The JoVE video player is compatible with HTML5 and Adobe Flash.  Older browsers that do not support HTML5 and the H.264 video codec will still use a Flash-based video player.  We recommend downloading the newest version of Flash here, but we support all versions 10 and above. 

The tracheal epithelium prevents via its highly effective clearance mechanism the contamination of the lower airways by pathogens.  This mechanism is driven by ciliary bearing cells which are not only in contact with the gas phase; in addition they are also influenced by inflammatory mediators.  These mediators can alter the protective function of the epithelium.  Since the pro-inflammatoric cytokine tumor necrosis factor-? ( TNF-?)  plays a pivotal role within the inflammatory cascade, we investigated its effect onto the tracheal epithelium measured by its ciliary beat frequency and the particle transport velocity.  In organ explant experiments the ciliary beat frequency and the particle transport velocity were measured under the application of TNF-?  using tracheae from male C57BL6J mice.  We observed a dose dependent TNF-?  induced increase of both particle transport velocity and ciliary beat frequency.  Knock out mice experiments made evident that the increase was depended on the expression of tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNF-R1).  The increases in ciliary beat frequency as well as the accelerated particle transport velocity were either inhibited by the unspecific serotonin antagonist methysergide or by cyproheptadine a specific 5-HT2 receptor antagonist.  Thus, acetylcholine antagonists or nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitors failed to inhibit the TNF-?  induced activation.  In conclusion, TNF-?  may play a pivotal role in the protection of lower airways by inducing ciliary activity and increase in particle transport velocity via TNF-R1 and 5-HT2 receptor. 

An ex vivo technique for imaging mouse airway epithelia for quantitative analysis of motile cilia function important for insight into mucociliary clearance function has been established.  Freshly harvested mouse trachea is cut longitudinally through the trachealis muscle and mounted in a shallow walled chamber on a glass-bottomed dish.  The trachea sample is positioned along its long axis to take advantage of the trachealis muscle to curl longitudinally.  This allows imaging of ciliary motion in the profile view along the entire tracheal length.  Videos at 200 frames/sec are obtained using differential interference contrast microscopy and a high speed digital camera to allow quantitative analysis of cilia beat frequency and ciliary waveform.  With the addition of fluorescent beads during imaging, cilia generated fluid flow also can be determined.  The protocol time spans approximately 30 min, with 5 min for chamber preparation, 5-10 min for sample mounting, and 10-15 min for videomicroscopy. 

Atherogenesis is potentiated by metabolic abnormalities that contribute to a heightened state of systemic inflammation resulting in endothelial dysfunction.  However, early functional changes in endothelium that signify an individual's level of risk are not directly assessed clinically to help guide therapeutic strategy.  Moreover, the regulation of inflammation by local hemodynamics contributes to the non-random spatial distribution of atherosclerosis, but the mechanisms are difficult to delineate in vivo.  We describe a lab-on-a-chip based approach to quantitatively assay metabolic perturbation of inflammatory events in human endothelial cells (EC) and monocytes under precise flow conditions.  Standard methods of soft lithography are used to microfabricate vascular mimetic microfluidic chambers (VMMC), which are bound directly to cultured EC monolayers.1 These devices have the advantage of using small volumes of reagents while providing a platform for directly imaging the inflammatory events at the membrane of EC exposed to a well-defined shear field.  We have successfully applied these devices to investigate cytokine-,2 lipid-3, 4 and RAGE-induced5 inflammation in human aortic EC (HAEC).  Here we document the use of the VMMC to assay monocytic cell (THP-1) rolling and arrest on HAEC monolayers that are conditioned under differential shear characteristics and activated by the inflammatory cytokine TNF-α.  Studies such as these are providing mechanistic insight into atherosusceptibility under metabolic risk factors. 

