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Georgia Hopley

American journalist and temperance advocate

Georgianna Eliza Hopley (1858–1944) was an American journalist, political figure, and temperance advocate. A member of a prominent Ohio publishing family, she was the first woman reporter in Columbus, and editor of several publications. She served as a correspondent and representative at the 1900 Paris Exposition and the 1901 Pan-American Exposition. She was active in state and national politics, serving as vice-president of the Woman's Republican Club of Ohio and directing publicity for Warren G. Harding's presidential campaign. In 1922 Hopley became the first woman prohibition agent of the United States Bureau of Prohibition, where she was involved in education and publicity. She resigned among criticism of the costs of her publicity and the scope of her duties. ## Early life Georgia Hopley was born April 29, 1858, in Bucyrus, Ohio. Her father, John P. Hopley (1821–1904), was longtime editor of the Bucyrus Evening Journal, and her mother, Georgianna (Rochester) Hopley was active in the temperance movement of the 1870s. Georgia was the sixth child out of a family of three daughters and seven sons, one of whom died in childhood. All but one of her surviving siblings would follow their father into the newspaper business. Hopley was educated in Bucyrus Union Schools and then abroad, spending one year in Paris and three in London. Her involvement in temperance began during high school. In Ohio she worked as a reporter and writer in the offices of her father and brothers. ## Journalism and politics While working in the office of a brother who was then secretary of the Ohio Prohibition Party, Hopley conceived the idea that a woman should be better qualified to report certain events for newspapers than a man. She wrote a letter to a Columbus, Ohio, newspaper editor stating as much, and was invited to become a society editor and feature writer. Hopley thus became known as the first woman reporter assigned to regular work in Columbus. In 1893 she became editor and owner of The Columbus School Journal, a periodical for Columbus parents, students, and teachers, and in the early 1900s was editor of the Columbus Press Post. In 1900, she was appointed by Ohio Governor George K. Nash to represent Ohio at the Paris Exposition. While there she continued her newspaper work as correspondent for a bureau of United States publications as well as the Associated Press and Scripps-McRae syndicate. In 1901, she was again appointed by Governor Nash as a member of the Board of Women Managers of the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo. In the fall of that year she was appointed by Commissioner M. B. Ratchford, State Bureau of Labor Statistics, as special inspector of workshops and factories with a view to bettering the condition of women and children. This took her to many factories and before workers, to whom she spoke in the evenings. In 1918, she was appointed by E. M. Fullington, chairman of the Ohio Republican Advisory Committee to supervise the work of the women and publicity in the campaign for governor and for nationwide prohibition. In 1919 she was appointed by the Franklin County, Ohio Republican committee to conduct the women's campaign and publicity in the municipal election. In the summer of that year, she was engaged on the publicity force at the time of the World's Methodist Centenary in Columbus. In 1920 she was chosen by the Republican State Chairman of Columbus to supervise publicity in the Republican pre-primary campaign for Warren G. Harding and in the fall was engaged to conduct the same work for the presidential campaign. She was one of the hostesses at the Congress Hotel when the Republican National Convention was held in Chicago. Hopley served as vice-president of the Woman's Republican Club of Ohio, chair of the Civic Improvement Committee, and was a member of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and Order of the Eastern Star. ## Prohibition agent In early 1922, Hopley was sworn in as the first female general agent of the Bureau of Prohibition (then a unit of the Bureau of Internal Revenue), serving under Federal Prohibition Commissioner Roy A. Haynes. Her appointment made news around the country. She traveled the nation, speaking on prohibition, law enforcement, and women's voting issues. Haynes told Congress that Hopley was employed not as an enforcement agent but to give information as part of "wise propaganda work". She decried films that belittled or made light of prohibition. She also highlighted the problem of women bootleggers, telling a reporter: "There you have the worst problem for prohibition officials. [Women] resort to all sorts of tricks, concealing metal containers in their clothing, in false bottoms of trunks and traveling bags, and even in baby buggies." Her hiring encouraged local law enforcement agencies to hire more women to investigate women bootleggers. In August 1922 she estimated that "dry laws" of the Volstead Act had decreased liquor drinkers in America by 17,500,000, and urged women to actively support dry laws through civic and religious organizations. Her philosophy was driven by a quote from Abraham Lincoln: "Let reverence for the laws be the political religion of the nation." The cost and scope of Hopley's duties drew some criticism. David H. Blair, the Internal Revenue Commissioner, requested she resign in 1924, but she was supported by Haynes. In 1925, General Lincoln C. Andrews, the new Assistant Secretary of the Treasury in charge of Prohibition enforcement, demanded Hopley resign as part of his reorganization of the Bureau. Despite support from Haynes and prominent Ohio politicians, Hopley resigned from the Bureau in July 1925, when it was determined her activities were outside the scope of the federal government, and publicity expenditures of around \$50,000 drew criticism. ## Later years After leaving the Prohibition Bureau, Hopley returned to journalism, focusing on women's suffrage. In her later years she lived in Bucyrus with her brothers, former State Senator James R. Hopley, and Frank L. Hopley, of the Lincoln Highway Council. She died in Bucyrus on July 1, 1944, at the age of 86.

Willis Ward

Track and field athlete and American football player

Willis Franklin Ward (December 28, 1912 – December 30, 1983) was a track and field athlete and American football player who was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1981. Ward was the Michigan High School Athlete of the Year, after setting a national prep record in the high jump. At the University of Michigan, he was a collegiate champion in the high jump, the long jump, the 100-yard dash, and the 440-yard dash, and finished second in the voting for the Associated Press Big Ten Athlete of the Year award in 1933. In track and field he was a three-time All-American and eight-time Big Ten champion. In football, Ward was only the second African-American to win a varsity letter for the Michigan Wolverines football team, lettering in 1932, 1933, and 1934. In 1934, a controversy developed when Georgia Tech refused to play if Ward took the field, and university officials opted to keep Ward out of the game. Teammate Gerald R. Ford reportedly threatened to quit the team in response to the university's decision. After being excluded from the Georgia Tech game, Ward went on to score all 12 of Michigan's points that year outside of the Georgia Tech game, without another Wolverine even having an extra point or a field goal. Ward later became a lawyer in Detroit and up through World War 2 he worked for Ford Motor Company in the Service Division as a voice for black workers, but also helping Ford oppose labor unions; later he was a member of the Michigan Public Service Commission from 1966 to 1973, serving as chairman from 1969 to 1973. He also served as a probate court judge in Wayne County, Michigan. ## Early years Ward was born in Alabama in 1913. His father, Henry R. Ward, was an Alabama native who moved to Detroit and worked there in a Ford Motor Company factory. His mother, Bessie, was a Georgia native. Ward attended Detroit's Northwestern High School where he excelled in both track and football. As a high school junior, he was named Michigan High School Athlete of the Year, after setting a national prep record in the high jump at 6–4.5. He was city champion in the low hurdles (with a time of 13.0) and the high hurdles (with a time of 15.8). Ward also won the 220 hurdles at Ann Arbor (with a time of 25.9) and Class A (with a time of 26.1). ## University of Michigan ### Freshman track star Ward attended the University of Michigan from 1931 to 1935, where he became one of the most successful track athletes in the school's history. As a freshman in 1932, Ward's specialty was the high jump. Ward won the NCAA high jump championship in June 1932 with a jump of 6–7 1/3. He jumped as high as 6-7-1/2 in his freshman year. Ward's best jump in 1932 was two inches above the mark that won the gold medal at the 1932 Summer Olympics (Canada's Duncan McNaughton won the gold with a jump of 6 feet, 51⁄2 inches), but Ward did not qualify for the team. Ward's accomplishments were not limited to the high jump. An Associated Press article in 1932 noted: "His specialty is the high jump for which he has a mark of 6 feet 71⁄2 inches. He can run the high hurdles and the low hurdles. He has broad jumped 22 feet without training in that event. He put the 16-pound shot over 43 feet without prior experience, and it believed he might be developed into a world champion weight man. He unquestionably could be trained to do the springs. He is only 19. Ward has an ideal build for a track man, six feet, one inch tall, 185 pounds of well-distributed weight, good legs, natural co-ordination. He is quiet and unassuming, and popular with coaches and fellow members of the squad." When Ward decided to try out for the football team as a sophomore, Michigan track fans worried that Ward would be injured. The Associated Press reported: "University of Michigan track fans do a lot of worrying these days because a Negro boy from Detroit insists on playing football. Willis Ward, they believe, will be the greatest track man ever to compete for the Maize and Blue—if he doesn't get hurt. ... Ward is a good football player and loves the game. . . . Well wishers even have told him about the advantages of competing only in track and staying away from the gridiron, but he is determined to play on the eleven, and he is good enough to make the grade." Michigan's track coach, Chuck Hoyt, noted that "Ward is his own boss and football is his recreation." ### First African-American football player in 40 years In addition to the concerns of track fans, Ward's decision to try out for the football team raised issues of race. Though George Jewett had broken the race barrier as Michigan's first African-American football player in 1890, Michigan had not played another African-American in the 40 years after Jewett. During Fielding Yost's tenure as coach several African-American students joined the football team, but records indicate that none of them ever saw game action and only one earned even a "reserve letter". Some reports attribute the de facto segregation of the football team to racism on the part of Yost, who was the son of a Confederate soldier. While in high school, Ward had decided to attend Dartmouth College. With head coach Harry Kipke's assurance that he would be given full opportunity to play football, Ward enrolled at Michigan. Kipke had played with African-American athletes in high school and was eager to have Ward on his team. According to John Behee, the author of a book on the history of African-American athletes at Michigan, Kipke "threatened to fight, physically fight, those alumni and fellow coaches who opposed his playing Ward." Behee wrote that "on several occasions Kipke took off his coat and was prepared to fight with those who bitterly opposed having a Negro play for Michigan." Ward got the opportunity to prove himself in spring football practice in May 1932. According to one account, Kipke ordered his veterans to pound Ward "without mercy" during practice. "If, at the end of the week", said Kipke, "he doesn't turn in his uniform, then I know I've got a great player." The United Press reported on the results of spring practice: "Three young freshmen at the University of Michigan—Jerry Ford, of Grand Rapids; Russell Oliver, of Pontiac, and Willis Ward, Detroit Negro—displayed such brilliance during spring football practice that they are expected to become important cogs next fall in the Wolverine varsity eleven." Another report in July 1932 described Ward, the "giant negro," as being "the outstanding athlete becoming eligible for play." Ward made the team in 1932 and started four games at end. Ivy Williamson, captain of the 1932 football team, greeted Ward at the field house and told him, "If you have any problems with anybody, let me know because we're prepared to take care of them." Reporting on his decision to play football and risk injury, the Associated Press noted: "Ward would rather win an 'M' on the gridiron than be an Olympic champion." The 1932 Michigan Wolverines football team went 8–0, outscored its opponents 123–13, and won the national championship. ### 1933 track season During the 1933 track season, Ward was so dominant that he was dubbed Michigan's "one-man track team" and became a national sensation. He led Michigan to Big Ten championships in both indoor and outdoor track. Going into the Big Ten track meet in May 1933, Ward was expected to dominate. Coach Hoyt described Ward as "a good 'un," and praised him for his unassuming character and tolerance of the spotlight of publicity. One report noted: "He is altogether likeable, for he always speaks without raising his voice and never protests a decision. ... Ward is a star now, but he is just finishing his first year of competition. Unless injuries hamper him it is likely he will be as great an attraction or possibly even greater than the two Negro track stars who preceded him here, DeHart Hubbard and Eddie Tolan." Michigan won the Big Ten meet with 601⁄2 points, with Ward individually accounting for 18 points. One writer noted that the Wolverines would have finished in second place "without the huge, versatile negro." At the meet, Ward won the 100-yard dash and the high jump and placed second in the 120 yard high hurdles and the broad jump. His performance at the Big Ten meet was described as "the greatest individual performance since Carl Johnson scored 20 points for Michigan in 1918." Even TIME magazine took note of Ward's dominating performance. Time noted: "The other entrants in the Intercollegiates last week had reason to consider with awe another athlete who—until he helped Michigan win the Western Conference title last week, with 601⁄2 points to Indiana's 471⁄2 had not often been heard of outside the Midwest, except as a member of Michigan's football team. He was Willis Ward, 196-lb. Negro sophomore. At the Big Ten meet in Evanston last week. Willis Ward won the 100-yd. dash in 9.6 sec. He won the high jump, placed second in the broad jump. In the 120-yd. high hurdles, he forced Ohio State's Jack Keller to world's record time of 14.1 sec., finished a close second. The 18 points he won were what enabled Michigan to beat Indiana. They made his the most efficient individual performance in a Big Ten meet since Carl Johnson scored 20 points for Michigan in 1918. Quiet, unassuming, an above-average student of literature, Ward was the first Negro ever elected to Sphinx, Michigan's junior honor society." At the Drake Relay Carnival in April 1933, he finished second in the 100-yard dash, narrowly losing to Ralph Metcalfe. The 1934 Michigan yearbook, the Michiganensian, noted: "Michigan climaxed a successful season by winning the Annual Butler Relays and taking the title from Indiana. Willis Ward won the meet almost single-handed when he scored thirteen of the team's 183⁄4 points. In winning the 60 yard dash, the Flashy negro star equaled the recognized world mark of 6.2 seconds." At the Big Ten indoor track championship, the Michiganensian noted that Ward, "Michigan's all around athlete, was easily the outstanding star of the meet." Ward won the 60-yard dash, the 70-yard high hurdles and the high jump. ### 1933 football season In 1933, Ward started all eight games for Michigan at right end and was a key player in Michigan's second consecutive undefeated football season and national championship. Time magazine credited the work of Ward and halfback Herman Everhardus: "Michigan came perilously close to slipping from the top of the Big Ten, where it has been for three years. That it did not slip was largely due to a crack halfback named Herman Everhardus and to Willis Ward, a rangy Negro end. It was Ward who, after hard-fighting Illinois had marched to a touchdown in the first period, shot through and blocked the place kick which would have given Illinois a seventh point." After the season was over, Coach Kipke also credited the play of Everhardus and his ends for the undefeated season: "Our ends, Ward and Petoskey, were near perfection." Michigan's left end, Ted Petoskey was named a first-team All-American in 1933, and Ward earned honorable mention All-American honors at right end. ### Runner up for 1933 Big Ten athlete of the year In December 1933, Ward finished second in close balloting for the Associated Press Big Ten Athlete of the Year award. The AP reported that Duane Purvis of Purdue beat Ward "by the slender margin of two votes." In the AP's polling of conference coaches and sports writers, 55 votes were cast, with Purvis receiving 17 votes to 15 for Ward, described by the AP as "Michigan's 'one-man track team.'" The AP pointed to Ward's dual contributions in football and track: "Ward, in addition to his feats in track, was one of the bright stars of Michigan's championship football team this fall. Fast and rangy, he was classed as one of the finest wingmen in football. In track, he has run the century in 9.6, high jumped 6 feet 71⁄2 inches, leaped 24 feet in the broad jump and won his share of glory in the high hurdles." ### 1934 track season In 1934, Ward won the Big Ten long jump championship with a distance of 23–21⁄4. ### 1934 football season The 1934 football season proved to be one of the low points in the school's history, both because of the team's 1–7 record, and the ugly racial incident that kept Ward out of the game against Georgia Tech. Though excluded from the Georgia Tech game, Willis started every other game—five games at right end, and two games at halfback. Michigan scored only 21 points in the entire 1934 season, and Ward scored 12 of those points. In fact, Michigan scored nine points against Georgia Tech and Ward's 12 points were the only points scored by the Wolverines in the seven games in which Ward played. Michigan was shut out in the first two games, before beating Georgia Tech in the season's third game. The following week, Michigan lost to Illinois, 7–6, as Ward scored Michigan's only touchdown from the line of scrimmage of the entire 1934 season. (The season's only other touchdown came on a punt return against Georgia Tech.) Ward's touchdown came on a trick play, as fullback Johnny Regeczi passed the ball to end Mike Savage who lateraled to Ward. According to the Chicago Tribune, the lateral "enabled the fleet Negro to outfoot the Illinois secondary." After being shut out in three games after the Illinois match, Michigan closed the season with a 13–6 loss to Northwestern. Michigan's only points against Northwestern came on two field goals by Ward. Thus, all 12 of Michigan's 1934 points outside the Georgia Tech game were scored by Ward, without another Wolverine even having an extra point or a field goal. ### 1934 Georgia Tech game Despite his many accomplishments, the event for which Ward is most remembered is the game he did not play. In 1934, Michigan had scheduled Georgia Tech as the third game of the season. After learning that Michigan had an African-American player, Georgia Tech football coach and athletic director W. A. "Bill" Alexander refused to allow his team to take the field if Ward played. As early as the fall of 1933, Alexander wrote to Yost asking what was going to be done about Ward, asserting that his team would not take the field if Ward played. As the game approached, word spread that Georgia Tech was insisting that Ward not play, and that the administration might capitulate to the demand. Ward's right to play became a major controversy on the campus. Mass meetings and demonstrations were held. Some students and faculty demanded that either Ward must play or the game should be canceled. Petitions were circulated, and formal protests were lodged with the university by the Ann Arbor Ministerial Association, the NAACP, the National Student League and many other groups. The student newspaper, The Michigan Daily, opined: "If the athletic department forgot it had Ward on its football team when it scheduled a game with Georgia Tech, it was astonishingly forgetful; ... if it was conscious of Ward's being on the team but scheduled the game anyway, it was extraordinarily stupid." Time magazine ran a story about the uproar on Michigan's campus: "Fifteen hundred Michigan students and faculty members signed a petition asking that the team's star end, Negro Willis Ward, be allowed to play against Georgia Tech." According to Time, 200 "campus radicals" threatened to prevent the game from being played by standing in the middle of the field. Rumors of a sit-down protest on the 50-yard line during the game spread across campus in the week before the game. One alumnus recalled that, the night before the game, "bonfires lit all over the campus echoed with screams of student anger, and 'Kill Georgia Tech' was heard throughout Ann Arbor." In an attempt to thwart any attempt to disrupt the game, Yost hired a Pinkerton agent to infiltrate "The United Front Committee on Ward", a conglomerate of student organizations that supported Ward's right to play. Athletic authorities argued that Ward should not play because it would be discourteous to Georgia Tech, and he might be injured. There was fear that if Ward played, he would be injured by malicious blows after the play had ended. Playwright Arthur Miller, then a writer for Michigan's student newspaper, learned first-hand about the strong resistance among the Georgia Tech team to playing on the same field with an African-American athlete. In his biography of Miller, Enoch Brater noted that Miller had friends from Arkansas who knew one of the Georgia Tech players. Brater described Miller's involvement this way: "Remmel [Miller's friend from Arkansas] took Miller with them to meet with members of the team, to protest but also to appeal to the athletes' sense of fair play. 'Miller was right in the middle of this', Remmel recalls. Not only did the visiting team rebuff 'the Yankee' Miller 'in salty language', but they told him they would actually kill Ward if he set one foot on the Michigan gridiron. 'The Georgia Tech team was wild.' Miller was furious. He 'went immediately to the office of the Michigan Daily and wrote an article about it, but it was not published.' . . . Remmel said that Miller 'could not believe that the Georgia Tech team would have tried to destroy Willis Ward—but, I am sure they would have.'" In the end, Ward was not allowed to play. But in exchange, Georgia Tech agreed to reciprocate by benching their own star end, Hoot Gibson. As his teammates faced Georgia Tech, there are conflicting reports as to Ward's whereabouts. According to Time, Ward "sat calmly in a radio booth, watched his teammates defeat the Southerners, 9-to-2, earning what turned out to be their only win of the season." According to Behee, Ward was not even allowed to watch the game from the press box, or even from the bench of his own stadium. Instead, he spent the afternoon in a fraternity house. A third account states that Kipke "quietly sent Willis Ward off to scout another Michigan game in Wisconsin." The day after the Georgia Tech game was played, an editorial ran in The Michigan Daily stating "that everyone who touched (the Ward affair) did so only to lose in respect and esteem." In Georgia, some sports journalists and fans blamed the player exchange for the loss. Journalist Ralph McGill said "Willis Ward won the football game," arguing the loss of Gibson hurt Georgia Tech more than the loss of Ward hurt Michigan. ### Gerald Ford's role in the Georgia Tech controversy The school's refusal to play Ward in the Georgia Tech game later became part of the public legacy of President Gerald R. Ford. Ward recalled that he met "my man Jerry" during freshman orientation in 1932, and the two became friends and roommates when the football team traveled for road games. When Ford learned that the school had capitulated to Georgia Tech, some accounts indicate that he "quit the team" or threatened to quit in order "to make a statement and take a stand because Willis Ward was his friend." Ford wrote about the Georgia Tech incident in his autobiography, recalling that he felt the decision to keep Willis out of the game was "morally wrong." "I went to Willis himself. He urged me to play. 'Look,' he said, 'the team's having a bad year. We've lost two games already and we probably won't win any more. You've got to play Saturday. You owe it to the team.' I decided he was right. That Saturday afternoon, we hit like never before and beat Georgia Tech 9–2." Years later, Ford wrote that the Ward incident had influenced his thinking about race. Ford noted: "His sacrifice led me to question how educational administrators could capitulate to raw prejudice." Ford used the story to voice his support for U-M's affirmative action admissions policy saying, "Do we really want to risk turning back the clock to an era when the Willis Wards were isolated and penalized for the color of their skin, their economic standing or national ancestry?" In 1976, Ward, then a probate court judge in Wayne County, said that Ford never mentioned the incident to him, but that Ford's brother later told him about it. "Jerry was very concerned," Ward recalled. "His brother told me, 'Jerry was so upset he wrote father asking him if he should quit the team. He was that angry.'" At Ford's funeral, President George W. Bush also spoke about the Willis Ward incident. Bush said: "Long before he was known in Washington, Gerald Ford showed his character and his leadership. As a star football player for the University of Michigan, he came face to face with racial prejudice when Georgia Tech came to Ann Arbor for a football game. One of Michigan's best players was an African American student named Willis Ward. Georgia Tech said they would not take the field if a black man were allowed to play. Gerald Ford was furious at Georgia Tech for making the demand, and for the University of Michigan for caving in. He agreed to play only after Willis Ward personally asked him to. The stand Gerald Ford took that day was never forgotten by his friend. And Gerald Ford never forgot that day either and three decades later, he proudly supported the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act in the United States Congress." ### Impact of Racism on Ward Ward proved to be one of the most successful athletes in the history of the University of Michigan. He earned six varsity letters in football and track. In track, he won Big Ten titles in the 100-yard dash in 1933; in the high jump in 1933 and 1935; in the 400 meter dash in 1933; and in the long jump in 1934. On several occasions, Ward even beat Jesse Owens in the 100-yard dash. Because of his all-around skills, Ward was considered a likely contender for the U.S. decathlon team in the 1936 Olympics. However, the Georgia Tech incident left Ward angry and disillusioned. He recalled that it sapped his competitive spirit. Ward considered quitting football, even writing a letter to Coach Kipke about his intentions of leaving the team. He recalled later that the refusal to let him play against Georgia Tech destroyed his will. "It was the fact that I couldn't play in the Georgia Tech game. That all of a sudden, the practice that you just did because it was the thing to do that was good—a tremendous amount of burnt up energy—all of a sudden becomes drudgery." His one sports highlight in 1935 was beating Jesse Owens at Yost Fieldhouse in the 60-yard dash and 65 high hurdles. Ward's times were neck-and-neck with Owens' up until the NCAA track and field championship. He took part in the Olympic trials in 1936, but having lost his competitive drive, Ward, in his own words, did not train to his peak and failed to make the U.S. team. "They were urging me to go out in '36," Ward recalled. "But that Georgia Tech game killed me. I frankly felt they would not let black athletes compete. Having gone through the Tech experience, it seemed an easy thing for them to say 'Well, we just won't run 'em if Hitler insists.'" Interviewed about the incident in 1976, Ward said: "It was like any bad experience—you can't forget it, but you don't talk about it. It hurts." But Ward would eventually come to the Owens' aid. Following the 1936 Olympics and Owens winning four gold medals, racism back home led to difficulty earning a living despite his international acclaim. Owens struggled to find work and took on menial jobs as a gas station attendant, playground janitor, and manager of a dry cleaning firm and at times resorted to racing against motorbikes, cars, trucks and horses for a cash prize. Prohibited from making appearances at amateur sporting events, such commercial offers eventually disappeared. Willis Ward had befriended Owens, his former track competitor, while a student at the University of Michigan. In 1942, Ward worked as a director for the Ford Motor Company's "ad hoc civil rights division, serving as the liaison between black and white workers" and an advocate for African American employees in the personnel department. He invited Owens to Detroit to replace him and remained with Ford until 1946. ## Later years Willis Ward went on to earn a law degree from Detroit College of Law in 1939 and had a distinguished career as a lawyer and judge. In 1964, Ward spoke out against Barry Goldwater and in favor of Michigan Governor George Romney as a possible Presidential candidate. In 1966, Romney appointed Willis to the Michigan Public Service Commission, the state agency responsible for regulating Michigan's public utilities; Willis became chairman of the PSC in 1969, serving in that capacity until 1973. Ward later was elected a probate judge in Wayne County, Michigan. Ward was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1981, as part of the fourth group inducted.

Instant Replay Game

Notable American football game

The Instant Replay Game, also known as the Asterisk Game, was a National Football League (NFL) game between the Green Bay Packers and Chicago Bears on November 5, 1989. The Packers defeated the visiting Bears 14–13 on a controversial fourth-down touchdown pass from Don Majkowski to Sterling Sharpe with less than a minute to play in the game. Line judge Jim Quirk initially called a penalty on the play for an illegal forward pass, thus nullifying the potentially game-winning score. Quirk's penalty was based on the belief that Majkowski had thrown the pass after the ball had passed the line of scrimmage. The use of instant replay in the NFL had been adopted three years prior in 1986; this allowed referees to review certain calls on the field to either confirm or overturn the initial ruling. After a long replay review, the instant replay official overturned the call on the field and awarded the touchdown to the Packers. It was determined that the ball was behind the line of scrimmage when it was released, which based on the rules of the NFL at the time made the pass legal. The successful extra point put the Packers up 14–13, which would eventually be the winning score. The game was notable for its dramatic finish, the controversial use of instant replay, and it being the first Packers victory over the Bears since 1984. ## Background The Bears–Packers rivalry is the most played rivalry in NFL history, with over 200 games played since 1921. Each team has had periods of sustained success over the other, but the late 1980s saw the Bears win eight straight games against the Packers from 1985 to 1988. During these four seasons, the Bears went to the playoffs each year, including winning the Super Bowl during the 1985 NFL season. The Packers on the other hand had only been to the playoffs twice since 1967, with the last time being the strike-shortened 1982 NFL season. Because the Bears and Packers are in the same division, they are scheduled to play each other twice a season: once in Green Bay and once in Chicago. In 1989, their first match-up was scheduled for November 6 in Green Bay and the second was scheduled for December 17 in Chicago. Chicago started off their 1989 season strong, winning their first four games of the season. They then proceeded to lose their next three games before beating the Los Angeles Rams the week before the match-up against the Packers. They entered Week 9 with a record of 5–3. The Packers started their season with a record of 3–4, before beating the Detroit Lions in overtime to even their record before their match-up with the Bears. ## Game summary The Packers took the lead in the first quarter with a 24-yard touchdown pass from Don Majkowski to tight end Clint Didier. The Bears quickly responded with a 25-yard field goal by kicker Kevin Butler. Neither team scored in the second quarter, leaving the score as 7–3 with the Packers in the lead going into halftime. In the third quarter, Butler kicked a 37-yard field goal to bring the Bears to within one point, down 7–6. The Bears finally scored their first touchdown later in the quarter with a two-yard run by fullback Brad Muster, putting them in the lead 13–7 going into the fourth quarter. The fourth quarter saw the Bears and Packers go back and forth, with neither team scoring. Two Packers drives in the fourth quarter ended in turnovers. The Packers got the ball on their own 27-yard line with a little under five minutes left in the game. They drove down the field to the seven-yard line with a minute and a half left to play. On first down, Majkowski was sacked and fumbled the ball, but the Packers recovered. Now on the 14-yard line, Majkowski threw two incompletions, bringing up fourth down and goal with 41 seconds left on the game clock. Majkowski received the snap and scrambled to his right, improvizing from the original play call due to a Bears' blitz. As he approached the line of scrimmage, he threw the ball to Sterling Sharpe in the end zone for an apparent touchdown. However, line judge Jim Quirk threw a penalty flag for an illegal forward pass, thus negating the touchdown and giving the Bears possession after a turnover on downs. As the Bears celebrated, the replay official notified referee Tom Dooley that he was going to review the play to determine if the penalty was correct. After over four minutes elapsed, Dooley indicated to the crowd that the penalty was overturned and the Packers touchdown would stand. Chris Jacke kicked the extra point to put the Packers up by 14–13. With only 32 seconds left, the Bears attempted a few desperation plays after the kick-off but were unsuccessful, with the Packers holding on for a 14–13 victory. ### Box score ### Starting lineups ## Impact For the Packers, the win was significant. It was their first victory over their biggest rivals since 1984 and gave them a winning record of 5–4. The game's dramatic finish and other several close wins contributed to a new nickname for the 1989 team: "The Cardiac Pack". Don Majkowski would later note the importance of the game on his career, stating "that's probably my defining moment as a Green Bay Packers, my most famous play." The victory also contributed to quarterback Majkowski's nickname, the "Majik Man", for his proclivity for dramatic and sometimes improbable finishes. This victory over the Bears was one of a then-record four one-point victories for the 1989 Packers. The Packers would finish with a record of 10–6, with the 10 wins being the most of any Packers team since 1972. One of those wins was a Week 15 victory over the Bears in Soldier Field, giving the Packers the season's sweep. The Packers would go on to just miss the playoffs due to a tie-breaker with the Minnesota Vikings. The Bears responded well the next week, shutting out the Steelers 20–0. However, they then ended the season on a six-game losing streak and finished with a record of 6–10. The Bears missed the playoffs for the first time since 1983. ## Legacy Instant replay in the NFL was still relatively new; it had only been first implemented in 1986. The way that instant replay was applied at the end of the game was controversial. Quirk, the official that threw the flag for illegal forward pass, was positioned on the line of scrimmage on the other side of the field, but arguably had the best view of the play. At the time, the rule for an illegal forward pass dictated that the ball had to cross the line of scrimmage before it was thrown to be a penalty, regardless of the location of the person throwing the ball. Quirk judged from his position that the ball had passed the line of scrimmage before Majkowski had thrown the ball. When the play went to replay review, replay official Bill Parkinson only had a few camera angles available to review. The best view was from approximately the 20-yard line, but even that one was fuzzy and unclear. Art McNally, the NFL's director of officials, made no official statement on the play or the replay process after the game. However, according to Quirk, McNally noted on multiple occasions in private that Parkinson lacked the indisputable visual evidence required to overturn the call on the field. The NFL abandoned the instant replay process in 1991 until a new system was put in place in 1999. The rule for an illegal forward pass was also changed to make it easier to make a determination, now stating that the player throwing the ball had to be fully past the line of scrimmage for the pass to be considered illegal. The Bears did not agree with the call, with many players and coaches commenting on it for years to come, and others never acknowledging the loss. For 10 years, the Bears media guide put an asterisk next to the result of the game, noting their belief the call was incorrect. This gave the game its other name: the Asterisk Game. When asked about the game in 2014, the Bears head coach during the game, Mike Ditka, noted his belief that the call went the way it did because the game was in Green Bay, and that it would have gone the other way if the game had been played in Chicago. However, that same year, Bears middle linebacker Mike Singletary noted his acceptance of the result of the game, saying "In all honesty, they deserved to win the game. The fact that the call was overturned in the end I thought it was fitting." ## See also - 2018 NFC Championship Game – playoff game with a controversial call in the 4th quarter that led to NFL rule changes

Louvre

Art museum in Paris, France

The Louvre (English: /ˈluːv(rə)/ ), or the Louvre Museum (French: Musée du Louvre ), is a national art museum in Paris, France. A central landmark of the city, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement (district or ward) and home to some of the most canonical works of Western art, including the Mona Lisa and the Venus de Milo. The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace, originally built in the late 12th to 13th century under Philip II. Remnants of the Medieval Louvre fortress are visible in the basement of the museum. Due to urban expansion, the fortress eventually lost its defensive function, and in 1546 Francis I converted it into the primary residence of the French Kings. The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace. In 1682, Louis XIV chose the Palace of Versailles for his household, leaving the Louvre primarily as a place to display the royal collection, including, from 1692, a collection of ancient Greek and Roman sculpture. In 1692, the building was occupied by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons. The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years. During the French Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum to display the nation's masterpieces. The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, the majority of the works being royal and confiscated church property. Because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed from 1796 until 1801. The collection was increased under Napoleon and the museum was renamed Musée Napoléon, but after Napoleon's abdication, many works seized by his armies were returned to their original owners. The collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings have grown steadily through donations and bequests since the Third Republic. The collection is divided among eight curatorial departments: Egyptian Antiquities; Near Eastern Antiquities; Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities; Islamic Art; Sculpture; Decorative Arts; Paintings; Prints and Drawings. The Musée du Louvre contains more than 380,000 objects and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments with more than 60,600 square metres (652,000 sq ft) dedicated to the permanent collection. The Louvre exhibits sculptures, objets d'art, paintings, drawings, and archaeological finds. At any given point in time, approximately 38,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are being exhibited over an area of 72,735 square metres (782,910 sq ft). With over 7.8 million visitors in 2022, the Louvre is the world's most-visited museum. ## Location and visiting The Louvre museum is located inside the Louvre Palace, in the center of Paris, adjacent to the Tuileries Gardens. The two nearest Métro stations are Louvre-Rivoli and Palais Royal-Musée du Louvre, the latter having a direct underground access to the Carrousel du Louvre commercial mall. Before the Grand Louvre overhaul of the late 1980s and 1990s, the Louvre had several street-level entrances, most of which are now permanently closed. Since 1993, the museum's main entrance has been the underground space under the Louvre Pyramid, or Hall Napoléon, which can be accessed from the Pyramid itself, from the underground Carrousel du Louvre, or (for authorized visitors) from the passage Richelieu connecting to the nearby rue de Rivoli. A secondary entrance at the Porte des Lions, near the western end of the Denon Wing, was created in 1999 but is not permanently open. The museum's entrance conditions have varied over time. Initially, artists and foreign visitors had privileged access, a feature that only disappeared in the 1850s. At the time of initial opening in 1793, the French Republican calendar had imposed ten-day "weeks" (French: décades), the first six days of which were reserved for visits by artists and foreigners and the last three for visits by the general public. In the early 1800s, after the seven-day week had been reinstated, the general public had only four hours of museum access per weeks, between 2pm and 4pm on Saturdays and Sundays. In 1824, a new regulation allowed public access only on Sundays and holidays; the other days the museum was open only to artists and foreigners, except for closure on Mondays. That changed in 1855 when the museum became open to the public all days except Mondays. It was free until 1922, when an entrance fee was introduced except on Sundays. Since its post-World War II reopening in 1946, the Louvre has been closed on Tuesdays, and habitually open to the public the rest of the week except for some holidays. The use of cameras and video recorders is permitted inside, but flash photography is forbidden. Beginning in 2012, Nintendo 3DS portable video game systems were used as the official museum audio guides. In November 2013, Nintendo announced an upgraded audio guide that also included floor maps with the user's location marked to help visitors navigate the museum, over 600 photographs of artwork including high-resolution images and 3D models. The upgraded audio guide was also announced in a special Nintendo Direct, regularly used by the company to announce new game titles, hardware or other content, featuring a demonstration of the guide at the museum by Satoru Iwata, Nintendo's president and CEO, and Shigeru Miyamoto, the creator of Nintendo franchises including Mario, The Legend of Zelda, Donkey Kong, Star Fox and Pikmin. Before the Nintendo eShop for the Nintendo DS was discontinued in 2023, the guide was also available there for users to download onto their own systems for live or virtual tours. As of August 2023, there are virtual tours through rooms and galleries accessible online. ## History ### Before the museum The Louvre Palace, which houses the museum, was begun by King Philip II in the late 12th century to protect the city from the attack from the West, as the Kingdom of England still held Normandy at the time. Remnants of the Medieval Louvre are still visible in the crypt. Whether this was the first building on that spot is not known, and it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower. The origins of the name "Louvre" are somewhat disputed. According to the authoritative Grand Larousse encyclopédique, the name derives from an association with a wolf hunting den (via Latin: lupus, lower Empire: lupara). In the 7th century, Burgundofara (also known as Saint Fare), abbess in Meaux, is said to have gifted part of her "Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris" to a monastery, even though it is doubtful that this land corresponded exactly to the present site of the Louvre. The Louvre Palace has been subject to numerous renovations since its construction. In the 14th century, Charles V converted the building from its military role into a residence. In 1546, Francis I started its rebuilding in French Renaissance style. After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682, construction works slowed to a halt. The royal move away from Paris resulted in the Louvre being used as a residence for artists, under Royal patronage. For example, four generations of craftsmen-artists from the Boulle family were granted Royal patronage and resided in the Louvre. Meanwhile, the collections of the Louvre originated in the acquisitions of paintings and other artworks by the monarchs of the House of France. At the Palace of Fontainebleau, Francis collected art that would later be part of the Louvre's art collections, including Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa. The Cabinet du Roi consisted of seven rooms west of the Galerie d'Apollon on the upper floor of the remodeled Petite Galerie. Many of the king's paintings were placed in these rooms in 1673, when it became an art gallery, accessible to certain art lovers as a kind of museum. In 1681, after the court moved to Versailles, 26 of the paintings were transferred there, somewhat diminishing the collection, but it is mentioned in Paris guide books from 1684 on, and was shown to ambassadors from Siam in 1686. By the mid-18th century there were an increasing number of proposals to create a public gallery in the Louvre. Art critic Étienne La Font de Saint-Yenne in 1747 published a call for a display of the royal collection. On 14 October 1750, Louis XV decided on a display of 96 pieces from the royal collection, mounted in the Galerie royale de peinture of the Luxembourg Palace. A hall was opened by Le Normant de Tournehem and the Marquis de Marigny for public viewing of the "king's paintings" (Tableaux du Roy) on Wednesdays and Saturdays. The Luxembourg gallery included Andrea del Sarto's Charity and works by Raphael; Titian; Veronese; Rembrandt; Poussin or Van Dyck. It closed in 1780 as a result of the royal gift of the Luxembourg palace to the Count of Provence (the future king, Louis XVIII) by the king in 1778. Under Louis XVI, the idea of a royal museum in the Louvre came closer to fruition. The comte d'Angiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed to convert the Grande Galerie of the Louvre – which at that time contained the plans-reliefs or 3D models of key fortified sites in and around France – into the "French Museum". Many design proposals were offered for the Louvre's renovation into a museum, without a final decision being made on them. Hence the museum remained incomplete until the French Revolution. ### Revolutionary opening The Louvre finally became a public museum during the French Revolution. In May 1791, the National Constituent Assembly declared that the Louvre would be "a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences and arts". On 10 August 1792, Louis XVI was imprisoned and the royal collection in the Louvre became national property. Because of fear of vandalism or theft, on 19 August, the National Assembly pronounced the museum's preparation urgent. In October, a committee to "preserve the national memory" began assembling the collection for display. The museum opened on 10 August 1793, the first anniversary of the monarchy's demise, as Muséum central des Arts de la République. The public was given free accessibility on three days per week, which was "perceived as a major accomplishment and was generally appreciated". The collection showcased 537 paintings and 184 objects of art. Three-quarters were derived from the royal collections, the remainder from confiscated émigrés and Church property (biens nationaux). To expand and organize the collection, the Republic dedicated 100,000 livres per year. In 1794, France's revolutionary armies began bringing pieces from Northern Europe, augmented after the Treaty of Tolentino (1797) by works from the Vatican, such as the Laocoön and Apollo Belvedere, to establish the Louvre as a museum and as a "sign of popular sovereignty". The early days were hectic. Privileged artists continued to live in residence, and the unlabeled paintings hung "frame to frame from floor to ceiling". The structure itself closed in May 1796 due to structural deficiencies. It reopened on 14 July 1801, arranged chronologically and with new lighting and columns. On 15 August 1797, the Galerie d'Apollon was opened with an exhibition of drawings. Meanwhile, the Louvre's Gallery of Antiquity sculpture (musée des Antiques), with artefacts brought from Florence and the Vatican, had opened in November 1800 in Anne of Austria's former summer apartment, located on the ground floor just below the Galerie d'Apollon. ### Napoleonic era On 19 November 1802, Napoleon appointed Dominique Vivant Denon, a scholar and polymath who had participated in the Egyptian campaign of 1798–1801, as the museum's first director, in preference to alternative contenders such as antiquarian Ennio Quirino Visconti, painter Jacques-Louis David, sculptor Antonio Canova and architects Léon Dufourny or Pierre Fontaine. On Denon's suggestion in July 1803, the museum itself was renamed Musée Napoléon. The collection grew through successful military campaigns. Acquisitions were made of Spanish, Austrian, Dutch, and Italian works, either as the result of war looting or formalized by treaties such as the Treaty of Tolentino. At the end of Napoleon's First Italian Campaign in 1797, the Treaty of Campo Formio was signed with Count Philipp von Cobenzl of the Austrian Monarchy. This treaty marked the completion of Napoleon's conquest of Italy and the end of the first phase of the French Revolutionary Wars. It compelled Italian cities to contribute pieces of art and heritage to Napoleon's "parades of spoils" through Paris before being put into the Louvre Museum. The Horses of Saint Mark, which had adorned the basilica of San Marco in Venice after the sack of Constantinople in 1204, were brought to Paris where they were placed atop Napoleon's Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel in 1797. Under the Treaty of Tolentino, the two statues of the Nile and Tiber were taken to Paris from the Vatican in 1797, and were both kept in the Louvre until 1815. (The Nile was later returned to Rome, whereas the Tiber has remained in the Louvre to this day.) The despoilment of Italian churches and palaces outraged the Italians and their artistic and cultural sensibilities. After the French defeat at Waterloo, the looted works' former owners sought their return. The Louvre's administrator, Denon, was loath to comply in absence of a treaty of restitution. In response, foreign states sent emissaries to London to seek help, and many pieces were returned, though far from all. In 1815 Louis XVIII finally concluded agreements with the Austrian government for the keeping of works such as Veronese's Wedding at Cana which was exchanged for a large Le Brun or the repurchase of the Albani collection. ### From 1815 to 1852 For most of the 19th century, from Napoleon's time to the Second Empire, the Louvre and other national museums were managed under the monarch's civil list and thus depended much on the ruler's personal involvement. Whereas the most iconic collection remained that of paintings in the Grande Galerie, a number of other initiatives mushroomed in the vast building, named as if they were separate museums even though they were generally managed under the same administrative umbrella. Correspondingly, the museum complex was often referred to in the plural ("les musées du Louvre") rather than singular. During the Bourbon Restoration (1814–1830), Louis XVIII and Charles X added to the collections. The Greek and Roman sculpture gallery on the ground floor of the southwestern side of the Cour Carrée was completed on designs by Percier and Fontaine. In 1819 an exhibition of manufactured products was opened in the first floor of the Cour Carrée's southern wing and would stay there until the mid-1820s. Charles X in 1826 created the Musée Égyptien and in 1827 included it in his broader Musée Charles X, a new section of the museum complex located in a suite of lavishly decorated rooms on the first floor of the South Wing of the Cour Carrée. The Egyptian collection, initially curated by Jean-François Champollion, formed the basis for what is now the Louvre's Department of Egyptian Antiquities. It was formed from the purchased collections of Edmé-Antoine Durand, Henry Salt and the second collection of Bernardino Drovetti (the first one having been purchased by Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia to form the core of the present Museo Egizio in Turin). The Restoration period also saw the opening in 1824 of the Galerie d'Angoulême, a section of largely French sculptures on the ground floor of the Northwestern side of the Cour Carrée, many of whose artefacts came from the Palace of Versailles and from Alexandre Lenoir's Musée des Monuments Français following its closure in 1816. Meanwhile, the French Navy created an exhibition of ship models in the Louvre in December 1827, initially named musée dauphin in honor of Dauphin Louis Antoine, building on an 18th-century initiative of Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau. This collection, renamed musée naval in 1833 and later to develop into the Musée national de la Marine, was initially located on the first floor of the Cour Carrée's North Wing, and in 1838 moved up one level to the 2nd-floor attic, where it remained for more than a century. Following the July Revolution, King Louis Philippe focused his interest on the repurposing of the Palace of Versailles into a Museum of French History conceived as a project of national reconciliation, and the Louvre was kept in comparative neglect. Louis-Philippe did, however, sponsor the creation of the musée assyrien to host the monumental Assyrian sculpture works brought to Paris by Paul-Émile Botta, in the ground-floor gallery north of the eastern entrance of the Cour Carrée. The Assyrian Museum opened on 1 May 1847. Separately, Louis-Philippe had his Spanish gallery displayed in the Louvre from 7 January 1838, in five rooms on the first floor of the Cour Carrée's East (Colonnade) Wing, but the collection remained his personal property. As a consequence, the works were removed after Louis-Philippe was deposed in 1848, and were eventually auctioned away in 1853. The short-lived Second Republic had more ambitions for the Louvre. It initiated repair work, the completion of the Galerie d'Apollon and of the salle des sept-cheminées, and the overhaul of the Salon Carré (former site of the iconic yearly Salon) and of the Grande Galerie. In 1848, the Naval Museum in the Cour Carrée's attic was brought under the common Louvre Museum management, a change which was again reversed in 1920. In 1850 under the leadership of curator Adrien de Longpérier, the musée mexicain opened within the Louvre as the first European museum dedicated to pre-Columbian art. ### Second Empire The rule of Napoleon III was transformational for the Louvre, both the building and the museum. In 1852, he created the Musée des Souverains in the Colonnade Wing, an ideological project aimed at buttressing his personal legitimacy. In 1861, he bought 11,835 artworks including 641 paintings, Greek gold and other antiquities of the Campana collection. For its display, he created another new section within the Louvre named Musée Napoléon III, occupying a number of rooms in various parts of the building. Between 1852 and 1870, the museum added 20,000 new artefacts to its collections. The main change of that period was to the building itself. In the 1850s architects Louis Visconti and Hector Lefuel created massive new spaces around what is now called the Cour Napoléon, some of which (in the South Wing, now Aile Denon) went to the museum. In the 1860s, Lefuel also led the creation of the pavillon des Sessions with a new Salle des Etats closer to Napoleon III's residence in the Tuileries Palace, with the effect of shortening the Grande Galerie by about a third of its previous length. A smaller but significant Second Empire project was the decoration of the salle des Empereurs below the Salon carré. ### From 1870 to 1981 The Louvre narrowly escaped serious damage during the suppression of the Paris Commune. On 23 May 1871, as the French Army advanced into Paris, a force of Communards led by Jules Bergeret [fr] set fire to the adjoining Tuileries Palace. The fire burned for forty-eight hours, entirely destroying the interior of the Tuileries and spreading to the north west wing of the museum next to it. The emperor's Louvre library (Bibliothèque du Louvre) and some of the adjoining halls, in what is now the Richelieu Wing, were separately destroyed. But the museum was saved by the efforts of Paris firemen and museum employees led by curator Henry Barbet de Jouy. Following the end of the monarchy, several spaces in the Louvre's South Wing went to the museum. The Salle du Manège was transferred to the museum in 1879, and in 1928 became its main entrance lobby. The large Salle des Etats that had been created by Lefuel between the Grande Galerie and Pavillon Denon was redecorated in 1886 by Edmond Guillaume [fr], Lefuel's successor as architect of the Louvre, and opened as a spacious exhibition room. Edomond Guillaume also decorated the first-floor room at the northwest corner of the Cour Carrée, on the ceiling of which he placed in 1890 a monumental painting by Carolus-Duran, The Triumph of Marie de' Medici originally created in 1879 for the Luxembourg Palace. Meanwhile, during the Third Republic (1870–1940) the Louvre acquired new artefacts mainly via donations, gifts, and sharing arrangements on excavations abroad. The 583-item Collection La Caze, donated in 1869 by Louis La Caze, included works by Chardin; Fragonard, Rembrandt and Watteau. In 1883, the Winged Victory of Samothrace, which had been found in the Aegean Sea in 1863, was prominently displayed as the focal point of the Escalier Daru. Major artifacts excavated at Susa in Iran, including the massive Apadana capital and glazed brick decoration from the Palace of Darius there, accrued to the Oriental (Near Eastern) Antiquities Department in the 1880s. The Société des amis du Louvre was established in 1897 and donated prominent works, such as the Pietà of Villeneuve-lès-Avignon. The expansion of the museum and its collections slowed after World War I, however, despite some prominent acquisitions such as Georges de La Tour's Saint Thomas and Baron Edmond de Rothschild's 1935 donation of 4,000 prints, 3,000 drawings, and 500 illustrated books. From the late 19th century, the Louvre gradually veered away from its mid-century ambition of universality to become a more focused museum of French, Western and Near Eastern art, covering a space ranging from Iran to the Atlantic. The collections of the Louvre's musée mexicain were transferred to the Musée d'Ethnographie du Trocadéro in 1887. As the Musée de Marine was increasingly constrained to display its core naval-themed collections in the limited space it had in the second-floor attic of the northern half of the Cour Carrée, many of its significant holdings of non-Western artefacts were transferred in 1905 to the Trocadéro ethnography museum, the National Antiquities Museum in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and the Chinese Museum in the Palace of Fontainebleau. The Musée de Marine itself was relocated to the Palais de Chaillot in 1943. The Louvre's extensive collections of Asian art were moved to the Guimet Museum in 1945. Nevertheless, the Louvre's first gallery of Islamic art opened in 1922. In the late 1920s, Louvre Director Henri Verne devised a master plan for the rationalization of the museum's exhibitions, which was partly implemented in the following decade. In 1932–1934, Louvre architects Camille Lefèvre and Albert Ferran redesigned the Escalier Daru to its current appearance. The Cour du Sphinx in the South Wing was covered by a glass roof in 1934. Decorative arts exhibits were expanded in the first floor of the North Wing of the Cour Carrée, including some of France's first period room displays. In the late 1930s, The La Caze donation was moved to a remodeled Salle La Caze above the salle des Caryatides, with reduced height to create more rooms on the second floor and a sober interior design by Albert Ferran. During World War II, the Louvre conducted an elaborate plan of evacuation of its art collection. When Germany occupied the Sudetenland, many important artworks such as the Mona Lisa were temporarily moved to the Château de Chambord. When war was formally declared a year later, most of the museum's paintings were sent there as well. Select sculptures such as Winged Victory of Samothrace and the Venus de Milo were sent to the Château de Valençay. On 27 August 1939, after two days of packing, truck convoys began to leave Paris. By 28 December, the museum was cleared of most works, except those that were too heavy and "unimportant paintings [that] were left in the basement". In early 1945, after the liberation of France, art began returning to the Louvre. New arrangements after the war revealed the further evolution of taste away from the lavish decorative practices of the late 19th century. In 1947, Edmond Guillaume's ceiling ornaments were removed from the Salle des Etats, where the Mona Lisa was first displayed in 1966. Around 1950, Louvre architect Jean-Jacques Haffner [fr] streamlined the interior decoration of the Grande Galerie. In 1953, a new ceiling by Georges Braque was inaugurated in the Salle Henri II, next to the Salle La Caze. In the late 1960s, seats designed by Pierre Paulin were installed in the Grande Galerie. In 1972, the Salon Carré's museography was remade with lighting from a hung tubular case, designed by Louvre architect Marc Saltet [fr] with assistance from designers André Monpoix [fr], Joseph-André Motte and Paulin. In 1961, the Finance Ministry accepted to leave the Pavillon de Flore at the southwestern end of the Louvre building, as Verne had recommended in his 1920s plan. New exhibition spaces of sculptures (ground floor) and paintings (first floor) opened there later in the 1960s, on a design by government architect Olivier Lahalle. ### Grand Louvre In 1981, French President François Mitterrand proposed, as one of his Grands Projets, the Grand Louvre plan to relocate the Finance Ministry, until then housed in the North Wing of the Louvre, and thus devote almost the entire Louvre building (except its northwestern tip, which houses the separate Musée des Arts Décoratifs) to the museum which would be correspondingly restructured. In 1984 I. M. Pei, the architect personally selected by Mitterrand, proposed a master plan including an underground entrance space accessed through a glass pyramid in the Louvre's central Cour Napoléon. The open spaces surrounding the pyramid were inaugurated on 15 October 1988, and its underground lobby was opened on 30 March 1989. New galleries of early modern French paintings on the 2nd floor of the Cour Carrée, for which the planning had started before the Grand Louvre, also opened in 1989. Further rooms in the same sequence, designed by Italo Rota, opened on 15 December 1992. On 18 November 1993, Mitterrand inaugurated the next major phase of the Grand Louvre plan: the renovated North (Richelieu) Wing in the former Finance Ministry site, the museum's largest single expansion in its entire history, designed by Pei, his French associate Michel Macary, and Jean-Michel Wilmotte. Further underground spaces known as the Carrousel du Louvre, centered on the Inverted Pyramid and designed by Pei and Macary, had opened in October 1993. Other refurbished galleries, of Italian sculptures and Egyptian antiquities, opened in 1994. The third and last main phase of the plan unfolded mainly in 1997, with new renovated rooms in the Sully and Denon wings. A new entrance at the porte des Lions opened in 1998, leading on the first floor to new rooms of Spanish paintings. As of 2002, the Louvre's visitor count had doubled from its pre-Grand-Louvre levels. ### 21st century President Jacques Chirac, who had succeeded Mitterrand in 1995, insisted on the return of non-Western art to the Louvre, upon a recommendation from his friend the art collector and dealer Jacques Kerchache [fr]. On his initiative, a selection of highlights from the collections of what would become the Musée du Quai Branly – Jacques Chirac was installed on the ground floor of the Pavillon des Sessions and opened in 2000, six years ahead of the Musée du Quai Branly itself. The main other initiative in the aftermath of the Grand Louvre project was Chirac's decision to create a new department of Islamic Art, by executive order of 1 August 2003, and to move the corresponding collections from their prior underground location in the Richelieu Wing to a more prominent site in the Denon Wing. That new section opened on 22 September 2012, together with collections from the Roman-era Eastern Mediterranean, with financial support from the Al Waleed bin Talal Foundation and on a design by Mario Bellini and Rudy Ricciotti. In 2007, German painter Anselm Kiefer was invited to create a work for the North stairs of the Perrault Colonnade, Athanor. This decision announces the museum's reengagement with contemporary art under the direction of Henri Loyrette, fifty years after the institution's last order to a contemporary artists, George Braque. In 2010, American painter Cy Twombly completed a new ceiling for the Salle des Bronzes (the former Salle La Caze), a counterpoint to that of Braque installed in 1953 in the adjacent Salle Henri II. The room's floor and walls were redesigned in 2021 by Louvre architect Michel Goutal to revert the changes made by his predecessor Albert Ferran in the late 1930s, triggering protests from the Cy Twombly Foundation on grounds that the then-deceased painter's work had been created to fit with the room's prior decoration. That same year, the Louvre commissioned French artist François Morellet to create a work for the Lefuel stairs, on the first floor. For L'esprit d'escalier Morellet redesigned the stairscase's windows, echoing their original structures but distorting them to create a disturbing optical effect. On 6 June 2014, the Decorative Arts section on the first floor of the Cour Carrée's northern wing opened after comprehensive refurbishment. In January 2020, under the direction of Jean-Luc Martinez, the museum inaugurated a new contemporary art commission, L'Onde du Midi by Venezuelan kinetic artist Elias Crespin. The sculpture hovers under the Escalier du Midi, the staircase on the South of the Perrault Colonnade. The Louvre, like many other museums and galleries, felt the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the arts and cultural heritage. It was closed for six months during French coronavirus lockdowns and saw visitor numbers plunge to 2.7 million in 2020, from 9.6 million in 2019 and 10.2 million in 2018, which was a record year. ## Collections The Musée du Louvre owns 615,797 objects of which 482,943 are accessible online since 24 March 2021 and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments. ### Egyptian antiquities The Louvre is home to one of the world's most extensive collections of art, including works from diverse cultures and time periods. Visitors can view iconic works like the Mona Lisa and the Winged Victory of Samothrace, as well as pieces from ancient civilizations such as Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The museum also features collections of decorative arts, Islamic art, and sculptures. The department, comprising over 50,000 pieces, includes artifacts from the Nile civilizations which date from 4,000 BC to the 4th century AD. The collection, among the world's largest, overviews Egyptian life spanning Ancient Egypt, the Middle Kingdom, the New Kingdom, Coptic art, and the Roman, Ptolemaic, and Byzantine periods. The department's origins lie in the royal collection, but it was augmented by Napoleon's 1798 expeditionary trip with Dominique Vivant, the future director of the Louvre. After Jean-François Champollion translated the Rosetta Stone, Charles X decreed that an Egyptian Antiquities department be created. Champollion advised the purchase of three collections, formed by Edmé-Antoine Durand, Henry Salt, and Bernardino Drovet; these additions added 7,000 works. Growth continued via acquisitions by Auguste Mariette, founder of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Mariette, after excavations at Memphis, sent back crates of archaeological finds including The Seated Scribe. Guarded by the Great Sphinx of Tanis, the collection is housed in more than 20 rooms. Holdings include art, papyrus scrolls, mummies, tools, clothing, jewelry, games, musical instruments, and weapons. Pieces from the ancient period include the Gebel el-Arak Knife from 3400 BC, The Seated Scribe, and the Head of King Djedefre. Middle Kingdom art, "known for its gold work and statues", moved from realism to idealization; this is exemplified by the schist statue of Amenemhatankh and the wooden Offering Bearer. The New Kingdom and Coptic Egyptian sections are deep, but the statue of the goddess Nephthys and the limestone depiction of the goddess Hathor demonstrate New Kingdom sentiment and wealth. ### Near Eastern antiquities Near Eastern antiquities, the second newest department, dates from 1881 and presents an overview of early Near Eastern civilization and "first settlements", before the arrival of Islam. The department is divided into three geographic areas: the Levant, Mesopotamia (Iraq), and Persia (Iran). The collection's development corresponds to archaeological work such as Paul-Émile Botta's 1843 expedition to Khorsabad and the discovery of Sargon II's palace. These finds formed the basis of the Assyrian museum, the precursor to today's department. The museum contains exhibits from Sumer and the city of Akkad, with monuments such as the Prince of Lagash's Stele of the Vultures from 2450 BC and the stele erected by Naram-Sin, King of Akkad, to celebrate a victory over barbarians in the Zagros Mountains. The 2.25-metre (7.38 ft) Code of Hammurabi, discovered in 1901, displays Babylonian Laws prominently, so that no man could plead their ignorance. The 18th-century BC mural of the Investiture of Zimrilim and the 25th-century BC Statue of Ebih-Il found in the ancient city-state of Mari are also on display at the museum. A significant portion of the department covers the ancient Levant, including the Sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II discovered in 1855, which catalyzed Ernest Renan's 1860 Mission de Phénicie. It contains one of the world's largest and most comprehensive collections of Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions. The section also covers North African Punic antiquities (Punic = Western Phoenician), given the significant French presence in the region in the 19th century, with early finds including the 1843 discovery of the Ain Nechma inscriptions. The Persian portion of Louvre contains work from the archaic period, like the Funerary Head and the Persian Archers of Darius I. This section also contains rare objects from Persepolis which were also lent to the British Museum for its Ancient Persia exhibition in 2005. ### Greek, Etruscan, and Roman The Greek, Etruscan, and Roman department displays pieces from the Mediterranean Basin dating from the Neolithic to the 6th century. The collection spans from the Cycladic period to the decline of the Roman Empire. This department is one of the museum's oldest; it began with appropriated royal art, some of which was acquired under Francis I. Initially, the collection focused on marble sculptures, such as the Venus de Milo'''. Works such as the Apollo Belvedere arrived during the Napoleonic Wars, but these pieces were returned after Napoleon I's fall in 1815. In the 19th century, the Louvre acquired works including vases from the Durand collection, bronzes such as the Borghese Vase from the Bibliothèque nationale. The archaic is demonstrated by jewellery and pieces such as the limestone Lady of Auxerre, from 640 BC; and the cylindrical Hera of Samos, c. 570–560 BC. After the 4th century BC, focus on the human form increased, exemplified by the Borghese Gladiator. The Louvre holds masterpieces from the Hellenistic era, including The Winged Victory of Samothrace (190 BC) and the Venus de Milo, symbolic of classical art. The long Galerie Campana displays an outstanding collection of more than one thousand Greek potteries. In the galleries paralleling the Seine, much of the museum's Roman sculpture is displayed. The Roman portraiture is representative of that genre; examples include the portraits of Agrippa and Annius Verus; among the bronzes is the Greek Apollo of Piombino. ### Islamic art The Islamic art collection, the museum's newest, spans "thirteen centuries and three continents". These exhibits, of ceramics, glass, metalware, wood, ivory, carpet, textiles, and miniatures, include more than 5,000 works and 1,000 shards. Originally part of the decorative arts department, the holdings became separate in 2003. Among the works are the Pyxide d'al-Mughira, a 10th century ivory box from Andalusia; the Baptistery of Saint-Louis, an engraved brass basin from the 13th or 14th century Mamluk period; and the 10th century Shroud of Saint-Josse from Iran. The collection contains three pages of the Shahnameh, an epic book of poems by Ferdowsi in Persian, and a Syrian metalwork named the Barberini Vase. In September 2019, a new and improved Islamic art department was opened by Princess Lamia bint Majed Al Saud. The new department exhibits 3,000 pieces were collected from Spain to India via the Arabian peninsula dating from the 7th to the 19th centuries. ### Sculptures The sculpture department consists of works created before 1850 not belonging in the Etruscan, Greek, and Roman department. The Louvre has been a repository of sculpted material since its time as a palace; however, only ancient architecture was displayed until 1824, except for Michelangelo's Dying Slave and Rebellious Slave. Initially the collection included only 100 pieces, the rest of the royal sculpture collection being at Versailles. It remained small until 1847, when Léon Laborde was given control of the department. Laborde developed the medieval section and purchased the first such statues and sculptures in the collection, King Childebert and stanga door, respectively. The collection was part of the Department of Antiquities but was given autonomy in 1871 under Louis Courajod, a director who organized a wider representation of French works. In 1986, all post-1850 works were relocated to the new Musée d'Orsay. The Grand Louvre project separated the department into two exhibition spaces; the French collection is displayed in the Richelieu Wing, and foreign works in the Denon Wing. The collection's overview of French sculpture contains Romanesque works such as the 11th-century Daniel in the Lions' Den and the 12th-century Virgin of Auvergne. In the 16th century, Renaissance influence caused French sculpture to become more restrained, as seen in Jean Goujon's bas-reliefs, and Germain Pilon's Descent from the Cross and Resurrection of Christ. The 17th and 18th centuries are represented by Gian Lorenzo Bernini's 1640–1 Bust of Cardinal Richelieu, Étienne Maurice Falconet's Woman Bathing and Amour menaçant, and François Anguier's obelisks. Neoclassical works includes Antonio Canova's Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss (1787). The 18th and 19th centuries are represented by the French sculptors like Alfred Barye and Émile Guillemin. ### Decorative arts The Objets d'art collection spans the time from the Middle Ages to the mid-19th century. The department began as a subset of the sculpture department, based on royal property and the transfer of work from the Basilique Saint-Denis, the burial ground of French monarchs that held the Coronation Sword of the Kings of France. Among the budding collection's most prized works were pietre dure vases and bronzes. The Durand collection's 1825 acquisition added "ceramics, enamels, and stained glass", and 800 pieces were given by Pierre Révoil. The onset of Romanticism rekindled interest in Renaissance and Medieval artwork, and the Sauvageot donation expanded the department with 1,500 middle-age and faïence works. In 1862, the Campana collection added gold jewelry and maiolicas, mainly from the 15th and 16th centuries. The works are displayed on the Richelieu Wing's first floor and in the Apollo Gallery, named by the painter Charles Le Brun, who was commissioned by Louis XIV (the Sun King) to decorate the space in a solar theme. The medieval collection contains the coronation crown of Louis XIV, Charles V's sceptre, and the 12th century porphyry vase. The Renaissance art holdings include Giambologna's bronze Nessus and Deianira and the tapestry Maximillian's Hunt. From later periods, highlights include Madame de Pompadour's Sèvres vase collection and Napoleon III's apartments. In September 2000, the Louvre Museum dedicated the Gilbert Chagoury and Rose-Marie Chagoury Gallery to display tapestries donated by the Chagourys, including a 16th-century six-part tapestry suite, sewn with gold and silver threads representing sea divinities, which was commissioned in Paris for Colbert de Seignelay, Secretary of State for the Navy. ### Painting The painting collection has more than 7,500 works from the 13th century to 1848 and is managed by 12 curators who oversee the collection's display. Nearly two-thirds are by French artists, and more than 1,200 are Northern European. The Italian paintings compose most of the remnants of Francis I and Louis XIV's collections, others are unreturned artwork from the Napoleon era, and some were bought. The collection began with Francis, who acquired works from Italian masters such as Raphael and Michelangelo and brought Leonardo da Vinci to his court. After the French Revolution, the Royal Collection formed the nucleus of the Louvre. When the d'Orsay train station was converted into the Musée d'Orsay in 1986, the collection was split, and pieces completed after the 1848 Revolution were moved to the new museum. French and Northern European works are in the Richelieu Wing and Cour Carrée; Spanish and Italian paintings are on the first floor of the Denon Wing. Exemplifying the French School are the early Avignon Pietà of Enguerrand Quarton; the anonymous painting of King Jean le Bon (c. 1360), possibly the oldest independent portrait in Western painting to survive from the postclassical era; Hyacinthe Rigaud's Louis XIV; Jacques-Louis David's The Coronation of Napoleon; Théodore Géricault's The Raft of the Medusa; and Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People. Nicolas Poussin, the Le Nain brothers, Philippe de Champaigne, Le Brun, La Tour, Watteau, Fragonard, Ingres, Corot, and Delacroix are well represented. Northern European works include Johannes Vermeer's The Lacemaker and The Astronomer; Caspar David Friedrich's The Tree of Crows; Rembrandt's The Supper at Emmaus, Bathsheba at Her Bath, and The Slaughtered Ox. The Italian holdings are notable, particularly the Renaissance collection. The works include Andrea Mantegna and Giovanni Bellini's Calvarys, which reflect realism and detail "meant to depict the significant events of a greater spiritual world". The High Renaissance collection includes Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, Virgin and Child with St. Anne, St. John the Baptist, and Madonna of the Rocks. The Baroque collection includes Giambattista Pittoni's The Continence of Scipio, Susanna and the Elders, Bacchus and Ariadne, Mars and Venus, and others Caravaggio is represented by The Fortune Teller and Death of the Virgin. From 16th century Venice, the Louvre displays Titian's Le Concert Champetre, The Entombment, and The Crowning with Thorns. The La Caze Collection, a bequest to the Musée du Louvre in 1869 by Louis La Caze, was the largest contribution of a person in the history of the Louvre. La Caze gave 584 paintings of his personal collection to the museum. The bequest included Antoine Watteau's Commedia dell'arte player of Pierrot ("Gilles"). In 2007, this bequest was the topic of the exhibition "1869: Watteau, Chardin... entrent au Louvre. La collection La Caze". Some of the best known paintings of the museum have been digitized by the French Center for Research and Restoration of the Museums of France. ### Prints and drawings The prints and drawings department encompasses works on paper. The origins of the collection were the 8,600 works in the Royal Collection (Cabinet du Roi), which were increased via state appropriation, purchases such as the 1,200 works from Fillipo Baldinucci's collection in 1806, and donations. The department opened on 5 August 1797, with 415 pieces displayed in the Galerie d'Apollon. The collection is organized into three sections: the core Cabinet du Roi, 14,000 royal copper printing-plates, and the donations of Edmond de Rothschild, which include 40,000 prints, 3,000 drawings, and 5,000 illustrated books. The holdings are displayed in the Pavillon de Flore; due to the fragility of the paper medium, only a portion are displayed at one time. ## Management, administration, partnerships The Louvre is owned by the French government. Since the 1990s, its management and governance have been made more independent. Since 2003, the museum has been required to generate funds for projects. By 2006, government funds had dipped from 75 percent of the total budget to 62 percent. Every year, the Louvre now raises as much as it gets from the state, about €122 million. The government pays for operating costs (salaries, safety, and maintenance), while the rest – new wings, refurbishments, acquisitions – is up to the museum to finance. A further €3 million to €5 million a year is raised by the Louvre from exhibitions that it curates for other museums, while the host museum keeps the ticket money. As the Louvre became a point of interest in the book The Da Vinci Code and the 2006 film based on the book, the museum earned \$2.5 million by allowing filming in its galleries. In 2008, the French government provided \$180 million of the Louvre's yearly \$350 million budget; the remainder came from private contributions and ticket sales. The Louvre employs a staff of 2,000 led by Director Jean-Luc Martinez, who reports to the French Ministry of Culture and Communications. Martinez replaced Henri Loyrette in April 2013. Under Loyrette, who replaced Pierre Rosenberg in 2001, the Louvre has undergone policy changes that allow it to lend and borrow more works than before. In 2006, it loaned 1,300 works, which enabled it to borrow more foreign works. From 2006 to 2009, the Louvre lent artwork to the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Georgia, and received a \$6.9 million payment to be used for renovations. In 2009, Minister of culture Frédéric Mitterrand approved a plan that would have created a storage facility 30 km (19 mi) northwest of Paris to hold objects from the Louvre and two other national museums in Paris's flood zone, the Musée du Quai Branly and the Musée d'Orsay; the plan was later scrapped. In 2013, his successor Aurélie Filippetti announced that the Louvre would move more than 250,000 works of art held in a 20,000 square metres (220,000 sq ft) basement storage area in Liévin; the cost of the project, estimated at €60 million, will be split between the region (49%) and the Louvre (51%). The Louvre will be the sole owner and manager of the store. In July 2015, a team led by British firm Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners was selected to design the complex, which will have light-filled work spaces under one vast, green roof. In 2012, the Louvre and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco announced a five-year collaboration on exhibitions, publications, art conservation and educational programming. The €98.5 million expansion of the Islamic Art galleries in 2012 received state funding of €31 million, as well as €17 million from the Alwaleed Bin Talal Foundation founded by the eponymous Saudi prince. The Republic of Azerbaijan, the Emir of Kuwait, the Sultan of Oman and King Mohammed VI of Morocco donated in total €26 million. In addition, the opening of the Louvre Abu Dhabi is supposed to provide €400 million over the course of 30 years for its use of the museum's brand. Loyrette has tried to improve weak parts of the collection through income generated from loans of art and by guaranteeing that "20% of admissions receipts will be taken annually for acquisitions". He has more administrative independence for the museum and achieved 90 percent of galleries to be open daily, as opposed to 80 percent previously. He oversaw the creation of extended hours and free admission on Friday nights and an increase in the acquisition budget to \$36 million from \$4.5 million. In March 2018, an exhibition of dozens of artworks and relics belonging to France's Louvre Museum was opened to visitors in Tehran, as a result of an agreement between Iranian and French presidents in 2016. In the Louvre, two departments were allocated to the antiquities of the Iranian civilization, and the managers of the two departments visited Tehran. Relics belonging to Ancient Egypt, Rome and Mesopotamia as well as French royal items were showcased at the Tehran exhibition. Iran's National Museum building was designed and constructed by French architect André Godard. Following its time in Tehran, the exhibition is set to be held in the Khorasan Grand Museum in Mashhad, northeastern Iran in June 2018. On the 500th anniversary of Leonardo da Vinci's death, the Louvre held the largest ever single exhibit of his work, from 24 October 2019 to 24 February 2020. The event included over a hundred items: paintings, drawings and notebooks. A full 11 of the fewer than 20 paintings that Da Vinci completed in his lifetime were displayed. Five of them are owned by the Louvre, but the Mona Lisa was not included because it is in such great demand among visitors to the Louvre museum; the work remained on display in its gallery. Salvator Mundi was also not included since the Saudi owner did not agree to move the work from its hiding place. Vitruvian Man, however, was on display, after a successful legal battle with its owner, the Galleria dell'Accademia in Venice. In 2021, a Renaissance era ceremonial helmet and breastplate stolen from the museum in 1983 were recovered. The museum noted that the 1983 theft had "deeply troubled all the staff at the time." There are few publicly accessible details on the theft itself. In May 2021, it was announced that Laurence des Cars has been picked by French president Emmanuel Macron as the next leader of the Louvre. For the first time in its 228-year history, the Louvre will be directed by a woman. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Louvre has launched a platform where most of its works, including those that are not on display, can be seen. The new platform, collections.louvre.fr, already has more than 482,000 illustrated records – representing 75% of its rich and varied collections. The museum was visited by over 7.6 million visitors in 2022, up 170 percent from 2021, but still below the 10.8 million visitors in 2018 before the COVID-19 pandemic. ## Archaeological research The Louvre's ancient art collections are to a significant extent the product of excavations, some of which the museum sponsored under various legal regimes over time, often as a companion to France's diplomacy and/or colonial enterprises. In the Rotonde d'Apollon, a carved marble panel lists a number of such campaigns, led by: - Louis-François-Sébastien Fauvel in Greece (1818) - Jean-François Champollion in Egypt (1828–1829) - Guillaume-Abel Blouet and Léon-Jean-Joseph Dubois with the Morea expedition in Greece (1829) - Adolphe Delamare [fr] in Algeria (1842–1845) - Paul-Émile Botta in the Nineveh Plains (1845) - Joseph Vattier de Bourville [fr] in Cyrenaica (1850) - Auguste Mariette in Egypt (1850–1854) - Victor Langlois in Cilicia (1852) - Ernest Renan with the Mission de Phénicie following the 1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus (1860–1861) - Léon Heuzey and Honoré Daumet in Macedonia (1861) - Eugène-Melchior de Vogüé and Edmond Duthoit in Cyprus (1863–1866) - Charles Champoiseau in Samothrace (1863) - Emmanuel Miller [de] in Thessaloniki and Thasos (1864–1865) - Olivier Rayet and Albert-Félix-Théophile Thomas in Ionia (1872–1873) - Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau in Palestine (1873) - Antoine Héron de Villefosse [fr] in Algeria and Tunisia (1874) - Ernest de Sarzec in Tello / ancient Girsu, Mesopotamia (1877–1900) - Paul Girard in Greece (1881) - Edmond Pottier, Salomon Reinach and Alphonse Veyries in Myrina (Aeolis) (1872–1873) - Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy and Jane Dieulafoy in Susa, Persia (1884–1886) - Charles Huber in Tayma, Arabia (1885) - Alfred Charles Auguste Foucher in India and present-day Pakistan (1895–1897) - Arthur Engel and Pierre Paris in Spain (1897) - Jacques de Morgan in Susa (1897) - Gaston Cros in Tello / ancient Girsu (1902) - Paul Pelliot in Chinese Turkestan (1907–1909) - Maurice Pézard in Northern Palestine (1923) - Georges Aaron Bénédite in Egypt (1926) - François Thureau-Dangin in Northern Syria (1929) - Henri de Genouillac in Mesopotamia (1912, 1929) - the Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale in Cairo, created in 1880 The rest of the plaque combines donors of archaeological items, many of whom were archaeologists themselves, and other archaeologists whose excavations contributed to the Louvre's collections: - Frédéric Moreau (archeologist) [Frédéric Moreau; Frédéric Moreau (archéologue)] in France (1899) - Édouard Piette in France (1902) - Joseph de Baye [fr] in France (1899–1906) - Henri and Jacques de Morgan in Susa (1909–1910) - Léon Henri-Martin [fr] (1906–1920) and his daughter Germaine in France (1976) - Louis Capitan [fr] in France (1929) - René de Saint-Périer [fr] and his wife Suzanne in France (1935) - Fernand Bisson de la Roque in Egypt (1922–1950) - Bernard Bruyère in Egypt (1920–1951) - Raymond Weill in Egypt (1952) - Pierre Montet in Egypt (1921–1956) - Jean Marie Casal [de] in the Indus Valley and Afghanistan (1950–1973) - Suzanne de Saint-Mathurin [fr] in France (1973) - André Parrot in Mari, Syria (1931–1974) - Claude Frédéric-Armand Schaeffer in Ugarit, Syria (1929–1970) - Roman Ghirshman in Iraq and Iran (1931–1972) ## Satellites and offshoots Several museums in and outside France have been or are placed under the Louvre's administrative authority or linked to it through exclusive partnerships, while not being located in the Louvre Palace. Since 2019, the Louvre has also maintained a large art storage and research facility in the Northern French town of Liévin, the Centre de conservation du Louvre [fr], which is not open to the public. ### Musée de Cluny (1926–1977) In February 1926, the Musée de Cluny, whose creation dates back to the 19th century, was brought under the aegis of the Louvre's department of decorative arts (Objets d'Art). That affiliation was terminated in 1977. ### Musée du Jeu de Paume (1947–1986) The Jeu de Paume building in the Tuileries Garden, initially intended as a sports venue, was repurposed from 1909 as an art gallery. In 1947, it became the exhibition space for the Louvre's collections of late 19th and early 20th paintings, most prominently Impressionism, as the Louvre Palace was lacking space to display them, and was consequently brought under direct management by the Louvre's Département des Peintures. In 1986, these collections were transferred to the newly created Musée d'Orsay. ### Gypsothèque du Louvre (since 2001) The gypsothèque (plaster cast gallery) of the Louvre is a collection of plaster casts that was formed in 1970 by the reunion of the corresponding inventories of the Louvre, the Beaux-Arts de Paris and the Art and Archaeology Institute of the Sorbonne University, the latter two following depredations during the May 68 student unrest. Initially called the Musée des Monuments Antiques from 1970 to 1978, the project was subsequently left unfinished and only came to fruition after being brought under the Louvre's management by ministerial decision in 2001. It is located in the Petite Écurie, a dependency of Versailles Palace, and has been open to the public since 2012. ### Musée Delacroix (since 2004) The small museum located in Eugène Delacroix's former workshop in central Paris, created in the 1930s, has been placed under management by the Louvre since 2004. ### Louvre-Lens (since 2012) The Louvre-Lens follows a May 2003 initiative by then culture minister Jean-Jacques Aillagon to promote cultural projects outside of Paris that would make the riches of major Parisian institutions available to a broader French public, including a satellite (antenne) of the Louvre. After several rounds of competition, a former mining site in the town of Lens was selected for its location and announced by Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin on 2004-11-29. Japanese architects SANAA and landscape architect Catherine Mosbach were respectively selected in September 2005 to design the museum building and garden. Inaugurated by President François Hollande on 2012-12-04, the Louvre-Lens is run by the Hauts-de-France region under a contract (convention scientifique et culturelle) with the Louvre for art loans and brand use. Its main attraction is an exhibition of roughly 200 artworks from the Louvre on a rotating basis, presented chronologically in a single large room (the Galerie du Temps or "gallery of time") that transcends the geographical and object-type divisions along which the Parisian Louvre's displays are organized. The Louvre-Lens has been successful at attracting around 500,000 visitors per year until the COVID-19 pandemic. ### Louvre Abu Dhabi (since 2017) The Louvre Abu Dhabi is a separate entity from the Louvre, but the two entities have a multifaceted contractual relationship that allows the Emirati museum to use the Louvre name until 2037, and to exhibit artworks from the Louvre until 2027. It was inaugurated on 2017-11-08 and opened to the public three days later. A 30-year agreement, signed in early 2007 by French Culture Minister Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres and Sheik Sultan bin Tahnoon Al Nahyan, establishes that Abu Dhabi shall pay €832,000,000 (US\$1.3 billion) in exchange for the Louvre name use, managerial advice, art loans, and special exhibitions. The Louvre Abu Dhabi is located on Saadiyat Island and was designed by the French architect Jean Nouvel and engineering firm of Buro Happold. It occupies 24,000 square metres (260,000 sq ft) and is covered by an iconic metallic dome designed to cast rays of light mimicking sunlight passing through date palm fronds in an oasis. The French art loans, expected to total between 200 and 300 artworks during a 10-year period, come from multiple museums, including the Louvre, the Centre Georges Pompidou, the Musée d'Orsay, Versailles, the Guimet Museum, the Musée Rodin, and the Musée du quai Branly. ## Controversy The Louvre is involved in controversies that surround cultural property seized under Napoleon I, as well as during World War II by the Nazis. During Nazi occupation, thousands of artworks were stolen. But after the war, 61,233 articles on more than 150,000 seized artworks returned to France and were assigned to the Office des Biens Privés. In 1949, it entrusted 2,130 unclaimed pieces (including 1,001 paintings) to the Direction des Musées de France in order to keep them under appropriate conditions of conservation until their restitution and meanwhile classified them as MNRs (Musées Nationaux Recuperation or, in English, the National Museums of Recovered Artwork). Some 10% to 35% of the pieces are believed to come from Jewish spoliations and until the identification of their rightful owners, which declined at the end of the 1960s, they are registered indefinitely on separate inventories from the museum's collections. They were exhibited in 1946 and shown all together to the public during four years (1950–1954) in order to allow rightful claimants to identify their properties, then stored or displayed, according to their interest, in several French museums including the Louvre. From 1951 to 1965, about 37 pieces were restituted. Since November 1996, the partly illustrated catalogue of 1947–1949 has been accessible online and completed. In 1997, Prime Minister Alain Juppé initiated the Mattéoli Commission, headed by Jean Mattéoli, to investigate the matter and according to the government, the Louvre is in charge of 678 pieces of artwork still unclaimed by their rightful owners. During the late 1990s, the comparison of the American war archives, which had not been done before, with the French and German ones as well as two court cases which finally settled some of the heirs' rights (Gentili di Giuseppe and Rosenberg families) allowed more accurate investigations. Since 1996, the restitutions, according sometimes to less formal criteria, concerned 47 more pieces (26 paintings, with 6 from the Louvre including a then displayed Tiepolo), until the last claims of French owners and their heirs ended again in 2006. According to Serge Klarsfeld, since the now complete and constant publicity which the artworks got in 1996, the majority of the French Jewish community is nevertheless in favour of the return to the normal French civil rule of prescription acquisitive of any unclaimed good after another long period of time and consequently to their ultimate integration into the common French heritage instead of their transfer to foreign institutions like during World War II. Napoleon's campaigns acquired Italian pieces by treaties, as war reparations, and Northern European pieces as spoils as well as some antiquities excavated in Egypt, though the vast majority of the latter were seized as war reparations by the British army and are now part of collections of the British Museum. On the other hand, the Dendera zodiac is, like the Rosetta Stone, claimed by Egypt even though it was acquired in 1821, before the Egyptian Anti-export legislation of 1835. The Louvre administration has thus argued in favor of retaining this item despite requests by Egypt for its return. The museum participates too in arbitration sessions held via UNESCO's Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to Its Countries of Origin. The museum consequently returned in 2009 five Egyptian fragments of frescoes (30 cm x 15 cm each) whose existence of the tomb of origin had only been brought to the authorities attention in 2008, eight to five years after their good-faith acquisition by the museum from two private collections and after the necessary respect of the procedure of déclassement from French public collections before the Commission scientifique nationale des collections des musées de France. In 2011, over 130 international artists urged a boycott of the new Guggenheim museum as well as Louvre Abu Dhabi, citing reports, since 2009, of abuses of foreign construction workers on Saadiyat Island, including the arbitrary withholding of wages, unsafe working conditions, and failure of companies to pay or reimburse the steep recruitment fees being charged to laborers. According to Architectural Record, Abu Dhabi has comprehensive labor laws to protect the workers, but they are not conscientiously implemented or enforced. In 2010, the Guggenheim Foundation placed on its website a joint statement with Abu Dhabi's Tourism Development and Investment Company (TDIC) recognizing the following workers' rights issues, among others: health and safety of the workers; their access to their passports and other documents that the employers have been retaining to guaranty that they stay on the job; using a general contractor that agrees to obey the labor laws; maintaining an independent site monitor; and ending the system that has been generally used in the Persian Gulf region of requiring workers to reimburse recruitment fees. In 2013, The Observer reported that conditions for the workers at the Louvre and New York University construction sites on Saadiyat amounted to "modern-day slavery". In 2014, the Guggenheim's Director, Richard Armstrong, said that he believed that living conditions for the workers at the Louvre project were now good and that "many fewer" of them were having their passports confiscated. He stated that the main issue then remaining was the recruitment fees charged to workers by agents who recruit them. Later in 2014, the Guggenheim's architect, Gehry, commented that working with the Abu Dhabi officials to implement the law to improve the labor conditions at the museum's site is "a moral responsibility." He encouraged the TDIC to build additional worker housing and proposed that the contractor cover the cost of the recruitment fees. In 2012, TDIC engaged PricewaterhouseCoopers as an independent monitor required to issue reports every quarter. Labor lawyer Scott Horton told Architectural Record'' that he hoped the Guggenheim project will influence the treatment of workers on other Saadiyat sites and will "serve as a model for doing things right." ## See also - Center for Research and Restoration of Museums of France - List of museums in Paris - Musée de la mode et du textile

