete, disconnected, etc. Quantum coherent states, in contrast, are a connected, unitary, individual whole. Classical bits in a sense belong to disjoint “ontological sets”, whereas qubits belong to the same “ontological set” (as I’ve tried to illustrate somewhat clumsily below, and in line with Seth Lloyd’s quote above). Is that a fair way to put it? I sometimes say, "Who will play Mendel to Zurek's Darwin is unknown." If experience discloses the intrinsic nature of the physical, i.e. if non-materialist physicalism is true, then we must necessarily consider the nature of experience at what are intuitively absurdly short timescales in the CNS. At sufficiently fine-grained temporal resolutions, we can't just assume the existence of decohered macromolecules, neurotransmitters, receptors, membrane-bound neurons (etc) – they are weakly emergent, dynamically stable patterns of "cat states". These high-level patterns must be derived from quantum bedrock – which of course I haven't done. All I've done is make a philosophical conjecture that (1) quantum coherence mediates the phenomenal unity of our minds; and (2) quantum Darwinism (cf. Quantum Darwinism) offers a ludicrously powerful selection-mechanism for sculpting what would otherwise be mere phenomenally-bound "noise". MV: That’s very interesting. This has certainly helped advance my own understanding of your view a good deal. I guess it’s worth stressing that you do not claim this to be any more than a hypothesis, while you at the same time admit that you have a hard time seeing how alternative accounts could conceivably explain phenomenal binding. Moreover, it’s worth stressing that the conjecture resulting from your line of reasoning above is in fact, as you noted, a falsifiable one — a rare distinction for a theory of consciousness! (Arguably itself worthy of a participation trophy.) Given recent attention to and progress in quantum biology, do you expect this empirical matter to be settled soon? DP: Yes, it's a hypothesis, no more. There are probably more elegant ways of (dis)confirming the hypothesis than the technically demanding experiment I discuss. I'm not especially optimistic about timescales of (dis)confirmation. The fact someone has a potentially falsifiable theory doesn't excite me if I feel sure their hypothesis is false. I'm sure most people think the same about my ideas. I'm not trying to evangelise – not very energetically at any rate. I'd feel very differently if I had a weird hypothesis that entailed digital zombies were really sentient... MV: A more general point to note is that skepticism about digital sentience need not be predicated on the conjecture you presented above, as there are other theories of mind — not necessarily involving quantum coherence — that also imply that digital computers are unable to mediate a conscious mind (including some of the theories hinted at above, and perhaps other, more recent theories). For example, one may accept steps 1-3 in the argument above, and be more agnostic in step 4, while still considering contemporary digital computers highly unlikely to be capable of mediating a unitary mind. Okay, having said all that, let’s now move on to a slightly different issue. Beyond digital sentience in particular, you have also expressed skepticism regarding artificial sentience more generally (i.e. non-digital artificial sentience). Can you explain the reasons for this skepticism? DP: Well, aeons of posthuman biological minds probably lie ahead. They'll be artificial – genetically rewritten, AI-augmented, most likely superhumanly blissful, but otherwise inconceivably alien to Darwinian primitives. My scepticism is about the supposed emergence of minds in classical information processors - whether programmable digital computers, classically parallel connectionist systems or anything else. What about inorganic quantum minds? Well, I say a bit more here: Anhedonic quantum computers A pleasure-pain axis has been so central to our experience that sentience in everything from worms to humans is sometimes misdefined in terms of the capacity to feel pleasure and pain. But essentially, I see no reason to believe that such (hypothetical) phenomenally bound consciousness in future inorganic quantum computers will support a pleasure-pain axis any more than, say, the taste of garlic. In view of our profound ignorance of physical reality, however, I'm cautious: this is just my best guess! MV: Interesting. You note that you see no reason to believe that such systems would have a pleasure-pain axis. But what about the argument that pain has proven exceptionally adaptive over the course of biological evolution, and might thus plausibly prove adaptive in future forms of evolution as well (assuming things won't necessarily be run according to civilized values)? DP: Oh, I think the pleasure-pain axis – or rather one half of it – will endure as long as life itself. Hedonic tone will encephalise (what would otherwise be) hedonically neutral experience in increasingly unnatural biological minds. We can't even begin to know what posthumans will be happy "about". But currently I can't see any reason to suppose hedonic tone (or the taste of garlic) could be instantiated in inorganic quantum computers. I don't think we'll be able to "mind meld" our reward circuitry with inorganic quantum computers and thereby confer hedonic tone in the way that the encephalization of emotion lends emotional colour to our