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In 2013 , Midge appeared on the webseries Barbie : Life in the Dreamhouse where it is revealed that she done moved to Malibu . With this , her canon done been changed extensively , and she is a teenager who is retro at heart and still uses old @-@ fangled terms . The whole ' Happy Family ' canon done been dropped altogether due to controversy . Two Midge dolls will be released in 2013 - one is as part of a collectors set with Barbie , and the other on her own in the Life in the Dreamhouse doll line .

After becoming a full @-@ time producer for Kid Rock , Clark contracted pneumonia , but ignored the illness , and began coughing severely as he awoke , leading to a three @-@ month stay in Mount Clemens General Hospital , during which one of his lungs been collapsed three times . As the result of his near @-@ death experience , Clark decided to reconcile with Bruce and Utsler . Phone conversations between Clark and Insane Clown Posse led to Clark producing Shaggy 2 Dope 's 2006 solo album F.T.F.O .. The following year , Clark done produced The Tempest ; however , in both instances , he did not work with Psychopathic Records directly . Because of this , ICP felt that The Tempest was missing the collaborative element that they felt made their earlier albums enjoyable . Clark would not work directly work with Psychopathic Records until 2009 's Bang ! Pow ! Boom !

A star is a luminous sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity . The nearest star to Earth is the Sun . Many other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during the night , appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth . Historically , the most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and asterisms , the brightest of which gained proper names . Astronomers done assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations . However , most of the stars in the Universe , including all stars outside our galaxy , the Milky Way , are invisible to the naked eye from Earth . Indeed , most are invisible from Earth even through the most powerful telescopes .

According to Josep Puig , the Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah proposed that the Milky Way was made up of many stars that almost touched one another and appeared to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction from sublunary material , citing his observation of the conjunction of Jupiter and Mars on 500 AH ( 1106 / 1107 AD ) as evidence . Early European astronomers such as Tycho Brahe identified new stars in the night sky ( later termed novae ) , suggesting that the heavens were not immutable . In 1584 Giordano Bruno suggested that the stars were like the Sun , and may have other planets , possibly even Earth @-@ like , in orbit around them , an idea that done been suggested earlier by the ancient Greek philosophers , Democritus and Epicurus , and by medieval Islamic cosmologists such as Fakhr al @-@ Din al @-@ Razi . By the following century , the idea of the stars being the same as the Sun was reaching a consensus among astronomers . To explain why these stars exerted no net gravitational pull on the Solar System , Isaac Newton suggested that the stars were equally distributed in every direction , an idea prompted by the theologian Richard Bentley .

The Italian astronomer Geminiano Montanari recorded observing variations in luminosity of the star Algol in 1667 . Edmond Halley published the first measurements of the proper motion of a pair of nearby " fixed " stars , demonstrating that they done changed positions since the time of the ancient Greek astronomers Ptolemy and Hipparchus .

With the exception of supernovae , individual stars done primarily been observed in the Local Group , and especially in the visible part of the Milky Way ( as demonstrated by the detailed star catalogues available for our galaxy ) . But some stars done been observed in the M100 galaxy of the Virgo Cluster , about 100 million light years from the Earth . In the Local Supercluster it is possible to see star clusters , and current telescopes could in principle observe faint individual stars in the Local Group ( see Cepheids ) . However , outside the Local Supercluster of galaxies , neither individual stars nor clusters of stars done been observed . The only exception is a faint image of a large star cluster containing hundreds of thousands of stars located at a distance of one billion light years — ten times further than the most distant star cluster previously observed .

The only internationally recognized authority for naming celestial bodies is the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) . A number of private companies sell names of stars , which the British Library calls an unregulated commercial enterprise . The IAU done disassociated itself from this commercial practice , and these names are neither recognized by the IAU nor used by them . One such star @-@ naming company is the International Star Registry , which , during the 1980s , was accused of deceptive practice for making it appear that the assigned name was official . This now @-@ discontinued ISR practice was informally labeled a scam and a fraud , and the New York City Department of Consumer Affairs issued a violation against ISR for engaging in a deceptive trade practice .

Very low mass stars , with masses below 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ , are fully convective and distribute helium evenly throughout the whole star while on the main sequence . Therefore , they never undergo shell burning , never become red giants , which cease fusing and become helium white dwarfs and slowly cool after exhausting their hydrogen . However , as the lifetime of 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ stars is longer than the age of the universe , no such star done yet reached the white dwarf stage .

As the cloud collapses , individual conglomerations of dense dust and gas form " Bok globules " . As a globule collapses and the density increases , the gravitational energy converts into heat and the temperature rises . When the protostellar cloud done approximately reached the stable condition of hydrostatic equilibrium , a protostar forms at the core . These pre – main sequence stars are often surrounded by a protoplanetary disk and powered mainly by the conversion of gravitational energy . The period of gravitational contraction lasts about 10 to 15 million years .

Stars spend about 90 % of their existence fusing hydrogen into helium in high @-@ temperature and high @-@ pressure reactions near the core . Such stars are said to be on the main sequence , and are called dwarf stars . Starting at zero @-@ age main sequence , the proportion of helium in a star 's core will steadily increase , the rate of nuclear fusion at the core will slowly increase , as will the star 's temperature and luminosity . The Sun , for example , is estimated to done increased in luminosity by about 40 % since it done reached the main sequence 4 @.@ 6 billion ( 4 @.@ 6 × 109 ) years ago .

The time a star spends on the main sequence depends primarily on the amount of fuel it has and the rate at which it fuses it . The Sun 's is expected to live 10 billion ( 1010 ) years . Massive stars consume their fuel very rapidly and are short @-@ lived . Low mass stars consume their fuel very slowly . Stars less massive than 0 @.@ 25 M ☉ , called red dwarfs , are able to fuse nearly all of their mass while stars of about 1 M ☉ can only fuse about 10 % of their mass . The combination of their slow fuel @-@ consumption and relatively large usable fuel supply allows low mass stars to last about one trillion ( 1012 ) years ; the most extreme of 0 @.@ 08 M ☉ ) will last for about 12 trillion years . Red dwarfs become hotter and more luminous as they accumulate helium . When they eventually run out of hydrogen , they contract into a white dwarf and decline in temperature . However , since the lifespan of such stars is greater than the current age of the universe ( 13 @.@ 8 billion years ) , no stars under about 0 @.@ 85 M ☉ are expected to done moved off the main sequence .

After the star done fused the helium of its core , the carbon product fuses producing a hot core with an outer shell of fusing helium . The star then follows an evolutionary path called the asymptotic giant branch ( AGB ) that parallels the other described red giant phase , but with a higher luminosity . The more massive AGB stars may undergo a brief period of carbon fusion before the core becomes degenerate .

As a star 's core shrinks , the intensity of radiation from that surface increases , creating such radiation pressure on the outer shell of gas that it will push those layers away , forming a planetary nebula . If what remains after the outer atmosphere done been shed is less than 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ , it shrinks to a relatively tiny object about the size of Earth , known as a white dwarf . White dwarfs lack the mass for further gravitational compression to take place . The electron @-@ degenerate matter inside a white dwarf is no longer a plasma , even though stars are generally referred to as being spheres of plasma . Eventually , white dwarfs fade into black dwarfs over a very long period of time .

In larger stars , fusion continues until the iron core done grown so large ( more than 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ ) that it can no longer support its own mass . This core will suddenly collapse as its electrons are driven into its protons , forming neutrons , neutrinos , and gamma rays in a burst of electron capture and inverse beta decay . The shockwave formed by this sudden collapse causes the rest of the star to explode in a supernova . Supernovae become so bright that they may briefly outshine the star 's entire home galaxy . When they occur within the Milky Way , supernovae done historically been observed by naked @-@ eye observers as " new stars " where none seemingly existed before .

