Serial manipulator functional calibration for in vitro biomechanical testing. 
Serial manipulators are often used in biomechanical testing of human joints because they are precise, repeatable instruments that can create interesting loading scenarios.  Unfortunately, commercial serial manipulators often do not have acceptable global positional accuracy due to manufacturing tolerances, assembly errors, and other mechanical imperfections.  Numerous calibration methods have been reported which calibrate geometric and non-geometric parameters to reduce static position errors under constant loading conditions.  However, the manipulator's global accuracy during continuous motion with time-varying external loading conditions is often not addressed but is necessary for joint biomechanical testing.  Using the Mitsubishi PA10-6CE as a case study, a novel functional calibration procedure was developed that performs both static and dynamic calibration.  The calibration uses optimization techniques to populate a 34-parameter model that accounts for the robot's geometric and non-geometric parameters and significantly reduces the mean/peak static and dynamic position errors to 0.368/0.67 mm and 0.353/0.81 mm, respectively, while externally loaded.