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290-1 | A
A (named , plural "As", "A's", "a"s, "a's" or "aes") is the first letter and the first vowel of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is similar to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives. The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the double-storey a and single-storey ɑ. The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in italic type.
In the English grammar, "a", and its variant "an", is an indefinite article.
nameplural plural`` ``'' ''`` ``'s 's'' ''`` ``'' ''`` ``'s 's'' ''`` ``ae ae'' ''first firstletter letterfirst firstvowel vowelmodern modernenglish englishalphabet alphabetiso isobasic basiclatin latinalphabet alphabetsimilar similarancient ancientgreek greekletter letteralpha alphaderiv derivuppercas uppercasversion versionconsist consisttwo twoslant slantside sidetriangl trianglcross crossmiddl middlhorizont horizontbar barlowercas lowercasversion versionwritten writtentwo twoform formdouble-storey double-storeysingle-storey single-storeyɑ ɑlatter lattercommon commonuse usehandwrit handwritfont fontbase baseespeci especifont fontintend intendread readchildren childrenalso alsofound foundital italtype typeenglish englishgrammar grammar`` ``'' ''variant variant`` ``'' ''indefinit indefinitarticl | 290 | A | ISO basic Latin letters |
290-2 | A
Section::::History.
The earliest certain ancestor of "A" is aleph (also written 'aleph), the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet, which consisted entirely of consonants (for that reason, it is also called an abjad to distinguish it from a true alphabet). In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended.
By 1600 BC, the Phoenician alphabet letter had a linear form that served as the base for some later forms. Its name is thought to have corresponded closely to the Paleo-Hebrew or Arabic aleph.
When the ancient Greeks adopted the alphabet, they had no use for a letter to represent the glottal stop—the consonant sound that the letter denoted in Phoenician and other Semitic languages, and that was the first phoneme of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter—so they used their version of the sign to represent the vowel , and called it by the similar name of alpha. In the earliest Greek inscriptions after the Greek Dark Ages, dating to the 8th century BC, the letter rests upon its side, but in the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set.
The Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the Italian Peninsula and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the Etruscan alphabet to write the Latin language, and the resulting letter was preserved in the Latin alphabet that would come to be used to write many languages, including English.
section:histori :historiearliest earliestcertain certainancestor ancestor`` ``'' ''aleph alephalso alsowritten writtenaleph alephfirst firstletter letterphoenician phoenicianalphabet alphabetconsist consistentir entirconson consonreason reasonalso alsocall callabjad abjaddistinguish distinguishtrue truealphabet alphabetturn turnancestor ancestoraleph alephmay maypictogram pictogramox oxhead headproto-sinait proto-sinaitscript scriptinfluenc influencegyptian egyptianhieroglyph hieroglyphstyle styletriangular triangularhead headtwo twohorn hornextend extend1600 1600bc bcphoenician phoenicianalphabet alphabetletter letterlinear linearform formserv servbase baselater laterform formname namethought thoughtcorrespond correspondclose closepaleo-hebrew paleo-hebrewarab arabaleph alephancient ancientgreek greekadopt adoptalphabet alphabetuse useletter letterrepres represglottal glottalstop—th stop—thconson consonsound soundletter letterdenot denotphoenician phoeniciansemit semitlanguag languagfirst firstphonem phonemphoenician phoenicianpronunci pronunciletter—so letter—souse useversion versionsign signrepres represvowel vowelcall callsimilar similarname namealpha alphaearliest earliestgreek greekinscript inscriptgreek greekdark darkage agedate date8th 8thcenturi centuribc bcletter letterrest restupon uponside sidegreek greekalphabet alphabetlater latertime timegeneral generalresembl resemblmodern moderncapit capitletter letteralthough althoughmani manilocal localvarieti varietidistinguish distinguishshorten shortenone oneleg legangl anglcross crossline lineset setetruscan etruscanbrought broughtgreek greekalphabet alphabetcivil civilitalian italianpeninsula peninsulaleft leftletter letterunchang unchangroman romanlater lateradopt adoptetruscan etruscanalphabet alphabetwrite writelatin latinlanguag languagresult resultletter letterpreserv preservlatin latinalphabet alphabetwould wouldcome comeuse usewrite writemani manilanguag languaginclud includenglish | 290 | A | ISO basic Latin letters |
290-3 | A
Section::::History.:Typographic variants.
During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter "A". First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other "permanent" media. There was also a cursive style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces. Due to the "perishable" nature of these surfaces, there are not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental, but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive, such as majuscule cursive, minuscule cursive, and semicursive minuscule. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles. The known variants include the early semi-uncial, the uncial, and the later semi-uncial.
At the end of the Roman Empire (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. Among these were the semicursive minuscule of Italy, the Merovingian script in France, the Visigothic script in Spain, and the Insular or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule of Great Britain. By the 9th century, the Caroline script, which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms.
15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants, the "Italic" and "Roman" forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version. The Italic form, also called "script a," is used in most current handwriting and consists of a circle and vertical stroke. This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter tau in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers. The Roman form is used in most printed material; it consists of a small loop with an arc over it ("a"). Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form.
Italic type is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest (set in Roman type). There are some other cases aside from italic type where "script a" ("ɑ"), also called Latin alpha, is used in contrast with Latin "a" (such as in the International Phonetic Alphabet).
section:histori :historitypograph typographvariant variantroman romantime timemani manivariant variantform formletter letter`` ``'' ''first firstmonument monumentlapidari lapidaristyle styleuse useinscrib inscribstone stone`` ``perman perman'' ''media mediaalso alsocursiv cursivstyle styleuse useeveryday everydayutilitarian utilitarianwrite writedone doneperish perishsurfac surfacdue due`` ``perish perish'' ''natur natursurfac surfacmani maniexampl examplstyle stylemonument monumentstill stillmani manisurviv survivexampl exampldiffer differtype typecursiv cursivmajuscul majusculcursiv cursivminuscul minusculcursiv cursivsemicurs semicursminuscul minusculvariant variantalso alsoexist existintermedi intermedimonument monumentcursiv cursivstyle styleknown knownvariant variantinclud includearli earlisemi-unci semi-unciuncial unciallater latersemi-unci semi-unciend endroman romanempir empir5th 5thcenturi centuriad adsever severvariant variantcursiv cursivminuscul minusculdevelop developwestern westerneurop europamong amongsemicurs semicursminuscul minusculitali italimerovingian merovingianscript scriptfranc francvisigoth visigothscript scriptspain spaininsular insularanglo-irish anglo-irishsemi-unci semi-uncianglo-saxon anglo-saxonmajuscul majusculgreat greatbritain britain9th 9thcenturi centuricarolin carolinscript scriptsimilar similarpresent-day present-dayform formprincip principform formuse usebook-mak book-makadvent adventprint printpress pressform formderiv derivcombin combinprior priorform form15th-centuri 15th-centuriitali italisaw sawformat formattwo twomain mainvariant variantknown knowntoday todayvariant variant`` ``ital ital'' ''`` ``roman roman'' ''form formderiv derivcarolin carolinscript scriptversion versionital italform formalso alsocall call`` ``script script'' ''use usecurrent currenthandwrit handwritconsist consistcircl circlvertic verticstroke strokeslowli slowlidevelop developfifth-centuri fifth-centuriform formresembl resemblgreek greekletter lettertau tauhand handmediev medievirish irishenglish englishwriter writerroman romanform formuse useprint printmateri matericonsist consistsmall smallloop looparc arc`` ``'' ''deriv derivmajuscul majusculcapit capitform formgreek greekhandwrit handwritcommon commonjoin joinleft leftleg leghorizont horizontstroke strokesingl singlloop loopdemonstr demonstruncial uncialversion versionshown shownmani manifont fontmade maderight rightleg legvertic verticserif serifbegan beganright rightleg legstroke strokedevelop developarc arcresult resultprint printform formother otherdrop dropresult resultmodern modernhandwritten handwrittenform formital italtype typecommon commonuse usemark markemphasi emphasigeneral generaldistinguish distinguishone onepart parttext textrest restset setroman romantype typecase caseasid asidital italtype type`` ``script script'' ''`` ``ɑ ɑ'' ''also alsocall calllatin latinalpha alphause usecontrast contrastlatin latin`` ``'' ''intern internphonet phonetalphabet | 290 | A | ISO basic Latin letters |
290-4 | A
Section::::Use in writing systems.
section:use :usewrite writesystem | 290 | A | ISO basic Latin letters |
290-5 | A
Section::::Use in writing systems.:English.
In modern English orthography, the letter represents at least seven different vowel sounds:
BULLET::::- the near-open front unrounded vowel as in "pad";
BULLET::::- the open back unrounded vowel as in "father", which is closer to its original Latin and Greek sound;
BULLET::::- the diphthong as in "ace" and "major" (usually when is followed by one, or occasionally two, consonants and then another vowel letter) – this results from Middle English lengthening followed by the Great Vowel Shift;
BULLET::::- the modified form of the above sound that occurs before, as in "square" and "Mary";
BULLET::::- the rounded vowel of "water";
BULLET::::- the shorter rounded vowel (not present in General American) in "was" and "what";
BULLET::::- a schwa, in many unstressed syllables, as in "about", "comma", "solar".
The double sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as "Aaron" and "aardvark". However, occurs in many common digraphs, all with their own sound or sounds, particularly , , , , and .
section:use :usewrite writesystems. systems.english englishmodern modernenglish englishorthographi orthographiletter letterrepres represleast leastseven sevendiffer differvowel vowelsound soundbullet bullet:- :-near-open near-openfront frontunround unroundvowel vowel`` ``pad pad'' ''bullet bullet:- :-open openback backunround unroundvowel vowel`` ``father father'' ''closer closerorigin originlatin latingreek greeksound soundbullet bullet:- :-diphthong diphthong`` ``ace ace'' ''`` ``major major'' ''usual usualfollow followone oneoccasion occasiontwo twoconson consonanoth anothvowel vowelletter letter– –result resultmiddl middlenglish englishlengthen lengthenfollow followgreat greatvowel vowelshift shiftbullet bullet:- :-modifi modifiform formsound soundoccur occur`` ``squar squar'' ''`` ``mari mari'' ''bullet bullet:- :-round roundvowel vowel`` ``water water'' ''bullet bullet:- :-shorter shorterround roundvowel vowelpresent presentgeneral generalamerican american`` ``'' ''`` ``'' ''bullet bullet:- :-schwa schwamani maniunstress unstresssyllabl syllabl`` ``'' ''`` ``comma comma'' ''`` ``solar solar'' ''doubl doublsequenc sequencoccur occurnativ nativenglish englishword wordfound foundword wordderiv derivforeign foreignlanguag languag`` ``aaron aaron'' ''`` ``aardvark aardvark'' ''howev howevoccur occurmani manicommon commondigraph digraphsound soundsound soundparticular | 290 | A | ISO basic Latin letters |
290-6 | A
Section::::Use in writing systems.:Other languages.
In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, denotes an open unrounded vowel, such as , , or . An exception is Saanich, in which (and the glyph Á) stands for a close-mid front unrounded vowel .
section:use :usewrite writesystem systemlanguag languaglanguag languaguse uselatin latinalphabet alphabetdenot denotopen openunround unroundvowel vowelexcept exceptsaanich saanichglyph glyphá ástand standclose-mid close-midfront frontunround unroundvowel | 290 | A | ISO basic Latin letters |
290-7 | A
Section::::Use in writing systems.:Other systems.
In phonetic and phonemic notation:
BULLET::::- in the International Phonetic Alphabet, is used for the open front unrounded vowel, is used for the open central unrounded vowel, and is used for the open back unrounded vowel.
BULLET::::- in X-SAMPA, is used for the open front unrounded vowel and is used for the open back unrounded vowel.
section:use :usewrite writesystem systemsystem systemphonet phonetphonem phonemnotat notatbullet bullet:- :-intern internphonet phonetalphabet alphabetuse useopen openfront frontunround unroundvowel voweluse useopen opencentral centralunround unroundvowel voweluse useopen openback backunround unroundvowel vowelbullet bullet:- :-x-sampa x-sampause useopen openfront frontunround unroundvowel voweluse useopen openback backunround unroundvowel | 290 | A | ISO basic Latin letters |
290-8 | A
Section::::Other uses.
In algebra, the letter "a" along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities, whereas the letters at the end of the alphabet ("x", "y", "z") are used to denote unknown quantities.
In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to denote segments, lines, rays, etc. A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a triangle, the lowercase a representing the side opposite angle A.
"A" is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status: A-, A or A+, the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students' schoolwork; "A grade" for clean restaurants; A-list celebrities, etc. Such associations can have a motivating effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters.
"A" is used as a prefix on some words, such as asymmetry, to mean "not" or "without" (from Greek).
In English grammar, "a", and its variant "an", is an indefinite article.
Finally, the letter A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe, or a small cup size in a brassiere.
section:other :otheruse usealgebra algebraletter letter`` ``'' ''along alongletter letterbegin beginalphabet alphabetuse userepres represknown knownquantiti quantitiwherea wherealetter letterend endalphabet alphabet`` ``x x'' ''`` ``'' ''`` ``z z'' ''use usedenot denotunknown unknownquantiti quantitigeometri geometricapit capitb bc cetc etcuse usedenot denotsegment segmentline lineray rayetc etccapit capitalso alsotypic typicuse useone oneletter letterrepres represangl angltriangl triangllowercas lowercasrepres represside sideopposit oppositangl angl`` ``'' ''often oftenuse usedenot denotsometh somethsomeon someonbetter betterprestigi prestigiqualiti qualitistatus statusa- a-a+ a+best bestgrade gradeassign assignteacher teacherstudent studentschoolwork schoolwork`` ``grade grade'' ''clean cleanrestaur restaura-list a-listcelebr celebretc etcassoci associmotiv motiveffect effectexposur exposurletter letterfound foundimprov improvperform performcompar comparletter letter`` ``'' ''use useprefix prefixword wordasymmetri asymmetrimean mean`` ``'' ''`` ``without without'' ''greek greekenglish englishgrammar grammar`` ``'' ''variant variant`` ``'' ''indefinit indefinitarticl articlfinal finalletter letteruse usedenot denotsize sizenarrow narrowsize sizeshoe shoesmall smallcup cupsize sizebrassier | 290 | A | ISO basic Latin letters |
290-9 | A
Section::::Related characters.
section:relat :relatcharact | 290 | A | ISO basic Latin letters |
290-10 | A
Section::::Related characters.:Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet.
BULLET::::- Æ æ : Latin "AE" ligature
BULLET::::- A with diacritics: Å å Ǻ ǻ Ḁ ḁ ẚ Ă ă Ặ ặ Ắ ắ Ằ ằ Ẳ ẳ Ẵ ẵ Ȃ ȃ Â â Ậ ậ Ấ ấ Ầ ầ Ẫ ẫ Ẩ ẩ Ả ả Ǎ ǎ Ⱥ ⱥ Ȧ ȧ Ǡ ǡ Ạ ạ Ä ä Ǟ ǟ À à Ȁ ȁ Á á Ā ā Ā̀ ā̀ Ã ã Ą ą Ą́ ą́ Ą̃ ą̃ A̲ a̲ ᶏ
BULLET::::- Phonetic alphabet symbols related to A (the International Phonetic Alphabet only uses lowercase, but uppercase forms are used in some other writing systems):
BULLET::::- Ɑ ɑ : Latin letter alpha / script A, which represents an open back unrounded vowel in the IPA
BULLET::::- ᶐ : Latin small letter alpha with retroflex hook
BULLET::::- Ɐ ɐ : Turned A, which represents a near-open central vowel in the IPA
BULLET::::- Λ ʌ : Turned V (also called a wedge, a caret, or a hat), which represents an open-mid back unrounded vowel in the IPA
BULLET::::- Ɒ ɒ : Turned alpha / script A, which represents an open back rounded vowel in the IPA
BULLET::::- ᶛ : Modifier letter small turned alpha
BULLET::::- ᴀ : Small capital A, an obsolete or non-standard symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet used to represent various sounds (mainly open vowels)
BULLET::::- ᴬ ᵃ ᵄ : Modifier letters are used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet (UPA)
BULLET::::- ₐ : Subscript small a is used in Indo-European studies
BULLET::::- ꬱ : Small letter a reversed-schwa is used in the Teuthonista phonetic transcription system
BULLET::::- Ꞻ ꞻ : Glottal A, used in the transliteration of Ugaritic
section:relat :relatcharact charactdescend descendrelat relatcharact charactlatin latinalphabet alphabetbullet bullet:- :-æ ææ ælatin latin`` ``ae ae'' ''ligatur ligaturbullet bullet:- :-diacrit diacritå åå åǻ ǻǻ ǻḁ ḁḁ ḁẚ ẚă ăă ăặ ặặ ặắ ắắ ắằ ằằ ằẳ ẳẳ ẳẵ ẵẵ ẵȃ ȃȃ ȃâ ââ âậ ậậ ậấ ấấ ấầ ầầ ầẫ ẫẫ ẫẩ ẩẩ ẩả ảả ảǎ ǎǎ ǎⱥ ⱥⱥ ⱥȧ ȧȧ ȧǡ ǡǡ ǡạ ạạ ạä ää äǟ ǟǟ ǟà àà àȁ ȁȁ ȁá áá áā āā āā̀ ā̀ā̀ ā̀ã ãã ãą ąą ąą́ ą́ą́ ą́ą̃ ą̃ą̃ ą̃a̲ a̲a̲ a̲ᶏ ᶏbullet bullet:- :-phonet phonetalphabet alphabetsymbol symbolrelat relatintern internphonet phonetalphabet alphabetuse uselowercas lowercasuppercas uppercasform formuse usewrite writesystem systembullet bullet:- :-ɑ ɑɑ ɑlatin latinletter letteralpha alphascript scriptrepres represopen openback backunround unroundvowel vowelipa ipabullet bullet:- :-ᶐ ᶐlatin latinsmall smallletter letteralpha alpharetroflex retroflexhook hookbullet bullet:- :-ɐ ɐɐ ɐturn turnrepres represnear-open near-opencentral centralvowel vowelipa ipabullet bullet:- :-λ λʌ ʌturn turnv valso alsocall callwedg wedgcaret carethat hatrepres represopen-mid open-midback backunround unroundvowel vowelipa ipabullet bullet:- :-ɒ ɒɒ ɒturn turnalpha alphascript scriptrepres represopen openback backround roundvowel vowelipa ipabullet bullet:- :-ᶛ ᶛmodifi modifiletter lettersmall smallturn turnalpha alphabullet bullet:- :-ᴀ ᴀsmall smallcapit capitobsolet obsoletnon-standard non-standardsymbol symbolintern internphonet phonetalphabet alphabetuse userepres represvarious varioussound soundmain mainopen openvowel vowelbullet bullet:- :-ᴬ ᴬᵃ ᵃᵄ ᵄmodifi modifiletter letteruse useural uralphonet phonetalphabet alphabetupa upabullet bullet:- :-ₐ ₐsubscript subscriptsmall smalluse useindo-european indo-europeanstudi studibullet bullet:- :-ꬱ ꬱsmall smallletter letterreversed-schwa reversed-schwause useteuthonista teuthonistaphonet phonettranscript transcriptsystem systembullet bullet:- :-Ꞻ Ꞻꞻ ꞻglottal glottaluse usetransliter transliterugarit | 290 | A | ISO basic Latin letters |
290-11 | A
Section::::Related characters.:Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations.
BULLET::::- ª : an ordinal indicator
BULLET::::- Å : Ångström sign
BULLET::::- ∀ : a turned capital letter A, used in predicate logic to specify universal quantification ("for all")
BULLET::::- @ : At sign
BULLET::::- ₳ : Argentine austral
section:relat :relatcharact charactderiv derivsign signsymbol symbolabbrevi abbrevibullet bullet:- :-ª ªordin ordinindic indicbullet bullet:- :-å åångström ångströmsign signbullet bullet:- :-∀ ∀turn turncapit capitletter letteruse usepredic prediclogic logicspecifi specifiunivers universquantif quantif`` ``'' ''bullet bullet:- :-sign signbullet bullet:- :-₳ ₳argentin argentinaustral | 290 | A | ISO basic Latin letters |
290-12 | A
Section::::Related characters.:Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets.
BULLET::::- 𐤀 : Semitic letter Aleph, from which the following symbols originally derive
BULLET::::- Α α : Greek letter Alpha, from which the following letters derive
BULLET::::- А а : Cyrillic letter A
BULLET::::- : Coptic letter Alpha
BULLET::::- 𐌀 : Old Italic A, which is the ancestor of modern Latin A
BULLET::::- : Runic letter ansuz, which probably derives from old Italic A
BULLET::::- : Gothic letter aza/asks
section:relat :relatcharact charactancestor ancestorsibl siblalphabet alphabetbullet bullet:- :-𐤀 𐤀semit semitletter letteraleph alephfollow followsymbol symbolorigin originderiv derivbullet bullet:- :-α αα αgreek greekletter letteralpha alphafollow followletter letterderiv derivbullet bullet:- :-а аа аcyril cyrilletter letterbullet bullet:- :-coptic copticletter letteralpha alphabullet bullet:- :-𐌀 𐌀old oldital italancestor ancestormodern modernlatin latinbullet bullet:- :-runic runicletter letteransuz ansuzprobabl probablderiv derivold oldital italbullet bullet:- :-gothic gothicletter letteraza/ask | 290 | A | ISO basic Latin letters |
290-13 | A
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- History of the Alphabet
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-histori historialphabet | 290 | A | ISO basic Latin letters |
39-1 | Albedo
Albedo () (, meaning 'whiteness') is the measure of the diffuse reflection of solar radiation out of the total solar radiation received by an astronomical body (e.g. a planet like Earth). It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation).
Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity to the irradiance (flux per unit area) received by a surface. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location and time (see position of the Sun). While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages.
Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes visible light (0.39–0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation).
Albedo is an important concept in climatology, astronomy, and environmental management (e.g., as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program for sustainable rating of buildings). The average albedo of the Earth from the upper atmosphere, its "planetary albedo", is 30–35% because of cloud cover, but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features.
The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work "Photometria".
albedomean meanwhite whitemeasur measurdiffus diffusreflect reflectsolar solarradiat radiattotal totalsolar solarradiat radiatreceiv receivastronom astronombodi bodie.g e.gplanet planetlike likeearth earthdimensionless dimensionlessmeasur measurscale scale0 0correspond correspondblack blackbodi bodiabsorb absorbincid incidradiat radiat1 1correspond correspondbodi bodireflect reflectincid incidradiat radiatsurfac surfacalbedo albedodefin definratio ratioradios radiosirradi irradiflux fluxper perunit unitarea areareceiv receivsurfac surfacproport proportreflect reflectdetermin determinproperti propertisurfac surfacalso alsospectral spectralangular angulardistribut distributsolar solarradiat radiatreach reachearth earth's 'ssurfac surfacfactor factorvari variatmospher atmosphercomposit compositgeograph geographlocat locattime timesee seeposit positsun sunbi-hemispher bi-hemispherreflect reflectcalcul calculsingl singlangl anglincid incidi.e. i.e.given givenposit positsun sunalbedo albedodirect directintegr integrreflect reflectsolar solarangl anglgiven givenperiod periodtempor temporresolut resolutmay mayrang rangsecond secondobtain obtainflux fluxmeasur measurdaili dailimonth monthannual annualaverag averagunless unlessgiven givenspecif specifwavelength wavelengthspectral spectralalbedo albedoalbedo albedorefer referentir entirspectrum spectrumsolar solarradiat radiatdue duemeasur measurconstraint constraintoften oftengiven givenspectrum spectrumsolar solarenergi energireach reachsurfac surfac0.3 0.33 3μm μmspectrum spectruminclud includvisibl visibllight light0.39–0.7 0.39–0.7μm μmexplain explainsurfac surfaclow lowalbedo albedoappear appeardark darke.g. e.g.tree treeabsorb absorbradiat radiatwherea whereasurfac surfachigh highalbedo albedoappear appearbright brighte.g. e.g.snow snowreflect reflectradiat radiatalbedo albedoimport importconcept conceptclimatolog climatologastronomi astronomienvironment environmentmanag manage.g. e.g.part partleadership leadershipenergi energienvironment environmentdesign designleed leedprogram programsustain sustainrate ratebuild buildaverag averagalbedo albedoearth earthupper upperatmospher atmospher`` ``planetari planetarialbedo albedo'' ''30–35 30–35cloud cloudcover coverwide widevari varilocal localacross acrosssurfac surfacdiffer differgeolog geologenvironment environmentfeatur featurterm termalbedo albedointroduc introducoptic opticjohann johannheinrich heinrichlambert lambert1760 1760work work`` ``photometria photometria'' | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-2 | Albedo
Section::::Terrestrial albedo.
Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3. This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds.
Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via Earth observation satellite sensors such as NASA's MODIS instruments on board the Terra and Aqua satellites, and the CERES instrument on the Suomi NPP and JPSS. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of directional-hemispherical reflectance and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,). These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo.
Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the greenhouse effect is currently about 15 °C. If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below −40 °C. If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about 0 °C. In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water — a so-called ocean planet — the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost 27 °C.
section:terrestri :terrestrialbedo albedoalbedo albedovisibl visibllight lightfall fallwithin withinrang rang0.9 0.9fresh freshsnow snow0.04 0.04charcoal charcoalone onedarkest darkestsubstanc substancdeepli deeplishadow shadowcaviti cavitiachiev achieveffect effectalbedo albedoapproach approachzero zeroblack blackbodi bodiseen seendistanc distancocean oceansurfac surfaclow lowalbedo albedoforest forestwherea whereadesert desertarea areahighest highestalbedo albedoamong amonglandform landformland landarea areaalbedo albedorang rang0.1 0.10.4 0.4averag averagalbedo albedoearth earth0.3 0.3far farhigher higherocean oceanprimarili primarilicontribut contributcloud cloudearth earth's 'ssurfac surfacalbedo albedoregular regularestim estimvia viaearth earthobserv observsatellit satellitsensor sensornasa nasa's 'smodi modiinstrument instrumentboard boardterra terraaqua aquasatellit satellitcere cereinstrument instrumentsuomi suominpp nppjpss jpssamount amountreflect reflectradiat radiatmeasur measursingl singldirect directsatellit satellitdirect directmathemat mathematmodel modeluse usetranslat translatsampl samplset setsatellit satellitreflect reflectmeasur measurestim estimdirectional-hemispher directional-hemispherreflect reflectbi-hemispher bi-hemispherreflect reflecte.g. e.g.calcul calculbase basebidirect bidirectreflect reflectdistribut distributfunction functionbrdf brdfdescrib describreflect reflectgiven givensurfac surfacdepend dependview viewangl anglobserv observsolar solarangl anglbdrf bdrffacilit facilittranslat translatobserv observreflect reflectalbedo albedoearth earth's 'saverag averagsurfac surfactemperatur temperaturdue duealbedo albedogreenhous greenhouseffect effectcurrent current15 15°c °cearth earthfrozen frozenentir entirhenc hencreflect reflectaverag averagtemperatur temperaturplanet planetwould woulddrop drop−40 −40°c °ccontinent continentland landmass massbecam becamcover coverglacier glaciermean meantemperatur temperaturplanet planetwould woulddrop drop0 0°c °ccontrast contrastentir entirearth earthcover coverwater water— —so-cal so-calocean oceanplanet planet— —averag averagtemperatur temperaturplanet planetwould wouldrise risealmost almost27 27°c | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-3 | Albedo
Section::::Terrestrial albedo.:White-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo.