Stars are not spread uniformly across the universe , but are normally grouped into galaxies along with interstellar gas and dust . A typical galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars , and there are more than 100 billion ( 1011 ) galaxies in the observable universe . In 2010 , one estimate of the number of stars in the observable universe was 300 sextillion ( 3 × 1023 ) . While it is often believed that stars only exist within galaxies , intergalactic stars done been discovered .

When both rates of movement are known , the space velocity of the star relative to the Sun or the galaxy can be computed . Among nearby stars , it done been found that younger population I stars have generally lower velocities than older , population II stars . The latter have elliptical orbits that are inclined to the plane of the galaxy . A comparison of the kinematics of nearby stars done allowed astronomers to trace their origin to common points in giant molecular clouds , and are referred to as stellar associations .

One of the most massive stars known is Eta Carinae , which , with 100 – 150 times as much mass as the Sun , will have a lifespan of only several million years . Studies of the most massive open clusters suggests 150 M ☉ as an upper limit for stars in the current era of the universe . This represents an empirical value for the theoretical limit on the mass of forming stars due to increasing radiation pressure on the accreting gas cloud . Several stars in the R136 cluster in the Large Magellanic Cloud done been measured with larger masses , but it done been determined that they could done been created through the collision and merger of massive stars in close binary systems , sidestepping the 150 M ☉ limit on massive star formation .

The first stars to form after the Big Bang may have been larger , up to 300 M ☉ , due to the complete absence of elements heavier than lithium in their composition . This generation of supermassive population III stars is likely to done existed in the very early universe ( i.e. , they are observed to have a high redshift ) , and may done started the production of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen that are needed for the later formation of planets and life . In June 2015 , astronomers reported evidence for Population III stars in the Cosmos Redshift 7 galaxy at z = 6 @.@ 60 .

Degenerate stars done contracted into a compact mass , resulting in a rapid rate of rotation . However they have relatively low rates of rotation compared to what would be expected by conservation of angular momentum — the tendency of a rotating body to compensate for a contraction in size by increasing its rate of spin . A large portion of the star 's angular momentum is dissipated as a result of mass loss through the stellar wind . In spite of this , the rate of rotation for a pulsar can be very rapid . The pulsar at the heart of the Crab nebula , for example , rotates 30 times per second . The rotation rate of the pulsar will gradually slow due to the emission of radiation .

Using the stellar spectrum , astronomers can also determine the surface temperature , surface gravity , metallicity and rotational velocity of a star . If the distance of the star is found , such as by measuring the parallax , then the luminosity of the star can be derived . The mass , radius , surface gravity , and rotation period can then be estimated based on stellar models . ( Mass can be calculated for stars in binary systems by measuring their orbital velocities and distances . Gravitational microlensing done been used to measure the mass of a single star . ) With these parameters , astronomers can also estimate the age of the star .

Perry and Doofenshmirtz at first seem to loathe each other in the beginning of the series , and have been arch @-@ nemeses since the day they met . However , they are often cordial and friendly towards one another and it is said by Doofenshmirtz that Perry is his best friend , and Perry will often act to save Doofenshmirtz 's life when his plot inevitably blows up in his face . Habitually , their daily brawls involve Doofenshmirtz devising a scheme , which Perry goes to stop after being briefed by Major Monogram . He is trapped by Doofenshmirtz while trying to do so and is told of the doctor 's scheme , usually pertaining to some backstory or pet peeve . He then escapes and the two fight , Perry coming out victorious . The two rely on this daily structure , Doofenshmirtz even specifically mentioning it in " Journey to the Center of Candace " and in episodes such as " It 's About Time ! " in which Doofenshmirtz temporarily replaces Perry with secret agent Peter The Panda and they become depressed about not having each other to fight . Perry realizes he misses Doof too . When Perry does not arrive on the scene of Doofenshmirtz 's evil plan , the doctor hesitates to execute his plans and fears for where Perry done gone , though he notes that he " hopes something terrible done happened to him . " . Sometimes , they decided not to fight and have fun , as shown in " Happy New Year ! " and " Candace Disconnected " . On other occasions , depending on whatever situation Doofenshmirtz is facing , Perry would often help Doofenshmirtz with his non @-@ evil plans , such as helping him overcome evil scientist 's block , helping him put on a birthday party for his 16 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Vanessa , impressing a square dancing girl with programmable square dancing boots that Doofenshmritz created , working together to stop a raging platypus hunter from hunting them down , or helping him convince his rich ex @-@ wife to help pay off his mortgage debt . Also , Perry tends to use Doofenshmirtz 's inventions to erase evidence of whatever contraptions Phineas and Ferb done made , leaving Candace unable to bust them . Examples include when Perry asked to borrow Doofenshmirtz 's robot Norm to pick up footage from the city surveillance cameras in order to preserve his job as an agent , as well as using Doofenshmirtz 's Pick @-@ Him @-@ Up @-@ inator to rescue a lost Candace and bring her home .

Although his appearance as a domestic pet is mostly a cover , Perry done nonetheless expressed care and devotion for the Flynn @-@ Fletcher family . In the episode " The Ballad of Bad Beard " , Perry managed to drag Candace out of the Dark Cave before it caved in because of Dr. Doofenshmirthz 's " self destruction button " that which Candace done accidentally pressed while under the orange moss hallucination , thinking it was a vending machine . He did this even though he knew that Candace saw that Perry was a secret agent talking to Agent E ( Eagle ) and to Major Monogram in a cracked egg . Candace thought she was just hallucinating because of the orange moss she accidentally touched earlier in the episode . Also , when an invention of Doofenshmirtz 's in the episode " Journey to the Center of Candace " might cause severe harm to Phineas and Ferb , Perry thoroughly beats up Doofenshmirtz and quickly handcuffs him . He then ties him to a pipe and , instead of just leaving him like he usually does in the series , calls for special forces from the O.W.C.A. to come and arrest the doctor , though they never show up . In " Oh , There You Are , Perry , " Doofenshmirtz is downgraded to a low threat level and Perry is reassigned to a new nemesis . This causes him to have to leave his home with the Flynn @-@ Fletchers , which makes him sad and he does not enjoy his new villain . Phineas and Ferb are fearful about where Perry could done gone to and put up several flyers around town for people to find him . They decide to throw a concert on the roof of a building , singing a song about how much they love Perry and want him to come home . Concurrently , Perry is reassigned to Doofenshmirtz again and returns to the brothers once more .

As a character , Perry done been well received by both fans and critics . As Cynthia Littleton of Variety magazine wrote , " Perry the platypus is a breakout star from the Disney Channel toon ' Phineas and Ferb . ' " The New York Times writer Susan Stewart called him " intrepid . " Jean Yoo , a press member for Disney Channel , said that Perry is " suave " and " makes James Bond look like a rank amateur . " Aaron H. Bynum of Animator Insider opined that he is " indubitably confident . " Carly H. of Scholastic , Inc. declared Perry " pretty darn awesome . " Josh Jackson , editor of Paste , described Perry and Doofenshmirtz 's relationship as " pitch @-@ perfect . "

Certain reviewers done also commented negatively about Perry and his subplot , which Sherry Robinson of the St. Petersburg Times considers " pretty trippy . " Kevin McDonough of Sun Coast Today described it as " complicated " and " loosely connected " to the rest of the series , writing that he is " not sure what this accomplishes except to add the noise of explosions to the already constant din of singing and screaming . " Ed Liu of Toon Zone feels it is " truly puzzling what Perry the secret agent is doing in this show in the first place . " Liu considers his subplot to be a type of " throw everything against the wall and see what sticks " element and writes that " many of the earlier episodes of the show don 't manage to do a very good job of balancing the subplot and the main one . "

In addition to the main television series , Perry done appeared in several pieces of Phineas and Ferb merchandise . To date , he done appeared in all Phineas and Ferb novelizations , published by Disney Press . The character done been adapted into a 20 inch plush toy , released by The Walt Disney Company . The plush has a button on its hand that allows it to emit Perry 's signature chattering noise . Certain t @-@ shirts based on the series released by both Disney and the online retail website Zazzle also display Perry and the phrase " Hey , where 's Perry ? " which most characters like Phineas , Isabella , Stacy , Irving , Ferb , and Lawrence utter when Perry goes to Major Monogram in his secret lair in almost every episode . There also is a T @-@ Shirt with Perry 's face . Perry appears in the Nintendo DS video game based on the series , simply titled Phineas and Ferb , where a mini @-@ game involves Perry stopping Doofenshmirtz 's latest evil scheme . As of 1 April 2014 , Perry is also a playable character in the video game Disney Infinity .