Launch Party

"Launch Party" is the fifth and sixth episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office, and the show's fifty-eighth and fifty-ninth episode overall. The episode was written by Jennifer Celotta and directed by Ken Whittingham. It first aired in the United States on October 11, 2007, on NBC. In this episode, Dunder Mifflin prepares for the launch of their new website. Dwight tries to outsell the website, Andy makes a move for Angela, and Michael kidnaps a pizza delivery boy (Kevin McHale). ## Plot Michael has arranged a meeting to discuss making the Quarterly Report more exciting, unaware that the office workers are more interested in the screensaver, and believes their disappointment whenever the bouncing box doesn't make it into a corner are reactions to his statements. Eventually, the box makes it into a corner, and the cheering employees leave, to his confusion. Dunder Mifflin is preparing a launch party for their new website. Jan Levinson doesn't want to go so Michael invites Pam Beesly, who makes Jim Halpert take her place. Only after they reach New Jersey does Jim realize that Michael received an invitation to a chat room, not the actual party. Jim reveals he turned down the corporate job that Ryan Howard accepted. Michael returns to Scranton and attempts to plan a better party, irritating party planner Angela Martin, already irritable due to the death of her cat. She takes out her frustrations on fellow Party Planning Committee member Phyllis, who quits the committee. Dwight Schrute wants to win back Angela's affection by competing against the website to see who can make more sales. Andy Bernard keeps a tally of reams sold, blowing an airhorn whenever Dwight makes a sale. Jim and Pam send Dwight instant messages pretending to be the computer system having achieved self-awareness. Dwight wins the challenge, but when he gloats to Angela she makes it clear they are broken up for good. She asks Pam to set her up with a friend of hers. Pam sends a message as the computer acknowledging Dwight as the superior being. Andy sets up a conference call with his old Cornell friends to serenade Angela with "Take a Chance on Me". Michael realizes that Ryan doesn't respect him, and on the chat room he snaps that Dwight outsold DMI and curses at Ryan. Everyone complains that Michael confused the office's favorite pizza place, Alfredo's Pizza Cafe, with a terrible pizza place, Pizza by Alfredo. When his coupon is refused he holds the teenaged delivery driver hostage. Eventually realizing he is breaking the law he lets the kid go, then crashes the party in NYC with Dwight. Michael is cheered when a young corporate worker says they liked his rant against Ryan. When Michael points out that it was Dwight who beat the website in sales, the worker says it was funny to see Ryan embarrassed, and the two head home. ## Production "Launch Party" was the sixth episode of the series directed by Ken Whittingham. Whittingham had previously directed "Health Care", "Michael's Birthday", "The Convention", "The Merger", and "Phyllis' Wedding". "Launch Party" was written by Jennifer Celotta, making it the sixth episode written by her. According to Jennifer Celotta, the idea for the first scene of the episode where the office workers are watching a logo bounce around a television screen, came when the writers were in a room watching the DVD logo bounce around the television screen, and were arguing about whether it would ever hit the corner. ## Reception "Launch Party" received a 5.2 Nielsen Rating and an 8% Share. The episode was watched by 8.91 million viewers and achieved a 4.7/11 in the key adults 18–49 demographic. "Launch Party" received mixed reviews from critics. TV Squad's Jay Black wondered why the writers "feel the need to veer off into increasingly more ridiculous places", especially because The Office is "hailed by critics and adored by fans for its ability to find humor in the smallest pieces of real-life human interaction". Black did say that except for the kidnapping, he "thought tonight's episode was the best of the season." Travis Fickett of IGN wrote that "Launch Party" was "a very entertaining episode with some terrific moments." Fickett did say that with all the hour-long episodes "things start to feel stretched and some scenes take on a sense of redundancy and certain storylines seem to peter out before they even get going."

2001 Gujarat cyclone

North Indian cyclone in 2001

The 2001 Gujarat cyclone was the third strongest tropical cyclone, in terms of barometric pressure, to form in the Arabian Sea on record; only Cyclones Gonu in 2007 and Kyarr in 2019 were stronger. The storm originated from a tropical disturbance that formed east of Somalia on May 18. Over the following few days, the system gradually organized into a tropical depression. Tracking eastward, towards the coastline of southwestern India, the storm slowly intensified. Shortly before reaching shore, the system turned north and later west, away from land. After taking this turn, the storm intensified into a very severe cyclonic storm, attaining its peak intensity on May 24 with winds of 215 km/h (130 mph 3-minute winds) and a barometric pressure of 932 mbar (hPa). At the time, this ranked the cyclone as the strongest known storm in the Arabian Sea. After stalling several hundred kilometres offshore, the storm weakened over cooler waters that it had upwelled. By May 27, the system weakened to a cyclonic storm and by this time was approaching the northwestern coastline of India, near Gujarat. The following day, the storm made landfall in the Saurashtra region as a deep depression with winds of 55 km/h (35 mph 3-minute winds). The depression quickly weakened after moving inland and dissipated early on May 29. Although a powerful cyclone over water, the storm had relatively little impact over land. In the Valsad district, two coastal communities lost a combined 200 homes due to large swells produced by the storm. However, the losses were more extensive offshore. Between 120 and 900 fishermen were listed as missing after contact was lost with their vessels during the storm. ## Meteorological history The origins of the 2001 Gujarat cyclone can be traced to a tropical disturbance over the Arabian Sea on May 18. The following day, the system was determined to be relatively stationary near the island of Socotra. Although deep convection was associated with the disturbance, there was no evidence of a low-level circulation. By May 20, the disturbance slowly moved towards the southeast in response to an upper-level trough over India. The overall structure gradually improved as good outflow developed. A mid-level circulation finally developed late on May 21, prompting the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) to issue a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert. Several hours later, they began monitoring the system as a tropical depression with the identifier 01A; however, operational advisories were not issued until the cyclone was estimated to have attained tropical storm intensity. By the morning of May 22, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) also took notice of the system. Situated in a region favoring tropical cyclone development about 650 km (400 mi) southwest of Mumbai, India, the storm rapidly developed. By the afternoon of May 22, the JTWC estimated that 01A attained winds of 120 km/h (75 mph), equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale. Additionally, a 22 km (14 mi)-wide eye developed within the center of circulation during this intensification phase. Throughout most of May 22, the strengthening slowed considerably as it paralleled the southwestern coast of India. Initially, it was feared that the storm would move inland as a powerful cyclone; however, a ridge over the northern Arabian Sea caused the storm to turn westward, back over open water. Once further away from land, the cyclone resumed intensification, becoming a rare, Category 3 equivalent storm by the morning of May 24. Later that morning, 01A attained its peak intensity with winds of 205 km/h (125 mph), according to the JTWC. However, the IMD considered the storm to be slightly stronger, estimating that it attained winds of 215 km/h (135 mph) by three-minute sustained winds along with a barometric pressure of 932 mbar (hPa; 27.52 inHg). At the time of peak intensity, the cyclone displayed a well-defined eye and excellent outflow. Although a powerful storm, it quickly weakened as conditions became hostile for tropical cyclone development. Strong wind shear tore convection away from the cyclone and caused it to become disorganized. Within 48 hours, the system had degraded to a tropical storm and was situated roughly 555 km (345 mi) west-southwest of Mumbai. The weakening trend lessened shortly thereafter but still continued. Operationally, the JTWC issued their final advisory on the cyclone on May 28 as it weakened to a tropical depression over open waters. The once powerful cyclone, now devoid of all convection, tracked towards the northwestern coast of India. During the afternoon of May 29, the cyclone rapidly regenerated as it made landfall in Gujarat. The JTWC estimated that it crossed the coastline with winds of 100 km/h (60 mph). Not long after moving overland, the system rapidly weakened and dissipated over India within several hours. ## Preparations and impact Ahead of the storm, all ports in Gujarat, including Kandla, one of the largest in the country, were closed as a precautionary measure. On May 25, over 10,000 people were evacuated from coastal areas in the threatened region. Throughout India, a total of 118,800 people were evacuated and 100,000 more were evacuated in Pakistan. The Indian military was placed on standby to undertake search-and-rescue missions immediately after the storms' passage. Fourteen districts of Gujarat were placed on red alert, the highest level of preparedness. Seven emergency control centers were set up across the country and officials alerted hospitals and fire crews about the approaching storm. Several relief agencies were already positioned in the region in response to a magnitude 7.7 earthquake in January of that year that killed over 20,000 people. Additional disaster relief teams were deployed to the region to further prepare residents for the cyclone. Food, water and other necessities were stored and ready to be provided to victims of the storm. Large swells produced by the storm affected a large portion of the western Indian coastline, especially in the city of Bombay. In the Valsad district, two coastal communities lost a combined 200 homes due to large swells produced by the storm. Offshore, between 1,500 and 2,000 fishing vessels had lost contact with the mainland. Later reports indicated that between 120 and 900 fishermen had gone missing as a result of the cyclone. ## Records Operationally, the cyclone was considered to be a Category 4 equivalent storm by the JTWC, with peak winds of 215 km/h (135 mph). This would have made the system the first recorded storm of that intensity on record in the Arabian Sea. However, in post-storm analysis, it was discovered that 1-minute winds did not exceed 205 km/h (125 mph). The next storm to reach this intensity was Cyclone Gonu in 2007 North Indian Ocean cyclone season, which became the first known super cyclonic storm in the region. Upon attaining its peak intensity, the storm attained a barometric pressure of 932 mbar (hPa), the lowest in the region at the time. The cyclone was ranked as the strongest in the Arabian Sea for six years until it was surpassed by Gonu in 2007, which attained a minimum pressure of 920 mbar (hPa). In 2010, Cyclone Phet surpassed the 2001 cyclone as the second-strongest storm in the region, attaining winds of 230 km/h (145 mph), according to the JTWC. Again it was surpassed to sixth place as Cyclone Kyarr, Cyclone Chapala, Cyclone Tauktae and Cyclone Nilofar surpassed its windspeed intensity as they become category 4 tropical cyclones in later years. Now this cyclone is tied with Cyclone Megh for sixth strongest cyclone in Arabian Sea based on windspeed of one minute mean. ## See also - 2001 North Indian Ocean cyclone season - Cyclone Gonu - List of the most intense tropical cyclones

Morpeth, Northumberland

Town in Northumberland, England

Morpeth is a historic market town in Northumberland, North East England, lying on the River Wansbeck. Nearby towns include Ashington and Bedlington. In the 2011 census, the population of Morpeth was given as 14,017, up from 13,833 in the 2001 census. The earliest evidence of settlement is believed to be from the Neolithic period, and some Roman artifacts have also been found. The first written mention of the town is from 1080, when the de Merlay family was granted the barony of Morpeth. The meaning of the town's name is uncertain, but it may refer to its position on the road to Scotland and a murder which occurred on that road. The de Merlay family built two castles in the town in the late 11th century and the 13th century. The town was granted its coat of arms in 1552. By the mid-1700s it had become one of the main markets in England, having been granted a market charter in 1200, but the opening of the railways in the 1800s led the market to decline. The town's history is celebrated in the annual Northumbrian Gathering. Morpeth is governed by Northumberland County Council and Morpeth Town Council. The town is split into three wards – North, Kirkhill and Stobhill – for the purposes of parish elections. In 2008 the town suffered a severe flood, which was repeated in 2012, resulting in the construction of new flood defences. Morpeth railway station is on the east coast line and a curve to the south of it has caused several rail crashes. Several sports teams compete in Morpeth, with Morpeth Town A.F.C. having been the winner of the FA Vase in 2016. The town hosted its own Olympics from 1873 to 1958. Two middle schools, a high school and seven first schools are situated in Morpeth, as well as several churches of Anglican, Roman Catholic, United Reformed and Methodist denominations. Morpeth's Carlisle Park, the recipient of several awards, contains one of the four floral clocks in England. ## History Morpeth was founded at a crossing point of the River Wansbeck. Remains from prehistory are scarce, but the earliest evidence of occupation found is a stone axe thought to be from the Neolithic period. There is a lack of evidence of activity during the Roman occupation of Britain, although there were probably settlements in the area at that time. The first written reference is from 1080 when William de Merlay was rewarded for his part in suppressing a rebellion in Northumbria with "the Barony of Morthpeth stretching from the Tyne to the Coquet". The name derives from Old English morð pæð and literally means "murder path"; writing in 1666, the antiquarian John Stainsby attributed this moniker to "the many robberies and murders in those parts committed". The barony of Morpeth was granted to the de Merlay family in around 1080, and by 1095 a motte-and-bailey castle had been built by William de Merlay. It is uncertain whether there was any settlement at Morpeth at the time that the barony was created, and documents relating to the foundation of an abbey in 1137 refer to the "new town of Morpeth". Newminster Abbey, located on the outskirts of Morpeth, was founded in 1138 by William's son, Ranulf de Merlay, lord of Morpeth, and his wife, Juliana, daughter of Gospatric II, Earl of Lothian, as one of the first daughter houses of Fountains Abbey. King John granted a market charter for the town to Roger de Merlay in 1200. It became one of the main markets in Northern England by the mid-1700s and by the mid 18th century was one of the key cattle markets in England selling cattle driven by drovers over the border from Scotland; however, the opening of the railways made transport to Newcastle easier in the 19th century, and the market accordingly declined. The market is still held on Wednesdays. The town was badly damaged by fire set by the barons in 1215 during the First Barons' War, in an attempt to block the military operations of King John. Whilst it is common report that the motte-and-bailey castle was burnt down by King John in 1216 and a new Morpeth Castle was built later in the 13th century by Ranulph de Merlay, to the south of Haw Hill, there is no firm evidence that King John destroyed the castle and an alternative narrative suggests that the second castle was in fact "completed by William de Merlay (the 2nd) in the year of his death" (c. 1170). In the 13th century, a stone bridge was built over the Wansbeck in Morpeth, to the west of the current bridge, replacing the ford previously in use in Morpeth. For some months in 1515–16, Margaret Tudor (Henry VIII's sister) who was the Queen Consort of Scotland (James IV's widow), had laid ill in Morpeth Castle, having been brought there from Harbottle Castle. The only remains of the castle are the inner gatehouse, which was restored by the Landmark Trust, and parts of the ruined castle walls. In 1540, Morpeth was described by the royal antiquary John Leland as "long and metely well-builded, with low houses" and "a far fairer town than Alnwick". During the 1543–51 war of the Rough Wooing, Morpeth was occupied by a garrison of Italian mercenaries, who "pestered such a little street standing in the highway" by killing deer and withholding payment for food. In 1552, William Hervey, Norroy King of Arms, granted the borough of Morpeth a coat of arms. The arms were the same as those granted to Roger de Merlay, but with the addition of a gold tower. In the letters patent, Hervey noted that he had included the arms of the "noble and valyaunt knyght ... for a p'petuall memory of his good will and benevolence towardes the said towne". Morpeth was a borough by prescription, but received its first charter of confirmation from Charles II. The corporation it created was controlled by seven companies: the Merchant Tailors, the Tanners, the Fullers and Dyers, the Smiths, the Cordwainers, the Weavers and the Butchers. This remained the governing charter until the borough was reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. During the Second World War, RAF Morpeth, an air-gunnery training school, opened at nearby Tranwell. The town and the county's history and culture are celebrated at the annual Northumbrian Gathering. The gathering is held over a weekend in mid-April and includes the Border Cavalcade and Pageant. The 50th gathering took place in 2017. ## Governance Morpeth has two tiers of local government. The lower tier is Morpeth Town Council, which has 15 members. Morpeth is a civil parish with the status of a town. For the purposes of parish elections the town is divided into three wards: North, Kirkhill and Stobhill, each returning five town councillors. Each ward also elects one County Councillor. In May 2021, the political make up of the Town Council was ten Conservatives, two Liberal Democrats, two Green and one Labour member. The upper tier of local government is Northumberland County Council, which meets at County Hall in Morpeth. Since April 2009 the county council has been a unitary authority. Previous to this there was an intermediate tier, the non-metropolitan district of Castle Morpeth, which has been abolished along with all other districts in the county. The county council has 67 councillors, of whom three represent Morpeth, one each from the electoral wards of Morpeth Kirkhill, Morpeth North and Morpeth Stobhill. The 2017 and 2021 County Council elections both elected three Conservative councillors for the three wards. ## Climate Cockle Park, located slightly north of Morpeth, contains a Met Office weather station, founded in 1897. ### 2008 and 2012 floods On 6 September 2008, Morpeth suffered a severe flood, causing damage to 1,000 properties and leading 400 residents to be evacuated. The town's flood defences were breached after 12 hours, when a month's worth of rain fell on Morpeth. In September 2012, flooding occurred again, causing damage to properties, although floodwaters were reportedly 3 feet (1 m) shallower than in 2008. ### Flood defences Work on flood defences started in 2013 in response to the 2008 floods. New flood defences were built in the town centre and a dam with a storage reservoir was built on the Mitford Estate. A second £27m dam was completed in May 2017 to reduce flooding from the Cotting Burn and marked the completion of the Morpeth flood defence plan. ## Transport ### Road The A1, the longest numbered road in the UK, used to pass through Morpeth until the bypass was opened in 1970. Other roads that pass though the town are: A192, A196, A197, B1337, B6343 and the B6524. Morpeth Northern Bypass The Morpeth Northern Bypass was a project to decrease traffic congestion in Morpeth town centre and decrease journey times from Pegswood, Ashington and Newbiggin to the A1 and beyond. The Bypass follows on from the Pegswood Bypass at Whorral Bank Roundabout and continues to the St George's Roundabout and then onto Northgate Roundabout and St Leonard's A1 Junction. The Project was completed in 2017, which has allowed increased connectivity to SE Northumberland and beyond. ### Rail Morpeth's railway station is on the main East Coast Main Line which runs between London and Edinburgh. To the south of the station is a sharp curve which has been the scene of several train crashes. A non-passenger line operates between Morpeth and Bedlington. A former line, closed in 1966, ran west from Morpeth to Scots Gap (from where there was a branch line to Rothbury), then west to Redesmouth, and lastly south to Hexham. ### Bus Arriva North East are the main operator of bus services in the town, with services going to nearby towns and villages such as Pegswood, Guide Post, Ashington, Bedlington or to Newcastle, Alnwick, Amble, Berwick or Widdrington. ## Education The local state school, King Edward VI School, was originally founded as a chantry school in the early 14th century and was located in the Morpeth Chantry. The school was refounded in 1552 by royal charter as the Free Grammar School of King Edward the Sixth, being commonly referred to as the Morpeth Grammar School by locals. The school was renamed to King Edward VI Grammar School by 1947 and in the 1970s lost its grammar school status, becoming a comprehensive under the current name. The town has two middle schools, Newminster and Chantry, which are built next door to one another. It also has several first schools: Abbeyfields First School in Kirkhill, Morpeth First School in Loansdean to the south of the town, Stobhillgate First School in the Stobhillgate housing estate, and Morpeth All Saints' Church of England-aided First School in Lancaster Park, which is located north of the town. Additionally, St. Robert's R.C. First School, a primary school for Roman Catholics, is located in Oldgate, Morpeth. ## Religious sites ### Church of England The ancient Church of England parish church of Morpeth is St Mary's at High Church, which was the main Anglican place of worship in the area until the 1840s. The church is mostly in the 14th century style. The grave of Emily Wilding Davison lies in St Mary's graveyard. In 1843, a public meeting was called to address the lack of attendance at the church, and it was found that the walk to the current church, then on the southern edge of the town, was too much for many of the parishioners. From this meeting, it was decided to build a new church in the town centre and accordingly, the church of St James the Great was consecrated for worship on 15 October 1846. Benjamin Ferrey designed the church in a "Neo-Norman" style, based on the 12th century Monreale Cathedral, Sicily. A third parish church, St Aidan's, was founded as a mission church in 1957, located on the Stobhill estate on the south-east of the town. ### Roman Catholic Church Morpeth's Roman Catholic Church, St Robert of Newminster Church, was built off Oldgate on land adjacent to Admiral Lord Collingwood's house. It was consecrated on 1 August 1850 by the Right Reverend William Hogarth, Bishop of Samosata (later Bishop of Hexham). Collingwood House is now the presbytery (residence) for the priest in charge of the Church. ### United Reformed Church Morpeth has had a Presbyterian ministry since 1693. Their first service was held in a tannery loft in the town in February 1693 and in 1721 a chapel was built in Cottingwood Lane, which still exists as a private home. The construction of St. George's United Reformed Church began in 1858 and the first service in the new building was held on 12 April 1860. The Church stands immediately to the north of the Telford Bridge and is in the style of the early English era, containing a stained glass rose window and an octagonal spirelet. ### Methodist Church The present Methodist Church in Howard Terrace was opened as a Primitive Methodist place of worship on 24 April 1905. Designed by J. Walton Taylor, it was built from local quarry stone. Although the Primitive Methodists were united with the Wesleyan Church to form the Methodist Church of Great Britain in 1932, a separate Wesleyan Church continued to function in Manchester Street until 1964, when the congregations were united at Howard Terrace. The former Wesleyan Church (built in 1883) is currently used as the Boys' Brigade headquarters. ## Sport Morpeth Town A.F.C., Morpeth RFC and the Morpeth Golf Club play competitively within Morpeth. In addition, the Morpeth Harriers compete in athletics. The town also offers opportunities to play sport on a non-competitive basis through facilities such as Carlisle Park, the common for playing golf and football, and the Riverside leisure centre for swimming, indoor sports and fitness gym activities. Morpeth Town A.F.C. was the 2016 winner of the FA Vase. The Morpeth Olympic Games, a professional event consisting mainly of athletics and wrestling, were staged from 1873 until 1958, barring interruptions during the two world wars. The Games were held on the Old Brewery Field until 1896, then at Grange House Field until the First World War. After two years at the town's cricket pitch at Stobhill (1919–20), the Olympics moved to Mount Haggs Field until 1939, and then back to Grange House Field after the war until the end of the games in 1958. In 1730, a racecourse was built for horse racing, which was used until 1854, when the racetrack was replaced with St. George's Hospital. The town was the start point of the Morpeth To Newcastle Road Race. It was held annually on New Year's Day from 1902 to 2004, when insurance and policing costs became prohibitively high, and winners included Commonwealth champion Jack Holden and Olympic medallist Mike McLeod. ## Landmarks The historical layout of central Morpeth consisted of Bridge Street, Oldgate Street and Newgate Street, with burgage plots leading off them. Traces of this layout remain: Old Bakehouse Yard off Newgate Street is a former burgage plot, as is Pretoria Avenue, off Oldgate. The town stands directly on what used to be the Great North Road, the old coaching route between London and Edinburgh. Carlisle Park is located on the southern bank of the River Wansbeck in Morpeth. The park has the William Turner Garden, one of the only four floral clocks in England, a statue of Emily Wilding Davison, as well as other facilities and attractions. Morpeth's Mafeking Park, at the bottom of Station Bank, was unsuccessfully put forward by locals to be listed as the smallest park in the world in the Guinness Book of Records. Other landmarks are: - Morpeth Clock Tower, a free-standing 17th century clock tower - Morpeth Town Hall, originally designed by Sir John Vanbrugh (rebuilt 1869) - Collingwood House, the Georgian home of Admiral Lord Collingwood - Morpeth Chantry, a 13th-century chapel that now houses the town's tourist information centre and the Morpeth Chantry Bagpipe Museum - Morpeth Castle, which stands on a hill to the south, is now operated by the Landmark Trust as holiday accommodation - A nuclear bunker located underneath Morpeth County Hall - A gateway on High Stanners framed by a whale's jawbone - Ruins of Newminster Abbey, a former Cistercian abbey about one mile to the west of Morpeth - Morpeth Court, former courthouse and prison, now converted into apartments ## Notable people - Bill Rutherford (1955-), Professor and Chair in Biochemistry of Solar energy in the Department of Life sciences at Imperial College London. - Lawrence William Adamson (1829–1911), High Sheriff of Northumberland, who died at Linden Hall near Morpeth in 1911 - James (Jim) Alder (born 1940), athlete, who spent his childhood in Morpeth after being adopted by Adler family - Emerson Muschamp Bainbridge (1817–1892), founder of Bainbridge Department Store – the first such store in the world – in Newcastle upon Tyne, who, from 1877, lived near Morpeth at Eshott Hall - Arthur Bigge, 1st Baron Stamfordham (1849–1931), born at Linden Hall, near Morpeth, who became private secretary to Queen Victoria and George V - Robert Blakey (1795–1878), radical journalist and philosopher, born in Manchester Street, Morpeth - Luke Clennell (1781–1840), engraver and painter, born in Morpeth - Vice Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood (1748–1810), Royal Navy Admiral. He lived at Collingwood House in Oldgate and once said "Whenever I think how I am to be happy again, my thoughts carry me back to Morpeth". - Emily Wilding Davison, a suffragette who was killed when she fell under the King's horse during the Epsom Derby in 1913. Following her funeral in London, her coffin was brought by train to Morpeth for burial in St Mary's churchyard. - William Elliott, Baron Elliott of Morpeth (1920–2011), Conservative politician born in Morpeth - Toby Flood (born 1985), rugby union player for Leicester Tigers and England, who attended Morpeth Chantry School - Hamish Turnbull (born 1999), Cyclist representing British Cycling and Great Britain. - John Cuthbert Hedley (1837–1913), Benedictine monk and Roman Catholic Bishop of Newport born at Carlisle House, Morpeth - Charles Howard, 3rd Earl of Carlisle (1669–1738), MP for Morpeth in 1689–1692 - Robert Morrison (1782–1834), translator of the Bible into Chinese and first Protestant missionary in China, born in Buller's Green, Morpeth - John Peacock (c. 1756–1817), piper, born in Morpeth - John Urpeth Rastrick (1780–1856), railway engineer, born in Morpeth - Joe Robinson (1919–1991), footballer, born in Morpeth, who played for Blackpool in the 1948 FA Cup Final - Walter Trevelyan (1821 – 1894), first-class cricketer and barrister, born in Morpeth - William Turner (naturalist) (c. 1508 – 13 July 1568), an English divine and reformer, physician and natural historian. The William Turner Garden is situated in Carlisle Park, Morpeth. - Dr. N. T. Wright (born 1948), Anglican theologian and author, born in Morpeth ## See also - Viscount Morpeth, the heir apparent to the Earl of Carlisle.

Five Days at Memorial

Book by Sheri Fink

Five Days at Memorial: Life and Death in a Storm-Ravaged Hospital is a 2013 non-fiction book by the American journalist Sheri Fink. The book details the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina at Memorial Medical Center in New Orleans in August 2005, and is an expansion of a Pulitzer Prize-winning article written by Fink and published in The New York Times Magazine in 2009. It describes the events that took place at Memorial Medical Center over five days as thousands of people were trapped in the hospital without power. The triage system put into effect deprioritized critically ill patients for evacuation, and it was later alleged that a number of these patients were euthanized by medical and nursing staff shortly before the entire hospital was evacuated on the fifth day of the crisis. Fink examines the legal and political consequences of the decision to euthanize patients and the ethical issues surrounding euthanasia and health care in disaster scenarios. The book was well received by most critics and won three awards, including a National Book Critics Circle Award for non-fiction. The book was set to be the basis of the third season of the FX anthology true crime series American Crime Story before being scrapped. It has been adapted as a miniseries by John Ridley and Carlton Cuse for Apple TV+. ## Background Five Days at Memorial originated as a 13,000-word magazine article titled "The Deadly Choices at Memorial", published by The New York Times Magazine in August 2009, the fourth anniversary of Hurricane Katrina. The story focused on the events that unfolded in New Orleans' Memorial Medical Center (now Ochsner Baptist Medical Center) when the hospital was flooded and its generators failed in the aftermath of Katrina, drawing particular attention to the euthanasia of numerous patients by the medical and nursing staff. Fink was drawn to the subject matter because of her experience as a doctor working in areas of conflict and as a journalist reporting on hospitals in war zones. The article, which was a joint assignment for ProPublica and The New York Times Magazine, drew on two years' worth of research and interviews with 140 people and won the 2009 Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting. While she was writing "The Deadly Choices at Memorial", Fink decided to expand the article into a book. Since she "kept finding out new facts and trying to fit them into the story because they seemed essential", she was encouraged by her editor to save the extra material to publish in a book. Expanding on her original research, Fink conducted over 500 interviews with people who were at the hospital during the disaster, families of the dead patients, hospital executives, law enforcement officials and ethicists. She interviewed Dr. Anna Pou, one of the principal characters of the story, about her experiences at Memorial, but Pou declined to discuss details related to patient deaths based on her lawyer's advice. Fink said that while "some of the medical and nursing professionals were observing a code of silence", she was impressed by the openness of several staff members, including two doctors who talked freely of their decision to euthanize their patients. Fink also reviewed photographs, videos, emails and diary entries produced at the time, and consulted weather reports and the hospital's floor plans. ## Content The book is divided into two parts. The first part, titled "Deadly Choices", focuses on the events that occurred at Memorial Medical Center over the "five days" referred to in the book's title: August 28 – September 1, 2005. During these five days, Memorial's emergency plans proved inadequate as the hospital lost power and its back-up generators had failed, leaving it without lights, air conditioning, sewer systems and essential medical equipment. Thousands of staff, patients and evacuees were trapped by floodwaters inside the building awaiting evacuation by boat or helicopter. Fink describes the unconventional method of triage adopted by the medical staff, whereby ambulatory patients were prioritized for evacuation and those with "do not resuscitate" orders were placed last in the list. Patient evacuation began on the third day and progressed slowly until the fifth day, when some medical staff decided to hasten the deaths of critically ill patients, believing they would not survive, with lethal injections of morphine. The story is described from the perspective of several participants, pieced together from interviews, emails and phone logs. The second part, titled "Reckoning", discusses the legal and political ramifications of Memorial's response to the crisis and especially the decisions to euthanize patients. In total, 45 patients died before the hospital was evacuated and 23 were identified as having concentrations of morphine and other drugs in their tissues. Fink focuses largely on the investigation into the actions of Dr. Anna Pou and two intensive care nurses, Cheri Landry and Lori Budo, all three of whom were charged with second-degree murder following allegations that they had administered lethal doses of morphine to some patients. The public's sympathy lay largely with the three accused Memorial staff; the charges against Landry and Budo were eventually dropped, and a grand jury chose not to indict Pou in 2007. Fink discusses the ethical issues surrounding the events at Memorial, as well as those involved in disaster settings and euthanasia in general. A brief epilogue critiques health care protocols in disasters and uses the example of Hurricane Sandy in 2012 to illustrate the lack of change undertaken by hospitals in response to the disaster caused by Katrina and a failure of the US government to enforce standards for "emergency preparedness". ## Reception Critical reviews of Five Days at Memorial were mostly positive. Jason Berry of The New York Times commended the "shimmering intelligence" of Fink's discussion of the events and their ethical issues, and summarized the book as "social reporting of the first rank". Another New York Times critic, bioethicist Sherwin B. Nuland, felt the book displayed "masterly reporting and the glow of fine writing" and offered particular praise for the tone and language of Fink's writing. The Independent's Hirsh Sawhney admired the detail and variety of perspectives offered in the book and described the book as "soar[ing] to artistic and intellectual heights undreamed of in other realms of media". Peter Beaumont, writing for The Guardian, found parts of the book awkward in structure, but felt that overall it was "tight, provocative and gripping" with a "fair and deeply sympathetic" approach to the involved parties. A review by John B. Saul in The Seattle Times commended Fink's ability to produce a "compelling and revealing account" of events despite limited access to evidence such as investigative reports and Pou's testimony, while the Star Tribune's Curt Schleier described Five Days at Memorial as "an important book that will make your blood boil no matter which side of the issue you support". A more negative review came from Julia M. Klein of The Boston Globe, who found the book to be "overly long and detailed, sometimes hard to follow, and without a real narrative payoff" and felt that Fink's conclusions were presented more clearly in her original magazine article than in the book. Salon magazine's Laura Miller found the first half of the book lacking in "shape or coherence, the meaning of this or that detail unclear and the timeline occasionally muddled", but was more impressed with the discussion of the disaster aftermath in the second half. NPR critic Susan Jane Gilman faulted the book for "provok[ing] more debate than it answers" but praised Fink's "fair and balanced", "nuanced" writing. ### Awards and honors Five Days at Memorial won the 2014 National Book Critics Circle Award for non-fiction, the 2013 Los Angeles Times Book Prize in the Current Interest category, the 2014 Ridenhour Book Prize, and the PEN/John Kenneth Galbraith Award (2015). It was shortlisted for the 2014 Andrew Carnegie Medal for Excellence in Nonfiction. It was an ALA Notable Books for Adults (2014), YALSA Outstanding Books for the College Bound (2014; Science and Technology) and Christian Science Monitor "15 Best" (2013; Nonfiction). ## Miniseries On September 1, 2020, it was announced that Apple TV+ had given a series order to a television limited series adaptation of the book. John Ridley and Carlton Cuse will serve as showrunners, writers and executive producers. Ridley will direct the limited series and produced by ABC Signature, and Vera Farmiga, Adepero Oduye, Cornelius Smith Jr., Julie Ann Emery, Cherry Jones, Molly Hager, and Michael Gaston will star.

Constitution Center (Washington, D.C.)