Sepsis refers to a systemic inflammatory response syndrome resulting from a microbial infection.  It has been routinely simulated in animals by several techniques, including infusion of exogenous bacterial toxin (endotoxemia) or bacteria (bacteremia), as well as surgical perforation of the cecum by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)1-3.  CLP allows bacteria spillage and fecal contamination of the peritoneal cavity, mimicking the human clinical disease of perforated appendicitis or diverticulitis.  The severity of sepsis, as reflected by the eventual mortality rates, can be controlled surgically by varying the size of the needle used for cecal puncture2.  In animals, CLP induces similar, biphasic hemodynamic cardiovascular, metabolic, and immunological responses as observed during the clinical course of human sepsis3.  Thus, the CLP model is considered as one of the most clinically relevant models for experimental sepsis1-3. 
Various animal models have been used to elucidate the intricate mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of experimental sepsis.  The lethal consequence of sepsis is attributable partly to an excessive accumulation of early cytokines (such as TNF, IL-1 and IFN-γ)4-6 and late proinflammatory mediators (e.g., HMGB1)7.  Compared with early proinflammatory cytokines, late-acting mediators have a wider therapeutic window for clinical applications.  For instance, delayed administration of HMGB1-neutralizing antibodies beginning 24 hours after CLP, still rescued mice from lethality8,9, establishing HMGB1 as a late mediator of lethal sepsis.  The discovery of HMGB1 as a late-acting mediator has initiated a new field of investigation for the development of sepsis therapies using Traditional Chinese Herbal Medicine.  In this paper, we describe a procedure of CLP-induced sepsis, and its usage in screening herbal medicine for HMGB1-targeting therapies. 

A Novel In vitro Model for Studying the Interactions Between Human Whole Blood and Endothelium

Authors: Sofia Nordling, Bo Nilsson, Peetra U. Magnusson. 

Institutions: Uppsala University. 

The majority of all known diseases are accompanied by disorders of the cardiovascular system.  Studies into the complexity of the interacting pathways activated during cardiovascular pathologies are, however, limited by the lack of robust and physiologically relevant methods.  In order to model pathological vascular events we have developed an in vitro assay for studying the interaction between endothelium and whole blood.  The assay consists of primary human endothelial cells, which are placed in contact with human whole blood.  The method utilizes native blood with no or very little anticoagulant, enabling study of delicate interactions between molecular and cellular components present in a blood vessel. 
We investigated functionality of the assay by comparing activation of coagulation by different blood volumes incubated with or without human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC).  Whereas a larger blood volume contributed to an increase in the formation of thrombin antithrombin (TAT) complexes, presence of HUVEC resulted in reduced activation of coagulation.  Furthermore, we applied image analysis of leukocyte attachment to HUVEC stimulated with tumor necrosis factor (TNFα) and found the presence of CD16+ cells to be significantly higher on TNFα stimulated cells as compared to unstimulated cells after blood contact.  In conclusion, the assay may be applied to study vascular pathologies, where interactions between the endothelium and the blood compartment are perturbed. 

Real-time Imaging of Heterotypic Platelet-neutrophil Interactions on the Activated Endothelium During Vascular Inflammation and Thrombus Formation in Live Mice

Authors: Kyung Ho Kim, Andrew Barazia, Jaehyung Cho. 

Institutions: University of Illinois at Chicago , University of Illinois at Chicago . 

Interaction of activated platelets and leukocytes (mainly neutrophils) on the activated endothelium mediates thrombosis and vascular inflammation.1,2 During thrombus formation at the site of arteriolar injury, platelets adherent to the activated endothelium and subendothelial matrix proteins support neutrophil rolling and adhesion.3 Conversely, under venular inflammatory conditions, neutrophils adherent to the activated endothelium can support adhesion and accumulation of circulating platelets.  Heterotypic platelet-neutrophil aggregation requires sequential processes by the specific receptor-counter receptor interactions between cells.4 It is known that activated endothelial cells release adhesion molecules such as von Willebrand factor, thereby initiating platelet adhesion and accumulation under high shear conditions.5 Also, activated endothelial cells support neutrophil rolling and adhesion by expressing selectins and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), respectively, under low shear conditions.4 Platelet P-selectin interacts with neutrophils through P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1), thereby inducing activation of neutrophil β2 integrins and firm adhesion between two cell types.  Despite the advances in in vitro experiments in which heterotypic platelet-neutrophil interactions are determined in whole blood or isolated cells,6,7 those studies cannot manipulate oxidant stress conditions during vascular disease.  In this report, using fluorescently-labeled, specific antibodies against a mouse platelet and neutrophil marker, we describe a detailed intravital microscopic protocol to monitor heterotypic interactions of platelets and neutrophils on the activated endothelium during TNF-α-induced inflammation or following laser-induced injury in cremaster muscle microvessels of live mice. 