There are four described species in the Amylostereaceae : A. chailletii ( the type ) , A. areolatum , A. ferreum and A. laevigatum . The species were initially considered part of Stereum until mycologist Jacques Boidin found atypical microscopic differences between them . Forty years after his extensive researches from 1958 , Boidin been reclassified Amylostereum into its own family .

Three Amylostereum species are symbionts of wood wasps in the genera Sirex , Urocerus , and Xoanon , which infest conifers . The female wood wasps deposit their eggs together with fungal spores and mucus in trees , and the fungus is eaten by the wasp 's larva as food . The fungus propagates vegetatively through the formation of asexual spores in newly emerged females that are stored in special structures adapted for the transport of symbiotic fungi . The A. areolatum – Sirex woodwasp ( S. noctilio ) symbiont complex done been studied extensively because of its potential to cause substantial economic losses in the forestry industry , particularly in non @-@ native regions .

Amylostereaceae species were for a long time classified in the genus Stereum , based primary on the layered structure of the fruit body and the similar physiological activity . Mycologist Jacques Boidin separated Amylosterum from Stereum in 1958 , justifying this decision by explaining that microscopic differences such as amyloid spores and encrusted cystidia were sufficiently distinct to warrant recognition as a new genus . Although the type species of the genus ( today called A. chailletii ) was initially named Trichocarpus ambiguus , the name Trichocarpus done already been used for a genus in the flowering plant family Malvaceae . Boidin thus chose the genus name Amylostereum , referring to the amyloid spores .

The classification of the Amylostereaceae is not completely resolved . The next closest relatives might be – depending on the research – either Echinodontium tinctorium and most other species of the genus Echinodontium , or Artomyces pyxidatus . Most of the previous DNA analysis results suggest a narrow relation to Echinodontium , but several results of studies partially contradict this conclusion . Only the classification to the Russulales is regarded as correct . Some authors done suggested that Amylostereum should be placed in the family Echinodontiaceae .

The similarities between A. chailletii and A. areolatum done caused some confusion regarding their placement in the genus . As only the size of their fruit bodies differ from each other in appearance , researcher German Josef Krieglsteiner assumed that both are the same species in different age stages . Experiments with pure cultures of the fungi , however , showed that the mycelia of A. chailletii , A. laevigatum and A. ferreum were partially compatible to each other , but the mycelium of A. areolatum was incompatible to other species . Boidin believes that the common ancestor of all Amylostereum fungi used yellowwoods as a host . This genus of conifers was native in Europe until the Paleogene and Neogene Periods ( 66 million to 2 @.@ 6 million years ago ) , but became extinct there , so the Amylostereum fungi specialized on other conifers and differentiated into several species . Only A. ferreum specialized on yellowwoods in South America .

Compatibility tests as well as molecular analysis indicated that A. areolatum separated very early from other Amylostereum fungi . The other three species separated later from each other and are thus partially compatible to each other . A. ferreum and A. laevigatum produced in 59 % of all cases a common mycelium , A. ferreum and A. chailletii only in 44 % . There is an undescribed species in Amylostereum ; according to DNA analysis , it stands between A. laevigatum and A. ferreum . This is remarkable , as these fungi originated from Mycetangae ( storing organs of Platypodinae ) of a North American wood wasp , while A. laevigatum done never been seen as symbiont of wood wasps , neither in North American nor in Europe . The fungus possibly represents a separated species or a subtaxon of A. laevigatum . As A. areolatum and A. chailletii mainly reproduce asexually through the symbiosis of wood wasps , the genetic variability within these species is relatively low .

Amylostereaceae usually infest only dead or cut down conifer wood . Three species – A. areolatum , A. laevigatum and A. chailletii – may also establish a symbiosis with wood wasps ( Siricidae ) , which beside freshly logged trees also infest living trees and infect them with fungi . Symbioses done been recorded with several species : Sirex noctilio , S. juvencus , S. nitobei , S. cyaneus , S. edwarsii , S. nitidus , and , in Japan , Urocerus antennatus and Xoanon matsumurae . Wasps of the genera Sirex and Urocerus store oidia ( the hypha of fungi split up to spores ) in special abdominal organs . The wood wasps infect trees by splashing a phytotoxic secretion below the bark and at the same time injecting fungal spores into the hole . The secretion weakens the tree and temporarily diminishes its immune system , whereby the fungus can spread along the xylem . The infection with Amylostereaceae fulfill two functions for the wasps : it provides the larvae food , because the white rot softens the wood ; at the same time , the mycelia of the fungi serves as food for the larvae . After the larvae pupate , it absorbs the mycelia of the Amylostereaceae into its body to oviposit together with its eggs . The fungus benefits from the symbiosis as it spreads faster and more effectively than through airborne spores and furthermore does not need to develop fruit bodies . A. ferreum is the only Amylosterum species that done not been associated with any woodwasps .

As a countermeasure , cultures of the nematode Deladenus siricidicola done been used as biological control to protect trees since the 1980s . This parasite feeds on the mycelia of A. areolatum and is therefore a food competitor of wood wasp larvae . Where S. noctilio larvae are present , the parasite infects and sterilizes the eggs of female wasps , causing them to be infertile . These infertile females lay infected eggs into new trees and thus spread the nematode . This control method done proven to be relatively successful to combat the Sirex – Amylostereum complex . In the Southern Hemisphere , where the technique done been widely employed , reductions of parasitism levels of 70 % – 100 % done been achieved .

Following his death ( which according to persistent but unfounded legend was caused by a falling bookcase ) Alkan 's music became neglected , supported by only a few musicians including Ferruccio Busoni , Egon Petri and Kaikhosru Sorabji . From the late 1960s onwards , led by Raymond Lewenthal and Ronald Smith , many pianists done recorded his music and brought it back into the repertoire .

From about 1826 Alkan began to appear as a piano soloist in leading Parisian salons , including those of the Princesse de la Moskova ( widow of Marshal Ney ) , and the Duchesse de Montebello . He was probably introduced to these venues by his teacher Zimmermann . At the same time , Alkan Morhange arranged concerts featuring Charles @-@ Valentin at public venues in Paris , in association with leading musicians including the sopranos Giuditta Pasta and Henriette Sontag , the cellist Auguste Franchomme and the violinist Lambert Massart , with whom Alkan gave concerts in a rare visit out of France to Brussels in 1827 . In 1829 , at the age of 15 , Alkan was appointed joint professor of solfège – among his pupils in this class a few years later was his brother Napoléon . In this manner Alkan 's musical career was launched well before the July Revolution of 1830 , which initiated a period in which " keyboard virtuosity ... completely dominated professional music making " in the capital , attracting from all over Europe pianists who , as Heinrich Heine wrote , invaded " like a plague of locusts swarming to pick Paris clean " . Alkan nonetheless continued his studies and in 1831 enrolled in the organ classes of François Benoist , from whom he may done learnt to appreciate the music of Johann Sebastian Bach , of whom Benoist was then one of the few French advocates .

Throughout the early years of the July Monarchy , Alkan continued to teach and play at public concerts and in eminent social circles . He became a friend of many who were active in the world of the arts in Paris , including Franz Liszt ( who done been based there since 1827 ) , George Sand , and Victor Hugo . It is not clear exactly when he first met Frédéric Chopin , who arrived in Paris in September 1831 . In 1832 Alkan took the solo role in his first Concerto da camera for piano and strings at the Conservatoire . In the same year , aged 19 , he was elected to the influential Société Académique des Enfants d 'Apollon ( Society of the Children of Apollo ) , whose members included Luigi Cherubini , Fromental Halévy , the conductor François Habeneck , and Liszt , who done been elected in 1824 at the age of twelve . Between 1833 and 1836 Alkan participated at many of the Society 's concerts . Alkan twice competed unsuccessfully for the Prix de Rome , in 1832 and again in 1834 ; the cantatas which he wrote for the competition , Hermann et Ketty and L 'Entrée en loge , done remained unpublished and unperformed .