Constitution Center (formerly known as the David Nassif Building) is an office building located at 400 7th Street SW in Washington, D.C. It is 140 feet (43 m) high and has 10 floors. Covering an entire city block, it is the largest privately owned office building in the District of Columbia. Current tenants include the Federal Housing Finance Agency and the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency. As of February 2014, Constitution Center was worth \$725.8 million, making it the most valuable taxable property in the city. ## Original structure In the 1950s, the U.S. Congress, then the governing institution of the District of Columbia, undertook the Southwest D.C. urban renewal project, the first in the capital district and one of the earliest such programs in the nation. In 1946, Congress passed the District of Columbia Redevelopment Act, which established the District of Columbia Redevelopment Land Agency (RLA) and provided legal authority to clear land and funds to spur redevelopment in the capital. Congress also gave the National Capital Planning Commission (NCPC) the authority to designate which land would be redeveloped, and how. The RLA was not funded, however, until passage of the Housing Act of 1949. A 1950 study by the NCPC found that the small Southwest quarter of the city suffered from high concentrations of old and poorly maintained buildings, overcrowding, and threats to public health (such as lack of running indoor water, sewage systems, electricity, central heating, and indoor toilets). Competing visions for the redevelopment ranged from renovation to wholesale leveling of neighborhoods, but the latter view prevailed as more likely to qualify for federal funding. Original plans called for the demolition of almost all structures in Southwest Washington beginning in 1950, but legal challenges led to piecemeal razing of the area until the mid-1950s. Issues surrounding the planning and construction of L'Enfant Plaza (immediately to the west of the site) delayed construction of any buildings on the block until the late 1960s. In 1963, the RLA purchased the land from the Westminster Memorial Church, Fifth Baptist Church, and homeowners. The United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare wished to purchase the site for its new headquarters, but the RLA declined to sell the property. (The federal government does not pay taxes on land and structures it owns, and the RLA wanted a private owner who would add to the tax base.) The RLA attempted to sell the land on January 29, 1965, but there were no buyers. The building was constructed pursuant to an agreement between the General Services Administration (GSA) and Boston developer David Nassif, Sr. In July 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson began planning to unite various disparate transportation agencies into a new United States Department of Transportation. GSA (the property owner and manager for the U.S. federal government) began seeking to lease or build a structure to house the new agency in late 1965. Donald T. Kirwan, chief of GSA's leasing division, knew Nassif from a previous lease negotiation, and discussed with him the siting of a building and its size. Nassif approached the RLA on April 21, 1966, and asked to buy the newly razed block of land bounded by 6th, 7th, D, and E Streets SW. In May 1967, GSA sent a letter to Nassif advising him that it was likely to lease the entire structure he intended to build. The \$5.9 million land purchase was finalized on October 30, 1967. The cost of the structure is unclear. On November 15, 1967, Nassif had secured a \$39 million construction loan. But The Washington Post pegged the cost of the building at \$27 million in July 1968. The newspaper said in August 1970 that the cost of the structure was \$26.5 million. The building was designed by architect Edward Durrell Stone, who also designed the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. On April 11, 1968, GSA leased the entire building from Nassif for 20 years for \$98 million. John A. Volpe Construction was the chief contractor. Construction began in July 1968 (although it was delayed for a very short time when unionized ironworkers at the site went on strike) and was completed in 1969. The main entrance faced 7th Street SW. It included a central courtyard (open to the sky) which featured a fountain, footpaths, benches, and landscaping. Four 15-foot (4.6 m) high arcades pierced the building in the center of the block on each side, creating access to the courtyard. The facade's vertical marble ribs were obtained from the same quarry near Carrara, Italy, that provided the marble for the Kennedy Center. The finished building had 10 floors, three basement floors, overhanging eaves, and 2,500,000 square feet (230,000 m²) of space (1,019,000 square feet (94,700 m²) of usable space). It was the largest privately owned office building in the city at the time. Kirwan's contacts with Nassif later became the subject of a legal investigation. Kirwan not only shared inside information with Nassif about leasing plans of the GSA, he later invested in Nassif's D.C. business and became an officer in it. This relationship (Kirwan left GSA in December 1966, before the letter indicating intention to lease was set to Nassif), and GSA's irregular leasing of the building, became public knowledge in August 1970. An internal GSA audit was critical of the leasing process and the costs of the lease. That same month, refinancing of the building was called into question. In the U.S., it is common business practice for the initial lender to provide an interim loan (the "construction loan") to build a building. The interim loan is then paid off by a second lender, who becomes the mortgage lender and receives payments from the building's owner. Riggs Bank, a local D.C. bank, had provided the interim construction loan to Nassif. The New York City Employees Retirement System was to have paid off this construction loan. That payment was halted when the loan officer Nassif had dealt with was indicted for taking bribes to approve loans. When the pension fund refused to provide the loan, Riggs Bank sued for payment and threatened to foreclose on the Nassif Building. From 1969 until 2007, the Nassif Building served as the headquarters of the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT). The building was designed to have removable interior walls to permit easy reconfiguration of the interior space. In November 1970, the federal government exercised its powers of eminent domain and seized control of the three-story basement parking garage from Nasif in order to provide inexpensive parking for DOT workers. Over the years, so many government workers complained of ailments while working in the structure that some believed it suffered from sick building syndrome. David Nassif Associates, owner of the building, disputed these claims. However, when the Department of Transportation announced it would leave the building in 2000, the owners promised a \$100 million renovation that included a new air ventilation and cleaning system as an inducement for the agency to stay. The owners also unsuccessfully sued the General Services Administration in 1999 to force it to renew the federal lease on the building. The Department of Transportation completed their move out of the Nassif Building and into their new headquarters in June 2007. The L'Enfant Plaza Metro station opened an escalator entrance in the structure's north arcade on July 1, 1977. The entrance was one of two which opened that day (Metro Blue Line's opening day). The third entrance (inside the L'Enfant Promenade underground shopping center at L'Enfant Plaza) opened in October 1977. In June 1992, Virginia Railway Express opened the \$1.1 million VRE L'Enfant Station on Virginia Avenue SE (about a half block north of Constitution Center). ## Renovation In 2006, Nassif Associates announced a \$220 million renovation of the building and renamed it "Constitution Center". SmithGroup was the architectural firm overseeing the redesign, and Davis Construction oversaw the construction. The renovation included some of the highest security features of any building in the D.C. area. They included a central and perimeter security system; closing of the central plaza of the building, which, along with other changes, increased its interior footage by 80,000 square feet (7,400 m²); steel-jacketed underground parking garage columns capable of withstanding a powerful explosion; six fully staffed security screening points; concrete blockades built into the façade; communication, potable water, and utilities contained in blast-proof spaces; ventilation shafts for the parking garage in a secure area; and special security procedures to obtain access to the building's critical systems. The security enhancements made the office building suitable for all federal agencies with the exception of the United States Department of Defense. The 700,000-square-foot (65,000 m²) underground parking garage contains 1,500 spaces. Several amenities were also added to the building. These included a 10,000-square-foot (930 m²), 400-seat auditorium on the courtyard/plaza level; a six-room, 11,000 square feet (1,000 m²) conference center which can accommodate meetings of 10 to 500 people; a full-service cafeteria on the plaza level, with access to the courtyard; and a fitness center for 100 people. The exterior of the building was also radically changed. The celebrated key visual feature of the building, its exterior vertical white marble ribbing, was completely removed after it was found to be bowed from age and weather. Although this fundamentally changed the nature of Durrell's building, there was almost no public outcry. It was replaced by an energy-efficient, all-glass facade. Perhaps the most significant renovation feature was the structure's use of a chilled beam HVAC system, which uses chilled or heated water circulated in strategically placed columns in the interior space to cool and warm the building. To test the efficiency of the chilled beam technology, the system was installed in the penthouse of the building and tested for a full year. The architect agreed to use the system after the test outperformed specifications. The installation represented the first large-scale use of the chilled beam technology in the United States. Other energy-saving enhancements included motion and daylight detectors to turn lights off when not needed, and special exterior windows which automatically dim to prevent daytime heating. The building's ventilation system was also upgraded. The renovation left the structure with 1,400,000 square feet (130,000 m²) of interior space. The final cost of the renovation was pegged at \$250 million. Some aesthetic improvements were made as well. The building now features a 1 acre (0.40 ha) park in its open-to-the-sky central courtyard. Most of the courtyard's concrete was removed and trees, shrubs, and flowers planted to absorb rainwater. The park, which is now no longer accessible by the public, also includes a very large granite abstract art sculpture ("Legacy") by Richard Deutsch. The sculpture is meant to reflect the original facade of the building by Edward Durrell Stone as well as the memory of David Nassif, Sr. and his son, David Nassif, Jr. The L'Enfant Plaza Metro station still has an entrance under the building on D Street SW (although this entrance closed between October 2007 and July 2008 for the building's reconstruction). The renovation installed artwork by internationally-known artist Stephen Knapp near this entrance, in which strong beams of light are passed through dyed glass to splay brightly colored patterns on the ceiling. The light sculpture, titled "Transformation", symbolizes the building's renovation and rebirth. The Constitution Center is registered with the Green Building Council for Gold LEED Certification. The renovated Constitution Center won two awards. The Mid-Atlantic Construction construction news Web site gave the building its "Project of the Year – Renovation/Restoration" accolade in December 2010. On March 25, 2011, the Washington Building Congress bestowed its 2011 WBC Craftsmanship Award on J.E. Richards, Inc. for excellence in workmanship in installing the power generation, distribution, and switchgear at Constitution Center. In January 2011, Constitution Center was valued at \$446 million by city tax assessors, making it the third most valuable private property in the city that year. ## Tenants The late-2000s recession left the renovated building struggling to find tenants. It was empty for nearly two years after it was opened for occupancy in April 2009. Both the United States Department of Homeland Security and NASA explored leasing all or part of it in 2009 and 2010, but chose not to do so. In August 2010, the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) signed a letter contract for 900,000 square feet (84,000 m²) of space at Constitution Center. The SEC planned to take occupancy in September 2011. In January 2011, the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency agreed to lease 640,000 square feet (59,000 m²) of space and the Federal Housing Finance Agency signed an agreement to occupy 335,000 square feet (31,100 m²) of space. The Office of the Comptroller and the Federal Housing Finance Agency both occupied the building by March 2012. The SEC's occupancy of the building did not occur as planned. In October 2010, the SEC informed Nassif Associates that it needed only 340,000 square feet (32,000 m²) of the 900,000 square feet (84,000 m²) it had leased. On January 20, 2011, the SEC's inspector general launched an investigation into whether the SEC leased was proper and legal. SEC chairman Mary Schapiro was strongly criticized by Republicans in the United States House of Representatives for her handling of the lease, which she had personally approved. By May, it was unclear if the SEC would occupy any space at all in the building. On May 23, the SEC inspector general requested a formal opinion by the Comptroller General of the United States as to whether the lease violated the Antideficiency Act. The inspector general said SEC "grossly overestimated the amount of space needed at SEC Headquarters for the SEC's projected expansion by more than 300 percent and used these groundless and unsupportable figures to justify the SEC committing to an expenditure of \$556.8 million over 10 years". In early July 2011, Nassif Associates said it had agreed to release the SEC from occupying 550,000 square feet (51,000 m²) of space at Constitution Center. The company asked the SEC to reimburse it for \$45 million in build-out and other expenses incurred between August 2010 and July 2011, but the agency declined to do so. Nassif Associates said it declined to file suit against the agency, although it indicated it would continue to negotiate with the SEC and other federal agencies to seek reimbursement. At the same time, the United States Department of Justice said it was considering whether to prosecute officials at the SEC over the lease's handling and the alleged forging of documents designed to justify it. Occupancy issues at Constitution Center were further confused by legislative action. In October 2011, the United States House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure voted 31-to-22 to permit the Federal Trade Commission to lease 160,000 square feet (15,000 m²) of space at Constitution Center and vacate the Apex Building (which would be turned over to the National Gallery of Art). Although this legislation was not adopted by Congress, the Transportation and Infrastructure Committee in March 2012 directed the General Services Administration (GSA) to analyze space needs for the Federal Trade Commission and several other federal agencies in the District of Columbia and issue a report to the committee on how Constitution Center could meet these needs. GSA reported in June 2012 that Constitution Center held too little space to house the entire FTC, and it was too costly to do so (after accounting for moving expenses and rental prices). GSA instead proposed that the FTC lease additional space at 601 New Jersey Avenue NW and 1800 M Street NW (where it already leased space, and where additional room was available). In April 2012, Nassif Associates said the SEC owed it rent as well. The company said the letter contract required the agency to pay \$1.3 million a month beginning November 1, 2011. As of April 30, 2012, the agency owed \$7.75 million in back rent, a company spokesperson said. The agency disputed the cost, saying the build-out of the interior was never completed. SEC officials also said the agency now needed no space at all at Constitution Center, and that the SEC was working with GSA to find other federal tenants to take over its lease. In late May, the Federal Aviation Administration said it might lease 270,000 square feet (25,000 m²) of space in the building as part of a major consolidation of six of its offices in the city. In July 2012, GSA bowed to congressional pressure and moved 1,100 FTC workers into Constitution Center from leased locations at 601 New Jersey Avenue NW and 1800 M Street NW. The deal kept the FTC in its Apex Building headquarters. Three months later, GSA rented out the last of its space in Constitution Center by signing leases for the National Endowment for the Arts and National Endowment for the Humanities. ## 2012 sale On April 22, 2011, David Nassif Associates announced it was putting Constitution Center up for sale, and said it hoped to find a buyer by the end of summer 2011. The company also said it hoped for a \$900 million purchase price. Real estate banking firm Eastdil Secured assisted in securing a buyer. In June 2012, the Washington Business Journal reported that CommonWealth Partners and Nassif Associates had negotiated a purchase agreement, but were unable to reach agreement. CommonWealth Partners then withdrew from any further discussions. A deal for the sale of Constitution Center was agreed to in December 2012. MetLife and an unidentified investor (represented by Clarion Partners LLC) each purchased a 50 percent interest in the building. The sale price was \$734 million, or \$524 per square foot (0.093 square meters). The sale price was the most expensive in D.C. history for a single building. (It was not the most paid per square foot, however. That record went to two-building Market Square at 701 and 801 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, which sold in 2011 to Wells Real Estate Investment Trust for \$905 per square foot.) When the deal closed in February 2013, David Nassif Associates announced it would wind down its operations and liquidate its remaining obligations. City tax assessors said that Constitution Center's value rose to \$725.8 million in 2014, up from \$573.5 million in 2013 (an increase of \$152.3 million), making it the most valuable taxable property in the District of Columbia.

Tropical Storm Arthur (2008)

Atlantic tropical storm in 2008

Tropical Storm Arthur was the first Atlantic tropical storm that formed during the month of May since 1981. The first tropical cyclone of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season, the storm formed on May 30, 2008 from the interaction of two tropical waves and the remnants of the eastern Pacific Tropical Storm Alma, which had crossed into the western Caribbean Sea. The system quickly organized and was named Tropical Storm Arthur on May 31, while crossing the shore of Belize. It dissipated two days later over the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. Arthur and its remnants triggered severe flooding which killed a reported nine people and affected 100,000 more in Belize. Damage was light to moderate, estimated at \$78 million (2008 USD). ## Meteorological history By May 29, 2008, the western Caribbean Sea became tropically active due to the presence of two tropical waves and Tropical Storm Alma, which was located in the east Pacific Ocean. The system generated a broad surface low pressure system, as well as clusters of atmospheric convection. The next day, Alma made landfall on Nicaragua, pulling deep tropical moisture into the region. Upper level outflow was spreading outwards from the tropical storm with a high pressure system over the Caribbean. A surface trough developed and extended from inland Honduras to just south of the Cayman Islands, which sparked further development of strong convection. Later that day, the remnants of Alma merged with another tropical wave in the western Caribbean, which sparked the development of a new surface low. On May 31, the remnants of Alma were situated along the coast of Belize as a 1004 mbar low-pressure system. A broad upper-level ridge was anchored over the Gulf of Honduras, which covered the entire region and maintained deep tropical moisture. Satellite imagery and a NOAA buoy reported sustained tropical storm-force winds. Despite moving ashore, the system was named Tropical Storm Arthur about 45 mi (72 km) north-northwest of Belize City. In post-analysis, it was determined that Arthur had developed more than 12 hours earlier, late on May 30, and made landfall early on May 31 with 45 mph (75 km/h) winds in northeastern Belize. While over land, Arthur maintained minimal tropical storm force winds, concentrated primarily over open waters to the east and northeast. Despite being over land for several hours, the storm maintained a fairly organized structure. The storm contained a large low-level center, accompanied by convective banding, and was developing new convective cells. Initially, it was thought Arthur would continue generally westward due to a ridge to its north, and later re-intensify in the Bay of Campeche. The associated thunderstorm activity became separated from the center of circulation, and early on June 1, the center became difficult to locate due to becoming disorganized. It remained a tropical storm over land for nearly 24 hours before weakening to a tropical depression later that day. While drifting southwestward over land, Arthur weakened further, and the National Hurricane Center issued its last advisory on the system late on June 1. By June 4, the remnants of Arthur were diminishing over southeastern Mexico without any redevelopment. Thunderstorms briefly redeveloped two days later, as its associated circulation crossed over the Bay of Campeche into Veracruz, although it dissipated soon after. ## Impact and records In preparation for the storm, ports were closed in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo, while residents and tourists were encouraged to take precautions in coastal areas. Also, ports were closed on the islands of Cozumel, Isla Mujeres and in Chetumal. Small boats were restricted from leaving some ports, but evacuations were deemed unnecessary. Tropical storm warnings were issued as soon as the storm was first classified for the coast of Belize and the coast of Mexico south of Cabo Catoche, and remained in effect until Arthur weakened to a tropical depression. While crossing Belize, Arthur dropped heavy rainfall, estimated as high as 15 in (380 mm). The storm produced rainfall as far south as Belize City and kicked up strong surf on the island of Ambergris Caye. Winds from Arthur forced the closure of two of Mexico's three main oil exporting ports in the Gulf of Mexico due to rough seas. The storm's remnants, combined with recent heavy rains from Tropical Storm Alma, triggered flash flooding and caused rivers in southern and northern Belize to overflow. The flooding damaged one bridge and one highway, and several other bridges were under water. One village was evacuated, and shelters in Corozal and Orange Walk were opened. In rural areas the electricity was cut off due to safety issues. Dozens were stranded on their roof due to high water, and work to repair an important highway was halted when flood waters washed away the repaired section. Papaya plantations, shrimp farms and rice crops were also affected by the unsettled weather. In all, about 100,000 people were affected by the flooding, and nine fatalities were reported; five of which were directly attributed to Arthur. A total of 714 houses were damaged, and damage in Belize was estimated at \$78 million (2008 USD). British helicopters helped rescue stranded people following the storm, and Mexico provided a helicopter to help carry supplies to areas affected by the flooding. Prime Minister Dean Barrow declared a disaster area in southern Belize's Stann Creek Valley. Additionally, the government rushed food, water and clothing to about 13,000 people. When Arthur later moved over Mexico, it dropped heavy rainfall, with a maximum 24-hour total of 8.34 in (212 mm) in Pijijiapan, Chiapas. There were no reports of damage or deaths in the country. Arthur was the first tropical storm to form in May in the Atlantic since Tropical Storm Arlene in 1981, and the last until Tropical Storm Alberto in May 2012. ## See also - Other tropical cyclones named Arthur - Timeline of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season - List of off-season Atlantic hurricanes - Tropical Storm Cristobal (2020)

New York State Route 268 (1934–1974)

Former highway in New York

New York State Route 268 (NY 268) was a state highway in northeastern Erie County, New York, in the United States. It served as a connector between NY 5 in the town of Clarence and NY 78 at the Clarence–Amherst town line. The route passed through rural areas of the town of Clarence and did not serve any areas of significant development. The northern portion of NY 268 followed the southern bank of Tonawanda Creek. The route was assigned c. 1934 as a connector between NY 78 and Tonawanda Creek Road, then part of NY 263. In between the two routes, NY 268 followed Wolcott and Goodrich Roads. NY 268 was moved onto Tonawanda Creek and Salt Roads c. 1938 and remained on those two roads until it was replaced by a reextended NY 263 c. 1974. NY 263 was truncated back to its current northern terminus within three years time, and ownership and maintenance of all of NY 268's former routing was transferred to Erie County by April 1980. Tonawanda Creek Road became County Route 559 (CR 559) while Salt Road was redesignated as County Route 560. ## Route description NY 268 began at an intersection with NY 5 in the hamlet of Clarence in the town of the same name. It headed north, following Salt Road out of the hamlet and into a mostly rural area of northeastern Erie County. Here, the route intersected with several east–west highways of local importance and passed by Beeman Creek Park before meeting Tonawanda Creek Road at a junction on the southern bank of Tonawanda Creek. The highway turned west at this junction, following Tonawanda Creek Road along the edge of the creek to the Clarence–Amherst town line, where NY 268 ended at a junction with NY 78 in the hamlet of Millersport. ## History The origins of NY 268 date as far back as 1926, by which time the state of New York had assumed maintenance of several highways in the town of Clarence. The farthest north of these was Tonawanda Creek Road, which was state-maintained from Transit Road (NY 78) in Millersport to Salt Road. From here, state maintenance continued south on Salt Road to a junction with Main Street (what is now NY 5). Also state-maintained by this time was Goodrich Road, a north–south road connecting Tonawanda Creek Road to Main Street (modern NY 5), and Wolcott Road, an east–west highway linking Goodrich Road to Transit Road (what is now NY 78). NY 263 was assigned c. 1931 to an alignment extending from Getzville to Akron via Millersport. Even though Tonawanda Creek Road was state-maintained from NY 78 to Goodrich Road, NY 263 initially followed a more circuitous route via Wolcottsburg on NY 78, Wolcott Road, and Goodrich Road. East of Goodrich Road, the route proceeded generally southeastward along Tonawanda Creek and Salt Roads to a junction with Hunts Corners–Akron Road 3.5 miles (5.6 km) north of NY 5. At this point, NY 263 turned east to follow Hunts Corners–Akron Road toward Akron. The remainder of Salt Road between NY 263 and NY 5 was designated as NY 267. NY 263 was gradually realigned to use all of Tonawanda Creek and Salt Roads between NY 5 and NY 78. The first change came c. 1934 when it was realigned to head due east from Millersport on Tonawanda Creek Road. The former routing of NY 263 on Wolcott and Goodrich Roads by way of Wolcottsburg was redesignated as NY 268. By the following year, NY 263 was realigned south of Hunts Corners–Akron Road to use Salt Road, supplanting NY 267. NY 263 was realigned c. 1938 to follow NY 78 north from Middleport instead while NY 268 was shifted onto NY 263's former routing along Tonawanda Creek and Salt Roads. The routing of NY 268 remained unchanged until c. 1974, when NY 268 was supplanted by a reextended NY 263. The extension was short-lived, however, as NY 263 was pulled back to its junction with NY 78 by 1977. Ownership and maintenance of NY 268's former routing north of Greiner Road was transferred from the state of New York to Erie County at some point prior to 1980. The remainder was given to Erie County on April 1, 1980, as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government. The Tonawanda Creek Road portion of old NY 268 was redesignated as CR 559 while the Salt Road portion was redesignated as CR 560. ## Major intersections ## See also - List of county routes in Erie County, New York (545–580)

Mongolia at the 1994 Winter Olympics

Mongolia sent a delegation to compete at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway from 12–27 February 1994. The Mongolian delegation consisted of a single short track speed skater Batchuluuny Bat-Orgil. He competed in two events, where he finished the 500 metres event in 24th place and the 1000 metres competition in 29th position. ## Background The Mongolian National Olympic Committee was recognized by the International Olympic Committee on 1 January 1962, and the nation entered Olympic competition soon after, talking part in both the 1964 Winter and Summer Olympics. Mongolia has only missed two Olympic Games since, the 1976 Winter Olympics; and the 1984 Summer Olympics as the Mongolians joined in the Soviet-led boycott of the Games in Los Angeles. Lillehammer was Mongolia's seventh appearance at a Winter Olympics. The 1994 Winter Olympics were held from 12–27 February 1994; a total of 1,737 athletes representing 67 National Olympic Committees took part. Batchuluuny Bat-Orgil, a short-track speed skater, was the only competitor Mongolia sent to Lillehammer. He was selected as the flag-bearer for the opening ceremony. ## Competitors The following is the list of number of competitors in the Games. ## Short track speed skating Batchuluuny Bat-Orgil was 24 years old at the time of the Lillehammer Olympics, and was making his only Olympic appearance. He entered two events: the 500 metres and the 1000 metres. The 1000 metres race was held on 22 February, and he was drawn into heat one, which he finished in a time of 1 minute and 40.41 seconds, which was fourth and last in his heat. Only the top two from each heat were allowed to advance, and as a result Batchuluuny was eliminated. The gold medal was won by Kim Ki-hoon of South Korea, the silver was won by his fellow South Korean Chae Ji-hoon, and the bronze by Marc Gagnon of Canada. The 500 metres race was held from 24–26 February, and Batchuluuny was drawn into heat four. He finished the heat in 48.63 seconds, third out of three finishers in his heat, but only the top two in each heat were allowed to advance, and he was eliminated. Based on his heat time, he was classified as 24th place out of 31 competitors. The gold medal was eventually won by Chae Ji-hoon of South Korea, the silver was taken by Mirko Vuillermin of Italy, and the bronze medal was won by Nicky Gooch of Great Britain. ## See also - Mongolia at the 1994 Asian Games

Ed Muransky

American football player (born 1960)

Edward William "Ed" Muransky (born January 20, 1960) is a former professional American football offensive tackle who played for the Los Angeles Raiders of the National Football League (NFL) and Orlando Renegades of the United States Football League (USFL). He was a member of the Super Bowl XVIII Champion Raiders. Prior to this he was an All-American and Academic All-American athlete who played for the University of Michigan Wolverines during the 1979–1981 seasons. After retiring from football he became a business partner and advisor to Edward J. DeBartolo Jr., former San Francisco 49ers owner. Muransky testified in the March 2000 trial of Louisiana Governor Edwin Edwards, mainly about what DeBartolo had confided to Muransky. DeBartolo was the only extortion victim who claimed to have been extorted directly by Edwards, but Muransky could not provide direct testimony about private meetings between DeBartolo and Edwards. Muransky has continued to pursue business interests even after the controversies about DeBartolo have waned. ## Cardinal Mooney High School Born in Youngstown, Muransky played football for Cardinal Mooney High School where he was affectionately known as "Big Ed" by family and teammates. He was a three-year varsity letterman and two-year starter as an interior lineman at Cardinal Mooney. In 1976, he won All-Steel Valley, All-NEO, and All-State honors, and received the Mack Truck Award, given annually to the most outstanding high school lineman in the Youngstown area. ## University of Michigan Highly recruited by numerous "blue chip" schools, Muransky chose to play collegiate football at the University of Michigan. He lettered for three years at Michigan, where he wore \#72, and earned All-Big Ten honors in 1980 and 1981. Muransky started 33 straight games at offensive tackle for the Wolverines from his sophomore through senior years, 1979–1981. The 6-foot-7-inch (2.01 m), 320-pound (150 kg; 23 st) lineman was a key member of the 1980 Wolverines, coach Bo Schembechler's first bowl-winning team. In fact, he started all twelve games at right tackle. This includes the 1981 Rose Bowl against the Washington Huskies football team won by Michigan 23–6. The game was Schembechler's first bowl victory, and the coach was carried off the field on Muransky's shoulders. Muransky was named to the Associated Press, UPI, and The Sporting News All-American teams in 1981 and also garnered "Academic All-American" his senior year. He was part of a 1981 team that had five All-American honorees (Anthony Carter, Butch Woolfolk, Bubba Paris and Kurt Becker). ### "Beef Bowl" Record Holder Muransky also set the all-time "Beef Bowl" record by consuming 8 pounds (3.63 kg) of prime rib at Lawry's before the 1979 Rose Bowl. Muransky later recalled: "Bubba Paris and I were two happy freshmen eating together at the Lawry's Beef Bowl event before the 1979 Rose Bowl Game. After we had enjoyed our fourth plate of prime rib, mashed potatoes, corn and Yorkshire pudding, Bubba asked what the record was, and they said 7 cuts. Bubba continued for 3 more cuts, and I continued for four, totally under the Bo Schembechler radar screen. When they delivered the 8th cut to me, the media started to gather around my table, Bo walked by and let me know what he was thinking without ever saying a word. Afterward, a Paris-Muransky night out ended with some pizza. The next morning in practice, Bo made an example of Bubba and me. We never ran so much in our lives as we did that day. We were in every play of scrimmage and then we ran sprints." When the Wolverines returned to Pasadena for the 1981 Rose Bowl, "Bo made it a point to come to the back of the plane and talk to me and Bubba Paris. He wanted to let us know that my record from a couple years earlier would not be in jeopardy because we were going to be sitting with him at the Lawry's Beef Bowl. He said he was going to limit each of us to two cuts of prime rib." Schembechler had his own take on the story: "I let 'em eat because they were freshmen. They weren't gonna play anyway." ### Big Chill Cameo Muransky is also remembered for a cameo appearance in the 1983 film The Big Chill: "I was in the theater watching it, not knowing what was going to happen. It was kind of interesting with all of (the characters) watching (the 1980 Michigan-Michigan State game). It was pretty cool. Watching [quarterback] John Wangler go back was pretty cool. For a split-second as they're going back, I'm thinking to myself, 'Oh my God, I pray to God I'm not holding or I missed a block for a sack or something on the big screen pass.' But it was a good block, and it was a fun moment. Any time I hear 'The Big Chill,' it's good memories." ### Quitters The Wolverines were the unanimous pre-season Number 1 pick in 1981 but lost their opener to Wisconsin 21–14. In the team meeting the next day, Schembechler walked into the room and wrote "Ed Muransky" and "Stan Edwards" on the chalkboard, and then barked out, "The rest of you are quitters. I want nothing more to do with you," and left. According to the coach, Muransky and Edwards were the only two who played with intensity against Wisconsin, and Bo left it to them to motivate the rest of the team. Muransky issued a challenge to the offense on the night before the following week's game: "I looked at everyone and said, 'If we continue to play as great individuals, we'll continue to lose. If we start to play as a great team, we'll start winning." The next day, the Wolverines beat \#1 ranked Notre Dame, 25–7. ## Professional football career ### Los Angeles Raiders Muransky was selected in the fourth round (82nd pick) by the Oakland Raiders in the 1982 NFL Draft, and he played in 24 games for the Raiders from 1982–1984. The Raiders moved from Oakland to Los Angeles to play the 1982 NFL season. Thus, although he was drafted by the Oakland Raiders, he played his NFL career with the Los Angeles Raiders. In his second season in the NFL, he won a Super Bowl ring with the Raiders' 1983 Super Bowl Championship team. He played all 16 regular season games for Tom Flores' Raiders that season. The team went 12–4 during the 1983 NFL season and produced eight Pro Bowlers. Muransky played for an offensive line that included Pro Bowlers Henry Lawrence and Todd Christensen. The team was led that season by quarterback Jim Plunkett and future Hall of Famer Marcus Allen, who rushed for nine touchdowns, caught two and threw three on a 4–7 passing performance. Muransky described the Super Bowl experience as a "whirlwind" with "two weeks of hype like you've never seen." He recalled: "It was a big deal because offensive linemen weren't making what they make today. That year, I made \$77,000, which was a pretty decent contract at the time. But if you won the Super Bowl, you won \$64,000. So it wasn't peanuts. I remember walking off the field after that, thinking to myself, 'I have a Super Bowl ring for the rest of my life.'" Although Muransky was cut in for a Super Bowl gameshare, he was not on the official gameday roster. Although the Raiders only won one Super Bowl with Muransky, they had great success. In his rookie season, they were 8–1 in the strike-shortened season. This was the best record in the American Football Conference and tied for the best in the League. The team, however, was upset by the 6–3 New York Jets in the second round of the 1982-83 NFL Playoffs. The 1984 Raiders went 11–-5 and also made the 1984-85 NFL playoffs. The Raiders teams of Muransky's years went 31–10 in the regular season and 4–2 in the playoffs under Flores. ### USFL Orlando Renegades After playing for the Raiders, Muransky signed with the Orlando Renegades of the USFL. He played and started 14 of the Renegades 18 games under Lee Corso. The team was not as successful as the Raiders and went 5–13. When the league folded, he decided to retire and enter the business world. ## Business career After his football career ended, Muransky worked briefly as a sportscaster at WYTV in Youngstown. He later became CEO and chairman of Gallagher Pipino, Inc and the Muransky companies. He is married to the former Christine Pipino and has three children: Eddie, Deloran and Donielle. ### Work with Eddie DeBartolo and the Edwards trial In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Muransky became the most trusted advisor and business partner of Edward J. DeBartolo Jr., heir to a real estate empire and former owner of the San Francisco 49ers. For a time, Muransky was the CEO of the DeBartolo Property Group, and the two partnered in numerous business ventures. DeBartolo ventured into the casino business against the wishes of his sister, Denise DeBartolo York and hired family contact, Muransky to head DeBartolo Entertainment. Eventually, Muransky who is said to have a keen business sense, became DeBartolo's most trusted advisor, which caused a rift with Carmen Policy, 49ers president. In 1997, Muransky became involved in DeBartolo's efforts to open a riverboat gambling casino in Louisiana. The project required approval of the state gambling board and resulted in a highly publicized bribery scandal that ended with the conviction of former Louisiana Governor Edwin Edwards on 17 counts, including racketeering, extortion, mail fraud, and wire fraud. In order to secure licensing of the casino, Edwards and associates allegedly solicited bribes from DeBartolo, including a briefcase filled with \$400,000. Of the many who claimed that they were extortion victims, DeBartolo was the only one who claimed to have been extorted directly by Edwards. Muransky was able to describe his relationship with DeBartolo but could not provide testimony about private meetings between DeBartolo and Edwards. ### Post-trial business DeBartolo had Muransky placed on the board of directors of the DeBartolo Corporation after reaching a plea agreement which left him (DeBartolo) a convicted felon and precluded him from serving on the corporate board. Eventually, after DeBartolo became involved in the corruption, he turned over control of the 49ers to his sister. DeBartolo and Muransky reportedly went through an acrimonious breakup in 2002. Following the break with DeBartolo, Muransky moved with his family back to Youngstown. In 2007, Muransky, as owner of Muransky Co. and Southwoods Surgical Center in Boardman, Ohio, filed for monetary damages and dissolution of a joint venture intended to open a full-service, for-profit hospital in southern Mahoning County. Muransky told The Vindicator: "I'm very disappointed for this community. There was an absolute opportunity to grow the health system ... In a few years, we are going to find ourselves having to drive to Akron and Pittsburgh and Cleveland for health care because it is no longer available here. I'm dumbfounded it has come to this." Muransky said one of the reasons he came back to Youngstown was to use his skills to give back to the community. Ed also serves as Founder, Chairman and CEO of Chestnut Land Company, the holding company for Auntie Anne’s Soft Pretzel franchises operating throughout the United States. He successfully operates almost 70 stores under this franchise name, with locations in 15 states.

Count Your Blessings (Bring Me the Horizon album)

Count Your Blessings is the debut studio album by British rock band Bring Me the Horizon. Recorded at DEP International Studios in Birmingham with producer Dan Sprigg, it was originally released in the United Kingdom on 30 October 2006 by Visible Noise. The album was later issued by Earache Records in the United States on 14 August 2007. Count Your Blessings was supported by the release of music videos for two of the album's tracks: "Pray for Plagues" on 4 June 2007 and "For Stevie Wonder's Eyes Only (Braille)" on 6 March 2008. Named after a lyric in the album's opening song "Pray for Plagues", Count Your Blessings is representative of the band's early deathcore sound, which was phased out on later releases and eventually abandoned in favour of other, less aggressive styles. The band members were young when they recorded the album, and the band has largely disregarded it later in their career; it began as early as 2008, when guitarist Lee Malia was already criticising the album's quality. Most of the songs on the record quickly faded from the band's live setlists. Most band members recorded their parts individually, rather than the group doing so as a whole, with the central location of the studio credited as "a distraction." The album received some negative reviews, with the main complaints revolving around musical originality, although it still reached number 93 on the UK Albums Chart. ## Background and recording Following the release of their first extended play This Is What the Edge of Your Seat Was Made For in October 2004, Bring Me the Horizon toured extensively while writing new material for their full-length debut album. Due to the number of shows the band were playing at the time, much of the material was written quickly before recording was due to begin – drummer Matt Nicholls claimed that three songs were written in the space of two days due to the upcoming deadline. A number of songs are re-recordings of early demos that the band had taped for a project titled The Bedroom Sessions and in a broadcast session for the UK station Radio 1, namely "(I Used to Make Out With) Medusa", "Off the Heezay" and "Liquor & Love Lost" (then known as "Dragon Slaying"). Recording took place at DEP International Studios in Birmingham with producer Dan Sprigg, who had previously worked with bands including Cradle of Filth, Napalm Death and, more recently, Lostprophets. Frontman Oliver Sykes described the recording process as "an intense experience" due to the group's desire to make the best debut album they could, with biographer Ben Welch claiming that they "were starting to feel the pressure of all of the hype that was building around them" at the time. Due to the studio's location in the centre of the city, the young band members (all under 20 years old at the time) were often distracted and would not spend much time in the studio; this meant that each individual member ended up recording the majority of their contributions to the album alone, rather than the full unit performing together. ## Composition ### Influences, style and themes When recording Count Your Blessings, Bring Me the Horizon intended to make an album which sounded "as heavy and brutal as they possibly could"; Welch claims that the band scrapped any song ideas that "didn't fit that criterion". Speaking in 2014 about the band's intentions when writing and recording music during their early years, Sykes claimed the group "just wanted to make noisy music". Similarly, when asked about the band's beginnings in a 2014 interview, guitarist Lee Malia explained, "When you're young, you just want to do everything to extremes. That's what the first EP and the album were like: too over-excited sounding". Matt Nicholls said that on Count Your Blessings, Bring Me the Horizon "were influenced a lot by Swedish metal – At The Gates and stuff like that." Nicholls also said that on Count Your Blessings, Bring Me the Horizon's members "were 18 or 19 years old and wanted to be as metal as possible." Specifically, the band's members were influenced by Norma Jean, Skycamefalling, Metallica, Pantera, At the Gates, Arch Enemy, The Dillinger Escape Plan, and In Flames at the band's beginning. The musical style of Count Your Blessings is most often categorised as deathcore, but has also been labeled as metalcore and melodic death metal. Count Your Blessings uses elements of genres like melodic death metal, death metal and black metal, drawing comparisons to bands like The Black Dahlia Murder, Cannibal Corpse, At the Gates, and Obituary. Last Rites noted that the album's black metal-reminiscent vocals (which consist of death growls and high-pitched shrieks) were placed over a musical base of melodic death metal. According to Drowned in Sound columnist Raziq Rauf, the songs on the album "generally consist of The Black Dahlia Murder-style thunderous riffs mixed with some dastardly sludgy doom moments and more breakdowns than your dad's old Nissan Sunny". The lyrical content is admittedly simple, which according to Sykes is due to the fact that his life had "never been that bad" at the time he wrote them; the singer has noted that most songs on the album are "about girls or just growing up", which he claims contributes to the group's brand of "party music". ## Promotion and release Count Your Blessings was originally released in the United Kingdom on 30 October 2006 by Visible Noise. It was not released in the United States until 14 August 2007, when it was issued by Earache Records. The version released by retailer Hot Topic featured a cover version of Slipknot's "Eyeless" as a bonus track, which had originally been recorded for Higher Voltage: Another Brief History of Rock, a CD released for free with an issue of Kerrang! magazine in June 2007. A first music video for "Pray for Plagues", was directed by Kenny Lindström and released on 4 June 2007. A second music video, directed by Perrone Salvatore, "For Stevie Wonder's Eyes Only (Braille)" was issued on 6 March 2008. Following the release of Count Your Blessings, Bring Me the Horizon toured extensively in support of the album. Throughout October and November the group toured the UK with American black metal band Abigail Williams, although the Phoenix, Arizona-based band left the tour early on after drummer Zach Gibson suffered a wrist injury. Centurion replaced Abigail Williams for the remainder of the tour, and Bring Me the Horizon spent the rest of the year supporting labelmates Lostprophets. The band later replaced Bury Your Dead supporting Killswitch Engage on their European tour in January 2007, then continued to tour the UK through March and April. During the summer, the band played a number of festivals (including Download Festival). ## Critical reception Upon its release, Count Your Blessings debuted at number 93 on the UK Albums Chart. It also peaked at number 9 on the UK Rock & Metal Albums Chart and remained there for two further weeks, first dropping to number 14 and then to number 26. Overall, Count Your Blessings received mixed critical reception. Exclaim! writer Bill Whish wrote positively about the release, praising the "vitriolic lyrics and brutally heavy guitar work" and welcoming the band as "a little more interesting" than some other metalcore artists. DIY magazine's Tom Connick dubbed "(I Used to Make Out With) Medusa" the "crowning jewel" of Count Your Blessings in a 2014 feature, claiming that it "Perfectly [captures] that youthful, drunken recklessness that defined [the band's] most controversial years" with its "razor sharp" guitar work and "thunderous breakdowns". Aaron McKay, a writer for Chronicles of Chaos, praised Sykes' vocal delivery, likening it to Obituary frontman John Tardy. However, many commentators criticised the lack of invention on the album. While AllMusic's Stewart Mason praised the album for being "vaguely interesting musically" as well as claiming that there is "a greater sense of dynamic than usual" in the genre on the release, he also commented on the "generally unimaginative songwriting", claiming it adds "little to the existing knowledge base" of the genre. Furthermore, he also criticised Sykes's vocal style on the record, which he described as an "immediately irritating" and a "high-pitched gibber". Chad Bowar for About.com highlighted the band within their scene, praising their "catchy melodies" and "decent riffs and solos", and on Count Your Blessings welcomed the variety in styles of vocal delivery across the collection. However, similarly to Mason, Bowar dubbed the album "way too generic and repetitive", claiming that it features "too many breakdowns" and a majority of "extremely forgettable" songs. Axl Rosenberg of MetalSucks complained that the band displayed "nothing to distinguish them from the pack" on the album, although he did praise the presence of "some decent breakdowns" and claim that the songs would make "good background noise". ## Impact Due to the young age of the band when they recorded the album and the drastic stylistic changes which followed its release, Count Your Blessings has largely been neglected in recent years, both by the band and by their fans. As early as 2008, guitarist Lee Malia was criticising the album's quality and noting that the band quickly wanted "to do something better" after its release. Following the release of "Drown" in 2014, described by Digital Spy's Adam Silverstein as "a universe away from the ... full-on commotion" of Count Your Blessings, Sykes reflected that the single would have "offended" the band members when they were younger, adding that the group were "never gonna sound like that again". Keyboardist Jordan Fish (who joined Bring Me the Horizon about 6 years after the album's release) has explained the drastic evolution in style between Count Your Blessings and later releases as simply being due to the fact that the band members "don't listen to deathcore anymore", claiming that to attempt that type of music again would be dishonest due to the members' change in tastes and feelings. Alternative Press writer Tyler Sharp has added that "The members of Bring Me the Horizon have evolved from teenage metalheads to a group of mature, progressed songwriters" in response to criticism of their change in style. Most of the album's songs were dropped from live performances in the years following the release of Suicide Season and There Is a Hell..., although "Pray for Plagues" returned to set lists briefly in late 2014 when the band performed with original guitarist Curtis Ward at a few shows. The song is featured on the video album Live at Wembley, recorded in December 2014. Despite the radical evolution of the band since Count Your Blessings, the album has still received some retrospective praise. In a feature published in 2015, Kerrang! writer Emily Carter credited the album for increasing the popularity of the band during their formative years, as well as praising its guitar riffs and the song "Pray for Plagues". AXS contributor Rey Harris described the album as "a classic among deathcore fans", highlighting "Black & Blue" in particular. Sarai C. of Loudwire named "Pray for Plagues" the fourth best Bring Me the Horizon song to date (as of May 2014), praising it as "one of Bring Me the Horizon's most timeless tracks". Dan Slessor for Alternative Press included "Tell Slater Not to Wash His Dick" as the alternative tenth choice in his feature of "The 10 best Bring Me the Horizon songs", praising its "exuberant energy and rich melody". ## Track listing All lyrics written by Oliver Sykes; all songs produced by Bring Me the Horizon and Dan Sprigg. Notes - Track 2 is censored on the tracklist as "D\*\*k", but without censoring in the booklet. - Track 3 is written in incorrect braille on the tracklist, and in correct braille (as ⠋⠕⠗ ⠎⠞⠑⠧⠊⠑ ⠺⠕⠝⠙⠑⠗⠎ ⠑⠽⠑⠎ ⠕⠝⠇⠽) in the booklet. It is commonly known as "For Stevie Wonder's Eyes Only (Braille)" or simply as "Braille". - Track 4 is written as "Alot Like Vegas" on the tracklist. This was corrected on later versions. - Track 11 is written as "Eyeless (Slipknot)" on the tracklist. ## Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Count Your Blessings, Visible Noise Bring Me the Horizon - Oliver Sykes – lead vocals, keyboards, programming - Lee Malia – lead guitar - Curtis Ward – rhythm guitar - Matt Kean – bass - Matt Nicholls – drums Additional personnel - Bring Me the Horizon – production, music - Dan Sprigg – production, mixing, mastering - Tom Barnes – photography ## Charts ## Release history

Norwegian Forest cat

Breed of cat

The Norwegian Forest cat (Norwegian: Norsk skogskatt and Norsk skaukatt) is a breed of domestic cat originating in Northern Europe. This natural breed is adapted to a very cold climate, with a top coat of long, glossy hair and a woolly undercoat for insulation. The breed's ancestors may have been a landrace of short-haired cats brought to Norway about A.D. 1000 by the Vikings, who may also have brought with them long-haired cats, like those ancestral to the modern Siberian and Turkish Angora. During World War II, the Norwegian Forest cat was nearly extinct; then the Norwegian Forest Cat Club's breeding program increased the cat's number. It was registered as a breed with the European Fédération Internationale Féline in the 1970s, when a cat fancier, Carl-Fredrik Nordane, took notice of the breed and made efforts to register it. The breed is very popular in Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Iceland, and France. It is a large breed with a strong body, similar to the Siberian and Maine Coon cat breeds, with long legs, a bushy tail, and a sturdy body. It is very good at climbing, partly because of strong claws. The lifespan is usually 14 to 16 years. Kidney and heart diseases have been reported in the breed. Specifically in this breed, complex rearrangements of glycogen branching enzyme (GBE1) can cause a perinatal hypoglycaemic collapse and a late-juvenile-onset neuromuscular degeneration in glycogen storage disease type IV. ## History The Norwegian Forest cat is adapted to survive Norway's cold weather. Its ancestors may include cold-adapted black and white British Shorthair cats brought to Norway from Great Britain some time after 1000 AD by the Vikings, and longhaired cats brought to Norway by Crusaders around the 14th century. These cats could have reproduced with farm and feral stock and may have eventually evolved into the modern-day Norwegian Forest breed. The Siberian and the Turkish Angora, longhaired cats from Russia and Turkey, respectively, are also possible ancestors of the breed. Norse legends refer to the skogkatt as a "mountain-dwelling fairy cat with an ability to climb sheer rock faces that other cats could not manage." Since the Norwegian Forest cat is a very adept climber, author Claire Bessant believes that the skogkatt folktale could be about the ancestor of the modern Norwegian Forest breed. The name Norse skogkatt is used by some breeders and fancier organisations for the modern breed. Most likely the ancestors of the Norwegian Forest cat served as ships' cats (mousers) on Viking ships. The original landrace lived in the Norwegian forests for many centuries, but were later prized for their hunting skills and were used on Norwegian farms, until they were discovered in the early 20th century by cat enthusiasts. In 1938 the first organisation devoted to the breed, the Norwegian Forest Cat Club, was formed in Oslo, Norway. The club's movement to preserve the breed was interrupted by World War II. Owing to cross-breeding with free-ranging domestic cats during the war, the Norwegian Forest cat became endangered and nearly extinct until the Norwegian Forest Cat Club helped the breed make a comeback by developing an official breeding program. In the 1950s, King Olav V declared them the official cat of Norway. Since the cat did not leave Norway until the 1970s, it was not registered as a breed in the Fédération Internationale Féline (FIFe), the pan-European federation of cat registries, until Carl-Fredrik Nordane, a Norwegian cat fancier, took notice of the breed, and made efforts to register it. The breed was registered in Europe by the 1970s, and in the American Cat Fanciers Association in 1994. In 1978, it was recognized in Sweden as an official breed, and in 1989, they were accepted as a breed in the United Kingdom by the Norwegian Cat Club of Britain. The Norwegian Forest breed is very popular in Norway and Sweden. Since 2003, it has been the fifth most popular cat breed in France, where there are about 400 to 500 births per year. ## Description The Norwegian Forest cat is strongly built and larger than an average cat. Adult females weigh 3.6–8 kg (7.9–17.6 lb); males, 4.5–9 kg (9.9–19.8 lb). The breed has a long, sturdy body; long legs; and a bushy tail. The coat consists of a long, thick, glossy, water-repellent top layer and a woolly undercoat and is thickest at the legs, chest, and head. The undercoat appears as a ruff. The profile of the breed is generally straight. Their water-resistant coat with a dense undercoat developed to help the cat survive in the harsh Scandinavian climate. The head is long with an overall shape similar to an equilateral triangle, a strong chin, and a muzzle of medium length; a square or round-shaped head is considered to be a defect. The eyes are almond shaped and oblique, and may be of any colour. The ears are large, wide at the base, and high set, have a tufted top, are placed in the extension of the triangle formed by the head, and end with a tuft of hair like the ears of the lynx. All coat colors and divisions in the traditional, sepia and mink categories are accepted. Since the cats have very strong claws, they are very good climbers, and can even climb rocks. Norwegian Forest cats that live primarily outdoors become swift and effective hunters, but the breed can also adapt to indoor life. The cats usually live to be 14 to 16 years old. As they are heavy-boned and tall, they eat more food than most other domestic breeds. ### Personality They are friendly, intelligent, and generally good with people. The Norwegian Forest cat has a lot of energy. They are very interactive cats who enjoy being part of their family environment and love to play games. Fanciers note that these cats produce a variety of high-pitched "chirping" vocalizations. ### Health problems Kidney and heart diseases have been reported in the breed. In an experiment directed by John C. Fyfea, Rebeccah L. Kurzhals, and others, it was concluded that a complex rearrangement in the breed's Glycogen branching enzyme (GBE1) can cause both a perinatal hypoglycemic collapse and a late-juvenile-onset neuromuscular degeneration in glycogen storage disease type IV in the breed. This disorder, while rare, can prove fatal to cats that have it. There are DNA tests available for GSD IV, and it is highly recommended (some cat associations obligate their Norwegian Forest cat breeder members) to carry out the DNA test before using such animals for breeding. PawPeds provide a pedigree database which comes together with health programmes, through publishing each single cat's test result, to provide useful information for breeders to make a well-informed breeding decision. The breed has also been known to suffer from hip dysplasia, which is a rare, partially hereditary disease of the hip joint. Patella luxation is found more in the British Shorthair, Abyssinian and Devon Rex breeds, but it is recognized in Norwegian Forest cats as well. It is a condition in which patella moves out of its original physiological position. A pedigree with 871 Norwegian Forest cats shows familial cardiomyopathy in this breed. There is also high prevalence of eosinophilic granuloma complex in Norwegian Forest cats which is suggestive of a genetic background. The main factors causing Toxoplasma gondii seropositivity on cats are age, raw meat and outdoor access. A study shows that T. gondii seropositivity varies by cat breeds. Norwegian Forest cats have a relatively high rate of Toxoplasma gondii seropositivity (4.66%) comparing with other pure-bred cats (Birman: 4.16%, British Shorthair: 3.39%, Korat: 2.03%, Ocicat: 4.26%, Siamese: 2.57%), but slightly lower than Persian cats (6.99%). Glycogen storage disease type IV due to branching enzyme deficiency was found in an inbred family of Norwegian forest cats. ## See also - Maine Coon - Siberian cat - Norwegian Elkhound - Norwegian Lundehund - Norwegian sheep landrace - Norwegian chicken landrace