For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular solar zenith angle "θ" can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms:
BULLET::::- the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle, formula_1, sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo, and
BULLET::::- the bi-hemispherical reflectance, formula_2, sometimes referred to as white-sky albedo.
with formula_3 being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and formula_4 being the proportion of diffuse illumination, the actual albedo formula_5 (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as:
This formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.
section:terrestri :terrestrialbedo albedowhite-ski white-skiblack-ski black-skiblue-ski blue-skialbedo albedoland landsurfac surfacshown shownalbedo albedoparticular particularsolar solarzenith zenithangl angl`` ``θ θ'' ''approxim approximproportion proportionsum sumtwo twoterm termbullet bullet:- :-directional-hemispher directional-hemispherreflect reflectsolar solarzenith zenithangl anglformula_1 formula_1sometim sometimrefer referblack-ski black-skialbedo albedobullet bullet:- :-bi-hemispher bi-hemispherreflect reflectformula_2 formula_2sometim sometimrefer referwhite-ski white-skialbedo albedoformula_3 formula_3proport proportdirect directradiat radiatgiven givensolar solarangl anglformula_4 formula_4proport proportdiffus diffusillumin illuminactual actualalbedo albedoformula_5 formula_5also alsocall callblue-ski blue-skialbedo albedogiven givenformula formulaimport importallow allowalbedo albedocalcul calculgiven givenillumin illumincondit conditknowledg knowledgintrins intrinsproperti propertisurfac | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-4 | Albedo
Section::::Astronomical albedo.
The albedos of planets, satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time comprises a major part of the astronomical field of photometry. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer Solar System objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about regolith properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in asteroids.
Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known albedos of any body in the Solar System, with 99% of EM radiation reflected. Another notable high-albedo body is Eris, with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds.
The overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.136, but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect. Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless Solar System bodies.
Two common albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) geometric albedo (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the Bond albedo (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion.
In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces.
The correlation between astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is:
formula_7,
where formula_8 is the astronomical albedo, formula_9 is the diameter in kilometers, and formula_10 is the absolute magnitude.
section:astronom :astronomalbedo albedoalbedo albedoplanet planetsatellit satellitminor minorplanet planetasteroid asteroiduse useinfer infermuch muchproperti propertistudi studialbedo albedodepend dependwavelength wavelengthlight lightangl angl`` ``phase phaseangl angl'' ''variat variattime timecompris comprismajor majorpart partastronom astronomfield fieldphotometri photometrismall smallfar farobject objectresolv resolvtelescop telescopmuch muchknow knowcome comestudi studialbedo albedoexampl examplabsolut absolutalbedo albedoindic indicsurfac surfacice icecontent contentouter outersolar solarsystem systemobject objectvariat variatalbedo albedophase phaseangl anglgive giveinform informregolith regolithproperti propertiwherea whereaunusu unusuhigh highradar radaralbedo albedoindic indichigh highmetal metalcontent contentasteroid asteroidenceladus enceladusmoon moonsaturn saturnone onehighest highestknown knownalbedo albedobodi bodisolar solarsystem system99 99em emradiat radiatreflect reflectanoth anothnotabl notablhigh-albedo high-albedobodi bodieri erialbedo albedo0.96 0.96mani manismall smallobject objectouter outersolar solarsystem systemasteroid asteroidbelt beltlow lowalbedo albedo0.05 0.05typic typiccomet cometnucleus nucleusalbedo albedo0.04 0.04dark darksurfac surfacthought thoughtindic indicprimit primitheavili heavilispace spaceweather weathersurfac surfaccontain containorgan organcompound compoundoveral overalalbedo albedomoon moonmeasur measuraround around0.136 0.136strong strongdirect directnon-lambertian non-lambertiandisplay displayalso alsostrong strongopposit oppositeffect effectalthough althoughreflect reflectproperti propertidiffer differterrestri terrestriterrain terraintypic typicregolith regolithsurfac surfacairless airlesssolar solarsystem systembodi boditwo twocommon commonalbedo albedouse useastronomi astronomiv-band v-bandgeometr geometralbedo albedomeasur measurbright brightillumin illumincome comedirect directbehind behindobserv observbond bondalbedo albedomeasur measurtotal totalproport proportelectromagnet electromagnetenergi energireflect reflectvalu valudiffer differsignific significcommon commonsourc sourcconfus confusdetail detailstudi studidirect directreflect reflectproperti propertiastronom astronombodi bodioften oftenexpress expressterm termfive fivehapk hapkparamet parametsemi-empir semi-empirdescrib describvariat variatalbedo albedophase phaseangl anglinclud includcharacter characteropposit oppositeffect effectregolith regolithsurfac surfaccorrel correlastronom astronomgeometr geometralbedo albedoabsolut absolutmagnitud magnituddiamet diametformula_7 formula_7formula_8 formula_8astronom astronomalbedo albedoformula_9 formula_9diamet diametkilomet kilometformula_10 formula_10absolut absolutmagnitud | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-5 | Albedo
Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.
section:exampl :examplterrestri terrestrialbedo albedoeffect | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-6 | Albedo
Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Illumination.
Albedo is not directly dependent on illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g. through albedo-temperature feedback). That said, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics.
section:exampl :examplterrestri terrestrialbedo albedoeffects. effects.illumin illuminalbedo albedodirect directdepend dependillumin illuminchang changamount amountincom incomlight lightproport proportchang changamount amountreflect reflectlight lightexcept exceptcircumst circumstchang changillumin illumininduc inducchang changearth earth's 'ssurfac surfaclocat locate.g e.galbedo-temperatur albedo-temperaturfeedback feedbacksaid saidalbedo albedoillumin illuminvari varilatitud latitudalbedo albedohighest highestnear nearpole polelowest lowestsubtrop subtroplocal localmaximum maximumtropic | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-7 | Albedo
Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Insolation effects.
The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the arctic and antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, where areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes.
Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This feedback loop results in a reduced albedo effect.
section:exampl :examplterrestri terrestrialbedo albedoeffect effectinsol insoleffect effectintens intensalbedo albedotemperatur temperatureffect effectdepend dependamount amountalbedo albedolevel levellocal localinsol insolsolar solarirradi irradihigh highalbedo albedoarea areaarctic arcticantarct antarctregion regioncold colddue duelow lowinsol insolarea areasahara saharadesert desertalso alsorelat relathigh highalbedo albedohotter hotterdue duehigh highinsol insoltropic tropicsub-trop sub-troprainforest rainforestarea arealow lowalbedo albedomuch muchhotter hottertemper temperforest forestcounterpart counterpartlower lowerinsol insolinsol insolplay playbig bigrole roleheat heatcool cooleffect effectalbedo albedohigh highinsol insolarea arealike liketropic tropictend tendshow showpronounc pronouncfluctuat fluctuatlocal localtemperatur temperaturlocal localalbedo albedochang changarctic arcticregion regionnotabl notablreleas releasheat heatback backspace spaceabsorb absorbeffect effectcool coolearth earthconcern concernsinc sincarctic arcticice icesnow snowmelt melthigher higherrate ratedue duehigher highertemperatur temperaturcreat creatregion regionarctic arcticnotabl notabldarker darkerwater waterground grounddarker darkercolor colorreflect reflectless lessheat heatback backspace spacefeedback feedbackloop loopresult resultreduc reducalbedo albedoeffect | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-8 | Albedo
Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Climate and weather.
Albedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather.
section:exampl :examplterrestri terrestrialbedo albedoeffect effectclimat climatweather weatheralbedo albedoaffect affectclimat climatdetermin determinmuch muchradiat radiatplanet planetabsorb absorbuneven unevenheat heatearth earthalbedo albedovariat variatland landice iceocean oceansurfac surfacdrive driveweather | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-9 | Albedo
Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Albedo–temperature feedback.
When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature feedback results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm air mass), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass or soil, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating.
section:exampl :examplterrestri terrestrialbedo albedoeffect effectalbedo–temperatur albedo–temperaturfeedback feedbackarea area's 'salbedo albedochang changdue duesnowfal snowfalsnow–temperatur snow–temperaturfeedback feedbackresult resultlayer layersnowfal snowfalincreas increaslocal localalbedo albedoreflect reflectaway awaysunlight sunlightlead leadlocal localcool coolprincipl principloutsid outsidtemperatur temperaturchang changaffect affectarea areae.g. e.g.warm warmair airmass massrais raisalbedo albedolower lowertemperatur temperaturwould wouldmaintain maintaincurrent currentsnow snowinvit invitsnowfal snowfaldeepen deepensnow–temperatur snow–temperaturfeedback feedbackhowev howevlocal localweather weatherdynam dynamdue duechang changseason seasoneventu eventuwarm warmair airmass massdirect directangl anglsunlight sunlighthigher higherinsol insolcaus causmelt meltmelt meltarea areareveal revealsurfac surfaclower loweralbedo albedograss grasssoil soileffect effectrevers reversdarken darkensurfac surfaclower loweralbedo albedoincreas increaslocal localtemperatur temperaturinduc inducmelt meltthus thusreduc reducalbedo albedoresult resultstill stillheat | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-10 | Albedo
Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Snow.
Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over Antarctica snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice–albedo positive feedback).
Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback. Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important to the modern theory of Global warming.
Cryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets.
The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions.
section:exampl :examplterrestri terrestrialbedo albedoeffects. effects.snow snowsnow snowalbedo albedohigh highvariabl variablrang ranghigh high0.9 0.9fresh freshfallen fallensnow snow0.4 0.4melt meltsnow snowlow low0.2 0.2dirti dirtisnow snowantarctica antarcticasnow snowalbedo albedoaverag averaglittl littl0.8 0.8margin marginsnow-cov snow-covarea areawarm warmsnow snowtend tendmelt meltlower loweralbedo albedohenc henclead leadsnowmelt snowmeltradiat radiatabsorb absorbsnowpack snowpackice–albedo ice–albedoposit positfeedback feedbackfresh freshsnow snowhigher higheralbedo albedodirti dirtisnow snowalbedo albedosnow-cov snow-covsea seaice icefar farhigher highersea seawater watersea seawater waterabsorb absorbsolar solarradiat radiatwould wouldsurfac surfaccover coverreflect reflectsnow snowsea seaice icemelt melteither eitherdue duerise risesea seatemperatur temperaturrespons responsincreas increassolar solarradiat radiatsnow-cov snow-covsurfac surfacreduc reducsurfac surfacsea seawater waterexpos exposrate rateenergi energiabsorpt absorptincreas increasextra extraabsorb absorbenergi energiheat heatsea seawater waterturn turnincreas increasrate ratesea seaice icemelt meltpreced precedexampl examplsnowmelt snowmeltprocess processmelt meltsea seaice icethus thusanoth anothexampl examplposit positfeedback feedbackposit positfeedback feedbackloop looplong longrecogn recognimport importmodern moderntheori theoriglobal globalwarm warmcryoconit cryoconitpowderi powderiwindblown windblowndust dustcontain containsoot sootsometim sometimreduc reducalbedo albedoglacier glacierice icesheet sheetdynam dynamnatur naturalbedo albedorespons responsposit positfeedback feedbacktogeth togetheffect effectsmall smallerror errormeasur measuralbedo albedolead leadlarg largerror errorenergi energiestim estimorder orderreduc reducerror errorenergi energiestim estimimport importmeasur measuralbedo albedosnow-cov snow-covarea arearemot remotsens senstechniqu techniqurather ratherappli applisingl singlvalu valualbedo albedobroad broadregion | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-11 | Albedo
Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Small-scale effects.
Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.
section:exampl :examplterrestri terrestrialbedo albedoeffect effectsmall-scal small-scaleffect effectalbedo albedowork worksmaller smallerscale scalesunlight sunlightdark darkcloth clothabsorb absorbheat heatlight-colour light-colourcloth clothreflect reflectbetter betterthus thusallow allowcontrol controlbodi boditemperatur temperaturexploit exploitalbedo albedoeffect effectcolour colourextern externcloth | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-12 | Albedo
Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Solar photovoltaic effects.
Albedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10%. More recently, the analysis was extended to the effects of spectral bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) and analyzes the albedo effects on the performance of seven photovoltaic materials covering three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.
section:exampl :examplterrestri terrestrialbedo albedoeffect effectsolar solarphotovolta photovoltaeffect effectalbedo albedoaffect affectelectr electrenergi energioutput outputsolar solarphotovolta photovoltadevic devicexampl exampleffect effectspectral spectralrespons responsalbedo albedoillustr illustrdiffer differspectral spectralweight weightalbedo albedosolar solarphotovolta photovoltatechnolog technologbase basehydrogen hydrogenamorph amorphsilicon silicona-si a-sih hcrystallin crystallinsilicon siliconc-si c-si-base -basecompar compartradit traditspectral-integr spectral-integralbedo albedopredict predictresearch researchshow showimpact impact10 10recent recentanalysi analysiextend extendeffect effectspectral spectralbias biasdue duespecular specularreflect reflect22 22common commonoccur occursurfac surfacmateri materihuman-mad human-madnatur naturanalyz analyzalbedo albedoeffect effectperform performseven sevenphotovolta photovoltamateri matericover coverthree threecommon commonphotovolta photovoltasystem systemtopolog topologindustri industrisolar solarfarm farmcommerci commerciflat flatrooftop rooftopresidenti residentipitched-roof pitched-roofapplic | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-13 | Albedo
Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Trees.
Because forests generally have a low albedo, (the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through photosynthesis), some scientists have suggested that greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of deforestation). In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through evapotranspiration. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds. Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate.
In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is correlated with maximum rates of photosynthesis because plants with high growth capacity display a greater fraction of their foliage for direct interception of incoming radiation in the upper canopy. The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy.
Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming.
section:exampl :examplterrestri terrestrialbedo albedoeffects. effects.tree treeforest forestgeneral generallow lowalbedo albedomajor majorultraviolet ultravioletvisibl visiblspectrum spectrumabsorb absorbphotosynthesi photosynthesiscientist scientistsuggest suggestgreater greaterheat heatabsorpt absorpttree treecould couldoffset offsetcarbon carbonbenefit benefitafforest afforestoffset offsetnegat negatclimat climatimpact impactdeforest deforestcase caseevergreen evergreenforest forestseason seasonsnow snowcover coveralbedo albedoreduct reductmay maygreat greatenough enoughdeforest deforestcaus causnet netcool cooleffect effecttree treealso alsoimpact impactclimat climatextrem extremcomplic complicway wayevapotranspir evapotranspirwater watervapor vaporcaus causcool coolland landsurfac surfaccaus causheat heatcondens condensact actstrong stronggreenhous greenhousgas gasincreas increasalbedo albedocondens condenscloud cloudscientist scientistgeneral generaltreat treatevapotranspir evapotranspirnet netcool coolimpact impactnet netclimat climatimpact impactalbedo albedoevapotranspir evapotranspirchang changdeforest deforestdepend dependgreat greatlocal localclimat climatseason seasonsnow-cov snow-covzone zonewinter winteralbedo albedotreeless treelessarea area10 1050 50higher highernearbi nearbiforest forestarea areasnow snowcover covertree treereadili readilidecidu decidutree treealbedo albedovalu valu0.15 0.150.18 0.18wherea whereaconifer conifertree treevalu valu0.09 0.090.15 0.15variat variatsummer summeralbedo albedoacross acrossforest foresttype typecorrel correlmaximum maximumrate ratephotosynthesi photosynthesiplant planthigh highgrowth growthcapac capacdisplay displaygreater greaterfraction fractionfoliag foliagdirect directintercept interceptincom incomradiat radiatupper uppercanopi canopiresult resultwavelength wavelengthlight lightuse usephotosynthesi photosynthesilike likereflect reflectback backspace spacerather ratherabsorb absorbsurfac surfaclower lowercanopi canopistudi studihadley hadleycentr centrinvestig investigrelat relatgeneral generalwarm warmeffect effectalbedo albedochang changcool cooleffect effectcarbon carbonsequestr sequestrplant plantforest forestfound foundnew newforest foresttropic tropicmidlatitud midlatitudarea areatend tendcool coolnew newforest foresthigh highlatitud latitude.g. e.g.siberia siberianeutral neutralperhap perhapwarm | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-14 | Albedo
Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Water.
Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations (see graph).
At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner (not diffusely). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small angles of incident light, waviness results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle.
Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the terminator (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light.
Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection.
Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9.
section:exampl :examplterrestri terrestrialbedo albedoeffects. effects.water waterwater waterreflect reflectlight lightdiffer differtypic typicterrestri terrestrimateri materireflect reflectwater watersurfac surfaccalcul calculuse usefresnel fresnelequat equatsee seegraph graphscale scalewavelength wavelengthlight lighteven evenwavi waviwater wateralway alwaysmooth smoothlight lightreflect reflectlocal localspecular specularmanner mannerdiffus diffusglint glintlight lightwater watercommonplac commonplaceffect effectsmall smallangl anglincid incidlight lightwavi waviresult resultreduc reducreflect reflectsteep steepreflectivity-vs.-incident-angl reflectivity-vs.-incident-anglcurv curvlocal localincreas increasaverag averagincid incidangl anglalthough althoughreflect reflectwater waterlow lowlow lowmedium mediumangl anglincid incidlight lightbecom becomhigh highhigh highangl anglincid incidlight lightoccur occurillumin illuminside sideearth earthnear neartermin terminearli earlimorn mornlate lateafternoon afternoonnear nearpole polehowev howevmention mentionwavi wavicaus causappreci apprecireduct reductlight lightspecular specularreflect reflectwater waterusual usualreach reachviewer viewerwater waterusual usualconsid considlow lowalbedo albedospite spitehigh highreflect reflecthigh highangl anglincid incidlight lightnote notewhite whitecap capwave wavelook lookwhite whitehigh highalbedo albedowater waterfoam foammani manisuperimpos superimposbubbl bubblsurfac surfacreflect reflectad adreflect reflectfresh freshblack blackice iceexhibit exhibitfresnel fresnelreflect reflectsnow snowtop topsea seaice iceincreas increasalbedo albedo0.9 | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-15 | Albedo
Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Clouds.
Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth."
Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10 °C colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.
section:exampl :examplterrestri terrestrialbedo albedoeffects. effects.cloud cloudcloud cloudalbedo albedosubstanti substantiinfluenc influencatmospher atmosphertemperatur temperaturdiffer differtype typecloud cloudexhibit exhibitdiffer differreflect reflecttheoret theoretrang rangalbedo albedominimum minimumnear near0 0maximum maximumapproach approach0.8 0.8`` ``given givenday dayhalf halfearth earthcover covercloud cloudreflect reflectsunlight sunlightland landwater watercloud cloudkeep keepearth earthcool coolreflect reflectsunlight sunlightalso alsoserv servblanket blankettrap trapwarmth warmth'' ''albedo albedoclimat climatarea areaaffect affectartifici artificicloud cloudcreat creatcontrail contrailheavi heavicommerci commerciairlin airlintraffic trafficstudi studifollow followburn burnkuwaiti kuwaitioil oilfield fieldiraqi iraqioccup occupshow showtemperatur temperaturburn burnoil oilfire firemuch much10 10°c °ccolder coldertemperatur temperatursever severmile mileaway awayclear clearsky | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-16 | Albedo
Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Aerosol effects.
Aerosols (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain. As per Spracklen et al. the effects are:
BULLET::::- "Aerosol direct effect." Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming.
BULLET::::- "Aerosol indirect effect." Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called cloud condensation nuclei. Increased nuclei concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations, which in turn leads to increased cloud albedo, increased light scattering and radiative cooling ("first indirect effect"), but also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud ("second indirect effect").
section:exampl :examplterrestri terrestrialbedo albedoeffect effectaerosol aerosoleffect effectaerosol aerosolfine fineparticles/droplet particles/dropletatmospher atmospherdirect directindirect indirecteffect effectearth earth's 'sradiat radiatbalanc balancdirect directalbedo albedoeffect effectgeneral generalcool coolplanet planetindirect indirecteffect effectparticl particlact actcloud cloudcondens condensnuclei nucleitherebi therebichang changcloud cloudproperti propertiless lesscertain certainper perspracklen spracklenet etal aleffect effectbullet bullet:- :-`` ``aerosol aerosoldirect directeffect effect'' ''aerosol aerosoldirect directscatter scatterabsorb absorbradiat radiatscatter scatterradiat radiatcaus causatmospher atmosphercool coolwherea whereaabsorpt absorptcaus causatmospher atmospherwarm warmbullet bullet:- :-`` ``aerosol aerosolindirect indirecteffect effect'' ''aerosol aerosolmodifi modifiproperti properticloud cloudsubset subsetaerosol aerosolpopul populcall callcloud cloudcondens condensnuclei nucleiincreas increasnuclei nucleiconcentr concentrlead leadincreas increascloud clouddroplet dropletnumber numberconcentr concentrturn turnlead leadincreas increascloud cloudalbedo albedoincreas increaslight lightscatter scatterradiat radiatcool cool`` ``first firstindirect indirecteffect effect'' ''also alsolead leadreduc reducprecipit precipiteffici efficiincreas increaslifetim lifetimcloud cloud`` ``second secondindirect indirecteffect effect'' | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-17 | Albedo
Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Black carbon.
Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m. Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo.
section:exampl :examplterrestri terrestrialbedo albedoeffect effectblack blackcarbon carbonanoth anothalbedo-rel albedo-releffect effectclimat climatblack blackcarbon carbonparticl particlsize sizeeffect effectdifficult difficultquantifi quantifiintergovernment intergovernmentpanel panelclimat climatchang changestim estimglobal globalmean meanradiat radiatforc forcblack blackcarbon carbonaerosol aerosolfossil fossilfuel fuel+0.2 +0.2w wrang rang+0.1 +0.1+0.4 +0.4w wm. m.black blackcarbon carbonbigger biggercaus causmelt meltpolar polarice icecap caparctic arcticcarbon carbondioxid dioxiddue dueeffect effectalbedo | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-18 | Albedo
Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Human activities.
Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult.
section:exampl :examplterrestri terrestrialbedo albedoeffect effecthuman humanactiv activhuman humanactiv active.g. e.g.deforest deforestfarm farmurban urbanchang changalbedo albedovarious variousarea areaaround aroundglobe globehowev howevquantif quantifeffect effectglobal globalscale scaledifficult | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-19 | Albedo
Section::::Other types of albedo.
Single-scattering albedo is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material (refractive index); the size of the particle or particles; and the wavelength of the incoming radiation.
section:other :othertype typealbedo albedosingle-scatt single-scattalbedo albedouse usedefin definscatter scatterelectromagnet electromagnetwave wavesmall smallparticl particldepend dependproperti propertimateri materirefract refractindex indexsize sizeparticl particlparticl particlwavelength wavelengthincom incomradiat | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-20 | Albedo
Section::::Acquisition.
Albedo can be measured by an Albedometer.
section:acquisit :acquisitalbedo albedomeasur measuralbedomet | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-21 | Albedo
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- Cool roof
BULLET::::- Daisyworld
BULLET::::- Emissivity
BULLET::::- Exitance
BULLET::::- Global dimming
BULLET::::- Irradiance
BULLET::::- Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation
BULLET::::- Opposition surge
BULLET::::- Polar see-saw
BULLET::::- Solar radiation management
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-cool coolroof roofbullet bullet:- :-daisyworld daisyworldbullet bullet:- :-emiss emissbullet bullet:- :-exit exitbullet bullet:- :-global globaldim dimbullet bullet:- :-irradi irradibullet bullet:- :-kirchhoff kirchhoff's 'slaw lawthermal thermalradiat radiatbullet bullet:- :-opposit oppositsurg surgbullet bullet:- :-polar polarsee-saw see-sawbullet bullet:- :-solar solarradiat radiatmanag | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
39-22 | Albedo
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- Albedo Project
BULLET::::- Albedo – Encyclopedia of Earth
BULLET::::- NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site
BULLET::::- Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations
BULLET::::- A discussion of Lunar albedos
BULLET::::- reflectivity of metals (chart)
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-albedo albedoproject projectbullet bullet:- :-albedo albedo– –encyclopedia encyclopediaearth earthbullet bullet:- :-nasa nasamodi modibrdf/albedo brdf/albedoproduct productsite sitebullet bullet:- :-surfac surfacalbedo albedoderiv derivmeteosat meteosatobserv observbullet bullet:- :-discuss discusslunar lunaralbedo albedobullet bullet:- :-reflect reflectmetal metalchart | 39 | Albedo | Electromagnetic radiation,Climate forcing,Radiometry,Land surface effects on climate,Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics),Climatology |
316-1 | Academy Award for Best Production Design
The Academy Award for Best Production Design recognizes achievement for art direction in film. The category's original name was Best Art Direction, but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the 85th Academy Awards. This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) being renamed the Designer's branch. Since 1947, the award is shared with the set decorator(s). It is awarded to the best interior design in a film.
The films below are listed with their production year (for example, the 2000 Academy Award for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees in alphabetical order.
academiaward awardbest bestproduct productdesign designrecogn recognachiev achievart artdirect directfilm filmcategori categori's 'sorigin originname namebest bestart artdirect directchang changcurrent currentname name2012 201285th 85thacademi academiaward awardchang changresult resultart artdirector director's 'sbranch branchacademi academimotion motionpictur picturart artscienc sciencampa amparenam renamdesign design's 'sbranch branchsinc sinc1947 1947award awardshare shareset setdecor decoraward awardbest bestinterior interiordesign designfilm filmfilm filmlist listproduct productyear yearexampl exampl2000 2000academi academiaward awardbest bestart artdirect directgiven givenfilm film1999 1999list listwinner winneraward awardyear yearshown shownfirst firstfollow follownomine nominealphabet alphabetorder | 316 | Academy Award for Best Production Design | Academy Awards,Best Art Direction Academy Award winners |
316-2 | Academy Award for Best Production Design
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- BAFTA Award for Best Production Design
BULLET::::- Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Art Direction
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-bafta baftaaward awardbest bestproduct productdesign designbullet bullet:- :-critic criticchoic choicmovi moviaward awardbest bestart artdirect | 316 | Academy Award for Best Production Design | Academy Awards,Best Art Direction Academy Award winners |
330-1 | Actrius
Actresses (Catalan: Actrius) is a 1997 Catalan language Spanish drama film produced and directed by Ventura Pons and based on the award-winning stage play "E.R." by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet. The film has no male actors, with all roles played by females. The film was produced in 1996.
actresscatalan catalanactrius actrius1997 1997catalan catalanlanguag languagspanish spanishdrama dramafilm filmproduc producdirect directventura venturapon ponbase baseaward-win award-winstage stageplay play`` ``e.r e.r'' ''josep josepmaria mariabenet benetjornet jornetfilm filmmale maleactor actorrole roleplay playfemal femalfilm filmproduc produc1996 | 330 | Actrius | 1990s drama films,Catalan-language films,1997 films,Films set in Barcelona,Spanish films |
330-2 | Actrius
Section::::Synopsis.