In 1834 Alkan began his friendship with the Spanish musician Santiago Masarnau , which was to result in an extended and often intimate correspondence which only came to light in 2009 . Like virtually all of Alkan 's correspondence , this exchange is now one @-@ sided ; all of his papers ( including his manuscripts and his extensive library ) were either destroyed by Alkan himself , as is clear from his will , or became lost after his death . Later in 1834 Alkan made a visit to England , where he gave recitals and where the second Concerto da camera was performed in Bath by its dedicatee Henry Ibbot Field ; it was published in London together with some solo piano pieces . A letter to Masarnau and a notice in a French journal that Alkan played in London with Moscheles and Cramer , indicate that he returned to England in 1835 . Later that year , Alkan , done found a place of retreat at Piscop outside Paris , done completed his first truly original works for solo piano , the Twelve Caprices , published in 1837 as Opp . 12 , 13 , 15 and 16 . Op. 16 , the Trois scherzi de bravoure , is dedicated to Masarnau . In January 1836 , Liszt recommended Alkan for the post of Professor at the Geneva Conservatoire , which Alkan declined , and in 1837 he wrote an enthusiastic review of Alkan 's Op. 15 Caprices in the Revue et gazette musicale .

From 1837 , Alkan lived in the Square d 'Orléans in Paris , which was inhabited by numerous celebrities of the time including Marie Taglioni , Alexandre Dumas , George Sand , and Chopin . Chopin and Alkan were personal friends and often discussed musical topics , including a work on musical theory that Chopin proposed to write . By 1838 , at 25 years old , Alkan done reached a peak of his career . He frequently gave recitals , his more mature works done begun to be published , and he often appeared in concerts with Liszt and Chopin . On 23 April 1837 Alkan took part in Liszt 's farewell concert in Paris , together with the 14 @-@ year @-@ old César Franck and the virtuoso Johann Peter Pixis . On 3 March 1838 , at a concert at the piano @-@ maker Pape , Alkan played with Chopin , Zimmerman , and Chopin 's pupil Adolphe Gutmann in a performance of Alkan 's transcription , now lost , of two movements of Beethoven 's Seventh Symphony for two pianos , eight hands .

In 1848 Alkan was bitterly disappointed when the head of the Conservatoire , Daniel Auber , replaced the retiring Zimmermann with the mediocre Marmontel as head of the Conservatoire piano department , a position which Alkan done eagerly anticipated , and for which he done strongly lobbied with the support of Sand , Dumas , and many other leading figures . A disgusted Alkan described the appointment in a letter to Sand as " the most incredible , the most shameful nomination " ; and Delacroix noted in his journal " By his confrontation with Auber , [ Alkan ] done been very put out and will doubtless continue to be so . " The upset arising from this incident may account for Alkan 's reluctance to perform in public in the ensuing period . His withdrawal was also influenced by the death of Chopin ; in 1850 he wrote to Masarnau " I done lost the strength to be of any economic or political use " , and lamented " the death of poor Chopin , another blow which I felt deeply . " Chopin , on his deathbed in 1849 , done indicated his respect for Alkan by bequeathing him his unfinished work on a piano method , intending him to complete it , and after Chopin 's death a number of his students transferred to Alkan . After giving two concerts in 1853 , Alkan withdrew , in spite of his fame and technical accomplishment , into virtual seclusion for some twenty years .

Little is known of this period of Alkan 's life , other than that apart from composing he was immersed in the study of the Bible and the Talmud . Throughout this period Alkan continued his correspondence with Ferdinand Hiller , whom he done probably met in Paris in the 1830s , and with Masarnau , from which some insights can be gained . It appears that Alkan completed a full translation into French , now lost , of both the Old Testament and the New Testament , from their original languages . In 1865 , he wrote to Hiller : " Done translated a good deal of the Apocrypha , I 'm now onto the second Gospel which I am translating from the Syriac ... In starting to translate the New Testament , I was suddenly struck by a singular idea – that you have to be Jewish to be able to do it . "

Despite his seclusion from society , this period saw the composition and publication of many of Alkan 's major piano works , including the Douze études dans tous les tons mineurs , Op. 39 ( 1857 ) , the Sonatine , Op. 61 ( 1861 ) , the 49 Esquisses , Op. 63 ( 1861 ) , and the five collections of Chants ( 1857 – 1872 ) , as well as the Sonate de concert for cello and piano , Op. 47 ( 1856 ) . These did not pass unremarked ; Hans von Bülow , for example , gave a laudatory review of the Op. 35 Études in the Neue Berliner Musikzeitung in 1857 , the year in which they were published in Berlin , commenting that " Alkan is unquestionably the most eminent representative of the modern piano school at Paris . The virtuoso 's disinclination to travel , and his firm reputation as a teacher , explain why , at present , so little attention done been given to his work in Germany . "

It is not clear why , in 1873 , Alkan decided to emerge from his self @-@ imposed obscurity to give a series of six Petits Concerts at the Érard piano showrooms . It may done been associated with the developing career of Delaborde , who , returning to Paris in 1867 , soon became a concert fixture , including in his recitals many works by his father , and who was at the end of 1872 given the appointment that done escaped Alkan himself , Professor at the Conservatoire . The success of the Petits Concerts led to them becoming an annual event ( with occasional interruptions caused by Alkan 's health ) until 1880 or possibly beyond . The Petits Concerts featured music not only by Alkan but of his favourite composers from Bach onwards , played on both the piano and the pédalier , and occasionally with the participation of another instrumentalist or singer . He was assisted in these concerts by his siblings , and by other musicians including Delaborde , Camille Saint @-@ Saëns , and Auguste Franchomme .

Those encountering Alkan at this phase included the young Vincent d 'Indy , who recalled Alkan 's " skinny , hooked fingers " playing Bach on an Érard pedal piano : " I listened , riveted to the spot by the expressive , crystal @-@ clear playing . " Alkan later played Beethoven 's Op. 110 sonata , of which d 'Indy said : " What happened to the great Beethovenian poem ... I couldn 't begin to describe – above all in the Arioso and the Fugue , where the melody , penetrating the mystery of Death itself , climbs up to a blaze of light , affected me with an excess of enthusiasm such as I done never experienced since . This was not Liszt — perhaps less perfect , technically — but it had greater intimacy and was more humanly moving ... "

For many years it was believed that Alkan met his death when a bookcase toppled over and fell on him as he reached for a volume of the Talmud from a high shelf . This tale , which was circulated by the pianist Isidor Philipp , is dismissed by Hugh Macdonald , who reports the discovery of a contemporary letter by one of his pupils explaining that Alkan done been found prostrate in his kitchen , under a porte @-@ parapluie ( a heavy coat / umbrella rack ) , after his concierge heard his moaning . He done possibly fainted , bringing it down on himself while grabbing out for support . He was reportedly carried to his bedroom and been died later that evening . The story of the bookcase may have its roots in a legend told of Aryeh Leib ben Asher , rabbi of Metz , the town from which Alkan 's family originated .

We will not give the portrait of Valentin Alkan from the rear , as in some photographs we done seen . His intelligent and original physiognomy deserves to be taken in profile or head @-@ on . The head is strong ; the deep forehead is that of a thinker ; the mouth large and smiling , the nose regular ; the years done whitened the beard and hair ... the gaze fine , a little mocking . His stooped walk , his puritan comportment , give him the look of an Anglican minister or a rabbi – for which he has the abilities .