neocortical virtual worlds. So the question of whether pleasure (or pain) would be adaptive for such devices doesn't arise. If (a big "if") the quantum-theoretic version of non-materialism physicalism is true, then subjectively it's like something to be an inorganic computer, just as it's like something subjectively to be superfluid helium – a nonbiological macro-quale. But out of the zillions of state-spaces of experience, why expect the state-space of phenomenally-bound experience that inorganic quantum computers hypothetically support will include hedonic tone? My guess is that futuristic quantum computers will instantiate qualia for which humans have no name nor conception and with no counterpart in biological minds. MV: It seems there are good reasons to be skeptical that states of suffering would emerge in any randomly created state, as you hint, but what if someone deliberately tried to create such states in an inorganic quantum computer? DP: I'll be surprised if phenomenally bound pain and pleasure don't critically depend on the valence properties of carbon and liquid water. MV: What about hypothetical future computers built from biological neurons? DP: Artificial organic neuronal networks are perfectly feasible. Unlike silicon-based "neural networks" — a misnomer in my view — certain kinds of artificial organic neuronal networks could indeed suffer. Consider the reckless development of "mini-brains". MV: Yeah, it should be uncontroversial that such developments entail serious risks. Okay, David. What you have said here certainly provides much food for thought. Hopefully it will encourage further reflection on these things. Thanks a lot for exploring these issues, and not least for all your work and your dedication to reducing the suffering of all sentient beings. DP: Thank you, Magnus. You’re very kind. May I just add a recommendation? Anyone who hasn’t yet done so should read your superb Suffering-Focused Ethics (2020). * * * 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : 5 : 6 : 7 : 8 : 9 : 10 : 11 : 12 : 13 : 14 : 15 : 16 : 17 : 18 : 19 : 20 Social Media (2024) The End of Suffering The Good Drug Guide The Abolitionist Project Quora Answers (2015-24) The Reproductive Revolution MDMA: Utopian Pharmacology ChatGPT on the Binding Problem Critique of Huxley's Brave New World Interview of DP by Immortalists Magazine Interview of DP by CINS Magazine (2021) Interview of Nick Bostrom and David Pearce The Imperative to Abolish Suffering: an interview with David Pearce

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Title: Relating to Fractions Legend: Red = 2nd graders, Blue = 5th graders. Each dot represents one child, and shows his/her performance on the relational reasoning (TORR Jr.) and fractions understanding (FKA). Overall better relational reasoning skill is indicated by higher scores (more rightward) and better fractions skills indicated by higher scores. Overall, we see that children who perform better on the TORR Jr. also perform better on the FKA. Additional analyses (not shown here) demonstrate that this is not due to better general cognitive skills or general math skills. Citation: Kalra, P.B., Hubbard, E.M., Matthews, P.G. (2020). Taking the relational structure of fractions seriously: Relational reasoning predicts fraction knowledge in elementary school children. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 62, 101896 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101896 Abstract: Understanding and using symbolic fractions in mathematics is critical for access to advanced STEM concepts. However, children and adults consistently struggle with fractions. Here, we take a novel perspective on symbolic fractions, considering them within the framework of relational structures in cognitive psychology, such as those studied in analogy research. We tested the hypothesis that relational reasoning ability is important for reasoning about fractions by examining the relation between scores on a domain-general test of relational reasoning (TORR Jr.) and a test of fraction knowledge consisting of various types of fraction problems in 194 second grade and 145 fifth grade students. We found that relational reasoning was a significant predictor of fractions knowledge, even when controlling for non-verbal IQ and fractions magnitude processing for both grades. The effects of relational reasoning also remained significant when controlling for overall mathematics knowledge and skill for second graders but was attenuated for fifth graders. These findings suggest that this important subdomain of mathematical cognition is integrally tied to relational reasoning and opens the possibility that instruction targeting relational reasoning may prove to be a viable avenue for improving children’s fractions skills. About the Lab: The Educational Neuroscience Lab explores questions at the intersection of education and neuroscience, in the emerging field of Educational Neuroscience. Our research examines the neural underpinnings of cognitive processes that are relevant for education, and the role of educational experiences and enculturation as primary drivers of brain plasticity to create the neural circuits that underlie human specific abilities. Our research combines the latest technological advances in understanding the human brain as a “learning organ” with insights from cognitive psychology and education to help build the emerging field of educational neuroscience.