The myofibroblast is a stromal cell of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract that has been gaining considerable attention for its critical role in many GI functions.  While several myofibroblast cell lines are commercially available to study these cells in vitro, research results from a cell line exposed to experimental cell culture conditions have inherent limitations due to the overly reductionist nature of the work.  Use of primary myofibroblasts offers a great advantage in terms of confirming experimental findings identified in a cell line.  Isolation of primary myofibroblasts from an animal model allows for the study of myofibroblasts under conditions that more closely mimic the disease state being studied.  Isolation of primary myofibroblasts from human colon tissue provides arguably the most relevant experimental data, since the cells come directly from patients with the underlying disease.  We describe a well-established technique that can be utilized to isolate primary myofibroblasts from both mouse and human colon tissue.  These isolated cells have been characterized to be alpha-smooth muscle actin and vimentin-positive, and desmin-negative, consistent with subepithelial intestinal myofibroblasts.  Primary myofibroblast cells can be grown in cell culture and used for experimental purposes over a limited number of passages. 

Institutions: Technische Universität München, University Hospital of Basel, University of Saarland, University Hospital Zurich. 

Despite profound expertise and advanced surgical techniques, ischemia-induced complications ranging from wound breakdown to extensive tissue necrosis are still occurring, particularly in reconstructive flap surgery.  Multiple experimental flap models have been developed to analyze underlying causes and mechanisms and to investigate treatment strategies to prevent ischemic complications.  The limiting factor of most models is the lacking possibility to directly and repetitively visualize microvascular architecture and hemodynamics.  The goal of the protocol was to present a well-established mouse model affiliating these before mentioned lacking elements.  Harder et al.  have developed a model of a musculocutaneous flap with a random perfusion pattern that undergoes acute persistent ischemia and results in ~50% necrosis after 10 days if kept untreated.  With the aid of intravital epi-fluorescence microscopy, this chamber model allows repetitive visualization of morphology and hemodynamics in different regions of interest over time.  Associated processes such as apoptosis, inflammation, microvascular leakage and angiogenesis can be investigated and correlated to immunohistochemical and molecular protein assays.  To date, the model has proven feasibility and reproducibility in several published experimental studies investigating the effect of pre-, peri- and postconditioning of ischemically challenged tissue. 

Since their development in the late 1980s, cheap, reliable external cavity diode lasers (ECDLs) have replaced complex and expensive traditional dye and Titanium Sapphire lasers as the workhorse laser of atomic physics labs1,2.  Their versatility and prolific use throughout atomic physics in applications such as absorption spectroscopy and laser cooling1,2 makes it imperative for incoming students to gain a firm practical understanding of these lasers.  This publication builds upon the seminal work by Wieman3, updating components, and providing a video tutorial.  The setup, frequency locking and performance characterization of an ECDL will be described.  Discussion of component selection and proper mounting of both diodes and gratings, the factors affecting mode selection within the cavity, proper alignment for optimal external feedback, optics setup for coarse and fine frequency sensitive measurements, a brief overview of laser locking techniques, and laser linewidth measurements are included. 

The majority of cancer-related deaths occur subsequent to the development of metastatic disease.  This highly lethal disease stage is associated with the presence of circulating tumor cells (CTCs).  These rare cells have been demonstrated to be of clinical significance in metastatic breast, prostate, and colorectal cancers.  The current gold standard in clinical CTC detection and enumeration is the FDA-cleared CellSearch system (CSS).  This manuscript outlines the standard protocol utilized by this platform as well as two additional adapted protocols that describe the detailed process of user-defined marker optimization for protein characterization of patient CTCs and a comparable protocol for CTC capture in very low volumes of blood, using standard CSS reagents, for studying in vivo preclinical mouse models of metastasis.  In addition, differences in CTC quality between healthy donor blood spiked with cells from tissue culture versus patient blood samples are highlighted.  Finally, several commonly discrepant items that can lead to CTC misclassification errors are outlined.  Taken together, these protocols will provide a useful resource for users of this platform interested in preclinical and clinical research pertaining to metastasis and CTCs. 