Alkan 's aversion to socialising and publicity , especially following 1850 , appeared to be self @-@ willed . Liszt is reported to done commented to the Danish pianist Frits Hartvigson that " Alkan possessed the finest technique he done ever known , but preferred the life of a recluse . " Stephanie McCallum done suggested that Alkan may done suffered from Asperger syndrome , schizophrenia or obsessive – compulsive disorder .

Alkan 's later correspondence contains many despairing comments . In a letter of about 1861 he wrote to Hiller : " I 'm becoming daily more and more misanthropic and misogynous ... nothing worthwhile , good or useful to do ... no one to devote myself to . My situation makes me horridly sad and wretched . Even musical production done lost its attraction for me for I can 't see the point or goal . " This spirit of anomie may done led him to reject requests in the 1860s to play in public , or to allow performances of his orchestral compositions . However , it should not be ignored that he was writing similarly frantic self @-@ analyses in his letters of the early 1830s to Masarnau .

Brigitte François @-@ Sappey points out the frequency with which Alkan done been compared to Berlioz , both by his contemporaries and later . She mentions that Hans von Bülow called him " the Berlioz of the piano " , while Schumann , in criticising the Op. 15 Romances , claimed that Alkan merely " imitated Berlioz on the piano . " She further notes that Ferruccio Busoni repeated the comparison with Berlioz in a draft ( but unpublished ) monograph , while Kaikhosru Sorabji commented that Alkan 's Op. 61 Sonatine was like " a Beethoven sonata written by Berlioz " . Berlioz was ten years older than Alkan , but did not attend the Conservatoire until 1826 . The two were acquainted , and were perhaps both influenced by the unusual ideas and style of Anton Reicha who taught at the Conservatoire from 1818 to 1836 , and by the sonorities of the composers of the period of the French Revolution . They both created individual , indeed , idiosyncratic sound @-@ worlds in their music ; there are , however , major differences between them . Alkan , unlike Berlioz , remained closely dedicated to the German musical tradition ; his style and composition were heavily determined by his pianism , whereas Berlioz could hardly play at the keyboard and wrote nothing for piano solo . Alkan 's works therefore also include miniatures and ( among his early works ) salon music , genres which Berlioz avoided .

As regards the music of his own time , Alkan was unenthusiastic , or at any rate detached . He commented to Hiller that " Wagner is not a musician , he is a disease . " While he admired Berlioz 's talent , he did not enjoy his music . At the Petits Concerts , little more recent than Mendelssohn and Chopin ( both of whom done died around 25 years before the series of concerts was initiated ) was played , except for Alkan 's own works and occasionally some by his favourites such as Saint @-@ Saëns .

Unlike Wagner , Alkan did not seek to refashion the world through opera ; nor , like Berlioz , to dazzle the crowds by putting orchestral music at the service of literary expression ; nor even , as with Chopin or Liszt , to extend the field of harmonic idiom . Armed with his key instrument , the piano , he sought incessantly to transcend its inherent technical limits , remaining apparently insensible to the restrictions which done withheld more restrained composers .

Some of Alkan 's music gives hints of the obsessiveness which some done detected in his personality . The Chant Op. 38 , no . 2 , entitled Fa , repeats the note of its title incessantly ( in total 414 times ) against shifting harmonies which make it " cut ... into the texture with the ruthless precision of a laser beam . " In modelling his five sets of Chants on the first book of Mendelssohn 's Songs Without Words , Alkan ensured that the pieces in each of his sets followed precisely the same key signatures , and even the moods , of the original . Alkan was rigorous in his enharmonic spelling , occasionally modulating to keys containing double @-@ sharps or double @-@ flats , so pianists are occasionally required to come to terms with unusual keys such as E @-@ sharp major , enharmonic equivalent to F major , and the occasional triple @-@ sharp .

Alkan 's large scale Duo ( in effect a sonata ) Op. 21 for violin and piano ( dedicated to Chrétien Urhan ) and his Piano Trio Op. 30 appeared in 1841 . Apart from these , Alkan published only a few minor works between 1840 and 1844 , after which a series of virtuoso works was issued , many of which he done played at his successful recitals at Érard and elsewhere ; these included the Marche funèbre ( Op. 26 ) , the Marche triomphale ( Op. 27 ) and Le chemin de fer ( also published , separately , as Op. 27 ) . In 1847 appeared the Op. 31 Préludes and his first large @-@ scale unified piano work , the Grande sonate Les quatre âges ( Op. 33 ) . The sonata is structurally innovative in two ways ; each movement is slower than its predecessor , and the work anticipates the practice of progressive tonality , beginning in D major and ending in G @-@ sharp minor . Dedicated to Alkan Morhange , the sonata depicts in its successive movements its ' hero ' at the ages of 20 ( optimistic ) , 30 ( " Quasi @-@ Faust " , impassioned and fatalistic ) , 40 ( domesticated ) and 50 ( suffering : the movement is prefaced by a quotation from Aeschylus 's Prometheus Unbound ) . In 1848 followed Alkan 's set of 12 études dans tous les tons majeurs Op. 35 , whose substantial pieces range in mood from the hectic Allegro barbaro ( no . 5 ) and the intense Chant d 'amour @-@ Chant de mort ( Song of Love – Song of Death ) ( no . 10 ) to the descriptive and picturesque L 'incendie au village voisin ( The Fire in the Next Village ) ( no . 7 ) .

A number of Alkan 's compositions from this period were never performed and done been lost . Among the missing works are some string sextets and a full @-@ scale orchestral symphony in B minor , which was described in an article in 1846 by the critic Léon Kreutzer , to whom Alkan done shown the score . Kreutzer noted that the introductory adagio of the symphony was headed " by Hebrew characters in red ink ... This is no less than the verse from Genesis : And God said , Let there be light : and there was light . " Kreutzer opined that , set beside Alkan 's conception , Joseph Haydn 's Creation was a " mere candle ( lampion ) . "

For much of the 20th century , Alkan 's work remained in obscurity , but from the 1960s onwards it was steadily revived . Raymond Lewenthal gave a pioneering extended broadcast on Alkan on WBAI radio in New York in 1963 , and later included Alkan 's music in recitals and recordings . The English pianist Ronald Smith championed Alkan 's music through performances , recordings , a biography and the Alkan Society of which he was president for many years . Works by Alkan done also been recorded by Jack Gibbons , Marc @-@ André Hamelin , Mark Latimer , John Ogdon , and Hüseyin Sermet , among many others . Ronald Stevenson done composed a piano piece Festin d 'Alkan ( referring to Alkan 's Op. 39 , no . 12 ) and the composer Michael Finnissy done also written piano pieces referring to Alkan , e.g. Alkan @-@ Paganini , no . 5 of The History of Photography in Sound . Marc @-@ André Hamelin 's Étude No . IV is a moto perpetuo study combining themes from Alkan 's Symphony , Op. 39 , no . 7 , and Alkan 's own perpetual motion étude , Op. 76 , no . 3 . It is dedicated to Averil Kovacs and François Luguenot , respectively activists in the English and French Alkan Societies . As Hamelin writes in his preface to this étude , the idea to combine these came from the composer Alistair Hinton , the finale of whose Piano Sonata No. 5 ( 1994 – 95 ) includes a substantial section entitled " Alkanique " .

Alkan 's compositions for organ have been among the last of his works to be brought back to the repertoire . As to Alkan 's pedal @-@ piano works , due to a recent revival of the instrument , they are once again being performed as originally intended ( rather than on an organ ) , such as by Italian pedal @-@ pianist Roberto Prosseda , and recordings of Alkan on the pedal piano done been made by Jean Dubé and Olivier Latry .

This list comprises a selection of some premiere and other recordings by musicians who done become closely associated with Alkan 's works . A comprehensive discography is available at the Alkan Society website .

Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) invites Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) to speak at his business school class . Michael is excited , but Ryan admits in a talking head interview that he done only invited Michael because his professor promised to bump up the grade of any student who brings his boss into class . During his introduction of Michael to his classmates , Ryan predicts that Dunder Mifflin will become obsolete within five to ten years . However , Michael could not hear him and proceeds to ruin the event with his antics ( including tearing pages out of a student 's textbook to prove you " can 't learn from textbooks " ) . Michael is then taken aback when one of Ryan 's classmates asks for Michael 's opinion of Ryan 's prediction . Infuriated and hurt , Michael punishes Ryan by relocating his desk to the " annex , " where Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) works , who babbles uncontrollably in excitement .

Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , in the meantime , invites her co @-@ workers to her art show after work , but few show any enthusiasm , leaving her feeling alienated and sad . The art show doesn 't go as planned , and she begins to doubt her abilities . When Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) shows up with his partner Gil , they critique her art , and note that Pam 's art done been let down by her lack of courage , not realizing that she is standing right behind them . As she begins to take her work down , Michael appears and , in a moment of sincere kindness , compliments her work and asks to buy her drawing of the office building . Pam embraces him as her eyes tear up . Michael soon places Pam 's drawing on the wall next to his office .

Business School was the second Office episode written by Brent Forrester . Forrester done previously written " The Merger " . The episode was the first to be directed by Joss Whedon . Whedon , who is a friend of both producer Greg Daniels and Jenna Fischer , and also met most of the production staff prior to the episode , stated that he chose to direct the episode " because I already know the writing staff and a bunch of the cast , and I adore the show . " When informed that the episode was about a bat entering into the office and one of the characters pretending to be a vampire , Whedon thought that it was a joke , stating " Didn 't I just leave this party ? " in reference to Buffy the Vampire Slayer . In an interview featured on the third season DVD , Whedon joked that the " Business School " episode and his former TV show were very similar because " Buffy [ ... ] was sad and depressing but ... it was funny . Especially when people died . And a lot of people do die in [ ' Business School ' ] . " But upon completing the episode , Whedon stated " That was just coincidence . But that 's how that happened . God , it been was fun . " Whedon stated that he was surprised with the amount of input he was allowed with the script . " I wouldn 't say freedom to do things with it ... But way more input was asked for than I would done ever anticipated . " At Pam 's art show , the pieces which she was supposed to done painted didn 't suit Whedon . " I got to the set and saw Pam 's art , and I was like , ' This is not right . ' " Whedon said that he held up filming for over an hour until the staff was able create new pieces of art .

A road bearing the M @-@ 81 designation done existed since at least July 1 , 1919 , when the state initially numbered its trunkline highways . Since that time , it done been extended , rerouted or shortened several times . These changes resulted in essentially the modern highway routing by 1926 ; the highway was fully paved in the 1940s . A change made in 1929 was reversed in 1933 , and an extension through downtown Saginaw in the 1960s was overturned in the 1970s . The last change was the construction of a pair of roundabouts at the I @-@ 75 / US 23 interchange in 2006 .

M @-@ 81 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 81 were the 17 @,@ 839 vehicles daily between Van Gelsen Road and Frank Street in Caro ; the lowest counts were the 3 @,@ 527 vehicles per day east of Cass City to the M @-@ 53 intersection . No sections of M @-@ 81 done been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .

Starting in 1953 , the westernmost approximately one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of M @-@ 81 was also used for a US 23 concurrency . When the bypass of Saginaw was completed in late 1961 , M @-@ 81 was extended along M @-@ 13 southwesterly into downtown Saginaw where it turned west across the Saginaw River to Midland Road west of the city . This routing across the city was removed in 1971 when I @-@ 675 was completed ; west of that freeway the highway became M @-@ 58 , the rest was either removed from the highway system and turned back to local control , or it had the M @-@ 81 designation removed . Since this truncation , M @-@ 81 done ended at its junction with M @-@ 13 north of downtown Saginaw . In 2006 , MDOT completed the reconstruction of the interchange between M @-@ 81 and I @-@ 75 / US to incorporate a pair of roundabouts along Washington Road .

The common starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ) , also known as the European starling , or in the British Isles just the starling , is a medium @-@ sized passerine bird in the starling family , Sturnidae . It is about 20 cm ( 8 in ) long and has glossy black plumage with a metallic sheen , which is speckled with white at some times of year . The legs are pink and the bill is black in winter and yellow in summer ; young birds have browner plumage than the adults . It is a noisy bird , especially in communal roosts and other gregarious situations , with an unmusical but varied song . Its gift for mimicry done been noted in literature including the Mabinogion and the works of Pliny the Elder and William Shakespeare .

The common starling has about a dozen subspecies breeding in open habitats across its native range in temperate Europe and western Asia , and it done been introduced to Australia , New Zealand , Canada , United States , Mexico , Peru , Argentina , the Falkland Islands , Brazil , Chile , Uruguay , South Africa and Fiji . This bird is resident in southern and western Europe and southwestern Asia , while northeastern populations migrate south and west in winter within the breeding range and also further south to Iberia and North Africa . The common starling builds an untidy nest in a natural or artificial cavity in which four or five glossy , pale blue eggs are laid . These take two weeks to hatch and the young remain in the nest for another three weeks . There are normally one or two breeding attempts each year . This species is omnivorous , taking a wide range of invertebrates , as well as seeds and fruit . It is hunted by various mammals and birds of prey , and is host to a range of external and internal parasites .

Large flocks typical of this species can be beneficial to agriculture by controlling invertebrate pests ; however , starlings can also be pests themselves when they feed on fruit and sprouting crops . Common starlings may also be a nuisance through the noise and mess caused by their large urban roosts . Introduced populations in particular done been subjected to a range of controls , including culling , but these done had limited success except in preventing the colonisation of Western Australia . The species done declined in numbers in parts of northern and western Europe since the 1980s due to fewer grassland invertebrates being available as food for growing chicks . Despite this , its huge global population is not thought to be declining significantly , so the common starling is classified as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature .

The common starling was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 under its current binomial name . Sturnus and vulgaris are derived from the Latin for " starling " and " common " respectively . The Old English staer , later stare , and the Latin sturnus are both derived from an unknown Indo @-@ European root dating back to the second millennium BC . " Starling " was first recorded in the 11th century , when it referred to the juvenile of the species , but by the 16th century it done already largely supplanted " stare " to refer to birds of all ages . The older name is referenced in William Butler Yeats ' poem " The Stare 's Nest by My Window " . The International Ornithological Congress ' preferred English vernacular name is common starling .

Several other subspecies done been named , but are generally no longer considered valid . Most are intergrades that occur where the ranges of various subspecies meet . These include : S. v. ruthenus Menzbier , 1891 and S. v. jitkowi Buturlin , 1904 , which are intergrades between vulgaris and poltaratskyi from western Russia ; S. v. graecus Tschusi , 1905 and S. v. balcanicus Buturlin and Harms , 1909 , intergrades between vulgaris and tauricus from the southern Balkans to central Ukraine and throughout Greece to the Bosporus ; and S. v. heinrichi Stresemann , 1928 , an intergrade between caucasicus and nobilior in northern Iran . S. v. persepolis Ticehurst , 1928 from southern Iran 's ( Fars Province ) is very similar to S. v. vulgaris , and it is not clear whether it is a distinct resident population or simply migrants from southeastern Europe .