Genetic engineering

Manipulation of an organism's genome

Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms. New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising the DNA. A construct is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism. The first recombinant DNA molecule was made by Paul Berg in 1972 by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with the lambda virus. As well as inserting genes, the process can be used to remove, or "knock out", genes. The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome. An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be genetically modified (GM) and the resulting entity is a genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMO was a bacterium generated by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in 1973. Rudolf Jaenisch created the first GM animal when he inserted foreign DNA into a mouse in 1974. The first company to focus on genetic engineering, Genentech, was founded in 1976 and started the production of human proteins. Genetically engineered human insulin was produced in 1978 and insulin-producing bacteria were commercialised in 1982. Genetically modified food has been sold since 1994, with the release of the Flavr Savr tomato. The Flavr Savr was engineered to have a longer shelf life, but most current GM crops are modified to increase resistance to insects and herbicides. GloFish, the first GMO designed as a pet, was sold in the United States in December 2003. In 2016 salmon modified with a growth hormone were sold. Genetic engineering has been applied in numerous fields including research, medicine, industrial biotechnology and agriculture. In research, GMOs are used to study gene function and expression through loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression experiments. By knocking out genes responsible for certain conditions it is possible to create animal model organisms of human diseases. As well as producing hormones, vaccines and other drugs, genetic engineering has the potential to cure genetic diseases through gene therapy. The same techniques that are used to produce drugs can also have industrial applications such as producing enzymes for laundry detergent, cheeses and other products. The rise of commercialised genetically modified crops has provided economic benefit to farmers in many different countries, but has also been the source of most of the controversy surrounding the technology. This has been present since its early use; the first field trials were destroyed by anti-GM activists. Although there is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, critics consider GM food safety a leading concern. Gene flow, impact on non-target organisms, control of the food supply and intellectual property rights have also been raised as potential issues. These concerns have led to the development of a regulatory framework, which started in 1975. It has led to an international treaty, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, that was adopted in 2000. Individual countries have developed their own regulatory systems regarding GMOs, with the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe. ## Overview Genetic engineering is a process that alters the genetic structure of an organism by either removing or introducing DNA, or modifying existing genetic material in situ. Unlike traditional animal and plant breeding, which involves doing multiple crosses and then selecting for the organism with the desired phenotype, genetic engineering takes the gene directly from one organism and delivers it to the other. This is much faster, can be used to insert any genes from any organism (even ones from different domains) and prevents other undesirable genes from also being added. Genetic engineering could potentially fix severe genetic disorders in humans by replacing the defective gene with a functioning one. It is an important tool in research that allows the function of specific genes to be studied. Drugs, vaccines and other products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them. Crops have been developed that aid food security by increasing yield, nutritional value and tolerance to environmental stresses. The DNA can be introduced directly into the host organism or into a cell that is then fused or hybridised with the host. This relies on recombinant nucleic acid techniques to form new combinations of heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of that material either indirectly through a vector system or directly through micro-injection, macro-injection or micro-encapsulation. Genetic engineering does not normally include traditional breeding, in vitro fertilisation, induction of polyploidy, mutagenesis and cell fusion techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or a genetically modified organism in the process. However, some broad definitions of genetic engineering include selective breeding. Cloning and stem cell research, although not considered genetic engineering, are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within them. Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesised material into an organism. Plants, animals or microorganisms that have been changed through genetic engineering are termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs. If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic. If genetic material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is called cisgenic. If genetic engineering is used to remove genetic material from the target organism the resulting organism is termed a knockout organism. In Europe genetic modification is synonymous with genetic engineering while within the United States of America and Canada genetic modification can also be used to refer to more conventional breeding methods. ## History Humans have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years through selective breeding, or artificial selection as contrasted with natural selection. More recently, mutation breeding has used exposure to chemicals or radiation to produce a high frequency of random mutations, for selective breeding purposes. Genetic engineering as the direct manipulation of DNA by humans outside breeding and mutations has only existed since the 1970s. The term "genetic engineering" was first coined by Jack Williamson in his science fiction novel Dragon's Island, published in 1951 – one year before DNA's role in heredity was confirmed by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase, and two years before James Watson and Francis Crick showed that the DNA molecule has a double-helix structure – though the general concept of direct genetic manipulation was explored in rudimentary form in Stanley G. Weinbaum's 1936 science fiction story Proteus Island. In 1972, Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecules by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda virus. In 1973 Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first transgenic organism by inserting antibiotic resistance genes into the plasmid of an Escherichia coli bacterium. A year later Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first transgenic animal These achievements led to concerns in the scientific community about potential risks from genetic engineering, which were first discussed in depth at the Asilomar Conference in 1975. One of the main recommendations from this meeting was that government oversight of recombinant DNA research should be established until the technology was deemed safe. In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company, was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson and a year later the company produced a human protein (somatostatin) in E. coli. Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered human insulin in 1978. In 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court in the Diamond v. Chakrabarty case ruled that genetically altered life could be patented. The insulin produced by bacteria was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1982. In 1983, a biotech company, Advanced Genetic Sciences (AGS) applied for U.S. government authorisation to perform field tests with the ice-minus strain of Pseudomonas syringae to protect crops from frost, but environmental groups and protestors delayed the field tests for four years with legal challenges. In 1987, the ice-minus strain of P. syringae became the first genetically modified organism (GMO) to be released into the environment when a strawberry field and a potato field in California were sprayed with it. Both test fields were attacked by activist groups the night before the tests occurred: "The world's first trial site attracted the world's first field trasher". The first field trials of genetically engineered plants occurred in France and the US in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant to herbicides. The People's Republic of China was the first country to commercialise transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992. In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the first genetically modified food, the Flavr Savr, a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life. In 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil, making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialised in Europe. In 1995, Bt potato was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US. In 2009 11 transgenic crops were grown commercially in 25 countries, the largest of which by area grown were the US, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay and South Africa. In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute created the first synthetic genome and inserted it into an empty bacterial cell. The resulting bacterium, named Mycoplasma laboratorium, could replicate and produce proteins. Four years later this was taken a step further when a bacterium was developed that replicated a plasmid containing a unique base pair, creating the first organism engineered to use an expanded genetic alphabet. In 2012, Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier collaborated to develop the CRISPR/Cas9 system, a technique which can be used to easily and specifically alter the genome of almost any organism. ## Process Creating a GMO is a multi-step process. Genetic engineers must first choose what gene they wish to insert into the organism. This is driven by what the aim is for the resultant organism and is built on earlier research. Genetic screens can be carried out to determine potential genes and further tests then used to identify the best candidates. The development of microarrays, transcriptomics and genome sequencing has made it much easier to find suitable genes. Luck also plays its part; the Roundup Ready gene was discovered after scientists noticed a bacterium thriving in the presence of the herbicide. ### Gene isolation and cloning The next step is to isolate the candidate gene. The cell containing the gene is opened and the DNA is purified. The gene is separated by using restriction enzymes to cut the DNA into fragments or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify up the gene segment. These segments can then be extracted through gel electrophoresis. If the chosen gene or the donor organism's genome has been well studied it may already be accessible from a genetic library. If the DNA sequence is known, but no copies of the gene are available, it can also be artificially synthesised. Once isolated the gene is ligated into a plasmid that is then inserted into a bacterium. The plasmid is replicated when the bacteria divide, ensuring unlimited copies of the gene are available. The RK2 plasmid is notable for its ability to replicate in a wide variety of single-celled organisms, which makes it suitable as a genetic engineering tool. Before the gene is inserted into the target organism it must be combined with other genetic elements. These include a promoter and terminator region, which initiate and end transcription. A selectable marker gene is added, which in most cases confers antibiotic resistance, so researchers can easily determine which cells have been successfully transformed. The gene can also be modified at this stage for better expression or effectiveness. These manipulations are carried out using recombinant DNA techniques, such as restriction digests, ligations and molecular cloning. ### Inserting DNA into the host genome There are a number of techniques used to insert genetic material into the host genome. Some bacteria can naturally take up foreign DNA. This ability can be induced in other bacteria via stress (e.g. thermal or electric shock), which increases the cell membrane's permeability to DNA; up-taken DNA can either integrate with the genome or exist as extrachromosomal DNA. DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus, or through the use of viral vectors. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. In plants the DNA is often inserted using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, taking advantage of the Agrobacteriums T-DNA sequence that allows natural insertion of genetic material into plant cells. Other methods include biolistics, where particles of gold or tungsten are coated with DNA and then shot into young plant cells, and electroporation, which involves using an electric shock to make the cell membrane permeable to plasmid DNA. As only a single cell is transformed with genetic material, the organism must be regenerated from that single cell. In plants this is accomplished through the use of tissue culture. In animals it is necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells. Bacteria consist of a single cell and reproduce clonally so regeneration is not necessary. Selectable markers are used to easily differentiate transformed from untransformed cells. These markers are usually present in the transgenic organism, although a number of strategies have been developed that can remove the selectable marker from the mature transgenic plant. Further testing using PCR, Southern hybridization, and DNA sequencing is conducted to confirm that an organism contains the new gene. These tests can also confirm the chromosomal location and copy number of the inserted gene. The presence of the gene does not guarantee it will be expressed at appropriate levels in the target tissue so methods that look for and measure the gene products (RNA and protein) are also used. These include northern hybridisation, quantitative RT-PCR, Western blot, immunofluorescence, ELISA and phenotypic analysis. The new genetic material can be inserted randomly within the host genome or targeted to a specific location. The technique of gene targeting uses homologous recombination to make desired changes to a specific endogenous gene. This tends to occur at a relatively low frequency in plants and animals and generally requires the use of selectable markers. The frequency of gene targeting can be greatly enhanced through genome editing. Genome editing uses artificially engineered nucleases that create specific double-stranded breaks at desired locations in the genome, and use the cell's endogenous mechanisms to repair the induced break by the natural processes of homologous recombination and nonhomologous end-joining. There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from CRISPR). TALEN and CRISPR are the two most commonly used and each has its own advantages. TALENs have greater target specificity, while CRISPR is easier to design and more efficient. In addition to enhancing gene targeting, engineered nucleases can be used to introduce mutations at endogenous genes that generate a gene knockout. ## Applications Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry and agriculture and can be used on a wide range of plants, animals and microorganisms. Bacteria, the first organisms to be genetically modified, can have plasmid DNA inserted containing new genes that code for medicines or enzymes that process food and other substrates. Plants have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance, virus resistance, enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures and the production of edible vaccines. Most commercialised GMOs are insect resistant or herbicide tolerant crop plants. Genetically modified animals have been used for research, model animals and the production of agricultural or pharmaceutical products. The genetically modified animals include animals with genes knocked out, increased susceptibility to disease, hormones for extra growth and the ability to express proteins in their milk. ### Medicine Genetic engineering has many applications to medicine that include the manufacturing of drugs, creation of model animals that mimic human conditions and gene therapy. One of the earliest uses of genetic engineering was to mass-produce human insulin in bacteria. This application has now been applied to human growth hormones, follicle stimulating hormones (for treating infertility), human albumin, monoclonal antibodies, antihemophilic factors, vaccines and many other drugs. Mouse hybridomas, cells fused together to create monoclonal antibodies, have been adapted through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies. Genetically engineered viruses are being developed that can still confer immunity, but lack the infectious sequences. Genetic engineering is also used to create animal models of human diseases. Genetically modified mice are the most common genetically engineered animal model. They have been used to study and model cancer (the oncomouse), obesity, heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, substance abuse, anxiety, aging and Parkinson disease. Potential cures can be tested against these mouse models. Gene therapy is the genetic engineering of humans, generally by replacing defective genes with effective ones. Clinical research using somatic gene therapy has been conducted with several diseases, including X-linked SCID, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), and Parkinson's disease. In 2012, Alipogene tiparvovec became the first gene therapy treatment to be approved for clinical use. In 2015 a virus was used to insert a healthy gene into the skin cells of a boy suffering from a rare skin disease, epidermolysis bullosa, in order to grow, and then graft healthy skin onto 80 percent of the boy's body which was affected by the illness. Germline gene therapy would result in any change being inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community. In 2015, CRISPR was used to edit the DNA of non-viable human embryos, leading scientists of major world academies to call for a moratorium on inheritable human genome edits. There are also concerns that the technology could be used not just for treatment, but for enhancement, modification or alteration of a human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence, character or behavior. The distinction between cure and enhancement can also be difficult to establish. In November 2018, He Jiankui announced that he had edited the genomes of two human embryos, to attempt to disable the CCR5 gene, which codes for a receptor that HIV uses to enter cells. The work was widely condemned as unethical, dangerous, and premature. Currently, germline modification is banned in 40 countries. Scientists that do this type of research will often let embryos grow for a few days without allowing it to develop into a baby. Researchers are altering the genome of pigs to induce the growth of human organs, with the aim of increasing the success of pig to human organ transplantation. Scientists are creating "gene drives", changing the genomes of mosquitoes to make them immune to malaria, and then looking to spread the genetically altered mosquitoes throughout the mosquito population in the hopes of eliminating the disease. ### Research Genetic engineering is an important tool for natural scientists, with the creation of transgenic organisms one of the most important tools for analysis of gene function. Genes and other genetic information from a wide range of organisms can be inserted into bacteria for storage and modification, creating genetically modified bacteria in the process. Bacteria are cheap, easy to grow, clonal, multiply quickly, relatively easy to transform and can be stored at -80 °C almost indefinitely. Once a gene is isolated it can be stored inside the bacteria providing an unlimited supply for research. Organisms are genetically engineered to discover the functions of certain genes. This could be the effect on the phenotype of the organism, where the gene is expressed or what other genes it interacts with. These experiments generally involve loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression. - Loss of function experiments, such as in a gene knockout experiment, in which an organism is engineered to lack the activity of one or more genes. In a simple knockout a copy of the desired gene has been altered to make it non-functional. Embryonic stem cells incorporate the altered gene, which replaces the already present functional copy. These stem cells are injected into blastocysts, which are implanted into surrogate mothers. This allows the experimenter to analyse the defects caused by this mutation and thereby determine the role of particular genes. It is used especially frequently in developmental biology. When this is done by creating a library of genes with point mutations at every position in the area of interest, or even every position in the whole gene, this is called "scanning mutagenesis". The simplest method, and the first to be used, is "alanine scanning", where every position in turn is mutated to the unreactive amino acid alanine. - Gain of function experiments, the logical counterpart of knockouts. These are sometimes performed in conjunction with knockout experiments to more finely establish the function of the desired gene. The process is much the same as that in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or inducing synthesis of the protein more frequently. Gain of function is used to tell whether or not a protein is sufficient for a function, but does not always mean it is required, especially when dealing with genetic or functional redundancy. - Tracking experiments, which seek to gain information about the localisation and interaction of the desired protein. One way to do this is to replace the wild-type gene with a 'fusion' gene, which is a juxtaposition of the wild-type gene with a reporting element such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) that will allow easy visualisation of the products of the genetic modification. While this is a useful technique, the manipulation can destroy the function of the gene, creating secondary effects and possibly calling into question the results of the experiment. More sophisticated techniques are now in development that can track protein products without mitigating their function, such as the addition of small sequences that will serve as binding motifs to monoclonal antibodies. - Expression studies aim to discover where and when specific proteins are produced. In these experiments, the DNA sequence before the DNA that codes for a protein, known as a gene's promoter, is reintroduced into an organism with the protein coding region replaced by a reporter gene such as GFP or an enzyme that catalyses the production of a dye. Thus the time and place where a particular protein is produced can be observed. Expression studies can be taken a step further by altering the promoter to find which pieces are crucial for the proper expression of the gene and are actually bound by transcription factor proteins; this process is known as promoter bashing. ### Industrial Organisms can have their cells transformed with a gene coding for a useful protein, such as an enzyme, so that they will overexpress the desired protein. Mass quantities of the protein can then be manufactured by growing the transformed organism in bioreactor equipment using industrial fermentation, and then purifying the protein. Some genes do not work well in bacteria, so yeast, insect cells or mammalian cells can also be used. These techniques are used to produce medicines such as insulin, human growth hormone, and vaccines, supplements such as tryptophan, aid in the production of food (chymosin in cheese making) and fuels. Other applications with genetically engineered bacteria could involve making them perform tasks outside their natural cycle, such as making biofuels, cleaning up oil spills, carbon and other toxic waste and detecting arsenic in drinking water. Certain genetically modified microbes can also be used in biomining and bioremediation, due to their ability to extract heavy metals from their environment and incorporate them into compounds that are more easily recoverable. In materials science, a genetically modified virus has been used in a research laboratory as a scaffold for assembling a more environmentally friendly lithium-ion battery. Bacteria have also been engineered to function as sensors by expressing a fluorescent protein under certain environmental conditions. ### Agriculture One of the best-known and controversial applications of genetic engineering is the creation and use of genetically modified crops or genetically modified livestock to produce genetically modified food. Crops have been developed to increase production, increase tolerance to abiotic stresses, alter the composition of the food, or to produce novel products. The first crops to be released commercially on a large scale provided protection from insect pests or tolerance to herbicides. Fungal and virus resistant crops have also been developed or are in development. This makes the insect and weed management of crops easier and can indirectly increase crop yield. GM crops that directly improve yield by accelerating growth or making the plant more hardy (by improving salt, cold or drought tolerance) are also under development. In 2016 Salmon have been genetically modified with growth hormones to reach normal adult size much faster. GMOs have been developed that modify the quality of produce by increasing the nutritional value or providing more industrially useful qualities or quantities. The Amflora potato produces a more industrially useful blend of starches. Soybeans and canola have been genetically modified to produce more healthy oils. The first commercialised GM food was a tomato that had delayed ripening, increasing its shelf life. Plants and animals have been engineered to produce materials they do not normally make. Pharming uses crops and animals as bioreactors to produce vaccines, drug intermediates, or the drugs themselves; the useful product is purified from the harvest and then used in the standard pharmaceutical production process. Cows and goats have been engineered to express drugs and other proteins in their milk, and in 2009 the FDA approved a drug produced in goat milk. ### Other applications Genetic engineering has potential applications in conservation and natural area management. Gene transfer through viral vectors has been proposed as a means of controlling invasive species as well as vaccinating threatened fauna from disease. Transgenic trees have been suggested as a way to confer resistance to pathogens in wild populations. With the increasing risks of maladaptation in organisms as a result of climate change and other perturbations, facilitated adaptation through gene tweaking could be one solution to reducing extinction risks. Applications of genetic engineering in conservation are thus far mostly theoretical and have yet to be put into practice. Genetic engineering is also being used to create microbial art. Some bacteria have been genetically engineered to create black and white photographs. Novelty items such as lavender-colored carnations, blue roses, and glowing fish have also been produced through genetic engineering. ## Regulation The regulation of genetic engineering concerns the approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the development and release of GMOs. The development of a regulatory framework began in 1975, at Asilomar, California. The Asilomar meeting recommended a set of voluntary guidelines regarding the use of recombinant technology. As the technology improved the US established a committee at the Office of Science and Technology, which assigned regulatory approval of GM food to the USDA, FDA and EPA. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, an international treaty that governs the transfer, handling, and use of GMOs, was adopted on 29 January 2000. One hundred and fifty-seven countries are members of the Protocol, and many use it as a reference point for their own regulations. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. Some countries allow the import of GM food with authorisation, but either do not allow its cultivation (Russia, Norway, Israel) or have provisions for cultivation even though no GM products are yet produced (Japan, South Korea). Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research. Some of the most marked differences occur between the US and Europe. The US policy focuses on the product (not the process), only looks at verifiable scientific risks and uses the concept of substantial equivalence. The European Union by contrast has possibly the most stringent GMO regulations in the world. All GMOs, along with irradiated food, are considered "new food" and subject to extensive, case-by-case, science-based food evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority. The criteria for authorisation fall in four broad categories: "safety", "freedom of choice", "labelling", and "traceability". The level of regulation in other countries that cultivate GMOs lie in between Europe and the United States. One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled. The European Commission says that mandatory labeling and traceability are needed to allow for informed choice, avoid potential false advertising and facilitate the withdrawal of products if adverse effects on health or the environment are discovered. The American Medical Association and the American Association for the Advancement of Science say that absent scientific evidence of harm even voluntary labeling is misleading and will falsely alarm consumers. Labeling of GMO products in the marketplace is required in 64 countries. Labeling can be mandatory up to a threshold GM content level (which varies between countries) or voluntary. In Canada and the US labeling of GM food is voluntary, while in Europe all food (including processed food) or feed which contains greater than 0.9% of approved GMOs must be labelled. ## Controversy Critics have objected to the use of genetic engineering on several grounds, including ethical, ecological and economic concerns. Many of these concerns involve GM crops and whether food produced from them is safe and what impact growing them will have on the environment. These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in some countries. Accusations that scientists are "playing God" and other religious issues have been ascribed to the technology from the beginning. Other ethical issues raised include the patenting of life, the use of intellectual property rights, the level of labeling on products, control of the food supply and the objectivity of the regulatory process. Although doubts have been raised, economically most studies have found growing GM crops to be beneficial to farmers. Gene flow between GM crops and compatible plants, along with increased use of selective herbicides, can increase the risk of "superweeds" developing. Other environmental concerns involve potential impacts on non-target organisms, including soil microbes, and an increase in secondary and resistant insect pests. Many of the environmental impacts regarding GM crops may take many years to be understood and are also evident in conventional agriculture practices. With the commercialisation of genetically modified fish there are concerns over what the environmental consequences will be if they escape. There are three main concerns over the safety of genetically modified food: whether they may provoke an allergic reaction; whether the genes could transfer from the food into human cells; and whether the genes not approved for human consumption could outcross to other crops. There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. ## In popular culture Genetic engineering features in many science fiction stories. Frank Herbert's novel The White Plague describes the deliberate use of genetic engineering to create a pathogen which specifically kills women. Another of Herbert's creations, the Dune series of novels, uses genetic engineering to create the powerful Tleilaxu. Few films have informed audiences about genetic engineering, with the exception of the 1978 The Boys from Brazil and the 1993 Jurassic Park, both of which make use of a lesson, a demonstration, and a clip of scientific film. Genetic engineering methods are weakly represented in film; Michael Clark, writing for the Wellcome Trust, calls the portrayal of genetic engineering and biotechnology "seriously distorted" in films such as The 6th Day. In Clark's view, the biotechnology is typically "given fantastic but visually arresting forms" while the science is either relegated to the background or fictionalised to suit a young audience. In the 2007 video game, BioShock, genetic engineering plays an important role in the central storyline and universe. The game takes place in the fictional underwater dystopia Rapture, in which its inhabitants possess genetic superhuman abilities after injecting themselves with “plasmids”, a serum which grants such powers. Also in the city of Rapture are “Little Sisters”, little girls who are generically engineered, as well as a side-plot in which a cabaret singer sells her foetus to genetic scientists who implant false memories into the newborn and genetically engineer it to grow into an adult. ## See also - Biological engineering - Modifications (genetics) - RNA editing#Therapeutic mRNA Editing - Mutagenesis (molecular biology technique)

Mia Hamm

American soccer player (born 1972)

Mariel Margaret Hamm (born March 17, 1972) is an American former professional soccer player, two-time Olympic gold medalist and two-time FIFA Women's World Cup champion. Hailed as a football icon, she played as a forward for the United States national team from 1987 to 2004. Hamm was the face of the Women's United Soccer Association (WUSA), the first professional women's soccer league in the United States, where she played for the Washington Freedom from 2001 to 2003. She played college soccer for the North Carolina Tar Heels and helped the team win four NCAA Division I Women's Soccer Championship titles. Hamm competed in four FIFA Women's World Cups: the inaugural 1991 tournament in China, 1995 in Sweden, 1999 and 2003 in the United States. She led the team at three Olympic Games — 1996 in Atlanta (the first time women's soccer was played), 2000 in Sydney, and 2004 in Athens. At these seven international tournaments she played in 42 matches and scored 14 goals. Hamm held the record for most international goals scored until 2013 and remains in third place as of 2023. She ranks third in the history of the U.S. team for international caps (276) and first for career assists (144). Hamm was named FIFA World Player of the Year in 2001 and 2002. She was chosen by Pelé as one of FIFA's 125 greatest living players in the FIFA 100, to celebrate the organization's 100th anniversary. Hamm was named U.S. Soccer Female Athlete of the Year five years in a row, and won three ESPY awards including Soccer Player of the Year and Female Athlete of the Year. The Women's Sports Foundation named her Sportswoman of the Year in 1997 and 1999. She was inducted into the National Soccer Hall of Fame, Alabama Sports Hall of Fame, Texas Sports Hall of Fame, North Carolina Soccer Hall of Fame, and was the first woman inducted into the World Football Hall of Fame. A co-owner of Los Angeles FC, Hamm is also a global ambassador for FC Barcelona and is on the board of directors of Serie A club A.S. Roma. Author of Go For the Goal: A Champion's Guide to Winning in Soccer and Life, Hamm has been featured in several films and television shows, including the HBO documentary, Dare to Dream: The Story of the U.S. Women's Soccer Team. ## Early life Born in Selma, Alabama, Hamm was the fourth of six children of Bill and Stephanie Hamm. She wore corrective shoes as a toddler after being born with a club foot. Hamm spent her childhood on various United States Air Force bases around the world with her family. While living in Florence, Italy, Hamm first played soccer, which was hugely popular there; her entire family quickly became involved in the sport. At age five, then living in Wichita Falls, Texas, Hamm joined her first soccer team. Her father coached Mia and her newly adopted brother, 8-year-old Garrett. Hamm played sports from a young age and excelled as a football player on the boys' team at junior high school. As a high school freshman and sophomore, she played soccer for Notre Dame Catholic High School in Wichita Falls. She played at the 1987 U.S. Olympic Festival, the youngest player to play for the United States women's national soccer team. As a new player, she often started as a forward but did not score a goal during her first year on the team. Hamm spent a year at Lake Braddock Secondary School in Burke, Virginia, and helped the Lake Braddock soccer team win the 1989 state championships. ## Club career ### North Carolina Tar Heels, 1989–1993 From 1989 to 1993, Hamm attended the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where she helped the Tar Heels win four NCAA Division I Women's Soccer Championships in five years. She red-shirted the 1991 season to focus on preparation for the inaugural 1991 FIFA Women's World Cup in China. North Carolina lost one game of the 95 she played on the team. She earned All-American honors, was named the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) Player of the Year for three consecutive years, and was named ACC Female Athlete of the Year in 1993 and 1994. She graduated from North Carolina in 1994 with the ACC records for goals (103), assists (72), and total points (278). In 2003, she and Michael Jordan were named the ACC's Greatest Athletes of the conference's first fifty years. Hamm was a member of the United States women's national college team that won a silver medal, being defeated by China in the final, at the 1993 Summer Universiade in Buffalo, New York. ### Washington Freedom, 2001–2003 In 2001, Hamm was a founding player in the first professional women's soccer league in the United States, the Women's United Soccer Association (WUSA), and played for the Washington Freedom from 2001 to 2003. Throughout the league's history, Hamm was hailed as the star of the league and used heavily in marketing and promotion. In a poll of 1,000 advertising executives conducted in 2001, she was voted "the most appealing female athlete", garnering almost twice as many votes as the runner-up Anna Kournikova. During the league's inaugural match between the Freedom and Bay Area CyberRays at RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C., Hamm was fouled in the penalty area resulting in a penalty kick that her teammate Pretinha converted to mark the first goal scored in the league. The Freedom won 1–0. In addition to the 34,148 fans in attendance being greater than any MLS game that weekend, the Turner Network Television (TNT) broadcast reached 393,087 households: more than two MLS games broadcast on ESPN and ESPN2. Playing as a midfielder and forward, Hamm played in 19 of the Freedom's 21 matches during the 2001 season. She led the team in goals (6) and assists (4). The Freedom finished in seventh place during the regular season with a record. Hamm suffered a knee injury in November 2001 that kept her off the pitch for several months of early 2002. Despite playing only half the 2002 season with the Freedom, she finished the season with eight goals. The team finished in third place during the 2002 season with a record and advanced to the playoffs. After winning the semi-final against the Philadelphia Charge 1–0, the team was defeated 3–2 by the Carolina Courage in the 2002 WUSA Founders Cup. Hamm scored the Freedom's second goal in the 64th minute. During the 2003 season, Hamm started in 16 of the 19 games in which she played. Her 11 goals ranked second on the team behind Abby Wambach's 13 while her 11 assists ranked first. The Freedom finished in fourth place during the regular season with a record and secured a berth in the playoffs. Hamm finished her club career as a WUSA champion when the Freedom defeated the Atlanta Beat 2–1 in overtime to win the Founders Cup on August 24, 2003. ### Retirement On May 14, 2004, Hamm announced her retirement effective after the 2004 Athens Olympics. Following the 2004 Olympics, Hamm and her teammates played in a 10-game farewell tour in the United States. The final match of the tour against Mexico at the Home Depot Center in Carson, California, on December 8, 2004, marked the final international match for Hamm, Julie Foudy, and Joy Fawcett. The U.S. defeated Mexico 5–0 and Hamm assisted on two of the goals. Hamm retired at age 32 with a record 158 international goals. She and teammates Foudy and Fawcett were honored with a pre-game ceremony where they were presented with framed jerseys and roses in front of 15,549 fans at Home Depot Center in Carson, California. During the 5–0 win against Mexico, Hamm provided the assist on the first two goals. Following her retirement, Hamm's \#9 jersey was inherited by midfielder Heather O'Reilly. ## International career ### Women's national team, 1987–2004 Hamm made her debut for the United States women's national soccer team in 1987 at the age of 15 — just two years after the team played its first international match. She was the youngest person ever to play for the team. She scored her first goal during her 17th appearance. She competed in four FIFA Women's World Cup tournaments: the inaugural 1991 in China, 1995 in Sweden, 1999 and 2003 in the United States. She led the team at three Olympic Games, including: 1996 in Atlanta (the first time women's soccer was played), 2000 in Sydney, and 2004 in Athens. In total, she played 42 matches and scored 14 goals in international tournaments. Hamm held the record for most international goals scored—by a woman or man—until 2013 and remains in third place as of 2017. She ranks third in the history of the U.S. national team for international caps (276) and first for career assists (144). ### 1991 FIFA Women's World Cup In 1991, Hamm was named to the roster for the inaugural FIFA Women's World Cup in China under North Carolina coach Anson Dorrance. At 19 years old, she was still the youngest player on the team. During the team's first match of the tournament, Hamm scored the game-winning goal in the 62nd minute, leading the U.S. to a 3–2 win over Sweden. She also scored once in their second group stage match when they defeated Brazil 5–0. The U.S. squad finished first in Group B after a third win against Japan on November 21 and advanced to the knockout stage of the tournament. During the quarterfinal match, the U. S. defeated Chinese Taipei 7–0. After defeating Germany 5–2 during the semi-final, the U.S. faced Norway in the final. In front of 63,000 spectators, the U.S. clinched the first World Cup championship title after a 2–1 win. ### 1995 FIFA Women's World Cup Hamm's second World Cup appearance came during the 1995 tournament in Sweden. The United States were led by head coach Tony DiCicco. During the team's first match of the tournament, she scored the team's third goal in the 51st minute in a 3–3 draw against China PR. The U.S. faced Denmark during its second group stage match. Goals from Kristine Lilly and Tiffeny Milbrett led to a 2–0 win for the U.S. Hamm played goalkeeper for a few minutes after Briana Scurry received a red card and was removed from the match. After defeating Australia 4–1 on June, 10, the U.S. advanced to the knock-out stage and defeated Japan 4–0 in the quarter-final. The U.S. was defeated by eventual champion Norway 1–0 in the semi-finals and captured third place after defeating China PR 2–0 on June 17. Hamm scored the second U.S. goal of the match in the 55th minute. ### 1996–1998: Atlanta Olympics and 100th international goal Hamm was a key part of the U.S. team at the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta; this was the first Olympic tournament to include women's soccer. The U.S. faced Denmark in their first preliminary round match. Hamm scored a goal and served an assist to Tiffeny Milbrett to lead the U.S. to a 3–0 win. The team defeated Sweden 2–1 next at the Orlando Citrus Bowl. After tying China 0–0 in their final preliminary round match, the U.S. finished second in Group E. Defeating Norway in the semi-finals, the team faced China in the final. Hamm played despite having foot and groin injuries, suffered during team training and the match against Sweden. Although she was carried off by stretcher in the final minute, her team won their first Olympic gold medal with a 2–1 win witnessed by 76,481 fans in the stadium – the largest crowd for a soccer event in the history of the Olympics and the largest crowd for a women's sports event in the United States. The 20 goals scored by Hamm in 1998 were the highest annual total of her international career. She also provided 20 assists. On September 18, she scored her 100th international goal in a friendly match against Russia in Rochester, New York. The same year, she led the U.S. to the first-ever Goodwill Games gold medal. Hamm scored five of the team's seven goals at the tournament, including two during the championship match against China. ### 1999: 108th International goal and FIFA Women's World Cup On May 22, 1999, Hamm broke the all-time international goal record with her 108th goal in a game against Brazil in Orlando, Florida. The following month, she led the national team at the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup, hosted by the United States. During the team's first group stage match against Denmark, she scored her 110th international goal and served an assist to Julie Foudy as the U.S. won 3–0. Against Nigeria, Hamm's low free kick was knocked into the goal by a Nigerian midfielder. Within a minute, Hamm scored with a free kick. She later served an assist to Kristine Lilly before being substituted in the 57th minute. The U.S. won 7–1 and secured a berth in the quarter-finals. During the team's final group stage match, head coach Tony DiCicco rested a number of players, including Hamm, who was substituted at half-time. The U.S. defeated Korea 3–0 and finished Group A with nine points. In the quarter-finals, the U.S. defeated Germany 3–2. Playing Brazil in the semi-finals, Hamm was knocked down in the penalty area late in the second half; Michelle Akers converted the subsequent penalty and their team won 2–0. After 90 minutes of scoreless regulation time and 30 minutes of sudden death, the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup Final was decided by a penalty shootout between the U.S. and China. The five American players to take penalty kicks, including Hamm, converted; China missed one attempt so that the home team won. The final surpassed the 1996 Atlanta Olympic final as the most-attended women's sports event, with more than 90,000 people filling the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California. It held the record until 2014 for the largest U.S. television audience for a soccer match with 17,975,000 viewers. As of July 2015, it ranks third following the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup (25,400,000 viewers) and 2014 FIFA World Cup group stage match between the U.S. men's team and Portugal (18,220,000 viewers). Immediately following the final, Hamm collapsed in the locker room from severe dehydration. She was treated by medical staff with an intravenous drip and three liters of fluids. After 12 hours of sleep, she joined the team for magazine cover shoots, went to Disneyland for a celebration rally, and made numerous television appearances. A week later, the team met President Clinton at the White House and flew with Hillary and Chelsea Clinton on Air Force One to Cape Canaveral. Her leadership and performance at the 1999 World Cup cemented Hamm as a soccer icon. ### 2000 Sydney Olympics Hamm represented the United States at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia. During the group stage, she scored a goal against Norway to lift the United States to a 2–0 win. The team tied China 1–1 in their next group stage match before defeating Nigeria 3–1 to finish first in their group. After advancing to the semi-finals where the U.S. faced Brazil, Hamm scored the game-winning goal in the 60th minute. The goal marked the 127th of her international career and set a new record for most goals scored in international play by a woman or man. The U.S. faced Norway in the final and were defeated 3–2 in overtime to earn the silver medal at the Games. ### 2003 FIFA Women's World Cup Originally scheduled for China, the 2003 FIFA Women's World Cup was moved to the United States due to the SARS outbreak. Hamm was named to the U.S. roster in August, and stated that it would be her final World Cup appearance. During the team's first group stage match, Hamm's three assists helped the U.S. to a 3–1 win over Sweden. She scored twice against Nigeria and served the assist for the team's third goal to lead the U.S. to a 5–0 win and qualification for the quarter-finals with one match to play. The U.S. faced North Korea in their final group stage match and dominated 3–0. Hamm and a number of others were rested for the game by head coach April Heinrichs; this was the first World Cup match Hamm had missed in her career. The U.S. faced Norway in the quarter-finals; Although the U.S. won 1–0, Hamm was fouled throughout the match as Norway played with physicality to counter the U.S. team. One of Norway's 24 fouls resulted in a penalty kick for Hamm which was saved by the Norwegian goalkeeper. After the U.S. was defeated 3–0 by Germany in the semi-finals, the team defeated Canada 3–1 to secure a third-place finish. ### 2004: 158th international goal and Athens Olympics During a friendly game against Australia on July 21, 2004, Hamm scored her 158th international goal setting the record for most international goals scored by any player in the world, male or female. She held the world record until Abby Wambach scored her 159th goal on June 20, 2013. The Australia match also marked Hamm's 259th international appearance; only two of her teammates, Kristine Lilly and Christie Rampone, have played in more international games. Hamm helped lead the U.S. national team to its second gold medal at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens and was selected by her fellow Olympians to carry the American flag at the closing ceremony. During the team's first group stage match against Greece, Hamm served the cross to Shannon Boxx's game-opening goal, and scored the last goal of the match to lift the U.S. to a 3–0 win. During a 2–0 win over Brazil in the second group stage match, Hamm converted a penalty kick for the opening goal. The U.S. finished at the top of Group C with seven points after a 1–1 draw against Australia to advance to the quarter-finals, where they defeated Japan 2–1. During the semi-final match against Germany, Hamm served an assist to Heather O'Reilly who scored in overtime to secure a 2–1 win. The U.S. faced Brazil for a second time at the Games in the gold medal match and won 2–1 in overtime. Her teammates swarmed Hamm after the final whistle to celebrate their second Olympic gold medal and her final win at the Olympics. The game marked the last Olympic appearance for the five remaining players who had helped win the inaugural 1991 FIFA Women's World Cup: Hamm, Julie Foudy, Joy Fawcett, Brandi Chastain, and Kristine Lilly (often referred to as the Fab Five). ## Style of play Regarded as one of the greatest woman soccer players of all time, Hamm was an athletic, dynamic, and technically gifted striker, renowned for her speed, skill, footwork, stamina, and ability on the ball, as well as her consistency. An excellent, agile dribbler, she was highly regarded for her control, as well as her grace, pace, and elegance in possession. A prolific goalscorer, she was known for her powerful and accurate striking ability, although she was also a creative and hard-working forward, and a team player, who was equally capable of assisting many goals for her teammates, due to her accurate passing, and was also willing to aid her teammates defensively when possession was lost. She was capable of playing in any offensive position. ## Personal life Hamm was first married to her college sweetheart Christiaan Corry, a United States Marine Corps helicopter pilot; they divorced in 2001 after being married six years. She married then-Boston Red Sox shortstop Nomar Garciaparra on November 22, 2003, in Goleta, California, in a ceremony attended by a few hundred guests. On March 27, 2007, Hamm gave birth to twin girls, Grace Isabella and Ava Caroline. Though born five weeks early, each girl weighed over 5 pounds (2.3 kg) at birth. The couple had a son, named Garrett Anthony, in January 2012. ### Philanthropy In 1999, Hamm founded the Mia Hamm Foundation following the death of her adopted brother Garrett in 1997 from complications of aplastic anemia, a rare blood disease he had endured for ten years. Dedicated to promoting awareness of and raising funds for families in need of a bone marrow or cord blood transplant, the foundation encourages people to register in the national bone marrow registry and provides funds to UNC Health Care and Children's Hospital Los Angeles. It also focuses on creating opportunities to empower women through sport. Hamm hosts an annual celebrity soccer game in Los Angeles to support the foundation. ## In popular culture Hamm has been called the most marketable female athlete of her generation. During her time as an international soccer player, she signed endorsement deals with Gatorade, Nike, Dreyer's Ice Cream, Pepsi, Nabisco, Fleet Bank, Earthgrains, and Powerbar. In 1997, she starred in a popular commercial for Pert Plus. Hamm was featured on a Wheaties box following the 1999 World Cup and endorsed the first Soccer Barbie by Mattel. She co-starred with Michael Jordan in a popular television commercial for Gatorade in the spring of 1999 which featured the two athletes competing against each other in a variety of sports while the song Anything You Can Do (I Can Do Better) is heard. The commercial ends with Hamm throwing Jordan to the ground in a judo match. In 2000, the video game, Mia Hamm Soccer 64 was released for Nintendo 64. It was the first game to feature female athletes only and sold a "relatively high" 42,886 copies in the United States. Hamm was featured on the covers of Sports Illustrated, Time, and People. She has made appearances on numerous television shows, including: Late Night with David Letterman, The Rosie O'Donnell Show, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Today, Extreme Makeover: Home Edition, Good Morning America, and The Oprah Winfrey Show. She was profiled in ESPN's SportsCentury and Biography documentaries, ESPN 25: Who's \#1?, and was featured in Once in a Lifetime: The Extraordinary Story of the New York Cosmos. In 2005, she was featured in the HBO documentary Dare to Dream: The Story of the U.S. Women's Soccer Team. Her likeness was used in the logo of Women's Professional Soccer, the second women's professional soccer league in the United States. ## Other work Hamm is a global ambassador for FC Barcelona. She is the author of the national bestseller Go For the Goal: A Champion's Guide to Winning in Soccer and Life and juvenile fiction book Winners Never Quit. In 2012, after Pia Sundhage's departure as head coach of the national team, Hamm joined Danielle Slaton and Sunil Gulati as a member of the search committee for Sundhage's successor. In 2014, she was named to the board of the National Soccer Hall of Fame. In October 2014, Hamm was announced as a co-owner of the future Major League Soccer team, Los Angeles FC. The same month, Hamm joined the board of directors of Serie A club A.S. Roma, owned by American investors. Hamm joined Vice President Joe Biden and Second Lady Jill Biden as members of the United States delegation at the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup Final in Vancouver, Canada. ## Career statistics ### Matches and goals scored at World Cup and Olympic tournaments Hamm competed as a member of the United States national soccer team in four FIFA Women's World Cup tournaments: the inaugural 1991 in China, 1995 in Sweden, as well as 1999 and 2003 in the United States. She competed at three Summer Olympic Games: 1996 in Atlanta, 2000 in Sydney, and 2004 in Athens. All together, she played in 38 matches and scored 13 goals at seven top international tournaments. With her teammates, Hamm finished third at two World Cup tournaments in 1995 and 2003, second at the 2000 Olympics, and first at the four other international tournaments. ## International goals ## Honors and awards Hamm was named Sportswoman of the Year by the Women's Sports Foundation in 1997 and 1999. In June 1999, Nike named the largest building on their corporate campus after Hamm. In December 2000, Hamm was named one of the top three female soccer players of the twentieth century in the FIFA Female Player of the Century Award, finishing behind only Sun Wen and compatriot Michelle Akers. While at North Carolina, she won the Honda Sports Award as the nation's top female soccer player in both 1993 and 1994, and won the Honda-Broderick Cup in 1994 as the nation's top female athlete. In March 2004, Hamm and former U.S. teammate Michelle Akers were the only two women and Americans named to the FIFA 100, a list of the 125 greatest living soccer players, selected by Pelé and commissioned by FIFA for the organization's 100th anniversary. Other accolades include being elected U.S. Soccer Female Athlete of the Year five years in a row from 1994 to 1998, and winning three ESPY awards including Soccer Player of the Year and Female Athlete of the Year. In 2006 Hamm was inducted into the Alabama Sports Hall of Fame, followed by the Texas Sports Hall of Fame on March 11, 2008. In 2007, during her first year of eligibility, Hamm was selected for induction into the National Soccer Hall of Fame. In 2008, an image of her silhouette was used in the logo for the second professional women's soccer league in the United States: Women's Professional Soccer. ESPN named her the greatest female athlete in 2012. In 2013, Hamm became the first woman inducted into the World Football Hall of Fame, located in Pachuca, Mexico. She was named to U.S. Soccer's USWNT All-Time Best XI in December 2013. In 2014, Hamm was named one of ESPNW's Impact 25; she was also the recipient of the Golden Foot Legends Award. For their first match of March 2019, the women of the United States women's national soccer team each wore a jersey with the name of a woman they were honoring on the back; Samantha Mewis chose the name of Hamm. In 2021, Hamm was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. In 2022, Los Angeles F.C. of Major League Soccer - of which Hamm is part owner - won the MLS Cup, thus giving Hamm an MLS championship to her credit ### Championships ## See also - List of FIFA Women's World Cup winning players - List of women's footballers with 100 or more international goals - List of University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Olympians - List of Olympic medalists in football - List of 1996 Summer Olympics medal winners - List of 2000 Summer Olympics medal winners - List of 2004 Summer Olympics medal winners - List of athletes on Wheaties boxes

St Michael's Church, Llanfihangel Ysgeifiog

St Michael's Church, Llanfihangel Ysgeifiog, is a former parish church in Anglesey, Wales, which is now closed and in ruins. The structure dates from the 15th century and a chapel was added to the north side in the 17th century. A replacement church (St Michael's, Gaerwen) was built elsewhere in the parish in 1847, and the old church was closed, partly demolished and abandoned. Some restoration work has taken place in the 21st century and some occasional services have been held. It is a Grade II listed building, a national designation given to "buildings of special interest, which warrant every effort being made to preserve them", in particular because it is "an important survival, retaining unrestored original late medieval features." ## History and location St Michael's Church is set in a churchyard in the countryside of Anglesey, north Wales, about 1.4 kilometres (0.87 mi) from the village of Gaerwen. A footpath leads to the church from the nearest road, 200 metres (660 ft) away. The area Llanfihangel Ysgeifiog takes its name, in part, from the church: the Welsh word llan originally meant "enclosure" and then "church", and "-fihangel" is a modified form of Michael (Welsh: Mihangel), the saint to whom the church is dedicated. The present structure dates from the 15th century and was extended in 1638 when a local family added a chapel on the north side. A decision was taken in the 1840s to build a new church on a different site within the parish; the centre of population for the area had shifted because of coal mining in Pentre Berw and the construction of the A5 road across Anglesey as part of Thomas Telford's road from London to Holyhead. St Michael's, Gaerwen, opened in 1847. The old church then closed. By 1865, when the Welsh politician and church historian Sir Stephen Glynne visited, only the chancel and north chapel remained, and a new wall had been built at the west end of the chancel where it once joined the nave. Some restoration work has taken place in the 21st century, assisted by funding from the Welsh Government and Cadw (the statutory body responsible for the built heritage of Wales), and services have occasionally been held. By 1535, the positions of rector of St Michael's and vicar of St Ffinan's Church were combined and held by the Dean of Bangor to increase the dean's income. Other people associated with the church include Nicholas Owen (appointed perpetual curate in 1790), the priest and antiquarian John Jones (better known as "Llef o'r Nant"; curate 1809–15), and Evan Lewis (curate 1845–46, and later Dean of Bangor). ## Architecture and fittings All that remains of the church is the chancel, which is 18 feet 6 inches by 14 feet 6 inches (5.6 by 4.4 m), and the north chapel which is 15 feet 6 inches by 13 feet (4.7 by 4.0 m); the nave, south chapel and the roof have been demolished or removed. The walls are built from rubble masonry dressed with sandstone. The church is now entered through a doorway at the west end of the chancel; the doorway reuses a 15th-century pointed arch. The south wall still shows where there was formerly a chapel on that side. On the opposite wall, there is a window from the late 16th century with three lights (sections of window separated by stonework); the entrance to the north chapel has been reduced in width. The three-light east window also dates from the late 16th century. An inscribed stone above the window records the date 1598. The north chapel has windows in the north and east wall in similar style to those in the chancel. There is an inscription above the north window recording the construction of the chapel in 1638. The west wall of the chapel has a blocked round-headed window, and there is a blocked-up pointed-arch doorway in the north wall. The priest and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones visited St Michael's in 1845. At that time, the church was 68 by 16 feet (20.7 by 4.9 m) internally; he recorded the north chapel as measuring 12 feet 8 inches by 17 feet (3.9 by 5.2 m) and the south chapel, which was separated from the main body of the church by five rotting wooden columns, as 40 by 15 feet (12.2 by 4.6 m). The main entrance was through a porch on the south side of the nave, and there was another door on the north side. A bench under the windows on the north side of the nave was inscribed "T. M. 1684". The southern chapel, he said, had similar windows to those in the north chapel. On the external wall above the east window, he noted a shield topped by a coronet, apparently that of a viscount, and the date 1638. On a step by the altar he noted two gravestones that appeared to be those of priests, given that they had each been inscribed with a cross, and a third gravestone, similarly marked, was in use as the lintel above one of the doorways. A survey in 1937 by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire dated one of the gravestones by the altar to the 11th or 12th century. The churchyard contains some chest tombs from the 18th and 19th centuries, made of slate. The Royal Commission's survey also noted a fragment of a gravestone from between the 9th and 11th centuries that had been built into the bellcote, and two 18th-century memorials within the church. The bell, church plate, and two benches bearing the inscription "T. M. 1684" were moved to the new church. South east of the church is a Commonwealth war grave of a Marine from World War II. ## Assessment The church has national recognition and statutory protection from unauthorised alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing, designating "buildings of special interest, which warrant every effort being made to preserve them". It was given this status on 30 January 1968, and has been listed because it consists of "the substantial remains of a 15th-century church with 17th-century additions." Cadw, which is responsible for the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists, also notes that because many old churches on Anglesey were rebuilt in the 19th century but this one was not, "these remains constitute an important survival, retaining unrestored original late medieval features." Writing in 1833, before the church was closed, the antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described St Michael's as "a spacious and ancient structure." She also noted the "ancient stained glass" in the east window, "of brilliant colours". Visiting twelve years later, Harry Longueville Jones said that St Michael's was "greatly dilapidated" but had been "one of the most interesting in the island". He described the north doorway of the nave as having "singularly elegant though mutilated details" and the bellcote as being "of good design". The state of the church, he wrote, was such that it was "almost unfit for the purposes of public worship." Sir Stephen Glynne noted on his visit in 1865 that the church was now abandoned and presenting "a wretched scene of decay" internally. He commented upon the "good mouldings and spandrels" of the doorway at the west end of the chancel, and also referred to the "debased character" of the north chapel. A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey describes it as being in "a lonely spot" and says that it is "well worth a visit."

1947 Atlantic hurricane season

Hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean

The 1947 Atlantic hurricane season was the first Atlantic hurricane season to have tropical storms labeled by the United States Air Force. The season officially began on June 16, 1947, and ended on November 1, 1947. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. However, the first tropical cyclone developed on June 13, while the final system was absorbed by a cold front on December 1. There were 10 tropical storms; 5 of them attained hurricane status, while two became major hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale. Operationally, the third tropical storm was considered two separate tropical cyclones, resulting in the storm receiving two names. The eighth tropical storm went undetected and was not listed in HURDAT until 2014. Nearly all tropical storms impacted land during the season, some of which caused many fatalities and left destruction. The second storm caused severe flooding and mudslides in Mexico, leaving at least 48 dead and 43 others missing. In September, the strongest and costliest hurricane of the season, the Fort Lauderdale hurricane, left severe damage in Florida, Louisiana, and Mississippi due to strong winds, heavy rainfall, and abnormally high tides. There were 51 fatalities and about \$160.2 million (1947 USD) in damage. The ninth storm, also known as the Cape Sable hurricane, caused additional flooding in South Florida and left wind damage in Georgia and South Carolina. The storm left about \$20 million in damage. Overall, the systems of the season caused about \$184.2 million in damage and at least 101 fatalities. ## Season summary The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 16, 1947. However, tropical cyclogenesis began with the development of a tropical depression on June 13. There was a total of seven tropical storms, five of them strengthened into hurricanes, while two of those became major hurricanes – Category 3 or higher on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale. The final system, a tropical depression, was absorbed by a cold front on December 1, one month after the official end of the season on November 1, 1947. Four hurricanes and four tropical storms made landfall during the season. Overall, the tropical cyclones of this season caused about \$184.2 million in damage and at least 101 fatalities. The United States death toll of 53 was low compared to 20 years earlier in spite of the Fort Lauderdale (George) and Cape Sable (King) hurricanes crossing urban areas. The Weather Bureau attributed this to adequate warnings from the hurricane warning office and mass evacuations. A then-record total of 159 bulletins were issued from Weather Bureau offices. The first tropical cyclone of the season, a tropical depression, existed from June 13 to June 14. However, activity went dormant for over a month and a half. On July 31, Baker developed in the Gulf of Mexico. In August, two tropical storms developed – Charlie and Dog–Easy. September featured five tropical cyclones, including Fox, George, and How, as well as two tropical depressions. George, more commonly known as the Fort Lauderdale hurricane, was the most intense tropical cyclone of the season, peaking as a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph (230 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 938 mbar (27.7 inHg). October also had five tropical cyclone, including Item, King, Love, an unnamed storm, and a tropical depression. With four tropical storms, this was the most in the month of October since 1933. The season's final tropical cyclone, a depression, developed on November 28 and was absorbed by a cold front on December 1. The season's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 88. ACE is, broadly speaking, a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed, so storms that last a long time, as well as particularly strong hurricanes, have high ACEs. It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph (63 km/h), which is tropical storm strength. ## Systems ### Tropical Storm One (Baker) A low pressure area in the Bay of Campeche developed into a tropical depression at 06:00 UTC on July 31. Moving north-northwestward, the depression deepened into a tropical storm six hours later. The storm, identified as "Baker" by the United States Air Force, then intensified slowly and gradually curved to the northwest. At 00:00 UTC on August 2, the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph (85 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1,001 mbar (29.6 inHg). The latter was observed at Port Isabel, Texas, while the former was estimated based on the pressure-wind relationship. Simultaneously, Baker made landfall in Tamaulipas about 25 mi (40 km) south of the Mexico–United States border. The system weakened to a tropical depression by 12:00 UTC on August 2 and dissipated near Reynosa shortly thereafter. Small craft were advised between the lower and middle coast of Texas were advised to remain in port. The American Red Cross recommended that residents of Port Aransas evacuate as a precaution, but mainly only tourists in the area fled. Most of the damage was done to cotton crops, due to heavy rainfall, with up to 9.35 in (237 mm) observed at Raymondville. However, the precipitation was more beneficial than damaging. The storm caused just over \$2 million in damage. ### Hurricane Two (Charlie) A tropical depression developed about 125 mi (200 km) north-northwest of Colombia early on August 9. The depression moved northwestward across the Caribbean Sea and remained weak for a few days, before reaching tropical storm status on 00:00 UTC on August 12. About 16 hours later, the cyclone – known to the United States Air Force as Tropical Storm Charlie – made landfall near Punta Allen, Quintana Roo, with winds of 50 mph (80 km/h). After entering the Bay of Campeche on August 13, the system resumed strengthening, becoming a hurricane early on August 14. Later that day, Charlie peaked as a Category 2 hurricane on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph (175 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 977 mbar (28.9 inHg), both of which were observed by during a reconnaissance aircraft flight. On August 15, the system curved southwestward and made landfall just south of Tampico, Tamaulipas, around 10:00 UTC, at the same intensity. The storm rapidly weakened after moving inland and dissipated by 06:00 UTC on August 16. Heavy rainfall, strong winds, and storm surge walloped portions of Mexico, especially in Tampico and the state of Veracruz. In the former, storm surge forced the evacuation of residents near the coast. Winds unroofed several homes and resulted in the closure of many businesses. Signs atop buildings fell, while some equipment used by the Servicio Meteorológico Nacional was destroyed. Additionally, the city of Tampico was left without electricity for about five hours. Heavy rainfall caused small lakes and rivers to rise rapidly, flooding homes in the poorer sections and forcing a number of families to flee to higher ground. In El Higo, one of the worst impacted communities, the Pánuco River exceeded its bank, inundating the village with over 8 ft (2.4 m) of water. Most of the one story buildings were submerged, while water approached the second story of taller buildings. Thirty-six deaths occurred in the city. In Chontla, 24 homes were destroyed. Flooding and mudslides in San Luis Potosí resulted in another 12 deaths. Overall, the hurricane caused at least 48 fatalities and left 43 other people missing. ### Hurricane Three (Dog–Easy) A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression just northeast of Havana, Cuba, late on August 18. The depression briefly moved inland along the north coast of Cuba, before emerging into the Gulf of Mexico early on August 19. At 06:00 UTC, the system intensified into a tropical storm. Shortly thereafter, the cyclone curved northwestward, before turning westward late on August 19. About 24 hours later, the storm curved north-northwestward. At 14:00 UTC on August 22, the system made landfall near Golden Meadow, Louisiana, with winds of 45 mph (75 km/h). However, the cyclone turned southwestward and soon reemerged into the Gulf of Mexico. The storm then curved northwestward on August 23 and finally began to strengthen significantly. At 06:00 UTC on August 24, it intensified into a hurricane. About 12 hours later, the hurricane peaked with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph (130 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 984 mbar (29.1 inHg); the latter was observed on land and was used to estimate the former. The cyclone made landfall in Galveston, Texas, at 22:00 UTC. Moving inland, the system weakened to a tropical storm early on August 25 and to a tropical depression later that day. Thereafter, the depression slowly weakened, until dissipating over Oklahoma on August 27. Operationally, this cyclone was believed to have been two systems, causing the United States Air Force to inadvertently assign it two names – Dog and Easy. The storm left little impact in Louisiana, with mainly squalls reported and winds up to 43 mph (69 km/h) observed at Grand Isle. In Texas, tides reached 4 ft (1.2 m) above normal in Galveston. A sustained wind speed exceeding 72 mph (116 km/h) was observed in the city, damaging roofs, signs, and the interior of dwellings. Numerous power wires were downed, causing the electricity to be shut down to avoid residents coming into contact with a live wire, but not before a man touched a downed power line and died. In Galveston County, but outside the city, crop damage reached about \$32,500, while property damage totaled about \$150,000. At Texas City, communication lines were downed, signs were toppled, homes were deroofed, and boats were washed ashore or set adrift. In Dickinson, several dwellings were destroyed. Farther north, 35 to 40 people at a prison near Houston escaped in the midst of the storm, though 10 of them were recaptured by the following day. Overall, the total damage was estimated at \$757,000, with \$500,000 of that amount incurred to buildings and improvements, while the remainder was to crops. ### Hurricane Four (George) A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression about 175 mi (280 km) west-southwest of Senegal early on September 4. Several hours later, the depression strengthened into a tropical storm, which was named George by the United States Air Force in real time. After moving generally westward for several days, the storm failed to intensify significantly and turned northwestward on September 10. By the following day, George finally became a Category 1 hurricane. The storm intensified further over the next few days and later peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph (230 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 938 mbar (27.7 inHg). Early on September 16, George weakened to a Category 3 and curved westward while approaching the northern Bahamas. At 19:00 UTC, the hurricane struck the Abaco Islands with winds of 120 mph (195 km/h). In the Bahamas, the storm produced a large storm surge and strong winds, damaging or destroying many homes and docks on the western end of Grand Bahama. Thereafter, George continued westward and re-intensified into a Category 4 at 12:00 UTC on September 17, just three and a half hours before the storm made landfall near Fort Lauderdale, Florida, with winds of 130 mph (210 km/h). In Florida, advance warnings and stringent building codes were credited with minimizing structural damage and reducing loss of life to 17 people, but nevertheless widespread flooding and coastal damage resulted from heavy rainfall and high tides. Many vegetable plantings, citrus groves, and cattle were submerged or drowned as the storm exacerbated already high water levels and briefly threatened to breach the dikes surrounding Lake Okeechobee. However, the dikes held firm, and evacuations were otherwise credited with minimizing the potential death toll. On the west coast of the state, the storm caused further flooding, extensive damage south of the Tampa Bay area, and the loss of the Cuban fishing vessel Antonio Cerdado offshore Fort Myers, resulting in seven deaths. Damage in Florida reached \$31.8 million. On September 18, the hurricane entered the Gulf of Mexico and threatened the Florida Panhandle. Later, George made landfall southeast of New Orleans, Louisiana, on September 19 as a strong Category 2 with winds of 110 mph (175 km/h). George weakened to a tropical storm later that day, and then to a tropical depression on September 20. The cyclone was absorbed by a cold front over Missouri on the following day. Strong winds in the vicinity of Lake Pontchartrain caused water to over-top the levees, leaving some lakefront streets inundated "waist-deep" and many areas of the city under about 2 ft (0.61 m) of water. New Orleans alone suffered about \$100 million in damage. The widespread flooding spurred flood-protection legislation and the creation of an enlarged levee system to safeguard the flood-prone area. Some coastal flooding also occurred in Mississippi. The state suffered slightly more than \$28.4 million in damage. The storm destroyed 1,647 homes and structurally impacted 25,000 others in both Louisiana and Mississippi. Throughout its path, the hurricane caused \$160.2 million in damage and 51 casualties. ### Tropical Storm Five (Fox) At 00:00 UTC on September 7, a low pressure area developed into a tropical depression about 135 mi (215 km) south-southwest of Cape St. George Island, Florida. The depression moved northward and intensified, reaching tropical storm status about 18 hours later, and being assigned the name "Fox" by the United States Air Force. Around that time, the cyclone curved north-northwestward. Early on September 8, Fox peaked with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph (95 km/h), which was observed by a ship. Between 07:00 and 10:00 UTC, an observation station in Mobile, Alabama, recorded a barometric pressure of 1,006 mbar (29.7 inHg), the lowest known in association with the cyclone. At 14:00 UTC on September 8, the storm made landfall on Dauphin Island, Alabama, and later near Bayou La Batre. By early the next day, the system weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated over southern Mississippi shortly thereafter. Some coastal areas reported strong wind gusts, including 45 mph (72 km/h) in Mobile, Alabama, and 51 mph (82 km/h) in Pensacola, Florida. At Mobile Bay, two ships were beached, but were re-floated later that day. Overall, damage from the storm was minimal. ### Tropical Storm Six (How) A tropical wave developed into a tropical storm just north Jamaica on September 20. The storm, assigned the name "How" by the United States Air Force – moved west-northwestward to northwestward and slowly intensified as it passed near Cayman Brac, Cayman Islands. At 22:00 UTC on September 21, the cyclone struck Cuba's Isla de la Juventud with winds of 50 mph (85 km/h), about five hours before making landfall near the modern day border of Artemisa and Pinar del Río provinces. Thereafter, the storm moved northward to north-northeastward. How made landfall near Crystal River, Florida, with winds of 65 mph (100 km/h) around 22:00 UTC on September 23. The wind speed, the highest associated with the storm, was estimated based on an observation of a barometric pressure of 990 mbar (29 inHg) at St. Leo. The storm was already losing tropical characteristics prior to landfall, and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone by 00:00 UTC on September 24, just two hours after moving inland. The remnants moved northeastward over Georgia and the Carolinas, before emerging into the Atlantic from North Carolina on September 25. By early the following day, the remnants of the cyclone dissipated. Throughout Florida, wind speeds of 40 to 60 mph (64 to 97 km/h) were observed, with winds of 60 mph (97 km/h) common between Sarasota and Cedar Key. A series of tornadoes left damage across Central and North Florida. A tornado in Seffner destroyed three homes and damaged several trees. In Ocala, a tornado downed trees and power lines and deroofed two homes. Two twisters in Jacksonville damaged roofs, trees, and electrical and power lines, while another tornado in Arlington (which was later annexed by Jacksonville) moved a home off its foundation, damaged roofs, and downed trees. Heavy rainfall in some areas worsened the flooding situation that began with the Fort Lauderdale hurricane. Above normal tides caused some erosion between Bradenton and Tarpon Springs. The storm left about \$100,000 in damage in Florida. The storm and its remnants brought heavy rainfall to Georgia, including 7.5 in (190 mm) of precipitation at Brunswick in 24 hours. Street flooding was reported there, with water nearly entering businesses. In Savannah, streets were inundated with several feet of water, resulting in the rescue of several families. ### Tropical Storm Seven (Item) An extratropical low pressure area transitioned into a tropical storm offshore North Florida on October 7, after acquiring a more symmetrical structure and the strongest winds moving closer to the center. However, the system had characteristics of a subtropical cyclone, including a moderate temperature gradient still existing at the center and an upper-level trough remaining associated with the storm. The United States Air Force referred to this system as "Item". At 00:30 UTC on October 7, a ship observed winds of 52 mph (84 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 1,000 mbar (30 inHg). The former was used to estimate the storm's maximum sustained wind speed of 60 mph (95 km/h), while the latter was the lowest barometric pressure in association with the cyclone. Item made landfall near Kings Bay, Georgia, at peak intensity around 04:00 UTC on October 7. The storm weakened to a tropical depression about eight hours later. It executed a cyclonic loop, briefly emerging into the Gulf of Mexico near Apalachicola, Florida, before moving inland again over rural Taylor County. Thereafter, Item moved north-northeastward and continued weakening, before dissipating over northern Georgia on October 9. In North Florida, the coast was hit by abnormally high tides, after previously experiencing above normal tides for more than a week. The storm spawned a tornado in Jacksonville that was on the ground for about 0.75 mi (1.21 km). The twister crossed a wartime housing project, a trailer park, and a business section of town. Twenty-eight trailers were flipped over or smashed against each other, while the dwellings in the housing project were deroofed. The walls and interiors of some stores in a four block area were damaged. Trees and automobiles also suffered damage. Overall, the tornado left \$100,000 in damage, 40 people homeless, and at least 13 injured persons. ### Tropical Storm Eight A low pressure area detached from a cold front and developed into a tropical depression on October 8, about 710 mi (1,140 km) southwest of Flores Island in the Azores. Moving slowly northeastward, the cyclone strengthened, despite relatively cool air and sea surface temperatures, with sustained winds reaching 60 mph (95 km/h) later that day. Early on October 9, the system curved east-northeastward. The following day, a ship observed a barometric pressure of 1,001 mbar (29.6 inHg), the lowest pressure associated with the storm. By early on October 11, the system was absorbed by an extratropical cyclone about 150 mi (240 km) west-southwest of Flores Island. ### Hurricane Nine (King) A tropical depression was detected off the coast of Nicaragua on October 8. The depression drifted northward, becoming Tropical Storm King the next day. The tropical storm then passed over the western tip of Cuba, producing a peak wind gust of 57 mph (92 km/h). King strengthened over the southeastern Gulf of Mexico to attain hurricane status on October 11. After brushing the Florida Keys, the hurricane made landfall near Cape Sable, Florida on October 12 with winds of 90 mph (140 km/h) and a central pressure of about 975 mbar (28.79 inHg). The hurricane moved offshore near Pompano Beach and later turned back to the west, toward the Southeastern United States. The storm strengthened as it turned to the west, and on October 15, King made its final landfall near the Georgia–South Carolina state line as a Category 2 hurricane. After moving inland, King quickly weakened to a tropical storm and then a tropical depression early on October 16, before dissipating over Alabama later that day. The hurricane was noted for the first time hurricane seeding was conducted in the Atlantic basin by the United States Weather Bureau through an operation called Project Cirrus. A Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress dropped 80 lb (36 kg) of dry ice onto the storm from 500 ft (150 m) above its cloudtop after it had moved 350 mi (560 km) off Jacksonville, Florida. Shortly afterward, the storm reversed course and headed for Savannah. The scientists conducting the experiment believed they had caused this change, but a 1906 hurricane followed a similar path. An airport in south Florida recorded peak winds of 80 mph (130 km/h). The hurricane dropped 5–13 in (130–330 mm) of rain across central and southern part of the state, including in Hialeah where the storm produced 3.6 in (91 mm) in a one-hour period and over 6 in (150 mm) in a 75-minute period. The flooding rains left many neighborhoods in up to six feet of water due to a previously wet summer, and left over 2,000 Miami-Dade County residents homeless. The flooding also closed Route 1 from Miami to Fort Lauderdale, as well as a highway to Everglades City. The hurricane spawned a tornado in both Coral Gables and Miami, one of which destroyed three warehouses. Following the passage of the hurricane, Hialeah mayor Henry Milander declared a state of emergency and restricted access to the city. In Miami, many residents had to use boats and rafts to survey the damage and look for survivors, due to the flooding. Winds in Georgia peaked at 85 mph (135 km/h) in Savannah. Elsewhere in the state, the storm caused \$500,000 in damage, mainly due to a tornado that touched down near Hinesville. Tides 12 ft (3.7 m) above normal were reported from Georgia to South Carolina. The high tides in Charleston, South Carolina, caused minor beach erosion and isolated street flooding, and one person was killed there by a falling tree. In North Carolina, the high tides caused minor flooding. Overall, the hurricane caused about \$20 million in damage. ### Hurricane Ten (Love) The tenth and final tropical storm of the season likely developed from a tropical wave just north of the Leeward Islands early on October 17. The storm, designated as "Love" in real time by the United States Air Force, moved west-northwestward and re-curved to the northwest, avoiding landfall in the Leeward Islands, the Greater Antilles, and the Bahamas. Around 06:00 UTC on October 18, Love intensified into a Category 1 hurricane, shortly before beginning to move northward. Early the following day, the cyclone strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane while re-curving to the north-northeast. Upon reaching Category 3 intensity around 12:00 UTC on October 19, Love became the second major hurricane of the season. About six hours later, the storm attained maximum sustained winds of 120 mph (195 km/h), estimated based on averaging-out sustained wind speeds by a reconnaissance aircraft. On October 19, Hurricane Love became the first storm to be flown into at the low-levels by the 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron. Around 12:00 UTC on October 20, the hurricane passed close to Bermuda. The island reported sustained winds of 100 mph (160 km/h) and gusts up to 126 mph (203 km/h). Winds downed many tree limbs and damaged crops, especially bananas and tomatoes. Winds also toppled electrical and telephone wires, leaving Hamilton without those services for several days. Ten buildings were destroyed, though little damage occurred to structures with Bermuda's standard building codes. The hurricane sank 11 boats in the vicinity of the island. Overall, 10 people were injured and damaged totaled over \$1 million. Late on October 20, a reconnaissance aircraft flight observed a barometric pressure of 961 mbar (28.4 inHg), the lowest in association with the hurricane. Early the following day, Love weakened to a Category 2 hurricane. The cyclone then accelerated and curved east-northeastward late on October 21. At 00:00 UTC on October 22, the storm weakened to a Category 1 hurricane and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone about six hours later while situated about 575 mi (925 km) southeast of Newfoundland. The remnants were soon absorbed by a larger extratropical storm. ### Other systems Several other tropical depressions developed throughout the season. The first formed over the Bay of Campeche near the southeast coast of Mexico by June 13. By the following day, the depression either dissipated over moved rapidly northeastward ahead of a cold front and was last noted in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. On September 1, another tropical depression formed offshore The Carolinas from a low pressure area that detached from a frontal system. The depression moved northward and merged with another frontal system on the following day. A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression south of the Capo Verde Islands on September 15. The depression tracked slowly west-northwestward for several days, before turning northeastward on September 23. Thereafter, the depression began moving erratically, with multiple small cyclonic loops from September 24 to September 28, before curving northward and then northeastward. By September 30, the depression became extratropical while well southwest of the Azores. The next tropical depression developed from a low which formed along either a trough or decaying front to the northeast of the Lesser Antilles on October 25. However, the depression transitioned into an extratropical cyclone by the following day. The final tropical cyclone of the season developed just north of Martinique on November 28. The depression moved westward and then curved northwestward, passing near the eastern tip of the Dominican Republic on November 30. Early the following day, the depression was absorbed by a cold front to the northeast of the Turks and Caicos Islands. ## Storm names This was the first season in which the Air Weather Service began assigning names to tropical cyclones using the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet. However, the use of these names were limited to internal communications between weather centers and aircraft, not in public bulletins. The names are also not listed in HURDAT. Names that were not assigned are marked in . The following names were used: ## Season effects ## See also - 1947 Pacific hurricane season - 1947 Pacific typhoon season - 1900–1950 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons - 1940s Australian region cyclone seasons - 1940s South Pacific cyclone seasons