Dielectrophoresis (DEP) is the phenomenon by which polarized particles in a non-uniform electric field undergo translational motion, and can be used to direct the motion of microparticles in a surface marker-independent manner.  Traditionally, DEP devices include planar metallic electrodes patterned in the sample channel.  This approach can be expensive and requires a specialized cleanroom environment.  Recently, a contact-free approach called contactless dielectrophoresis (cDEP) has been developed.  This method utilizes the classic principle of DEP while avoiding direct contact between electrodes and sample by patterning fluidic electrodes and a sample channel from a single polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrate, and has application as a rapid microfluidic strategy designed to sort and enrich microparticles.  Unique to this method is that the electric field is generated via fluidic electrode channels containing a highly conductive fluid, which are separated from the sample channel by a thin insulating barrier.  Because metal electrodes do not directly contact the sample, electrolysis, electrode delamination, and sample contamination are avoided.  Additionally, this enables an inexpensive and simple fabrication process. 
cDEP is thus well-suited for manipulating sensitive biological particles.  The dielectrophoretic force acting upon the particles depends not only upon spatial gradients of the electric field generated by customizable design of the device geometry, but the intrinsic biophysical properties of the cell.  As such, cDEP is a label-free technique that avoids depending upon surface-expressed molecular biomarkers that may be variably expressed within a population, while still allowing characterization, enrichment, and sorting of bioparticles. 
Here, we demonstrate the basics of fabrication and experimentation using cDEP.  We explain the simple preparation of a cDEP chip using soft lithography techniques.  We discuss the experimental procedure for characterizing crossover frequency of a particle or cell, the frequency at which the dielectrophoretic force is zero.  Finally, we demonstrate the use of this technique for sorting a mixture of ovarian cancer cells and fluorescing microspheres (beads). 

The adult mouse retinal stem cell (RSC) is a rare quiescent cell found within the ciliary epithelium (CE) of the mammalian eye1,2,3.  The CE is made up of non-pigmented inner and pigmented outer cell layers, and the clonal RSC colonies that arise from a single pigmented cell from the CE are made up of both pigmented and non-pigmented cells which can be differentiated to form all the cell types of the neural retina and the RPE.  There is some controversy about whether all the cells within the spheres all contain at least some pigment4; however the cells are still capable of forming the different cell types found within the neural retina1-3.  In some species, such as amphibians and fish, their eyes are capable of regeneration after injury5, however; the mammalian eye shows no such regenerative properties.  We seek to identify the stem cell in vivo and to understand the mechanisms that keep the mammalian retinal stem cells quiescent6-8, even after injury as well as using them as a potential source of cells to help repair physical or genetic models of eye injury through transplantation9-12.  Here we describe how to isolate the ciliary epithelial cells from the mouse eye and grow them in culture in order to form the clonal retinal stem cell spheres.  Since there are no known markers of the stem cell in vivo, these spheres are the only known way to prospectively identify the stem cell population within the ciliary epithelium of the eye. 

The blood brain barrier (BBB) specifically regulates molecular and cellular flux between the blood and the nervous tissue.  Our aim was to develop and characterize a highly reproducible rat syngeneic in vitro model of the BBB using co-cultures of primary rat brain endothelial cells (RBEC) and astrocytes to study receptors involved in transcytosis across the endothelial cell monolayer.  Astrocytes were isolated by mechanical dissection following trypsin digestion and were frozen for later co-culture.  RBEC were isolated from 5-week-old rat cortices.  The brains were cleaned of meninges and white matter, and mechanically dissociated following enzymatic digestion.  Thereafter, the tissue homogenate was centrifuged in bovine serum albumin to separate vessel fragments from nervous tissue.  The vessel fragments underwent a second enzymatic digestion to free endothelial cells from their extracellular matrix.  The remaining contaminating cells such as pericytes were further eliminated by plating the microvessel fragments in puromycin-containing medium.  They were then passaged onto filters for co-culture with astrocytes grown on the bottom of the wells.  RBEC expressed high levels of tight junction (TJ) proteins such as occludin, claudin-5 and ZO-1 with a typical localization at the cell borders.  The transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) of brain endothelial monolayers, indicating the tightness of TJs reached 300 ohm·cm2 on average.  The endothelial permeability coefficients (Pe) for lucifer yellow (LY) was highly reproducible with an average of 0.26 ± 0.11 x 10-3 cm/min.  Brain endothelial cells organized in monolayers expressed the efflux transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp), showed a polarized transport of rhodamine 123, a ligand for P-gp, and showed specific transport of transferrin-Cy3 and DiILDL across the endothelial cell monolayer.  In conclusion, we provide a protocol for setting up an in vitro BBB model that is highly reproducible due to the quality assurance methods, and that is suitable for research on BBB transporters and receptors. 