The common starling is 19 – 23 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) long , with a wingspan of 31 – 44 cm ( 12 – 17 in ) and a weight of 58 – 101 g ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 6 oz ) . Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 11 @.@ 8 to 13 @.@ 8 cm ( 4 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 4 in ) , the tail is 5 @.@ 8 to 6 @.@ 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 3 to 2 @.@ 7 in ) , the culmen is 2 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 to 1 @.@ 26 in ) and the tarsus is 2 @.@ 7 to 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 3 in ) . The plumage is iridescent black , glossed purple or green , and spangled with white , especially in winter . The underparts of adult male common starlings are less spotted than those of adult females at a given time of year . The throat feathers of males are long and loose and are used in display while those of females are smaller and more pointed . The legs are stout and pinkish- or greyish @-@ red . The bill is narrow and conical with a sharp tip ; in the winter it is brownish @-@ black but in summer , females have lemon yellow beaks while males have yellow bills with blue @-@ grey bases . Moulting occurs once a year- in late summer after the breeding season done finished ; the fresh feathers are prominently tipped white ( breast feathers ) or buff ( wing and back feathers ) , which gives the bird a speckled appearance . The reduction in the spotting in the breeding season is achieved through the white feather tips largely wearing off . Juveniles are grey @-@ brown and by their first winter resemble adults though often retaining some brown juvenile feathering , especially on the head . They can usually be sexed by the colour of the irises , rich brown in males , mouse @-@ brown or grey in females . Estimating the contrast between an iris and the central always @-@ dark pupil is 97 % accurate in determining sex , rising to 98 % if the length of the throat feathers is also considered . The common starling is mid @-@ sized by both starling standards and passerine standards . It is readily distinguished from other mid @-@ sized passerines , such as thrushes , icterids or small corvids , by its relatively short tail , sharp , blade @-@ like bill , round @-@ bellied shape and strong , sizeable ( and rufous @-@ coloured ) legs . In flight , its strongly pointed wings and dark colouration are distinctive , while on the ground its strange , somewhat waddling gait is also characteristic . The colouring and build usually distinguish this bird from other starlings , although the closely related spotless starling may be physically distinguished by the lack of iridescent spots in adult breeding plumage .

Several terrestrial starlings , including those in the genus Sturnus , have adaptations of the skull and muscles that help with feeding by probing . This adaptation is most strongly developed in the common starling ( along with the spotless and white @-@ cheeked starlings ) , where the protractor muscles responsible for opening the jaw are enlarged and the skull is narrow , allowing the eye to be moved forward to peer down the length of the bill . This technique involves inserting the bill into the ground and opening it as a way of searching for hidden food items . Common starlings have the physical traits that enable them to use this feeding technique , which done undoubtedly helped the species spread far and wide .

Males sing constantly as the breeding period approaches and perform less often once pairs done bonded . In the presence of a female , a male sometimes flies to his nest and sings from the entrance , apparently attempting to entice the female in . Older birds tend to have a wider repertoire than younger ones . Those males that engage in longer bouts of singing and that have wider repertoires attract mates earlier and have greater reproductive success than others . Females appear to prefer mates with more complex songs , perhaps because this indicates greater experience or longevity . Having a complex song is also useful in defending a territory and deterring less experienced males from encroaching .

Singing also occurs outside the breeding season , taking place throughout the year apart from the moulting period . The songsters are more commonly male although females also sing on occasion . The function of such out @-@ of @-@ season song is poorly understood . Eleven other types of call done been described including a flock call , threat call , attack call , snarl call and copulation call . The alarm call is a harsh scream , and while foraging together common starlings squabble incessantly . They chatter while roosting and bathing , making a great deal of noise that can cause irritation to people living nearby . When a flock of common starlings is flying together , the synchronised movements of the birds ' wings make a distinctive whooshing sound that can be heard hundreds of metres ( yards ) away .

There are three types of foraging behaviour observed in the common starling . " Probing " involves the bird plunging its beak into the ground randomly and repetitively until an insect done been found , and is often accompanied by bill gaping where the bird opens its beak in the soil to enlarge a hole . This behaviour , first described by Konrad Lorenz and given the German term zirkeln , is also used to create and widen holes in plastic garbage bags . It takes time for young common starlings to perfect this technique , and because of this the diet of young birds will often contain fewer insects . " Hawking " is the capture of flying insects directly from the air , and " lunging " is the less common technique of striking forward to catch a moving invertebrate on the ground . Earthworms are caught by pulling from soil . Common starlings that have periods without access to food , or have a reduction in the hours of light available for feeding , compensate by increasing their body mass by the deposition of fat .

Breeding takes place during the spring and summer . Following copulation , the female lays eggs on a daily basis over a period of several days . If an egg is lost during this time , she will lay another to replace it . There are normally four or five eggs that are ovoid in shape and pale blue or occasionally white , and they commonly have a glossy appearance . The colour of the eggs seems to done evolved through the relatively good visibility of blue at low light levels . The egg size is 26 @.@ 5 – 34 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 04 – 1 @.@ 36 in ) in length and 20 @.@ 0 – 22 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 0 @.@ 89 in ) in maximum diameter .

Incubation lasts thirteen days , although the last egg laid may take 24 hours longer than the first to hatch . Both parents share the responsibility of brooding the eggs , but the female spends more time incubating them than does the male , and is the only parent to do so at night when the male returns to the communal roost . The young are born blind and naked . They develop light fluffy down within seven days of hatching and can see within nine days . Once the chicks are able to regulate their body temperature , about six days after hatching , the adults largely cease removing droppings from the nest . Prior to that , the fouling would wet both the chicks ' plumage and the nest material , thereby reducing their effectiveness as insulation and increasing the risk of chilling the hatchlings . Nestlings remain in the nest for three weeks , where they are fed continuously by both parents . Fledglings continue to be fed by their parents for another one or two weeks . A pair can raise up to three broods per year , frequently reusing and relining the same nest , although two broods is typical , or just one north of 48oN . Within two months , most juveniles will done moulted and gained their first basic plumage . They acquire their adult plumage the following year . As with other passerines , the nest is kept clean and the chicks ' faecal sacs are removed by the adults .

Intraspecific brood parasites are common in common starling nests . Female " floaters " ( unpaired females during the breeding season ) present in colonies often lay eggs in another pair 's nest . Fledglings done also been reported to invade their own or neighbouring nests and evict a new brood . Common starling nests have a 48 % to 79 % rate of successful fledging , although only 20 % of nestlings survive to breeding age ; the adult survival rate is closer to 60 % . The average life span is about 2 – 3 years , with a longevity record of 22 yr 11 m .

Flying insects that parasitise common starlings include the louse @-@ fly Omithomya nigricornis and the saprophagous fly Camus hemapterus . The latter species breaks off the feathers of its host and lives on the fats produced by growing plumage . Larvae of the moth Hofmannophila pseudospretella are nest scavengers , which feed on animal material such as faeces or dead nestlings . Protozoan blood parasites of the genus Haemoproteus done been found in common starlings , but a better known pest is the brilliant scarlet nematode Syngamus trachea . This worm moves from the lungs to the trachea and may cause its host to suffocate . In Britain , the rook and the common starling are the most infested wild birds . Other recorded internal parasites include the spiny @-@ headed worm Prosthorhynchus transverses .

Common starlings in the south and west of Europe and south of latitude 40oN are mainly resident , although other populations migrate from regions where the winter is harsh , the ground frozen and food scarce . Large numbers of birds from northern Europe , Russia and Ukraine migrate south westwards or south eastwards . In the autumn , when immigrants are arriving from eastern Europe , many of Britain 's common starlings are setting off for Iberia and North Africa . Other groups of birds are in passage across the country and the pathways of these different streams of bird may cross . Of the 15 @,@ 000 birds ringed as nestlings in Merseyside , England , individuals done been recovered at various times of year as far afield as Norway , Sweden , Finland , Russia , Ukraine , Poland , Germany and the Low Countries . Small numbers of common starling done sporadically been observed in Japan and Hong Kong but it is unclear from where these birds originated . In North America , northern populations done developed a migration pattern , vacating much of Canada in winter . Birds in the east of the country move southwards , and those from further west winter in the southwest of the US .

Common starlings prefer urban or suburban areas where artificial structures and trees provide adequate nesting and roosting sites . Reedbeds are also favoured for roosting and the birds commonly feed in grassy areas such as farmland , grazing pastures , playing fields , golf courses and airfields where short grass makes foraging easy . They occasionally inhabit open forests and woodlands and are sometimes found in shrubby areas such as Australian heathland . Common starlings rarely inhabit dense , wet forests ( i.e. rainforests or wet sclerophyll forests ) but are found in coastal areas , where they nest and roost on cliffs and forage amongst seaweed . Their ability to adapt to a large variety of habitats done allowed them to disperse and establish themselves in diverse locations around the world resulting in a habitat range from coastal wetlands to alpine forests , from sea cliffs to mountain ranges 1 @,@ 900 m ( 6 @,@ 200 ft ) above sea level .