In order to prepare herself to play a role commemorating the life of legendary actress Empar Ribera, young actress (Mercè Pons) interviews three established actresses who had been the Ribera's pupils: the international diva Glòria Marc (Núria Espert), the television star Assumpta Roca (Rosa Maria Sardà), and dubbing director Maria Caminal (Anna Lizaran).
section:synopsi :synopsiorder orderprepar preparplay playrole rolecommemor commemorlife lifelegendari legendariactress actressempar emparribera riberayoung youngactress actressmercè mercèpon poninterview interviewthree threeestablish establishactress actressribera ribera's 'spupil pupilintern interndiva divaglòria glòriamarc marcnúria núriaespert esperttelevis televisstar starassumpta assumptaroca rocarosa rosamaria mariasardà sardàdub dubdirector directormaria mariacamin caminanna annalizaran | 330 | Actrius | 1990s drama films,Catalan-language films,1997 films,Films set in Barcelona,Spanish films |
330-3 | Actrius
Section::::Cast.
BULLET::::- Núria Espert as Glòria Marc
BULLET::::- Rosa Maria Sardà as Assumpta Roca
BULLET::::- Anna Lizaran as Maria Caminal
BULLET::::- Mercè Pons as Estudiant
section:cast :castbullet bullet:- :-núria núriaespert espertglòria glòriamarc marcbullet bullet:- :-rosa rosamaria mariasardà sardàassumpta assumptaroca rocabullet bullet:- :-anna annalizaran lizaranmaria mariacamin caminbullet bullet:- :-mercè mercèpon ponestudi | 330 | Actrius | 1990s drama films,Catalan-language films,1997 films,Films set in Barcelona,Spanish films |
330-4 | Actrius
Section::::Recognition.
section:recognit | 330 | Actrius | 1990s drama films,Catalan-language films,1997 films,Films set in Barcelona,Spanish films |
330-5 | Actrius
Section::::Recognition.:Screenings.
"Actrius" screened in 2001 at the Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in an American Cinematheque retrospective of the works of its director. The film had first screened at the same location in 1998. It was also shown at the 1997 Stockholm International Film Festival.
section:recognition. :recognition.screen screen`` ``actrius actrius'' ''screen screen2001 2001grauman grauman's 'segyptian egyptiantheatr theatramerican americancinemathequ cinemathequretrospect retrospectwork workdirector directorfilm filmfirst firstscreen screenlocat locat1998 1998also alsoshown shown1997 1997stockholm stockholmintern internfilm filmfestiv | 330 | Actrius | 1990s drama films,Catalan-language films,1997 films,Films set in Barcelona,Spanish films |
330-6 | Actrius
Section::::Recognition.:Reception.
In "Movie - Film - Review", "Daily Mail" staffer Christopher Tookey wrote that though the actresses were "competent in roles that may have some reference to their own careers", the film "is visually unimaginative, never escapes its stage origins, and is almost totally lacking in revelation or surprising incident". Noting that there were "occasional, refreshing moments of intergenerational bitchiness", they did not "justify comparisons to "All About Eve"", and were "insufficiently different to deserve critical parallels with "Rashomon"". He also wrote that "The Guardian" called the film a "slow, stuffy chamber-piece", and that "The Evening Standard" stated the film's "best moments exhibit the bitchy tantrums seething beneath the threesome's composed veneers". MRQE wrote "This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work is true to the original, but does not stray far from a theatrical rendering of the story."
section:recognition. :recognition.recept recept`` ``movi movifilm filmreview review'' ''`` ``daili dailimail mail'' ''staffer stafferchristoph christophtookey tookeywrote wrotethough thoughactress actress`` ``compet competrole rolemay mayrefer refercareer career'' ''film film`` ``visual visualunimagin unimaginnever neverescap escapstage stageorigin originalmost almosttotal totallack lackrevel revelsurpris surprisincid incid'' ''note note`` ``occasion occasionrefresh refreshmoment momentintergener intergenerbitchi bitchi'' ''`` ``justifi justificomparison comparison`` ``eve eve'' '''' ''`` ``insuffici insufficidiffer differdeserv deservcritic criticparallel parallel`` ``rashomon rashomon'' '''' ''also alsowrote wrote`` ``guardian guardian'' ''call callfilm film`` ``slow slowstuffi stuffichamber-piec chamber-piec'' ''`` ``even evenstandard standard'' ''state statefilm film's 's`` ``best bestmoment momentexhibit exhibitbitchi bitchitantrum tantrumseeth seethbeneath beneaththreesom threesom's 'scompos composveneer veneer'' ''mrqe mrqewrote wrote`` ``cinemat cinematadapt adapttheatric theatricwork worktrue trueorigin originstray strayfar fartheatric theatricrender renderstori stori'' | 330 | Actrius | 1990s drama films,Catalan-language films,1997 films,Films set in Barcelona,Spanish films |
330-7 | Actrius
Section::::Recognition.:Awards and nominations.
BULLET::::- 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film' at Butaca Awards for Ventura Pons
BULLET::::- 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film Actress' at Butaca Awards, shared by Núria Espert, Rosa Maria Sardà, Anna Lizaran, and Mercè Pons
BULLET::::- 1998, nominated for 'Best Screenplay' at Goya Awards, shared by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet and Ventura Pons
section:recognit :recognitaward awardnomin nominbullet bullet:- :-1997 1997best bestcatalan catalanfilm filmbutaca butacaaward awardventura venturapon ponbullet bullet:- :-1997 1997best bestcatalan catalanfilm filmactress actressbutaca butacaaward awardshare sharenúria núriaespert espertrosa rosamaria mariasardà sardàanna annalizaran lizaranmercè mercèpon ponbullet bullet:- :-1998 1998nomin nominbest bestscreenplay screenplaygoya goyaaward awardshare sharejosep josepmaria mariabenet benetjornet jornetventura venturapon | 330 | Actrius | 1990s drama films,Catalan-language films,1997 films,Films set in Barcelona,Spanish films |
330-8 | Actrius
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- as archived February 17, 2009 (Spanish)
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-archiv archivfebruari februari17 172009 2009spanish | 330 | Actrius | 1990s drama films,Catalan-language films,1997 films,Films set in Barcelona,Spanish films |
332-1 | Animalia (book)
Animalia is an illustrated children's book by Graeme Base. It was originally published in 1986, followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996, and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012. Over four million copies have been sold worldwide. A special numbered and signed anniversary edition was also published in 1996, with an embossed gold jacket.
animaliaillustr illustrchildren children's 'sbook bookgraem graembase baseorigin originpublish publish1986 1986follow followtenth tenthanniversari anniversariedit edit1996 199625th 25thanniversari anniversariedit edit2012 2012four fourmillion millioncopi copisold soldworldwid worldwidspecial specialnumber numbersign signanniversari anniversariedit editalso alsopublish publish1996 1996emboss embossgold goldjacket | 332 | Animalia (book) | Alphabet books,Puzzle books,1986 children's books,Picture books by Graeme Base |
332-2 | Animalia (book)
Section::::Synopsis.
"Animalia" is an alliterative alphabet book and contains twenty-six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for alligator, B is for butterfly, etc.) along with a short poem utilizing the letter of the page for many of the words. The illustrations contain many other objects beginning with that letter that the reader can try to identify. As an additional challenge, the author has hidden a picture of himself as a child in every picture.
section:synopsi :synopsi`` ``animalia animalia'' ''allit allitalphabet alphabetbook bookcontain containtwenty-six twenty-sixillustr illustrone oneletter letteralphabet alphabetillustr illustrfeatur featuranim animanim animkingdom kingdomallig alligb bbutterfli butterflietc etcalong alongshort shortpoem poemutil utilletter letterpage pagemani maniword wordillustr illustrcontain containmani maniobject objectbegin beginletter letterreader readertri triidentifi identifiaddit additchalleng challengauthor authorhidden hiddenpictur picturchild childeveri everipictur | 332 | Animalia (book) | Alphabet books,Puzzle books,1986 children's books,Picture books by Graeme Base |
332-3 | Animalia (book)
Section::::Related products.
Julia MacRae Books published an "Animalia" colouring book in 2008. H. N. Abrams also published a wall calendar colouring book version for children the same year.
H. N. Abrams published "The Animalia Wall Frieze", a fold-out over 26 feet in length, in which the author created new riddles for each letter.
The Great American Puzzle Factory created a 300-piece jigsaw puzzle based on the book's cover.
section:relat :relatproduct productjulia juliamacra macrabook bookpublish publish`` ``animalia animalia'' ''colour colourbook book2008 2008h. h.n. n.abram abramalso alsopublish publishwall wallcalendar calendarcolour colourbook bookversion versionchildren childrenyear yearh. h.n. n.abram abrampublish publish`` ``animalia animaliawall wallfriez friez'' ''fold-out fold-out26 26feet feetlength lengthauthor authorcreat creatnew newriddl riddlletter lettergreat greatamerican americanpuzzl puzzlfactori factoricreat creat300-piec 300-piecjigsaw jigsawpuzzl puzzlbase basebook book's 'scover | 332 | Animalia (book) | Alphabet books,Puzzle books,1986 children's books,Picture books by Graeme Base |
332-4 | Animalia (book)
Section::::Adaptations.
A television series was also created, based on the book, which airs in the United States, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, Norway and Venezuela. It also airs on Minimax for the Czech Republic and Slovakia. And recently in Greece on the channel ET1. The Australian Children's Television Foundation released a teaching resource DVD-ROM in 2011 to accompany the TV series with teaching aids for classroom use.
In 2010, The Base Factory and AppBooks released Animalia as an application for iPad and iPhone/iPod Touch.
section:adapt :adapttelevis televisseri serialso alsocreat creatbase basebook bookair airunit unitstate stateaustralia australiacanada canadaunit unitkingdom kingdomnorway norwayvenezuela venezuelaalso alsoair airminimax minimaxczech czechrepubl republslovakia slovakiarecent recentgreec greecchannel channelet1 et1australian australianchildren children's 'stelevis televisfoundat foundatreleas releasteach teachresourc resourcdvd-rom dvd-rom2011 2011accompani accompanitv tvseri seriteach teachaid aidclassroom classroomuse use2010 2010base basefactori factoriappbook appbookreleas releasanimalia animaliaapplic applicipad ipadiphone/ipod iphone/ipodtouch | 332 | Animalia (book) | Alphabet books,Puzzle books,1986 children's books,Picture books by Graeme Base |
332-5 | Animalia (book)
Section::::Awards.
"Animalia" won the Young Australian's Best Book Award in 1987 for Best Picture Story Book.
The Children's Book Council of Australia designated "Animalia" a 1987 : Honour Book.
Kid's Own Australian Literature Awards named "Animalia" the 1988 Picture Book Winner.
section:award :award`` ``animalia animalia'' ''young youngaustralian australian's 'sbest bestbook bookaward award1987 1987best bestpictur picturstori storibook bookchildren children's 'sbook bookcouncil councilaustralia australiadesign design`` ``animalia animalia'' ''1987 1987honour honourbook bookkid kid's 'saustralian australianliteratur literaturaward awardname name`` ``animalia animalia'' ''1988 1988pictur picturbook bookwinner | 332 | Animalia (book) | Alphabet books,Puzzle books,1986 children's books,Picture books by Graeme Base |
332-6 | Animalia (book)
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- Graeme Base's official website
BULLET::::- A Learning Time activity guide for "Animalia" created by The Little Big Book Club
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-graem graembase base's 'soffici officiwebsit websitbullet bullet:- :-learn learntime timeactiv activguid guid`` ``animalia animalia'' ''creat creatlittl littlbig bigbook bookclub | 332 | Animalia (book) | Alphabet books,Puzzle books,1986 children's books,Picture books by Graeme Base |
309-1 | An American in Paris
An American in Paris is a jazz-influenced orchestral piece by American composer George Gershwin first performed in 1928. It was inspired by the time that Gershwin had spent in Paris and evokes the sights and energy of the French capital in the 1920s.
Walter Damrosch had asked Gershwin to write a full concerto following the success of "Rhapsody in Blue" (1924). Gershwin scored the piece for the standard instruments of the symphony orchestra plus celesta, saxophones, and automobile horns. He brought back four Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition, which took place on December 13, 1928, in Carnegie Hall, with Damrosch conducting the New York Philharmonic. He completed the orchestration on November 18, less than four weeks before the work's premiere. He collaborated on the original program notes with critic and composer Deems Taylor.
americanpari parijazz-influenc jazz-influencorchestr orchestrpiec piecamerican americancompos composgeorg georggershwin gershwinfirst firstperform perform1928 1928inspir inspirtime timegershwin gershwinspent spentpari parievok evoksight sightenergi energifrench frenchcapit capit1920s 1920swalter walterdamrosch damroschask askgershwin gershwinwrite writefull fullconcerto concertofollow followsuccess success`` ``rhapsodi rhapsodiblue blue'' ''1924 1924gershwin gershwinscore scorepiec piecstandard standardinstrument instrumentsymphoni symphoniorchestra orchestraplus pluscelesta celestasaxophon saxophonautomobil automobilhorn hornbrought broughtback backfour fourparisian parisiantaxi taxihorn hornnew newyork yorkpremier premiercomposit composittook tookplace placedecemb decemb13 131928 1928carnegi carnegihall halldamrosch damroschconduct conductnew newyork yorkphilharmon philharmoncomplet completorchestr orchestrnovemb novemb18 18less lessfour fourweek weekwork work's 'spremier premiercollabor collabororigin originprogram programnote notecritic criticcompos composdeem deemtaylor | 309 | An American in Paris | Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic,Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients,Compositions by George Gershwin,Music about Paris,1928 compositions |
309-2 | An American in Paris
Section::::Background.
Although the story is likely apocryphal, Gershwin is said to have been attracted by Maurice Ravel's unusual chords, and Gershwin went on his first trip to Paris in 1926 ready to study with Ravel. After his initial student audition with Ravel turned into a sharing of musical theories, Ravel said he could not teach him, saying, "Why be a second-rate Ravel when you can be a first-rate Gershwin?" That 1926 trip, however, resulted in a snippet of melody entitled "Very Parisienne", that the initial musical motive of "An American in Paris", written as a 'thank you note' to Gershwin's hosts, Robert and Mabel Schirmer. Gershwin called it "a rhapsodic ballet"; it is written freely and in a much more modern idiom than his prior works.
Gershwin strongly encouraged Ravel to come to the United States for a tour. To this end, upon his return to New York, Gershwin joined the efforts of Ravel's friend Robert Schmitz, a pianist Ravel had met during the war, to urge Ravel to tour the U.S. Schmitz was the head of Pro Musica, promoting Franco-American musical relations, and was able to offer Ravel a $10,000 fee for the tour, an enticement Gershwin knew would be important to Ravel.
Gershwin greeted Ravel in New York in March 1928 during a party held for Ravel's birthday by Éva Gauthier. Ravel's tour reignited Gershwin's desire to return to Paris which he and his brother Ira did after meeting Ravel. Ravel's high praise of Gershwin in an introductory letter to Nadia Boulanger caused Gershwin to seriously consider taking much more time to study abroad in Paris. Yet after playing for her, she told him she could not teach him. Nadia Boulanger gave Gershwin basically the same advice she gave all of her accomplished master students: "What could I give you that you haven't already got?" This did not set Gershwin back, as his real intent abroad was to complete a new work based on Paris and perhaps a second rhapsody for piano and orchestra to follow his "Rhapsody in Blue". Paris at this time hosted many expatriate writers, among them Ezra Pound, W. B. Yeats, Ernest Hemingway; and artist Pablo Picasso.
section:background :backgroundalthough althoughstori storilike likeapocryph apocryphgershwin gershwinsaid saidattract attractmauric mauricravel ravel's 'sunusu unusuchord chordgershwin gershwinwent wentfirst firsttrip trippari pari1926 1926readi readistudi studiravel raveliniti initistudent studentaudit auditravel ravelturn turnshare sharemusic musictheori theoriravel ravelsaid saidcould couldteach teachsay say`` ``second-r second-rravel ravelfirst-rat first-ratgershwin gershwin'' ''1926 1926trip triphowev howevresult resultsnippet snippetmelodi melodientitl entitl`` ``parisienn parisienn'' ''initi initimusic musicmotiv motiv`` ``american americanpari pari'' ''written writtenthank thanknote notegershwin gershwin's 'shost hostrobert robertmabel mabelschirmer schirmergershwin gershwincall call`` ``rhapsod rhapsodballet ballet'' ''written writtenfreeli freelimuch muchmodern modernidiom idiomprior priorwork workgershwin gershwinstrong strongencourag encouragravel ravelcome comeunit unitstate statetour tourend endupon uponreturn returnnew newyork yorkgershwin gershwinjoin joineffort effortravel ravel's 'sfriend friendrobert robertschmitz schmitzpianist pianistravel ravelmet metwar warurg urgravel raveltour touru.s. u.s.schmitz schmitzhead headpro promusica musicapromot promotfranco-american franco-americanmusic musicrelat relatabl abloffer offerravel ravel10,000 10,000fee feetour tourentic enticgershwin gershwinknew knewwould wouldimport importravel ravelgershwin gershwingreet greetravel ravelnew newyork yorkmarch march1928 1928parti partiheld heldravel ravel's 'sbirthday birthdayéva évagauthier gauthierravel ravel's 'stour tourreignit reignitgershwin gershwin's 'sdesir desirreturn returnpari paribrother brotherira irameet meetravel ravelravel ravel's 'shigh highprais praisgershwin gershwinintroductori introductoriletter letternadia nadiaboulang boulangcaus causgershwin gershwinserious seriousconsid considtake takemuch muchtime timestudi studiabroad abroadpari pariyet yetplay playtold toldcould couldteach teachnadia nadiaboulang boulanggave gavegershwin gershwinbasic basicadvic advicgave gaveaccomplish accomplishmaster masterstudent student`` ``could couldgive given't n'talreadi alreadigot got'' ''set setgershwin gershwinback backreal realintent intentabroad abroadcomplet completnew newwork workbase basepari pariperhap perhapsecond secondrhapsodi rhapsodipiano pianoorchestra orchestrafollow follow`` ``rhapsodi rhapsodiblue blue'' ''pari paritime timehost hostmani maniexpatri expatriwriter writeramong amongezra ezrapound poundw. w.b. b.yeat yeaternest ernesthemingway hemingwayartist artistpablo pablopicasso | 309 | An American in Paris | Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic,Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients,Compositions by George Gershwin,Music about Paris,1928 compositions |
309-3 | An American in Paris
Section::::Composition.
Gershwin based "An American in Paris" on a melodic fragment called "Very Parisienne", written in 1926 on his first visit to Paris as a gift to his hosts, Robert and Mabel Schirmer. He described the piece as a "rhapsodic ballet" because it was written freely and is more modern than his previous works. Gershwin explained in "Musical America", "My purpose here is to portray the impressions of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city, listens to the various street noises, and absorbs the French atmosphere."
The piece is structured into five sections, which culminate in a loose ABA format. Gershwin's first A episode introduces the two main "walking" themes in the "Allegretto grazioso" and develops a third theme in the "Subito con brio". The style of this A section is written in the typical French style of composers Claude Debussy and Les Six. This A section featured duple meter, singsong rhythms, and diatonic melodies with the sounds of oboe, English horn, and taxi horns. The B section's "Andante ma con ritmo deciso" introduces the American Blues and spasms of homesickness. The "Allegro" that follows continues to express homesickness in a faster twelve-bar blues. In the B section, Gershwin uses common time, syncopated rhythms, and bluesy melodies with the sounds of trumpet, saxophone, and snare drum. "Moderato con grazia" is the last A section that returns to the themes set in A. After recapitulating the "walking" themes, Gershwin overlays the slow blues theme from section B in the final "Grandioso".
section:composit :compositgershwin gershwinbase base`` ``american americanpari pari'' ''melod melodfragment fragmentcall call`` ``parisienn parisienn'' ''written written1926 1926first firstvisit visitpari parigift gifthost hostrobert robertmabel mabelschirmer schirmerdescrib describpiec piec`` ``rhapsod rhapsodballet ballet'' ''written writtenfreeli freelimodern modernprevious previouswork workgershwin gershwinexplain explain`` ``music musicamerica america'' ''`` ``purpos purposportray portrayimpress impressamerican americanvisitor visitorpari paristroll strollciti citilisten listenvarious variousstreet streetnois noisabsorb absorbfrench frenchatmospher atmospher'' ''piec piecstructur structurfive fivesection sectionculmin culminloos loosaba abaformat formatgershwin gershwin's 'sfirst firstepisod episodintroduc introductwo twomain main`` ``walk walk'' ''theme theme`` ``allegretto allegrettograzioso grazioso'' ''develop developthird thirdtheme theme`` ``subito subitocon conbrio brio'' ''style stylesection sectionwritten writtentypic typicfrench frenchstyle stylecompos composclaud clauddebussi debussiles lessix sixsection sectionfeatur featurdupl duplmeter metersingsong singsongrhythm rhythmdiaton diatonmelodi melodisound soundobo oboenglish englishhorn horntaxi taxihorn hornb bsection section's 's`` ``andant andantcon conritmo ritmodeciso deciso'' ''introduc introducamerican americanblue bluespasm spasmhomesick homesick`` ``allegro allegro'' ''follow followcontinu continuexpress expresshomesick homesickfaster fastertwelve-bar twelve-barblue blueb bsection sectiongershwin gershwinuse usecommon commontime timesyncop syncoprhythm rhythmbluesi bluesimelodi melodisound soundtrumpet trumpetsaxophon saxophonsnare snaredrum drum`` ``moderato moderatocon congrazia grazia'' ''last lastsection sectionreturn returntheme themeset setrecapitul recapitul`` ``walk walk'' ''theme themegershwin gershwinoverlay overlayslow slowblue bluetheme themesection sectionb bfinal final`` ``grandioso grandioso'' | 309 | An American in Paris | Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic,Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients,Compositions by George Gershwin,Music about Paris,1928 compositions |
309-4 | An American in Paris
Section::::Instrumentation.
"An American in Paris" is scored for 3 flutes (3rd doubling on piccolo), 2 oboes, English horn, 2 clarinets in B-flat, bass clarinet in B-flat, 2 bassoons, 4 horns in F, 3 trumpets in B-flat, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, snare drum, bass drum, triangle, wood block, ratchet, cymbals, low and high tom-toms, xylophone, glockenspiel, celesta, 4 taxi horns labeled as A, B, C and D with circles around them, alto saxophone/soprano saxophone, tenor saxophone/soprano saxophone/alto saxophone, baritone saxophone/soprano saxophone/alto saxophone, and strings. Although most modern audiences have heard the taxi horns using the notes A, B, C and D, it has recently come to light that Gershwin's intention was to have used the notes A, B, D, and A. It is likely that in labeling the taxi horns as A, B, C and D with circles, he may have been referring to the use of the four different horns and not the notes that they played.
The revised edition by F. Campbell-Watson calls for three saxophones, alto, tenor and baritone. In this arrangement the soprano and alto doublings have been rewritten to avoid changing instruments. In 2000, Gershwin specialist Jack Gibbons made his own restoration of the original orchestration of An American in Paris, working directly from Gershwin's original manuscript, including the restoration of Gershwin's soprano saxophone parts removed in F. Campbell-Watson's revision; Gibbons' restored orchestration of An American in Paris was performed at London's Queen Elizabeth Hall on July 9, 2000 by the City of Oxford Orchestra conducted by Levon Parikian
William Daly arranged the score for piano solo which was published by New World Music in 1929.
section:instrument :instrument`` ``american americanpari pari'' ''score score3 3flute flute3rd 3rddoubl doublpiccolo piccolo2 2obo oboenglish englishhorn horn2 2clarinet clarinetb-flat b-flatbass bassclarinet clarinetb-flat b-flat2 2bassoon bassoon4 4horn hornf f3 3trumpet trumpetb-flat b-flat3 3trombon trombontuba tubatimpani timpanisnare snaredrum drumbass bassdrum drumtriangl trianglwood woodblock blockratchet ratchetcymbal cymballow lowhigh hightom-tom tom-tomxylophon xylophonglockenspiel glockenspielcelesta celesta4 4taxi taxihorn hornlabel labelb bc ccircl circlaround aroundalto altosaxophone/soprano saxophone/sopranosaxophon saxophontenor tenorsaxophone/soprano saxophone/sopranosaxophone/alto saxophone/altosaxophon saxophonbariton baritonsaxophone/soprano saxophone/sopranosaxophone/alto saxophone/altosaxophon saxophonstring stringalthough althoughmodern modernaudienc audiencheard heardtaxi taxihorn hornuse usenote noteb bc crecent recentcome comelight lightgershwin gershwin's 'sintent intentuse usenote noteb blike likelabel labeltaxi taxihorn hornb bc ccircl circlmay mayrefer referuse usefour fourdiffer differhorn hornnote noteplay playrevis revisedit editf. f.campbell-watson campbell-watsoncall callthree threesaxophon saxophonalto altotenor tenorbariton baritonarrang arrangsoprano sopranoalto altodoubl doublrewritten rewrittenavoid avoidchang changinstrument instrument2000 2000gershwin gershwinspecialist specialistjack jackgibbon gibbonmade maderestor restororigin originorchestr orchestramerican americanpari pariwork workdirect directgershwin gershwin's 'sorigin originmanuscript manuscriptinclud includrestor restorgershwin gershwin's 'ssoprano sopranosaxophon saxophonpart partremov removf. f.campbell-watson campbell-watson's 'srevis revisgibbon gibbonrestor restororchestr orchestramerican americanpari pariperform performlondon london's 'squeen queenelizabeth elizabethhall halljuli juli9 92000 2000citi citioxford oxfordorchestra orchestraconduct conductlevon levonparikian parikianwilliam williamdali daliarrang arrangscore scorepiano pianosolo solopublish publishnew newworld worldmusic music1929 | 309 | An American in Paris | Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic,Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients,Compositions by George Gershwin,Music about Paris,1928 compositions |
309-5 | An American in Paris
Section::::Response.
Gershwin did not particularly like Walter Damrosch's interpretation at the world premiere of "An American in Paris". He stated that Damrosch's sluggish, dragging tempo caused him to walk out of the hall during a matinee performance of this work. The audience, according to Edward Cushing, responded with "a demonstration of enthusiasm impressively genuine in contrast to the conventional applause which new music, good and bad, ordinarily arouses." Critics believed that "An American in Paris" was better crafted than his lukewarm Concerto in F. Some did not think it belonged in a program with classical composers César Franck, Richard Wagner, or Guillaume Lekeu on its premiere. Gershwin responded to the critics, "It's not a Beethoven Symphony, you know... It's a humorous piece, nothing solemn about it. It's not intended to draw tears. If it pleases symphony audiences as a light, jolly piece, a series of impressions musically expressed, it succeeds."
section:respons :responsgershwin gershwinparticular particularlike likewalter walterdamrosch damrosch's 'sinterpret interpretworld worldpremier premier`` ``american americanpari pari'' ''state statedamrosch damrosch's 'ssluggish sluggishdrag dragtempo tempocaus causwalk walkhall hallmatine matineperform performwork workaudienc audiencaccord accordedward edwardcush cushrespond respond`` ``demonstr demonstrenthusiasm enthusiasmimpress impressgenuin genuincontrast contrastconvent conventapplaus applausnew newmusic musicgood goodbad badordinarili ordinariliarous arous'' ''critic criticbeliev believ`` ``american americanpari pari'' ''better bettercraft craftlukewarm lukewarmconcerto concertof. f.think thinkbelong belongprogram programclassic classiccompos composcésar césarfranck franckrichard richardwagner wagnerguillaum guillaumlekeu lekeupremier premiergershwin gershwinrespond respondcritic critic`` ``'s 'sbeethoven beethovensymphoni symphoniknow know... ...'s 'shumor humorpiec piecnoth nothsolemn solemn's 'sintend intenddraw drawtear tearpleas pleassymphoni symphoniaudienc audienclight lightjolli jollipiec piecseri seriimpress impressmusic musicexpress expresssucceed succeed'' | 309 | An American in Paris | Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic,Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients,Compositions by George Gershwin,Music about Paris,1928 compositions |
309-6 | An American in Paris
Section::::Preservation status.