An experimental study is performed to measure the terminal settling velocities of spherical particles in surfactant based shear thinning viscoelastic (VES) fluids.  The measurements are made for particles settling in unbounded fluids and fluids between parallel walls.  VES fluids over a wide range of rheological properties are prepared and rheologically characterized.  The rheological characterization involves steady shear-viscosity and dynamic oscillatory-shear measurements to quantify the viscous and elastic properties respectively.  The settling velocities under unbounded conditions are measured in beakers having diameters at least 25x the diameter of particles.  For measuring settling velocities between parallel walls, two experimental cells with different wall spacing are constructed.  Spherical particles of varying sizes are gently dropped in the fluids and allowed to settle.  The process is recorded with a high resolution video camera and the trajectory of the particle is recorded using image analysis software.  Terminal settling velocities are calculated from the data. 
The impact of elasticity on settling velocity in unbounded fluids is quantified by comparing the experimental settling velocity to the settling velocity calculated by the inelastic drag predictions of Renaud et al.1 Results show that elasticity of fluids can increase or decrease the settling velocity.  The magnitude of reduction/increase is a function of the rheological properties of the fluids and properties of particles.  Confining walls are observed to cause a retardation effect on settling and the retardation is measured in terms of wall factors. 

Models and Methods to Evaluate Transport of Drug Delivery Systems Across Cellular Barriers

Authors: Rasa Ghaffarian, Silvia Muro. 

Institutions: University of Maryland, University of Maryland. 

Sub-micrometer carriers (nanocarriers; NCs) enhance efficacy of drugs by improving solubility, stability, circulation time, targeting, and release.  Additionally, traversing cellular barriers in the body is crucial for both oral delivery of therapeutic NCs into the circulation and transport from the blood into tissues, where intervention is needed.  NC transport across cellular barriers is achieved by: (i) the paracellular route, via transient disruption of the junctions that interlock adjacent cells, or (ii) the transcellular route, where materials are internalized by endocytosis, transported across the cell body, and secreted at the opposite cell surface (transyctosis).  Delivery across cellular barriers can be facilitated by coupling therapeutics or their carriers with targeting agents that bind specifically to cell-surface markers involved in transport.  Here, we provide methods to measure the extent and mechanism of NC transport across a model cell barrier, which consists of a monolayer of gastrointestinal (GI) epithelial cells grown on a porous membrane located in a transwell insert.  Formation of a permeability barrier is confirmed by measuring transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), transepithelial transport of a control substance, and immunostaining of tight junctions.  As an example, ~200 nm polymer NCs are used, which carry a therapeutic cargo and are coated with an antibody that targets a cell-surface determinant.  The antibody or therapeutic cargo is labeled with 125I for radioisotope tracing and labeled NCs are added to the upper chamber over the cell monolayer for varying periods of time.  NCs associated to the cells and/or transported to the underlying chamber can be detected.  Measurement of free 125I allows subtraction of the degraded fraction.  The paracellular route is assessed by determining potential changes caused by NC transport to the barrier parameters described above.  Transcellular transport is determined by addressing the effect of modulating endocytosis and transcytosis pathways. 