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Rev. Elijah Dunbar was the first minister of the community church in Peterborough, which was located then on what is now Old Street Road. Dunbar was called in 1799, and was a strong proponent of the "Liberal Movement.” After 1819, when public funds no longer supported the church, various groups decided to separate and form churches that were more orthodox. The Presbyterians were the first to break away (in 1822), and shortly thereafter, the Methodists and the Baptists followed suit. This period coincided with a rapid shift in the economy. Mills were being built along the Contoocook River and its tributaries. Farming and sheep raising were becoming less important. A mini-industrial revolution was occurring, with more wealth being created, and workers choosing to live closer to their work. The town center accordingly was moved down from the hill into the valley, where it remains today. Not too surprisingly, many of those who were first to seize the new economic opportunities were among the "liberals" who remained with Rev. Dunbar. Thus his congregation was able to erect our beautiful church building very near the new town center, during the years 1825-26. The building was designed by Charles Bulfinch. However, only one year later, this same congregation asked Rev. Dunbar to resign. Apparently he wasn't liberal enough – they wanted their church to become Unitarian. This was accomplished when Rev. Abiel Abbot was called. During the next 13 years, (and then for another 8 years when he was semi-retired), Rev. Abbot contributed greatly to the thriving town. He founded the Lyceum to meet the increasing educational needs of those participating in Peterborough's "industrial revolution." He actively encouraged the start of The Peterborough Academy, which was able to prepare students for entrance to Harvard and other colleges. His greatest accomplishment, however, was to convince the town to begin a free library – the first tax-supported lending library in this country, and indeed the world. The Peterborough Library thrives to this day. In 1856, the women of the town purchased a clock, which was installed on our steeple. This has been the town clock ever since. The present organ was installed in 1866 and completely restored in 2004 after a very successful fundraising campaign. Many changes have been made over the years to the interior of the building, including the addition of the parish hall, which was provided by the Morison family and dedicated in 1926. From 1900 to 1913, William Henry Branigan was minister. After his departure the church had ministers for only a few years at a time, except for Richard Day, who presided over the congregation from 1932 to 1940, and returned in 1969 for the installation of David Van Strien. The 1950s were a busy decade for our church, with 50-60 children registered in church school, a male quartet provided church music, and Thelma Clark served as superintendent of teachers. In 1969, Rev. David Van Strien began his ministry here. At that time the church building was in disrepair due to the weak state of its finances. Seven years later, after a successful capital funds campaign, the building was restored. Many community organizations such as AA, WIC, and the Food Co-op were encouraged to use the church's facilities, as it served as both the geographical center and an important focal point in the town. A notable achievement was the revival of the Lyceum. Now named The Monadnock Summer Lyceum, it continues its original function as a resource for adult education, but at a quite different level. Individuals who are widely recognized for their contributions to our evolving society are invited to give a one-hour talk, replacing the usual Sunday service during the summer months. Speakers over the last several decades have include economists; writers; anthropologists and historians; political and social commentators; medical, health care, farming and technology innovators; and progressive religious leaders.yceum programs are rebroadcast on various NH radio stations. During Rev. Van Strien’s 21-year pastorate, the longest since Rev. Dunbar's, another sea change in the economy was beginning. The