                        District (mean)             00 (00, 00)                                                    \[[@B00]\]   Shenyang cohort study                 NO~0~           00 (00--00)                            District (mean)             000 (000, 000)                                                 \[[@B00]\]   Shizuoka elderly cohort               NO~0~           00 (−00, 00)                           Address (LUR)               00 (0, 00)                                                     \[[@B00]\]   Two Scotch cohorts                    BS              00                                     LUR + temporal              00 (−0, 00)                                                    \[[@B00]\]   Rome longitudinal study               PM~0.0~         00 (0 -- 00)                           Address (DISP, 0 km grid)   0 (−0, 0)                                                      \[[@B00]\]  ^a^ Mean with minimum -- maximum in parentheses (μg/m^0^). One number in parentheses is standard deviation.  ^b^ Spatial scale of exposure assignment, in parentheses exposure assignment method. City = average of monitors within the city; Near = nearest monitor concentration; LUR = land use regression; Disp = dispersion modeling; Inter = interpolation.  Studies adjusted for individual smoking except references \[[@B00],[@B00],[@B00],[@B00],[@B00],[@B00]\].  Conclusions ===========  