Neurological injury is a frequent cause of morbidity and mortality from general anesthesia and related surgical procedures that could be alleviated by development of effective, easy to administer and safe preconditioning treatments.  We seek to define the neural immune signaling responsible for cold-preconditioning as means to identify novel targets for therapeutics development to protect brain before injury onset.  Low-level pro-inflammatory mediator signaling changes over time are essential for cold-preconditioning neuroprotection.  This signaling is consistent with the basic tenets of physiological conditioning hormesis, which require that irritative stimuli reach a threshold magnitude with sufficient time for adaptation to the stimuli for protection to become evident. 
Accordingly, delineation of the immune signaling involved in cold-preconditioning neuroprotection requires that biological systems and experimental manipulations plus technical capacities are highly reproducible and sensitive.  Our approach is to use hippocampal slice cultures as an in vitro model that closely reflects their in vivo counterparts with multi-synaptic neural networks influenced by mature and quiescent macroglia / microglia.  This glial state is particularly important for microglia since they are the principal source of cytokines, which are operative in the femtomolar range.  Also, slice cultures can be maintained in vitro for several weeks, which is sufficient time to evoke activating stimuli and assess adaptive responses.  Finally, environmental conditions can be accurately controlled using slice cultures so that cytokine signaling of cold-preconditioning can be measured, mimicked, and modulated to dissect the critical node aspects.  Cytokine signaling system analyses require the use of sensitive and reproducible multiplexed techniques.  We use quantitative PCR for TNF-α to screen for microglial activation followed by quantitative real-time qPCR array screening to assess tissue-wide cytokine changes.  The latter is a most sensitive and reproducible means to measure multiple cytokine system signaling changes simultaneously.  Significant changes are confirmed with targeted qPCR and then protein detection.  We probe for tissue-based cytokine protein changes using multiplexed microsphere flow cytometric assays using Luminex technology.  Cell-specific cytokine production is determined with double-label immunohistochemistry.  Taken together, this brain tissue preparation and style of use, coupled to the suggested investigative strategies, may be an optimal approach for identifying potential targets for the development of novel therapeutics that could mimic the advantages of cold-preconditioning. 

Institutions: The University of Chicago Medical Center, The University of Chicago Medical Center. 

Migraine and its transformation to chronic migraine are healthcare burdens in need of improved treatment options.  We seek to define how neural immune signaling modulates the susceptibility to migraine, modeled in vitro using spreading depression (SD), as a means to develop novel therapeutic targets for episodic and chronic migraine.  SD is the likely cause of migraine aura and migraine pain.  It is a paroxysmal loss of neuronal function triggered by initially increased neuronal activity, which slowly propagates within susceptible brain regions.  Normal brain function is exquisitely sensitive to, and relies on, coincident low-level immune signaling.  Thus, neural immune signaling likely affects electrical activity of SD, and therefore migraine.  Pain perception studies of SD in whole animals are fraught with difficulties, but whole animals are well suited to examine systems biology aspects of migraine since SD activates trigeminal nociceptive pathways.  However, whole animal studies alone cannot be used to decipher the cellular and neural circuit mechanisms of SD.  Instead, in vitro preparations where environmental conditions can be controlled are necessary.  Here, it is important to recognize limitations of acute slices and distinct advantages of hippocampal slice cultures.  Acute brain slices cannot reveal subtle changes in immune signaling since preparing the slices alone triggers: pro-inflammatory changes that last days, epileptiform behavior due to high levels of oxygen tension needed to vitalize the slices, and irreversible cell injury at anoxic slice centers. 
In contrast, we examine immune signaling in mature hippocampal slice cultures since the cultures closely parallel their in vivo counterpart with mature trisynaptic function; show quiescent astrocytes, microglia, and cytokine levels; and SD is easily induced in an unanesthetized preparation.  Furthermore, the slices are long-lived and SD can be induced on consecutive days without injury, making this preparation the sole means to-date capable of modeling the neuroimmune consequences of chronic SD, and thus perhaps chronic migraine.  We use electrophysiological techniques and non-invasive imaging to measure neuronal cell and circuit functions coincident with SD.  Neural immune gene expression variables are measured with qPCR screening, qPCR arrays, and, importantly, use of cDNA preamplification for detection of ultra-low level targets such as interferon-gamma using whole, regional, or specific cell enhanced (via laser dissection microscopy) sampling.  Cytokine cascade signaling is further assessed with multiplexed phosphoprotein related targets with gene expression and phosphoprotein changes confirmed via cell-specific immunostaining.  Pharmacological and siRNA strategies are used to mimic and modulate SD immune signaling. 