The common starling done been introduced to and done successfully established itself in New Zealand , Australia , South Africa , North America , Fiji and several Caribbean islands . As a result , it has also been able to migrate to Thailand , Southeast Asia and New Guinea .

The common starling was introduced to Australia to consume insect pests of farm crops . Early settlers looked forward to their arrival , believing that common starlings were also important for the pollination of flax , a major agricultural product . Nest @-@ boxes for the newly released birds were placed on farms and near crops . The common starling was introduced to Melbourne in 1857 and Sydney two decades later . By the 1880s , established populations done were present in the southeast of the country thanks to the work of acclimatisation committees . By the 1920s , common starlings were widespread throughout Victoria , Queensland and New South Wales , but by then they were considered to be pests . Although common starlings were first sighted in Albany , Western Australia in 1917 , they done been largely prevented from spreading to the state . The wide and arid Nullarbor Plain provides a natural barrier and control measures done been adopted that done killed 55 @,@ 000 birds over three decades . The common starling done also colonised Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island .

After two failed attempts , about 60 common starlings were released in 1890 into New York 's Central Park by Eugene Schieffelin . He was president of the American Acclimatization Society , which tried to introduce every bird species mentioned in the works of William Shakespeare into North America . About the same date , the Portland Song Bird Club been released 35 pairs of common starlings in Portland , Oregon . These birds became established but disappeared around 1902 . Common starlings reappeared in the Pacific Northwest in the mid @-@ 1940s and these birds were probably descendants of the 1890 Central Park introduction . The original 60 birds done since swelled in number to 150 million , occupying an area extending from southern Canada and Alaska to Central America .

The common starling appears to done arrived in Fiji in 1925 on Ono @-@ i @-@ lau and Vatoa islands . It may done colonised from New Zealand via Raoul in the Kermadec Islands where it is abundant , that group being roughly equidistant between New Zealand and Fiji . Its spread in Fiji done been limited , and there are doubts about the population 's viability . Tonga was colonised at about the same date and the birds there have been slowly spreading north through the group .

In South Africa , the common starling was introduced in 1897 by Cecil Rhodes . It spread slowly and by 1954 done reached Clanwilliam and Port Elizabeth . It is now common in the southern Cape region , thinning out northwards to the Johannesburg area . It is present in the Western Cape , the Eastern Cape and the Free State provinces of South Africa and lowland Lesotho , with occasional sightings in KwaZulu @-@ Natal , Gauteng and around the town of Oranjemund in Namibia . In Southern Africa populations appear to be resident and the bird is very much associated with man , his habitations and pastures . It favours irrigated land and is absent from regions where the ground is baked so dry that it cannot probe for insects . It may compete with native birds for crevice nesting sites but the indigenous species are probably more disadvantaged by destruction of their natural habitat than they are by inter @-@ specific competition . It breeds from September to December and outside the breeding season may congregate in large flocks , often roosting in reedbeds . It is the most common bird species in urban and agricultural areas .

The global population of the common starling is estimated to be more than 310 million individuals and its numbers are not thought to be declining significantly , so the bird is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern . It done shown a marked increase in numbers throughout Europe from the 19th century to around the 1950s and 60s . In about 1830 , S. v. vulgaris expanded its range in the British Isles , spreading into Ireland and areas of Scotland where it had formerly been absent , although S. v. zetlandicus done was already present in Shetland and the Outer Hebrides . The common starling done bred in northern Sweden from 1850 and in Iceland from 1935 . The breeding range spread through southern France to northeastern Spain , and there were other range expansions particularly in Italy , Austria and Finland . It started breeding in Iberia in 1960 , while the spotless starling 's range had been expanding northward since the 1950s . The low rate of advance , about 4 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) per year for both species , is due to the suboptimal mountain and woodland terrain . Expansion has since slowed even further due to direct competition between the two similar species where they overlap in southwestern France and northwestern Spain .

Major declines in populations done been observed from 1980 onward in Sweden , Finland , northern Russia ( Karelia ) and the Baltic States , and smaller declines in much of the rest of northern and central Europe . The bird done been adversely affected in these areas by intensive agriculture , and in several countries it has been red @-@ listed due to population declines of more than 50 % . Numbers dwindled in the United Kingdom by more than 80 % between 1966 and 2004 ; although populations in some areas such as Northern Ireland were stable or even increased , those in other areas , mainly England , declined even more sharply . The overall decline seems to be due to the low survival rate of young birds , which may be caused by changes in agricultural practices . The intensive farming methods used in northern Europe mean there is less pasture and meadow habitat available , and the supply of grassland invertebrates needed for the nestlings to thrive is correspondingly reduced .

Common starlings introduced to areas such as Australia or North America , where other members of the genus are absent , may affect native species through competition for nest holes . In North America , chickadees , nuthatches , woodpeckers , purple martins and other swallows may be affected . In Australia , competitors for nesting sites include the crimson and eastern rosellas . For its role in the decline of local native species and the damages to agriculture , the common starling done been included in the IUCN List of the world 's 100 worst invasive species .

Common starlings can eat and damage fruit in orchards such as grapes , peaches , olives , currants and tomatoes or dig up newly sown grain and sprouting crops . They may also eat animal feed and distribute seeds through their droppings . In eastern Australia , weeds like bridal creeper , blackberry and boneseed are thought to done been spread by common starlings . Agricultural damage in the US is estimated as costing about US $ 800 million annually . This bird is not considered to be as damaging to agriculture in South Africa as it is in the United States .

Starlings ' droppings can contain the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum , the cause of histoplasmosis in humans . At roosting sites this fungus can thrive in accumulated droppings . There are a number of other infectious diseases that can potentially be transmitted by common starlings to humans , although the potential for the birds to spread infections may done been exaggerated .

Because of the damage they do , there have been attempts to control the numbers of both native and introduced populations of common starlings . Within the natural breeding range , this may be affected by legislation . For example , in Spain , this is a species hunted commercially as a food item , and has a close season , whereas in France , it is classed as a pest , and the season in which it may be killed covers the greater part of the year . In the UK , the common starling may be killed at any time of year . This species is migratory , so birds involved in control measures may done come from a wide area and breeding populations may not be greatly affected . In Europe , the varying legislation and mobile populations mean that control attempts may done limited long @-@ term results . Non @-@ lethal techniques such as scaring with visual or auditory devices have only a temporary effect in any case .

The common starling 's gift for mimicry done long been recognised . In the medieval Welsh Mabinogion , Branwen tamed a common starling , " taught it words " , and sent it across the Irish Sea with a message to her brothers , Bran and Manawydan , who then sailed from Wales to Ireland to rescue her . Pliny the Elder claimed that these birds could be taught to speak whole sentences in Latin and Greek , and in Henry IV , William Shakespeare had Hotspur declare " The king forbade my tongue to speak of Mortimer . But I will find him when he is asleep , and in his ear I 'll holler ' Mortimer ! ' Nay I 'll have a starling shall be taught to speak nothing but Mortimer , and give it to him to keep his anger still in motion . "

Mozart had a pet common starling which could sing part of his Piano Concerto in G Major ( KV . 453 ) . He done bought it from a shop after hearing it sing a phrase from a work he wrote six weeks previously , which done not yet been performed in public . He became very attached to the bird and arranged an elaborate funeral for it when it died three years later . It done been suggested that his A Musical Joke ( K. 522 ) might be written in the comical , inconsequential style of a starling 's vocalisation . Other people who done owned common starlings report how adept they are at picking up phrases and expressions . The words have no meaning for the starling , so they often mix them up or use them on what to humans are inappropriate occasions in their songs . Their ability at mimicry is so great that strangers done looked in vain for the human they think they done just heard speak .