Good Vibrations

1966 single by the Beach Boys

"Good Vibrations" is a song by the American rock band the Beach Boys that was composed by Brian Wilson with lyrics by Mike Love. It was released as a single on October 10, 1966 and was an immediate critical and commercial hit, topping record charts in several countries including the United States and the United Kingdom. Characterized by its complex soundscapes, episodic structure and subversions of pop music formula, it was the most expensive single ever recorded. "Good Vibrations" later became widely acclaimed as one of the finest and most important works of the rock era. Also produced by Wilson, the title derived from his fascination with cosmic vibrations, as his mother would tell him as a child that dogs sometimes bark at people in response to their "bad vibrations". He used the concept to suggest extrasensory perception, while Love's lyrics were inspired by the nascent Flower Power movement. The song was written as it was recorded and in a similar fashion to other compositions from Wilson's Smile period. It was issued as a standalone single, backed with "Let's Go Away for Awhile", and was to be included on the never-finished album Smile. Instead, the track appeared on the September 1967 release Smiley Smile. The making of "Good Vibrations" was unprecedented for any kind of recording. Building on his approach for Pet Sounds, Wilson recorded a surplus of short, interchangeable musical fragments with his bandmates and a host of session musicians at four different Hollywood studios from February to September 1966, a process reflected in the song's several dramatic shifts in key, texture, instrumentation and mood. Over 90 hours of tape was consumed in the sessions, with the total cost of production estimated to be in the tens of thousands of dollars. Band publicist Derek Taylor dubbed the unusual work a "pocket symphony". It helped develop the use of the studio as an instrument and heralded a wave of pop experimentation and the onset of psychedelic and progressive rock. The track featured a novel mix of instruments, including jaw harp and Electro-Theremin, and although the latter is not a true theremin, the song's success led to a renewed interest and sales of theremins and synthesizers. "Good Vibrations" received a Grammy nomination for Best Vocal Group performance in 1966 and was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1994. The song was voted number one in Mojo's "Top 100 Records of All Time" and number six on Rolling Stone's "500 Greatest Songs of All Time", and it was included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's list of the "500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll". In later years, the song has been cited as a forerunner to the Beatles' "A Day in the Life" (1967) and Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody" (1975). A 1976 cover version by Todd Rundgren peaked at number 34 on the Billboard Hot 100. The Beach Boys followed up "Good Vibrations" with another single pieced from sections, "Heroes and Villains" (1967), but it was less successful. ## Inspiration and writing ### Concept and early lyrics The Beach Boys' leader, Brian Wilson, was responsible for the musical composition and virtually all of the arrangement for "Good Vibrations". Most of the song's structure and arrangement was written as it was recorded. During the recording sessions for the 1966 album Pet Sounds, Wilson began changing his writing process. For "Good Vibrations", Wilson said, "I had a lot of unfinished ideas, fragments of music I called 'feels.' Each feel represented a mood or an emotion I'd felt, and I planned to fit them together like a mosaic." Engineer Chuck Britz is quoted saying that Wilson considered the song to be "his whole life performance in one track". Wilson stated: "I was an energetic 23-year-old. ... I said: 'This is going to be better than [the Phil Spector production] "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'. Wilson said that "Good Vibrations" was inspired by his mother: "[She] used to tell me about vibrations. I didn't really understand too much of what it meant when I was just a boy. It scared me, the word 'vibrations.' She told me about dogs that would bark at people and then not bark at others, that a dog would pick up vibrations from these people that you can't see, but you can feel." Brian first enlisted Pet Sounds lyricist Tony Asher for help in putting words to the idea. When Brian presented the song on piano, Asher thought that it had an interesting premise with the potential for hit status, but could not fathom the end result due to Brian's primitive piano playing style. Asher remembered: > Brian was playing what amounts to the hook of the song: "Good, good, good, good vibrations." He started telling me the story about his mother. ... He said he’d always thought that it would be fun to write a song about vibes and picking them up from other people. ... So as we started to work, he played this little rhythmic pattern—a riff on the piano, the thing that goes under the chorus." Wilson wanted to call the song "Good Vibes", but Asher advised that it was "lightweight use of the language", and suggested that "Good Vibrations" would sound less "trendy". The two proceeded to write lyrics for the verses that were ultimately discarded. ### Theremin and cello From the start, Wilson envisioned a theremin for the track. AllMusic reviewer John Bush pointed out: "Radio listeners could easily pick up the link between the title and the obviously electronic riffs sounding in the background of the chorus, but Wilson's use of the theremin added another delicious parallel—between the single's theme and its use of an instrument the player never even touched." "Good Vibrations" does not technically feature a theremin, but rather an Electro-Theremin, which is physically controlled by a slider that turns a knob inside the instrument. It was dubbed a "theremin" simply for convenience. At that time, theremins were most often associated with the 1945 Alfred Hitchcock film Spellbound, but their most common presence was in the theme music for the television sitcom My Favorite Martian, which ran from 1963 to 1966. Britz speculates: "He just walked in and said, 'I have this new sound for you.' I think he must have heard the sound somewhere and loved it, and built a song around it." It is unclear whether Wilson knew that the instrument was not a real theremin. Brian credited his brother and bandmate Carl for suggesting the use of a cello on the track. He further stated that its triplet beat on the chorus was his own idea and that it was based on the Crystals' "Da Doo Ron Ron" (1963), produced by Spector. Conversely, arranger and session musician Van Dyke Parks said that it was himself who suggested having the cellist play triplets to Brian. Parks believed that having Brian exploit the cello "to such a hyperbolic degree" was what encouraged the duo to immediately collaborate on the never-finished album Smile. At some point, Wilson asked Parks to pen lyrics for "Good Vibrations", although Parks declined. ### Influences and final lyrics Wilson's cousin and bandmate Mike Love submitted the final lyrics for "Good Vibrations" and contributed its bass-baritone vocals in the chorus. He recalled that when he heard the unfinished backing track: "[It] was already so avant-garde, especially with the theremin, I wondered how our fans were going to relate to it. How's this going to go over in the Midwest or Birmingham? It was such a departure from 'Surfin' U.S.A.' or 'Help Me, Rhonda.'" Love said that he wrote the words while on the drive to the studio. Feeling that the song could be "the Beach Boys' psychedelic anthem or flower power offering," he based the lyrics on the burgeoning psychedelic music and Flower Power movements occurring in San Francisco and some parts of the Los Angeles area. He described the lyrics as "just a flowery poem. Kind of almost like 'If you’re going to San Francisco be sure to wear flowers in your hair.'" Writing in his 1975 book The Beach Boys: Southern California Pastoral, Bruce Golden observed: > The new pastoral landscape suddenly being uncovered by the young generation provided a quiet, peaceful, harmonious trip into inner space. The hassles and frustrations of the external world were cast aside, and new visions put in their place. "Good Vibrations" succeeds in suggesting the healthy emanations that should result from psychic tranquility and inner peace. The word "vibrations" had been employed by students of Eastern philosophy and acid-heads for a variety of purposes, but Wilson uses it here to suggest a kind of extrasensory experience. Capitol Records executives were worried that the lyrics contained psychedelic overtones, and Brian was accused of having based the song's production on his LSD experiences. Brian clarified that the song was written under the influence of marijuana, not LSD. He explained: "I made ‘Good Vibrations’ on drugs; I used drugs to make that. ... I learned how to function behind drugs, and it improved my brain ... it made me more rooted in my sanity." In Steven Gaines's 1986 biography, Wilson is quoted on the lyrics: "We talked about good vibrations with the song and the idea, and we decided on one hand that you could say ... those are sensual things. And then you'd say, 'I'm picking up good vibrations,' which is a contrast against the sensual, the extrasensory perception that we have. That's what we're really talking about." Wilson said in 2012 that the song's "gotta keep those good vibrations" bridge was inspired by Stephen Foster. Bandmate Al Jardine compared that section to Foster and the Negro spiritual "Down by the Riverside". According to Love, the lyric "'she goes with me to a blossom world' was originally meant to be followed by the words 'we find'", but Wilson elected to cut off the line to highlight the bass track linking into the chorus. ## Recording and production ### Modular approach "Good Vibrations" established a new method of operation for Wilson. Instead of working on whole songs with clear large-scale syntactical structures, Wilson limited himself to recording short interchangeable fragments (or "modules"). Through the method of tape splicing, each fragment could then be assembled into a linear sequence, allowing any number of larger structures and divergent moods to be produced at a later time. This was the same modular approach used during the sessions for Smile and Smiley Smile. To mask each tape edit, vast reverb decays were added at the mixing and sub-mixing stages. For instrumentation, Wilson employed the services of "the Wrecking Crew", the nickname for a conglomerate of session musicians active in Los Angeles at that time. Production for "Good Vibrations" spanned more than a dozen recording sessions at four different Hollywood studios, at a time when most pop singles were typically recorded in a day or two. It was reported to have used over 90 hours of magnetic recording tape, with an eventual budget estimated in the tens of thousands, making it the costliest single recorded to that date. Biographer Peter Ames Carlin wrote that Wilson was so puzzled by the arranging of "Good Vibrations" that he would often arrive at a session, consider a few possibilities, and then leave without recording anything, which exacerbated costs. One estimate of the overall production expenses is between \$50,000 and \$75,000 (equivalent to \$ and \$ in ), By comparison, the whole of Pet Sounds had cost \$70,000 (\$), itself an unusually high cost for an album. In 2018, Wilson disputed the \$50,000 figure for "Good Vibrations", saying that the overall expenses were closer to \$25,000. Contemporary advertisements reported \$10,000 (\$) as the track's total production costs. Domenic Priore wrote that the track cost between \$10,000 and \$15,000 (\$). When asked in a 2005 interview if it was true that the Electro-Theremin work alone cost \$100,000, Wilson replied "No. \$15,000." ### Development The instrumental of the first version of the song was recorded on February 17, 1966, at Gold Star Studios and was logged as a Pet Sounds session. On that day's session log, it was given the name "#1 Untitled" or "Good, Good, Good Vibrations", but on its master tape, Wilson distinctly states: "'Good Vibrations' ... take one." After twenty-six takes, a rough mono mix completed the session. Some additional instruments and rough guide vocals were overdubbed on February 23. Brian and Carl shared vocals for this mix. The original version of "Good Vibrations" contained the characteristics of a "funky rhythm and blues number" and would not yet resemble a "pocket symphony". There was no cello at this juncture, but the Electro-Theremin was present, played by its inventor, Paul Tanner. It was Brian's second ever recorded use of the instrument, just three days after the Pet Sounds track "I Just Wasn't Made for These Times". Brian then placed "Good Vibrations" on hold in order to devote attention to the Pet Sounds album, which saw release on May 16. More instrumental sections for "Good Vibrations" were recorded between April and June. Brian then forwent additional instrumental tracking until early September, when it was decided to revisit the song's bridge section and apply Electro-Theremin overdubs. According to Brian's then-new friend David Anderle, during an early stage, Brian considered giving "Good Vibrations" to one of the black R&B groups signed with Warner Bros. Records such as Wilson Pickett, and then at Anderle's suggestion to singer Danny Hutton. He thought about abandoning the track, but after receiving encouragement from Anderle, eventually decided on it as the next Beach Boys single. In the meantime, he worked on writing and recording material for the group's forthcoming album, Smile. The first Beach Boy to hear "Good Vibrations" in a semi-completed form, other than Brian, was Carl. Following a performance with the touring group in North Dakota, he remembered: "I came back up into my hotel room one night and the phone rang. It was Brian on the other end. He called me from the recording studio and played this really bizarre sounding music over the phone. There were drums smashing, that kind of stuff, and then it refined itself and got into the cello. It was a real funky track." In 1976, Brian revealed that before the final mixdown, he had been confronted with resistance by members of the group, whom Brian declined to name. The subject of their worries and complaints was the song's length and "modern" sound: "I said no, it's not going to be too long a record, it's going to be just right. ... They didn't quite understand what this jumping from studio to studio was all about. And they couldn't conceive of the record as I did. I saw the record as a totality piece." The vocals for "Good Vibrations" were recorded at CBS Columbia Square, starting on August 24 and continuing sporadically until the very last day of assembly on September 21. The episodic structure of the composition was continuously revised as the group experimented with different ideas. Brian remembers that he began recording the "bop bop good vibrations" parts first, and that he came up with "the high parts" a week later. Mike Love recalled: "I can remember doing 25–30 vocal overdubs of the same part, and when I mean the same part, I mean same section of a record, maybe no more than two, three, four, five seconds long." Dennis Wilson was to have sung the lead vocal, but due to a bout of laryngitis, Carl replaced him at the last minute. In early September, the master tapes for "Good Vibrations" were stolen. Mysteriously, they reappeared inside Brian's home two days later. On September 21, Brian completed the track after Tanner added a final Electro-Theremin overdub. In 1976 he elaborated on the event: "It was at Columbia. I remember I had it right in the sack. I could just feel it when I dubbed it down, made the final mix from the 16-track down to mono. It was a feeling of power, it was a rush. A feeling of exaltation. Artistic beauty. It was everything ... I remember saying, 'Oh my God. Sit back and listen to this!'" ## Composition and analysis ### Genre and dynamics There are six unique sections to the piece. Music theorist Daniel Harrison refers to these sections individually as the verse, the refrain (or chorus), the "first episodic digression", the "second episodic digression", the "retro-refrain", and the coda. Each has a distinct musical texture, partly due to the nature of the song's recording. The track's instrumentation changes radically from section to section, and for the AM radio standards of late 1966, the song's final runtime (3 minutes 35 seconds) was considered a "very long" duration. Wilson is quoted in 1979: > It had a lot of riff changes ... movements ... It was a pocket symphony—changes, changes, changes, building harmonies here, drop this voice out, this comes in, bring this echo in, put the theremin here, bring the cello up a little louder here ... It was the biggest production of our lives! He characterized the song as "advanced rhythm and blues". Tom Roland of American Songwriter described the piece, "with its interlocking segments—a sort of pop version of the classical sonata, consisting of a series of musical movements". New York Magazine compared it to "a fugue with a rhythmic beat". John Bush compared the track's fragmented cut-and-paste style to 1960s experimentalists such as William S. Burroughs. Music journal Sound on Sound argued that the song "has as many dramatic changes in mood as a piece of serious classical music lasting more than half an hour". It explained that the song subverts pop forms to a considerable degree: > Typical pop songs of that era (or indeed any era) usually have a basic groove running throughout the track which doesn't change a great deal from start to finish ... pop records were either guitar, bass and drum combos or traditional orchestrated arrangements for vocalists ... The exotic instruments, the complex vocal arrangements, and the many dynamic crescendos and decrescendos all combine to set this record apart from most pop music. In short, if there's an instruction manual for writing and arranging pop songs, this one breaks every rule. According to historian Lorenzo Candelaria, "Good Vibrations" has since been marketed as pop music "possibly because it comes across relatively innocent compared with the hard-edged rock we have since come to know." Uncut called the song "three minutes and thirty-six seconds of avant-garde pop". Mixdown described it as a "masterpiece of avant-pop". The theremin and cello has been called the song's "psychedelic ingredient". In his book discussing music of the counterculture era, James Perrone stated that the song represented a type of impressionistic psychedelia, in particular for its cello playing repeated bass notes and its theremin. Professor of American history John Robert Greene named "Good Vibrations" among examples of psychedelic or acid rock. Stebbins wrote that the song was "replete with sunshine [and] psychedelia". Steve Valdez says that, like Pet Sounds, Brian was attempting a more experimental rock style. Comparing "Good Vibrations" to Wilson's previous work Pet Sounds, biographer Andrew Hickey said that the "best way of thinking about [the song] is that it's taking the lowest common denominator of 'Here Today' and 'God Only Knows' and turned the result into an R&B track. We have the same minor-key change between verse and chorus we've seen throughout Pet Sounds, the same descending scalar chord sequences, the same mobile bass parts, but here, rather than to express melancholy, these things are used in a way that's as close as Brian Wilson ever got to funky." Author Jon Stebbins adds that "unlike Pet Sounds the chorus of 'Good Vibrations' projects a definite 'rock and roll' energy and feel." According to academic Rikky Rooksby, "Good Vibrations" is an example of Brian Wilson's growing interest in musical development within a composition, something antithetical to popular music of the time. Suppressing tonic strength and cadential drive, the song makes use of descending harmonic motions through scale degrees controlled by a single tonic and "radical disjunctions" in key, texture, instrumentation, and mood while refusing to develop into a predictable formal pattern. It instead develops "under its own power" and "luxuriates in harmonic variety" exemplified by beginning and ending not only in different keys but also in different modes. ### Verses and refrains (0:00–1:40) "Good Vibrations" begins without introduction in a traditional verse/refrain format, opening with Carl Wilson singing the word "I", a triplet eighth note before the downbeat. The sparse first verse contains a repetition of chords played on a Hammond organ filtered through a Leslie speaker; underneath is a two-bar Fender bass melody. This sequence repeats once (0:15), but with the addition of two piccolos sustaining over a falling flute line. For percussion, bongo drums double the bass rhythm and every fourth-beat is struck by either a tambourine or a bass-drum-and-snare combination, in alternation. The beat projects a triplet feel despite being in time; this is sometimes called a "shuffle beat" or "threes over fours". The chord progression used is i–VII–VI–V, also called an Andalusian cadence. Although the verses begin in the minor mode of E, the mode is not used to express sadness or drudgery. Occurring at the very end of these verses is a passing chord, D. The refrain (0:25) begins in the newly tonicized relative major G, which suggests III. Providing a backdrop to the Electro-Theremin is a cello and string bass playing a bowed tremolo triplet, a feature that was an exceedingly rare effect in pop music. The Fender bass is steady at one note per beat while tom drums and tambourine provide a backbeat. This time, the rhythm is stable, and is split into four 4-bar sections which gradually build its vocals. The first section consists of only the couplet "I'm picking up good vibrations/she's giving me the excitation" sung by Mike Love in his bass-baritone register; the second repeats the lines and adds an "ooo bop bop" figure, sung in multiple-part harmony; the third time also adds a "good, good, good, good vibrations" in yet a higher harmony. This type of polyphony (counterpoint) is also rare in contemporary popular styles. Each repeat of the vocal lines also transposes up by a whole step, ascending from G to A and then B. It then returns to the verse, thus making a perfect cadence back into E minor. The verse and refrain then repeat without any changes to the patterns of its instrumentation and harmony. This is unusual, in that normally, a song's arrangement adds something once it reaches the second verse. ### Episodic digressions #### First episode (1:41–2:13) The first episode (1:41+) begins disjunctively with an abrupt tape splice. The refrain's B, which had received a dominant (V) charge, is now maintained as a tonic (I). There is harmonic ambiguity, in that the chord progression may be either interpreted as I–IV–I (in B) or V–I–V (in E). Stebbins says that this section "might be called a bridge under normal circumstances, but the song's structure takes such an abstract route that traditional labels don't really apply." A new sound is created by tack piano, jaw harp, and bass relegated to strong beats which is subsequently (1:55) augmented by a new electric organ, bass harmonica, and sleigh bells shaken on every beat. The lone line of vocals (aside from non-lexical harmonies) is "I don't know where, but she sends me there" sung in Mike Love's upper-register baritone. This section lasts for ten measures (6 + 2 + 2), which is unexpectedly long in light of previous patterns. #### Second episode (2:13–2:56) Another tape splice occurs at 2:13, transitioning to an electric organ playing sustained chords set in the key of F accompanied by a maraca shaken on every beat. Sound on Sound highlights this change as the "most savage edit in the track ... most people would go straight into a big splash hook-line section. Brian Wilson decided to slow the track even further, moving into a 23-bar section of church organ ... Most arrangers would steer clear of this kind of drop in pace, on the grounds that it would be chart suicide, but not Brian." Harrison says: > The appearance of episode 1 was unusual enough but could be explained as an extended break between verse and refrain sections. Episode 2 however, makes that interpretation untenable, and both listener and analyst must entertain the idea that "Good Vibrations" develops under its own power, as it were, without the guidance of overdetermined formal patterns. Brian’s [sic] own description of the song—a three-and-a-half-minute 'pocket symphony'—is a telling clue about his formal ambitions here. The slowed pace is complemented by the lyric ("Gotta keep those loving good vibrations a-happening with her"), sung once first as a solo voice, with the melody repeated an octave higher the second time with an accompanying harmony. This two-part vocal fades as a solo harmonica plays a melody on top of the persistent quarter-note bass line and maraca that maintain the only rhythm throughout Episode 2. The section ends with a five-part harmony vocalizing a whole-note chord that is sustained by reverb for a further four beats. Lambert calls it the song's "wake-up chord at the end of the meditation that transports the concept into a whole new realm: it's an iconic moment among iconic moments. As it rouses us from a blissful dream and echoes into the silence leading into the chorus, it seems to capture every sound and message the song has to say." ### Retro-refrain and coda (2:57–3:35) A brief break at the end of the second musical digression creates tension which leads into the final sequence of the song. The refrain reappears for an additional five measures, marching through a transpositional structure that begins in B, repeats at A, and then ends at G for an unexpectedly short single measure. The section uses a descending progression, which mirrors the ascending progression of the previous two refrains. There follows a short section of vocalizing in three-part counterpoint that references the original refrain by reproducing upward transposition. However, this time it settles on A, the concluding key of the song. By the end of "Good Vibrations," all seven scale degrees of the opening E-minor tonic are activated on some level. ## Release and promotion In a July 1966 advertisement for Pet Sounds in Billboard magazine, the band thanked the music industry for the sales of their album, and said that "We're moved over the fact that our Pet Sounds brought on nothing but Good Vibrations." This was the first public hint of the new single. Later in the year, Brian told journalist Tom Nolan that the new Beach Boys single was "about a guy who picks up good vibrations from a girl" and that it would be a "monster". He then suggested: "It's still sticking pretty close to that same boy-girl thing, you know, but with a difference. And it's a start, it's definitely a start." Derek Taylor, who had recently been engaged as the band's publicist, is credited for coining the term a "pocket symphony" to describe the song. In a press release for the single, he stated: "Wilson's instinctive talents for mixing sounds could most nearly equate to those of the old painters whose special secret was in the blending of their oils. And what is most amazing about all outstanding creative artists is that they are using only those basic materials which are freely available to everyone else." To promote the single, four different music videos were shot. The first of these—which had Caleb Deschanel as cameraman—features the group at a fire station, sliding down its pole, and roaming the streets of Los Angeles in a fashion comparable to The Monkees. The second features the group during vocal rehearsals at United Western Recorders. The third contains footage recorded during the making of The Beach Boys in London, a documentary by Peter Whitehead of their concert performances. The fourth clip is an alternative edit of the third. Brian also made a rare television appearance on local station KHJ-TV for its Teen Rock and Roll Dance Program, introducing the song to the show's in-studio audience and presenting an exclusive preview of the completed record. On October 15, 1966, Billboard predicted that the single would reach the top 20 in the Billboard Hot 100 chart. "Good Vibrations" was the Beach Boys' third US number one hit, after "I Get Around" and "Help Me, Rhonda", reaching the top of the Hot 100 in December. It was also their first number one in Britain. The single sold over 230,000 copies in the US within four days of its release and entered the Cash Box chart at number 61 on October 22. Record World described it as "highly imaginative." In the UK, the song sold over 50,000 copies in the first 15 days of its release. "Good Vibrations" quickly became the Beach Boys' first million-selling single. In December 1966, the record was their first single certified gold by the RIAA for sales of one million copies. On March 30, 2016, the digital single was certified platinum by the RIAA for the same sales level. In the US, Cash Box said that it is a "catchy, easy-driving ditty loaded with the Boys’ money-making sound." In Britain, the single received favorable reviews from the New Musical Express and Melody Maker. Soon after, the Beach Boys were voted the number one band in the world in the NME readers' poll, ahead of the Beatles, the Walker Brothers, the Rolling Stones, and the Four Tops. Billboard said that this result was probably influenced by the success of "Good Vibrations" when the votes were cast, together with the band's recent tour, whereas the Beatles had neither a recent single nor had they toured the UK throughout 1966; the reporter added that "The sensational success of the Beach Boys, however, is being taken as a portent that the popularity of the top British groups of the last three years is past its peak." In a readers' poll conducted by a Danish newspaper, Brian Wilson won the "best foreign-produced recording award", marking the first time that an American had won in that category. The single achieved sales of over 50,000 copies in Australia, being eligible for the award of a Gold Disc. ## Influence and legacy ### Historical reception Virtually every pop music critic recognizes "Good Vibrations" as one of the most important compositions and recordings of the entire rock era. It is a regular fixture on "greatest of all-time" song lists and is frequently hailed as one of the finest pop productions of all time. In 2004 and 2010, Rolling Stone magazine ranked "Good Vibrations" at number 6 in "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time", the highest position of seven Beach Boys songs cited in the list. In 2001, the song was voted 24th in the RIAA and NEA's Songs of the Century list. As of 2016, "Good Vibrations" is ranked as the number four song of all time in an aggregation of critics' lists at Acclaimed Music. The Guardian and Paste both ranked the song number one on their lists of the greatest Beach Boys songs. The song served as an anthem for the counterculture of the 1960s. According to Noel Murray of The A.V. Club, it also helped turn around the initially poor perception of Pet Sounds in the US, where the album's "un-hip orchestrations and pervasive sadness [had] baffled some longtime fans, who didn't immediately get what Wilson was trying to do." Encouraged by the single's success, Wilson continued working on Smile, intending it as an entire album incorporating the writing and production techniques he had devised for "Good Vibrations". "Heroes and Villains", the Beach Boys' follow-up single, continued his modular recording practices, spanning nearly thirty recording sessions held between May 1966 and June 1967. In contrast to the acclaim lavished on the song, some of Wilson's pop and rock contemporaries have been tempered in their praise of "Good Vibrations". When asked about the song in 1990, Paul McCartney responded: "I thought it was a great record. It didn't quite have the emotional thing that Pet Sounds had for me. I've often played Pet Sounds and cried. It's that kind of an album for me." Pete Townshend of the Who was quoted in the 1960s as saying, "'Good Vibrations' was probably a good record but who's to know? You had to play it about 90 bloody times to even hear what they were singing about." Townshend feared that the single would lead to a trend of overproduction. In a 1966 issue of Arts Magazine, Jonathan King said: "With justification, comments are being passed that 'Good Vibrations' is an inhuman work of art. Computerized pop, mechanized music. Take a machine, feed in various musical instruments, add a catch phrase, stir well, and press seven buttons. It is long and split. ... impressive, fantastic, commercial—yes. Emotional, soul-destroying, shattering—no." In the 2000s, record producer Phil Spector criticized the single for depending too much on tape manipulation, negatively referring to it as an "edit record ... It's like Psycho is a great film, but it's an 'edit film.' Without edits, it's not a film; with edits, it's a great film. But it's not Rebecca ... it's not a beautiful story." ### Advancements #### Recording and popular music "Good Vibrations" is credited for having further developed the use of recording studios as a musical instrument. Author Domenic Priore commented that the song's making was "unlike anything previous in the realms of classical, jazz, international, soundtrack, or any other kind of recording". A milestone in the development of rock music, the song, together with the Beatles' Revolver, was a prime proponent in rock's transformation from live concert performances to studio productions that could only exist on record. Musicologist Charlie Gillett called it "one of the first records to flaunt studio production as a quality in its own right, rather than as a means of presenting a performance". In a 1968 editorial for Jazz & Pop, Gene Sculatti predicted: > "Good Vibrations" may yet prove to be the most significantly revolutionary piece of the current rock renaissance; executed as it is in conventional Beach Boys manner, it is one of the few organically complete rock works; every audible note and every silence contributes to the whole three minutes, 35 seconds, of the song. It is the ultimate in-studio production trip, very much rock 'n' roll in the emotional sense and yet un-rocklike in its spacial [sic], dimensional conceptions. In no minor way, "Good Vibrations" is a primary influential piece for all producing rock artists; everyone has felt its import to some degree, in such disparate things as the Yellow Balloon's "Yellow Balloon" and the Beatles' "A Day in the Life," in groups as far apart as (recent) Grateful Dead and the Association, as Van Dyke Parks and the Who. Writing for Popmatters in 2015, Scott Interrante stated: "'Good Vibrations' changed the way a pop record could be made, the way a pop record could sound, and the lyrics a pop record could have." The recording contains previously untried mixes of instruments, and it was the first pop hit to have cellos in a juddering rhythm. Microtonal composer Frank Oteri said that it "sounds like no other pop song recorded up to that point". According to Stebbins: "This signature sound would be duplicated, cloned, commercialized, and re-fabricated in songs, commercials, TV shows, movies, and elevators to the point of completely diluting the genius of the original. But 'Good Vibrations' was probably the quintessential 'sunshine pop' recording of the century." He added that the single "vaulted nearly every other rock act in their delivery of a Flower Power classic. It was just strange enough to be taken seriously, but still vibrant, happy, accessibly Beach Boys-esque pop." John Bush wrote that the single "announced the coming era of pop experimentation with a rush of riff changes, echo-chamber effects, and intricate harmonies". Gillett noted: "For the rest of the sixties, countless musicians and groups attempted to represent an equivalently blissful state, but none of them ever applied the intense discipline and concentration that Wilson had devoted to the recording." Priore says that the song was a forerunner to works such as Marvin Gaye's What's Going On (1971) and Isaac Hayes' Shaft (1971) which presented soul music in a similar, multi-textured context imbued with ethereal sonic landscapes. In his appraisal for American Songwriter, Roland cites the song's "format" as the model for recordings by Wings ("Band on the Run"), the Beatles ("A Day in the Life"), and Elton John ("Funeral for a Friend/Love Lies Bleeding"). The song's approach was repeated in Queen's 1975 single "Bohemian Rhapsody", which was similarly pieced together using different sections. Wilson praised Queen's effort, calling it "the most competitive thing that's come along in ages" and "a fulfillment and an answer to a teenage prayer—of artistic music". #### Psychedelic and progressive rock With "Good Vibrations", the Beach Boys ended 1966 as the only band besides the Beatles to have had a high-charting psychedelic rock song, at a time when the genre was still in its formative stages. Writing in 2009, Barney Hoskyns deemed it to be the era's "ultimate psychedelic pop record" from Los Angeles. Interrante adds: "Its influence on the ensuing psychedelic and progressive rock movements can’t be overstated, but its legacy as a pop hit is impressive as well." Former Atlantic Records executive Phillip Rauls recalled: "I was in the music business at the time, and my very first recognition of acid rock—we didn't call it progressive rock then—was, of all people, the Beach Boys and the song 'Good Vibrations' ... That [theremin] sent so many musicians back to the studio to create this music on acid." Author Bill Martin suggested that the Beach Boys were clearing a pathway toward the development of progressive rock, writing: "The fact is, the same reasons why much progressive rock is difficult to dance to apply just as much to 'Good Vibrations' and 'A Day in the Life.'" #### Use of theremin Although the song does not technically contain a theremin, "Good Vibrations" is the most frequently cited example of the instrument's use in pop music. Upon release, the single prompted an unexpected revival in theremins and increased the awareness of analog synthesizers. The notion that "Good Vibrations" features a theremin has been erroneously repeated in books, CD liner notes, and quotes from the recording's participants. While having a similar sound, a theremin is an aerial-controlled instrument, unlike the Electro-Theremin. When the Beach Boys needed to reproduce its sound onstage, Wilson first requested that Tanner play the Electro-Theremin live with the group, but he declined due to commitments. Tanner recalls saying to Wilson, "I've got the wrong sort of hair to be on stage with you fellas", to which Wilson replied: "We'll give you a Prince Valiant wig." The Beach Boys then requested the services of Walter Sear, who asked Bob Moog to design a ribbon controller, since the group was used to playing the fretboards of a guitar. Sear remembers marking fretboard-like lines on the ribbon "so they could play the damn thing." Moog began manufacturing his own models of theremins. He later noted: "The pop record scene cleaned us out of our stock which we expected to last through Christmas." In Steven M. Martin's 1993 documentary Theremin: An Electronic Odyssey, in which Wilson makes an appearance, it was revealed that the attention being paid to the theremin due to "Good Vibrations" caused Russian authorities to exile its inventor, Leon Theremin. ### Cover versions The song has been covered by artists such as Groove Holmes, the Troggs, Charlie McCoy, and Psychic TV. John Bush commented: "'Good Vibrations' was rarely reprised by other acts, even during the cover-happy '60s. Its fragmented style made it essentially cover-proof." In 1976, a nearly identical cover version was released as a single by Todd Rundgren for his album Faithful. When asked for his opinion, Brian said: "Oh, he did a marvelous job, he did a great job. I was very proud of his version." Rundgren's single peaked at number 34 on the Billboard Hot 100. Rundgren explained: "I used to like the sound of the Beach Boys, but it wasn't until they began to compete with the Beatles that I felt that what they were doing was really interesting—like around Pet Sounds and 'Good Vibrations' ... when they started to shed that whole surf music kind of burden and start to branch out into something that was a little more universal. ... I tried to do [the song] as literally as I could because in the intervening 10 years, radio had changed so much. Radio had become so formatted and so structured that that whole experience was already gone." In 2004, Wilson re-recorded the song as a solo artist for his album Brian Wilson Presents Smile. It was sequenced as the album's closing track, following "In Blue Hawaii". In this version, "Good Vibrations" was the project's only track that eschewed the modular recording method. The song's verses and chorus were recorded as part of one whole take, and were not spliced together. In 2012, Wilson Phillips, a trio consisting of Wilson's daughters Carnie and Wendy, and John Phillips' daughter Chynna, released an album containing covers of songs by the Beach Boys and the Mamas & the Papas titled Dedicated. Their version of "Good Vibrations", with Carnie Wilson on lead vocals, was released as a single from the album and peaked at number 25 on Billboard's A/C chart. ### In popular culture - In 1996, experimental rock group His Name Is Alive released an homage titled "Universal Frequencies" on their album Stars on E.S.P. Warren Defever reportedly listened to "Good Vibrations" repeatedly for a week before deciding that the song "needed a sequel"; he added: "'Good Vibrations' is one of the first pop hits where you can actually hear the tape edits and I think that's wonderful." - The song's lyrics "I'm picking up good vibrations" are quoted in Cyndi Lauper's 1984 single "She Bop". - In 2001, the song was used prominently in a scene with Tom Cruise, Tilda Swinton, and Kurt Russell in the psychological thriller Vanilla Sky. - A live version of the song, from the album Live in London, appears as a playable track in the 2010 video game Rock Band 3. - In 2019, the song was used prominently in a scene for Jordan Peele's psychological horror thriller film Us. ## Release history In early 2011, the single was remastered and reissued as a four-sided 78 rpm vinyl for Record Store Day, as a teaser for the forthcoming The Smile Sessions box set. It contained "Heroes and Villains" as a B-side, along with previously released alternate takes and mixes. ### Stereo version Due to the loss of the original multi-track tape, there had never been an official true stereo release of the final track until the 2012 remastered version of Smiley Smile. The stereo mix was made possible through the invention of new digital technology by Derry Fitzgerald, and received the blessing of Brian Wilson and Mark Linett. Fitzgerald's software extracted individual instrumental and vocal stems from the original mono master—as the multi-track vocals remained missing—to construct the stereo version that appears on the 2012 reissue of Smiley Smile. ### 40th Anniversary Edition In celebration of its 40th year, the Good Vibrations: 40th Anniversary Edition EP was released. The EP includes "Good Vibrations", four alternate versions of the song, and the stereo mix of "Let's Go Away for Awhile". The EP artwork recreates that of the original 7-inch single sleeve. In 2016, the EP was reissued as a 12" record for the single's 50th anniversary. ## Personnel The details in this section are adapted from The Smile Sessions liner notes, which includes a sessionography compiled by band archivist Craig Slowinski, and the website Bellagio 10452, maintained by music historian Andrew G. Doe. ### Single edit The Beach Boys - Al Jardine – backing vocals - Bruce Johnston – backing vocals - Mike Love – lead and backing vocals - Brian Wilson – lead and backing vocals, tack piano (choruses), overdubbed tambourine (choruses) - Carl Wilson – lead and backing vocals, electric rhythm guitar (choruses and chorus fade), shaker (second bridge) - Dennis Wilson – backing vocals, Hammond organ (second bridge) Additional players - Hal Blaine – drums (verses and choruses), timpani (choruses), shaker (second bridge) - Jimmy Bond – upright bass (first bridge) - Frank Capp – bongos with sticks - Gary Coleman – sleigh bells (third bridge and chorus fade) - Steve Douglas – tenor flute (verses and first bridge) - Jesse Ehrlich – cello - Jim Gordon – drums (third bridge and chorus fade) - Bill Green – contra-clarinet, bass saxophone - Jim Horn – piccolo (first bridge) - Larry Knechtel – Hammond organ (verses) - Plas Johnson – piccolo (verses and chorus fade), flutes (chorus fade) - Al De Lory – tack piano - Mike Melvoin – upright piano (chorus fade) - Jay Migliori – flutes (verses and chorus fade) - Tommy Morgan – bass harmonica, overdubbed jaw harp, harmonica - Bill Pitman – Danelectro bass (first bridge, third bridge, and chorus fade) - Ray Pohlman – Fender bass (verses and first bridge) - Don Randi – electric harpsichord - Lyle Ritz – upright bass (verses and second bridge), Fender bass (choruses) - Paul Tanner – Electro-Theremin - Terry (surname unknown, possibly Terry Melcher) – tambourine (verses) - Arthur Wright – Fender bass (third bridge and chorus fade) - unknown (possibly Hal Blaine) – tambourine (first bridge) Technical staff - Chuck Britz – engineer - Cal Harris – engineer - Jim Lockert – engineer ### Partial sessionography - February 17 – Gold Star (this session produced the verses heard in the final master) - Hal Blaine – drums - Frank Capp – bongos with sticks (cups instead of bongos on some takes) - Al Casey – electric rhythm guitar - Steve Douglas – tenor flute - Bill Green – contra-clarinet - Larry Knechtel – Hammond organ - Plas Johnson – piccolo - Jay Migliori – flute (verses and first bridge) - Ray Pohlman – Fender bass (fuzz bass in chorus) - Don Randi – grand piano (piano with taped strings on earlier takes) - Lyle Ritz – upright bass - Billy Strange – 12-string electric rhythm guitar (lead on earlier takes) - Paul Tanner – Electro-Theremin - Terry (surname unknown, possibly Terry Melcher) – tambourine - Tony (surname unknown, possibly Tony Asher) – sleigh bells - March 3 – Gold Star (discarded overdubs recorded on February 17 backing track) - Brian Wilson – vocals - Carl Wilson – vocals - unknown (possibly Carl Wilson) – Fender bass (choruses) - unknown (possibly Tony Asher) – jaw harp - April 9 – Gold Star (discarded alternate version) - Hal Blaine – drums - Frank Capp – bongos with sticks - Steve Douglas – tenor flute - Carl Fortina – accordion - Bill Green – contra-clarinet - Carol Kaye – 12-string electric guitar - Larry Knechtel – Hammond organ - Al de Lory – piano with taped strings - Mike Melvoin – tack piano - Jay Migliori – flute - Tommy Morgan – bass harmonica - Ray Pohlman – Fender bass (fuzz bass in chorus) - Lyle Ritz – upright bass - Arthur C. Smith – piccolo, ocarina - Paul Tanner – Electro-Theremin - May 4 – Western ["First Chorus", "Second Chorus", and "Fade"] (this session produced the first bridge heard in the final master) - Jimmy Bond – upright bass - Frank Capp – bongos with sticks, tambourine, overdubbed sleigh bells - Al Casey – electric guitar - Jerry Cole – electric guitar - Jim Gordon – overdubbed sleigh bells - Bill Green – bass saxophone - Jim Horn – piccolo - Al de Lory – tack pianos (including overdub) - Tommy Morgan – bass harmonica, overdubbed jaw harp - Ray Pohlman – Fender bass - Bill Pitman – Danelectro bass (with fuzz tone) - Paul Tanner – Electro-Theremin - unknown (possibly Hal Blaine) – tambourine - May 24 – Sunset Sound ["Part 1", "Part 2", "Part 3", and "Part 4"] (discarded bridge and choruses) - Gary Coleman – castanets, sleigh bells, clavs - Steve Douglas – tambourine - Jim Gordon – drums, timpani - Bill Green – alto flute - Jim Horn – flute, piccolo (bridge) - Carol Kaye – Danelectro bass - Al de Lory – pianos with taped strings (including overdub) - Jay Migliori – flute (bridge), kazoos (including overdub) - Lyle Ritz – upright bass - Paul Tanner – Electro-Theremin - Carl Wilson – Fender bass - May 25 – Sunset Sound ["Part 1", "Part 2", "Part 3", and "Part 4"] (discarded overdubs recorded on May 24 backing tracks) - Arthur "Skeets" Herfurt – clarinet - Jim Horn – piccolo - Abe Most – clarinet - May 27 – Western ["Part C", "Chorus", and "Fade Sequence"] (this session produced the third bridge and chorus fade heard in the final master) - Gary Coleman – timpanis ("Part C"), sleigh bells ("Chorus") - Steve Douglas – tambourine - Jim Gordon – drums - Jim Horn – piccolos, flutes - Plas Johnson – piccolos, flutes - Mike Melvoin – upright piano, overdubbed piano with taped strings - Bill Pitman – Danelectro bass (including fuzz tone) - Emil Richards – overdubbed vibraphones - Lyle Ritz – upright bass (arco in "Part C") - Paul Tanner – Electro-Theremin - Carl Wilson – electric rhythm guitar (chorus fade) - Arthur Wright – Fender bass - June 2 – Western ["Inspiration"] (this session produced the first, second and third choruses heard in the final master, as well as a discarded bridge) - Hal Blaine – drums, overdubbed tambourine (bridge), timpani, cups (bridge) - Bill Pitman – Danelectro bass (with fuzz tone) - Don Randi – electric harpsichord - Lyle Ritz – Fender bass - Brian Wilson – tack piano (choruses), overdubbed tambourine (choruses) - Carl Wilson – electric rhythm guitar - June 12 – Western ["Inspiration"] (overdubs recorded on June 2 backing tracks) - Hal Blaine – tambourine (bridge) - Jesse Ehrlich – cello (choruses) - Paul Tanner – Electro-Theremin (bridge) - June 16 – Western ["Part 1", "Part 2", "Verse", and "Part 3"] (discarded alternate verse, chorus, and bridge) - Hal Blaine – overdubbed drums ("Part 1"), drums with sticks ("Part 2") - Steve Douglas – grand piano, overdubbed soprano saxophone ("Part 1" and "Part 2") - Jim Horn – overdubbed clarinet ("Part 1" and "Part 2") - Al de Lory – electric harpsichord - Mike Melvoin – Hammond organ - Jay Migliori – overdubbed bass clarinet ("Part 1" and "Part 2") - Tommy Morgan – overdubbed bass harmonica ("Part 1"), overdubbed harmonica ("Part 2") - Bill Pitman – Danelectro bass (with fuzz tone in chorus and bridge) - Lyle Ritz – upright bass - Paul Tanner – Electro-Theremin - Carl Wilson – Fender bass - unknown (possibly Brian Wilson) – tambourine ("Part 1") - June 18 – Western ["Part 1" and "Part 2"] (as above) - Bill Green – clarinet - Plas Johnson – clarinet - Carol Kaye – Fender bass - Al de Lory – tack piano ("Part 1"), Hammond organ ("Part 2") - Jay Migliori – clarinet - Tommy Morgan – bass harmonica ("Part 1"), harmonica ("Part 2") - Bill Pitman – Danelectro bass (with fuzz tone in bridge) - Paul Tanner – Electro-Theremin - Brian Wilson – upright bass - Carl Wilson – electric guitar - c. August 24 through September 1 – Columbia (two vocal sessions; incomplete documentation due to missing tape) - Dennis Wilson – lead vocal - September 1 – Western ["Inspiration" and "Persuasion"] (this session produced the second bridge heard in the final master) - Hal Blaine – shaker - Tommy Morgan – harmonica, overdubbed bass harmonica - Lyle Ritz – upright bass - Carl Wilson – shaker - Dennis Wilson – Hammond organ - September 12 – Columbia (this session produced part of the vocals heard in the final master) - Al Jardine – backing vocals - Bruce Johnston – backing vocals - Mike Love – lead and backing vocals - Brian Wilson – lead and backing vocals - Carl Wilson – lead and backing vocals - Dennis Wilson – backing vocals - September 21 – Columbia (this session produced part of the vocals and part of the Electro-Theremin heard in the final master) - Al Jardine – backing vocals - Bruce Johnston – backing vocals - Mike Love – lead and backing vocals - Paul Tanner – Electro-Theremin - Brian Wilson – lead and backing vocals - Carl Wilson – lead and backing vocals - Dennis Wilson – backing vocals ## Charts ### Weekly charts Original release 1976 reissue Todd Rundgren version (1976) ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Awards and accolades

The Good-Morrow

Poem from 1633 by John Donne

"The Good-Morrow" is a poem by John Donne, published in his 1633 collection Songs and Sonnets. Written while Donne was a student at Lincoln's Inn, the poem is one of his earliest works and is thematically considered to be the "first" work in Songs and Sonnets. Although referred to as a sonnet, the work does not follow the most common rhyming scheme of such works—a 14-line poem, consisting of an eight-line stanza followed by a six-line conclusion—but is instead 21 lines long, divided into three stanzas. "The Good-Morrow" is written from the point of view of an awaking lover and describes the lover's thoughts as he wakes next to his partner. The lover's musings move from discussing sensual love to spiritual love as he realises that, with spiritual love, the couple are liberated from fear and the need to seek adventure. The poem makes use of biblical and Catholic writings, indirectly referencing the legend of the Seven Sleepers and Paul the Apostle's description of divine, agapic love – two concepts with which, as a practising Catholic, Donne would have been familiar. Donne's cartographic references in the third stanza have been the subject of much analysis, although academics have differed in their interpretation of their meaning and what the lines reference. Robert L. Sharp argues that these references can be logically interpreted as yet another reference to love; the maps with which Donne would have been familiar were not the Mercator-style maps that are common in the modern era, but instead cordiform maps, which appear in the shape of a heart and allow for the display of multiple worlds, which Donne alludes to in lines 11 to 18. Julia M. Walker, while noting that Sharp's work is "essential to an intelligent discussion of this extended image", disagrees with his conclusions and argues that Donne is actually referring to a map showing one world. ## Background and structure Poet John Donne was born on 21 January 1572 to John Donne, a wealthy ironmonger and one of the wardens of the Worshipful Company of Ironmongers, and his wife Elizabeth. After his father's death when he was four, Donne, instead of being prepared to enter a trade, was trained as a gentleman scholar; his family used the money his father had made from ironmongering to hire private tutors who trained him in grammar, rhetoric, mathematics, history and foreign languages. Elizabeth was soon remarried to a wealthy doctor, ensuring that the family remained comfortable; as a result, despite being the son of an ironmonger and portraying himself in his early poetry as an outsider, Donne refused to accept that he was anything other than a gentleman. After study at Hart Hall, Oxford, Donne's private education eventually saw him study at Lincoln's Inn, one of the Inns of Court, where he occupied his time with history, poetry, theology and "Humane learning and languages". It was at Lincoln's Inn that Donne first began writing poetry, looking upon it as "a life-sign or minor irritation" rather than something which defined him. This early poetry included "The Good-Morrow" as well as many other works which later went on to comprise his collection Songs and Sonnets, published in 1633, two years after his death; "The Good-Morrow" is considered, in terms of its theme and maturity, to be the first of this collection's poems. Sonnets are, canonically, poems of 14 lines with assorted rhyming schemes. Originating in the 14th century works of Petrarch, the most common form of the sonnet is known as the Italian Sonnet: a stanza of eight lines in which the writer lays out a complex thought, followed by a pause and a six-line conclusion "which is characteristically both unpredictable and intense". This was interlinked with the idea of courtly love, in which the goal of a romance is not simply passion, but a more significant moral perfection. "The Good-Morrow", although identified by Donne as a sonnet, does not follow this structural layout, although it does follow the thematic one; Donne used "sonnet" simply to refer to any piece of love poetry, ignoring the fact that "The Good-Morrow" was a 21-line work divided into three stanzas. ## Poem The poem opens with a reference to a Catholic legend as Donne says: > > I Wonder by my troth, what thou, and I Did, till we lov'd? were we not wean'd till then? But suck'd on countrey pleasures, childishly? Or snorted we in the seaven sleepers den? T'was so; But this, all pleasures fancies bee. If ever any beauty I did see, Which I desired, and got, t'was but a dreame of thee. This refers to the Seven Sleepers, the Catholic legend of seven Christian children, persecuted for their faith during the reign of the Roman emperor Decius, who fled to the shelter of a cave where they slept for more than 200 years. Donne, one of six or seven children and a baptised Catholic during a time of strong anti-Catholic sentiment from both the populace and the government, would certainly have been familiar with the story. > > And now good morrow to our waking soules, Which watch not one another out of feare; For love, all love of other sights controules, And makes one little roome, an every where. Let sea-discoverers to new worlds have gone, Let Maps to other, worlds on worlds have showne; Let us possesse one world, each hath one, and is one. In this passage, the speaker experiences a sense of wonder, having awoken in bed with his lover; he makes the discovery that their love makes finding "new worlds" pale in importance. "[S]ouls" also awake, not just bodies, "as if called by love from the sleep of ordinary life and mere lust". > > My face in thine eye, thine in mine appeares, And true plain hearts do in the faces rest, Where can we finde two better hemispheares Without sharpe North, without declining West? What ever dies, was not mixd equally; This passage shows the speaker communicating to his lover that they have proceeded from their former "childish" pleasures to this moment, where their souls have finally awakened; something "miraculous" has happened, because the speaker feels the sort of love that Paul the Apostle claimed would only be encountered in heaven. > > If our two loves be one, or, thou and I Love so alike, that none doe slacken, none can die. While the version found in Songs and Sonnets includes this passage as the last two lines, other manuscripts and a later volume of poetry give the last lines as, "If our two loves be one, both thou and I/Love just alike in all, none of these loves can die". ## Themes A love poem, "The Good-Morrow" is thematically centred on several concepts. The poem is primarily to do with evolving love; the movement from pure lust, in the first stanza, to a nascent and evolving spirituality which liberates the lovers because they no longer "watch each other out of fear" but can instead see clearly. The lovers' faith in each other allows them to be brave, unlike the Seven Sleepers, who were forced out of fear to hide their beliefs; with love, the lovers can allow others to pursue their own dreams, accepting that "Let us possess one world; each hath one, and is one" – with each other, there is no need to search further for adventure. Harold Bloom notes the intertwining of both sensual and spiritual love, arguing that Donne is suggesting that it is impossible for those buried in sensual love, "busying themselves in mundane matters", to experience true love. Donne's emphasis on the importance of spiritual love can be seen from the biblical allusions; Achsah Guibbory states that the tone and wording of the poem is an intentional reference to Paul the Apostle's description of divine, agapic love; "At moments like these...eros merges with agape. Walls collapse, the veil parts, we know as we are known; our deepest, truest selves exposed". Alfred W. Satterthwaite, writing in The Explicator, argues that the story of the Seven Sleepers itself contains this theme; in the story, the Sleepers awoke to find themselves "thunderstruck" in their new environment, something analogous to "the radiant revelation love grants to the lovers in the poem". Some scholars, such as William Empson, maintain that the poem also indicates that Donne seriously believed in separate planets and planes, and also the existence of more than one Christ – a belief that Donne later abandoned. Academics also see the poem as a more general allegory of the evolution of minds from childishness, as typified by the first stanza where the lovers "suck'd on country pleasures, childishly", towards a more mature form of love. Much has also been made of Donne's references to compasses and maps in the third stanza. Robert L. Sharp, writing in Modern Language Notes, argues that these references can be logically interpreted as yet another reference to love. The maps Donne would have been familiar with are not the Mercator-style maps, but instead cordiform maps, which appear in the shape of a heart. More than simply heart-shaped, cordiform maps also allow the display of multiple worlds, with opposing hemispheres – and Sharp argues that Donne's work references such a multiple world map in lines 11 to 18. Julia M. Walker, writing in The Review of English Studies, notes that Sharp's work is "essential to an intelligent discussion of this extended image", but disagrees with his conclusions. In particular, she argues that Sharp's conclusions are incorrect, and that the actual words of the poem refer to a cordiform map showing a single world rather than one showing two worlds; "my face on thine eye", for example, not "eyes". Instead, Walker suggests that Donne was basing his work on William Cunningham's Cosmographical Glasse, a 1559 book which showed a single-leafed cordiform map. More importantly, it gave a way to draw a two-leafed, heart-shaped map that displayed only a single world; this interpretation would "reconcile and unify" the problems with interpreting "The Good-Morrow". The essential distinction is thus that, while both interpret Donne's work as referencing cordiform maps, Sharp sees it as referencing a map showing two worlds, while Walker maintains that the reference is to a map showing only one.