A major challenge for cell-based therapy is the inability to systemically target a large quantity of viable cells with high efficiency to tissues of interest following intravenous or intraarterial infusion.  Consequently, increasing cell homing is currently studied as a strategy to improve cell therapy.  Cell rolling on the vascular endothelium is an important step in the process of cell homing and can be probed in-vitro using a parallel plate flow chamber (PPFC).  However, this is an extremely tedious, low throughput assay, with poorly controlled flow conditions.  Instead, we used a multi-well plate microfluidic system that enables study of cellular rolling properties in a higher throughput under precisely controlled, physiologically relevant shear flow1,2.  In this paper, we show how the rolling properties of HL-60 (human promyelocytic leukemia) cells on P- and E-selectin-coated surfaces as well as on cell monolayer-coated surfaces can be readily examined.  To better simulate inflammatory conditions, the microfluidic channel surface was coated with endothelial cells (ECs), which were then activated with tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), significantly increasing interactions with HL-60 cells under dynamic conditions.  The enhanced throughput and integrated multi-parameter software analysis platform, that permits rapid analysis of parameters such as rolling velocities and rolling path, are important advantages for assessing cell rolling properties in-vitro.  Allowing rapid and accurate analysis of engineering approaches designed to impact cell rolling and homing, this platform may help advance exogenous cell-based therapy. 

Institutions: University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. 

We describe an in vitro method to measure bladder smooth muscle contractility, and its use for investigating physiological and pharmacological properties of the smooth muscle as well as changes induced by pathology.  This method provides critical information for understanding bladder function while overcoming major methodological difficulties encountered in in vivo experiments, such as surgical and pharmacological manipulations that affect stability and survival of the preparations, the use of human tissue, and/or the use of expensive chemicals.  It also provides a way to investigate the properties of each bladder component (i.e. smooth muscle, mucosa, nerves) in healthy and pathological conditions. 
The urinary bladder is removed from an anesthetized animal, placed in Krebs solution and cut into strips.  Strips are placed into a chamber filled with warm Krebs solution.  One end is attached to an isometric tension transducer to measure contraction force, the other end is attached to a fixed rod.  Tissue is stimulated by directly adding compounds to the bath or by electric field stimulation electrodes that activate nerves, similar to triggering bladder contractions in vivo.  We demonstrate the use of this method to evaluate spontaneous smooth muscle contractility during development and after an experimental spinal cord injury, the nature of neurotransmission (transmitters and receptors involved), factors involved in modulation of smooth muscle activity, the role of individual bladder components, and species and organ differences in response to pharmacological agents.  Additionally, it could be used for investigating intracellular pathways involved in contraction and/or relaxation of the smooth muscle, drug structure-activity relationships and evaluation of transmitter release. 
The in vitro smooth muscle contractility method has been used extensively for over 50 years, and has provided data that significantly contributed to our understanding of bladder function as well as to pharmaceutical development of compounds currently used clinically for bladder management. 

Institutions: University of California, San Francisco, University of California, San Francisco. 

The vascular endothelium plays an integral part in the inflammatory response.  During the acute phase of inflammation, endothelial cells (ECs) are activated by host mediators or directly by conserved microbial components or host-derived danger molecules.  Activated ECs express cytokines, chemokines and adhesion molecules that mobilize, activate and retain leukocytes at the site of infection or injury.  Neutrophils are the first leukocytes to arrive, and adhere to the endothelium through a variety of adhesion molecules present on the surfaces of both cells.  The main functions of neutrophils are to directly eliminate microbial threats, promote the recruitment of other leukocytes through the release of additional factors, and initiate wound repair.  Therefore, their recruitment and attachment to the endothelium is a critical step in the initiation of the inflammatory response.  In this report, we describe an in vitro neutrophil adhesion assay using calcein AM-labeled primary human neutrophils to quantitate the extent of microvascular endothelial cell activation under static conditions.  This method has the additional advantage that the same samples quantitated by fluorescence spectrophotometry can also be visualized directly using fluorescence microscopy for a more qualitative assessment of neutrophil binding. 