On September 22, 2013, it was announced that a musicological critical edition of the full orchestral score will be eventually released. The Gershwin family, working in conjunction with the Library of Congress and the University of Michigan, are working to make scores available to the public that represent Gershwin's true intent. It is unknown if the critical score will include the four minutes of material Gershwin later deleted from the work (such as the restatement of the blues theme after the faster 12 bar blues section), or if the score will document changes in the orchestration during Gershwin's composition process.
The score to "An American in Paris" is currently scheduled to be issued first in a series of scores to be released. The entire project may take 30 to 40 years to complete, but "An American in Paris" will be an early volume in the series.
Two urtext editions of the work were published by the German publisher B-Note Music in 2015. The changes made by Campbell-Watson have been withdrawn in both editions. In the extended urtext, 120 bars of music have been re-integrated. Conductor Walter Damrosch had cut them shortly before the first performance.
section:preserv :preservstatus statusseptemb septemb22 222013 2013announc announcmusicolog musicologcritic criticedit editfull fullorchestr orchestrscore scoreeventu eventureleas releasgershwin gershwinfamili familiwork workconjunct conjunctlibrari libraricongress congressunivers universmichigan michiganwork workmake makescore scoreavail availpublic publicrepres represgershwin gershwin's 'strue trueintent intentunknown unknowncritic criticscore scoreinclud includfour fourminut minutmateri materigershwin gershwinlater laterdelet deletwork workrestat restatblue bluetheme themefaster faster12 12bar barblue bluesection sectionscore scoredocument documentchang changorchestr orchestrgershwin gershwin's 'scomposit compositprocess processscore score`` ``american americanpari pari'' ''current currentschedul schedulissu issufirst firstseri seriscore scorereleas releasentir entirproject projectmay maytake take30 3040 40year yearcomplet complet`` ``american americanpari pari'' ''earli earlivolum volumseri seritwo twourtext urtextedit editwork workpublish publishgerman germanpublish publishb-note b-notemusic music2015 2015chang changmade madecampbell-watson campbell-watsonwithdrawn withdrawnedit editextend extendurtext urtext120 120bar barmusic musicre-integr re-integrconductor conductorwalter walterdamrosch damroschcut cutshort shortfirst firstperform | 309 | An American in Paris | Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic,Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients,Compositions by George Gershwin,Music about Paris,1928 compositions |
309-7 | An American in Paris
Section::::Recordings.
"An American in Paris" has been frequently recorded. The first recording was made for RCA Victor in 1929 with Nathaniel Shilkret conducting the RCA Victor Symphony Orchestra, drawn from members of the Philadelphia Orchestra. Gershwin was on hand to "supervise" the recording; however, Shilkret was reported to be in charge and eventually asked the composer to leave the recording studio. Then, a little later, Shilkret discovered there was no one to play the brief celesta solo during the slow section, so he hastily asked Gershwin if he might play the solo; Gershwin said he could and so he briefly participated in the actual recording. This recording is believed to use the taxi horns in the way that Gershwin had intended using the notes A-flat, B-flat, a higher D and a lower A. The radio broadcast of the September 8, 1937 Hollywood Bowl George Gershwin Memorial Concert, in which "An American in Paris," also conducted by Shilkret, was second on the program, was recorded and was released in 1998 in a two-CD set. Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra recorded the work for RCA Victor, including one of the first stereo recordings of the music. In 1945, Arturo Toscanini conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra recorded the piece for RCA Victor, one of the few commercial recordings Toscanini made of music by an American composer. The Seattle Symphony also recorded a version in 1990 of Gershwin's original score, before he made numerous edits resulting in the score as we hear it today. Harry James released a version of the blues section on his 1953 album "One Night Stand," recorded live at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago (Columbia GL 522 and CL 522).
section:record :record`` ``american americanpari pari'' ''frequent frequentrecord recordfirst firstrecord recordmade maderca rcavictor victor1929 1929nathaniel nathanielshilkret shilkretconduct conductrca rcavictor victorsymphoni symphoniorchestra orchestradrawn drawnmember memberphiladelphia philadelphiaorchestra orchestragershwin gershwinhand hand`` ``supervis supervis'' ''record recordhowev howevshilkret shilkretreport reportcharg chargeventu eventuask askcompos composleav leavrecord recordstudio studiolittl littllater latershilkret shilkretdiscov discovone oneplay playbrief briefcelesta celestasolo soloslow slowsection sectionhastili hastiliask askgershwin gershwinmight mightplay playsolo sologershwin gershwinsaid saidcould couldbriefli briefliparticip participactual actualrecord recordrecord recordbeliev believuse usetaxi taxihorn hornway waygershwin gershwinintend intenduse usenote notea-flat a-flatb-flat b-flathigher higherlower lowerradio radiobroadcast broadcastseptemb septemb8 81937 1937hollywood hollywoodbowl bowlgeorg georggershwin gershwinmemori memoriconcert concert`` ``american americanpari pari'' ''also alsoconduct conductshilkret shilkretsecond secondprogram programrecord recordreleas releas1998 1998two-cd two-cdset setarthur arthurfiedler fiedlerboston bostonpop poporchestra orchestrarecord recordwork workrca rcavictor victorinclud includone onefirst firststereo stereorecord recordmusic music1945 1945arturo arturotoscanini toscaniniconduct conductnbc nbcsymphoni symphoniorchestra orchestrarecord recordpiec piecrca rcavictor victorone onecommerci commercirecord recordtoscanini toscaninimade mademusic musicamerican americancompos composseattl seattlsymphoni symphonialso alsorecord recordversion version1990 1990gershwin gershwin's 'sorigin originscore scoremade madenumer numeredit editresult resultscore scorehear heartoday todayharri harrijame jamereleas releasversion versionblue bluesection section1953 1953album album`` ``one onenight nightstand stand'' ''record recordlive livearagon aragonballroom ballroomchicago chicagocolumbia columbiagl gl522 522cl cl522 | 309 | An American in Paris | Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic,Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients,Compositions by George Gershwin,Music about Paris,1928 compositions |
309-8 | An American in Paris
Section::::Use in film.
In 1951, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released the musical film "An American in Paris", featuring Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron. Winning the 1951 Best Picture Oscar and numerous other awards, the film was directed by Vincente Minnelli, featured many tunes of Gershwin, and concluded with an extensive, elaborate dance sequence built around the "An American in Paris" symphonic poem (arranged for the film by Johnny Green), costing $500,000.
section:use :usefilm film1951 1951metro-goldwyn-may metro-goldwyn-mayreleas releasmusic musicfilm film`` ``american americanpari pari'' ''featur featurgene genekelli kellilesli leslicaron caronwin win1951 1951best bestpictur picturoscar oscarnumer numeraward awardfilm filmdirect directvincent vincentminnelli minnellifeatur featurmani manitune tunegershwin gershwinconclud concludextens extenselabor elabordanc dancsequenc sequencbuilt builtaround around`` ``american americanpari pari'' ''symphon symphonpoem poemarrang arrangfilm filmjohnni johnnigreen greencost cost500,000 | 309 | An American in Paris | Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic,Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients,Compositions by George Gershwin,Music about Paris,1928 compositions |
309-9 | An American in Paris
Section::::Further reading.
BULLET::::- Rimler, Walter. "George Gershwin – An Intimate Portrait". Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 2009. 29–33.
BULLET::::- Pollack, Howard. "George Gershwin – His Life and Work". Berkeley, University of California Press, 2006. 431–42.
section:further :furtherread readbullet bullet:- :-rimler rimlerwalter walter`` ``georg georggershwin gershwin– –intim intimportrait portrait'' ''urbana urbanaunivers universillinoi illinoipress press2009 200929–33 29–33bullet bullet:- :-pollack pollackhoward howard`` ``georg georggershwin gershwin– –life lifework work'' ''berkeley berkeleyunivers universcalifornia californiapress press2006 2006431–42 | 309 | An American in Paris | Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic,Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients,Compositions by George Gershwin,Music about Paris,1928 compositions |
309-10 | An American in Paris
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- 1944 recording by the New York Philharmonic conducted by Artur Rodziński
BULLET::::- , New York Philharmonic, Leonard Bernstein, 1959.
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-1944 1944record recordnew newyork yorkphilharmon philharmonconduct conductartur arturrodziński rodzińskibullet bullet:- :-new newyork yorkphilharmon philharmonleonard leonardbernstein bernstein1959 | 309 | An American in Paris | Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic,Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients,Compositions by George Gershwin,Music about Paris,1928 compositions |
334-1 | International Atomic Time
International Atomic Time (TAI, from the French name ) is a high-precision atomic coordinate time standard based on the notional passage of proper time on Earth's geoid. It is the principal realisation of Terrestrial Time (with a fixed offset of epoch). It is also the basis for Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is used for civil timekeeping all over the Earth's surface. , when another leap second was added, TAI is exactly 37 seconds ahead of UTC. The 37 seconds results from the initial difference of 10 seconds at the start of 1972, plus 27 leap seconds in UTC since 1972.
TAI may be reported using traditional means of specifying days, carried over from non-uniform time standards based on the rotation of the Earth. Specifically, both Julian Dates and the Gregorian calendar are used. TAI in this form was synchronised with Universal Time at the beginning of 1958, and the two have drifted apart ever since, due to the changing motion of the Earth.
internatom atomtime timetai taifrench frenchname namehigh-precis high-precisatom atomcoordin coordintime timestandard standardbase basenotion notionpassag passagproper propertime timeearth earth's 'sgeoid geoidprincip principrealis realisterrestri terrestritime timefix fixoffset offsetepoch epochalso alsobasi basicoordin coordinunivers universtime timeutc utcuse usecivil civiltimekeep timekeepearth earth's 'ssurfac surfacanoth anothleap leapsecond secondad adtai taiexact exact37 37second secondahead aheadutc utc37 37second secondresult resultiniti initidiffer differ10 10second secondstart start1972 1972plus plus27 27leap leapsecond secondutc utcsinc sinc1972 1972tai taimay mayreport reportuse usetradit traditmean meanspecifi specifiday daycarri carrinon-uniform non-uniformtime timestandard standardbase baserotat rotatearth earthspecif specifjulian juliandate dategregorian gregoriancalendar calendaruse usetai taiform formsynchronis synchronisunivers universtime timebegin begin1958 1958two twodrift driftapart apartever eversinc sincdue duechang changmotion motionearth | 334 | International Atomic Time | |
334-2 | International Atomic Time
Section::::Operation.
TAI is a weighted average of the time kept by over 400 atomic clocks in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. The majority of the clocks involved are caesium clocks; the International System of Units (SI) definition of the second is based on caesium. The clocks are compared using GPS signals and two-way satellite time and frequency transfer. Due to the signal averaging TAI is an order of magnitude more stable than its best constituent clock.
The participating institutions each broadcast, in real time, a frequency signal with timecodes, which is their estimate of TAI. Time codes are usually published in the form of UTC, which differs from TAI by a well-known integer number of seconds. These time scales are denoted in the form "UTC(NPL)" in the UTC form, where "NPL" in this case identifies the National Physical Laboratory, UK. The TAI form may be denoted "TAI(NPL)". The latter is not to be confused with "TA(NPL)", which denotes an independent atomic time scale, not synchronised to TAI or to anything else.
The clocks at different institutions are regularly compared against each other. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM, France), combines these measurements to retrospectively calculate the weighted average that forms the most stable time scale possible. This combined time scale is published monthly in "Circular T", and is the canonical TAI. This time scale is expressed in the form of tables of differences UTC − UTC("k") (equivalent to TAI − TAI("k")) for each participating institution "k". The same circular also gives tables of TAI − TA("k"), for the various unsynchronised atomic time scales.
Errors in publication may be corrected by issuing a revision of the faulty Circular T or by errata in a subsequent Circular T. Aside from this, once published in Circular T, the TAI scale is not revised. In hindsight it is possible to discover errors in TAI, and to make better estimates of the true proper time scale. Since the published circulars are definitive, better estimates do not create another version of TAI; it is instead considered to be creating a better realisation of Terrestrial Time (TT).
section:oper :opertai taiweight weightaverag averagtime timekept kept400 400atom atomclock clock50 50nation nationlaboratori laboratoriworldwid worldwidmajor majorclock clockinvolv involvcaesium caesiumclock clockintern internsystem systemunit unitsi sidefinit definitsecond secondbase basecaesium caesiumclock clockcompar comparuse usegps gpssignal signaltwo-way two-waysatellit satellittime timefrequenc frequenctransfer transferdue duesignal signalaverag averagtai taiorder ordermagnitud magnitudstabl stablbest bestconstitu constituclock clockparticip participinstitut institutbroadcast broadcastreal realtime timefrequenc frequencsignal signaltimecod timecodestim estimtai taitime timecode codeusual usualpublish publishform formutc utcdiffer differtai taiwell-known well-knowninteg integnumber numbersecond secondtime timescale scaledenot denotform form`` ``utc utcnpl npl'' ''utc utcform form`` ``npl npl'' ''case caseidentifi identifination nationphysic physiclaboratori laboratoriuk uktai taiform formmay maydenot denot`` ``tai tainpl npl'' ''latter latterconfus confus`` ``ta tanpl npl'' ''denot denotindepend independatom atomtime timescale scalesynchronis synchronistai taianyth anythels elsclock clockdiffer differinstitut institutregular regularcompar comparintern internbureau bureauweight weightmeasur measurbipm bipmfranc franccombin combinmeasur measurretrospect retrospectcalcul calculweight weightaverag averagform formstabl stabltime timescale scalepossibl possiblcombin combintime timescale scalepublish publishmonth month`` ``circular circular'' ''canon canontai taitime timescale scaleexpress expressform formtabl tabldiffer differutc utc− −utc utc`` ``k k'' ''equival equivaltai tai− −tai tai`` ``k k'' ''particip participinstitut institut`` ``k k'' ''circular circularalso alsogive givetabl tabltai tai− −ta ta`` ``k k'' ''various variousunsynchronis unsynchronisatom atomtime timescale scaleerror errorpublic publicmay maycorrect correctissu issurevis revisfaulti faulticircular circularerrata erratasubsequ subsequcircular circulart. t.asid asidpublish publishcircular circulartai taiscale scalerevis revishindsight hindsightpossibl possibldiscov discoverror errortai taimake makebetter betterestim estimtrue trueproper propertime timescale scalesinc sincpublish publishcircular circulardefinit definitbetter betterestim estimcreat creatanoth anothversion versiontai taiinstead insteadconsid considcreat creatbetter betterrealis realisterrestri terrestritime timett | 334 | International Atomic Time | |
334-3 | International Atomic Time
Section::::History.
Early atomic time scales consisted of quartz clocks with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL). It was used as a basis for calibrating the quartz clocks at the Royal Greenwich Observatory and to establish a time scale, called Greenwich Atomic (GA). The United States Naval Observatory began the A.1 scale on 13 September 1956, using an Atomichron commercial atomic clock, followed by the NBS-A scale at the National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colorado on 9 October 1957.
The International Time Bureau (BIH) began a time scale, T or AM, in July 1955, using both local caesium clocks and comparisons to distant clocks using the phase of VLF radio signals. The BIH scale, A.1, and NBS-A were defined by an epoch at the beginning of 1958 The procedures used by the BIH evolved, and the name for the time scale changed: "A3" in 1964 and "TA(BIH)" in 1969.
The SI second was defined in terms of the caesium atom in 1967. From 1971 to 1975 the General Conference on Weights and Measures and the International Committee for Weights and Measures made a series of decisions which designated the BIPM time scale International Atomic Time (TAI).
In the 1970s, it became clear that the clocks participating in TAI were ticking at different rates due to gravitational time dilation, and the combined TAI scale therefore corresponded to an average of the altitudes of the various clocks. Starting from Julian Date 2443144.5 (1 January 1977 00:00:00), corrections were applied to the output of all participating clocks, so that TAI would correspond to proper time at mean sea level (the geoid). Because the clocks were, on average, well above sea level, this meant that TAI slowed down, by about one part in a trillion. The former uncorrected time scale continues to be published, under the name "EAL" ("Echelle Atomique Libre", meaning "Free Atomic Scale").
The instant that the gravitational correction started to be applied serves as the epoch for Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB), Geocentric Coordinate Time (TCG), and Terrestrial Time (TT), which represent three fundamental time scales in the solar system. All three of these time scales were defined to read JD 2443144.5003725 (1 January 1977 00:00:32.184) exactly at that instant. TAI was henceforth a realisation of TT, with the equation TT(TAI) = TAI + 32.184 s.
The continued existence of TAI was questioned in a 2007 letter from the BIPM to the ITU-R which stated, "In the case of a redefinition of UTC without leap seconds, the CCTF would consider discussing the possibility of suppressing TAI, as it would remain parallel to the continuous UTC."
section:histori :historiearli earliatom atomtime timescale scaleconsist consistquartz quartzclock clockfrequenc frequenccalibr calibrsingl singlatom atomclock clockatom atomclock clockoper opercontinu continuatom atomtimekeep timekeepservic servicstart startexperiment experiment1955 1955use usefirst firstcaesium caesiumatom atomclock clocknation nationphysic physiclaboratori laboratoriuk uknpl npluse usebasi basicalibr calibrquartz quartzclock clockroyal royalgreenwich greenwichobservatori observatoriestablish establishtime timescale scalecall callgreenwich greenwichatom atomga gaunit unitstate statenaval navalobservatori observatoribegan begana.1 a.1scale scale13 13septemb septemb1956 1956use useatomichron atomichroncommerci commerciatom atomclock clockfollow follownbs-a nbs-ascale scalenation nationbureau bureaustandard standardboulder bouldercolorado colorado9 9octob octob1957 1957intern interntime timebureau bureaubih bihbegan begantime timescale scalejuli juli1955 1955use uselocal localcaesium caesiumclock clockcomparison comparisondistant distantclock clockuse usephase phasevlf vlfradio radiosignal signalbih bihscale scalea.1 a.1nbs-a nbs-adefin definepoch epochbegin begin1958 1958procedur proceduruse usebih bihevolv evolvname nametime timescale scalechang chang`` ``a3 a3'' ''1964 1964`` ``ta tabih bih'' ''1969 1969si sisecond seconddefin definterm termcaesium caesiumatom atom1967 19671971 19711975 1975general generalconfer conferweight weightmeasur measurintern interncommitte committeweight weightmeasur measurmade madeseri seridecis decisdesign designbipm bipmtime timescale scaleintern internatom atomtime timetai tai1970s 1970sbecam becamclear clearclock clockparticip participtai taitick tickdiffer differrate ratedue duegravit gravittime timedilat dilatcombin combintai taiscale scaletherefor thereforcorrespond correspondaverag averagaltitud altitudvarious variousclock clockstart startjulian juliandate date2443144.5 2443144.51 1januari januari1977 197700:00:00 00:00:00correct correctappli applioutput outputparticip participclock clocktai taiwould wouldcorrespond correspondproper propertime timemean meansea sealevel levelgeoid geoidclock clockaverag averagwell wellsea sealevel levelmeant meanttai taislow slowone onepart parttrillion trillionformer formeruncorrect uncorrecttime timescale scalecontinu continupublish publishname name`` ``eal eal'' ''`` ``echell echellatomiqu atomiqulibr libr'' ''mean mean`` ``free freeatom atomscale scale'' ''instant instantgravit gravitcorrect correctstart startappli appliserv servepoch epochbarycentr barycentrcoordin coordintime timetcb tcbgeocentr geocentrcoordin coordintime timetcg tcgterrestri terrestritime timett ttrepres represthree threefundament fundamenttime timescale scalesolar solarsystem systemthree threetime timescale scaledefin definread readjd jd2443144.5003725 2443144.50037251 1januari januari1977 197700:00:32.184 00:00:32.184exact exactinstant instanttai taihenceforth henceforthrealis realistt ttequat equattt tttai taitai tai32.184 32.184s. s.continu continuexist existtai taiquestion question2007 2007letter letterbipm bipmitu-r itu-rstate state`` ``case caseredefinit redefinitutc utcwithout withoutleap leapsecond secondcctf cctfwould wouldconsid considdiscuss discusspossibl possiblsuppress suppresstai taiwould wouldremain remainparallel parallelcontinu continuutc utc'' | 334 | International Atomic Time | |
334-4 | International Atomic Time
Section::::Relation to UTC.
UTC is a discontinuous time scale. It is regularly adjusted by leap seconds. Between these adjustments it is composed from segments that are linear transformations of atomic time. From its beginning in 1961 through December 1971 the adjustments were made regularly in fractional leap seconds so that UTC approximated UT2. Afterwards these adjustments were made only in whole seconds to approximate UT1. This was a compromise arrangement in order to enable a publicly broadcast time scale; the post-1971 more linear transformation of the BIH's atomic time meant that the time scale would be more stable and easier to synchronize internationally. The fact that it continues to approximate UT1 means that tasks such as navigation which require a source of Universal Time continue to be well served by the public broadcast of UTC.
section:relat :relatutc utcutc utcdiscontinu discontinutime timescale scaleregular regularadjust adjustleap leapsecond secondadjust adjustcompos compossegment segmentlinear lineartransform transformatom atomtime timebegin begin1961 1961decemb decemb1971 1971adjust adjustmade maderegular regularfraction fractionleap leapsecond secondutc utcapproxim approximut2 ut2afterward afterwardadjust adjustmade madewhole wholesecond secondapproxim approximut1 ut1compromis compromisarrang arrangorder orderenabl enablpublic publicbroadcast broadcasttime timescale scalepost-1971 post-1971linear lineartransform transformbih bih's 'satom atomtime timemeant meanttime timescale scalewould wouldstabl stableasier easiersynchron synchronintern internfact factcontinu continuapproxim approximut1 ut1mean meantask tasknavig navigrequir requirsourc sourcunivers universtime timecontinu continuwell wellserv servpublic publicbroadcast broadcastutc | 334 | International Atomic Time | |
334-5 | International Atomic Time
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- Clock synchronization
BULLET::::- Network Time Protocol
BULLET::::- Precision Time Protocol
BULLET::::- Time and frequency transfer
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-clock clocksynchron synchronbullet bullet:- :-network networktime timeprotocol protocolbullet bullet:- :-precis precistime timeprotocol protocolbullet bullet:- :-time timefrequenc frequenctransfer | 334 | International Atomic Time | |
334-6 | International Atomic Time
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- Bureau International des Poids et Mesures: TAI
BULLET::::- Time and Frequency Section - National Physical Laboratory, UK
BULLET::::- IERS website
BULLET::::- NIST Web Clock FAQs
BULLET::::- History of time scales
BULLET::::- NIST-F1 Cesium Fountain Atomic Clock
BULLET::::- Japan Standard Time Project, NICT, Japan
BULLET::::- Standard of time definition: UTC, GPS, LORAN and TAI
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-bureau bureauintern interndes despoid poidet etmesur mesurtai taibullet bullet:- :-time timefrequenc frequencsection sectionnation nationphysic physiclaboratori laboratoriuk ukbullet bullet:- :-ier ierwebsit websitbullet bullet:- :-nist nistweb webclock clockfaq faqbullet bullet:- :-histori historitime timescale scalebullet bullet:- :-nist-f1 nist-f1cesium cesiumfountain fountainatom atomclock clockbullet bullet:- :-japan japanstandard standardtime timeproject projectnict nictjapan japanbullet bullet:- :-standard standardtime timedefinit definitutc utcgps gpsloran lorantai | 334 | International Atomic Time | |
340-1 | Alain Connes
Alain Connes (; born 1 April 1947) is a French mathematician, currently Professor at the Collège de France, IHÉS, Ohio State University and Vanderbilt University. He was an Invited Professor at the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers (2000).
alainconn connborn born1 1april april1947 1947french frenchmathematician mathematiciancurrent currentprofessor professorcollèg collègde defranc francihé ihéohio ohiostate stateunivers universvanderbilt vanderbiltunivers universinvit invitprofessor professorconservatoir conservatoirnation nationdes desart artet etmétier métier2000 | 340 | Alain Connes | Vanderbilt University faculty,Mathematical analysts,Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars,1947 births,Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences,Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters,21st-century mathematicians,Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters,École Normale Supérieure alumni,Differential geometers,Collège de France faculty,Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences,Members of the French Academy of Sciences,Clay Research Award recipients,Fields Medalists,Living people,20th-century French mathematicians |
340-2 | Alain Connes
Section::::Work.
Alain Connes studies operator algebras. In his early work on von Neumann algebras in the 1970s, he succeeded in obtaining the almost complete classification of injective factors. He also formulated the Connes embedding problem. Following this, he made contributions in operator K-theory and index theory, which culminated in the Baum–Connes conjecture. He also introduced cyclic cohomology in the early 1980s as a first step in the study of noncommutative differential geometry. He was a member of Bourbaki.
Connes has applied his work in areas of mathematics and theoretical physics, including number theory, differential geometry and particle physics.
section:work :workalain alainconn connstudi studioper operalgebra algebraearli earliwork workvon vonneumann neumannalgebra algebra1970s 1970ssucceed succeedobtain obtainalmost almostcomplet completclassif classifinject injectfactor factoralso alsoformul formulconn connembed embedproblem problemfollow followmade madecontribut contributoper operk-theori k-theoriindex indextheori theoriculmin culminbaum–conn baum–connconjectur conjecturalso alsointroduc introduccyclic cycliccohomolog cohomologearli earli1980s 1980sfirst firststep stepstudi studinoncommut noncommutdifferenti differentigeometri geometrimember memberbourbaki bourbakiconn connappli appliwork workarea areamathemat mathemattheoret theoretphysic physicinclud includnumber numbertheori theoridifferenti differentigeometri geometriparticl particlphysic | 340 | Alain Connes | Vanderbilt University faculty,Mathematical analysts,Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars,1947 births,Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences,Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters,21st-century mathematicians,Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters,École Normale Supérieure alumni,Differential geometers,Collège de France faculty,Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences,Members of the French Academy of Sciences,Clay Research Award recipients,Fields Medalists,Living people,20th-century French mathematicians |
340-3 | Alain Connes
Section::::Awards and honours.
Connes was awarded the Fields Medal in 1982, the Crafoord Prize in 2001
section:award :awardhonour honourconn connaward awardfield fieldmedal medal1982 1982crafoord crafoordprize prize2001 | 340 | Alain Connes | Vanderbilt University faculty,Mathematical analysts,Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars,1947 births,Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences,Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters,21st-century mathematicians,Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters,École Normale Supérieure alumni,Differential geometers,Collège de France faculty,Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences,Members of the French Academy of Sciences,Clay Research Award recipients,Fields Medalists,Living people,20th-century French mathematicians |
340-4 | Alain Connes
Section::::Books.