Hurricane Darby (2004)

Category 3 Pacific hurricane in 2004

Hurricane Darby was the first Eastern Pacific major hurricane since Hurricane Kenna in 2002. The sixth tropical cyclone, fourth named storm, and second hurricane of the 2004 Pacific hurricane season, Darby developed from a tropical wave that emerged from the west coast of Africa on July 12. After crossing into the Eastern Pacific, the storm became a tropical depression on June 26. The system steadily intensified, and became a hurricane on 000 UTC July 28. Darby peaked as a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale, though it quickly deteriorated due to cooler waters and increasing wind shear. While Darby dissipated on August 1, the remnants of the tropical cyclone affected the Hawaiian Islands. The system produced high waves and heavy rainfall that led to extensive flash flooding. Numerous roads were closed, while minor landslides and rockslides were reported. Despite the effects, no fatalities or severe damages occurred. ## Meteorological history A tropical wave emerged from the west coast of Africa on July 12 and entered the Atlantic Ocean. The wave progressed westward, crossing the Atlantic and Caribbean Sea before crossing into the Eastern Pacific on July 20. The west began to exhibit signs of development on July 23. The next day, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) noted an associated area of showers and thunderstorms, indicating that gradual development was possible. The system had become better organized and on July 25, the NHC continued to remark upon the potential for the weak low pressure area—accompanied by disorganized convective activity—to develop. On July 26, the system became better-organized, and under favorable conditions it was upgraded to a tropical depression at 1200 UTC, while located about 760 miles (1,220 km) to the south-southwest of Cabo San Lucas, Mexico. Under the steering currents of a subtropical ridge of high pressure, the depression continued moving westward. Upon becoming a tropical cyclone, the depression contained a somewhat well-defined low-level center of circulation, as well as convective banding. Based on Dvorak classifications, the storm was upgraded to a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on July 27; as the fourth tropical storm of the 2004 season, it was named Darby by the NHC. Darby continued to intensify, with established outflow and a well-defined banding feature. Later that day, forecasters predicted the storm to peak as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. Darby was upgraded to a hurricane at 0000 UTC on July 28, at which time it began to turn towards the northwest. An eye, embedded within the deep convection, developed later in the day. Darby attained Category 2 intensity at around 1800 UTC, and it rapidly strengthened to Category 3, becoming the first Eastern Pacific major hurricane since Hurricane Kenna of the 2002 season. Shortly after peaking in intensity, Darby moved over coolers waters and began to deteriorate. The eye became less well-defined and the associated convection started weakening. Increasingly colder waters and growing wind shear continued to affect Darby, and the cyclone weakened to a tropical storm on July 30. The low-level center of circulation became exposed from the thunderstorm activity, and the storm quickly degenerated into a swirl of clouds, although it maintained tropical storm strength. On July 31, it weakened to a tropical depression. Darby soon crossed into the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's area of responsibility, and it dissipated as a tropical cyclone on August 1. However, its remnants continued westward under the low-level trade winds, and dropped heavy rainfall on Hawaii several days after the cyclone dissipated. ## Impact Upon reaching the Hawaiian Islands, the remnants of Darby contributed to heavy rainfall and high winds, prompting the issuance of flash flood watch. Along the eastern shores of Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and the Island of Hawaii, the system generated 4 to 8 feet (1.2 to 2.4 m) swells. The Honolulu Airport reported a daily record of 2.92 inches (74 mm) of rainfall, breaking the previous record of 0.96 inches (24 mm) set in 1948. Elsewhere, parts of Maui reported in excess of 8 inches (200 mm) of precipitation, while 4.6 inches (120 mm) fell on Oahu. The rainfall was beneficial in some areas, where dry conditions had persisted. Although crop damage from the storm system was limited, some farming operations were postponed and some coffee and nut trees were damaged. Along the eastern shores of several Hawaiian Islands, the storm system triggered surf of 4 to 8 ft (1.2 to 2.4 m). The heavy rainfall resulted in flash flooding throughout several areas. On Oahu, roads and some structures were flooded, and minor landslides were reported. On the island, telephone and electrical service were disrupted. At one location, a large boulder rolled down a hillside and struck a fire hydrant; firefighters were called to shut it off. On Kauai, the Wailua River exceeded flood stage on August 4. Small stream and drainage ditch flooding was reported in the Kau District of Hawaii. Excessive runoff around Kailua-Kona resulted in extensive flooding that forced the closure of five schools, submerged several roads, and triggered rockslides. Due to high water, several roads, including part of the Piilani Highway on Maui, were temporarily shut down. A portion of the Kamehameha Highway was also closed after being submerged under waters of up to 1.5 feet (0.46 m) deep. Despite the flooding, neither Darby nor its remnant moisture caused any casualties or severe property damage. ## See also - List of Hawaii hurricanes - Other tropical cyclones named Darby - Timeline of the 2004 Pacific hurricane season - Hurricane Blas (2022)

Gail Kim

Canadian professional wrestler (born 1977)

Gail Kim (born February 20, 1977) is a Canadian retired professional wrestler, currently signed to Impact Wrestling, where she serves as a producer. In Impact Wrestling she was the inaugural and record setting seven-time Knockouts Champion and she also was a one-time Knockouts Tag Team Champion where Madison Rayne was her tag team partner winning the belt alongside her. She is also known for her two stints in World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), where she won the WWE Women's Championship in her first match. Kim began her career wrestling on the Canadian-American independent circuit, before joining WWE in 2002. She became the first WWE Diva in history to win a championship in her debut match. After being released by WWE in 2004, Kim joined TNA in September 2005. There, she joined the tag team America's Most Wanted as their valet. After the dissolution of the group, Kim performed as a singles wrestler, eventually becoming the inaugural TNA Knockouts Champion in October 2007. During her time in TNA, she had an acclaimed feud with Awesome Kong, which is generally considered one of the greatest women's wrestling feuds of the 2000s. She later left TNA in August 2008, to return to WWE three months later, where she remained until 2011. The following October she returned to TNA. In 2012, Pro Wrestling Illustrated named Kim the number one female wrestler in the world and in 2016 she was announced as the first female inductee into the TNA Wrestling Hall of Fame. ## Professional wrestling career ### Independent circuit (2000–2002, 2005) After obtaining her degree from Ryerson University, Kim decided to become a professional wrestler and joined Ron Hutchison's School of Pro Wrestling in Toronto. She received supplementary training from Rob Etchevarria at the Squared Circle Pro Wrestling Gym. She debuted in December 2000, wearing a mask and wrestling as "The Queen of the Cats" La Felina in the Southern Ontario-based Apocalypse Wrestling Federation. She, however, was eventually unmasked by Tracy Brooks in a "Mask versus Hair" match. Kim worked on the Canadian independent circuit for two years, wrestling for promotions such as Border City Wrestling. After her release from WWE, Kim would make an appearance for Mid-Atlantic Championship Wrestling on January 22, 2005, in South Korea, teaming with Lollipop in a tag team match, where they defeated Malia Hosaka and Nidia. On June 26, Kim made her debut for World Series Wrestling (WSW) in Melbourne, Australia, losing to Nidia in a singles match. Two days later at another WSW event in Sydney, Kim defeated Nidia in a rematch. The following night, Kim teamed up with A.J. Styles to defeat Nidia and Christopher Daniels in a mixed tag team match. ### World Wrestling Entertainment (2002–2004) Kim was introduced to World Wrestling Federation (WWF) employee Nora Greenwald (known on-screen as Molly Holly) by Jason Sensation in 2001; Greenwald encouraged Kim to send her videos and tapes to WWF officials. In October 2002, she was hired by the WWF, now renamed World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). She spent eight months training in their then-developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW) and wrestled house shows and dark matches before being called up to their main roster. After several weeks of vignettes showcasing Matrix-like effects aired on Raw, Kim debuted on June 30 as a fan favorite, with a Matrix-inspired outfit. Her first televised WWE match was a seven-woman battle royal on the June 30, 2003, episode of Raw with the WWE Women's Championship, then held by an injured Jazz, on the line. Kim won the match by lastly eliminating Victoria. Kim held the title for four weeks, successfully defending it once against Molly Holly, before losing it to Holly on the July 28 episode of Raw. The following week, Kim turned heel on Trish Stratus, which stemmed from a previous Raw episode where Stratus cost Kim and herself a tag match against Victoria and Holly; Kim subsequently formed an alliance with Holly to take on Stratus, defeating her and various partners on several occasions, until Stratus was later assisted by Lita. At WWE's Unforgiven pay-per-view event on September 21, Stratus and Lita defeated Kim and Holly in a tag team match. The four women continued to feud until November, when Kim was sidelined with a broken right collarbone. Kim returned to Raw in April 2004 and immediately reforged her alliance with Holly. In May 2004, Kim submitted then-Women's Champion Victoria twice, in singles match and a six-woman tag match, earning herself a title shot at Bad Blood. However, Lita pinned Kim on the June 7 episode of Raw, and Lita and Trish Stratus were added to the championship match. At Bad Blood on June 13, she faced Lita, Stratus, and Victoria in a Fatal Four-Way match for the WWE Women's Championship, which was won by Stratus. Kim participated in a battle royal on October 19 at Taboo Tuesday, which was won by Stratus. Kim, however, was released by WWE on November 3, 2004, as a result of cost cutting. Kim was caught off guard by her release and was told that management wanted to take the women's division in a new direction. ### Total Nonstop Action Wrestling #### America's Most Wanted (2005–2007) Following her release from WWE and the expiration of her 90-day no-compete clause, Kim made sporadic appearances on the independent circuit, including at Michigan's All World Wrestling League and in Japan. She also competed in Korea and Mexico before being signed by Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) on September 6, 2005. She made her TNA debut on the October 8, 2005, episode of TNA Impact!, aligning herself with Jeff Jarrett and America's Most Wanted (AMW) (Chris Harris and James Storm) and taking on the role of AMW's and Jarrett's manager, and regularly got physically involved in the wrestlers' matches. Kim made her in-ring debut on July 16, 2006, at TNA's Victory Road pay-per-view in a Six Man Mixed Tag Team match with AMW against A.J. Styles, Christopher Daniels, and Sirelda. However, her team ended up on the losing end of the contest. At Hard Justice on August 13, Kim defeated Sirelda in a singles match. In early 2007, after the dissolution of AMW, Kim began a more active role as an in-ring competitor in TNA. This began with an on-screen feud with her former alliance, James Storm, and his new manager Jacqueline. The first encounter between the group was on February 11 at Against All Odds in a mixed tag team match, which Kim and her partner, Petey Williams, lost. On March 11 at Destination X, Storm and Jacqueline won a rematch against Kim and Williams in a Double Bullrope match. Kim went on to defeat Jacqueline in a Six Sides of Steel cage match on April 15 at Lockdown. Their feud came to an end on the May 3 episode of TNA Impact!, when Kim defeated Jacqueline under street fight rules. #### Singles competition (2007–2008) After the conclusion to her feud with Jacqueline, Kim made two minor pay-per-view appearances in a short feud against Robert Roode, before outlasting nine other competitors in a ten-woman gauntlet match to become the inaugural TNA Women's Knockout Champion on October 14, 2007, at Bound for Glory. She made her first title defense on November 11 at Genesis, where she retained the renamed TNA Women's Knockout Championship by defeating Roxxi Laveaux, ODB, and Angel Williams. Kim then began a feud with Awesome Kong over the championship. Their first encounter occurred on December 2 at Turning Point, which resulted in Kim retaining the title due to a disqualification by Kong. On January 6, 2008, at Final Resolution, Kim defeated Kong in an acclaimed second encounter to retain the championship under no disqualification rules. In their third and final encounter in the main event of the January 10 episode of TNA Impact!, Kong defeated Kim to win the TNA Women's Knockout Championship, however also suffering a concussion at the hands of Kong after being powerbombed in the ring three times. During the January 24 episode of TNA Impact!, Kim was awarded the 2007 TNA Knockout of the Year award. Kim competed in a three-way match on March 9 at Destination X against Kong and ODB, which Kong won. On April 13 at Lockdown, she teamed with ODB to defeat the team of Raisha Saeed and Kong in a tag team match. On May 11 at Sacrifice, Kim won a TNA Knockouts Makeover Battle Royal, which involved a battle royal and then a ladder match with the two remaining competitors, to become new one contender TNA Women's Knockout Championship. Kim competed for the championship on the May 15 episode of TNA Impact!, however failed to win the title. At Slammiversary on June 8, Kim teamed with ODB and Roxxi to defeat The Beautiful People (Angelina Love and Velvet Sky) and Moose in a six woman tag team match. Kim then went on to defeat Love on July 13 at Victory Road. Kim then teamed with ODB and Taylor Wilde to defeat the team of Kong and The Beautiful People on August 10 at Hard Justice, in her last TNA pay-per-view match. Kim's final match with TNA aired on the August 21 episode of TNA Impact! in a losing effort to Kong under street fight rules. Kim left TNA in mid-August 2008 after her contract expired. ### Return to WWE (2008–2011) After leaving TNA, Kim re-signed with WWE in late 2008. She made her return as a fan favorite on the March 27, 2009, episode of SmackDown, interrupting a WWE Divas Championship match between the villainous Diva's Champion, Maryse and Michelle McCool by attacking both competitors. Kim made her in-ring return on the March 30 episode of Raw in an 18-Diva tag team match. She made her first WrestleMania appearance in the 25-Diva Miss WrestleMania battle royal on April 5, 2009, at WrestleMania XXV. On the April 17 episode of SmackDown, Kim defeated then-Divas Champion Maryse. This earned her a championship match the following week, which she failed to win. On the June 29 episode of Raw, Kim was traded to the Raw brand as part of a 15 wrestler tri-branded trade between Raw, SmackDown, and ECW. A few weeks later on the August 10 episode of Raw, she became number one contender for the Divas title by winning a Fatal 4-Way match against Beth Phoenix, Kelly Kelly, and Alicia Fox. She, however, was unsuccessful in winning the championship on the August 17 episode of Raw, when she faced then-champion Mickie James. At Bragging Rights on October 25, Kim, with Melina and Kelly Kelly, represented Raw in a losing effort to Michelle McCool, Beth Phoenix, and Natalya, representing SmackDown. In early 2010, a tournament was held for the newly vacated Divas Championship, and Kim defeated Jillian Hall and Alicia Fox en route to the finals. The finals were held on the February 22 episode of Raw, which Maryse won to become the new champion. The finals were originally to be held on February 21 at Elimination Chamber, but the match was changed to the team of Maryse and Kim versus Team LayCool (Michelle McCool and Layla), which was won by LayCool as a result of Maryse abandoning Kim during the match. Kim was a part of the losing side of a 10-Diva tag team match, against Team LayCool, Alicia Fox, Vickie Guerrero, and Maryse, at WrestleMania XXVI on March 28. At Fatal 4-Way on June 20, Kim challenged for the Divas Championship in a Fatal 4-Way match that also involved then-champion Eve, Maryse, and Alicia Fox, which Fox would win to become the champion. In early 2011, Kim participated in fewer matches on television, as she became the on-screen girlfriend of Daniel Bryan. She also began accompanying him to the ring during his matches. At that time, Bryan was managed by The Bella Twins (Nikki and Brie), and after they discovered Bryan kissing Kim backstage, they started a feud with her. The night after the Royal Rumble, Kim accompanied Bryan to ringside for his match against Tyson Kidd. After the match, the Bellas ended their association with Bryan. For the first half of 2011, Kim feuded with Melina, due to Melina's claims that Kim was a "horrible friend". The matches between the two mainly took place on Superstars, and saw Kim emerging victorious in two singles matches on May 30 and June 23. On the August 1 episode of Raw, Kim participated in a battle royal to determine the number one contender for the Divas Championship, however, shortly after the match began, she eliminated herself. Kim later explained that WWE had instructed her to get eliminated from the match within the first minute, so she decided to just eliminate herself. On August 5, Kim announced on her Twitter account that she had quit WWE following the incident. Kim later indicated that WWE did not grant her release, but would instead force her to stay with the promotion for the remainder of her contract. Kim's WWE.com profile was removed on September 30, indicating that she had officially left the company, and that her contract expired. ### Return to Impact Wrestling #### Alliance with Karen Jarrett and Madison Rayne (2011–2012) Kim returned to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) on the October 20 episode of Impact Wrestling, attacking TNA Knockouts Champion Velvet Sky and aligning herself with Madison Rayne and Karen Jarrett, thus establishing herself as a villainess. On the October 27 episode of Impact Wrestling, Jarrett named Kim the \#1 Contender to Sky's title, before she went on to defeat Tara in her first match back with the promotion. On the November 3 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim and Rayne defeated TnT (Tara and Brooke Tessmacher) to win the TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship. The following week they made their first title defense, defeating Velvet Sky and Mickie James. On November 13 at Turning Point, Kim defeated Sky to win the TNA Knockouts Championship for the second time, making her a double champion and only the second woman in TNA history, after her partner Madison Rayne, to hold both the Knockouts and the Knockouts Tag Team titles simultaneously. She made her first title defense on December 11 at Final Resolution, defeating Mickie James following interference from Madison Rayne. On the December 29 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim retained her title against James following another interference from Rayne. On the January 5, 2012, episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim and Rayne retained their tag team titles against James and Traci Brooks. Three days later at Genesis, Kim defeated James by disqualification to retain the Knockouts Championship. On February 12 at Against All Odds, Kim successfully defended the Knockouts Championship against Tara, during which Madison Rayne walked out on her Knockouts Tag Team Championship partner. On the following episode of Impact Wrestling, Rayne won a battle royal to become the number one contender to Kim's Knockouts Championship. In the following weeks, tension between Kim and Rayne began to be teased with the two negatively interfering in each other's matches. On the March 8 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim and Rayne lost the Knockouts Tag Team Championship to Eric Young and ODB. On March 18 at Victory Road, Kim successfully defended the Knockouts Championship against Rayne. On the March 29 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim and Rayne reconciled and remained together as a team. On April 15 at Lockdown, Kim defeated Velvet Sky in a steel cage match, following a distraction from Rayne, to retain her title. Afterwards, Kim went on a losing streak against Brooke Tessmacher, which led to TNA naming Tessmacher the number one contender to her title. On May 13 at Sacrifice, Kim defeated Tessmacher, pinning her with her feet on the ropes, for another successful title defense. On the following episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim successfully defended her title against Tessmacher and Velvet Sky in a three-way match. On May 20, Kim became the longest reigning TNA Knockouts Champion in history by breaking Madison Rayne's previous record of 188 days. On June 10 at Slammiversary, Kim lost the title to Miss Tessmacher, ending her reign at 210 days. Kim received her rematch for the title on the July 12 episode of Impact Wrestling, but was again defeated by Tessmacher. #### Championship reigns (2013–2016) On January 13, 2013, at the Genesis pay-per-view, Kim competed in a five-woman gauntlet match to determine the number one contender to the TNA Knockouts Championship. Kim eliminated Miss Tessmacher, ODB and Mickie James but was eventually eliminated by Velvet Sky after referee Taryn Terrell failed to notice Kim's foot under the ropes. Kim was defeated on the February 21 episode of Impact Wrestling, in a fatal four–way elimination match for the Knockouts Championship against champion Tara, Miss Tessmacher, and Velvet Sky after physical involvement from referee Taryn Terrell. On March 10 at Lockdown, Kim unsuccessfully challenged Sky for her Knockouts Championship, after interference by referee Taryn Terrell. Kim then attacked Terrell backstage during an interview. On the following episode of Impact Wrestling, Terrell was placed on probation due to her actions. Later that night, Kim and Tara were defeated by Mickie James and Velvet Sky in a match officiated by Terrell, after Terrell violated her probation by slapping Kim. On the March 21 episode of Impact Wrestling, Terrell was terminated as Knockouts referee by Brooke Hogan, who then immediately signed Terrell to the Knockouts roster. On the April 4 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim and Tara defeated Terrell and Sky, with Kim pinning Terrell for the win. The rivalry between Kim and Terrell culminated in a Last Knockout Standing match on June 2 at Slammiversary XI, which Terrell won. On the July 11 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim defeated Terrell in a ladder match to become the number one contender to the Knockouts Championship. Kim received her title opportunity on the July 25 episode of Impact Wrestling, against champion Mickie James; Kim lost the match and afterwards, confronted referee ODB after she failed to see a dirty pin, beginning a feud between the two. On August 15 at Impact Wrestling: Hardcore Justice, ODB pinned Kim in a three-way hardcore match, which also included James. Kim and ODB faced off once again in a number one contender two out of three falls match on the August 29 episode of Impact Wrestling, which ODB won after making Kim submit for the first time ever in her career, to score the last fall. On October 20 at Bound for Glory, Kim defeated ODB and Brooke in a three-way match, following interference from her new ally Lei'D Tapa, to win her third TNA Knockouts Championship. Kim made her first televised defense on the October 31 episode of Impact Wrestling, defeating ODB in a rematch. When Kim and Tapa attacked ODB on the December 12 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim's former tag team partner Madison Rayne returned to help ODB. Rayne received her championship match on January 16 at Impact Wrestling: Genesis, which she won, ending Kim's reign at 88 days. The rivalry between Kim and Rayne continued as the two competed in a street fight on the February 20 episode of Impact Wrestling, which Kim won after a distraction by Tapa. At Lockdown, Kim was unsuccessful in regaining the Knockouts Championship in a steel cage match. On the March 13 episode of Impact Wrestling, tension between Kim and Tapa began to show when Kim lost to the debuting Brittany after Tapa accidentally attacked Kim. After the match, a brawl between Kim and Tapa ensued, disbanding their alliance. Kim saved Rayne from an attack from The Beautiful People (Angelina Love and Velvet Sky) on the April 24 episode of Impact Wrestling, but later lost a tag team match against The Beautiful People with Rayne as her partner. Kim and Love continued their feud, attacking each other on different occasions. On the June 12 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim defeated Brittany and Madison Rayne to become the number one contender to Love's championship. Kim faced Love for the championship on June 15 at Slammiversary, but she was unsuccessful in winning the title. Kim received a rematch against Love for the Knockouts Championship on the July 3 episode of Impact Wrestling, where Kim won the championship for a fourth time. In her first title defense, Kim successfully retained her championship against Love, Madison Rayne and Brittany in a four-way match on the July 10 episode of Impact Wrestling. On the July 31 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim successfully defended her championship against Taryn Terrell after the match went to a no-contest due to interference from The Beautiful People. Following a backstage attack by Love, on a special Hardcore Justice edition of Impact Wrestling, Kim ended her feud with The Beautiful People when she defeated Love in a Last Knockout Standing match with her Knockouts Championship on the line. Kim successfully defended her title against Taryn Terrell on the September 3 episode of Impact Wrestling. After the match, Kim and Terrell were both attacked by the debuting Havok. In September, Kim injured her shoulder during a pre-match brawl with Havok. Going against doctor's advice, Kim defended her title later that night and lost her championship to Havok. Soon after, it was announced that Kim had suffered a separated shoulder and torn ligaments at the hands of Havok, and would be out of action indefinitely. Kim returned to Impact Wrestling in November, demanding her rematch for the Knockouts title against Havok, which Kim ultimately lost. On the January 30, 2015, episode of Impact Wrestling, in a three–way match for the Knockouts Championship, Kim and Madison Rayne lost to the defending champion, Taryn Terrell. On the May 1 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim started an alliance with Awesome Kong to feud with Terrell, Jade and Marti Bell, collectively known as The Dollhouse. The following week, Kim and Kong were defeated by The Dollhouse in a three–on–two handicap match. Kim sustained an arm injury on the May 29 episode of Impact Wrestling, after unsuccessfully challenging Terrell for the Knockouts Championship in a steel cage match and being attacked by The Dollhouse afterwards. After some hiatus, Kim returned on the July 15 episode of Impact Wrestling, portraying a superhero-like character and attacking Jade, which allowed Brooke to win the Knockouts Championship. On the September 16 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim won her fifth Knockouts Championship by winning a four-way match also involving Brooke, Lei'D Tapa and Awesome Kong. Kim successfully retained the championship against Kong at Bound for Glory on October 4. During October and November (taped in July), she participated in the TNA World Title Series, where she ended first of her block, tied with Awesome Kong, advancing to the finals. on the December 2 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim lost to the then current TNA X Division Championship Tigre Uno and was eliminated from the TNA World Title Series. On January 19, 2016, Kim defended her title against Kong. She then lost her title to Jade in a three-way match also involving Madison Rayne after Maria hit Kim with her title belt on the April 5. On the May 10 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim faced Jade for the Knockouts championship, which she lost by DQ after Sienna attacked them. On the May 24 episode of Impact Wrestling, Kim defeated Sienna to keep her job, only to be attacked by Sienna and Maria. A week after, with EC3 as a manager for the night, Kim received a match against Maria at Slammiversary. At Slammiversary, her match with an injured Maria turned into a Triple Threat match for the Impact Knockouts Championship between her, Jade and Sienna (who eventually won the match). #### Hall of Famer (2016–2017) On June 14, 2016, Kim was announced as the first female inductee into the TNA Wrestling Hall of Fame. Shortly after, on October 2 at Bound for Glory she defeated Maria Kanellis for the Impact Women's Knockout Championship, winning the title for the record-tying sixth time which she had to vacate a week later after sustaining a back injury that forced her to take a few months off in-ring competition, during which Kim made a few appearances in November and December as she showed her support for Jade who feuded with Rosemary for the vacant championship. On the July 6, 2017, episode of the recently rebranded GFW Impact!, Kim returned to announce her legit retirement that is about to take place at the end of 2017. A month later, on August 17, at Destination X, Kim faced Sienna for the Unified GFW Knockouts Championship which she was unsuccessful to win due to interference by the return of her old rival Taryn Terrell. On November 5 at Bound for Glory (in what was supposed to be a fatal–four-way match between Kim, Sienna, Allie and Terrell but reverted to a three–way after Terrell's release from the company) Kim competed in her final match where she won the Impact Knockouts Championship for a record-breaking seventh time. The next night, she formally announced her retirement from professional wrestling and vacated the title in the process. #### Retirement and producer (2018–present) Kim wrestled what was announced to be the final match of her career on February 3, 2018, for Southside Wrestling in Stevenage, United Kingdom, where she defeated Kasey Owens in the main event of the show. After this retirement, Kim returned to Impact Wrestling as a producer and agent (talent development roles in which a seasoned, active or retired performer is a behind-the-scenes coach to active wrestlers on how to improve, and how to handle the day-to-day demands of being a wrestler). In late–November, Kim was inserted in the feud between Taya Valkyrie and Tessa Blanchard, after the latter had retained her title by attacking the referee. In December, in order to prevent any shenanigans from their upcoming match, Kim was announced as the special guest referee for the next encounter between the two Knockouts, that was set for January 6, 2019, at Impact Wrestling Homecoming. At the event, after she attacked Kim multiple times, Blanchard lost the Impact Wrestling Knockouts Championship to Valkyrie after Kim used her finishing move "Eat Defeat" on Tessa Blanchard. Throughout the next few months, the feud between Kim and Blanchard progressed even further as both attacked each other inside and outside the ring (including at the restaurant of Kim's husband). This led to the announcement of a match between the two, at Impact Wrestling Rebellion on April 28, where Blanchard defeated Kim in what was officially Kim's last match. After the match the two women embraced and in a backstage interview Kim confirmed that she is still going to work as a producer for the company. ## Legacy Kim has been praised as one of the greatest female wrestlers ever. Former Knockouts Champion ODB named Kim "the greatest Knockout ever". Wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer commented that Kim "was so ahead of her time." Although references of Kim were ultimately dropped by WWE following her second departure, in 2021, WWE Network included her in a list of Top 50 female performers in the history of the company. ## Personal life Kim was born in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, on February 20, 1977. She attended York Memorial Collegiate Institute and majored in kinesiology at the University of Toronto before transferring to Ryerson University and changing her major to nutrition. Kim married celebrity chef Robert Irvine on May 11, 2012. The couple met on the set of Dinner: Impossible. On October 10, 2017, Kim announced that she became an American citizen. Since she is also a Canadian citizen, she now holds dual citizenship. ## Other media Kim posed topless for a cell phone ad campaign in South Korea. In 2007, Kim was listed on Forbes' top 40 list of "America's Most Eligible Bachelorettes". In 2009, Kim was a part of the cast of the independent psychological thriller entitled Royal Kill. On October 13, 2011, Gail Kim, along with The Miz, John Morrison, Kofi Kingston, Heath Slater and Eve Torres appeared on a special WWE edition of Family BrainSurge. On August 18, 2012, Kim's and Robert Irvine's wedding ceremony was documented on an episode of Irvine's Restaurant: Impossible program. Gail also appeared with her husband, Robert, on an episode of Guy's Family Road Trip. In March 2020, Kim, along with Lita and Christy Hemme, announced "KAYfABE", a new wrestling show inspired by true events which blends scripted drama with pro wrestling. Kim appeared in the video games WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2010 and WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2011 during her second and final run with WWE. On April 2023, it was reported that Kim alongside Gisele Shaw would participate on the ninth season of The Amazing Race Canada. ## Championships and accomplishments - Apocalypse Wrestling Federation - Diva of the Year (2001) - Association Biterroise de Catch - ABC Women's Championship (1 time) - The Baltimore Sun - Woman of the Year (2007) - Funkin' Conservatory - FC Women's Championship (1 time) - Cauliflower Alley Club - Women's Wrestling Award (2015) - Imperial Wrestling Revolution - IWR Diamond Championship (1 time) - Pro Wrestling Illustrated - Ranked No. 1 of the top 50 female wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2012 - Total Nonstop Action Wrestling / Impact Wrestling - TNA / Impact Knockouts Championship (7 times, inaugural) - TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Madison Rayne - Gauntlet for the Gold (2007, 2016 – Knockouts) - Queen of the Knockouts (2013) - World Cup (2015) – with Jeff Hardy, Gunner, Rockstar Spud, Davey Richards, and Crazzy Steve - TNA Hall of Fame (2016) - TNA Year End Award (1 time) - Knockout of the Year (2007) - World Wrestling Entertainment - WWE Women's Championship (1 time) ## Luchas de Apuestas record

So Long Self

2006 single by MercyMe

"So Long Self" is a song written and performed by Christian rock band MercyMe. "So Long Self" is musically a song with a lyrical theme revolving around a figurative breakup with one's self. "So Long Self" was released as the lead single from the band's 2006 album Coming Up to Breathe. "So Long Self" received positive reception from critics, who praised the song's lyrical hook. It was added by fifty-two Christian AC stations in its first chart week, a record for the Christian AC chart. The song had success on both Christian and mainstream radio, peaking at number one on the Christian Songs chart for four consecutive weeks; it also peaked at number sixteen on the Adult Contemporary chart. It was listed on Billboard magazine's 2006 year-end Christian Songs and Adult Contemporary charts. ## Background and composition Lead singer Bart Millard has described the story behind "So Long Self" as "...really simple: It’s Not About [humanity]. It never has been and it never will be. Just like when maybe you had to break up with a girlfriend or a boyfriend growing up, or maybe the same thing happened to you, the ultimate breakup in life is when we breakup with ourselves. Because Christ said you have to die to self to follow him". The song is also lyrically about a break-up with sinful human nature. "So Long Self" was written and composed by MercyMe. It was recorded in Allaire Studios in Shokan, New York; overdubs were recorded in Oxford Sound in Nashville, Tennessee, while strings were recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London, England. "So Long Self" is a song with a length of four minutes and three seconds. The song is set in the key of A-flat major and has a tempo of 144 beats per minute, with a vocal range spanning from B₃ to E₅. "So Long Self" features a guitar solo near the end of the song, and the bridge of the song features what has been described as Electric Light Orchestra-influenced vocals. ## Reception ### Critical reception "So Long Self" received positive reviews from critics. Steve Losey of Allmusic commented that "['So Long Self'] has mass appeal musically and lyrically", also opining that "the coolest part about the poppy hook is the ELO type vocals that penetrate the song's middle". Lauren Summerford of Jesus Freak Hideout stated that "Lead single 'So Long Self' is one of the best tracks Coming Up To Breathe has to offer. With a lyrical hook sure to have radio listeners singing along, this song finds [Bart] Millard bidding farewell to sinful nature and moving closer to Christ". Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today commented that "It almost seems like MercyMe is overcompensating to gain artistic credibility with the bouncy single 'So Long Self,' an undeniably catchy breakup song with our sinful nature that echoes [Steven Curtis] Chapman covering The Beatles, going so far as to playfully evoke a carnival in the bridge". ### Chart performance Upon release, the song was added by fifty-two Christian AC stations - a record for the most adds in the history of the Christian AC chart. The record was previously forty-five adds, accomplished by the Joy Williams song "Hide" (2005). "So Long Self" later peaked at number one on the Christian AC chart, as well as at number one on the Christian Songs chart and at number sixteen on the Adult Contemporary chart. "So Long Self" debuted at No. 26 on Billboard magazine's Christian Songs chart for the chart week of April 1, 2006. The song jumped up to No. 15 the next week before advancing to No. 10 in its fourth chart week. "So Long Self" advanced to No. 4 for the chart week of May 13, 2006, and hit No. 1 ten weeks later, a spot the song held for four consecutive weeks. After "So Long Self" spent its fourth and final weeks at the top, the song spent nine more weeks on the chart before dropping out. In all, "So Long Self" spent twenty-six weeks on the chart. On the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart, "So Long Self" debuted at No. 38 for the chart week of May 6, 2006, and advanced to No. 23 in its second week on the chart. The song advanced to No. 20 in its fourth week on the chart and spent a further three weeks inside the top 20 before dropping back to No. 22 on its eighth chart week. "So Long Self" reached its eventual peak of No. 16 for the chart week of August 5, 2006, and spent a further six weeks on the chart before dropping out. In all, "So Long Self" spent twenty weeks on the chart. Billboard ranked "So Long Self" at No. 10 on its 2006 year-end Christian Songs chart, and at No. 33 on its year-end Adult Contemporary chart. They also ranked the song at No. 61 on the 2000s decade-end Hot Christian AC chart. ## Music video A music video was released for "So Long Self". The video opens with the members of the band watching a television program of their live soundcheck for a concert. When the band realizes it cannot possibly be playing a 'live' soundcheck since they are in their tour bus, they exit the vehicle to stop the imposters. The real band members trap the fakes in a room, and then go out on stage and perform. Near the end of the video, security kicks the fake band members out of the arena. Matt Johnson of Jesus Freak Hideout commented about the video on his review of MercyMe's album 10, noting that "Most people think of serious worshipful songs (such as "I Can Only Imagine" & "Word of God Speak") when they think of MercyMe, but the "So Long Self" video captures a side that most don't think of, their fun side". ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### Decade-end charts ## See also - List of number-one Billboard Christian Songs of the 2000s

Great hammerhead

Species of shark

The great hammerhead (Sphyrna mokarran) or great hammerhead shark is the largest species of hammerhead shark, belonging to the family Sphyrnidae, attaining an average length of 4.6 m (15 ft) and reaching a maximum length of 6.1 m (20 ft). It is found in tropical and warm temperate waters worldwide, inhabiting coastal areas and the continental shelf. The great hammerhead can be distinguished from other hammerheads by the shape of its "hammer" (called the "cephalofoil"), which is wide with an almost straight front margin, and by its tall, sickle-shaped first dorsal fin. A solitary, strong-swimming apex predator, the great hammerhead feeds on a wide variety of prey ranging from crustaceans and cephalopods, to bony fish, to smaller sharks. Observations of this species in the wild suggest that the cephalofoil functions to immobilize stingrays, a favored prey. This species has a viviparous mode of reproduction, bearing litters of up to 50 pups every two years. Although potentially dangerous, the great hammerhead rarely attacks humans and can sometimes behave inquisitively toward divers. This shark is heavily fished for its large fins, which are valuable on the Chinese market as the main ingredient of shark fin soup. As a result, great hammerhead populations are declining substantially worldwide, and it has been assessed as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as of 2019. ## Taxonomy and phylogeny The great hammerhead was first described as Zygaena mokarran in 1837 by German naturalist Eduard Rüppell. The species name is the common name in Arabic مقرن and means "horned". The name was later changed to the current Sphyrna mokarran. For many years, though, the valid scientific name for the great hammerhead was thought to be Sphyrna tudes, which was coined in 1822 by Achille Valenciennes. In 1950, Enrico Tortonese determined that the specimens illustrated by Valenciennes were in fact smalleye hammerheads, to which the name S. tudes then applied. As the next-most senior synonym, Sphyrna mokarran became the great hammerhead's valid name. The lectotype for this species is a 2.5-m-long (8.2 ft) male from the Red Sea. Older studies based on morphology have generally placed the great hammerhead as one of the more derived members of its family, reflecting the traditional view that cephalofoil size gradually increased over the course of hammerhead shark evolution, but this view has been refuted by phylogenetic analyses using nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, which found that the great hammerhead and the smooth hammerhead (S. zygaena) form a clade that is basal to all other Sphyrna species. These results also show that the first hammerheads to evolve had large rather than small cephalofoils. ## Distribution and habitat The great hammerhead inhabits tropical waters around the world, between the latitudes of 40°N and 37°S. In the Atlantic Ocean, it is found from North Carolina to Uruguay, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, and from Morocco to Senegal, and the Mediterranean Sea. It is found all along the rim of the Indian Ocean, and in the Pacific Ocean from the Ryukyu Islands to Australia, New Caledonia, and French Polynesia, and from southern Baja California to Peru. It may occur off Gambia, Guinea, Mauritania, Sierra Leone, and Western Sahara, but this has not been confirmed. Great hammerheads may be found from inshore waters less than 1 m (3.3 ft) deep, to a depth of 80 m (260 ft) offshore. They favor coral reefs, but also inhabit continental shelves, island terraces, lagoons, and deep water near land. They are migratory; populations off Florida and in the South China Sea have been documented moving closer to the poles in the summer. ## Description The streamlined body of the great hammerhead with the expanded cephalofoil is typical of the hammerhead sharks. Adults can be distinguished from the scalloped hammerhead and the smooth hammerhead by the shape of the cephalofoil, which has a nearly straight front margin (as opposed to arched), with prominent medial and lateral indentations. The width of the cephalofoil is 23–27% of the body length. The teeth are triangular and strongly serrated, becoming more oblique toward the corners of the mouth. Seventeen tooth rows are on either side of the upper jaw, with two or three teeth at the symphysis (the midline of the jaw), and 16–17 teeth on either side of the lower jaw and one to three at the symphysis. The first dorsal fin is distinctive, being very tall and strongly sickle-shaped, and originates over the insertions of the pectoral fins. The second dorsal fin and anal fin are both relatively large, with deep notches in the rear margins. The pelvic fins are sickle-shaped with concave rear margins, in contrast to the straight-margined pelvic fins of the scalloped hammerhead. The skin is covered with closely placed dermal denticles. Each denticle is diamond-shaped, with three to five horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth in smaller individuals, and five or six in larger ones. The great hammerhead is dark brown to light gray to olive above, fading to white on the underside. The fins are unmarked in adults, while the tip of the second dorsal fin may be dark in juveniles. The typical minimum great hammerhead measures 3.5 m (11 ft) long and weighs over 230 kg (510 lb), while the maximum measures 4.6 m (15 ft) long and weighs 449.5 kg (991 lb). A small percentage of the population, mostly or all females, are much larger. The longest great hammerhead on record was 6.1 m (20 ft). The heaviest known great hammerhead is a female, 4.4 m (14 ft) long and 580 kg (1,280 lb) in weight caught off Boca Grande, Florida, in 2006. The weight of the female was due to her being pregnant with 55 neonatal pups. Exceptionally large individuals may possibly reach 900 kg (2,000 lb) in weight, though this has not been verified. ## Biology and ecology The great hammerhead is a solitary, nomadic predator that tends to be given a wide berth by other reef sharks. If confronted, it may respond with an agonistic display, dropping its pectoral fins and swimming in a stiff or jerky fashion. Juveniles are preyed upon by larger sharks such as bull sharks (Carcharhinus leucas), while adults have no major predators except for killer whales, which hunt hammerheads of any age. Yellow jacks (Carangoides bartholomaei) have been seen rubbing themselves against the hammerhead's flanks, possibly to rid themselves of parasites. Schools of pilot fish (Naucrates ductor) sometimes accompany the great hammerhead. The great hammerhead is parasitized by several species of copepods, including Alebion carchariae, A. elegans, Nesippus orientalis, N. crypturus, Eudactylina pollex, Kroyeria gemursa, and Nemesis atlantica. ### Feeding The great hammerhead shark is an active predator with a varied diet, known prey of the great hammerhead include invertebrates such as crabs, lobsters, squid, and octopus; bony fishes such as tarpon, sardines, sea catfishes, toadfish, porgies, grunts, jacks, croakers, groupers, flatfishes, boxfishes, and porcupine fishes; and smaller sharks such as smoothhounds. At Rangiroa Atoll, great hammerheads prey opportunistically on grey reef sharks (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos) that have exhausted themselves pursuing mates. The species is known to be cannibalistic. In the Gatun Formation of Panama, fossil teeth belonging to great hammerheads suggest the shark once preyed on juvenile Otodus megalodon, alongside the extinct snaggletooth shark Hemipristis serra, with which it was once contemporary. Great hammerheads are apex predators among sharks, and are specialists at feeding on other sharks, rays, and skates, especially stingrays. The venomous spines of stingrays are frequently found lodged inside its mouth and do not seem to bother the shark, as one specimen caught off Florida had 96 spines in and around its mouth. Great hammerheads primarily hunt at dawn or dusk, swinging their heads in broad angles over the sea floor so as to pick up the electrical signatures of stingrays buried in the sand, via numerous electroreceptory organs located on the underside of the cephalofoil. The cephalofoil also serves as a hydrofoil that allows the shark to quickly turn around and strike at a ray once detected. Off Florida, large hammerheads are often the first to reach newly baited sharklines, suggesting a particularly keen sense of smell. Another function of the cephalofoil is suggested by an observation of a great hammerhead attacking a southern stingray (Dasyatis americana) in the Bahamas; the shark first knocked the ray to the sea bottom with a powerful blow from above, and then pinned it with its head while pivoting to take a large bite from each side of the ray's pectoral fin disc. This effectively crippled the stingray, which was then picked up in the jaws and sawed apart with rapid shakes of the head. A great hammerhead has also been seen attacking a spotted eagle ray (Aetobatus narinari) in open water by taking a massive bite out of one of its pectoral fins. The ray thus incapacitated, the shark once again used its head to pin it to the bottom and pivoted to take the ray in its jaws head-first. These observations suggest that the great hammerhead seeks to disable rays with the first bite, a strategy similar to that of the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), and that its cephalofoil is an adaptation for prey handling. Great hammerheads have been observed hunting in coral reef flats as shallow as \~0.7 m (2.3 ft). ### Rolled swimming and energy conservation A 2016 study of specimens logged with accelerometers showed that great hammerhead sharks reduce drag and lessen energy expenditure by swimming on their side in a posture termed "rolled swimming". The shark uses its very large dorsal fin to help achieve lift, a habit that had previously been noted in captive specimens, and may spend up to 90% of its time in this swimming orientation. The technique is thought to save about 10% in drag and consequently movement costs. ### Life history As with other hammerhead sharks, great hammerheads are viviparous; once the developing young use up their supply of yolk, the yolk sac is transformed into a structure analogous to a mammalian placenta. Unlike most other sharks, which mate on or near the sea bottom, great hammerheads have been observed mating near the surface. In one account from the Bahamas, a mating pair ascended while swimming around each other, mating when they reached the surface. Females breed once every two years, giving birth from late spring to summer in the Northern Hemisphere and from December to January in Australian waters. The gestation period is 11 months. The litter size ranges from six to 55 pups, with 20–40 being typical. The young measure 50–70 cm (19.5–27.5 in) at birth; males reach maturity at 2.3–2.8 m (7.5–9.2 ft) long and 51 kg (112 lb) and the females at 2.5–3.0 m (8.2–9.8 ft) and 41 kg (90 lb). The young differ from the adults in having a rounded frontal margin on the head. The typical lifespan of this species is 20–30 years; the record Boca Grande female was estimated to be 40–50 years old. ## Human interactions With its large size and cutting teeth, the great hammerhead could seriously injure a human, so caution should be exercised around them. This species has a (possibly undeserved) reputation for aggression and being the most dangerous of the hammerhead sharks. Divers underwater have reported that great hammerheads tend to be shy or nonreactive toward humans. Reports have been made of great hammerheads approaching divers closely and even charging them when they first enter the water. As of 2011, the International Shark Attack File lists 34 bites, with 17 of them unprovoked and none fatal, attributable to hammerhead sharks of the genus Sphyrna. Due to the difficulty in identifying the species involved, how many were caused by great hammerheads is uncertain. This shark has been confirmed to be responsible for only one (provoked) bite. The great hammerhead is regularly caught both commercially and recreationally in the tropics, using longlines, fixed bottom nets, hook-and-line, and trawls. Though the meat is rarely consumed, their fins are becoming increasing valuable due to the Asian demand for shark fin soup. In addition, their skin used for leather, their liver oil for vitamins, and their carcasses for fishmeal. The great hammerhead is also taken unintentionally as bycatch and suffers very high mortality, over 90% for fisheries in the northwest Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. Entanglement in shark nets around Australian and South African beaches is another source of mortality. In Queensland, Australia recreational fishers are prohibited from taking any hammerhead species. In Australia's other northern jurisdictions (the Northern Territory and Western Australia) recreational targeting and catching of great hammerheads is allowed. ## Conservation status The great hammerhead is extremely vulnerable to overfishing due to its low overall abundance and long generation time. Assessment of its conservation status is difficult, as few fisheries separate the great hammerhead from other hammerheads in their reported catches. This species is listed as globally critically endangered on the IUCN Red List. It is endangered in the north-western Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico, where though it is not a targeted species, populations have dropped 50% since the 1990s due to bycatch. It is also endangered in the southwestern Indian Ocean, where large numbers of longline vessels operate illegally along the coasts for hammerheads and the giant guitarfish (Rhynchobatus djiddensis). The great hammerhead catch rate in Indian Ocean has declined 73% from 1978 to 2003, though whether these represent localized or widespread depletions is uncertain. The great hammerhead is critically endangered along the western coast of Africa, where stocks have collapsed, with an estimated 80% decline in the past 25 years. The West African Sub-Regional Fishing Commission (SRFC) has recognized the great hammerhead as one of the four most threatened species in the region, though fishing continues unmonitored and unregulated. Off northern Australia, this species was assessed as data deficient, but at "high risk". Concern has arisen there over a substantial increase in illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, reflecting the rising value of this shark's fins. No conservation measures specifically protecting the great hammerhead have been enacted. It is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, though no management schemes have yet been implemented under this agreement. The banning of shark finning by countries and supranational entities such as United States, Australia, and the European Union, and international regulatory bodies such as the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas, should reduce fishing pressure on the great hammerhead. According to a January 2021 study in Nature, which studied 31 species of sharks and rays, the number of these species found in open oceans had dropped by 71% in around 50 years. The great hammerhead was included in the study.

2010 Carfax 400

The 2010 Carfax 400 was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series stock car race that was held on August 15, 2010 at Michigan International Speedway in Brooklyn, Michigan. Contested over 200 laps, it was the twenty-third race of the 2010 Sprint Cup Series season. The race was won by Kevin Harvick for the Richard Childress Racing team. Denny Hamlin finished second, and Carl Edwards, who started twenty-fourth, clinched third. Pole position driver Kasey Kahne maintained his lead into the first corner to begin the race, but Jimmie Johnson, who started in the second position on the grid, took the lead before the first lap was over. Afterward, Greg Biffle became the leader, and would eventually lead to the race high of 66 laps. Tony Stewart led after the final pit stops, ahead of Hamlin and Harvick. Harvick helped Hamlin to become the leader, but with twelve laps left, Harvick gained on Hamlin and claimed the first position with eleven laps remaining. Harvick maintained his position to claim his first Sprint Cup victory at Michigan International Speedway. There were five cautions and nineteen lead changes among nine different drivers throughout the course of the race, Harvick's third win of the season. The result maintained the first position in the Drivers' Championship and clinched him a position in the Chase. He remained 293 points ahead of second place driver Jeff Gordon and 353 ahead of Denny Hamlin. Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers' Championship, thirty points ahead of Toyota and sixty-one ahead of Ford, with thirteen races remaining in the season. A total of 105,000 people attended the race, while 4.917 million watched it on television. ## Race report ### Background Michigan International Speedway is one of six superspeedways to hold NASCAR races; the others are Daytona International Speedway, Auto Club Speedway, Indianapolis Motor Speedway, Pocono Raceway and Talladega Superspeedway. The standard track at Michigan International Speedway is a four-turn superspeedway that is 2 miles (3.2 km) long. The track's turns are banked at eighteen degrees, while the front stretch, the location of the finish line, is banked at twelve degrees. The back stretch, has a five degree banking. Michigan International Speedway had a seating capacity of 119,500 people for the race. One team chose to replace their regular driver with a substitute. Prior to the first practice session, Extenze decided to cancel their sponsorship with Front Row Motorsports, prompting the team to replace Kevin Conway with Tony Raines. During the week leading up to the race, Gordon's wife gave birth to their son, Leo Benjamin Gordon. Gordon said that he was not planning to retire until his son could see him in victory lane. Before the race, Kevin Harvick led the Drivers' Championship with 3,210 points, and Jeff Gordon stood in second with 3,025 points. Jeff Burton was third in the Drivers' Championship with 2,895 points, Kurt Busch was fourth with 2,892 points, and Jimmie Johnson was in fifth with 2,882 points. In the Manufacturers' Championship, Chevrolet was leading with 158 points, twenty-seven points ahead of their rival Toyota. Ford, with 102 points, was nine points ahead of Dodge in the battle for third. Brian Vickers was the race's defending champion. ### Practice and qualifying Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race—one on Friday and two on Saturday. The first session lasted 90 minutes. The Saturday morning session lasted 45 minutes, and the final practice session was 60 minutes in length. During the first practice session, Jeff Burton was quickest with a time of 38.479, ahead of Juan Pablo Montoya and Kevin Harvick in second and third. Carl Edwards followed in the fourth position, ahead of Greg Biffle in fifth. In the Saturday morning session, Biffle was quickest, ahead of Ryan Newman and Kasey Kahne in second and third. Burton and Kurt Busch followed in the fourth and fifth positions. In the final practice session for the race, Jimmie Johnson was quickest with a time of 38.742. David Ragan followed in second, ahead of Jeff Gordon and Harvick in third and fourth. Biffle, who was quickest in second practice, only managed fifth quickest. Denny Hamlin, who won at Michigan International Speedway in the spring, was having a difficult time trying to improve the car handling of the race car he won with. Hamlin said, "It's going all right. We were about like we were here in [June] as far as speed. We're a little bit slow on speed as far as qualifying, but we feel like the race stuff is pretty competitive." His teammate Kyle Busch was also struggling, adding, "Our [car] was loose off. We jumped back and forth in practice from tight to loose. We picked up from practice, but we couldn't rotate the center like I wanted to." During qualifying, forty-seven cars were entered, but only forty-three will be able to race because of NASCAR's qualifying procedure. Kasey Kahne clinched his eighteenth career pole position, with a time of 38.465. After his qualifying run, Kahne commented, "[Turns] 1 and 2 were really strong. Coming to the green, I felt like I was a little bit free, and it was the same through 1 and 2, but I got through there really good and carried a lot of speed down the backstretch. Then, when I got to Turn 3, I couldn't get it to turn enough, so I kind of just floored it and actually used up a lot of the racetrack, went up the track a little bit loose off [the corner] and definitely didn't have as good a 3 and 4 as I would have liked. At that point, I thought I probably gave the pole away, but we were able to still hang on just from the speed that we had in 1 and 2." He was joined on the front row of the grid by Jimmie Johnson. Clint Bowyer qualified third, Tony Stewart took fourth, and Montoya started fifth, after being scored ninth in the final practice session. The four drivers that did not qualify were J. J. Yeley, Scott Riggs, Casey Mears, and Mike Bliss. ### Race summary The race, the twenty-third out of a total of thirty-six in the season, began at 1 p.m. EDT and was televised live in the United States on ESPN. Conditions were partly cloudy with a high of 80 °F (27 °C). Pastor Doug Bradshaw began pre-race ceremonies by giving the invocation. Next, Virgin Records recording artists Saving Abel performed the national anthem, and Virginia Craig and Evander Holyfield gave the command for drivers to start their engines. Kasey Kahne held the lead going through the first corner but was passed by Jimmie Johnson before the second lap. Tony Stewart then passed Kahne for the second position. Five laps later, Greg Biffle emerged in third. By lap ten, Johnson had built a 1.7-second lead over Stewart, who was passed by Biffle for second. Biffle caught Johnson by lap 14, but he did not snatch the lead until lap 15. On lap 18, Stewart took second place from Johnson, as Kevin Harvick emerged in fourth. Harvick moved into third after passing Johnson on the next lap. On lap 23, Michael McDowell and P. J. Jones drove to the garage, followed by Joe Nemechek two laps later. On lap 28, Harvick began closing in on Biffle, but before he could pass him, the first caution was called because Kurt Busch's engine had failed. On lap 39, Biffle led the drivers in the restart. Juan Pablo Montoya moved to fifth after passing Clint Bowyer on the next lap. Johnson reclaimed third position on lap 41 but was passed by Harvick after five laps. By lap 48, Harvick had caught and passed Stewart for the second position, and by lap 55, Harvick had caught Biffle. Five laps later, light rain falling in turn three (the turn following the back stretch) prompted the second caution. On lap 61, teams made their pit stops for fuel and tires. Biffle remained the leader when the green flag waved on lap 66. On lap 70, Joey Logano collided with Paul Menard, and both sustained minor damage. After starting thirty-sixth, Jeff Gordon moved into the tenth position by lap 73. Eleven laps later, Stewart took the lead from Biffle. On lap 92, Harvick passed Biffle to claim the second position. Gordon passed Johnson for seventh as Montoya and David Reutimann began a run of green flag pit stops on lap 98. They were followed by Johnson, Kyle Busch, and Denny Hamlin two laps later. When Stewart went to pit the next lap, Harvick became the leader. Stewart reclaimed the lead on lap 103. Seven laps later, Bowyer passed Kahne for the fourth position, and Harvick moved into the first position. On lap 116, Gordon emerged in fourth while Harvick held a 1.5-second lead over Stewart. Ten laps later, Gordon moved into the third position. By lap 129, Harvick had a 6.45-second lead over Biffle, who had passed Stewart for second. On lap 137, green flag pit stops began for the second time. Two laps later, Biffle made his pit stop. Harvick stayed on the track for another lap before pitting fast enough to hold off Biffle, therefore remaining the leader at the conclusion of the pit stops. On lap 148, Logano and Ryan Newman collided, causing Newman's car to turn sideways, causing the third caution flag to be waved. On lap 152, Harvick led the drivers to the green flag. Two laps later, the fourth caution came out because Jeff Gordon and Jeff Burton sustained damage to their race cars. Most drivers made a pit stop for fuel only, but Elliott Sadler stayed on track to lead the race. Sadler led on the restart, but Martin Truex Jr. and David Ragan passed him on the following lap, relegating him to third position. On lap 166, Ragan passed Truex Jr. for the lead. The next lap, Stewart emerged in the first position as the fifth caution came out because of debris on the track. On lap 169, Stewart, Harvick, Regan Smith, Scott Speed, and Hamlin stayed out on the track while the rest of the field made pit stops. Stewart led on the restart, followed by Harvick. On lap 174, Hamlin passed Harvick for the second position and Biffle moved into fourth. Harvick helped Hamlin into the lead four laps later, but passed him for the lead on lap 189. By lap 193, Harvick had a 1.35-second lead over Hamlin. Carl Edwards passed Stewart for third on the next lap. Kevin Harvick crossed the finish line in first to take his third win of the season. Denny Hamlin followed in second, ahead of Edwards in third, Biffle in fourth, and Matt Kenseth in fifth. The race had five cautions and ten lead changes among five different drivers. ### Post-race Kevin Harvick appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his third win of the season, and his first Sprint Cup win at Michigan International Speedway, in front of a crowd of 105,000 people. "Our cars had run good here before, but I hadn't. The last couple of times we've really committed ourselves to driving in different spots on the race track and doing different things from inside the car and trying to manage the practice as well as we can to not fool ourselves," said Harvick of his triumph. Although Denny Hamlin was leading the race near the end, Harvick passed him with eleven laps left. Hamlin, who finished second, said, "He would catch me getting into turn three, I would pull away in three and four. He was quite a bit better than me in one and two. So it was kind of split. It's pretty much all we had. Obviously the fastest car won today. So it was at least good to see that." In the subsequent press conference, Harvick stated, "A lot of the places we would classify as places we don't run good, we've ran as good at those places this year as we do at the short tracks, road courses, the places you can typically count on us running good." Richard Childress, the owner of Richard Childress Racing, expressed his enjoyment of winning the race after reminiscing about one of his other victories at the track: > "I remember winning here and how proud we were to win for GM Goodwrench back in those days and to win in a GM product up here. There’s a lot of pride. It’s great to be here today and win." Harvick spoke about the difficulty of winning at the track, saying "It's just a lot of years of getting beat by people running up there to be honest with you. I never really could figure it out. So probably end of last year ... I went home and watched some tapes of Dale [Earnhardt] Jr., some of his previous races here, because he always seemed to have a good handle on running the top groove. It was just more of a rhythm thing and some things that I needed to change in my approach to run up there. For us, I think the biggest change was not only the race cars being good, but just the approach to where we ran on the race track during the race and making that commitment. It worked out for us today." The race result left Harvick leading the Driver's Championship with 3,400 points, assuring him a position in the Chase for the Sprint Cup. Jeff Gordon, who finished twenty-seventh, was second on 3,107, sixty points ahead of Hamlin and eighty-seven ahead of Tony Stewart. Jimmie Johnson was fifth with 3,014 points. Chevrolet maintained their lead in the Manufacturers' Championship with 167 points. Toyota placed second with 147 points, and Ford followed with 106 points, ten ahead of Dodge in fourth. 4.917 million people watched the race on television. The race took two hours, forty-six minutes and thirty-eight seconds to complete, and the margin of victory was 1.731 seconds. ## Results ### Qualifying ### Race results ## Standings after the race Drivers' Championship standings Manufacturers' Championship standings - Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings. - \* This driver clinched a position in the Chase for the Sprint Cup.