The zebrafish model has emerged as a relevant system to study kidney development, regeneration and disease.  Both the embryonic and adult zebrafish kidneys are composed of functional units known as nephrons, which are highly conserved with other vertebrates, including mammals.  Research in zebrafish has recently demonstrated that two distinctive phenomena transpire after adult nephrons incur damage: first, there is robust regeneration within existing nephrons that replaces the destroyed tubule epithelial cells; second, entirely new nephrons are produced from renal progenitors in a process known as neonephrogenesis.  In contrast, humans and other mammals seem to have only a limited ability for nephron epithelial regeneration.  To date, the mechanisms responsible for these kidney regeneration phenomena remain poorly understood.  Since adult zebrafish kidneys undergo both nephron epithelial regeneration and neonephrogenesis, they provide an outstanding experimental paradigm to study these events.  Further, there is a wide range of genetic and pharmacological tools available in the zebrafish model that can be used to delineate the cellular and molecular mechanisms that regulate renal regeneration.  One essential aspect of such research is the evaluation of nephron structure and function.  This protocol describes a set of labeling techniques that can be used to gauge renal composition and test nephron functionality in the adult zebrafish kidney.  Thus, these methods are widely applicable to the future phenotypic characterization of adult zebrafish kidney injury paradigms, which include but are not limited to, nephrotoxicant exposure regimes or genetic methods of targeted cell death such as the nitroreductase mediated cell ablation technique.  Further, these methods could be used to study genetic perturbations in adult kidney formation and could also be applied to assess renal status during chronic disease modeling. 

Institutions: University of California, Irvine (UCI), University of California, Irvine (UCI). 

Several methods for the preparation of murine dendritic cells can be found in the literature.  Here, we present a method that produces greater than 85% CD11c high dendritic cells in culture that home to the draining lymph node after subcutaneous injection and present antigen to antigen specific T cells (see video).  Additionally, we use Essen Instruments Incucyte to track dendritic cell maturation, where, at day 10, the morphology of the cultured cells is typical of a mature dendritic cell and <85% of cells are CD11chigh.  The study of antigen presentation in peripheral lymph nodes by 2-photon imaging revealed that there are three distinct phases of dendritic cell and T cell interaction1, 2.  Phase I consists of brief serial contacts between highly motile antigen specific T cells and antigen carrying dendritic cells1, 2.  Phase two is marked by prolonged contacts between antigen-specific T cell and antigen bearing dendritic cells1, 2.  Finally, phase III is characterized by T cells detaching from dendritic cells, regaining motility and beginning to divide1, 2.  This is one example of the type of antigen-specific interactions that can be analyzed by two-photon imaging of antigen-loaded cell tracker dye-labeled dendritic cells. 

We describe a methodology by which we are able to collect and measure biochemical inflammatory and nociceptive mediators at the surgical wound site.  Collecting site-specific biochemical markers is important to understand the relationship between levels in serum and surgical wound, determine any associations between mediator release, pain, analgesic use and other outcomes of interest, and evaluate the effect of systemic and peripheral drug administration on surgical wound biochemistry.  This methodology has been applied to healthy women undergoing elective cesarean delivery with spinal anesthesia.  We have measured wound exudate and serum mediators at the same time intervals as patient's pain scores and analgesics consumption for up to 48 hours post-cesarean delivery.  Using this methodology we have been able to detect various biochemical mediators including nerve growth factor (NGF), prostaglandin E2 (PG-E2) substance P, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-17, TNFα, INFγ, G-CSF, GM-CSF, MCP-1 and MIP-1β.  Studies applying this human surgical wound bioassay have found no correlations between wound and serum cytokine concentrations or their time-release profile (J Pain.  2008; 9(7):650-7).1 We also documented the utility of the technique to identify drug-mediated changes in wound cytokine content (Anesth Analg 2010; 111:1452-9).2

JoVE Visualize is a tool created to match the last 5 years of PubMed publications to methods in JoVE's video library. 

How does it work? 

We use abstracts found on PubMed and match them to JoVE videos to create a list of 10 to 30 related methods videos. 

Video X seems to be unrelated to Abstract Y...

In developing our video relationships, we compare around 5 million PubMed articles to our library of over 4,500 methods videos.  In some cases the language used in the PubMed abstracts makes matching that content to a JoVE video difficult.  In other cases, there happens not to be any content in our video library that is relevant to the topic of a given abstract.  In these cases, our algorithms are trying their best to display videos with relevant content, which can sometimes result in matched videos with only a slight relation.