BULLET::::- Alain Connes and Matilde Marcolli, "Noncommutative Geometry, Quantum Fields and Motives", Colloquium Publications, American Mathematical Society, 2007,
BULLET::::- Alain Connes, Andre Lichnerowicz, and Marcel Paul Schutzenberger, "Triangle of Thought", translated by Jennifer Gage, American Mathematical Society, 2001,
BULLET::::- Jean-Pierre Changeux, and Alain Connes, "Conversations on Mind, Matter, and Mathematics", translated by M. B. DeBevoise, Princeton University Press, 1998,
BULLET::::- Alain Connes, "Noncommutative Geometry", Academic Press, 1994,
section:book :bookbullet bullet:- :-alain alainconn connmatild matildmarcolli marcolli`` ``noncommut noncommutgeometri geometriquantum quantumfield fieldmotiv motiv'' ''colloquium colloquiumpublic publicamerican americanmathemat mathematsocieti societi2007 2007bullet bullet:- :-alain alainconn connandr andrlichnerowicz lichnerowiczmarcel marcelpaul paulschutzenberg schutzenberg`` ``triangl trianglthought thought'' ''translat translatjennif jennifgage gageamerican americanmathemat mathematsocieti societi2001 2001bullet bullet:- :-jean-pierr jean-pierrchangeux changeuxalain alainconn conn`` ``convers conversmind mindmatter mattermathemat mathemat'' ''translat translatm. m.b. b.debevois debevoisprinceton princetonunivers universpress press1998 1998bullet bullet:- :-alain alainconn conn`` ``noncommut noncommutgeometri geometri'' ''academ academpress press1994 | 340 | Alain Connes | Vanderbilt University faculty,Mathematical analysts,Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars,1947 births,Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences,Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters,21st-century mathematicians,Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters,École Normale Supérieure alumni,Differential geometers,Collège de France faculty,Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences,Members of the French Academy of Sciences,Clay Research Award recipients,Fields Medalists,Living people,20th-century French mathematicians |
340-5 | Alain Connes
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- Bost–Connes system
BULLET::::- Cyclic homology
BULLET::::- Factor (functional analysis)
BULLET::::- Higgs boson
BULLET::::- C*-algebra
BULLET::::- M-theory
BULLET::::- Groupoid
BULLET::::- Criticism of non-standard analysis
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-bost–conn bost–connsystem systembullet bullet:- :-cyclic cyclichomolog homologbullet bullet:- :-factor factorfunction functionanalysi analysibullet bullet:- :-higg higgboson bosonbullet bullet:- :-c c-algebra -algebrabullet bullet:- :-m-theori m-theoribullet bullet:- :-groupoid groupoidbullet bullet:- :-critic criticnon-standard non-standardanalysi | 340 | Alain Connes | Vanderbilt University faculty,Mathematical analysts,Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars,1947 births,Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences,Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters,21st-century mathematicians,Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters,École Normale Supérieure alumni,Differential geometers,Collège de France faculty,Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences,Members of the French Academy of Sciences,Clay Research Award recipients,Fields Medalists,Living people,20th-century French mathematicians |
340-6 | Alain Connes
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- Alain Connes Official Web Site containing downloadable papers, and his book "Non-commutative geometry", .
BULLET::::- Alain Connes' Standard Model
BULLET::::- An interview with Alain Connes and a discussion about it
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-alain alainconn connoffici officiweb website sitecontain containdownload downloadpaper paperbook book`` ``non-commut non-commutgeometri geometri'' ''bullet bullet:- :-alain alainconn connstandard standardmodel modelbullet bullet:- :-interview interviewalain alainconn conndiscuss | 340 | Alain Connes | Vanderbilt University faculty,Mathematical analysts,Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars,1947 births,Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences,Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters,21st-century mathematicians,Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters,École Normale Supérieure alumni,Differential geometers,Collège de France faculty,Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences,Members of the French Academy of Sciences,Clay Research Award recipients,Fields Medalists,Living people,20th-century French mathematicians |
344-1 | Allan Dwan
Allan Dwan (3 April 1885 – 28 December 1981) was a pioneering Canadian-born American motion picture director, producer, and screenwriter.
allandwan dwan3 3april april1885 1885– –28 28decemb decemb1981 1981pioneer pioneercanadian-born canadian-bornamerican americanmotion motionpictur picturdirector directorproduc producscreenwrit | 344 | Allan Dwan | 1885 births,American male screenwriters,Writers from Toronto,American film directors,1981 deaths,Disease-related deaths in California,Canadian emigrants to the United States,American film producers,Film directors from Toronto,Western (genre) film directors |
344-2 | Allan Dwan
Section::::Early life.
Born Joseph Aloysius Dwan in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Dwan, was the younger son of commercial traveler of woolen clothing Joseph Michael Dwan (1857–1917) and his wife Mary Jane Dwan, née Hunt. The family moved to the United States when he was seven years old on 4 December 1892 by ferry from Windsor to Detroit, according to his naturalization petition of August 1939. His elder brother, Leo Garnet Dwan (1883–1964), became a physician.
Allan Dwan studied engineering at the University of Notre Dame and then worked for a lighting company in Chicago. He had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry, and when Essanay Studios offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the East Coast movie makers began to spend winters in California where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round, and in 1911, Dwan began working part-time in Hollywood. While still in New York, in 1917 he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the Motion Picture Directors Association.
section:ear :earlife lifeborn bornjoseph josephaloysius aloysiusdwan dwantoronto torontoontario ontariocanada canadadwan dwanyounger youngerson soncommerci commercitravel travelwoolen woolencloth clothjoseph josephmichael michaeldwan dwan1857–1917 1857–1917wife wifemari marijane janedwan dwannée néehunt huntfamili familimove moveunit unitstate stateseven sevenyear yearold old4 4decemb decemb1892 1892ferri ferriwindsor windsordetroit detroitaccord accordnatur naturpetit petitaugust august1939 1939elder elderbrother brotherleo leogarnet garnetdwan dwan1883–1964 1883–1964becam becamphysician physicianallan allandwan dwanstudi studiengin enginunivers universnotr notrdame damework worklight lightcompani companichicago chicagostrong stronginterest interestfledgl fledglmotion motionpictur picturindustri industriessanay essanaystudio studiooffer offeropportun opportunbecom becomscriptwrit scriptwrittook tookjob jobtime timeeast eastcoast coastmovi movimaker makerbegan beganspend spendwinter wintercalifornia californiaclimat climatallow allowcontinu continuproduct productrequir requirwarm warmweather weathersoon soonnumber numbermovi movicompani companiwork workyear-round year-round1911 1911dwan dwanbegan beganwork workpart-tim part-timhollywood hollywoodstill stillnew newyork york1917 1917found foundpresid presideast eastcoast coastchapter chaptermotion motionpictur picturdirector directorassoci | 344 | Allan Dwan | 1885 births,American male screenwriters,Writers from Toronto,American film directors,1981 deaths,Disease-related deaths in California,Canadian emigrants to the United States,American film producers,Film directors from Toronto,Western (genre) film directors |
344-3 | Allan Dwan
Section::::Career.
Dwan operated Flying A Studios in La Mesa, California from August 1911 to July 1912. Flying A was one of the first motion pictures studios in California history. On 12 August 2011, a plaque was unveiled on the Wolff building at Third Avenue and La Mesa Boulevard commemorating Dwan and the Flying A Studios origins in La Mesa, California.
After making a series of westerns and comedies, Dwan directed fellow Canadian-American Mary Pickford in several very successful movies as well as her husband, Douglas Fairbanks, notably in the acclaimed 1922 "Robin Hood". Dwan directed Gloria Swanson in eight feature films, and one short film made in the short-lived sound-on-film process Phonofilm. This short, also featuring Thomas Meighan and Henri de la Falaise, was produced as a joke, for the 26 April 1925 "Lambs' Gambol" for The Lambs, with the film showing Swanson crashing the all-male club.
Following the introduction of the talkies, Dwan directed child-star Shirley Temple in "Heidi" (1937) and "Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm" (1938).
Dwan helped launch the career of two other successful Hollywood directors, Victor Fleming, who went on to direct "The Wizard of Oz" and "Gone With the Wind", and Marshall Neilan, who became an actor, director, writer and producer. Over a long career spanning almost 50 years, Dwan directed 125 motion pictures, some of which were highly acclaimed, such as the 1949 box office hit, "Sands of Iwo Jima". He directed his last movie in 1961.
He died in Los Angeles at the age of ninety-six, and is interred in the San Fernando Mission Cemetery, Mission Hills, California.
Dwan has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6263 Hollywood Boulevard.
Daniel Eagan of "Film Journal International" described Dwan as one of the early pioneers of cinema, stating that his style "is so basic as to seem invisible, but he treats his characters with uncommon sympathy and compassion."
section:career :careerdwan dwanoper operfli flistudio studiola lamesa mesacalifornia californiaaugust august1911 1911juli juli1912 1912fli flione onefirst firstmotion motionpictur picturstudio studiocalifornia californiahistori histori12 12august august2011 2011plaqu plaquunveil unveilwolff wolffbuild buildthird thirdavenu avenula lamesa mesaboulevard boulevardcommemor commemordwan dwanfli flistudio studioorigin originla lamesa mesacalifornia californiamake makeseri seriwestern westerncomedi comedidwan dwandirect directfellow fellowcanadian-american canadian-americanmari maripickford pickfordsever seversuccess successmovi moviwell wellhusband husbanddougla douglafairbank fairbanknotabl notablacclaim acclaim1922 1922`` ``robin robinhood hood'' ''dwan dwandirect directgloria gloriaswanson swansoneight eightfeatur featurfilm filmone oneshort shortfilm filmmade madeshort-liv short-livsound-on-film sound-on-filmprocess processphonofilm phonofilmshort shortalso alsofeatur featurthoma thomameighan meighanhenri henride dela lafalais falaisproduc producjoke joke26 26april april1925 1925`` ``lamb lambgambol gambol'' ''lamb lambfilm filmshow showswanson swansoncrash crashall-mal all-malclub clubfollow followintroduct introducttalki talkidwan dwandirect directchild-star child-starshirley shirleytempl templ`` ``heidi heidi'' ''1937 1937`` ``rebecca rebeccasunnybrook sunnybrookfarm farm'' ''1938 1938dwan dwanhelp helplaunch launchcareer careertwo twosuccess successhollywood hollywooddirector directorvictor victorfleme flemewent wentdirect direct`` ``wizard wizardoz oz'' ''`` ``gone gonewind wind'' ''marshal marshalneilan neilanbecam becamactor actordirector directorwriter writerproduc produclong longcareer careerspan spanalmost almost50 50year yeardwan dwandirect direct125 125motion motionpictur picturhigh highacclaim acclaim1949 1949box boxoffic offichit hit`` ``sand sandiwo iwojima jima'' ''direct directlast lastmovi movi1961 1961die dielos losangel angelage ageninety-six ninety-sixinter intersan sanfernando fernandomission missioncemeteri cemeterimission missionhill hillcalifornia californiadwan dwanstar starhollywood hollywoodwalk walkfame fame6263 6263hollywood hollywoodboulevard boulevarddaniel danieleagan eagan`` ``film filmjournal journalintern intern'' ''describ describdwan dwanone oneearli earlipioneer pioneercinema cinemastate statestyle style`` ``basic basicseem seeminvis invistreat treatcharact charactuncommon uncommonsympathi sympathicompass compass'' | 344 | Allan Dwan | 1885 births,American male screenwriters,Writers from Toronto,American film directors,1981 deaths,Disease-related deaths in California,Canadian emigrants to the United States,American film producers,Film directors from Toronto,Western (genre) film directors |
344-4 | Allan Dwan
Section::::Partial filmography as director.
BULLET::::- "The Gold Lust" (1911)
BULLET::::- "The Picket Guard" (1913)
BULLET::::- "The Restless Spirit" (1913)
BULLET::::- "Back to Life" (1913)
BULLET::::- "Bloodhounds of the North" (1913)
BULLET::::- "The Lie" (1914)
BULLET::::- "The Honor of the Mounted" (1914)
BULLET::::- "The Unwelcome Mrs. Hatch" (1914)
BULLET::::- "Remember Mary Magdalen" (1914)
BULLET::::- "Discord and Harmony" (1914)
BULLET::::- "The Embezzler" (1914)
BULLET::::- "The Lamb, the Woman, the Wolf" (1914)
BULLET::::- "The End of the Feud" (1914)
BULLET::::- "The Tragedy of Whispering Creek" (1914)
BULLET::::- "The Unlawful Trade" (1914)
BULLET::::- "The Forbidden Room" (1914)
BULLET::::- "The Hopes of Blind Alley" (1914)
BULLET::::- "Richelieu" (1914)
BULLET::::- "Wildflower" (1914)
BULLET::::- "A Small Town Girl" (1915)
BULLET::::- "David Harum" (1915)
BULLET::::- "A Girl of Yesterday" (1915)
BULLET::::- "The Pretty Sister of Jose" (1915)
BULLET::::- "Jordan Is a Hard Road" (1915)
BULLET::::- "Betty of Graystone" (1916)
BULLET::::- "The Habit of Happiness" (1916)
BULLET::::- "The Good Bad Man" (1916)
BULLET::::- "An Innocent Magdalene" (1916)
BULLET::::- "The Half-Breed" (1916)
BULLET::::- "Manhattan Madness" (1916)
BULLET::::- "Accusing Evidence" (1916)
BULLET::::- "Panthea" (1917)
BULLET::::- "A Modern Musketeer" (1917)
BULLET::::- "Bound in Morocco" (1918)
BULLET::::- "Headin' South" (1918)
BULLET::::- "Mr. Fix-It" (1918)
BULLET::::- "He Comes Up Smiling" (1918)
BULLET::::- "Cheating Cheaters" (1919)
BULLET::::- "The Dark Star" (1919)
BULLET::::- "Getting Mary Married" (1919)
BULLET::::- "Soldiers of Fortune" (1919)
BULLET::::- "In The Heart of a Fool" (1920) also producer
BULLET::::- "The Forbidden Thing" (1920) also producer
BULLET::::- "A Splendid Hazard" (1920)
BULLET::::- "A Perfect Crime" (1921)
BULLET::::- "The Sin of Martha Queed" (1921)
BULLET::::- "A Broken Doll" (1921)
BULLET::::- "Robin Hood" (1922)
BULLET::::- "Zaza" (1923)
BULLET::::- "Big Brother" (1923)
BULLET::::- "Manhandled" (1924)
BULLET::::- "Argentine Love" (1924)
BULLET::::- "The Coast of Folly" (1925)
BULLET::::- "Night Life of New York" (1925)
BULLET::::- "Stage Struck" (1925)
BULLET::::- "Gloria Swanson Dialogue" (1925) short film made in Phonofilm for The Lambs annual "Gambol" held at Metropolitan Opera House
BULLET::::- "Padlocked" (1926)
BULLET::::- "Sea Horses" (1926)
BULLET::::- "Summer Bachelors" (1926)
BULLET::::- "Tin Gods" (1926)
BULLET::::- "French Dressing" (1927)
BULLET::::- "The Joy Girl" (1927)
BULLET::::- "East Side, West Side" (1927)
BULLET::::- "The Big Noise" (1928)
BULLET::::- "Frozen Justice" (1929)
BULLET::::- "The Iron Mask" (1929)
BULLET::::- "Tide of Empire" (1929)
BULLET::::- "The Far Call" (1929)
BULLET::::- "What a Widow!" (1930)
BULLET::::- "Man to Man" (1930)
BULLET::::- "Chances" (1931)
BULLET::::- "Wicked" (1931)
BULLET::::- "While Paris Sleeps" (1932)
BULLET::::- "Counsel's Opinion" (1933)
BULLET::::- "Black Sheep" (1935)
BULLET::::- "Navy Wife" (1935)
BULLET::::- "High Tension" (1936)
BULLET::::- "15 Maiden Lane" (1936)
BULLET::::- "One Mile from Heaven" (1937)
BULLET::::- "Heidi" (1937)
BULLET::::- "Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm" (1938)
BULLET::::- "Suez" (1938)
BULLET::::- "Josette" (1938)
BULLET::::- "The Three Musketeers" (1939)
BULLET::::- "The Gorilla" (1939)
BULLET::::- "Frontier Marshal" (1939)
BULLET::::- "Sailor's Lady" (1940)
BULLET::::- "Young People" (1940)
BULLET::::- "Trail of the Vigilantes" (1940)
BULLET::::- "Look Who's Laughing" (1941) also producer
BULLET::::- "Rise and Shine" (1941)
BULLET::::- "Friendly Enemies" (1942)
BULLET::::- "Around the World" (1943) also producer
BULLET::::- "Up in Mabel's Room" (1944)
BULLET::::- "Abroad with Two Yanks" (1944)
BULLET::::- "Getting Gertie's Garter" (1945) also screenwriter
BULLET::::- "Brewster's Millions" (1945)
BULLET::::- "Rendezvous with Annie" (1946)
BULLET::::- "Driftwood" (1947)
BULLET::::- "Calendar Girl" (1947)
BULLET::::- "Northwest Outpost" (1947) also associate producer
BULLET::::- "The Inside Story" (1948)
BULLET::::- "Angel in Exile" (1948) (with Philip Ford)
BULLET::::- "Sands of Iwo Jima" (1949)
BULLET::::- "Surrender" (1950)
BULLET::::- "Belle Le Grand" (1951)
BULLET::::- "Wild Blue Yonder" (1951)
BULLET::::- "I Dream of Jeanie" (1952)
BULLET::::- "Montana Belle" (1952)
BULLET::::- "Woman They Almost Lynched" (1953)
BULLET::::- "Sweethearts on Parade" (1953)
BULLET::::- "Silver Lode" (1954)
BULLET::::- "Passion" (1954)
BULLET::::- "Cattle Queen of Montana" (1954)
BULLET::::- "Tennessee's Partner" (1955)
BULLET::::- "Pearl of the South Pacific" (1955)
BULLET::::- "Escape to Burma" (1955)
BULLET::::- "Slightly Scarlet" (1956)
BULLET::::- "Hold Back the Night" (1956)
BULLET::::- "The Restless Breed" (1957)
BULLET::::- "The River's Edge" (1957)
BULLET::::- "Enchanted Island" (1958)
BULLET::::- "Most Dangerous Man Alive" (1961)
section:partial :partialfilmographi filmographidirector directorbullet bullet:- :-`` ``gold goldlust lust'' ''1911 1911bullet bullet:- :-`` ``picket picketguard guard'' ''1913 1913bullet bullet:- :-`` ``restless restlessspirit spirit'' ''1913 1913bullet bullet:- :-`` ``back backlife life'' ''1913 1913bullet bullet:- :-`` ``bloodhound bloodhoundnorth north'' ''1913 1913bullet bullet:- :-`` ``lie lie'' ''1914 1914bullet bullet:- :-`` ``honor honormount mount'' ''1914 1914bullet bullet:- :-`` ``unwelcom unwelcommrs. mrs.hatch hatch'' ''1914 1914bullet bullet:- :-`` ``rememb remembmari marimagdalen magdalen'' ''1914 1914bullet bullet:- :-`` ``discord discordharmoni harmoni'' ''1914 1914bullet bullet:- :-`` ``embezzl embezzl'' ''1914 1914bullet bullet:- :-`` ``lamb lambwoman womanwolf wolf'' ''1914 1914bullet bullet:- :-`` ``end endfeud feud'' ''1914 1914bullet bullet:- :-`` ``tragedi tragediwhisper whispercreek creek'' ''1914 1914bullet bullet:- :-`` ``unlaw unlawtrade trade'' ''1914 1914bullet bullet:- :-`` ``forbidden forbiddenroom room'' ''1914 1914bullet bullet:- :-`` ``hope hopeblind blindalley alley'' ''1914 1914bullet bullet:- :-`` ``richelieu richelieu'' ''1914 1914bullet bullet:- :-`` ``wildflow wildflow'' ''1914 1914bullet bullet:- :-`` ``small smalltown towngirl girl'' ''1915 1915bullet bullet:- :-`` ``david davidharum harum'' ''1915 1915bullet bullet:- :-`` ``girl girlyesterday yesterday'' ''1915 1915bullet bullet:- :-`` ``pretti prettisister sisterjose jose'' ''1915 1915bullet bullet:- :-`` ``jordan jordanhard hardroad road'' ''1915 1915bullet bullet:- :-`` ``betti bettigrayston grayston'' ''1916 1916bullet bullet:- :-`` ``habit habithappi happi'' ''1916 1916bullet bullet:- :-`` ``good goodbad badman man'' ''1916 1916bullet bullet:- :-`` ``innoc innocmagdalen magdalen'' ''1916 1916bullet bullet:- :-`` ``half-bre half-bre'' ''1916 1916bullet bullet:- :-`` ``manhattan manhattanmad mad'' ''1916 1916bullet bullet:- :-`` ``accus accusevid evid'' ''1916 1916bullet bullet:- :-`` ``panthea panthea'' ''1917 1917bullet bullet:- :-`` ``modern modernmusket musket'' ''1917 1917bullet bullet:- :-`` ``bound boundmorocco morocco'' ''1918 1918bullet bullet:- :-`` ``headin headinsouth south'' ''1918 1918bullet bullet:- :-`` ``mr. mr.fix-it fix-it'' ''1918 1918bullet bullet:- :-`` ``come comesmile smile'' ''1918 1918bullet bullet:- :-`` ``cheat cheatcheater cheater'' ''1919 1919bullet bullet:- :-`` ``dark darkstar star'' ''1919 1919bullet bullet:- :-`` ``get getmari marimarri marri'' ''1919 1919bullet bullet:- :-`` ``soldier soldierfortun fortun'' ''1919 1919bullet bullet:- :-`` ``heart heartfool fool'' ''1920 1920also alsoproduc producbullet bullet:- :-`` ``forbidden forbiddenthing thing'' ''1920 1920also alsoproduc producbullet bullet:- :-`` ``splendid splendidhazard hazard'' ''1920 1920bullet bullet:- :-`` ``perfect perfectcrime crime'' ''1921 1921bullet bullet:- :-`` ``sin sinmartha marthaqueed queed'' ''1921 1921bullet bullet:- :-`` ``broken brokendoll doll'' ''1921 1921bullet bullet:- :-`` ``robin robinhood hood'' ''1922 1922bullet bullet:- :-`` ``zaza zaza'' ''1923 1923bullet bullet:- :-`` ``big bigbrother brother'' ''1923 1923bullet bullet:- :-`` ``manhandl manhandl'' ''1924 1924bullet bullet:- :-`` ``argentin argentinlove love'' ''1924 1924bullet bullet:- :-`` ``coast coastfolli folli'' ''1925 1925bullet bullet:- :-`` ``night nightlife lifenew newyork york'' ''1925 1925bullet bullet:- :-`` ``stage stagestruck struck'' ''1925 1925bullet bullet:- :-`` ``gloria gloriaswanson swansondialogu dialogu'' ''1925 1925short shortfilm filmmade madephonofilm phonofilmlamb lambannual annual`` ``gambol gambol'' ''held heldmetropolitan metropolitanopera operahous housbullet bullet:- :-`` ``padlock padlock'' ''1926 1926bullet bullet:- :-`` ``sea seahors hors'' ''1926 1926bullet bullet:- :-`` ``summer summerbachelor bachelor'' ''1926 1926bullet bullet:- :-`` ``tin tingod god'' ''1926 1926bullet bullet:- :-`` ``french frenchdress dress'' ''1927 1927bullet bullet:- :-`` ``joy joygirl girl'' ''1927 1927bullet bullet:- :-`` ``east eastside sidewest westside side'' ''1927 1927bullet bullet:- :-`` ``big bignois nois'' ''1928 1928bullet bullet:- :-`` ``frozen frozenjustic justic'' ''1929 1929bullet bullet:- :-`` ``iron ironmask mask'' ''1929 1929bullet bullet:- :-`` ``tide tideempir empir'' ''1929 1929bullet bullet:- :-`` ``far farcall call'' ''1929 1929bullet bullet:- :-`` ``widow widow'' ''1930 1930bullet bullet:- :-`` ``man manman man'' ''1930 1930bullet bullet:- :-`` ``chanc chanc'' ''1931 1931bullet bullet:- :-`` ``wick wick'' ''1931 1931bullet bullet:- :-`` ``pari parisleep sleep'' ''1932 1932bullet bullet:- :-`` ``counsel counsel's 'sopinion opinion'' ''1933 1933bullet bullet:- :-`` ``black blacksheep sheep'' ''1935 1935bullet bullet:- :-`` ``navi naviwife wife'' ''1935 1935bullet bullet:- :-`` ``high hightension tension'' ''1936 1936bullet bullet:- :-`` ``15 15maiden maidenlane lane'' ''1936 1936bullet bullet:- :-`` ``one onemile mileheaven heaven'' ''1937 1937bullet bullet:- :-`` ``heidi heidi'' ''1937 1937bullet bullet:- :-`` ``rebecca rebeccasunnybrook sunnybrookfarm farm'' ''1938 1938bullet bullet:- :-`` ``suez suez'' ''1938 1938bullet bullet:- :-`` ``josett josett'' ''1938 1938bullet bullet:- :-`` ``three threemusket musket'' ''1939 1939bullet bullet:- :-`` ``gorilla gorilla'' ''1939 1939bullet bullet:- :-`` ``frontier frontiermarshal marshal'' ''1939 1939bullet bullet:- :-`` ``sailor sailor's 'sladi ladi'' ''1940 1940bullet bullet:- :-`` ``young youngpeopl peopl'' ''1940 1940bullet bullet:- :-`` ``trail trailvigilant vigilant'' ''1940 1940bullet bullet:- :-`` ``look look's 'slaugh laugh'' ''1941 1941also alsoproduc producbullet bullet:- :-`` ``rise riseshine shine'' ''1941 1941bullet bullet:- :-`` ``friend friendenemi enemi'' ''1942 1942bullet bullet:- :-`` ``around aroundworld world'' ''1943 1943also alsoproduc producbullet bullet:- :-`` ``mabel mabel's 'sroom room'' ''1944 1944bullet bullet:- :-`` ``abroad abroadtwo twoyank yank'' ''1944 1944bullet bullet:- :-`` ``get getgerti gerti's 'sgarter garter'' ''1945 1945also alsoscreenwrit screenwritbullet bullet:- :-`` ``brewster brewster's 'smillion million'' ''1945 1945bullet bullet:- :-`` ``rendezv rendezvanni anni'' ''1946 1946bullet bullet:- :-`` ``driftwood driftwood'' ''1947 1947bullet bullet:- :-`` ``calendar calendargirl girl'' ''1947 1947bullet bullet:- :-`` ``northwest northwestoutpost outpost'' ''1947 1947also alsoassoci associproduc producbullet bullet:- :-`` ``insid insidstori stori'' ''1948 1948bullet bullet:- :-`` ``angel angelexil exil'' ''1948 1948philip philipford fordbullet bullet:- :-`` ``sand sandiwo iwojima jima'' ''1949 1949bullet bullet:- :-`` ``surrend surrend'' ''1950 1950bullet bullet:- :-`` ``bell bellle legrand grand'' ''1951 1951bullet bullet:- :-`` ``wild wildblue blueyonder yonder'' ''1951 1951bullet bullet:- :-`` ``dream dreamjeani jeani'' ''1952 1952bullet bullet:- :-`` ``montana montanabell bell'' ''1952 1952bullet bullet:- :-`` ``woman womanalmost almostlynch lynch'' ''1953 1953bullet bullet:- :-`` ``sweetheart sweetheartparad parad'' ''1953 1953bullet bullet:- :-`` ``silver silverlode lode'' ''1954 1954bullet bullet:- :-`` ``passion passion'' ''1954 1954bullet bullet:- :-`` ``cattl cattlqueen queenmontana montana'' ''1954 1954bullet bullet:- :-`` ``tennesse tennesse's 'spartner partner'' ''1955 1955bullet bullet:- :-`` ``pearl pearlsouth southpacif pacif'' ''1955 1955bullet bullet:- :-`` ``escap escapburma burma'' ''1955 1955bullet bullet:- :-`` ``slight slightscarlet scarlet'' ''1956 1956bullet bullet:- :-`` ``hold holdback backnight night'' ''1956 1956bullet bullet:- :-`` ``restless restlessbreed breed'' ''1957 1957bullet bullet:- :-`` ``river river's 'sedg edg'' ''1957 1957bullet bullet:- :-`` ``enchant enchantisland island'' ''1958 1958bullet bullet:- :-`` ``danger dangerman manaliv aliv'' ''1961 | 344 | Allan Dwan | 1885 births,American male screenwriters,Writers from Toronto,American film directors,1981 deaths,Disease-related deaths in California,Canadian emigrants to the United States,American film producers,Film directors from Toronto,Western (genre) film directors |
344-5 | Allan Dwan
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-canadian canadianpioneer pioneerearli earlihollywood | 344 | Allan Dwan | 1885 births,American male screenwriters,Writers from Toronto,American film directors,1981 deaths,Disease-related deaths in California,Canadian emigrants to the United States,American film producers,Film directors from Toronto,Western (genre) film directors |
344-6 | Allan Dwan
Section::::Further reading.