Women's health

Broad subject that encompasses all facets of women's health

Women's health differs from that of men in many unique ways. Women's health is an example of population health, where health is defined by the World Health Organization as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". Often treated as simply women's reproductive health, many groups argue for a broader definition pertaining to the overall health of women, better expressed as "The health of women". These differences are further exacerbated in developing countries where women, whose health includes both their risks and experiences, are further disadvantaged. While the rates of the leading causes of death, cardiovascular disease, cancer and lung disease, are similar in women and men, women have different experiences. Lung cancer has overtaken all other types of cancer as the leading cause of cancer death in women, followed by breast cancer, colorectal, ovarian, uterine and cervical cancers. While smoking is the major cause of lung cancer, amongst nonsmoking women the risk of developing cancer is three times greater than among nonsmoking men. Despite this, breast cancer remains the commonest cancer in women in developed countries, and is one of the more important chronic diseases of women, while cervical cancer remains one of the commonest cancers in developing countries, associated with human papilloma virus (HPV), an important sexually transmitted disease. HPV vaccine together with screening offers the promise of controlling these diseases. Other important health issues for women include cardiovascular disease, depression, dementia, osteoporosis and anemia. A major impediment to advancing women's health has been their underrepresentation in research studies, an inequity being addressed in the United States and other western nations by the establishment of centers of excellence in women's health research and large scale clinical trials such as the Women's Health Initiative. In 176 out of 178 countries for which records are available, there is a gender gap in favor of women in life expectancy. In Western Europe this has been the case at least as far back as 1750. Gender remains an important social determinant of health, since women's health is influenced not just by their biology but also by conditions such as poverty, employment, and family responsibilities. Women have long been disadvantaged in many respects such as social and economic power which restricts their access to the necessities of life including health care, and the greater the level of disadvantage, such as in developing countries, the greater adverse impact on health. Women's reproductive and sexual health has a distinct difference compared to men's health. Even in developed countries pregnancy and childbirth are associated with substantial risks to women with maternal mortality accounting for more than a quarter of a million deaths per year, with large gaps between the developing and developed countries. Comorbidity from other non reproductive disease such as cardiovascular disease contribute to both the mortality and morbidity of pregnancy, including preeclampsia. Sexually transmitted infections have serious consequences for women and infants, with mother-to-child transmission leading to outcomes such as stillbirths and neonatal deaths, and pelvic inflammatory disease leading to infertility. In addition infertility from many other causes, birth control, unplanned pregnancy, unconsensual sexual activity and the struggle for access to abortion create other burdens for women. ## Definitions and scope Women's experience of health and disease differ from those of men, due to unique biological, social and behavioral conditions. Biological differences vary from phenotypes to the cellular biology, and manifest unique risks for the development of ill health. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". Women's health is an example of population health, the health of a specific defined population. Women's health has been described as "a patchwork quilt with gaps". Although many of the issues around women's health relate to their reproductive health, including maternal and child health, genital health and breast health, and endocrine (hormonal) health, including menstruation, birth control and menopause, a broader understanding of women's health to include all aspects of the health of women has been urged, replacing "Women's Health" with "The Health of Women". The WHO considers that an undue emphasis on reproductive health has been a major barrier to ensuring access to good quality health care for all women. Conditions that affect both men and women, such as cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, also manifest differently in women. Women's health issues also include medical situations in which women face problems not directly related to their biology, such as gender-differentiated access to medical treatment and other socioeconomic factors. Women's health is of particular concern due to widespread discrimination against women in the world, leaving them disadvantaged. A number of health and medical research advocates, such as the Society for Women's Health Research in the United States, support this broader definition, rather than merely issues specific to human female anatomy to include areas where biological sex differences between women and men exist. Women also need health care more and access the health care system more than do men. While part of this is due to their reproductive and sexual health needs, they also have more chronic non-reproductive health issues such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, mental illness, diabetes and osteoporosis. Another important perspective is realising that events across the entire life cycle (or life-course), from in utero to aging effect the growth, development and health of women. The life course perspective is one of the key strategies of the World Health Organization. ### Global perspective Gender differences in susceptibility and symptoms of disease and response to treatment in many areas of health are particularly true when viewed from a global perspective. Much of the available information comes from developed countries, yet there are marked differences between developed and developing countries in terms of women's roles and health. The global viewpoint is defined as the "area for study, research and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving health equity for all people worldwide". In 2015 the World Health Organization identified the top ten issues in women's health as being cancer, reproductive health, maternal health, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), sexually transmitted infections, violence, mental health, non communicable diseases, youth and aging. ## Life expectancy Women's life expectancy is greater than that of men, and they have lower death rates throughout life, regardless of race and geographic region. Historically though, women had higher rates of mortality, primarily from maternal deaths (death in childbirth). In industrialised countries, particularly the most advanced, the gender gap narrowed and was reversed following the industrial revolution. `Despite these differences, in many areas of health, women experience earlier and more severe disease, and experience poorer outcomes.` Despite these differences, the leading causes of death in the United States are remarkably similar for men and women, headed by heart disease, which accounts for a quarter of all deaths, followed by cancer, lung disease and stroke. While women have a lower incidence of death from unintentional injury (see below) and suicide, they have a higher incidence of dementia (Gronowski and Schindler, Table I). The major differences in life expectancy for women between developed and developing countries lie in the childbearing years. If a woman survives this period, the differences between the two regions become less marked, since in later life non-communicable diseases (NCDs) become the major causes of death in women throughout the world, with cardiovascular deaths accounting for 45% of deaths in older women, followed by cancer (15%) and lung disease (10%). These create additional burdens on the resources of developing countries. Changing lifestyles, including diet, physical activity and cultural factors that favour larger body size in women, are contributing to an increasing problem with obesity and diabetes amongst women in these countries and increasing the risks of cardiovascular disease and other NCDs. Women who are socially marginalized are more likely to die at younger ages than women who are not. Women who have substance abuse disorders, who are homeless, who are sex workers, and/or who are imprisoned have significantly shorter lives than other women. At any given age, women in these overlapping, stigmatized groups are approximately 10 to 13 times more likely to die than typical women of the same age. ## Social and cultural factors Women's health is positioned within a wider body of knowledge cited by, amongst others, the World Health Organization, which places importance on gender as a social determinant of health. While women's health is affected by their biology, it is also affected by their social conditions, such as poverty, employment, and family responsibilities, and these aspects should not be overshadowed. Women have traditionally been disadvantaged in terms of economic and social status and power, which in turn reduces their access to the necessities of life including health care. Despite recent improvements in western nations, women remain disadvantaged with respect to men. The gender gap in health is even more acute in developing countries where women are relatively more disadvantaged. In addition to gender inequity, there remain specific disease processes uniquely associated with being a woman which create specific challenges in both prevention and health care. Even after succeeding in accessing health care, women have been discriminated against, a process that Iris Young has called "internal exclusion", as opposed to "external exclusion", the barriers to access. This invisibility effectively masks the grievances of groups already disadvantaged by power inequity, further entrenching injustice. Behavioral differences also play a role, in which women display lower risk taking including consume less tobacco, alcohol, and drugs, reducing their risk of mortality from associated diseases, including lung cancer, tuberculosis and cirrhosis. Other risk factors that are lower for women include motor vehicle accidents. Occupational differences have exposed women to less industrial injuries, although this is likely to change, as is risk of injury or death in war. Overall such injuries contributed to 3.5% of deaths in women compared to 6.2% in the United States in 2009. Suicide rates are also less in women. The social view of health combined with the acknowledgement that gender is a social determinant of health inform women's health service delivery in countries around the world. Women's health services such as Leichhardt Women's Community Health Centre which was established in 1974 and was the first women's health centre established in Australia is an example of women's health approach to service delivery. Women's health is an issue which has been taken up by many feminists, especially where reproductive health is concerned and the international women's movement was responsible for much of the adoption of agendas to improve women's health. ## Biological factors Factors that specifically affect the health of women vs. men are most evident in those related to reproduction, but sex differences have been identified from the molecular to the behavioral scale. Some of these differences are subtle and difficult to explain, partly due to the fact that it is difficult to separate the health effects of inherent biological factors from the effects of the surrounding environment they exist in. Women's XX sex chromosomes compliment, hormonal environment, as well as sex-specific lifestyles, metabolism, immune system function, and sensitivity to environmental factors are believed to contribute to sex differences in health at the levels of physiology, perception, and cognition. Women can have distinct responses to drugs and thresholds for diagnostic parameters. All of these necessitate caution in extrapolating information derived from biomarkers from one sex to the other. Young women and adolescents are at risk from STIs, pregnancy and unsafe abortion, while older women often have few resources and are disadvantaged with respect to men, and also are at risk of dementia and abuse, and generally poor health. ## Reproductive and sexual health Women experience many unique health issues related to reproduction and sexuality and these are responsible for a third of all health problems experienced by women during their reproductive years (aged 15–44), of which unsafe sex is a major risk factor, especially in developing countries. Reproductive health includes a wide range of issues including the health and function of structures and systems involved in reproduction, pregnancy, childbirth and child rearing, including antenatal and perinatal care. Global women's health has a much larger focus on reproductive health than that of developed countries alone, but also infectious diseases such as malaria in pregnancy and non-communicable diseases (NCD). Many of the issues that face women and girls in resource poor regions are relatively unknown in developed countries, such as female genital cutting, and further lack access to the appropriate diagnostic and clinical resources. ### Maternal health Pregnancy presents substantial health risks, even in developed countries, and despite advances in obstetrical science and practice. Maternal mortality remains a major problem in global health and is considered a sentinel event in judging the quality of health care systems. Adolescent pregnancy represents a particular problem, whether intended or unintended, and whether within marriage or a union or not. Pregnancy results in major changes in a girl's life, physically, emotionally, socially and economically and jeopardises her transition into adulthood. Adolescent pregnancy, more often than not, stems from a girl's lack of choices. or abuse. Child marriage (see below) is a major contributor worldwide, since 90% of births to girls aged 15–19 occur within marriage. In 2019, Black maternal health advocate and Parents writer Christine Michel Carter interviewed Vice President Kamala Harris. As a senator, in 2019 Harris reintroduced the Maternal Care Access and Reducing Emergencies (CARE) Act which aimed to address the maternal mortality disparity faced by women of color by training providers on recognizing implicit racial bias and its impact on care. Harris stated: > "We need to speak the uncomfortable truth that women—and especially Black women—are too often not listened to or taken seriously by the health care system, and therefore they are denied the dignity that they deserve. And we need to speak this truth because today, the United States is 1 of only 13 countries in the world where the rate of maternal mortality is worse than it was 25 years ago. That risk is even higher for Black women, who are three to four times more likely than white women to die from pregnancy-related causes. These numbers are simply outrageous." #### Maternal death In 2013 about 289,000 women (800 per day) in the world died due to pregnancy-related causes, with large differences between developed and developing countries. Maternal mortality in western nations had been steadily falling, and forms the subject of annual reports and reviews. Yet, between 1987 and 2011, maternal mortality in the United States rose from 7.2 to 17.8 deaths per 100,000 live births, this is reflected in the Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR). By contrast rates as high as 1,000 per birth are reported in the rest of the world, with the highest rates in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, which account for 86% of such deaths. These deaths are rarely investigated, yet the World Health Organization considers that 99% of these deaths, the majority of which occur within 24 hours of childbirth, are preventable if the appropriate infrastructure, training, and facilities were in place. In these resource-poor countries, maternal health is further eroded by poverty and adverse economic factors which impact the roads, health care facilities, equipment and supplies in addition to limited skilled personnel. Other problems include cultural attitudes towards sexuality, contraception, child marriage, home birth and the ability to recognise medical emergencies. The direct causes of these maternal deaths are hemorrhage, eclampsia, obstructed labor, sepsis and unskilled abortion. In addition malaria and AIDS complicate pregnancy. In the period 2003–2009 hemorrhage was the leading cause of death, accounting for 27% of deaths in developing countries and 16% in developed countries. Non-reproductive health remains an important predictor of maternal health. In the United States, the leading causes of maternal death are cardiovascular disease (15% of deaths), endocrine, respiratory and gastrointestinal disorders, infection, hemorrhage and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (Gronowski and Schindler, Table II). In 2000, the United Nations created Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 5 to improve maternal health. Target 5A sought to reduce maternal mortality by three quarters from 1990 to 2015, using two indicators, 5.1 the MMR and 5.2 the proportion of deliveries attended by skilled health personnel (physician, nurse or midwife). Early reports indicated MDG 5 had made the least progress of all MDGs. By the target date of 2015 the MMR had only declined by 45%, from 380 to 210, most of which occurred after 2000. However this improvement occurred across all regions, but the highest MMRs were still in Africa and Asia, although South Asia witnessed the largest fall, from 530 to 190 (64%). The smallest decline was seen in the developed countries, from 26 to 16 (37%). In terms of assisted births, this proportion had risen globally from 59 to 71%. Although the numbers were similar for both developed and developing regions, there were wide variations in the latter from 52% in South Asia to 100% in East Asia. The risks of dying in pregnancy in developing countries remains fourteen times higher than in developed countries, but in Sub-Saharan Africa, where the MMR is highest, the risk is 175 times higher. In setting the MDG targets, skilled assisted birth was considered a key strategy, but also an indicator of access to care and closely reflect mortality rates. There are also marked differences within regions with a 31% lower rate in rural areas of developing countries (56 vs. 87%), yet there is no difference in East Asia but a 52% difference in Central Africa (32 vs. 84%). With the completion of the MDG campaign in 2015, new targets are being set for 2030 under the Sustainable Development Goals campaign. Maternal health is placed under Goal 3, Health, with the target being to reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70. Amongst tools being developed to meet these targets is the WHO Safe Childbirth Checklist. Improvements in maternal health, in addition to professional assistance at delivery, will require routine antenatal care, basic emergency obstetric care, including the availability of antibiotics, oxytocics, anticonvulsants, the ability to manually remove a retained placenta, perform instrumented deliveries, and postpartum care. Research has shown the most effective programmes are those focussing on patient and community education, prenatal care, emergency obstetrics (including access to cesarean sections) and transportation. As with women's health in general, solutions to maternal health require a broad view encompassing many of the other MDG goals, such as poverty and status, and given that most deaths occur in the immediate intrapartum period, it has been recommended that intrapartum care (delivery) be a core strategy. New guidelines on antenatal care were issued by WHO in November 2016. #### Complications of pregnancy In addition to death occurring in pregnancy and childbirth, pregnancy can result in many non-fatal health problems including obstetrical fistulae, ectopic pregnancy, preterm labor, gestational diabetes, hyperemesis gravidarum, hypertensive states including preeclampsia, and anemia. Globally, complications of pregnancy vastly outway maternal deaths, with an estimated 9.5 million cases of pregnancy-related illness and 1.4 million near-misses (survival from severe life-threatening complications). Complications of pregnancy may be physical, mental, economic and social. It is estimated that 10–20 million women will develop physical or mental disability every year, resulting from complications of pregnancy or inadequate care. Consequently, international agencies have developed standards for obstetric care. ##### Obstetrical fistula Of near miss events, obstetrical fistulae (OF), including vesicovaginal and rectovaginal fistulae, remain one of the most serious and tragic. Although corrective surgery is possible it is often not available and OF is considered completely preventable. If repaired, subsequent pregnancies will require cesarean section. While unusual in developed countries, it is estimated that up to 100,000 cases occur every year in the world, and that about 2 million women are currently living with this condition, with the highest incidence occurring in Africa and parts of Asia. OF results from prolonged obstructed labor without intervention, when continued pressure from the fetus in the birth canal restricts blood supply to the surrounding tissues, with eventual fetal death, necrosis and expulsion. The damaged pelvic organs then develop a connection (fistula) allowing urine or feces, or both, to be discharged through the vagina with associated urinary and fecal incontinence, vaginal stenosis, nerve damage and infertility. Severe social and mental consequences are also likely to follow, with shunning of the women. Apart from lack of access to care, causes include young age, and malnourishment. The UNFPA has made prevention of OF a priority and is the lead agency in the Campaign to End Fistula, which issues annual reports and the United Nations observes May 23 as the International Day to End Obstetric Fistula every year. Prevention includes discouraging teenage pregnancy and child marriage, adequate nutrition, and access to skilled care, including caesarean section. ### Sexual health #### Contraception The ability to determine if and when to become pregnant, is vital to a woman's autonomy and well-being, and contraception can protect girls and young women from the risks of early pregnancy and older women from the increased risks of unintended pregnancy. Adequate access to contraception can limit multiple pregnancies, reduce the need for potentially unsafe abortion and reduce maternal and infant mortality and morbidity. Some barrier forms of contraception such as condoms, also reduce the risk of STIs and HIV infection. Access to contraception allows women to make informed choices about their reproductive and sexual health, increases empowerment, and enhances choices in education, careers and participation in public life. At the societal level, access to contraception is a key factor in controlling population growth, with resultant impact on the economy, the environment and regional development. Consequently, the United Nations considers access to contraception a human right that is central to gender equality and women's empowerment that saves lives and reduces poverty, and birth control has been considered amongst the 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century. To optimise women's control over pregnancy, it is essential that culturally appropriate contraceptive advice and means are widely, easily, and affordably available to anyone that is sexually active, including adolescents. In many parts of the world access to contraception and family planning services is very difficult or non existent and even in developed counties cultural and religious traditions can create barriers to access. Reported usage of adequate contraception by women has risen only slightly between 1990 and 2014, with considerable regional variability. Although global usage is around 55%, it may be as low as 25% in Africa. Worldwide 222 million women have no or limited access to contraception. Some caution is needed in interpreting available data, since contraceptive prevalence is often defined as "the percentage of women currently using any method of contraception among all women of reproductive age (i.e., those aged 15 to 49 years, unless otherwise stated) who are married or in a union. The "in-union" group includes women living with their partner in the same household and who are not married according to the marriage laws or customs of a country." This definition is more suited to the more restrictive concept of family planning, but omits the contraceptive needs of all other women and girls who are or are likely to be sexually active, are at risk of pregnancy and are not married or "in-union". Three related targets of MDG5 were adolescent birth rate, contraceptive prevalence and unmet need for family planning (where prevalence+unmet need = total need), which were monitored by the Population Division of the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Contraceptive use was part of Goal 5B (universal access to reproductive health), as Indicator 5.3. The evaluation of MDG5 in 2015 showed that amongst couples usage had increased worldwide from 55% to 64%. with one of the largest increases in Subsaharan Africa (13 to 28%). The corollary, unmet need, declined slightly worldwide (15 to 12%). In 2015 these targets became part of SDG5 (gender equality and empowerment) under Target 5.6: Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights, where Indicator 5.6.1 is the proportion of women aged 15–49 years who make their own informed decisions regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use and reproductive health care (p. 31). There remain significant barriers to accessing contraception for many women in both developing and developed regions. These include legislative, administrative, cultural, religious and economic barriers in addition to those dealing with access to and quality of health services. Much of the attention has been focussed on preventing adolescent pregnancy. The Overseas Development Institute (ODI) has identified a number of key barriers, on both the supply and demand side, including internalising socio-cultural values, pressure from family members, and cognitive barriers (lack of knowledge), which need addressing. Even in developed regions many women, particularly those who are disadvantaged, may face substantial difficulties in access that may be financial and geographic but may also face religious and political discrimination. Women have also mounted campaigns against potentially dangerous forms of contraception such as defective intrauterine devices (IUD)s, particularly the Dalkon Shield. #### Abortion Abortion is the intentional termination of pregnancy, as compared to spontaneous termination (miscarriage). Abortion is closely allied to contraception in terms of women's control and regulation of their reproduction, and is often subject to similar cultural, religious, legislative and economic constraints. Where access to contraception is limited, women turn to abortion. Consequently, abortion rates may be used to estimate unmet needs for contraception. However the available procedures have carried great risk for women throughout most of history, and still do in the developing world, or where legal restrictions force women to seek clandestine facilities. Access to safe legal abortion places undue burdens on lower socioeconomic groups and in jurisdictions that create significant barriers. These issues have frequently been the subject of political and feminist campaigns where differing viewpoints pit health against moral values. Globally, there were 87 million unwanted pregnancies in 2005, of those 46 million resorted to abortion, of which 18 million were considered unsafe, resulting in 68,000 deaths. The majority of these deaths occurred in the developing world. The United Nations considers these avoidable with access to safe abortion and post-abortion care. While abortion rates have fallen in developed countries, but not in developing countries. Between 2010 and 2014 there were 35 abortions per 1000 women aged 15–44, a total of 56 million abortions per year. The United nations has prepared recommendations for health care workers to provide more accessible and safe abortion and post-abortion care. An inherent part of post-abortion care involves provision of adequate contraception. #### Sexually transmitted infections Important sexual health issues for women include Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and female genital cutting (FGC). STIs are a global health priority because they have serious consequences for women and infants. Mother-to-child transmission of STIs can lead to stillbirths, neonatal death, low-birth-weight and prematurity, sepsis, pneumonia, neonatal conjunctivitis, and congenital deformities. Syphilis in pregnancy results in over 300,000 fetal and neonatal deaths per year, and 215,000 infants with an increased risk of death from prematurity, low-birth-weight or congenital disease. Diseases such as chlamydia and gonorrhoea are also important causes of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and subsequent infertility in women. Another important consequence of some STIs such as genital herpes and syphilis increase the risk of acquiring HIV by three-fold, and can also influence its transmission progression. Worldwide, women and girls are at greater risk of HIV/AIDS. STIs are in turn associated with unsafe sexual activity that is often unconsensual. #### Female genital mutilation Female genital mutilation (also referred to as female genital cutting) is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons". It has sometimes been referred to as female circumcision, although this term is misleading because it implies it is analogous to the circumcision of the foreskin from the male penis. Consequently, the term mutilation was adopted to emphasise the gravity of the act and its place as a violation of human rights. Subsequently, the term cutting was advanced to avoid offending cultural sensibility that would interfere with dialogue for change. To recognise these points of view some agencies use the composite female genital mutilation/cutting (FMG/C). It has affected more than 200 million women and girls who are alive today. The practice is concentrated in some 30 countries in Africa, the Middle East and Asia. FGC affects many religious faiths, nationalities, and socioeconomic classes and is highly controversial. The main arguments advanced to justify FGC are hygiene, fertility, the preservation of chastity, an important rite of passage, marriageability and enhanced sexual pleasure of male partners. The amount of tissue removed varies considerably, leading the WHO and other bodies to classify FGC into four types. These range from the partial or total removal of the clitoris with or without the prepuce (clitoridectomy) in Type I, to the additional removal of the labia minora, with or without excision of the labia majora (Type II) to narrowing of the vaginal orifice (introitus) with the creation of a covering seal by suturing the remaining labial tissue over the urethra and introitus, with or without excision of the clitoris (infibulation). In this type a small opening is created to allow urine and menstrual blood to be discharged. Type 4 involves all other procedures, usually relatively minor alterations such as piercing. While defended by those cultures in which it constitutes a tradition, FGC is opposed by many medical and cultural organizations on the grounds that it is unnecessary and harmful. Short-term health effects may include hemorrhage, infection, sepsis, and even result in death, while long term effects include dyspareunia, dysmenorrhea, vaginitis and cystitis. In addition FGC leads to complications with pregnancy, labor and delivery. Reversal (defibulation) by skilled personnel may be required to open the scarred tissue. Amongst those opposing the practice are local grassroots groups, and national and international organisations including WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA and Amnesty International. Legislative efforts to ban FGC have rarely been successful and the preferred approach is education and empowerment and the provision of information about the adverse health effects as well the human rights aspects. Progress has been made but girls 14 and younger represent 44 million of those who have been cut, and in some regions 50% of all girls aged 11 and younger have been cut. Ending FGC has been considered one of the necessary goals in achieving the targets of the Millennium Development Goals, while the United Nations has declared ending FGC a target of the Sustainable Development Goals, and for February 6 to known as the International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation, concentrating on 17 African countries and the 5 million girls between the ages of 15 and 19 that would otherwise be cut by 2030. ### Infertility In the United States, infertility affects 1.5 million couples. Many couples seek assisted reproductive technology (ART) for infertility. In the United States in 2010, 147,260 in vitro fertilization (IVF) procedures were carried out, with 47,090 live births resulting. In 2013 these numbers had increased to 160,521 and 53,252. However, about a half of IVF pregnancies result in multiple-birth deliveries, which in turn are associated with an increase in both morbidity and mortality of the mother and the infant. Causes for this include increased maternal blood pressure, premature birth and low birth weight. In addition, more women are waiting longer to conceive and seeking ART. ### Child marriage Child marriage (including union or cohabitation) is defined as marriage under the age of eighteen and is an ancient custom. In 2010 it was estimated that 67 million women, then, in their twenties had been married before they turned eighteen, and that 150 million would be in the next decade, equivalent to 15 million per year. This number had increased to 70 million by 2012. In developing countries one third of girls are married under age, and 1:9 before 15. The practice is commonest in South Asia (48% of women), Africa (42%) and Latin America and the Caribbean (29%). The highest prevalence is in Western and Sub-Saharan Africa. The percentage of girls married before the age of eighteen is as high as 75% in countries such as Niger (Nour, Table I). Most child marriage involves girls. For instance in Mali the ratio of girls to boys is 72:1, while in countries such as the United States the ratio is 8:1. Marriage may occur as early as birth, with the girl being sent to her husbands home as early as age seven. There are a number of cultural factors that reinforce this practice. These include the child's financial future, her dowry, social ties and social status, prevention of premarital sex, extramarital pregnancy and STIs. The arguments against it include interruption of education and loss of employment prospects, and hence economic status, as well as loss of normal childhood and its emotional maturation and social isolation. Child marriage places the girl in a relationship where she is in a major imbalance of power and perpetuates the gender inequality that contributed to the practice in the first place. Also in the case of minors, there are the issues of human rights, non-consensual sexual activity and forced marriage and a 2016 joint report of the WHO and Inter-Parliamentary Union places the two concepts together as Child, Early and Forced Marriage (CEFM), as did the 2014 Girl Summit (see below). In addition the likely pregnancies at a young age are associated with higher medical risks for both mother and child, multiple pregnancies and less access to care with pregnancy being amongst the leading causes of death amongst girls aged 15–19. Girls married under age are also more likely to be the victims of domestic violence. There has been an international effort to reduce this practice, and in many countries eighteen is the legal age of marriage. Organizations with campaigns to end child marriage include the United Nations and its agencies, such as the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, UNFPA, UNICEF and WHO. Like many global issues affecting women's health, poverty and gender inequality are root causes, and any campaign to change cultural attitudes has to address these. Child marriage is the subject of international conventions and agreements such as The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW, 1979) (article 16) and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in 2014 a summit conference (Girl Summit) co-hosted by UNICEF and the UK was held in London (see illustration) to address this issue together with FGM/C. Later that same year the General Assembly of the United Nations passed a resolution, which inter alia > Urges all States to enact, enforce and uphold laws and policies aimed at preventing and ending child, early and forced marriage and protecting those at risk, and ensure that marriage is entered into only with the informed, free and full consent of the intending spouses (5 September 2014) Amongst non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working to end child marriage are Girls not Brides, Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA), the International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) and Human Rights Watch (HRW). Although not explicitly included in the original Millennium Development Goals, considerable pressure was applied to include ending child marriage in the successor Sustainable Development Goals adopted in September 2015, where ending this practice by 2030 is a target of SDG 5 Gender Equality (see above). While some progress is being made in reducing child marriage, particularly for girls under fifteen, the prospects are daunting. The indicator for this will be the percentage of women aged 20–24 who were married or in a union before the age of eighteen. Efforts to end child marriage include legislation and ensuring enforcement together with empowering women and girls. To raise awareness, the inaugural UN International Day of the Girl Child in 2012 was dedicated to ending child marriage. ### Menstrual cycle Women's menstrual cycles, the approximately monthly cycle of changes in the reproductive system, can pose significant challenges for women in their reproductive years (the early teens to about 50 years of age). These include the physiological changes that can effect physical and mental health, symptoms of ovulation and the regular shedding of the inner lining of the uterus (endometrium) accompanied by vaginal bleeding (menses or menstruation). The onset of menstruation (menarche) may be alarming to unprepared girls and mistaken for illness. Menstruation can place undue burdens on women in terms of their ability to participate in activities, and access to menstrual aids such as tampons and sanitary pads. This is particularly acute amongst poorer socioeconomic groups where they may represent a financial burden and in developing countries where menstruation can be an impediment to a girl's education. Equally challenging for women are the physiological and emotional changes associated with the cessation of menses (menopause or climacteric). While typically occurring gradually towards the end of the fifth decade in life marked by irregular bleeding the cessation of ovulation and menstruation is accompanied by marked changes in hormonal activity, both by the ovary itself (oestrogen and progesterone) and the pituitary gland (follicle stimulating hormone or FSH and luteinizing hormone or LH). These hormonal changes may be associated with both systemic sensations such as hot flashes and local changes to the reproductive tract such as reduced vaginal secretions and lubrication. While menopause may bring relief from symptoms of menstruation and fear of pregnancy it may also be accompanied by emotional and psychological changes associated with the symbolism of the loss of fertility and a reminder of aging and possible loss of desirability. While menopause generally occurs naturally as a physiological process it may occur earlier (premature menopause) as a result of disease or from medical or surgical intervention. When menopause occurs prematurely the adverse consequences may be more severe. ### Other issues Other reproductive and sexual health issues include sex education, puberty, sexuality and sexual function. Women also experience a number of issues related to the health of their breasts and genital tract, which fall into the scope of gynaecology. ## Non-reproductive health Women and men have different experiences of the same illnesses, especially cardiovascular disease, cancer, depression and dementia, and are more prone to urinary tract infections than men. ### Cardiovascular disease Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death (30%) amongst women in the United States, and the leading cause of chronic disease amongst them, affecting nearly 40% (Gronowski and Schindler, Tables I and IV). The onset occurs at a later age in women than in men. For instance the incidence of stroke in women under the age of 80 is less than that in men, but higher in those aged over 80. Overall the lifetime risk of stroke in women exceeds that in men. The risk of cardiovascular disease amongst those with diabetes and amongst smokers is also higher in women than in men. Many aspects of cardiovascular disease vary between women and men, including risk factors, prevalence, physiology, symptoms, response to intervention and outcome. ### Cancer Women and men have approximately equal risk of dying from cancer, which accounts for about a quarter of all deaths, and is the second leading cause of death. However the relative incidence of different cancers varies between women and men. In the United States the three commonest types of cancer of women in 2012 were lung, breast and colorectal cancers. In addition other important cancers in women, in order of importance, are ovarian, uterine (including endometrial and cervical cancers (Gronowski and Schindler, Table III). Similar figures were reported in 2016. While cancer death rates rose rapidly during the twentieth century, the increase was less and later in women due to differences in smoking rates. More recently cancer death rates have started to decline as the use of tobacco becomes less common. Between 1991 and 2012, the death rate in women declined by 19% (less than in men). In the early twentieth century death from uterine (uterine body and cervix) cancers was the leading cause of cancer death in women, who had a higher cancer mortality than men. From the 1930s onwards, uterine cancer deaths declined, primarily due to lower death rates from cervical cancer following the availability of the Papanicolaou (Pap) screening test. This resulted in an overall reduction of cancer deaths in women between the 1940s and 1970s, when rising rates of lung cancer led to an overall increase. By the 1950s the decline in uterine cancer left breast cancer as the leading cause of cancer death until it was overtaken by lung cancer in the 1980s. All three cancers (lung, breast, uterus) are now declining in cancer death rates (Siegel et al. Figure 8), but more women die from lung cancer every year than from breast, ovarian, and uterine cancers combined. Overall about 20% of people found to have lung cancer are never smokers, yet amongst nonsmoking women the risk of developing lung cancer is three times greater than amongst men who never smoked. In addition to mortality, cancer is a cause of considerable morbidity in women. Women have a lower lifetime probability of being diagnosed with cancer (38% vs 45% for men), but are more likely to be diagnosed with cancer at an earlier age. #### Breast cancer Breast cancer is the second most common cancer in the world and the most common among women. It is also among the ten most common chronic diseases of women, and a substantial contributor to loss of quality of life (Gronowski and Schindler, Table IV). Globally, it accounts for 25% of all cancers. In 2016, breast cancer is the most common cancer diagnosed among women in both developed and developing countries, accounting for nearly 30% of all cases, and worldwide accounts for one and a half million cases and over half a million deaths, being the fifth most common cause of cancer death overall and the second in developed regions. Geographic variation in incidence is the opposite of that of cervical cancer, being highest in Northern America and lowest in Eastern and Middle Africa, but mortality rates are relatively constant, resulting in a wide variance in case mortality, ranging from 25% in developed regions to 37% in developing regions, and with 62% of deaths occurring in developing countries. #### Cervical cancer Globally, cervical cancer is the fourth commonest cancer amongst women, particularly those of lower socioeconomic status. Women in this group have reduced access to health care, high rates of child and forced marriage, parity, polygamy and exposure to STIs from multiple sexual contacts of male partners. All of these factors place them at higher risk. In developing countries, cervical cancer accounts for 12% of cancer cases amongst women and is the second leading cause of death, where about 85% of the global burden of over 500,000 cases and 250,000 deaths from this disease occurred in 2012. The highest incidence occurs in Eastern Africa, where with Middle Africa, cervical cancer is the commonest cancer in women. The case fatality rate of 52% is also higher in developing countries than in developed countries (43%), and the mortality rate varies by 18-fold between regions of the world. Cervical cancer is associated with human papillomavirus (HPV), which has also been implicated in cancers of the vulva, vagina, anus, and oropharynx. Almost 300 million women worldwide have been infected with HPV, one of the commoner sexually transmitted infections, and 5% of the 13 million new cases of cancer in the world have been attributed to HPV. In developed countries, screening for cervical cancer using the Pap test has identified pre-cancerous changes in the cervix, at least in those women with access to health care. Also an HPV vaccine programme is available in 45 countries. Screening and prevention programmes have limited availability in developing countries although inexpensive low technology programmes are being developed, but access to treatment is also limited. If applied globally, HPV vaccination at 70% coverage could save the lives of 4 million women from cervical cancer, since most cases occur in developing countries. #### Ovarian cancer By contrast, ovarian cancer, the leading cause of reproductive organ cancer deaths, and the fifth commonest cause of cancer deaths in women in the United States, lacks an effective screening programme, and is predominantly a disease of women in industrialised countries. Because it is largely asymptomatic in its earliest stages, more than 50% of women have stage III or higher cancer (spread beyond the ovaries) by the time they are diagnosed, with a consequent poor prognosis. ### Mental health Almost 25% of women will experience mental health issues over their lifetime. Women are at higher risk than men from anxiety, depression, and psychosomatic complaints. Globally, depression is the leading disease burden. In the United States, women have depression twice as often as men. The economic costs of depression in American women are estimated to be \$20 billion every year. The risks of depression in women have been linked to changing hormonal environment that women experience, including puberty, menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth and the menopause. Women also metabolise drugs used to treat depression differently to men. Suicide rates are less in women than men (\<1% vs. 2.4%), but are a leading cause of death for women under the age of 60. In the United Kingdom, the Women's Mental Health Taskforce was formed aiming to address differences in mental health experiences and needs between women and men. ### Dementia The prevalence of Alzheimer's disease in the United States is estimated at 5.1 million, and of these two thirds are women. Furthermore, women are far more likely to be the primary caregivers of adult family members with depression, so that they bear both the risks and burdens of this disease. The lifetime risk for a woman of developing Alzheimer's disease is twice that of men. Part of this difference may be due to life expectancy, but changing hormonal status over their lifetime may also play a par as may differences in gene expression. Deaths due to dementia are higher in women than men (4.5% of deaths vs. 2.0%). ### Bone health Osteoporosis ranks sixth amongst chronic diseases of women in the United States, with an overall prevalence of 18%, and a much higher rate involving the femur, neck or lumbar spine amongst women (16%) than men (4%), over the age of 50 (Gronowski and Schindler, Table IV). Osteoporosis is a risk factor for bone fracture and about 20% of senior citizens who sustain a hip fracture die within a year. The gender gap is largely the result of the reduction of estrogen levels in women following the menopause. Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) has been shown to reduce this risk by 25–30%, and was a common reason for prescribing it during the 1980s and 1990s. However the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) study that demonstrated that the risks of HRT outweighed the benefits has since led to a decline in HRT usage. ### Anaemia Anaemia is a major global health problem for women. Women are affected more than men, in which up to 30% of women being found to be anaemic and 42% of pregnant women. Anaemia is linked to a number of adverse health outcomes including a poor pregnancy outcome and impaired cognitive function (decreased concentration and attention). The main cause of anaemia is iron deficiency. In United States women iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) affects 37% of pregnant women, but globally the prevalence is as high as 80%. IDA starts in adolescence, from excess menstrual blood loss, compounded by the increased demand for iron in growth and suboptimal dietary intake. In the adult woman, pregnancy leads to further iron depletion. ### Violence Women experience structural and personal violence differently than men. The United Nations has defined violence against women as; > " any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life." (United Nations, Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, 1993) Violence against women may take many forms, including physical, sexual, emotional and psychological and may occur throughout the life-course. Structural violence may be embedded in legislation or policy, or be systematic misogyny by organisations against groups of women. Perpetrators of personal violence include state actors, strangers, acquaintances, relatives and intimate partners and manifests itself across a spectrum from discrimination, through harassment, sexual assault and rape, and physical harm to murder (femicide). It may also include cultural practices such as female genital cutting. Non-fatal violence against women has severe implications for women's physical, mental and reproductive health, and is seen as not simply isolated events but rather a systematic pattern of behaviour that both violates their rights but also limits their role in society and requires a systematic approach. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 35% of women in the world have experienced physical or sexual violence over their lifetime and that the commonest situation is intimate partner violence. 30% of women in relationships report such experience, and 38% of murders of women are due to intimate partners. These figures may be as high as 70% in some regions. Risk factors include low educational achievement, a parental experience of violence, childhood abuse, gender inequality and cultural attitudes that allow violence to be considered more acceptable. Violence was declared a global health priority by the WHO at its assembly in 1996, drawing on both the United Nations Declaration on the elimination of violence against women (1993) and the recommendations of both the International Conference on Population and Development (Cairo, 1994) and the Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing, 1995) This was followed by its 2002 World Report on Violence and Health, which focusses on intimate partner and sexual violence. Meanwhile, the UN embedded these in an action plan when its General Assembly passed the Millennium Declaration in September 2000, which resolved inter alia "to combat all forms of violence against women and to implement the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women". One of the Millennium Goals (MDG 3) was the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women, which sought to eliminate all forms of violence against women as well as implementing CEDAW. This recognised that eliminating violence, including discrimination was a prerequisite to achieving all other goals of improving women's health. However it was later criticised for not including violence as an explicit target, the "missing target". In the evaluation of MDG 3, violence remained a major barrier to achieving the goals. In the successor Sustainable Development Goals, which also explicitly list the related issues of discrimination, child marriage and genital cutting, one target is listed as "Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres" by 2030. UN Women believe that violence against women "is rooted in gender-based discrimination and social norms and gender stereotypes that perpetuate such violence", and advocate moving from supporting victims to prevention, through addressing root and structural causes. They recommend programmes that start early in life and are directed towards both genders to promote respect and equality, an area often overlooked in public policy. This strategy, which involves broad educational and cultural change, also involves implementing the recommendations of the 57th session of the UN Commission on the Status of Women (2013). To that end the 2014 UN International Day of the Girl Child was dedicated to ending the cycle of violence. In 2016, the World Health Assembly also adopted a plan of action to combat violence against women, globally. ## Women in health research Changes in the way research ethics was visualised in the wake of the Nuremberg Trials (1946), led to an atmosphere of protectionism of groups deemed to be vulnerable that was often legislated or regulated. This resulted in the relative underrepresentation of women in clinical trials. The position of women in research was further compromised in 1977, when in response to the tragedies resulting from thalidomide and diethylstilbestrol (DES), the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) prohibited women of child-bearing years from participation in early stage clinical trials. In practice this ban was often applied very widely to exclude all women. Women, at least those in the child-bearing years, were also deemed unsuitable research subjects due to their fluctuating hormonal levels during the menstrual cycle. However, research has demonstrated significant biological differences between the sexes in rates of susceptibility, symptoms and response to treatment in many major areas of health, including heart disease and some cancers. These exclusions pose a threat to the application of evidence-based medicine to women, and compromise to care offered to both women and men. The increasing focus on Women's Rights in the United States during the 1980s focused attention on the fact that many drugs being prescribed for women had never actually been tested in women of child-bearing potential, and that there was a relative paucity of basic research into women's health. In response to this the National Institutes of Health (NIH) created the Office of Research on Women's Health (ORWH) in 1990 to address these inequities. In 1993 the National Institutes of Health Revitalisation Act officially reversed US policy by requiring NIH funded phase III clinical trials to include women. This resulted in an increase in women recruited into research studies. The next phase was the specific funding of large scale epidemiology studies and clinical trials focussing on women's health such as the Women's Health Initiative (1991), the largest disease prevention study conducted in the US. Its role was to study the major causes of death, disability and frailty in older women. Despite this apparent progress, women remain underrepresented. In 2006 women accounted for less than 25% of clinical trials published in 2004, A follow-up study by the same authors five years later found little evidence of improvement. Another study found between 10 and 47% of women in heart disease clinical trials, despite the prevalence of heart disease in women. Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death amongst women, but while the number of women enrolled in lung cancer studies is increasing, they are still far less likely to be enrolled than men. One of the challenges in assessing progress in this area is the number of clinical studies that either do not report the gender of the subjects or lack the statistical power to detect gender differences. These were still issues in 2014, and further compounded by the fact that the majority of animal studies also exclude females or fail to account for differences in sex and gender. for instance despite the higher incidence of depression amongst women, less than half of the animal studies use female animals. Consequently, a number of funding agencies and scientific journals are asking researchers to explicitly address issues of sex and gender in their research. A related issue is the inclusion of pregnant women in clinical studies. Since other illnesses can exist concurrently with pregnancy, information is needed on the response to and efficacy of interventions during pregnancy, but ethical issues relative to the fetus, make this more complex. This gender bias is partly offset by the initiation of large scale epidemiology studies of women, such as the Nurses' Health Study (1976), Women's Health Initiative and Black Women's Health Study. Women have also been the subject of neglect in health care research, such as the situation revealed in the Cartwright Inquiry in New Zealand (1988), in which research by two feminist journalists revealed that women with cervical abnormalities were not receiving treatment, as part of an experiment. The women were not told of the abnormalities and several later died. The Women's Health Care Market is today a major pharmaceutical industry, projected to double in size within the five years from 2019 to 2024 and reach USD 17.8 billion. The by far most valued company worldwide whose leading products are in Women's Health is Bayer (Germany) with the focus area of Contraception. ## National and international initiatives In addition to addressing gender inequity in research, a number of countries have made women's health the subject of national initiatives. For instance in 1991 in the United States, the Department of Health and Human Services established an Office on Women's Health (OWH) with the goal of improving the health of women in America, through coordinating the women's health agenda throughout the department, and other agencies. In the twenty first century the Office has focussed on underserviced women. Also, in 1994 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) established its own Office of Women's Health (OWH), which was formally authorised by the 2010 Affordable Health Care Act (ACA). Internationally, many United Nations agencies such as the World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and UNICEF maintain specific programs on women's health, or maternal, sexual and reproductive health. In addition the United Nations global goals address many issues related to women's health, both directly and indirectly. These include the 2000 Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and their successor, the Sustainable Development Goals adopted in September 2015, following the report on progress towards the MDGs (The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015). For instance the eight MDG goals, eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, achieving universal primary education, promoting gender equality and empowering women, reducing child mortality rates, improving maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS malaria and other diseases, ensuring environmental sustainability, and developing a global partnership for development, all impact on women's health, as do all seventeen SDG goals, in addition to the specific SDG5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. ## Goals and challenges Research is a priority in terms of improving women's health. Research needs include diseases unique to women, more serious in women and those that differ in risk factors between women and men. The balance of gender in research studies needs to be balanced appropriately to allow analysis that will detect interactions between gender and other factors. Gronowski and Schindler suggest that scientific journals make documentation of gender a requirement when reporting the results of animal studies, and that funding agencies require justification from investigators for any gender inequity in their grant proposals, giving preference to those that are inclusive. They also suggest it is the role of health organisations to encourage women to enroll in clinical research. However, there has been progress in terms of large scale studies such as the WHI, and in 2006 the Society for Women's Health Research founded the Organization for the Study of Sex Differences and the journal Biology of Sex Differences to further the study of sex differences. Research findings can take some time before becoming routinely implemented into clinical practice. Clinical medicine needs to incorporate the information already available from research studies as to the different ways in which diseases affect women and men. Many "normal" laboratory values have not been properly established for the female population separately, and similarly the "normal" criteria for growth and development. Drug dosing needs to take gender differences in drug metabolism into account. Globally, women's access to health care remains a challenge, both in developing and developed countries. In the United States, before the Affordable Health Care Act came into effect, 25% of women of child-bearing age lacked health insurance. In the absence of adequate insurance, women are likely to avoid important steps to self care such as routine physical examination, screening and prevention testing, and prenatal care. The situation is aggravated by the fact that women living below the poverty line are at greater risk of unplanned pregnancy, unplanned delivery and elective abortion. Added to the financial burden in this group are poor educational achievement, lack of transportation, inflexible work schedules and difficulty obtaining child care, all of which function to create barriers to accessing health care. These problems are much worse in developing countries. Under 50% of childbirths in these countries are assisted by healthcare providers (e.g. midwives, nurses, doctors) which accounts for higher rates of maternal death, up to 1:1,000 live births. This is despite the WHO setting standards, such as a minimum of four antenatal visits. A lack of healthcare providers, facilities, and resources such as formularies all contribute to high levels of morbidity amongst women from avoidable conditions such as obstetrical fistulae, sexually transmitted diseases and cervical cancer. These challenges are included in the goals of the Office of Research on Women's Health, in the United States, as is the goal of facilitating women's access to careers in biomedicine. The ORWH believes that one of the best ways to advance research in women's health is to increase the proportion of women involved in healthcare and health research, as well as assuming leadership in government, centres of higher learning, and in the private sector. This goal acknowledges the glass ceiling that women face in careers in science and in obtaining resources from grant funding to salaries and laboratory space. The National Science Foundation in the United States states that women only gain half of the doctorates awarded in science and engineering, fill only 21% of full-time professor positions in science and 5% of those in engineering, while earning only 82% of the remuneration their male colleagues make. These figures are even lower in Europe. ## See also - European Institute of Women's Health - Gynaecology - Gender discrimination - Health equity - Men's health - Reproductive Health Supplies Coalition - Social determinants of health - Women and smoking - Women in medicine ### Women's health by country - Women's health in China - Women's health in Ethiopia - Women's health in India ### Publications - Global Library of Women's Medicine - Health Care for Women International - Journal of Women's Health - Our Bodies, Ourselves - Women & Health - Women's Health Issues

British Cypriots

Community in the United Kingdom

The British Cypriot community in the United Kingdom consists of British people born on, or with ancestors from, the Eastern Mediterranean island of Cyprus. British Cypriot people may be of Greek-, Turkish-, Lebanese-Maronite-, or Armenian-Cypriot descent. Migration from Cyprus to the UK has occurred in part due to the colonial links between the countries and the internal conflict that followed Cyprus' independence from the British Empire in 1960. Migration peaked at the time of independence but has continued on a smaller scale. The number of Cypriot-born people in the UK fell between the 1991 and 2001 censuses, but the community, including people of Cypriot ancestry, remains sizeable, and the Cypriot-born population grew slightly between the 2001 and 2011 censuses. A number of famous British people are of Cypriot ancestry, including musicians George Michael and Cat Stevens, footballer Leon Osman, musician B Young, comedians Jamie Demetriou and Natasia Demetriou, visual artist Tracey Emin, and politician Lord Adonis. ## History Before the First World War, very few Cypriots migrated to the UK and the British Cypriot population at this time was around 150, according to historian Stavros Panteli. Only a handful of marriages involving Cypriots are recorded at London's Greek Orthodox Cathedral of Saint Sophia in the years before 1918. During the First World War many Cypriots joined the allied forces. When the British annexed Cyprus in 1914, Cypriots' political status changed and they found it easier to travel. The 1931 British Census recorded more than 1,000 Cypriot-born people, but many of these were the children of British military personnel serving in the Mediterranean. However, some Greek Cypriots did migrate to the UK in the 1920s and 1930s, often finding jobs in the catering industry in Soho. By the start of the Second World War, there were around 8,000 Cypriots in London. More Cypriot immigrants arrived during the National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters (EOKA)'s campaign for Cypriot independence from Britain and union with Greece, which started in 1955. In the four years of conflict, an average of 4,000 Cypriots left the island per year for the UK, because of violence on the island and the fear felt by both Greek and Turkish Cypriots in mixed villages where they formed minorities. Migration peaked following independence in 1960, with around 25,000 Cypriots migrating in the year that followed. Many migrants joined family already living in Britain. Further migration accompanied the Turkish invasion of the island in 1974. Home Office figures show that roughly 10,000 Cypriots fled to the UK, the majority of them refugees, but many of them subsequently returned to the island. In the 1960s, Greek Cypriots in London outnumbered Turkish Cypriots by four to one. The increase in post-war rents in central London had forced many Cypriot immigrants to move north within the city. The Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities tended to be geographically segregated, with Greeks settling mainly in Camden and Turks in Stoke Newington. This was due to the migrants' reliance on social networks to find housing on their arrival. Robert Winder reports that "Haringey became the second biggest Cypriot town in the world". Many Cypriots set up restaurants, filling a gap left by Italians, many of whom had been interned during the Second World War. Much of the Turkish Cypriot migration to the UK occurred as a consequence of intercommunal violence in Cyprus during the 1950s and 1960s. Many Turkish Cypriots viewed the EOKA insurgency as an attempt on the part of Greek Cypriots to establish hegemony on the island with the aim of achieving union with Greece. By 1958, there were around 8,500 Turkish Cypriots in Britain. Between 1960 and 1962, the inflow increased substantially because of a fear that Britain would impose immigration controls, and indeed the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962 did reduce migration flows from Cyprus to Britain. Although the expansion of Britain's Turkish Cypriot community took place primarily between the late 1940s and the mid-1960s, there was a further influx of around 3,000 immigrants after partition in 1974. Migration continued because of the political and economic situation in the 1970s and 1980s, and Turkish Cypriots have continued to migrate to the UK due to high unemployment rates in northern Cyprus. In the early 1980s, it was estimated that 160,000 Cypriots were resident in the UK, 20 to 25 per cent of them being Turkish Cypriots. Since Cyprus joined the European Union in May 2004, holders of Republic of Cyprus passports have been able to migrate freely to the UK under EU law. According to the BBC, while divisions and resentment exist between Greek and Turkish Cypriots in the UK, particularly amongst those old enough to remember atrocities committed in Cyprus, "if differences of opinion exist, both sides have learnt to live together regardless". Community relations are generally good, with Turkish Cypriot community centres welcoming Greek Cypriots and vice versa. In oral history interviews conducted by academic Nergis Canefe in the late 1990s, Turkish Cypriots in London tended to define themselves as Anglo-Cypriot, particularly if they were born in the UK. Canefe notes that her interviewees were proud to be Cypriot, but also of being British and not Turkish. They had Turkish friends, but also close Greek and Greek Cypriot friends. The neighbourhoods they inhabited tended to be ethnically mixed, and often shared with Greeks and Greek Cypriots. ## Demographics ### Population Cyprus appeared amongst the top ten non-British countries of birth for the first time in the 1961 Census, which recorded 42,000 Cypriot-born people living in England and Wales. This number peaked in the 1981 Census, at 83,000. The 2001 Census recorded 77,673 Cypriot-born people residing in the whole of the UK. The number of Cypriot-born people in Great Britain fell from 78,191 in 1991 to 77,156 in 2001, one of the few country-of-birth groups to experience a decrease in numbers. According to the 2011 UK Census, there were 78,795 Cypriot-born residents in England, 1,215 in Wales, 1,941 in Scotland, and 344 in Northern Ireland. More recent estimates by the Office for National Statistics put the number of Cypriot-born residents in the UK as a whole at 60,000 in 2015. British Cypriot people include those of Greek-, Turkish-, Maronite-, or Armenian-Cypriot descent. The National Federation of Cypriots in the UK, an umbrella organisation representing the Cypriot community associations and groups across the UK with largely Greek Cypriot memberships, claims to represent more than 300,000 people of Cypriot ancestry. A similar figure was given by then Minister for Europe Caroline Flint, who, giving a speech at the London School of Economics in February 2009, stated that more than 300,000 Greek and Turkish Cypriots were living in the UK. Estimates on the Turkish Cypriot population vary according to figures on the Turkish Cypriot-born population and that of estimates which include UK-born descendants. A 1993 report by the Council of Europe said that 100,000 Turkish Cypriots had settled in England (i.e. excluding descendants). The Turkish consulate in London has said that 130,000 TRNC nationals were living in the UK; this was reiterated in a 2009 report by the Department for Communities and Local Government which said that this is not a "true indication" of the population because it "excludes British born and dual heritage children". More recently, evidence submitted by the Home Office to the House of Commons Home Affairs Select Committee in February 2011 suggested that there were about 300,000 people of Turkish Cypriot origin living in the UK. The estimate of 300,000 people of Turkish Cypriot origin has also been suggested by Professor Levent Vahdettin et al. in 2016, Professor Michael Freeman et al. in 2021, as well as reports published by the BBC (2011) and The Enfield Independent (2018). In a 2020 report published by the TRNC Public Information Office, Ersin Tatar said that there was now more than 300,000 Turkish Cypriots in the UK. A 2011 report by Kıbrıs had already suggested that there could be 400,000 Turkish Cypriots in the UK. More recently, in 2019, Arthur Scott-Geddes of The National said that "as many as 400,000 Turkish Cypriots" were "concentrated in the areas of north and north-east London including Hackney, Enfield and Haringey". The Anadolu Agency also said 400,000 Turkish Cypriots were living in London. Of the 80,010 people in England and Wales who specified their country of birth as Cyprus in the 2011 Census, 57.5 per cent stated that they were Christian, 20.8 per cent that they were Muslim, 13.1 per cent responded that they had no religion, and 7.9 per cent did not state a religion. Small numbers of Buddhists, Hindus, Jews, Sikhs and those of other religions were recorded, totaling 0.6 per cent of the Cypriot-born resident population. ### Population distribution Of the 80,010 Cypriot-born residents of England and Wales recorded by the 2011 Census, 43,428 were in London and 8,254 in South East England. Detailed analysis of data from the previous census shows that of the 77,156 Cypriot-born people living in mainland Britain, 60 per cent lived in areas of London with Turkish communities. A total of 45,887 were resident in Greater London. Analysis of the census shows that Cypriot-born people were found in large numbers in the London boroughs of Enfield, Haringey, Barnet and Hackney. The census tracts with the highest number of Cypriot-born people were Southgate, Palmers Green, Upper Edmonton, Cockfosters, Lower Edmonton, Tottenham North and Tottenham South. Outside of London, concentrations are found in Borehamwood, Cheshunt, and Bristol. ## Notable individuals A number of British Cypriot people are well known in the UK and overseas. In the Greek Cypriot community, these include George Michael, who was born in London to a Greek Cypriot father; Cat Stevens, who was also born in London to a Greek Cypriot father; entrepreneur Stelios Haji-Ioannou; Andreas Liveras, a Greek Cypriot-born businessman killed in the 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks; Theo Paphitis, an entrepreneur and TV personality; Greek Cypriot-born artist Panayiotis Kalorkoti; Politician Andrew Adonis's father is a Greek Cypriot who moved to the UK aged 18, and both of Labour MP Bambos Charalambous's parents were born in Cyprus. Many Turkish Cypriots have also contributed to the arts, literature, music, sciences, sports and politics in the UK. Mustafa Djamgoz is Professor of Cancer Biology at Imperial College London and Chairman of the College of Medicine’s Science Council; Tracey Emin, CBE, (Turkish Cypriot father) is an artist and a Royal Academician of the Royal Academy of Arts; Touker Suleyman is a fashion retail entrepreneur and a "dragon" on Dragon's Den; Hussein Chalayan, MBE, is the winner of the British Designer of the Year in 1999 and 2000; Selin Kiazim is a celebrity chef and winner of the Great British Menu; Ramadan Güney was the founder of the first Turkish mosque in the UK (Shacklewell Lane Mosque) and former owner of the UK's largest cemetery Brookwood Cemetery; Richard Hickmet was the first British-Turkish Cypriot politician who was a Conservative MP in 1983–87; Meral Hussein-Ece, OBE, is the first Turkish Cypriot member of the House of Lords; Alp Mehmet, MVO, was the first of two foreign-born politicians to be appointed ambassador by the UK, having served in Iceland in 2004; and Emma Edhem is a lawyer and councilwoman of the City of London Corporation. In music, notable performers include Erol Alkan; Işın Karaca (Turkish Cypriot mother) Ziynet Sali and B Young. Notable sportspeople include Paralympic swimmer Dervis Konuralp (Turkish Cypriot father); boxing trainer Adam Booth (Turkish Cypriot father); snooker player Michael Georgiou; and numerous football players, including Muzzy Izzet and Colin Kazim-Richards who have played for the Turkey national football team; Billy Mehmet who plays for the Turkish Cypriot national football team; and Rhian Brewster (Turkish Cypriot mother) who currently plays for the England national under-21 football team. British athlete and former world javelin champion Fatima Whitbread was born in London to a Turkish Cypriot mother and Greek Cypriot father, though she was later adopted. ## See also - Cyprus–United Kingdom relations - Greek Cypriot diaspora - Greeks in the United Kingdom - Turkish Cypriot diaspora - Turks in the United Kingdom - British Overseas citizen#Cyprus

1984 (Van Halen album)

1984 studio album by Van Halen

1984 (stylized in Roman numerals as MCMLXXXIV) is the sixth studio album by American rock band Van Halen, released on January 9, 1984. It was the last Van Halen studio album until A Different Kind of Truth (2012) to feature lead singer David Lee Roth, who left the band in 1985 following creative differences. This is the final full-length album to feature all four original members (Van Halen brothers, Roth, and Michael Anthony), although they reunited briefly in 2000 to start work on what would much later become 2012's A Different Kind of Truth. Roth returned in 2007, but Eddie's son Wolfgang replaced Anthony in 2006. 1984 and Van Halen's debut are Van Halen's bestselling albums, each having sold more than 10 million copies. 1984 was well received by music critics. Rolling Stone ranked the album number 81 on its list of the 100 Greatest Albums of the 1980s. It reached number two on the Billboard 200 album chart and remained there for five weeks, behind Michael Jackson's Thriller, on which guitarist Eddie Van Halen made a guest performance. 1984 produced four singles, including "Jump", Van Halen's only number-one single on the Billboard Hot 100; the top-20 hits "Panama" and "I'll Wait"; and the MTV favorite "Hot for Teacher". The album was certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1999, signifying ten million shipped copies. ## Background and recording Following the tour in support of their fourth studio album, Fair Warning, the band initially wanted to slow down and take a break. They released just one single, "(Oh) Pretty Woman"/"Happy Trails", intended to be a stand-alone release. However, the band's label asked for another album due to the A-side's success and the band recorded their fifth studio album, Diver Down, very quickly. Following the recording of the album, guitarist Eddie Van Halen was dissatisfied by the concessions he had made to Van Halen frontman David Lee Roth and Warner Bros. producer Ted Templeman. Both discouraged Eddie from making keyboards a prominent instrument in the band's music. By 1983, Eddie was in the process of building his own studio, naming it 5150 after the California law code for the temporary, involuntary psychiatric commitment of individuals (who present a danger to themselves or others due to signs of mental illness), with Donn Landee, the band's longtime engineer (and later, producer on the 5150 and OU812 recordings). While boards and tape machines were being installed, Eddie began working on synthesizers to pass the time. "There were no presets," said Templeman. "He would just twist off until it sounded right." There, he composed Van Halen's follow-up to Diver Down without as much perceived "interference" from Roth or Templeman. The result was a compromise between the two creative factions in the band: a mixture of keyboard-heavy songs, and the guitar-driven hard rock for which the band was known. 1984 was the longest-in-the-making album of the band's career to date, taking months to record, compared to most of their previous LPs taking less than two weeks, while their first LP was recorded in just 5 days, all at Sunset Studios. In Rolling Stone'''s retrospective review of 1984 in its '100 Best Albums of the Eighties' list, Templeman said, "It's real obvious to me [why 1984 won Van Halen a broader and larger audience]. Eddie Van Halen discovered the synthesizer." ## Artwork The album cover was art directed by Richard Seireeni and Pete Angelus, and the cover art was painted by graphic artist Margo Nahas. Seireeni, then Creative Director at Warner Bros. Records, had collected a number of artist portfolios for the band to review. Among those was the work of Margo Nahas. Nahas had initially been asked to create a cover that featured four chrome women dancing, but declined due to the creative difficulties. The band reviewed her work once again, and from her previously created material they chose the painting of a putto stealing cigarettes that was used. The model was Carter Helm, who was the child of one of Nahas' best friends, whom she photographed holding a candy cigarette. The front cover was censored in the UK at the time of the album's release. It featured a sticker that obscured the cigarette in the putto's hand and the pack of cigarettes. The back cover features all four band members individually with 1984 in a green futuristic typeface. ## Composition Musically, 1984 has been described as glam/pop metal, hard rock, heavy metal, synth rock, and pop rock. The album's first two singles, "Jump" and "I'll Wait", feature prominent synthesizers, as does the album's intro track, "1984", a one-minute instrumental. Eddie Van Halen played an Oberheim OB-Xa synthesizer on the album except for “I’ll Wait” which was recorded with the newer Oberheim OB-8. The reason for this is that Ed's OB-Xa was having an issue staying in tune and while it was being repaired he was sent the newer model OB-8 (which was featured prominently on future Van Halen albums). Van Halen became stuck while writing the song "I'll Wait", and producer Ted Templeman suggested that Michael McDonald (with whom Templeman had worked extensively during McDonald's career with The Doobie Brothers) could help them. Templeman sent McDonald a copy of Van Halen's instrumental demo of the song, and after getting some ideas, he met with David Lee Roth in Templeman's office, where the two of them worked out the lyrics and melodies. Eddie Van Halen stated he wrote the arrangement for "Jump" several years before 1984 was recorded. In a 1995 cover story in Rolling Stone, the guitarist said Roth had rejected the synth riff for "Jump" for at least two years before agreeing to write lyrics to it. In his memoir Crazy from the Heat, Roth confirms Eddie's account, admitting a preference for Van Halen's guitar work; however, he says he now enjoys the song. Additionally in his memoir, Roth writes that he wrote the lyrics to "Jump" after watching a man waffle as to whether to commit suicide by jumping off a skyscraper. The album's third single was "Panama", which features a heavy guitar riff reminiscent of Van Halen's earlier work. The engine noise was from Eddie revving up his Lamborghini, with microphones used near the tailpipes. Later, a video of "Hot for Teacher" was released and played regularly on MTV, giving the band a fourth hit which sustained sales of the album. Other songs on 1984 included "Girl Gone Bad", parts of which previously had been played during the 1982 tour amidst performances of "Somebody Get Me a Doctor" (including the US Festival show), the hard rock "Drop Dead Legs", and "Top Jimmy", a tribute to James Paul Koncek of the band Top Jimmy & The Rhythm Pigs. The album concludes with "House of Pain", a heavy metal song that dates back to the band's early club days of the mid-1970s. Eddie Van Halen told an interviewer that "Girl Gone Bad" was written in a hotel room that he and then-wife Valerie Bertinelli had rented. Bertinelli was asleep, and Van Halen woke up during the night with an idea he had to put on tape. Not wanting to wake Bertinelli, Van Halen grabbed a cassette recorder and recorded himself playing guitar in the closet. ## Release 1984 peaked at number 2 on the Billboard album charts (behind Michael Jackson's Thriller, which featured an Eddie Van Halen guitar solo on "Beat It"), and remained there for 5 straight weeks. It contained the anthems "Jump", "Panama", "I'll Wait", and "Hot for Teacher". "Jump" reached number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100. 1984 is the second of two Van Halen albums to have achieved RIAA Diamond status, selling over ten million copies in the United States. Their debut Van Halen was the first. "Jump" went on to be certified Gold in April 1984, only months after the album's release. The album's follow-up singles – the synth-driven "I'll Wait", and "Panama", each peaked at Billboard number 13 on the Pop charts, respectively, in March and June. "Hot for Teacher" was a moderate Billboard Hot 100 success, reaching number 56; the MTV video for "Hot for Teacher" became even more popular. The "Hot for Teacher" video, which was directed by Roth, stars preteen lookalikes of the four Van Halen band members; a stereotypical nerd named "Waldo"; David Lee Roth as Waldo's bus driver; and numerous teachers stripping. To promote the album, the band ran a contest on MTV. The contest was called, "Lost Weekend" with Van Halen. Fans mailed over 1 million postcards to MTV in hopes of winning the contest. In the promo for MTV, David Lee Roth said, "You won't know where you are, you won't know what's going to happen, and when you come back, you're not gonna have any memory of it." Kurt Jeffries won the contest and was flown to Detroit to join the band. Jeffries was allowed to bring along his best friend. He was given a Lost Weekend T-shirt and a hat. He was also brought on stage and had a large sheet cake smashed in his face which was followed by about a dozen people pouring champagne on him. ## Songwriting credits The UK single release for "I'll Wait" credited Michael McDonald as a co-writer, but he was not credited on the US version. The ASCAP entry for "I'll Wait" lists Michael McDonald as co-writer with Roth and the Van Halen members. After the release of Best Of – Volume I (1996), Van Halen renegotiated their royalties with their label Warner Bros. In 2004, Roth discovered that the rest of the band had renegotiated a royalty rate five times greater than his for releases made during his time as lead singer. Songs from 1984 that appear on compilations after the royalty renegotiation and Roth's lawsuit were credited to Edward Van Halen, Alex Van Halen, and David Lee Roth, with Michael Anthony's name removed from the credits, as evident in the end song credits of the 2007 film Superbad. Michael Anthony's longstanding bass technician Kevin Dugan has noted that the opening title track instrumental from the album originates from a Roland bass synthesizer passage created as an intro for Anthony's in-concert bass solos, and has claimed that he and Anthony wrote and programmed it together. ## Critical reception Reviews for 1984 were generally favorable. Robert Christgau rated the album a B+. He explained that "Side one is pure 'up', and not only that, it sticks to the ears" and that "Van Halen's pop move avoids fluff because they're heavy, and schlock because they're built for speed, finally creating an all-purpose mise-en-scene for Brother Eddie's hair-raising, stomach-churning chops." He also called side two "consolation for their loyal fans—a little sexism, a lot of pyrotechnics, and a standard HM bass attack on something called 'House of Pain'." J.D. Considine, a reviewer for Rolling Stone, rated 1984 four out of five stars. He called it "the album that brings all of Van Halen's talent into focus." He stated that ""Jump" is not exactly the kind of song you'd expect from Van Halen", but that "once Alex Van Halen's drums kick in and singer David Lee Roth starts to unravel a typically convoluted story line, things start sounding a little more familiar". Although he mentioned "Jump" as having "suspended chords and a pedalpoint bass in a manner more suited to Asia", he went on to state that "Eddie Van Halen manages to expand his repertoire of hot licks, growls, screams and seemingly impossible runs to wilder frontiers than you could have imagined." He concluded that "what really makes this record work is the fact that Van Halen uses all this flash as a means to an end—driving the melody home—rather than as an end in itself" and that "despite all the bluster, Van Halen is one of the smartest, toughest bands in rock & roll. Believe me, that's no newspeak." In a 1984 review, Billboard states the album is "funnier and more versatile than most of their metal brethren", calling the production "typically strong". A retrospective review by AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine was extremely positive. He noted that the album caused "a hoopla that was a bit of a red herring since the band had been layering in synths since their third album, Women and Children First". He further stated that "Jump"'s "synths played a circular riff that wouldn't have sounded as overpowering on guitar", but that "the band didn't dispense with their signature monolithic, pulsating rock." He also stated that "where [previous] albums placed an emphasis on the band's attack, this places an emphasis on the songs." Guitar Player magazine writer Matt Blackett praises the "deeper cuts" of the album, "Drop Dead Legs", "House of Pain", and "Girl Gone Bad", calling the guitar work "fresh and vital", noting Eddie's "dark, complex sense of harmony and melody". Len Comaratta from Consequence of Sound felt Van Halen reached the pinnacle of its commercial and critical success. At the end of the 1980s, Rolling Stone, which had previously been critical of Van Halen, ranked 1984 at number 81 on its list of the 100 Greatest Albums of the 1980s. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. Guitar World magazine placed the album on their list of "New Sensations: 50 Iconic Albums That Defined 1984". Following the death of lead guitarist Eddie Van Halen in October 2020, 1984 saw a brief resurgence to the charts. ## Track listing Tracks recorded for the album that remain unreleased or were renamed are according to a Warner Bros. memo from August 24, 1983: "Baritone Slide", "Lie to You", "Ripley", "Any Time, Any Place", "Forget It", "5150 Special", and "Anything to Make It Right (synth)". A September 7, 1983 memo adds an 8th title that didn't make the album, "Won't Let Go (needs lyrics)" while dropping "Lie To You" and "5150 Special". "Ripley" is confirmed to have become "Blood and Fire" on the A Different Kind of Truth album and as "I'll Wait", "Top Jimmy", "Drop Dead Legs" and "Girl Gone Bad" are not mentioned on either memo the titles may have changed, leaving at least four unreleased tracks from the 1984 sessions. ## Personnel ### Van Halen - David Lee Roth – vocals - Eddie Van Halen – guitars, keyboards, background vocals - Michael Anthony – bass guitar, synth bass on "I'll Wait", background vocals - Alex Van Halen – drums ### Production - Pete Angelus – art direction - Chris Bellman – mastering - Ken Deane – engineering - Gregg Geller – mastering - Donn Landee – engineering - Jo Motta – project coordination - Margo Nahas – cover art - Joan Parker – production coordination - Richard Seireeni – art direction - Ted Templeman – production ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## See also - "Coma Guy", an episode of Family Guy'' where Peter Griffin's life is transformed by borrowing the album from the library