last of the mills closed down, some small manufacturing continued, but the computer age was beginning and several new businesses, including several computer magazine publishing firms, chose to locate in Peterborough. The church's financial condition greatly improved, enabling for the first time the hiring of a part-time RE director. Throughout his ministry, Rev. Van Strien spoke out strongly for social justice, both from the pulpit and in the community. Upon his retirement in 1989, the congregation made David Van Strien Minister Emeritus. In January 1991 Rev. David Usher, ordained in Australia and most recently from a parish in England, began his ministry. His stay lasted nine years, and then he returned to England with his family. His years of ministry were eventful for the congregation. The upswing in the economy continued and many new families were attracted to the church. This younger generation, with its fresh enthusiasm, was welcomed by all. Rev. Usher was successful in relating to this group, and the RE program was expanded until it became evident that more space was required. Rev. Usher built the congregation up to 230 members, possibly the largest membership in the 20th century, if not in our history. During a three-year period, 1995 to 1998, a successful capital campaign raised nearly $200,000 for improvements to the church building, greatly improving the RE facilities and also installing an elevator to allow handicapped access to the church. An additional $100,000 was taken from the endowment in order to purchase Carll House, an adjacent home. This provided much-needed office space, an additional meeting room, and an apartment for the custodian. Rev. Usher completed his Ph.D. at Andover-Newton during his stay. He also was a prime mover in founding the International Council of Unitarians and Universalists. His ministry generated enthusiasm among most, but dissent among a few. Some of the ill feelings persisted, although most of the current church membership vowed to accept the past and move on into a positive, fruitful future. Sarah Clarke was called to the Church in 2001. She built on the positive contributions of past ministers, and the church underwent further change. The parsonage on Summer Street was purchased, where Rev. Clarke lived. A new, full-time DRE was hired, bringing fresh energy and a wealth of ideas to further develop an already strong religious education program. Several historic events took place during this time: the Church officially adopted the name “Peterborough Unitarian Universalist Church;” we celebrated our 175th anniversary; and the church’s historic tracker organ was completely rebuilt and reinstalled, following a very successful fund drive. Rev. Clark challenged the congregation to be more engaged in the larger community and they responded by establishing the Peterborough Community Supper, a free supper served every Wednesday night, often feeding more than 100 people. Rev. Clarke resigned in 2005 and Reverend Fred Gillis joined us in 2005-2006 as our interim minister, followed by Rev. Patience Stoddard in 2006-2007. The congregation voted in 2006 to restructure the Endowment. The largest share is dedicated to maintenance of our historic building; another portion is the Social Justice Fund, dedicated for social causes; and a smaller, diminishing amount is for operational expenses. In 2020 the congregation voted to withdraw up to 5% of the Social Justice Fund of the Endowment to match monthly plate collection donations. After a successful search for a new settled minister, Rev. Dr. David Robins was called in 2007 and he served until his retirement in December 2013. Rev. Robins tenure was a time of great stability and healing for this congregation. Following his retirement, the congregation was served by two interim ministers; Rev. Shaynal Appel and Rev. Olivia Holmes. Rev. Diana McLean was called to ministry in 2016 and is serving through June 2021. Rev. Dr. David Robins was named Minister Emeritus in 2021. Also in 2021 the congregation voted to change the minister's position to part-time, further embracing a shared ministry. At this time the congregation has launched a search committee for a part-time minister.