BULLET::::- Brownlow, Kevin, "The Parade's Gone By..." (1968)
BULLET::::- Bogdanovich, Peter, "Allan Dwan: The Last Pioneer" (1971)
BULLET::::- Foster, Charles, "Stardust and Shadows: Canadians in Early Hollywood" (2000)
BULLET::::- Lombardi, Frederic, "Allan Dwan and the Rise and Decline of the Hollywood Studios" (2013)
Print E-book
section:further :furtherread readbullet bullet:- :-brownlow brownlowkevin kevin`` ``parad parad's 'sgone gone... ...'' ''1968 1968bullet bullet:- :-bogdanovich bogdanovichpeter peter`` ``allan allandwan dwanlast lastpioneer pioneer'' ''1971 1971bullet bullet:- :-foster fostercharl charl`` ``stardust stardustshadow shadowcanadian canadianearli earlihollywood hollywood'' ''2000 2000bullet bullet:- :-lombardi lombardifreder freder`` ``allan allandwan dwanrise risedeclin declinhollywood hollywoodstudio studio'' ''2013 2013print printe-book | 344 | Allan Dwan | 1885 births,American male screenwriters,Writers from Toronto,American film directors,1981 deaths,Disease-related deaths in California,Canadian emigrants to the United States,American film producers,Film directors from Toronto,Western (genre) film directors |
344-7 | Allan Dwan
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- Allan Dwan profile, virtual-history.com; accessed 16 June 2014
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-allan allandwan dwanprofil profilvirtual-history.com virtual-history.comaccess access16 16june june2014 | 344 | Allan Dwan | 1885 births,American male screenwriters,Writers from Toronto,American film directors,1981 deaths,Disease-related deaths in California,Canadian emigrants to the United States,American film producers,Film directors from Toronto,Western (genre) film directors |
25-1 | Autism
Autism is a developmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents usually notice signs during the first three years of their child's life. These signs often develop gradually, though some children with autism reach their developmental milestones at a normal pace before worsening.
Autism is associated with a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Risk factors during pregnancy include certain infections, such as rubella, toxins including valproic acid, alcohol, cocaine, pesticides and air pollution, fetal growth restriction, and autoimmune diseases. Controversies surround other proposed environmental causes; for example, the vaccine hypothesis, which has been disproven. Autism affects information processing in the brain by altering connections and organization of nerve cells and their synapses. How this occurs is not well understood. In the DSM-5, autism and less severe forms of the condition, including Asperger syndrome and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), have been combined into the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
Early behavioral interventions or speech therapy can help children with autism gain self-care, social, and communication skills. Although there is no known cure, there have been cases of children who recovered. Not many children with autism live independently after reaching adulthood, though some are successful. An autistic culture has developed, with some individuals seeking a cure and others believing autism should be accepted as a difference and not treated as a disorder.
Globally, autism is estimated to affect 24.8 million people . In the 2000s, the number of people affected was estimated at 1–2 per 1,000 people worldwide. In the developed countries, about 1.5% of children are diagnosed with ASD , from 0.7% in 2000 in the United States. It occurs four-to-five times more often in males than females. The number of people diagnosed has increased dramatically since the 1960s, which may be partly due to changes in diagnostic practice. The question of whether actual rates have increased is unresolved.
autismdevelopment developmentdisord disordcharacter characterdifficulti difficultisocial socialinteract interactcommunic communicrestrict restrictrepetit repetitbehavior behaviorparent parentusual usualnotic noticsign signfirst firstthree threeyear yearchild child's 'slife lifesign signoften oftendevelop developgradual gradualthough thoughchildren childrenautism autismreach reachdevelopment developmentmileston milestonnormal normalpace paceworsen worsenautism autismassoci associcombin combingenet genetenvironment environmentfactor factorrisk riskfactor factorpregnanc pregnancinclud includcertain certaininfect infectrubella rubellatoxin toxininclud includvalproic valproicacid acidalcohol alcoholcocain cocainpesticid pesticidair airpollut pollutfetal fetalgrowth growthrestrict restrictautoimmun autoimmundiseas diseascontroversi controversisurround surroundpropos proposenvironment environmentcaus causexampl examplvaccin vaccinhypothesi hypothesidisproven disprovenautism autismaffect affectinform informprocess processbrain brainalter alterconnect connectorgan organnerv nervcell cellsynaps synapsoccur occurwell wellunderstood understooddsm-5 dsm-5autism autismless lesssever severform formcondit conditinclud includasperg aspergsyndrom syndrompervas pervasdevelopment developmentdisord disordotherwis otherwisspecifi specifipdd-nos pdd-noscombin combindiagnosi diagnosiautism autismspectrum spectrumdisord disordasd asdearli earlibehavior behaviorintervent interventspeech speechtherapi therapihelp helpchildren childrenautism autismgain gainself-car self-carsocial socialcommunic communicskill skillalthough althoughknown knowncure curecase casechildren childrenrecov recovmani manichildren childrenautism autismlive liveindepend independreach reachadulthood adulthoodthough thoughsuccess successautist autistcultur culturdevelop developindividu individuseek seekcure cureother otherbeliev believautism autismaccept acceptdiffer differtreat treatdisord disordglobal globalautism autismestim estimaffect affect24.8 24.8million millionpeopl peopl2000s 2000snumber numberpeopl peoplaffect affectestim estim1–2 1–2per per1,000 1,000peopl peoplworldwid worldwiddevelop developcountri countri1.5 1.5children childrendiagnos diagnosasd asd0.7 0.72000 2000unit unitstate stateoccur occurfour-to-f four-to-ftime timeoften oftenmale malefemal femalnumber numberpeopl peopldiagnos diagnosincreas increasdramat dramatsinc sinc1960s 1960smay maypart partdue duechang changdiagnost diagnostpractic practicquestion questionwhether whetheractual actualrate rateincreas increasunresolv | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-2 | Autism
Section::::Characteristics.
Autism is a highly variable, neurodevelopmental disorder whose symptoms first appears during infancy or childhood, and generally follows a steady course without remission. People with autism may be severely impaired in some respects but normal, or even superior, in others. Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months, become established by age two or three years and tend to continue through adulthood, although often in more muted form. It is distinguished not by a single symptom but by a characteristic triad of symptoms: impairments in social interaction; impairments in communication; and restricted interests and repetitive behavior. Other aspects, such as atypical eating, are also common but are not essential for diagnosis. Individual symptoms of autism occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly, without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits.
section:characterist :characteristautism autismhigh highvariabl variablneurodevelopment neurodevelopmentdisord disordwhose whosesymptom symptomfirst firstappear appearinfanc infancchildhood childhoodgeneral generalfollow followsteadi steadicours courswithout withoutremiss remisspeopl peoplautism autismmay maysever severimpair impairrespect respectnormal normaleven evensuperior superiorother otherovert overtsymptom symptomgradual gradualbegin beginage agesix sixmonth monthbecom becomestablish establishage agetwo twothree threeyear yeartend tendcontinu continuadulthood adulthoodalthough althoughoften oftenmute muteform formdistinguish distinguishsingl singlsymptom symptomcharacterist characteristtriad triadsymptom symptomimpair impairsocial socialinteract interactimpair impaircommunic communicrestrict restrictinterest interestrepetit repetitbehavior behavioraspect aspectatyp atypeat eatalso alsocommon commonessenti essentidiagnosi diagnosiindividu individusymptom symptomautism autismoccur occurgeneral generalpopul populappear appearassoci associhigh highwithout withoutsharp sharpline linesepar separpatholog pathologsever severcommon commontrait | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-3 | Autism
Section::::Characteristics.:Social development.
Social deficits distinguish autism and the related autism spectrum disorders (ASD; see Classification) from other developmental disorders. People with autism have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted. Noted autistic Temple Grandin described her inability to understand the social communication of neurotypicals, or people with normal neural development, as leaving her feeling "like an anthropologist on Mars".
Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from social norms; for example, they have less eye contact and turn-taking, and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves, such as pointing at things. Three- to five-year-old children with autism are less likely to exhibit social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond to emotions, communicate nonverbally, and take turns with others. However, they do form attachments to their primary caregivers. Most children with autism display moderately less attachment security than neurotypical children, although this difference disappears in children with higher mental development or less severe ASD. Older children and adults with ASD perform worse on tests of face and emotion recognition although this may be partly due to a lower ability to define a person's own emotions.
Children with high-functioning autism suffer from more intense and frequent loneliness compared to non-autistic peers, despite the common belief that children with autism prefer to be alone. Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for those with autism. For them, the quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in invitations to parties, may affect the quality of life more deeply.
There are many anecdotal reports, but few systematic studies, of aggression and violence in individuals with ASD. The limited data suggest that, in children with intellectual disability, autism is associated with aggression, destruction of property, and meltdowns.
section:characterist :characteristsocial socialdevelop developsocial socialdeficit deficitdistinguish distinguishautism autismrelat relatautism autismspectrum spectrumdisord disordasd asdsee seeclassif classifdevelopment developmentdisord disordpeopl peoplautism autismsocial socialimpair impairoften oftenlack lackintuit intuitother othermani manipeopl peopltake takegrant grantnote noteautist autisttempl templgrandin grandindescrib describinabl inablunderstand understandsocial socialcommunic communicneurotyp neurotyppeopl peoplnormal normalneural neuraldevelop developleav leavfeel feel`` ``like likeanthropologist anthropologistmar mar'' ''unusu unususocial socialdevelop developbecom becomappar apparearli earlichildhood childhoodautist autistinfant infantshow showless lessattent attentsocial socialstimuli stimulismile smilelook lookother otherless lessoften oftenrespond respondless lessname nameautist autisttoddler toddlerdiffer differstrike strikesocial socialnorm normexampl examplless lesseye eyecontact contactturn-tak turn-takabil abiluse usesimpl simplmovement movementexpress expresspoint pointthing thingthree- three-five-year-old five-year-oldchildren childrenautism autismless lesslike likeexhibit exhibitsocial socialunderstand understandapproach approachother otherspontan spontanimit imitrespond respondemot emotcommunic communicnonverb nonverbtake taketurn turnother otherhowev howevform formattach attachprimari primaricaregiv caregivchildren childrenautism autismdisplay displaymoder moderless lessattach attachsecur securneurotyp neurotypchildren childrenalthough althoughdiffer differdisappear disappearchildren childrenhigher highermental mentaldevelop developless lesssever severasd asdolder olderchildren childrenadult adultasd asdperform performwors worstest testface faceemot emotrecognit recognitalthough althoughmay maypart partdue duelower lowerabil abildefin definperson person's 'semot emotchildren childrenhigh-funct high-functautism autismsuffer sufferintens intensfrequent frequentloneli lonelicompar comparnon-autist non-autistpeer peerdespit despitcommon commonbelief beliefchildren childrenautism autismprefer preferalon alonmake makemaintain maintainfriendship friendshipoften oftenprove provedifficult difficultautism autismqualiti qualitifriendship friendshipnumber numberfriend friendpredict predictlone lonefeel feelfunction functionfriendship friendshipresult resultinvit invitparti partimay mayaffect affectqualiti qualitilife lifedeepli deeplimani manianecdot anecdotreport reportsystemat systematstudi studiaggress aggressviolenc violencindividu individuasd asdlimit limitdata datasuggest suggestchildren childrenintellectu intellectudisabl disablautism autismassoci associaggress aggressdestruct destructproperti propertimeltdown | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-4 | Autism
Section::::Characteristics.:Communication.
About a third to a half of individuals with autism do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs. Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of babbling, unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver. In the second and third years, children with autism have less frequent and less diverse babbling, consonants, words, and word combinations; their gestures are less often integrated with words. Children with autism are less likely to make requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat others' words (echolalia) or reverse pronouns. Joint attention seems to be necessary for functional speech, and deficits in joint attention seem to distinguish infants with ASD. For example, they may look at a pointing hand instead of the pointed-at object, and they consistently fail to point at objects in order to comment on or share an experience. Children with autism may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language.
In a pair of studies, high-functioning children with autism aged 8–15 performed equally well as, and as adults better than, individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and spelling. Both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language, comprehension and inference. As people are often sized up initially from their basic language skills, these studies suggest that people speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends.
section:characteristics. :characteristics.communic communicthird thirdhalf halfindividu individuautism autismdevelop developenough enoughnatur naturspeech speechmeet meetdaili dailicommunic communicneed needdiffer differcommunic communicmay maypresent presentfirst firstyear yearlife lifemay mayinclud includdelay delayonset onsetbabbl babblunusu unusugestur gesturdiminish diminishrespons responsvocal vocalpattern patternsynchron synchroncaregiv caregivsecond secondthird thirdyear yearchildren childrenautism autismless lessfrequent frequentless lessdivers diversbabbl babblconson consonword wordword wordcombin combingestur gesturless lessoften oftenintegr integrword wordchildren childrenautism autismless lesslike likemake makerequest requestshare shareexperi experilike likesimpli simplirepeat repeatother otherword wordecholalia echolaliarevers reverspronoun pronounjoint jointattent attentseem seemnecessari necessarifunction functionspeech speechdeficit deficitjoint jointattent attentseem seemdistinguish distinguishinfant infantasd asdexampl examplmay maylook lookpoint pointhand handinstead insteadpointed-at pointed-atobject objectconsist consistfail failpoint pointobject objectorder ordercomment commentshare shareexperi experichildren childrenautism autismmay maydifficulti difficultiimagin imaginplay playdevelop developsymbol symbollanguag languagpair pairstudi studihigh-funct high-functchildren childrenautism autismage age8–15 8–15perform performequal equalwell welladult adultbetter betterindividu individumatch matchcontrol controlbasic basiclanguag languagtask taskinvolv involvvocabulari vocabularispell spellautist autistgroup groupperform performwors worscontrol controlcomplex complexlanguag languagtask taskfigur figurlanguag languagcomprehens comprehensinfer inferpeopl peoploften oftensize sizeiniti initibasic basiclanguag languagskill skillstudi studisuggest suggestpeopl peoplspeak speakautist autistindividu individulike likeoverestim overestimaudienc audienccomprehend | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-5 | Autism
Section::::Characteristics.:Repetitive behavior.
Autistic individuals can display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) categorizes as follows.
BULLET::::- Stereotyped behaviors: Repetitive movements, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking.
BULLET::::- Compulsive behaviors: Time-consuming behaviors intended to reduce anxiety that an individual feels compelled to perform repeatedly or according to rigid rules, such as placing objects in a specific order, checking things, or hand washing.
BULLET::::- Sameness: Resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or refusing to be interrupted.
BULLET::::- Ritualistic behavior: Unvarying pattern of daily activities, such as an unchanging menu or a dressing ritual. This is closely associated with sameness and an independent validation has suggested combining the two factors.
BULLET::::- Restricted interests: Interests or fixations that are abnormal in theme or intensity of focus, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game.
BULLET::::- Self-injury: Behaviors such as eye-poking, skin-picking, hand-biting and head-banging.
No single repetitive or self-injurious behavior seems to be specific to autism, but autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors.
section:characterist :characteristrepetit repetitbehavior behaviorautist autistindividu individudisplay displaymani maniform formrepetit repetitrestrict restrictbehavior behaviorrepetit repetitbehavior behaviorscale-revis scale-revisrbs-r rbs-rcategor categorfollow followbullet bullet:- :-stereotyp stereotypbehavior behaviorrepetit repetitmovement movementhand handflap flaphead headroll rollbodi bodirock rockbullet bullet:- :-compuls compulsbehavior behaviortime-consum time-consumbehavior behaviorintend intendreduc reducanxieti anxietiindividu individufeel feelcompel compelperform performrepeat repeataccord accordrigid rigidrule ruleplace placeobject objectspecif speciforder ordercheck checkthing thinghand handwash washbullet bullet:- :-same sameresist resistchang changexampl examplinsist insistfurnitur furniturmove moverefus refusinterrupt interruptbullet bullet:- :-ritualist ritualistbehavior behaviorunvari unvaripattern patterndaili dailiactiv activunchang unchangmenu menudress dressritual ritualclose closeassoci associsame sameindepend independvalid validsuggest suggestcombin combintwo twofactor factorbullet bullet:- :-restrict restrictinterest interestinterest interestfixat fixatabnorm abnormtheme themeintens intensfocus focuspreoccup preoccupsingl singltelevis televisprogram programtoy toygame gamebullet bullet:- :-self-injuri self-injuribehavior behavioreye-pok eye-pokskin-pick skin-pickhand-bit hand-bithead-bang head-bangsingl singlrepetit repetitself-injuri self-injuribehavior behaviorseem seemspecif specifautism autismautism autismappear appearelev elevpattern patternoccurr occurrsever severbehavior | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-6 | Autism
Section::::Characteristics.:Other symptoms.
Autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis, but that can affect the individual or the family.
An estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with ASD show unusual abilities, ranging from splinter skills such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious autistic savants. Many individuals with ASD show superior skills in perception and attention, relative to the general population. Sensory abnormalities are found in over 90% of those with autism, and are considered core features by some, although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders. Differences are greater for under-responsivity (for example, walking into things) than for over-responsivity (for example, distress from loud noises) or for sensation seeking (for example, rhythmic movements). An estimated 60–80% of autistic people have motor signs that include poor muscle tone, poor motor planning, and toe walking; deficits in motor coordination are pervasive across ASD and are greater in autism proper. Unusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur.
Parents of children with ASD have higher levels of stress. Siblings of children with ASD report greater admiration of and less conflict with the affected sibling than siblings of unaffected children and were similar to siblings of children with Down syndrome in these aspects of the sibling relationship. However, they reported lower levels of closeness and intimacy than siblings of children with Down syndrome; siblings of individuals with ASD have greater risk of negative well-being and poorer sibling relationships as adults. There is tentative evidence that autism occurs more frequently in people with gender dysphoria.
Gastrointestinal problems are one of the most commonly associated medical disorders in people with autism. These are linked to greater social impairment, irritability, behavior and sleep problems, language impairments and mood changes.
section:characterist :characteristsymptom symptomautist autistindividu individumay maysymptom symptomindepend independdiagnosi diagnosiaffect affectindividu individufamili familiestim estim0.5 0.510 10individu individuasd asdshow showunusu unusuabil abilrang rangsplinter splinterskill skillmemor memortrivia triviaextraordinarili extraordinarilirare raretalent talentprodigi prodigiautist autistsavant savantmani maniindividu individuasd asdshow showsuperior superiorskill skillpercept perceptattent attentrelat relatgeneral generalpopul populsensori sensoriabnorm abnormfound found90 90autism autismconsid considcore corefeatur featuralthough althoughgood goodevid evidsensori sensorisymptom symptomdifferenti differentiautism autismdevelopment developmentdisord disorddiffer differgreater greaterunder-respons under-responsexampl examplwalk walkthing thingover-respons over-responsexampl exampldistress distressloud loudnois noissensat sensatseek seekexampl examplrhythmic rhythmicmovement movementestim estim60–80 60–80autist autistpeopl peoplmotor motorsign signinclud includpoor poormuscl muscltone tonepoor poormotor motorplan plantoe toewalk walkdeficit deficitmotor motorcoordin coordinpervas pervasacross acrossasd asdgreater greaterautism autismproper properunusu unusueat eatbehavior behavioroccur occurthree-quart three-quartchildren childrenasd asdextent extentformer formerdiagnost diagnostindic indicselect selectcommon commonproblem problemalthough althougheat eatritual ritualfood foodrefus refusalso alsooccur occurparent parentchildren childrenasd asdhigher higherlevel levelstress stresssibl siblchildren childrenasd asdreport reportgreater greateradmir admirless lessconflict conflictaffect affectsibl siblsibl siblunaffect unaffectchildren childrensimilar similarsibl siblchildren childrensyndrom syndromaspect aspectsibl siblrelationship relationshiphowev howevreport reportlower lowerlevel levelclose closeintimaci intimacisibl siblchildren childrensyndrom syndromsibl siblindividu individuasd asdgreater greaterrisk risknegat negatwell-b well-bpoorer poorersibl siblrelationship relationshipadult adulttentat tentatevid evidautism autismoccur occurfrequent frequentpeopl peoplgender genderdysphoria dysphoriagastrointestin gastrointestinproblem problemone onecommon commonassoci associmedic medicdisord disordpeopl peoplautism autismlink linkgreater greatersocial socialimpair impairirrit irritbehavior behaviorsleep sleepproblem problemlanguag languagimpair impairmood moodchang | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-7 | Autism
Section::::Causes.
It has long been presumed that there is a common cause at the genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for autism's characteristic triad of symptoms. However, there is increasing suspicion that autism is instead a complex disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes that often co-occur.
Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare mutations with major effects, or by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants. Complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes, the environment, and epigenetic factors which do not change DNA sequencing but are heritable and influence gene expression. Many genes have been associated with autism through sequencing the genomes of affected individuals and their parents. Studies of twins suggest that heritability is 0.7 for autism and as high as 0.9 for ASD, and siblings of those with autism are about 25 times more likely to be autistic than the general population. However, most of the mutations that increase autism risk have not been identified. Typically, autism cannot be traced to a Mendelian (single-gene) mutation or to a single chromosome abnormality, and none of the genetic syndromes associated with ASDs have been shown to selectively cause ASD. Numerous candidate genes have been located, with only small effects attributable to any particular gene. Most loci individually explain less than 1% of cases of autism. The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from spontaneous structural variation — such as deletions, duplications or inversions in genetic material during meiosis. Hence, a substantial fraction of autism cases may be traceable to genetic causes that are highly heritable but not inherited: that is, the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome. Autism may be underdiagnosed in women and girls due to an assumption that it is primarily a male condition.
Maternal nutrition and inflammation during preconception and pregnancy influences fetal neurodevelopment. Intrauterine growth restriction is associated with ASD, in both term and preterm infants. Maternal inflammatory and autoimmune diseases may damage fetal tissues, aggravating a genetic problem or damaging the nervous system.
Exposure to air pollution during pregnancy, especially heavy metals and particulates, may increase the risk of autism. Environmental factors that have been claimed without evidence to contribute to or exacerbate autism include certain foods, infectious diseases, solvents, PCBs, phthalates and phenols used in plastic products, pesticides, brominated flame retardants, alcohol, smoking, illicit drugs, vaccines, and prenatal stress. Some, such as the MMR vaccine, have been completely disproven.
Parents may first become aware of autistic symptoms in their child around the time of a routine vaccination. This has led to unsupported theories blaming vaccine "overload", a vaccine preservative, or the MMR vaccine for causing autism. The latter theory was supported by a litigation-funded study that has since been shown to have been "an elaborate fraud". Although these theories lack convincing scientific evidence and are biologically implausible, parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations, outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.
section:caus :causlong longpresum presumcommon commoncaus causgenet genetcognit cognitneural neurallevel levelautism autism's 'scharacterist characteristtriad triadsymptom symptomhowev howevincreas increassuspicion suspicionautism autisminstead insteadcomplex complexdisord disordwhose whosecore coreaspect aspectdistinct distinctcaus causoften oftenco-occur co-occurautism autismstrong stronggenet genetbasi basialthough althoughgenet genetautism autismcomplex complexunclear unclearwhether whetherasd asdexplain explainrare raremutat mutatmajor majoreffect effectrare raremultigen multigeninteract interactcommon commongenet genetvariant variantcomplex complexaris arisdue dueinteract interactamong amongmultipl multiplgene geneenviron environepigenet epigenetfactor factorchang changdna dnasequenc sequencherit heritinfluenc influencgene geneexpress expressmani manigene geneassoci associautism autismsequenc sequencgenom genomaffect affectindividu individuparent parentstudi studitwin twinsuggest suggestherit herit0.7 0.7autism autismhigh high0.9 0.9asd asdsibl siblautism autism25 25time timelike likeautist autistgeneral generalpopul populhowev howevmutat mutatincreas increasautism autismrisk riskidentifi identifitypic typicautism autismtrace tracemendelian mendeliansingle-gen single-genmutat mutatsingl singlchromosom chromosomabnorm abnormnone nonegenet genetsyndrom syndromassoci associasd asdshown shownselect selectcaus causasd asdnumer numercandid candidgene genelocat locatsmall smalleffect effectattribut attributparticular particulargene geneloci lociindividu individuexplain explainless less1 1case caseautism autismlarg largnumber numberautist autistindividu individuunaffect unaffectfamili familimember membermay mayresult resultspontan spontanstructur structurvariat variat— —delet deletduplic duplicinvers inversgenet genetmateri materimeiosi meiosihenc hencsubstanti substantifraction fractionautism autismcase casemay maytraceabl traceablgenet genetcaus caushigh highherit heritinherit inheritmutat mutatcaus causautism autismpresent presentparent parentgenom genomautism autismmay mayunderdiagnos underdiagnoswomen womengirl girldue dueassumpt assumptprimarili primarilimale malecondit conditmatern maternnutrit nutritinflamm inflammpreconcept preconceptpregnanc pregnancinfluenc influencfetal fetalneurodevelop neurodevelopintrauterin intrauteringrowth growthrestrict restrictassoci associasd asdterm termpreterm preterminfant infantmatern materninflammatori inflammatoriautoimmun autoimmundiseas diseasmay maydamag damagfetal fetaltissu tissuaggrav aggravgenet genetproblem problemdamag damagnervous nervoussystem systemexposur exposurair airpollut pollutpregnanc pregnancespeci especiheavi heavimetal metalparticul particulmay mayincreas increasrisk riskautism autismenvironment environmentfactor factorclaim claimwithout withoutevid evidcontribut contributexacerb exacerbautism autisminclud includcertain certainfood foodinfecti infectidiseas diseassolvent solventpcbs pcbsphthalat phthalatphenol phenoluse useplastic plasticproduct productpesticid pesticidbromin brominflame flameretard retardalcohol alcoholsmoke smokeillicit illicitdrug drugvaccin vaccinprenat prenatstress stressmmr mmrvaccin vaccincomplet completdisproven disprovenparent parentmay mayfirst firstbecom becomawar awarautist autistsymptom symptomchild childaround aroundtime timeroutin routinvaccin vaccinled ledunsupport unsupporttheori theoriblame blamevaccin vaccin`` ``overload overload'' ''vaccin vaccinpreserv preservmmr mmrvaccin vaccincaus causautism autismlatter lattertheori theorisupport supportlitigation-fund litigation-fundstudi studisinc sincshown shown`` ``elabor elaborfraud fraud'' ''although althoughtheori theorilack lackconvinc convincscientif scientifevid evidbiolog biologimplaus implausparent parentconcern concernpotenti potentivaccin vaccinlink linkautism autismled ledlower lowerrate ratechildhood childhoodimmun immunoutbreak outbreakprevious previouscontrol controlchildhood childhooddiseas diseascountri countriprevent preventdeath deathsever severchildren | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-8 | Autism
Section::::Mechanism.