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The best teacher development programs know that too much, too fast, won’t last. 212 Creatived, LLC would like to welcome you to the era of bite-sized brilliance! All-day workshops are efficient, but not really effective if the goal is long-term change. If you do any training with your staff, you may want to keep the concept of microlearning in mind. In a world that moves at lightning speed, where there are many demands on our attention and information overload is a daily occurrence, micro learning has emerged as the unsung hero of education. In this article, we’ll take a dive into the history of micro learning and touch on some of the fascinating neuroscience behind its effectiveness, along with the benefits of micro learning. The Rise of Micro Learning While microlearning may seem like a fresh-faced newcomer to the education scene, micro learning tenets have been around for a long time. Why the resurgence in interest now? It has to do with how the world has changed. The concept of neuro-plasticity shows us that our human brains change as they interact with the environment. Our environment certainly has changed, especially in the last 50 years with the advent of the computer, the internet, social media…the list goes on. The result of all of these environmental changes is that the time we can engage in focused, sustained attention has dropped. The notion of going to a day-long training for a “sit and get” just isn’t effective anymore. Enter micro learning onto the educational stage. What is Microlearning? Microlearning is an approach to education that focuses on delivering information in small, bite-sized units. This learning is designed to be consumed quickly and easily in chunks lasting from a few minutes to a maximum of 15 minutes. The learning units can be in various forms, including videos, infographics, quizzes, podcasts, or even interactive apps. By breaking down complex topics into manageable chunks, micro learning capitalizes on the brain’s natural ability to absorb information more effectively in small doses. Doesn’t this sound familiar? If you need to replace a faucet on your sink at home, do you take a plumbing class? Or do you just watch a 5 minute video on YouTube. That is micro learning in action. Information packaged in small chunks that can be easily digested and are useful and practical. The Neuroscience Behind Microlearning: The efficacy of microlearning is rooted in our understanding of neuroscience. Research has shown that our brains have limited attention spans and struggle to maintain focus for extended periods. As we mentioned before, thanks to neuroplasticity, our brains have been changed by the overwhelming amount of information, social media viewing, video games and all of the other radical changes in our society over the last several decades. That’s not necessarily a bad thing, just something of which we have to be aware. The best teacher development programs are in alignment with this newly rewired brain, delivering information in short bursts can leverage the brain’s cognitive capabilities, enhancing attention and retention. Another neuroscience underpinning is the Forgetting Curve. Over 100 years ago, Ebbinhaus showed that almost as soon as we learn something, we start to forget the information. Even if you get a condensed, 2 minute micro lesson, we can start to forget the information unless there is spaced repetition, and we have a chance to review the information or, better yet, put it to use. Spaced repetition (sometimes called distributive practice) can make learning more effective by presenting information, then revisited over spaced intervals, rather than in one prolonged session. By periodically revisiting key concepts, micro learning reinforces knowledge and helps to solidify long-term memory. In one recent study, two groups of students were taught the same concepts for six weeks. One group was taught with traditional methods, the other group was taught with micro learning lessons. The group that was taught using micro learning showed around 18% better learning than the traditional group. When retested later, the micro learning group had retained more of the information than the control group. Benefits of the Best Teacher Development Program To experience the best teacher development programs, consider 1 Minute Mastery. All of the 1 Minute Mastery lessons were designed with the tenets of micro learning and neuroscience in mind. Here are just four of the benefits: - Anytime, anywhere learning. Since the 1 Minute Mastery lessons are recorded, they can be viewed on any device, anytime, anywhere. A teacher doesn’t have to do lesson plans or be out of their classroom to go to a workshop. Each 1 Minute Mastery video is 2 minutes or less in length. They can watch in their home, at lunch, on the weekend or during a break in classes. These short, bite-sized lessons make it easy to fit into a busy schedule. - Stickiness Guaranteed: The secret sauce of microlearning is repetition. That is why there is only one 1 Minute Mastery delivered each week. By having only one skill or strategy for an entire week, that lesson can be focused on, practiced, and immediately implemented into the teacher’s practice. The immediacy of application and the practicality of the lessons helps to ensure it will become a regular part of the teacher’s practice. - Increased Engagement: The brevity, interactivity and practicality of the 1 Minute Mastery lessons make it inherently engaging. Learners are more likely to stay focused and motivated when presented with concise, visually appealing content that encourages active participation. - Improved Knowledge Retention: The repetitive nature of microlearning aids in the consolidation of knowledge. Regularly revisiting key concepts reinforces learning, enabling learners to retain information more effectively. This iterative approach helps combat the “forgetting curve” and enhances long-term memory retention. If you are looking for ways to achieve constant and never-ending improvement, check out one of best teacher development programs, 1 Minute Mastery. Click here for a free sample and to subscribe. If you are a new teacher looking for solutions to common classroom problems, check out 1 Minute Mastery. If you are an experienced teacher looking for new ideas, so that you can continue to learn, grow and add nuance to your professional practice, check out 1 Minute Mastery.

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