Autism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain. How autism occurs is not well understood. Its mechanism can be divided into two areas: the pathophysiology of brain structures and processes associated with autism, and the neuropsychological linkages between brain structures and behaviors. The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies.
There is evidence that gut–brain axis abnormalities may be involved. A 2015 review proposed that immune dysregulation, gastrointestinal inflammation, malfunction of the autonomic nervous system, gut flora alterations, and food metabolites may cause brain neuroinflammation and dysfunction. A 2016 review concludes that enteric nervous system abnormalities might play a role in neurological disorders such as autism. Neural connections and the immune system are a pathway that may allow diseases originated in the intestine to spread to the brain.
Several lines of evidence point to synaptic dysfunction as a cause of autism. Some rare mutations may lead to autism by disrupting some synaptic pathways, such as those involved with cell adhesion. Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that autistic symptoms are closely related to later developmental steps that depend on activity in synapses and on activity-dependent changes. All known teratogens (agents that cause birth defects) related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from conception, and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later, there is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development.
section:mechan :mechanautism autism's 'ssymptom symptomresult resultmaturation-rel maturation-relchang changvarious varioussystem systembrain brainautism autismoccur occurwell wellunderstood understoodmechan mechandivid dividtwo twoarea areapathophysiolog pathophysiologbrain brainstructur structurprocess processassoci associautism autismneuropsycholog neuropsychologlinkag linkagbrain brainstructur structurbehavior behaviorbehavior behaviorappear appearmultipl multiplpathophysiolog pathophysiologevid evidgut–brain gut–brainaxi axiabnorm abnormmay mayinvolv involv2015 2015review reviewpropos proposimmun immundysregul dysregulgastrointestin gastrointestininflamm inflammmalfunct malfunctautonom autonomnervous nervoussystem systemgut gutflora floraalter alterfood foodmetabolit metabolitmay maycaus causbrain brainneuroinflamm neuroinflammdysfunct dysfunct2016 2016review reviewconclud concludenter enternervous nervoussystem systemabnorm abnormmight mightplay playrole roleneurolog neurologdisord disordautism autismneural neuralconnect connectimmun immunsystem systempathway pathwaymay mayallow allowdiseas diseasorigin originintestin intestinspread spreadbrain brainsever severline lineevid evidpoint pointsynapt synaptdysfunct dysfunctcaus causautism autismrare raremutat mutatmay maylead leadautism autismdisrupt disruptsynapt synaptpathway pathwayinvolv involvcell celladhes adhesgene genereplac replacstudi studimice micesuggest suggestautist autistsymptom symptomclose closerelat relatlater laterdevelopment developmentstep stepdepend dependactiv activsynaps synapsactivity-depend activity-dependchang changknown knownteratogen teratogenagent agentcaus causbirth birthdefect defectrelat relatrisk riskautism autismappear appearact actfirst firsteight eightweek weekconcept conceptthough thoughexclud excludpossibl possiblautism autisminiti initiaffect affectlater laterstrong strongevid evidautism autismaris arisearli earlidevelop | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-9 | Autism
Section::::Diagnosis.
Diagnosis is based on behavior, not cause or mechanism. Under the DSM-5, autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. These deficits are present in early childhood, typically before age three, and lead to clinically significant functional impairment. Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language, and persistent preoccupation with unusual objects. The disturbance must not be better accounted for by Rett syndrome, intellectual disability or global developmental delay. ICD-10 uses essentially the same definition.
Several diagnostic instruments are available. Two are commonly used in autism research: the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) is a semistructured parent interview, and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) uses observation and interaction with the child. The Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children. The Diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders (DISCO) may also be used.
A pediatrician commonly performs a preliminary investigation by taking developmental history and physically examining the child. If warranted, diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from ASD specialists, observing and assessing cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated medical conditions. A pediatric neuropsychologist is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills, both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions. A differential diagnosis for ASD at this stage might also consider intellectual disability, hearing impairment, and a specific language impairment such as Landau–Kleffner syndrome. The presence of autism can make it harder to diagnose coexisting psychiatric disorders such as depression.
Clinical genetics evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed, particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause. Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes, consensus guidelines in the US and UK are limited to high-resolution chromosome and fragile X testing. A genotype-first model of diagnosis has been proposed, which would routinely assess the genome's copy number variations. As new genetic tests are developed several ethical, legal, and social issues will emerge. Commercial availability of tests may precede adequate understanding of how to use test results, given the complexity of autism's genetics. Metabolic and neuroimaging tests are sometimes helpful, but are not routine.
ASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months, although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life: for example, a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later. In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice. Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood, they are sometimes missed; years later, adults may seek diagnoses to help them or their friends and family understand themselves, to help their employers make adjustments, or in some locations to claim disability living allowances or other benefits. Girls are often diagnosed later than boys.
Underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis are problems in marginal cases, and much of the recent increase in the number of reported ASD cases is likely due to changes in diagnostic practices. The increasing popularity of drug treatment options and the expansion of benefits has given providers incentives to diagnose ASD, resulting in some overdiagnosis of children with uncertain symptoms. Conversely, the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis. It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the visually impaired, partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision, and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes or blindisms.
section:diagnosi :diagnosidiagnosi diagnosibase basebehavior behaviorcaus causmechan mechandsm-5 dsm-5autism autismcharacter characterpersist persistdeficit deficitsocial socialcommunic communicinteract interactacross acrossmultipl multiplcontext contextwell wellrestrict restrictrepetit repetitpattern patternbehavior behaviorinterest interestactiv activdeficit deficitpresent presentearli earlichildhood childhoodtypic typicage agethree threelead leadclinic clinicsignific significfunction functionimpair impairsampl samplsymptom symptominclud includlack lacksocial socialemot emotreciproc reciprocstereotyp stereotyprepetit repetituse uselanguag languagidiosyncrat idiosyncratlanguag languagpersist persistpreoccup preoccupunusu unusuobject objectdisturb disturbmust mustbetter betteraccount accountrett rettsyndrom syndromintellectu intellectudisabl disablglobal globaldevelopment developmentdelay delayicd-10 icd-10use useessenti essentidefinit definitsever severdiagnost diagnostinstrument instrumentavail availtwo twocommon commonuse useautism autismresearch researchautism autismdiagnost diagnostinterview-revis interview-revisadi-r adi-rsemistructur semistructurparent parentinterview interviewautism autismdiagnost diagnostobserv observschedul schedulado adouse useobserv observinteract interactchild childchildhood childhoodautism autismrate ratescale scalecar caruse usewide wideclinic clinicenviron environassess assesssever severautism autismbase baseobserv observchildren childrendiagnost diagnostinterview interviewsocial socialcommunic communicdisord disorddisco discomay mayalso alsouse usepediatrician pediatriciancommon commonperform performpreliminari preliminariinvestig investigtake takedevelopment developmenthistori historiphysic physicexamin examinchild childwarrant warrantdiagnosi diagnosievalu evaluconduct conducthelp helpasd asdspecialist specialistobserv observassess assesscognit cognitcommunic communicfamili familifactor factoruse usestandard standardtool tooltake takeaccount accountassoci associmedic mediccondit conditpediatr pediatrneuropsychologist neuropsychologistoften oftenask askassess assessbehavior behaviorcognit cognitskill skillaid aiddiagnosi diagnosihelp helprecommend recommendeduc educintervent interventdifferenti differentidiagnosi diagnosiasd asdstage stagemight mightalso alsoconsid considintellectu intellectudisabl disablhear hearimpair impairspecif speciflanguag languagimpair impairlandau–kleffn landau–kleffnsyndrom syndrompresenc presencautism autismmake makeharder harderdiagnos diagnoscoexist coexistpsychiatr psychiatrdisord disorddepress depressclinic clinicgenet genetevalu evaluoften oftendone doneasd asddiagnos diagnosparticular particularsymptom symptomalreadi alreadisuggest suggestgenet genetcaus causalthough althoughgenet genettechnolog technologallow allowclinic clinicgeneticist geneticistlink linkestim estim40 40case casegenet genetcaus causconsensus consensusguidelin guidelinus usuk uklimit limithigh-resolut high-resolutchromosom chromosomfragil fragilx xtest testgenotype-first genotype-firstmodel modeldiagnosi diagnosipropos proposwould wouldroutin routinassess assessgenom genom's 'scopi copinumber numbervariat variatnew newgenet genettest testdevelop developsever severethic ethiclegal legalsocial socialissu issuemerg emergcommerci commerciavail availtest testmay maypreced precedadequ adequunderstand understanduse usetest testresult resultgiven givencomplex complexautism autism's 'sgenet genetmetabol metabolneuroimag neuroimagtest testsometim sometimhelp helproutin routinasd asdsometim sometimdiagnos diagnosage age14 14month monthalthough althoughdiagnosi diagnosibecom becomincreas increasstabl stablfirst firstthree threeyear yearlife lifeexampl examplone-year-old one-year-oldmeet meetdiagnost diagnostcriteria criteriaasd asdless lesslike likethree-year-old three-year-oldcontinu continuyear yearlater lateruk uknation nationautism autismplan planchildren childrenrecommend recommend30 30week weekfirst firstconcern concerncomplet completdiagnosi diagnosiassess assessthough thoughcase casehandl handlquick quickpractic practicalthough althoughsymptom symptomautism autismasd asdbegin beginearli earlichildhood childhoodsometim sometimmiss missyear yearlater lateradult adultmay mayseek seekdiagnos diagnoshelp helpfriend friendfamili familiunderstand understandhelp helpemploy employmake makeadjust adjustlocat locatclaim claimdisabl disabllive liveallow allowbenefit benefitgirl girloften oftendiagnos diagnoslater laterboy boyunderdiagnosi underdiagnosioverdiagnosi overdiagnosiproblem problemmargin margincase casemuch muchrecent recentincreas increasnumber numberreport reportasd asdcase caselike likedue duechang changdiagnost diagnostpractic practicincreas increaspopular populardrug drugtreatment treatmentoption optionexpans expansbenefit benefitgiven givenprovid providincent incentdiagnos diagnosasd asdresult resultoverdiagnosi overdiagnosichildren childrenuncertain uncertainsymptom symptomconvers converscost costscreen screendiagnosi diagnosichalleng challengobtain obtainpayment paymentinhibit inhibitdelay delaydiagnosi diagnosiparticular particularhard harddiagnos diagnosautism autismamong amongvisual visualimpair impairpart partdiagnost diagnostcriteria criteriadepend dependvision visionpart partautist autistsymptom symptomoverlap overlapcommon commonblind blindsyndrom syndromblindism | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-10 | Autism
Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.
Autism is one of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, and severely restricted interests and highly repetitive behavior. These symptoms do not imply sickness, fragility, or emotional disturbance.
Of the five PDD forms, Asperger syndrome is closest to autism in signs and likely causes; Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder share several signs with autism, but may have unrelated causes; PDD not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS; also called "atypical autism") is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder. Unlike with autism, people with Asperger syndrome have no substantial delay in language development. The terminology of autism can be bewildering, with autism, Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS often called the "autism spectrum disorders" (ASD) or sometimes the "autistic disorders", whereas autism itself is often called "autistic disorder", "childhood autism", or "infantile autism". In this article, "autism" refers to the classic autistic disorder; in clinical practice, though, "autism", "ASD", and "PDD" are often used interchangeably. ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism phenotype, which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like traits, such as avoiding eye contact.
The manifestations of autism cover a wide spectrum, ranging from individuals with severe impairments—who may be silent, developmentally disabled, and locked into hand flapping and rocking—to high functioning individuals who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches, narrowly focused interests, and verbose, pedantic communication. Because the behavior spectrum is continuous, boundaries between diagnostic categories are necessarily somewhat arbitrary. Sometimes the syndrome is divided into low-, medium- or high-functioning autism (LFA, MFA, and HFA), based on IQ thresholds, or on how much support the individual requires in daily life; these subdivisions are not standardized and are controversial. Autism can also be divided into syndromal and non-syndromal autism; the syndromal autism is associated with severe or profound intellectual disability or a congenital syndrome with physical symptoms, such as tuberous sclerosis. Although individuals with Asperger syndrome tend to perform better cognitively than those with autism, the extent of the overlap between Asperger syndrome, HFA, and non-syndromal autism is unclear.
Some studies have reported diagnoses of autism in children due to a loss of language or social skills, as opposed to a failure to make progress, typically from 15 to 30 months of age. The validity of this distinction remains controversial; it is possible that regressive autism is a specific subtype, or that there is a continuum of behaviors between autism with and without regression.
Research into causes has been hampered by the inability to identify biologically meaningful subgroups within the autistic population and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, neurology and pediatrics. Newer technologies such as fMRI and diffusion tensor imaging can help identify biologically relevant phenotypes (observable traits) that can be viewed on brain scans, to help further neurogenetic studies of autism; one example is lowered activity in the fusiform face area of the brain, which is associated with impaired perception of people versus objects. It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as well as behavior.
section:diagnosis. :diagnosis.classif classifautism autismone onefive fivepervas pervasdevelopment developmentdisord disordpdd pddcharacter characterwidespread widespreadabnorm abnormsocial socialinteract interactcommunic communicsever severrestrict restrictinterest interesthigh highrepetit repetitbehavior behaviorsymptom symptomimpli implisick sickfragil fragilemot emotdisturb disturbfive fivepdd pddform formasperg aspergsyndrom syndromclosest closestautism autismsign signlike likecaus causrett rettsyndrom syndromchildhood childhooddisintegr disintegrdisord disordshare sharesever seversign signautism autismmay mayunrel unrelcaus causpdd pddotherwis otherwisspecifi specifipdd-nos pdd-nosalso alsocall call`` ``atyp atypautism autism'' ''diagnos diagnoscriteria criteriamet metspecif specifdisord disordunlik unlikautism autismpeopl peoplasperg aspergsyndrom syndromsubstanti substantidelay delaylanguag languagdevelop developterminolog terminologautism autismbewild bewildautism autismasperg aspergsyndrom syndrompdd-nos pdd-nosoften oftencall call`` ``autism autismspectrum spectrumdisord disord'' ''asd asdsometim sometim`` ``autist autistdisord disord'' ''wherea whereaautism autismoften oftencall call`` ``autist autistdisord disord'' ''`` ``childhood childhoodautism autism'' ''`` ``infantil infantilautism autism'' ''articl articl`` ``autism autism'' ''refer referclassic classicautist autistdisord disordclinic clinicpractic practicthough though`` ``autism autism'' ''`` ``asd asd'' ''`` ``pdd pdd'' ''often oftenuse useinterchang interchangasd asdturn turnsubset subsetbroader broaderautism autismphenotyp phenotypdescrib describindividu individumay mayasd asdautistic-lik autistic-liktrait traitavoid avoideye eyecontact contactmanifest manifestautism autismcover coverwide widespectrum spectrumrang rangindividu individusever severimpairments—who impairments—whomay maysilent silentdevelopment developmentdisabl disabllock lockhand handflap flaprocking—to rocking—tohigh highfunction functionindividu individumay mayactiv activdistinct distinctodd oddsocial socialapproach approachnarrowli narrowlifocus focusinterest interestverbos verbospedant pedantcommunic communicbehavior behaviorspectrum spectrumcontinu continuboundari boundaridiagnost diagnostcategori categorinecessarili necessarilisomewhat somewhatarbitrari arbitrarisometim sometimsyndrom syndromdivid dividlow- low-medium- medium-high-funct high-functautism autismlfa lfamfa mfahfa hfabase baseiq iqthreshold thresholdmuch muchsupport supportindividu individurequir requirdaili daililife lifesubdivis subdivisstandard standardcontroversi controversiautism autismalso alsodivid dividsyndrom syndromnon-syndrom non-syndromautism autismsyndrom syndromautism autismassoci associsever severprofound profoundintellectu intellectudisabl disablcongenit congenitsyndrom syndromphysic physicsymptom symptomtuber tubersclerosi sclerosialthough althoughindividu individuasperg aspergsyndrom syndromtend tendperform performbetter bettercognit cognitautism autismextent extentoverlap overlapasperg aspergsyndrom syndromhfa hfanon-syndrom non-syndromautism autismunclear unclearstudi studireport reportdiagnos diagnosautism autismchildren childrendue dueloss losslanguag languagsocial socialskill skilloppos opposfailur failurmake makeprogress progresstypic typic15 1530 30month monthage agevalid validdistinct distinctremain remaincontroversi controversipossibl possiblregress regressautism autismspecif specifsubtyp subtypcontinuum continuumbehavior behaviorautism autismwithout withoutregress regressresearch researchcaus caushamper hamperinabl inablidentifi identifibiolog biologmeaning meaningsubgroup subgroupwithin withinautist autistpopul popultradit traditboundari boundaridisciplin disciplinpsychiatri psychiatripsycholog psychologneurolog neurologpediatr pediatrnewer newertechnolog technologfmri fmridiffus diffustensor tensorimag imaghelp helpidentifi identifibiolog biologrelev relevphenotyp phenotypobserv observtrait traitview viewbrain brainscan scanhelp helpneurogenet neurogenetstudi studiautism autismone oneexampl exampllower loweractiv activfusiform fusiformface facearea areabrain brainassoci associimpair impairpercept perceptpeopl peoplversus versusobject objectpropos proposclassifi classifiautism autismuse usegenet genetwell wellbehavior | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-11 | Autism
Section::::Screening.
About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child's unusual behaviors by age 18 months, and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months. According to an article, failure to meet any of the following milestones "is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the long-term outcome".
BULLET::::- No babbling by 12 months.
BULLET::::- No gesturing (pointing, waving, etc.) by 12 months.
BULLET::::- No single words by 16 months.
BULLET::::- No two-word (spontaneous, not just echolalic) phrases by 24 months.
BULLET::::- Loss of any language or social skills, at any age.
The United States Preventive Services Task Force in 2016 found it was unclear if screening was beneficial or harmful among children in whom there is no concerns. The Japanese practice is to screen all children for ASD at 18 and 24 months, using autism-specific formal screening tests. In contrast, in the UK, children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are screened. It is not known which approach is more effective. Screening tools include the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT), the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire, and the First Year Inventory; initial data on M-CHAT and its predecessor, the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (CHAT), on children aged 18–30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low sensitivity (many false-negatives) but good specificity (few false-positives). It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders. Screening tools designed for one culture's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be inappropriate for a different culture. Although genetic screening for autism is generally still impractical, it can be considered in some cases, such as children with neurological symptoms and dysmorphic features.
section:screen :screenhalf halfparent parentchildren childrenasd asdnotic noticchild child's 'sunusu unusubehavior behaviorage age18 18month monthfour-fifth four-fifthnotic noticage age24 24month monthaccord accordarticl articlfailur failurmeet meetfollow followmileston mileston`` ``absolut absolutindic indicproceed proceedevalu evaludelay delayreferr referrtest testmay maydelay delayearli earlidiagnosi diagnositreatment treatmentaffect affectlong-term long-termoutcom outcom'' ''bullet bullet:- :-babbl babbl12 12month monthbullet bullet:- :-gestur gesturpoint pointwave waveetc etc12 12month monthbullet bullet:- :-singl singlword word16 16month monthbullet bullet:- :-two-word two-wordspontan spontanecholal echolalphrase phrase24 24month monthbullet bullet:- :-loss losslanguag languagsocial socialskill skillage ageunit unitstate stateprevent preventservic servictask taskforc forc2016 2016found foundunclear unclearscreen screenbenefici beneficiharm harmamong amongchildren childrenconcern concernjapanes japanespractic practicscreen screenchildren childrenasd asd18 1824 24month monthuse useautism-specif autism-specifformal formalscreen screentest testcontrast contrastuk ukchildren childrenwhose whosefamili familidoctor doctorrecogn recognpossibl possiblsign signautism autismscreen screenknown knownapproach approacheffect effectscreen screentool toolinclud includmodifi modifichecklist checklistautism autismtoddler toddlerm-chat m-chatearli earliscreen screenautist autisttrait traitquestionnair questionnairfirst firstyear yearinventori inventoriiniti initidata datam-chat m-chatpredecessor predecessorchecklist checklistautism autismtoddler toddlerchat chatchildren childrenage age18–30 18–30month monthsuggest suggestbest bestuse useclinic clinicset setlow lowsensit sensitmani manifalse-neg false-neggood goodspecif speciffalse-posit false-positmay mayaccur accurpreced precedtest testbroadband broadbandscreener screenerdistinguish distinguishasd asddevelopment developmentdisord disordscreen screentool tooldesign designone onecultur cultur's 'snorm normbehavior behaviorlike likeeye eyecontact contactmay mayinappropri inappropridiffer differcultur culturalthough althoughgenet genetscreen screenautism autismgeneral generalstill stillimpract impractconsid considcase casechildren childrenneurolog neurologsymptom symptomdysmorph dysmorphfeatur | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-12 | Autism
Section::::Prevention.
While infection with rubella during pregnancy causes fewer than 1% of cases of autism, vaccination against rubella can prevent many of those cases.
section:prevent :preventinfect infectrubella rubellapregnanc pregnanccaus causfewer fewer1 1case caseautism autismvaccin vaccinrubella rubellaprevent preventmani manicase | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-13 | Autism
Section::::Management.
The main goals when treating children with autism are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. In general, higher IQs are correlated with greater responsiveness to treatment and improved treatment outcomes. No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs. Families and the educational system are the main resources for treatment. Services should be carried out by behavior analysts, special education teachers, speech pathologists, and licensed psychologists. Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy. However, the development of evidence-based interventions has advanced in recent years. Although many psychosocial interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of systematic reviews of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options. Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, communication, and job skills, and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors; claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated. While medications have not been found to help with core symptoms, they may be used for associated symptoms, such as irritability, inattention, or repetitive behavior patterns.
section:manag :managmain maingoal goaltreat treatchildren childrenautism autismlessen lessenassoci assocideficit deficitfamili familidistress distressincreas increasqualiti qualitilife lifefunction functionindepend independgeneral generalhigher higheriq iqcorrel correlgreater greaterrespons responstreatment treatmentimprov improvtreatment treatmentoutcom outcomsingl singltreatment treatmentbest besttreatment treatmenttypic typictailor tailorchild child's 'sneed needfamili familieduc educsystem systemmain mainresourc resourctreatment treatmentservic serviccarri carribehavior behavioranalyst analystspecial specialeduc educteacher teacherspeech speechpathologist pathologistlicens licenspsychologist psychologiststudi studiintervent interventmethodolog methodologproblem problemprevent preventdefinit definitconclus conclusefficaci efficacihowev howevdevelop developevidence-bas evidence-basintervent interventadvanc advancrecent recentyear yearalthough althoughmani manipsychosoci psychosociintervent interventposit positevid evidsuggest suggestform formtreatment treatmentprefer prefertreatment treatmentmethodolog methodologqualiti qualitisystemat systematreview reviewstudi studigeneral generalpoor poorclinic clinicresult resultmost mosttentat tentatlittl littlevid evidrelat relateffect effecttreatment treatmentoption optionintens intenssustain sustainspecial specialeduc educprogram programbehavior behaviortherapi therapiearli earlilife lifehelp helpchildren childrenacquir acquirself-car self-carcommunic communicjob jobskill skilloften oftenimprov improvfunction functiondecreas decreassymptom symptomsever severmaladapt maladaptbehavior behaviorclaim claimintervent interventaround aroundage agethree threeyear yearcrucial crucialsubstanti substantimedic medicfound foundhelp helpcore coresymptom symptommay mayuse useassoci associsymptom symptomirrit irritinattent inattentrepetit repetitbehavior behaviorpattern | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-14 | Autism
Section::::Management.:Education.
Educational interventions often used include applied behavior analysis (ABA), developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy. Among these approaches, interventions either treat autistic features comprehensively, or focalize treatment on a specific area of deficit. The quality of research for early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI)—a treatment procedure carried out with very young children that incorporates over thirty hours per week of the structured type of ABA—is currently low, and more vigorous research designs with larger sample sizes are needed. Two theoretical frameworks outlined for early childhood intervention include structured and naturalistic ABA interventions, and developmental social pragmatic models (DSP). One interventional strategy utilizes a parent training model, which teaches parents how to implement various ABA and DSP techniques, allowing for parents to disseminate interventions themselves. Various DSP programs have been developed to explicitly deliver intervention systems through at-home parent implementation. Despite the recent development of parent training models, these interventions have demonstrated effectiveness in numerous studies, being evaluated as a probable efficacious mode of treatment.
Early, intensive ABA therapy has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing communication, as well as adaptive and global functioning in preschool children; it is well-established for improving the intellectual performance of that age group. Similarly, a teacher-implemented intervention that utilizes a more naturalistic form of ABA combined with a developmental social pragmatic approach has been found to be beneficial in improving social-communication skills in young children, although there is less evidence in its treatment of global symptoms. Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators, resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided. It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up, and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results. The appropriateness of including children with varying severity of autism spectrum disorders in the general education population is a subject of current debate among educators and researchers.
section:management. :management.educ educeduc educintervent interventoften oftenuse useinclud includappli applibehavior behavioranalysi analysiaba abadevelopment developmentmodel modelstructur structurteach teachspeech speechlanguag languagtherapi therapisocial socialskill skilltherapi therapioccup occuptherapi therapiamong amongapproach approachintervent interventeither eithertreat treatautist autistfeatur featurcomprehens comprehensfocal focaltreatment treatmentspecif specifarea areadeficit deficitqualiti qualitiresearch researchearli earliintens intensbehavior behaviorintervent interventeibi eibi—a —atreatment treatmentprocedur procedurcarri carriyoung youngchildren childrenincorpor incorporthirti thirtihour hourper perweek weekstructur structurtype typeaba—i aba—icurrent currentlow lowvigor vigorresearch researchdesign designlarger largersampl samplsize sizeneed needtwo twotheoret theoretframework frameworkoutlin outlinearli earlichildhood childhoodintervent interventinclud includstructur structurnaturalist naturalistaba abaintervent interventdevelopment developmentsocial socialpragmat pragmatmodel modeldsp dspone oneintervent interventstrategi strategiutil utilparent parenttrain trainmodel modelteach teachparent parentimplement implementvarious variousaba abadsp dsptechniqu techniquallow allowparent parentdissemin disseminintervent interventvarious variousdsp dspprogram programdevelop developexplicit explicitdeliv delivintervent interventsystem systemat-hom at-homparent parentimplement implementdespit despitrecent recentdevelop developparent parenttrain trainmodel modelintervent interventdemonstr demonstreffect effectnumer numerstudi studievalu evaluprobabl probablefficaci efficacimode modetreatment treatmentearli earliintens intensaba abatherapi therapidemonstr demonstreffect effectenhanc enhanccommunic communicwell welladapt adaptglobal globalfunction functionpreschool preschoolchildren childrenwell-establish well-establishimprov improvintellectu intellectuperform performage agegroup groupsimilar similarteacher-impl teacher-implintervent interventutil utilnaturalist naturalistform formaba abacombin combindevelopment developmentsocial socialpragmat pragmatapproach approachfound foundbenefici beneficiimprov improvsocial-commun social-communskill skillyoung youngchildren childrenalthough althoughless lessevid evidtreatment treatmentglobal globalsymptom symptomneuropsycholog neuropsychologreport reportoften oftenpoor poorcommunic communiceduc educresult resultgap gapreport reportrecommend recommendeduc educprovid providknown knownwhether whethertreatment treatmentprogram programchildren childrenlead leadsignific significimprov improvchildren childrengrow growlimit limitresearch researcheffect effectadult adultresidenti residentiprogram programshow showmix mixresult resultappropri appropriinclud includchildren childrenvari varisever severautism autismspectrum spectrumdisord disordgeneral generaleduc educpopul populsubject subjectcurrent currentdebat debatamong amongeduc educresearch | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-15 | Autism
Section::::Management.:Medication.
Medications may be used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with integrating a child into home or school when behavioral treatment fails. They may also be used for associated health problems, such as ADHD or anxiety. More than half of US children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed psychoactive drugs or anticonvulsants, with the most common drug classes being antidepressants, stimulants, and antipsychotics. The atypical antipsychotic drugs risperidone and aripiprazole are FDA-approved for treating associated aggressive and self-injurious behaviors. However, their side effects must be weighed against their potential benefits, and people with autism may respond atypically. Side effects, for example, may include weight gain, tiredness, drooling, and aggression. SSRI antidepressants, such as fluoxetine and fluvoxamine, have been shown to be effective in reducing repetitive and ritualistic behaviors, while the stimulant medication methylphenidate is beneficial for some children with co-morbid inattentiveness or hyperactivity. There is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD. No known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments. Experiments in mice have reversed or reduced some symptoms related to autism by replacing or modulating gene function, suggesting the possibility of targeting therapies to specific rare mutations known to cause autism.
section:management. :management.medic medicmedic medicmay mayuse usetreat treatasd asdsymptom symptominterfer interferintegr integrchild childhome homeschool schoolbehavior behaviortreatment treatmentfail failmay mayalso alsouse useassoci associhealth healthproblem problemadhd adhdanxieti anxietihalf halfus uschildren childrendiagnos diagnosasd asdprescrib prescribpsychoact psychoactdrug druganticonvuls anticonvulscommon commondrug drugclass classantidepress antidepressstimul stimulantipsychot antipsychotatyp atypantipsychot antipsychotdrug drugrisperidon risperidonaripiprazol aripiprazolfda-approv fda-approvtreat treatassoci associaggress aggressself-injuri self-injuribehavior behaviorhowev howevside sideeffect effectmust mustweigh weighpotenti potentibenefit benefitpeopl peoplautism autismmay mayrespond respondatyp atypside sideeffect effectexampl examplmay mayinclud includweight weightgain gaintired tireddrool droolaggress aggressssri ssriantidepress antidepressfluoxetin fluoxetinfluvoxamin fluvoxaminshown showneffect effectreduc reducrepetit repetitritualist ritualistbehavior behaviorstimul stimulmedic medicmethylphenid methylphenidbenefici beneficichildren childrenco-morbid co-morbidinattent inattenthyperact hyperactscant scantreliabl reliablresearch researcheffect effectsafeti safetidrug drugtreatment treatmentadolesc adolescadult adultasd asdknown knownmedic medicreliev relievautism autism's 'score coresymptom symptomsocial socialcommunic communicimpair impairexperi experimice micerevers reversreduc reducsymptom symptomrelat relatautism autismreplac replacmodul modulgene genefunction functionsuggest suggestpossibl possibltarget targettherapi therapispecif specifrare raremutat mutatknown knowncaus causautism | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-16 | Autism
Section::::Management.:Alternative medicine.
Although many alternative therapies and interventions are available, few are supported by scientific studies. Treatment approaches have little empirical support in quality-of-life contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance. Some alternative treatments may place the child at risk. The preference that children with autism have for unconventional foods can lead to reduction in bone cortical thickness with this being greater in those on casein-free diets, as a consequence of the low intake of calcium and vitamin D; however, suboptimal bone development in ASD has also been associated with lack of exercise and gastrointestinal disorders. In 2005, botched chelation therapy killed a five-year-old child with autism. Chelation is not recommended for people with ASD since the associated risks outweigh any potential benefits. Another alternative medicine practice with no evidence is CEASE therapy, a mixture of homeopathy, supplements, and 'vaccine detoxing'.
Although popularly used as an alternative treatment for people with autism, as of 2018 there is no good evidence to recommend a gluten- and casein-free diet as a standard treatment. A 2018 review concluded that it may be a therapeutic option for specific groups of children with autism, such as those with known food intolerances or allergies, or with food intolerance markers. The authors analyzed the prospective trials conducted to date that studied the efficacy of the gluten- and casein-free diet in children with ASD (4 in total). All of them compared gluten- and casein-free diet versus normal diet with a control group (2 double blind randomized controlled trials, 1 double blind crossover trial, 1 single blind trial). In two of the studies, whose duration was 12 and 24 months, a significant improvement in ASD symptoms (efficacy rate 50%) was identified. In the other two studies, whose duration was 3 months, no significant effect was observed. The authors concluded that a longer duration of the diet may be necessary to achieve the improvement of the ASD symptoms. Other problems documented in the trials carried out include transgressions of the diet, small sample size, the heterogeneity of the participants and the possibility of a placebo effect.
In the subset of people who have gluten sensitivity there is limited evidence that suggests that a gluten-free diet may improve some autistic behaviors.
There is tentative evidence that music therapy may improve social interactions, verbal communication, and non-verbal communication skills. There has been early research looking at hyperbaric treatments in children with autism.
section:manag :managaltern alternmedicin medicinalthough althoughmani manialtern alterntherapi therapiintervent interventavail availsupport supportscientif scientifstudi studitreatment treatmentapproach approachlittl littlempir empirsupport supportquality-of-lif quality-of-lifcontext contextmani maniprogram programfocus focussuccess successmeasur measurlack lackpredict predictvalid validreal-world real-worldrelev relevaltern alterntreatment treatmentmay mayplace placechild childrisk riskprefer preferchildren childrenautism autismunconvent unconventfood foodlead leadreduct reductbone bonecortic corticthick thickgreater greatercasein-fre casein-frediet dietconsequ consequlow lowintak intakcalcium calciumvitamin vitaminhowev howevsuboptim suboptimbone bonedevelop developasd asdalso alsoassoci associlack lackexercis exercisgastrointestin gastrointestindisord disord2005 2005botch botchchelat chelattherapi therapikill killfive-year-old five-year-oldchild childautism autismchelat chelatrecommend recommendpeopl peoplasd asdsinc sincassoci associrisk riskoutweigh outweighpotenti potentibenefit benefitanoth anothaltern alternmedicin medicinpractic practicevid evidceas ceastherapi therapimixtur mixturhomeopathi homeopathisupplement supplementvaccin vaccindetox detoxalthough althoughpopular popularuse usealtern alterntreatment treatmentpeopl peoplautism autism2018 2018good goodevid evidrecommend recommendgluten- gluten-casein-fre casein-frediet dietstandard standardtreatment treatment2018 2018review reviewconclud concludmay maytherapeut therapeutoption optionspecif specifgroup groupchildren childrenautism autismknown knownfood foodintoler intolerallergi allergifood foodintoler intolermarker markerauthor authoranalyz analyzprospect prospecttrial trialconduct conductdate datestudi studiefficaci efficacigluten- gluten-casein-fre casein-frediet dietchildren childrenasd asd4 4total totalcompar compargluten- gluten-casein-fre casein-frediet dietversus versusnormal normaldiet dietcontrol controlgroup group2 2doubl doublblind blindrandom randomcontrol controltrial trial1 1doubl doublblind blindcrossov crossovtrial trial1 1singl singlblind blindtrial trialtwo twostudi studiwhose whosedurat durat12 1224 24month monthsignific significimprov improvasd asdsymptom symptomefficaci efficacirate rate50 50identifi identifitwo twostudi studiwhose whosedurat durat3 3month monthsignific significeffect effectobserv observauthor authorconclud concludlonger longerdurat duratdiet dietmay maynecessari necessariachiev achievimprov improvasd asdsymptom symptomproblem problemdocument documenttrial trialcarri carriinclud includtransgress transgressdiet dietsmall smallsampl samplsize sizeheterogen heterogenparticip particippossibl possiblplacebo placeboeffect effectsubset subsetpeopl peoplgluten glutensensit sensitlimit limitevid evidsuggest suggestgluten-fre gluten-frediet dietmay mayimprov improvautist autistbehavior behaviortentat tentatevid evidmusic musictherapi therapimay mayimprov improvsocial socialinteract interactverbal verbalcommunic communicnon-verb non-verbcommunic communicskill skillearli earliresearch researchlook lookhyperbar hyperbartreatment treatmentchildren childrenautism | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-17 | Autism
Section::::Prognosis.
There is no known cure. Children recover occasionally, so that they lose their diagnosis of ASD; this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not. It is not known how often recovery happens; reported rates in unselected samples have ranged from 3% to 25%. Most children with autism acquire language by age five or younger, though a few have developed communication skills in later years. Most children with autism lack social support, meaningful relationships, future employment opportunities or self-determination. Although core difficulties tend to persist, symptoms often become less severe with age.
Few high-quality studies address long-term prognosis. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife. Acquiring language before age six, having an IQ above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; independent living is unlikely with severe autism.
Many individuals with autism face significant obstacles in transitioning to adulthood. Compared to the general population individuals with autism are more likely to be unemployed and to have never had a job. People in their 20s with autism have an employment rate of 58%.
section:prognosi :prognosiknown knowncure curechildren childrenrecov recovoccasion occasionlose losediagnosi diagnosiasd asdoccur occursometim sometimintens intenstreatment treatmentsometim sometimknown knownoften oftenrecoveri recoverihappen happenreport reportrate rateunselect unselectsampl samplrang rang3 325 25children childrenautism autismacquir acquirlanguag languagage agefive fiveyounger youngerthough thoughdevelop developcommunic communicskill skilllater lateryear yearchildren childrenautism autismlack lacksocial socialsupport supportmeaning meaningrelationship relationshipfutur futuremploy employopportun opportunself-determin self-determinalthough althoughcore coredifficulti difficultitend tendpersist persistsymptom symptomoften oftenbecom becomless lesssever severage agehigh-qual high-qualstudi studiaddress addresslong-term long-termprognosi prognosiadult adultshow showmodest modestimprov improvcommunic communicskill skilldeclin declinstudi studifocus focusautism autismmidlif midlifacquir acquirlanguag languagage agesix sixiq iq50 50market marketskill skillpredict predictbetter betteroutcom outcomindepend independlive liveunlik unliksever severautism autismmani maniindividu individuautism autismface facesignific significobstacl obstacltransit transitadulthood adulthoodcompar compargeneral generalpopul populindividu individuautism autismlike likeunemploy unemploynever neverjob jobpeopl peopl20s 20sautism autismemploy employrate rate58 | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-18 | Autism
Section::::Epidemiology.
Most recent reviews tend to estimate a prevalence of 1–2 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD, and 11 per 1,000 children in the United States for ASD as of 2008; because of inadequate data, these numbers may underestimate ASD's true rate. Globally, autism affects an estimated 24.8 million people , while Asperger syndrome affects a further 37.2 million. In 2012, the NHS estimated that the overall prevalence of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the UK was 1.1%. Rates of PDD-NOS's has been estimated at 3.7 per 1,000, Asperger syndrome at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, and childhood disintegrative disorder at 0.02 per 1,000. CDC estimates about 1 out of 59 (1.7%) for 2014, an increase from 1 out of every 68 children (1.5%) for 2010.
The number of reported cases of autism increased dramatically in the 1990s and early 2000s. This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness, though unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out. The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism's true prevalence has increased; a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics.
Boys are at higher risk for ASD than girls. The sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with intellectual disability and more than 5.5:1 without. Several theories about the higher prevalence in males have been investigated, but the cause of the difference is unconfirmed; one theory is that females are underdiagnosed.
Although the evidence does not implicate any single pregnancy-related risk factor as a cause of autism, the risk of autism is associated with advanced age in either parent, and with diabetes, bleeding, and use of psychiatric drugs in the mother during pregnancy. The risk is greater with older fathers than with older mothers; two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden in older sperm, and the hypothesis that men marry later if they carry genetic liability and show some signs of autism. Most professionals believe that race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic background do not affect the occurrence of autism.
Several other conditions are common in children with autism. They include:
BULLET::::- Genetic disorders. About 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable Mendelian (single-gene) condition, chromosome abnormality, or other genetic syndrome, and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders.
BULLET::::- Intellectual disability. The percentage of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%, a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing intelligence of individuals on the autism spectrum. In comparison, for PDD-NOS the association with intellectual disability is much weaker, and by definition, the diagnosis of Asperger's excludes intellectual disability.
BULLET::::- Anxiety disorders are common among children with ASD; there are no firm data, but studies have reported prevalences ranging from 11% to 84%. Many anxiety disorders have symptoms that are better explained by ASD itself, or are hard to distinguish from ASD's symptoms.
BULLET::::- Epilepsy, with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of language disorder.
BULLET::::- Several metabolic defects, such as phenylketonuria, are associated with autistic symptoms.
BULLET::::- Minor physical anomalies are significantly increased in the autistic population.
BULLET::::- Preempted diagnoses. Although the DSM-IV rules out concurrent diagnosis of many other conditions along with autism, the full criteria for Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Tourette syndrome, and other of these conditions are often present and these comorbid diagnoses are increasingly accepted.
BULLET::::- Sleep problems affect about two-thirds of individuals with ASD at some point in childhood. These most commonly include symptoms of insomnia such as difficulty in falling asleep, frequent nocturnal awakenings, and early morning awakenings. Sleep problems are associated with difficult behaviors and family stress, and are often a focus of clinical attention over and above the primary ASD diagnosis.
section:epidemiolog :epidemiologrecent recentreview reviewtend tendestim estimpreval preval1–2 1–2per per1,000 1,000autism autismclose close6 6per per1,000 1,000asd asd11 11per per1,000 1,000children childrenunit unitstate stateasd asd2008 2008inadequ inadequdata datanumber numbermay mayunderestim underestimasd asd's 'strue truerate rateglobal globalautism autismaffect affectestim estim24.8 24.8million millionpeopl peoplasperg aspergsyndrom syndromaffect affect37.2 37.2million million2012 2012nhs nhsestim estimoveral overalpreval prevalautism autismamong amongadult adultage age18 18year yearuk uk1.1 1.1rate ratepdd-nos pdd-nos's 'sestim estim3.7 3.7per per1,000 1,000asperg aspergsyndrom syndromrough rough0.6 0.6per per1,000 1,000childhood childhooddisintegr disintegrdisord disord0.02 0.02per per1,000 1,000cdc cdcestim estim1 159 591.7 1.72014 2014increas increas1 1everi everi68 68children children1.5 1.52010 2010number numberreport reportcase caseautism autismincreas increasdramat dramat1990s 1990searli earli2000s 2000sincreas increaslarg largattribut attributchang changdiagnost diagnostpractic practicreferr referrpattern patternavail availservic servicage agediagnosi diagnosipublic publicawar awarthough thoughunidentifi unidentifienvironment environmentrisk riskfactor factorrule ruleavail availevid evidrule rulepossibl possiblautism autism's 'strue truepreval prevalincreas increasreal realincreas increaswould wouldsuggest suggestdirect directattent attentfund fundtoward towardchang changenvironment environmentfactor factorinstead insteadcontinu continufocus focusgenet genetboy boyhigher higherrisk riskasd asdgirl girlsex sexratio ratioaverag averag4.3:1 4.3:1great greatmodifi modificognit cognitimpair impairmay mayclose close2:1 2:1intellectu intellectudisabl disabl5.5:1 5.5:1without withoutsever severtheori theorihigher higherpreval prevalmale maleinvestig investigcaus causdiffer differunconfirm unconfirmone onetheori theorifemal femalunderdiagnos underdiagnosalthough althoughevid evidimplic implicsingl singlpregnancy-rel pregnancy-relrisk riskfactor factorcaus causautism autismrisk riskautism autismassoci associadvanc advancage ageeither eitherparent parentdiabet diabetbleed bleeduse usepsychiatr psychiatrdrug drugmother motherpregnanc pregnancrisk riskgreater greaterolder olderfather fatherolder oldermother mothertwo twopotenti potentiexplan explanknown knownincreas increasmutat mutatburden burdenolder oldersperm spermhypothesi hypothesimen menmarri marrilater latercarri carrigenet genetliabil liabilshow showsign signautism autismprofession professionbeliev believrace raceethnic ethnicsocioeconom socioeconombackground backgroundaffect affectoccurr occurrautism autismsever severcondit conditcommon commonchildren childrenautism autisminclud includbullet bullet:- :-genet genetdisord disord10–15 10–15autism autismcase caseidentifi identifimendelian mendeliansingle-gen single-gencondit conditchromosom chromosomabnorm abnormgenet genetsyndrom syndromasd asdassoci associsever severgenet genetdisord disordbullet bullet:- :-intellectu intellectudisabl disablpercentag percentagautist autistindividu individualso alsomeet meetcriteria criteriaintellectu intellectudisabl disablreport reportanywher anywher25 2570 70wide widevariat variatillustr illustrdifficulti difficultiassess assessintellig intelligindividu individuautism autismspectrum spectrumcomparison comparisonpdd-nos pdd-nosassoci associintellectu intellectudisabl disablmuch muchweaker weakerdefinit definitdiagnosi diagnosiasperg asperg's 'sexclud excludintellectu intellectudisabl disablbullet bullet:- :-anxieti anxietidisord disordcommon commonamong amongchildren childrenasd asdfirm firmdata datastudi studireport reportpreval prevalrang rang11 1184 84mani manianxieti anxietidisord disordsymptom symptombetter betterexplain explainasd asdhard harddistinguish distinguishasd asd's 'ssymptom symptombullet bullet:- :-epilepsi epilepsivariat variatrisk riskepilepsi epilepsidue dueage agecognit cognitlevel leveltype typelanguag languagdisord disordbullet bullet:- :-sever severmetabol metaboldefect defectphenylketonuria phenylketonuriaassoci associautist autistsymptom symptombullet bullet:- :-minor minorphysic physicanomali anomalisignific significincreas increasautist autistpopul populbullet bullet:- :-preempt preemptdiagnos diagnosalthough althoughdsm-iv dsm-ivrule ruleconcurr concurrdiagnosi diagnosimani manicondit conditalong alongautism autismfull fullcriteria criteriaattent attentdeficit deficithyperact hyperactdisord disordadhd adhdtourett tourettsyndrom syndromcondit conditoften oftenpresent presentcomorbid comorbiddiagnos diagnosincreas increasaccept acceptbullet bullet:- :-sleep sleepproblem problemaffect affecttwo-third two-thirdindividu individuasd asdpoint pointchildhood childhoodcommon commoninclud includsymptom symptominsomnia insomniadifficulti difficultifall fallasleep asleepfrequent frequentnocturn nocturnawaken awakenearli earlimorn mornawaken awakensleep sleepproblem problemassoci associdifficult difficultbehavior behaviorfamili familistress stressoften oftenfocus focusclinic clinicattent attentprimari primariasd asddiagnosi | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-19 | Autism
Section::::History.
A few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named. The "Table Talk" of Martin Luther, compiled by his notetaker, Mathesius, contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic. Luther reportedly thought the boy was a soulless mass of flesh possessed by the devil, and suggested that he be suffocated, although a later critic has cast doubt on the veracity of this report. The earliest well-documented case of autism is that of Hugh Blair of Borgue, as detailed in a 1747 court case in which his brother successfully petitioned to annul Blair's marriage to gain Blair's inheritance. The Wild Boy of Aveyron, a feral child caught in 1798, showed several signs of autism; the medical student Jean Itard treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation.
The New Latin word "autismus" (English translation "autism") was coined by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of schizophrenia. He derived it from the Greek word "autós" (αὐτός, meaning "self"), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance". A Soviet child psychiatrist, Grunya Sukhareva, described a similar syndrome that was published in Russian in 1925, and in German in 1926.
section:histori :historiexampl examplautist autistsymptom symptomtreatment treatmentdescrib describlong longautism autismname name`` ``tabl tabltalk talk'' ''martin martinluther luthercompil compilnotetak notetakmathesius mathesiuscontain containstori stori12-year-old 12-year-oldboy boymay maysever severautist autistluther lutherreport reportthought thoughtboy boysoulless soullessmass massflesh fleshpossess possessdevil devilsuggest suggestsuffoc suffocalthough althoughlater latercritic criticcast castdoubt doubtverac veracreport reportearliest earliestwell-docu well-docucase caseautism autismhugh hughblair blairborgu borgudetail detail1747 1747court courtcase casebrother brothersuccess successpetit petitannul annulblair blair's 'smarriag marriaggain gainblair blair's 'sinherit inheritwild wildboy boyaveyron aveyronferal feralchild childcaught caught1798 1798show showsever seversign signautism autismmedic medicstudent studentjean jeanitard itardtreat treatbehavior behaviorprogram programdesign designhelp helpform formsocial socialattach attachinduc inducspeech speechvia viaimit imitnew newlatin latinword word`` ``autismus autismus'' ''english englishtranslat translat`` ``autism autism'' ''coin coinswiss swisspsychiatrist psychiatristeugen eugenbleuler bleuler1910 1910defin definsymptom symptomschizophrenia schizophreniaderiv derivgreek greekword word`` ``autó autó'' ''αὐτός αὐτόςmean mean`` ``self self'' ''use usemean meanmorbid morbidself-admir self-admirrefer refer`` ``autist autistwithdraw withdrawpatient patientfantasi fantasiinfluenc influencoutsid outsidbecom becomintoler intolerdisturb disturb'' ''soviet sovietchild childpsychiatrist psychiatristgrunya grunyasukhareva sukharevadescrib describsimilar similarsyndrom syndrompublish publishrussian russian1925 1925german german1926 | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |
25-20 | Autism
Section::::History.:Clinical development and diagnoses.
The word "autism" first took its modern sense in 1938 when Hans Asperger of the Vienna University Hospital adopted Bleuler's terminology "autistic psychopaths" in a lecture in German about child psychology. Asperger was investigating an ASD now known as Asperger syndrome, though for various reasons it was not widely recognized as a separate diagnosis until 1981. Leo Kanner of the Johns Hopkins Hospital first used "autism" in its modern sense in English when he introduced the label "early infantile autism" in a 1943 report of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities. Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the subject, notably "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness", are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders. It is not known whether Kanner derived the term independently of Asperger.
Donald Triplett was the first person diagnosed with autism. He was diagnosed by Kanner after being first examined in 1938, and was labeled as "case 1". Triplett was noted for his savant abilities, particularly being able to name musical notes played on a piano and to mentally multiply numbers. His father, Oliver, described him as socially withdrawn but interested in number patterns, music notes, letters of the alphabet, and U.S. president pictures. By the age of 2, he had the ability to recite the 23rd Psalm and memorized 25 questions and answers from the Presbyterian catechism. He was also interested in creating musical chords.
Kanner's reuse of "autism" led to decades of confused terminology like "infantile schizophrenia", and child psychiatry's focus on maternal deprivation led to misconceptions of autism as an infant's response to "refrigerator mothers". Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome.
section:histori :historiclinic clinicdevelop developdiagnos diagnosword word`` ``autism autism'' ''first firsttook tookmodern modernsens sens1938 1938han hanasperg aspergvienna viennaunivers univershospit hospitadopt adoptbleuler bleuler's 'sterminolog terminolog`` ``autist autistpsychopath psychopath'' ''lectur lecturgerman germanchild childpsycholog psychologasperg asperginvestig investigasd asdknown knownasperg aspergsyndrom syndromthough thoughvarious variousreason reasonwide widerecogn recognsepar separdiagnosi diagnosi1981 1981leo leokanner kannerjohn johnhopkin hopkinhospit hospitfirst firstuse use`` ``autism autism'' ''modern modernsens sensenglish englishintroduc introduclabel label`` ``earli earliinfantil infantilautism autism'' ''1943 1943report report11 11children childrenstrike strikebehavior behaviorsimilar similaralmost almostcharacterist characteristdescrib describkanner kanner's 'sfirst firstpaper papersubject subjectnotabl notabl`` ``autist autistalon alon'' ''`` ``insist insistsame same'' ''still stillregard regardtypic typicautist autistspectrum spectrumdisord disordknown knownwhether whetherkanner kannerderiv derivterm termindepend independasperg aspergdonald donaldtriplett triplettfirst firstperson persondiagnos diagnosautism autismdiagnos diagnoskanner kannerfirst firstexamin examin1938 1938label label`` ``case case1 1'' ''triplett triplettnote notesavant savantabil abilparticular particularabl ablname namemusic musicnote noteplay playpiano pianomental mentalmultipli multiplinumber numberfather fatheroliv olivdescrib describsocial socialwithdrawn withdrawninterest interestnumber numberpattern patternmusic musicnote noteletter letteralphabet alphabetu.s. u.s.presid presidpictur picturage age2 2abil abilrecit recit23rd 23rdpsalm psalmmemor memor25 25question questionanswer answerpresbyterian presbyteriancatech catechalso alsointerest interestcreat creatmusic musicchord chordkanner kanner's 'sreus reus`` ``autism autism'' ''led leddecad decadconfus confusterminolog terminologlike like`` ``infantil infantilschizophrenia schizophrenia'' ''child childpsychiatri psychiatri's 'sfocus focusmatern materndepriv deprivled ledmisconcept misconceptautism autisminfant infant's 'srespons respons`` ``refriger refrigermother mother'' ''start startlate late1960s 1960sautism autismestablish establishsepar separsyndrom | 25 | Autism | Neurological disorders in children,Autism,Articles containing video clips,Neurological disorders,Communication disorders,Pervasive developmental disorders,Psychiatric diagnosis,Mental and behavioural disorders |