Claire Taylor

English cricketer

Samantha Claire Taylor MBE (born 25 September 1975) is a former cricketer who represented England more than 150 times between 1998 and 2011. A top order batter, Taylor was the first woman to be named a Wisden Cricketer of the Year. Along with Charlotte Edwards, she was the mainstay of England's batting during the first decade of the 21st century, and played a key role in the team's two world titles in 2009. Taylor did not play cricket until the age of 13, but four years later made her county debut. Initially considered a wicket-keeper with limited batting ability, Taylor struggled to break into the England team. She made her international debut in 1998, and within two years was a regular in the team. After an unsuccessful World Cup in 2000, Taylor left her job to become a full-time cricketer. Over the subsequent five years, she developed into one of the leading batsmen in women's cricket, but after another failure in the 2005 World Cup she resumed her career alongside cricket. Despite her struggles at the World Cup, Taylor continued to improve as a batsman, and in 2006, she scored 156 not out, the highest individual total in an ODI at Lord's Cricket Ground. Her batting successes resulted in her being short-listed for the ICC Women's Cricketer of the Year in 2007 and 2008, and she won the award in 2009. After being the leading run-scorer in the 2009 World Cup, and player of the tournament in the World Twenty20 later that year, she was less consistent from 2010, though she performed well in the pair of quadrangular tournaments played in England during her final summer of cricket, and completed her career with batting averages in excess of 40 in both Test and ODI cricket. In July 2018, she was inducted into the ICC Hall of Fame. ## Early life and career Samantha Claire Taylor was born in Amersham, Buckinghamshire on 25 September 1975, as part of a sporting family: her father played rugby, and her mother played hockey. She attended Dolphin School in Hurst, Berkshire, where she initially played softball, participating as the only girl in the school team. Taylor did not play cricket until a summer camp at the age of 13, but thereafter improved to such a level that she captained the Dolphin School cricket team, playing alongside the boys. She subsequently moved to The Abbey School, Reading for a short time, and finally Kendrick School. Although she primarily played hockey as a teenager, at which she represented England at Under-17 and Under-19 as a forward, she began playing women's county cricket for Thames Valley, making her debut for the side in May 1993. Taylor was awarded a place at The Queen's College, Oxford to study Mathematics in 1994. At Oxford, Taylor earned three blues for hockey, and three half blues for cricket. She also played for the college men's cricket team, which included Iain Sutcliffe, who later played over three hundred county cricket matches. During her time at Oxford, Taylor continued to play for Thames Valley, and scored her maiden century in the women's County Championship, scoring 109 runs against Lancashire and Cheshire in July 1996. Her highest score prior to that innings had been 37. The following year, having graduated from Oxford with a second-class honours degree, Taylor scored successive half-centuries for Thames Valley, reaching 97 against Sussex, 77 against Lancashire and Cheshire, and an unbeaten 62 against East Midlands. She had been making intermittent appearances for England at various age group levels for the previous five years, and in September 1997, she scored 85 for England Under-21s against the touring South African side. Even so, she was not included in the team for the 1997 Women's Cricket World Cup, but she was named as a non-travelling reserve, something that Taylor said "confirmed to me my breakthrough into the senior squad." ## International breakthrough In April 1998, Taylor travelled to South Africa as part of the England Under-21 squad that competed in the women's Inter-Provincial Tournament, scoring two half-centuries in the competition. Her full international debut occurred later that year, during the fourth One Day International (ODI) between England and Australia. Playing as a specialist batsman, Taylor scored one run during a heavy defeat for England. Taylor finished the 1998 women's County Championship with two strong batting performances: she struck her second century, scoring 103 runs against West, followed by 65 runs against Surrey. Towards the end of the English season, she kept wicket for England in a match against England Under-21s, scoring an unbeaten 45 runs. She retained her place in the England squad for the series against the touring Indian team in 1999. England struggled in the series, and Taylor was one of a number of inexperienced players in the squad who "failed to seize their chance", according to the Wisden Cricketers' Almanack report. Taylor's highest score in the series was 12 runs, and she had batting averages of 11.00 in the ODIs, and 5.50 in the solitary Test match. During the subsequent English winter of 1999–2000, Taylor was part of the touring party that travelled to Australia and New Zealand for nine ODIs. The tour was a failure for the team: they lost all nine international matches, and their only win was a warm-up match against Wellington, in which Taylor scored 83 runs. She secured another half-century in the second ODI against New Zealand, scoring 56 runs after opening the innings. In a series in which England's batting was described as dismal, her half-century was one of only two in ODIs during the tour, and Wisden reported that giving Taylor an "overdue opportunity" was one saving grace of the trip. She struggled for runs in the series against the touring South Africans in 2000, aggregating 68 runs from five innings, as once again the English batting – particularly the top order – was criticised. After the conclusion of the series, Taylor struck a century in a county match, scoring 115 runs for Berkshire against Surrey. England's "slide down the international ladder" continued during the 2000 Women's Cricket World Cup, according to Wisden. The batting was once more culpable, but Taylor provided some relief. She scored 267 runs in the tournament at an average of 66.75, ranking her among the top ten batsmen. She struck her first century in international cricket; scoring 137 not out against Sri Lanka. In doing so, she shared a partnership of 188 runs with Jane Cassar, which is a record for the fifth wicket in women's ODIs. England failed to qualify from the group stage of the competition. ## Full-time cricketer After the 2000 World Cup, Taylor wanted to focus on her desire to become one of the best batsmen in the world. In order to achieve this, she decided to become a full-time cricketer. After university, she had joined Procter & Gamble, and by 2001 she was earning £38,000 as an IT assistant manager at the company. In contrast, her income from cricket totalled £7,000, and in order to afford to quit her IT job, she had to move back in with her parents. England's next series was against the World Cup runners-up, Australia, who toured in June and July 2001. England's batting remained unreliable, and Australia won all five matches between the sides: two Test matches and three ODIs. Taylor was praised as the only highlight of the English batting; her innings of 50 not out was the highest score by her side in any of the ODIs. In the second Test, she significantly improved on her previous best Test score of 18 runs, batting for over four hours in a gritty performance to reach 137 runs. Taylor missed the tour of India in January 2002 after injuring her knee in a training session, but returned the following summer with a string of good performances in the Super Fours—a competition in which the England selectors place the 48 leading players into four teams—trailing only her England teammate Charlotte Edwards as the leading run-scorer. In the four ODIs that season, against New Zealand and India, Taylor failed to make an impact, scoring just 43 runs in total. Ahead of a tour by the England women to New Zealand and Australia, Taylor competed in the State League, a one-day competition in New Zealand, for the Canterbury Magicians. She finished the tournament in the top-five batsmen, scoring 252 runs at an average of 42.00. Unfortunately for England, her good form did not continue into the international matches: in her seven ODI matches, she scored 87 runs. She continued to struggle at the start of the 2003 English domestic season, prompting Wisden to report that she "had barely scraped a run" in the County Championship matches. Despite her struggles, she survived an overhaul of the England squad, in which seven of the players who had toured Australia and New Zealand had been dropped. She repaid the faith shown in her, striking centuries in both Test matches against South Africa. The first, a score of 177 runs, was the highest total she made in Test cricket, and was scored over six and a half hours, and was just twelve runs short of the highest by any England woman. Two weeks later, she became one of only five women, as of 2012, to have scored centuries in consecutive Test matches, when she scored 131 runs at Taunton. Her performances in the ODI series were less eye-catching, but a half-century in the first match helped her finish second to Laura Newton as England's leading run-scorer. Taylor competed in the State League for the second consecutive year in early 2004, and finished with the second-most runs in the competition, scoring 401 runs at an average of 44.55. From New Zealand, she travelled to South Africa to join up with the England team for five ODIs. After scoring 90 runs in a warm-up contest against an Invitational XI, she finished as England's second most prolific run-scorer behind Edwards, though she only once reached a half-century in the international matches. Back in England for the 2004 Super Fours competition, Taylor and Edwards once more headed the batting tables, Taylor narrowly trailing her international teammate in terms of runs scored, but ahead of her on batting average, having scored 351 runs at 87.75. In the subsequent series against New Zealand, Taylor was the top-scorer in the first Twenty20 International match played by either gender. Despite the quicker-scoring nature of the Twenty20 game, Taylor was praised for her measured batting and placement. In the ODIs, England possessed greater depth in their batting, making the team less reliant on Taylor and Edwards' performances. That depth helped them to win the series 3–2, despite a low-scoring sequence of matches for Taylor in which she averaged below twenty. In preparation for the 2005 Women's Cricket World Cup in South Africa, Taylor played her third and final season in the State League, though her 229 runs at an average of 38.16 were the lowest she achieved in any year of the competition. During a short warm-up series against South Africa, she enjoyed batting success, scoring 94 and 47 in the two ODIs, and then an unbeaten 166 runs against a side from Gauteng and North West. After the first round of matches were all lost to rain, Taylor struck the highest score of the tournament in England's second match, against Sri Lanka. She scored 136 runs from 128 balls, and shared century partnerships with both Edwards and Clare Connor to help England record a large victory. She made little impact against India in the next match, but then scored 55 not out against South Africa and 46 against New Zealand to help ensure England's qualification for the semi-finals. Cricinfo reported that Australia were "undoubted favourites" for their semi-final clash with England, and that Taylor would be one of her side's key players for the contest. After the early loss of Laura Newton, Taylor was dismissed for the third duck of her ODI career, and England subsided to a five-wicket loss. She finished the tournament as one of the top-three batsmen by both runs-scored and average, aggregating 265 runs at 53.00. ## Further development After the World Cup, Taylor was disheartened by both her own, and England's, lack of success. She bemoaned that the sacrifices she had made had come to nothing, and after talking to psychologists, she realised that she needed to readdress her work–life balance. An amateur violinist, she was accepted into the Reading Orchestra, and by early 2006 was working out of the University of Reading as a performance management consultant. In the English summer of 2005, England hosted Australia for two Test matches and six limited-overs contests. The two Tests formed The Women's Ashes, an accolade that England had not won since 1963. In the first Test, Taylor scored a patient 35 runs in the first innings, and shared a partnership of 81 with Edwards, but the pair fell in quick succession, and England struggled thereafter. In the second innings, England required over 300 runs to win, but their top-order collapsed, losing three wickets for just fourteen runs. Taylor suffered a duck in the match, and only a century by Arran Brindle rescued a draw for her side. In the second Test, which England won to secure the Ashes, Taylor scored 43 runs in the first innings to help England open up a 158-run lead. Taylor finished the five-match ODI series as England's leading run-scorer, totalling 325 runs at an average of 65.00. After hitting half-centuries in the first and the third matches, she was praised by The Daily Telegraph for the quality of her "on-driving and cutting" as she scored 116 runs in the fourth match to level the series 2–2. Taylor, and England, had a difficult tour of Sri Lanka and India in late 2005; after winning the two ODIs against Sri Lanka, England drew the only Test against India and lost the ODI series 4–1. Taylor only scored 76 runs in the seven ODI matches, and made scores of five and three in the Test. She re-found her batting form at the start of the 2006 English cricket season, topping the batting averages in the 2006 Super Fours competition, scoring two centuries and two half-centuries in six matches for the Sapphires. Facing the touring Indians later that summer, Taylor made small totals in her first two appearances at the crease, scoring 10 in the only Twenty20 match, and 32 in the first innings of their solitary Test. She reached her fourth and final century in a Test match in the second innings, scoring 115 runs to put England into a potentially match winning position, though the match finished as a draw. The first game of the ODI series featured what the Marylebone Cricket Club describe as "Taylor's finest hour in an England shirt". Batting at number three, Taylor was called upon early, after opening batsman Edwards was run out in the third over. She was dropped twice in quick succession during her innings, but continued to reach her century from 110 balls. Having reached the milestone, she scored more rapidly and remained 156 not out at the end of the innings, hitting 9 fours in her 151-ball innings. The score was the highest of Taylor's ODI career, and is the joint fourth-highest total in women's ODI cricket. It is also the highest score made in an ODI match at Lord's by either gender, passing the 138 runs scored by Viv Richards in 1979. In the Women's Quadrangular Series hosted by India in early 2007, Taylor was England's best performer with the bat. Despite her side losing all six of their group matches, she finished the tournament with the second-most runs of any player, totalling 346. She scored half-centuries against each of the other three teams competing—Australia, India and New Zealand—and also scored an unbeaten 113 in the first match against Australia. She had a relatively quiet domestic season in 2007, ranking sixth amongst run-scorers in the Super Fours, having passed 50 runs just once, and despite ranking second by both runs scored and batting average in the County Championship, Taylor only scored two half-centuries in her five appearances in that competition. England started the summer with four Twenty20 matches, one against South Africa and three against New Zealand, in which Taylor made three scores of 20 or more, but did not reach a half-century. In the third ODI against New Zealand, she scored her sixth century in the format, but her 110 runs came from 133 deliveries, and the Wisden series report suggests that the scoring rate was too slow: New Zealand chased down the total in fewer than 36 overs. In the next match, Taylor scored 72 as England attempted to chase down 240 runs to win, but they were eventually bowled out 43 runs short. Though she only made small totals in the other three matches of the series, Taylor finished as the leading run-scorer in the series, though New Zealand's Aimee Watkins had a superior batting average. Her performances over the year from August 2006 resulted in Taylor being shortlisted for the ICC Women's Cricketer of the Year award, alongside Australia's Lisa Sthalekar and the eventual winner, India's Jhulan Goswami. During the voting period, Taylor scored three centuries and three half-centuries in international cricket. ## Leading batsman England travelled to Australia and New Zealand in early 2008 attempting to improve on their previous visits. In ten ODI matches in Australia against their hosts previously, England had only managed one win, while against New Zealand they had won just three of fifteen contests. England started badly, losing two of their warm-up matches by significant margins, and then falling 21 runs short in the Twenty20 match which opened the series. Taylor top-scored for England in their Twenty20 defeat with 34 runs from 32 balls. She made a similar score in the first ODI match against the hosts, but in the second match both Taylor and Edwards were out for ducks in a heavy defeat for England. After the third match of the series was abandoned without any play, Taylor scored her first half-century of the tour, and shared a century partnership with Edwards to help England secure a 2–1 lead in the series, guaranteeing that they would at least draw the five-match contest. After Australia won the last ODI to tie the series, the two sides met at the Bradman Oval to play the only Test of the tour. Taylor and Edwards again enjoyed a successful partnership in England's first innings; Taylor scored 79 runs as the pair put on 159 together. She scored an unbeaten half-century in the second innings to help England to retain the Ashes. Taylor carried her good form into the subsequent series against New Zealand, starting the second leg of their trip with a half-century against New Zealand A in a warm-up match in which she was acting captain. England struggled in the first ODI however: only Taylor and Edwards reached double figures for the tourists as they suffered a 123-run loss. In the following match, Taylor scored the seventh international century of her career, remaining 111 not out as England secured a nine-wicket win over New Zealand. She scored a half-century in the third ODI of the series, and 34 runs in the fifth to finish as England's leading run-scorer of the tour, scoring 342 runs at an average of 48.85 from the nine ODI matches in Australia and New Zealand. Playing in the first match of Berkshire's County Championship campaign, Taylor scored 146 runs from 148 balls against Nottinghamshire, out of a team total of 212: no other Berkshire batsman scored more than 10 runs, and Nottinghamshire won by six wickets. In a two match ODI series against the West Indies she made minimal impact, but was described by Cricinfo as being "at her dominant best" in the first match of the subsequent series against South Africa. She struck 7 fours during her 70-ball innings and scored 83 runs. In the three remaining matches of the series, she made modest totals, before missing the Twenty20 Internationals due to illness. Taylor reached a landmark during the third series of the summer, making her 100th ODI appearance, against India. In the five-match series, which England won 4–0, Taylor remained not out in each of her three innings, scoring 125 runs. Following that series, the ICC introduced player rankings for women's ODI cricket, for which Taylor was top of the batsmen. ## Double world champions In 2009, England participated in both the Women's Cricket World Cup, and the inaugural Women's World Twenty20. Taylor was identified as one of England's key players in a preview of the tournament, and she set up victory for England in their opening match against Sri Lanka with her eighth ODI century, her third in successive World Cup matches against Sri Lanka. She asserted her dominance once more in the second match, against India, scoring quicker than a run a ball for her 69 not out, to help England chase down a modest total in under 40 overs. Not required to bat against Pakistan, and dismissed for 19 against New Zealand, Taylor helped secure England's place in the final with a rapid 65 runs, including 2 sixes and 6 fours, against the West Indies. In England's final match of the group stages, Taylor top-scored with 49 runs in a dead rubber loss against Australia: Australia could not qualify for the final, and England were already through. In the final, having restricted New Zealand to 166, England were ahead of the required rate early. An early loss of wicket brought Taylor to the crease, and she played an attacking innings of 21, including 4 fours, before being bowled. England won the match by four wickets, to become ODI world champions. Taylor finished the tournament as the leading run-scorer, having made 324 runs, and her batting average was the highest amongst batsmen with over 100 runs. She was one of five England players to be named in the team of the tournament. Taylor's next international action came during the inaugural Women's World Twenty20 tournament, held in England. Despite not being required to bat in England's opening match against India, she was the second most prolific batsmen in the competition, finishing with 199 runs, just one less than New Zealand's Aimee Watkins. In the group stage match against Sri Lanka, Taylor achieved her highest score in Twenty20 International cricket, making an unbeaten 75. Just five days later, she improved on that score, reaching 76 not out against Australia in the semi-finals. Batting with Beth Morgan, the pair maintained a run-rate of almost 10 runs an over to secure England's place in the final. Facing New Zealand in the final, England dismissed their opponents for 85 runs, but laboured to their total; Taylor top-scored for her side with 39 not out, and was the only England player to score a faster than a run a ball. Taylor was named as player of the tournament, and having only been dismissed once, finished with a batting average of 199.00. In England's subsequent series against Australia, Taylor struggled for runs, scoring 79 runs across four ODI innings, and being dismissed for under 20 runs in each innings of the only Test match. She opted to miss the tour of the West Indies in late 2009 to focus on her work commitments. ## Later career Taylor returned to action for England in the 2010 Women's World Twenty20, hosted by the West Indies. England, and Taylor, struggled in the competition. Their only victory came against South Africa, after they had already been eliminated from the tournament. Taylor scored 24 runs in the tournament at an average of just 8.00. Later that summer, England hosted New Zealand. Taylor finished as England's leading run-scorer in the ODI series, scoring 166 runs at an average of 41.50, including half-centuries in two of the matches. In their next series, a tour of Sri Lanka, Taylor started strongly; scoring 73 runs in a narrow victory against their hosts, but failed to achieve double figures in an innings for the remainder of the tour. Taylor sustained a shoulder injury during the second warm-up match of their subsequent tour of Australia, which ruled her out of the rest of the visit. Her injury had healed by the start of the 2011 season, but Taylor failed to make a significant impact on England's first two matches of the Twenty20 Quadrangular series, against New Zealand and Australia. In the third match however, ESPNcricinfo's Liam Brickhill claimed that she "roared back into form" with 66 runs from 46 balls to help England to a big win over India. England won the tournament, which was closely followed by an equivalent ODI Quadrangular. Taylor made at least 30 runs in three of her four innings of the tournament to finish among the top run-scorers in the series, which was also won by England. At the conclusion of the series, Taylor announced her retirement from international cricket. She finished her career with batting averages in excess of 40 in both Test and ODI cricket, and at the time of her retirement she trailed only Charlotte Edwards in ODI runs scored. She continued to represent Berkshire until the conclusion of the 2011 season. ## Playing style During her teenage years, Taylor was considered a better hockey player than cricketer. When she began playing for Thames Valley, she was considered a wicket-keeper with no more than average batting ability. At university, she began to develop her batting, playing alongside the men for her college side. The different pace and strength required in the men's game meant that she had to learn to play off the back foot, in contrast to women's cricket, which is generally played off the front foot. After graduating from university in 1997, she made her international debut for England in 1998, but batted low in the order for England, having been picked as a wicket-keeper. Intent on improving her batting, she began one-on-one coaching with Mark Lane. At the time, it was unusual for a member of the England women's team to have individual coaching sessions, and Taylor had to pay for the meetings herself. When they began working together, Lane was critical of her batting; "She was just average, I would say." The sessions helped to improve Taylor's mental approach towards batting as well as making technical changes, though Lane promoted the use of bottom-handed hockey-style shots which came more naturally to Taylor. At her peak, she used her intelligence to help manipulate the field; in an interview she described that, "when I'm batting at my best I have a 3D awareness of the shape of the field and where the spaces are." ## Recognition Taylor was the first woman to be selected as Wisden's Cricketer of the Year, in 2009. The editor of that years almanack, Scyld Berry, noted that "there is no element of political correctness or publicity-seeking about her selection," and that she had been "chosen on merit, for being pre-eminent in her form of the game." She was short-listed for the ICC Women's Cricketer of the Year in both 2007 and 2008, and won the award in 2009. She was also named as the England and Wales Cricket Board's Women's Player of the Year in May 2009. Continuing on from her success in 2009, Taylor was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) on the 2010 New Year Honours list. During her career she topped the ICC batting rankings for both ODI and Twenty20 International cricket, and upon her retirement, former Test cricketer Mike Selvey suggested in The Guardian that she was "perhaps the finest batsman the women's game has seen." ## See also - List of centuries in women's One Day International cricket - List of centuries in women's Test cricket

452 Fifth Avenue

Office skyscraper in Manhattan, New York

452 Fifth Avenue (also the HSBC Tower and formerly the Republic National Bank Building) is an office building at the southwest corner of Fifth Avenue and 40th Street in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. The building includes the 30-story, 400-foot (120 m) HSBC Tower, completed in late 1985 and designed by Attia & Perkins. The 10-story Knox Building, a Beaux-Arts office building designed in 1902 by John H. Duncan, is preserved at the base of the skyscraper. 452 Fifth Avenue faces Bryant Park immediately to the north. The HSBC Tower is designed with a glass facade, which curves around the Knox Building to the north; a similar curved tower across Fifth Avenue was never built. The Knox Building's facade remains largely as it was originally designed, with decorated limestone cladding, a cornice above the sixth floor, and a mansard roof. The Knox Building is a New York City designated landmark and is on the National Register of Historic Places. Internally, the tower is tied into the stories of the Knox Building. The Knox Building was erected between 1901 and 1902 for Edward M. Knox, who operated the Knox Hat Company and leased out several stories to office tenants. In 1964, the Knox heirs sold the building to a group that founded the Republic National Bank of New York and used the building as the bank's headquarters. The bank acquired the neighboring lots in the 1970s and hired Attia & Perkins to design a tower to house its new world headquarters, which would wrap around the Knox Building. The tower was expanded in the 1990s and sold to the investment bank HSBC. In October 2009, HSBC Holdings sold the building to Midtown Equities and Israeli holding company IDB Group, the latter of which passed the building to a subsidiary, Property & Building Corporation (PBC). HSBC continued to lease back its space in the building until 2022, when the bank announced it would relocate. ## Site The building at 452 Fifth Avenue is on the western sidewalk between 39th and 40th Streets, in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. The building occupies an "L"-shaped land lot with a frontage of 197 feet (60 m) along Fifth Avenue to the east, a depth of 185 feet (56 m), and an area of 32,834 square feet (3,050.4 m²). 452 Fifth Avenue is the eastern end of a row of masonry structures on 40th Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues, which forms the southern border of Bryant Park. On the same block to the west are the Engineering Societies' Building, Engineers' Club Building, The Bryant, the American Radiator Building, and Bryant Park Studios. Other nearby places include the New York Public Library Main Branch across 40th Street to the north, 461 Fifth Avenue to the northeast, the Stavros Niarchos Foundation Library and 10 East 40th Street to the east, and the Lord & Taylor Building to the south. The northeastern corner of the base contains the Knox Building at Fifth Avenue and 40th Street, which has been incorporated into 452 Fifth Avenue. The original Knox Building covers a lot of 83 by 110 feet (25 by 34 m). The Knox Building directly replaced the Lawrence Kip residence, which had been on that corner since the mid-19th century. At the beginning of the 20th century, development was centered on Fifth Avenue north of 34th Street, where new store buildings were quickly replacing the street's brownstone residences. These included the B. Altman and Company Building, the Tiffany and Company Building, the Gorham Building, and the Lord & Taylor Building. The modern skyscraper includes the former Kress Building at the corner of Fifth Avenue and 39th Street, which was originally designed in the Art Deco style and built in the mid-1930s. An annex on 20 West 40th Street replaced the Willkie Memorial Building, designed by Henry Janeway Hardenbergh and built in 1905. ## Architecture The modern skyscraper at 452 Fifth Avenue, formerly known as the Republic National Bank Building, is composed of four distinct sections. The ten-story Knox Building, at the southwest corner of 40th Street and Fifth Avenue, was designed by John H. Duncan in the Beaux-Arts style. The newer HSBC Tower (originally the Republic National Bank Tower), occupying much of the rest of the site, was designed by Attia & Perkins. The Kress Building and another structure on 39th Street are also incorporated into the skyscraper. The building is 400 feet (120 m) tall, with 30 stories. The Knox Building is on the National Register of Historic Places and is protected by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) as a city landmark. However, the Kress Building was not similarly designated because the LPC did not find it to be architecturally significant. ### Facade #### Knox Building The Knox Building's facade remains largely as it was originally designed. The first six floors are clad with rusticated blocks of limestone along Fifth Avenue; a similar motif is used on 40th Street, but the third through sixth floors use buff brick instead of genuine rusticated limestone. The first floor has show windows, and the entrance is shielded by an iron-and-glass canopy on Fifth Avenue. A mezzanine level was originally placed in the upper section of the first floor, and a sparsely decorated cornice runs above the first floor. On the second floor, the arched windows on 40th Street have keyed blocks above them, while the rectangular window on Fifth Avenue has a palm branch and female head above the center. The third through eighth floors have elaborately decorated window screens. The third through sixth floors use a similar window arrangement, with three windows per story on Fifth Avenue and eight per story on 40th Street. The extreme ends of either facade contain quoins. Above the sixth floor, there is a cornice with dentils and large console brackets; the metal railing above the cornice has since been removed. The seventh and eighth stories contain windows between vertical brick piers and horizontal ornamental spandrels. The spandrels on the Fifth Avenue facade and in the end bays on 40th Street are decorated with lions' heads and elaborate cartouches. A bracketed cornice runs above the eighth floor. The top of the Knox Building is a double-height mansard roof that contains dormer windows. On Fifth Avenue, the central dormer is a large two-story opening topped by a gable with a female head. There are single-height dormers on each side of the large opening, at the ninth story. On 40th Street, the outermost bays have two-story dormer windows and the inner bays are designed as single-height dormers at the ninth story. The inner bays on 40th Street contain three wide openings on the tenth floor, each designed with nine narrow vertical glass panes. The top of the mansard has a cresting containing torches and anthemia with eagles. When built, the southern and western facades were brick party walls. #### HSBC Tower The HSBC Tower is designed with a glass facade. On the northern side, the facade appears to curve around the Knox Building in a series of steps. This, in turn, gave the HSBC Tower the impression that it had an irregularly shaped roof. The eastern facade along Fifth Avenue is tinted in bronze to blend in with the facades of other structures on the avenue. By contrast, the northern facade along 40th Street contains full-height silicone-stiffened glass panels, with glazing that gives the facade a green tint. The green facade was intended to complement the Knox Building. The tower's facade was built without exterior vertical mullions but is instead stiffened by internal glass mullions, with structural silicone linking the facade and the floor plates. A two-story mockup was created in Florida before the HSBC Tower's facade was installed. The HSBC Tower is recessed 10 feet (3.0 m) from the original building's street-facing facades. According to Attia & Perkins, this allowed the HSBC Tower to rise as a distinct entity from the mansard roof of the Knox Building. The HSBC Tower was originally planned with a mirror-image tower across Fifth Avenue, which was never built. The tower is cantilevered over the Kress Building at the southeastern corner of the site. Several 25-foot-long (7.6 m) beams are cantilevered from strips that rise from the 11th story to the roof. The Kress Building's original facade had included six each of black marble panels and carved limestone crests, as well as four sets of brass doors, including two revolving doors. Unlike the Knox Building, the facade of the Kress Building was completely redesigned when the Republic National Bank Tower was built. The facade of the former Kress Building was replaced with a granite cladding containing rose, beige, and gray hues. The Kress Building's rebuilt facade ascends from north to south like a staircase. At ground level, the Kress Building received a glass facade as well. The Kress Building's original decorations were placed into storage when the HSBC Tower was built. ### Interior The floor areas of 452 Fifth Avenue's constituent structures range from 42,000 to 50,000 square feet (3,900 to 4,600 m²), which allowed the tower's original tenant, Republic National Bank, to consolidate many of its departments on their own floors. The building as a whole occupied 804,000 square feet (74,700 m²) when completed, of which the tower comprised 371,000 square feet (34,500 m²). The building has bank vaults 50 feet (15 m) below ground, spanning 25,000 square feet (2,300 m²). The lobby, which faces 40th Street, contains a double-height glazed facade as well as an entrance canopy. The space covers 3,700 square feet (340 m²) and is clad with stone and glass. The lobby has a banking space on Fifth Avenue, used for quick deposits and transactions. It was designed with several chandeliers, including a globe-shaped fixture designed by Attia Architects. The banking space covers 17,000 square feet (1,600 m²). Eight of the lowest floors in the HSBC Tower's base span 40,000 square feet (3,700 m²) each and are tied into floors in the old Knox Building. At each of these floors, glass corridors connect the HSBC Tower and the old Knox Building, giving the impression of bridges. The Kress Building, also eight stories tall, was expanded by two floors, with a terrace installed on the Kress-Building's roof. This required the removal of a bulkhead on the top of the Kress Building. The two additional floors originally served as a trading floor that could fit 260 people. The trading desk was designed to be flexible and had no fixed-position furniture. According to Nancy J. Ruddy of Eli Attia Architects, the trading floor was "one of the largest single trading floors" in the city when completed. The first full story in the HSBC Tower is the 11th floor, which was designed as an executive dining room story. Originally, the corridors of that story were decorated with pieces of artwork from Republic National Bank's collection. The main dining room was clad with original wall paneling taken from the Knox Building's banking hall, as well as some replica panels, which were created because there were not enough original panels for the whole room. The serving counters of the dining room were adapted from the green marble countertops of the Knox Building's original banking hall. Above the 12th floor, each story has 13,200 square feet (1,230 m²). The 27th through 29th floors were designed as executive suites but, because of Republic National Bank's rapid expansion in the late 1980s, some of the suites were converted to operations offices. ## History ### Original structure Charles Knox founded the Knox Hat Company on Fulton Street, in what is now Lower Manhattan, in 1838. The company had many customers until the American Civil War, and it became known for selling high-quality hats. At some point after the Civil War, Charles Knox's son Edward M. Knox took over the family business. Through the latter half of the 19th century, Knox opened stores in the fashionable shopping districts of Manhattan; by 1900, the Knox hat was known worldwide. #### Construction and early years In 1901, Edward Knox acquired the Kip mansion at the southwest corner of Fifth Avenue and 40th Street, across from the vacant site of the Croton Reservoir, later the New York Public Library Main Branch. The Central Realty, Bond and Trust Company was reported in the media as the buyer, but it was acting on behalf of Knox. The Real Estate Record and Guide reported that the Knox purchase, along with that of the Gorham Manufacturing Company at Fifth Avenue and 36th Street, "are interesting indications of the way the tide is setting up 5th avenue". Knox received title to the site that April for \$450,000, and he hired John Duncan to extend and remodel the old Kip mansion for commercial use. At the end of the following month, Duncan filed plans for a new 10-story building on the Kip site. The Knox Building was completed in October 1902 and originally contained a Knox hat store at its base. The store was described as having carved and paneled walnut decoration, plate-glass mirrors with brought-iron frames, bronze-and-marble counter tops, large chandeliers, and gold-plated cabinets. A mezzanine gallery, with an ornamental railing, hung above three sides of the store. In March 1903, six months after the store opened, the New-York Tribune reported that the store "has already become one of the chief features of the avenue". The same year, Knox split his business into manufacturing and retail companies. The Knox Hat Manufacturing Company's offices and the main store of the E.M. Knox Hat Retail Company were placed within the building, and some of the office space was rented to other tenants. By 1914, the building was valued at \$860,000. Among the Knox Building's tenants during the 1900s and 1910s were a photography studio operated by Percy D. Brewster, a store operated by Louise Lewis, the Town Topics Publishing Company, and the offices of architect George K. Thompson. The Republican National Committee also leased space in 1918, though it moved out after eighteen months. #### Mid-20th century By early 1920, negotiations were underway to lease the Knox Building to a construction syndicate. At the time, the Farmers' Loan and Trust Company owned the building. Coincidentally, around that time, Benjamin Mordecai and E. Clifford Potter incorporated the Fortieth Street and Fifth Avenue Corporation. After acquiring the leasehold, Mordecai and Potter renovated the building extensively. In January 1922, August Heckscher acquired the leasehold for \$2 million. The Knox Building was one of eleven large Midtown office buildings that Heckscher owned, which collectively were valued at \$30 million by 1923. Tenants in the Knox Building during the 1920s included the Gates-Browne Corporation, the Arthur S. Kane Picture Corporation, and perfumers Yardley & Co. The Knox Hat Company also renewed its lease in 1928 for the ground-floor storefront, basement, and mezzanine for \$3,500 per foot (\$11,000/m) of storefront length; at the time, it was a record amount for a lease of a corner storefront on Fifth Avenue. Albert B. Ashforth was appointed as the Knox Building's leasing agent in 1935, and the Knox Hat Company signed a lease for space on the second floor the same year. Other lessees in the 1930s also included Brown & Wells Inc., hairdressers Julian Inc., and publishers Parfumerie St. Denis Inc. and House of Peters Inc. In 1964, the Knox heirs sold the building to a group headed by Martin Ackerman. With that acquisition, the Ackerman group filed to incorporate the Republic National Bank of New York within the Knox Building. The firm of Kahn & Jacobs designed a renovation for the building. The Joseph P. Blitz Company was the contractor for the interior renovation, which was completed by 1965. The exterior was largely kept intact "to preserve its architectural beauty", according to The New York Times. The exterior renovation consisted of minor window replacements, as well as the installation of three rusticated piers on 40th Street to replace ornamental piers. The bank's space at the Knox Building formally opened in January 1966 at a ceremony attended by U.S. Senator Robert F. Kennedy. ### Tower development Over eleven years starting around 1970, Republic Bank assembled a 51,000-square-foot (4,700 m²) site on the west side of Fifth Avenue between 39th and 40th Streets. This included the Kress Building on the corner of Fifth Avenue and 39th Street, as well as two structures between the Kress and Knox buildings. The S. H. Kress store in the eponymous building had closed in 1977 after operating for 42 years. #### Construction The New York City Planning Commission approved an eleven-story annex of the Republic National Bank Building on Fifth Avenue, south of the original structure, in 1974. Republic was obligated to design the annex to "harmonize" with that of the New York Public Library Main Branch, an official city landmark. By the late 1970s, the bank planned to erect a world headquarters tower on the site to consolidate operations at 15 buildings across New York City. Republic specified that six of its Fifth Avenue structures, including the Knox Building, had to remain on the site because some of the bank's operations in these buildings could not be halted. Furthermore, the bank did not want the tower to overshadow the design of the Knox Building. Republic hired several firms, including Kohn Pedersen Fox, in 1978 to create designs for a new tower on the site. The LPC designated the Knox Building as a city landmark in 1980. Despite not wanting to destroy the building, Republic originally opposed the designation, which prevented major changes to the design without the LPC's consent. The bank ultimately expressed its support for the landmark designation. By mid-1981, plans for Republic's tower had yet to be finalized. A mirror-image tower on the northeast corner of Fifth Avenue and 39th Street, which Republic had proposed on the site of a Woolworth store, had been disapproved the previous March. In September 1981, Attia Architects presented plans for a 27-story tower wrapping around the Knox Building. The tower was to cover 700,000 square feet (65,000 m²). The project was to be the largest development on Fifth Avenue south of 42nd Street since the Empire State Building, which had been completed five decades earlier. The Knox Building was added to the NRHP on June 3, 1982. Republic changed its plans in 1983, adding two stories without changing the overall roof height. Turner Construction was the general contractor in charge of the tower's construction, and various other consultants and architects were also hired for the project. The firm of Platt and Byard restored the Knox Building as part of the project. Some of the original design elements that had been removed in the 1960s were restored, including the ground-floor storefront windows; the glass entrance canopy on Fifth Avenue; and upper-story windows, which had been replaced with sliding windows. The Knox Building was completely reconstructed internally, and the Kress Building's facade was replaced as well. The Kress Building was renovated in segments because one of its tenants refused to leave until July 1984. Just west of the Knox Building, there was controversy over the bank's demolition of the Willkie Memorial Building, the former Freedom House headquarters at 20 West 40th Street. That structure's ornamentation was removed while the LPC was considering it for landmark status, and the building was ultimately demolished completely. #### Completion and expansion The Republic National Bank Tower was completed by late 1985 at an estimated cost of \$100 million. The bank had initially planned to occupy only the 1st through 7th stories, offering the 8th through 11th stories for temporary lease. The bank ultimately ended up also leasing the 8th through 11th stories. The 12th story and higher were leased to tenants such as the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Aetna, Krungthai Bank, and Hewitt Associates. The 25th through 28th floors had not been rented while the top floor was to be used by Republic as an executive penthouse. In addition, clothing retailer The Limited rented a storefront in part of the ground and mezzanine stories. Republic National Bank had allocated space in its new tower for 1,200 employees, but the bank had 2,000 employees before the end of the decade. By the early 1990s, Republic was leasing space in nearby buildings. Fox & Fowle proposed a 12-story building at 20 West 40th Street, adjacent to the Republic National Bank Tower, in 1989 or 1990. Republic rejected the plan as being too small for its needs. In September 1993, Republic proposed a 16-story structure with a two-story entrance and a limestone facade tapering to a pyramidal roof. In exchange, the bank proposed restoring the Knox Building's Fifth Avenue entrance marquee and seventh-story railing. One of Manhattan Community Board 5's committees initially opposed the plan but, after Republic emphasized that the work would create 500 jobs, the community board overruled the committee. The addition was to be contiguous with the existing tower and the Knox Building, so it required LPC approval. After multiple revisions, including a stipulation that the facade's material be changed to brick, the LPC approved the project in November 1993. The City Planning Commission also gave Republic a waiver to permit the construction of four additional stories, covering 60,000 square feet (5,600 m²), in exchange for maintaining the Knox Building. In May 1994, newly elected mayor Rudy Giuliani offered financial incentives to fund the construction of the annex. This included \$6.4 million in waived city and state sales taxes as well as bonds to help fund the \$55 million annex and a \$23 million renovation of a data center on the 1 West 39th Street side. The bank, which had been planning to move 900 data-center workers to New Jersey, decided to keep the data center in place. Giuliani's administration also offered to permit foundation work for the annex to proceed before the requisite Uniform Land Use Review Procedure for the site was completed. Though the process was completed in mid-1994, the site remained undeveloped and was used as a parking lot. The site was ultimately developed as a condominium complex called The Bryant in the late 2010s. The expansion of the data center required the addition of 4,000 amperes of capacity, double what the data center had been able to accommodate previously. The project also included retrofitting an adjacent structure on 39th Street, dating from the 1920s. Four water tanks on that structure's roof had to be removed to make way for a 2,000-kilowatt (2,700 hp) generator and switching machinery. The loading docks were also upgraded and new electrical conduits were excavated under the street. This work had to be done with minimal interruption to electrical service, since the building was occupied for the full duration of the renovation, and all non-emergency street excavations in Midtown were halted each winter. The work was completed in the late 1990s. Tops Appliance City, an electronics store, leased space on the ground and second floors of the National Republic Bank Tower in 1998. ### 21st century HSBC acquired Republic in 1999. HSBC Brokerage expanded its office space at 452 Fifth Avenue in 2002, creating the HSBC Brokerage Center. HSBC contemplated selling 452 Fifth Avenue in September 2008, but the bank reneged on its plans the next month, when it received bids of between \$400 and \$500 million, well below its target of \$600 million. By April 2009, HSBC was again considering selling 452 Fifth Avenue. Within two months, the bank had received around 20 bids of between \$250 and \$300 million, less than the \$400 to \$500 million the bank had sought, though several developers submitted bids of over \$290 million. That October, HSBC Holdings sold the building to Midtown Equities and Israeli holding company IDB Group for \$352.9 million. HSBC planned to lease back the entire building for one year and the first 11 floors for ten years. IDB then passed the building to a subsidiary, Property & Building Corporation (PBC). When 452 Fifth Avenue was sold, investors were purchasing buildings around Bryant Park as part of a small real estate boom around the park. Rents per square foot in buildings south of 42nd Street, including 452 Fifth Avenue, had historically been lower than rents in buildings north of 42nd Street, but PBC planned to renovate 452 Fifth Avenue in the hope of being able to attract high rents. The HSBC Tower was renovated starting in 2010. As part of the work, PBDW Architects restored some of the Knox Building's original decorative elements. The first phase of the renovation, a refurbishment of the lobby, was completed in 2011, while the second phase entailed replacement of upper-story elevators and some mechanical equipment. PBC was able to sign leases for 14 of the 18 available floors during eight months in 2011, mostly to companies in the law and financial sectors. The final renovations were being completed by late 2012. PBC refinanced the building in mid-2012 with \$300 million in commercial mortgage-backed securities issued by JPMorgan Chase. The refinancing valued the building at \$670 million. By 2013, asking rents at 452 Fifth Avenue were over \$100 per square foot (\$1,100/m²), which made it among 80 buildings in New York City achieving triple digit rents. 452 Fifth Avenue was fully leased by mid-2015, amid reports PBC would sell the structure. The same year, JLL was hired as 452 Fifth Avenue's leasing agent. HSBC Bank extended its lease by five years in 2017 after searching for space in other buildings. HSBC ultimately announced in May 2022 that it would relocate to the Spiral in Hudson Yards in January 2024. In October 2021, PBC announced it would sell 452 Fifth Avenue and use the profits to invest in Israeli properties. That December, Andrew Chung of the Innovo Property Group announced he would acquire the building for \$855 million. The sale was originally supposed to be finalized in May 2022, but Chung was unable to obtain the required financing by then. Chung had put down \$30 million for the purchase but was not able to raise \$200 million before the deadline. The deal fell through shortly after HSBC announced its relocation to Hudson Yards. Instead, PBC kept Chung's down payment and refinanced the building with a \$385 million loan from JPMorgan Chase. PBC unsuccessfully attempted to sell the building again in February 2023, shortly after HBK Capital Management and Novartis moved into the building. ## Critical reception Norval White and Elliot Willensky, in the AIA Guide to New York City, said the Knox Building an "exuberant Classical showcase was built for Col. Edward Knox, hatter to Presidents". After the Republic National Bank offices opened in the Knox Building in the 1960s, architectural writer Ada Louise Huxtable praised the building as having been "beautifully restored", with the design complementing the New York Public Library Main Branch. She described the interiors as having "a kind of Beirut Louis XVI atmosphere out of Beirut". When the Republic National Bank Tower was being constructed, Paul Goldberger praised the Knox Building as a "lyrical classical gem". By contrast, he believed that, despite the measures taken to incorporate the Knox Building into the tower's design, "the tower bears down over the old building, turning this strong classical structure into a quaint little toy". When the second annex was built in the 1990s, Peter Slatin wrote for The New York Times that the first tower "exemplifies the now largely discarded approach to designing buildings that clearly denote their separateness from their historic setting". Christopher Gray wrote for The New York Times in 2010 that the Knox Building "makes the sumptuous New York Public Library [main building] look positively demure". ## See also - List of tallest buildings in New York City - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets - National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets

Arizona State Route 67

State highway in Arizona, United States

State Route 67 (SR 67) is a 43.4 mi (69.8 km) long, north–south state highway in northern Arizona. Also called the Kaibab Plateau – North Rim Parkway, SR 67 is the sole road that links U.S. Route 89A (US 89A) at Jacob Lake to the North Rim of Grand Canyon National Park. Along the route, the road heads through the national park as well as Kaibab National Forest and traverses extensive coniferous forests. The section inside the national park is maintained by the National Park Service (NPS), whereas the section north of the entrance, completely within Kaibab National Forest, is owned by the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT). The road was built in the late 1920s and improved through the 1930s. In 1941, the road received its number, and was given its designation as the parkway in the 1980s. The parkway has received designations as a National Forest Scenic Byway as well as a National Scenic Byway. ## Route description Signage for SR 67 begins at Bright Angel Point along the North Rim of the Grand Canyon National Park. ADOT does not officially own this section of road, but it is signed as SR 67. The road heads north as the Kaibab Plateau – North Rim Parkway through the small town of North Rim, surrounded by evergreen trees. The parkway enters a small clearing before meeting the park entrance, where ownership by ADOT begins. Heading into Kaibab National Forest on a northward path, the roadway is surrounded by a narrow meadow bordered by evergreen trees. As it passes the nearby Deer Lake, SR 67 meets an unpaved National Forest road. The landscape around the route is crisscrossed by these routes as SR 67 makes several turns, turning back toward the north. The highway, with the new name of Grand Canyon Highway in addition to its other designation, makes several turns as it heads north through the woods. It takes a more northwesterly path as it runs through Coconino County. Near its terminus, the road turns back northeast toward its terminus at US 89A in Jacob Lake. The northern segment of the highway is maintained by ADOT, who is responsible for maintaining SR 67 like all other highways around the state. As part of this job, ADOT periodically surveys traffic along its routes. These surveys are most often presented in the form of average annual daily traffic, which is the number of vehicles who use the route on any average day during the year. In 2009, ADOT calculated that around 1,100 vehicles used the route daily at its northern terminus in Jacob Lake. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) lists the highway as a National Scenic Byway, and the National Forest Service has also designated it a National Forest Service Byway. No part of the highway has been listed in the National Highway System, a system of roads in the United States important to the nation's economy, defense, and mobility. Due to the closure of park facilities on the north rim of the Grand Canyon during winter, winter maintenance is not undertaken after December 1, with the result that SR 67 is usually closed to vehicular traffic from December 1 until spring. ## History SR 67 existed as a route to reach the north rim of the Grand Canyon National Park as early as 1927 as a dirt road. By 1935, the road had been improved to a gravel road, and by 1938 it had been paved. In 1941, the road was designated as a state highway and signed as SR 67. In 1985, the highway received the designation of Kaibab Plateau – North Rim Parkway as an Arizona State Scenic Byway. The designation included SR 67 in its entirety as well as extending south into Grand Canyon National Park. Two years later, ADOT obtained the right-of-way for improvement of the highway from its northern terminus approximately 10 miles (16 km) south. In 1989, an additional right-of-way was acquired by ADOT from its southern terminus approximately 5 miles (8.0 km) north. By June of that year, the parkway received the designation of a National Forest Scenic Byway, and in June 1998, the Kaibab Plateau – North Rim Parkway received another designation, this time as a National Scenic Byway. Since establishment, the route has not been realigned and retains its original routing. ## Junction list

Robert Ford (politician)

American politician

Robert Ford (born December 26, 1948) is an American politician who served as a Democratic member of the South Carolina Senate from 1993 to 2013, representing District 42, which is located in Charleston. From 1974 to 1992, he served as a member of the Charleston City Council. Originally involved in the civil rights movement, several of Ford's public statements and legislative proposals as senator attracted media attention and controversy. He finished in third place in the June 2010 Democratic primary election for Governor of South Carolina. He resigned on May 31, 2013, in the midst of a political scandal on public funds spent in adult establishments. ## Personal life Ford was born in New Orleans, Louisiana; his parents were leaders in the African American community. Ford attended Wayne State University and Grambling State University, from which he was expelled in 1969 before graduating for leading civil rights demonstrations. He was expelled by the university, despite it being historically black, because it relied on public funds which were controlled by a state government opposed to desegregation. Ford was a member of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference staff from 1966 to 1972 and worked for Martin Luther King Jr. (continuing after King was assassinated) as a member of an advance team of the 1968 Poor People's Campaign. He was arrested 73 times for participating in protests during the civil rights movement. In 1973, he won a draft evasion trial on basis of conscientious objection. Ford worked as a car salesman and later became a full-time legislator. Ford is a lifelong bachelor. ## Political career Ford was elected to serve on the Charleston City Council, where he served from 1974 to 1992. During this time, Councilman Ford was indicted on forgery charges after an annexation petition for the Neck area included the names of dead people. However, he was not convicted. Ford ran for the State Senate and was elected on November 3, 1992, taking office in 1993. He was reelected in 1996, 2000, 2004, and 2008. He served on the Senate Committees on Banking and Insurance, Corrections and Penology, General, Invitations, Judiciary, and Labor, Commerce and Industry, and was the ranking Democrat on several committees. Ford is a member of the South Carolina Legislative Black Caucus. Ford resigned on May 31, 2013 during a brewing campaign finance scandal. Ford has been described as entertaining, controversial, and politically incorrect. He supported Hillary Clinton in the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries and questioned Barack Obama's appeal to white voters. Ford later apologized for his comments, stating that any Democrat could win and that he had supported other African American candidates for president in the past. Ford's comments prompted a primary challenge in 2008 from Charleston lawyer Dwayne Green. In the beginning of his campaign, Green managed to raise double the amount of campaign funds Ford raised, and although Ford's fundraising improved he for the first time attended a candidate forum to receive free publicity, because his campaign had financial difficulty resulting from the contested primary and a fire in his home. Green was defeated in the primary election by a wide margin. Ford praised Obama's election in November 2008, but criticized South Carolina Congressman James Clyburn's family for allegedly attempting to profit off Obama's victory. ### Political positions As senator, Ford has introduced many bills with only a small number becoming law, but has been more successful in contributing to compromise bills. After becoming senator, Ford attempted to have the Confederate flag removed from the South Carolina State House. It was the last state capitol to display a Confederate battle flag, and Ford had picketed the building in the 1960s as a symbol of discrimination. Following years of debate, the flag was moved to a nearby monument with the adoption of a compromise bill authored by Ford. He was responsible for the passage of a 1998 bill that paired Martin Luther King, Jr. Day with Confederate Memorial Day as paid holidays. Ford stated that he hoped the legislation would improve race relations in South Carolina. Ford described the election of judges by popular vote as a major goal and supported increasing the number of judges. He supported giving more authority to law enforcement, including the ability to search people on parole and probation without warrant, making attempted murder a crime with lifelong sentence, and increasing penalties for possession of illegal guns. Ford is a proponent of stricter regulations of the financial industry. He sponsored a 2006 ban on payday lending, which was shown to discriminate against African Americans. In 2008, Ford blocked all House bills in the Senate until the bill was taken up. The bill failed in the Senate by a close vote and was heavily amended so lenders would not be banned but restricted. The bill then passed with Ford voting in favor but failed to advance after changes made in the House. A bill preventing consumers from taking out more than one loan at a time passed the House in 2009. Ford supported offshore drilling, stating conservation was not a priority for most citizens of the state. Geologists believe there is little oil to be found off the South Carolina coast. Ford wants to prevent the widening of Interstate 26 through Charleston, calling instead for a study for transportation needs. Ford emphasized the need for more funding for school programs, which he claimed is necessary due to the small number of pupils attending college and to remedy lacks of knowledge in geography and civics, which he wants reinstated as a school subject. Ford was told about favoritism, intimidation and racism in the South Carolina Highway Patrol and publicized it with Glenn McConnell. Subsequently, director and deputy director of the South Carolina Department of Public Safety resigned under pressure from governor Mark Sanford. Ford sponsored legislation defining a hate crime "as an assault, intimidation or threat based on 'actual or perceived' race, religion, color, sex, age, national origin and sexual orientation." He also introduced several bills concerning gay rights in lodging, hospital visitation rights and partnerships. His partnership bill would provide for civil unions in South Carolina. The effort was judged by state senator Mike Fair as predetermined to fail, but Ford cited the Democratic National Committee's platform on the issue and argued that Barack Obama's election showed that a change should be attempted. Even if passed, the measure would be unenforceable, due to a constitutional amendment banning unions similar to marriage in South Carolina. Ford worked to outlaw profanity and saggy pants and to keep music from minors that is "profane, vulgar, lewd, lascivious or indecent." Ford argued he did not expect these proposals to be approved but wanted to start a discussion specifically targeting young African American men's fashion as well as rap music. He stated: "You don't have to emulate prisoners no more. You can emulate somebody like Barack Obama." Ford often opposed governor Mark Sanford's political goals, arguing his proposed reforms were unwanted by the public, and he mostly opposed Sanford's fiscal policy and worked to override budget vetoes by the governor, claiming he was removed from the interests of citizens. An exception were security measures for the State House complex which Ford agreed were too costly. He also opposed Sanford's goal to increase the number of roll calls in the State Senate and voted against a 2008 immigration reform bill favored by Sanford, stating it would be an ineffective deterrent and would lead to less driving safety. The reform would have required all employers to use state driver's licenses or a database from the U.S. Department of Homeland Security to check the legal status of workers. Ford co-sponsored a bill with Glenn McConnell that would limit the governor's authority to appoint and remove board members overseeing the Charleston port and increase required qualifications for board members. Ford opposed a bill giving Sanford authority over the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control. ## 2010 Gubernatorial candidacy Ford ran to succeed Mark Sanford as Governor of South Carolina in the 2010 gubernatorial election. His platform included reinstating video poker to the state to generate returns from taxes on the gaming industry in an effort to balance the state budget, something he has proposed since the late 1990s. A law Ford sponsored in 2008 to make gambling legal failed to advance; he planned a voter referendum to repeal the ban. Ford faced state senator Vincent A. Sheheen of Camden and State Superintendent of Education Jim Rex in a primary election. Sheheen's campaign has raised \$33,000 as of January 2009, while Ford's campaign raised \$6,000. On June 8, 2010, Ford finished in third place in the primary election with 18 percent of the vote. ## Electoral history South Carolina State Senator, 42nd Senatorial District, 1992 Primary election, August 25, 1992 Threshold \> 50% Ford won the general election unopposed on November 3, 1992. South Carolina State Senator, 42nd Senatorial District, 1996 Ford did not have a primary opponent on June 11, 1996. General election, November 5, 1996 South Carolina State Senator, 42nd Senatorial District, 2000 Primary election Threshold \> 50% First Ballot, June 13, 2000 Second Ballot, June 27, 2000 Ford won the general election unopposed on November 7, 2000. South Carolina State Senator, 42nd Senatorial District, 2004 Primary election, June 8, 2004 Threshold \> 50% General election, November 2, 2004 South Carolina State Senator, 42nd Senatorial District, 2008 Primary election, June 10, 2008 Threshold \> 50% General election, November 4, 2008 South Carolina State Senator, 42nd Senatorial District, 2012 Senator Ford was unopposed for reelection in both the Democratic primary and the general election. General election, November 6, 2012

Battle of Marathon

490 BC battle in the Greco-Persian Wars

The Battle of Marathon took place in 490 BC during the first Persian invasion of Greece. It was fought between the citizens of Athens, aided by Plataea, and a Persian force commanded by Datis and Artaphernes. The battle was the culmination of the first attempt by Persia, under King Darius I, to subjugate Greece. The Greek army inflicted a crushing defeat on the more numerous Persians, marking a turning point in the Greco-Persian Wars. The first Persian invasion was a response to Athenian involvement in the Ionian Revolt, when Athens and Eretria sent a force to support the cities of Ionia in their attempt to overthrow Persian rule. The Athenians and Eretrians had succeeded in capturing and burning Sardis, but they were then forced to retreat with heavy losses. In response to this raid, Darius swore to burn down Athens and Eretria. According to Herodotus, Darius had his bow brought to him and then shot an arrow "upwards towards heaven", saying as he did so: "Zeus, that it may be granted me to take vengeance upon the Athenians!" Herodotus further writes that Darius charged one of his servants to say "Master, remember the Athenians" three times before dinner each day. At the time of the battle, Sparta and Athens were the two largest city-states in Greece. Once the Ionian revolt was finally crushed by the Persian victory at the Battle of Lade in 494 BC, Darius began plans to subjugate Greece. In 490 BC, he sent a naval task force under Datis and Artaphernes across the Aegean, to subjugate the Cyclades, and then to make punitive attacks on Athens and Eretria. Reaching Euboea in mid-summer after a successful campaign in the Aegean, the Persians proceeded to besiege and capture Eretria. The Persian force then sailed for Attica, landing in the bay near the town of Marathon. The Athenians, joined by a small force from Plataea, marched to Marathon, and succeeded in blocking the two exits from the plain of Marathon. The Athenians also sent a message to the Spartans asking for support. When the messenger arrived in Sparta, the Spartans were involved in a religious festival and gave this as a reason for not coming to help the Athenians. The Athenians and their allies chose a location for the battle, with marshes and mountainous terrain, that prevented the Persian cavalry from joining the Persian infantry. Miltiades, the Athenian general, ordered a general attack against the Persian forces, composed primarily of missile troops. He reinforced his flanks, luring the Persians' best fighters into his center. The inward wheeling flanks enveloped the Persians, routing them. The Persian army broke in panic towards their ships, and large numbers were slaughtered. The defeat at Marathon marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece, and the Persian force retreated to Asia. Darius then began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition. After Darius died, his son Xerxes I restarted the preparations for a second invasion of Greece, which finally began in 480 BC. The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco-Persian wars, showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten; the eventual Greek triumph in these wars can be seen to have begun at Marathon. The battle also showed the Greeks that they were able to win battles without the Spartans, as Sparta was seen as the major military force in Greece. This victory was overwhelmingly won by the Athenians, and Marathon raised Greek esteem of them. The following two hundred years saw the rise of the Classical Greek civilization, which has been enduringly influential in Western society, and so the Battle of Marathon is often seen as a pivotal moment in Mediterranean and European history, and is often celebrated today. ## Background The first Persian invasion of Greece had its immediate roots in the Ionian Revolt, the earliest phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. However, it was also the result of the longer-term interaction between the Greeks and Persians. In 500 BC the Persian Empire was still relatively young and highly expansionistic, but prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples. Moreover, the Persian King Darius was a usurper, and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule. Even before the Ionian Revolt, Darius had begun to expand the empire into Europe, subjugating Thrace, and forcing Macedon to become a vassal of Persia. Attempts at further expansion into the politically fractious world of ancient Greece may have been inevitable. However, the Ionian Revolt had directly threatened the integrity of the Persian empire, and the states of mainland Greece remained a potential menace to its future stability. Darius thus resolved to subjugate and pacify Greece and the Aegean, and to punish those involved in the Ionian Revolt. The Ionian Revolt had begun with an unsuccessful expedition against Naxos, a joint venture between the Persian satrap Artaphernes and the Milesian tyrant Aristagoras. In the aftermath, Artaphernes decided to remove Aristagoras from power, but before he could do so, Aristagoras abdicated, and declared Miletus a democracy. The other Ionian cities followed suit, ejecting their Persian-appointed tyrants, and declaring themselves democracies. Aristagoras then appealed to the states of mainland Greece for support, but only Athens and Eretria offered to send troops. The involvement of Athens in the Ionian Revolt arose from a complex set of circumstances, beginning with the establishment of the Athenian Democracy in the late 6th century BC. In 510 BC, with the aid of Cleomenes I, King of Sparta, the Athenian people had expelled Hippias, the tyrant ruler of Athens. With Hippias's father Peisistratus, the family had ruled for 36 out of the previous 50 years and fully intended to continue Hippias's rule. Hippias fled to Sardis to the court of the Persian satrap, Artaphernes and promised control of Athens to the Persians if they were to help restore him. In the meantime, Cleomenes helped install a pro-Spartan tyranny under Isagoras in Athens, in opposition to Cleisthenes, the leader of the traditionally powerful Alcmaeonidae family, who considered themselves the natural heirs to the rule of Athens. Cleisthenes, however, found himself being politically defeated by a coalition led by Isagoras and decided to change the rules of the game by appealing to the demos (the people), in effect making them a new faction in the political arena. This tactic succeeded, but the Spartan King, Cleomenes I, returned at the request of Isagoras and so Cleisthenes, the Alcmaeonids and other prominent Athenian families were exiled from Athens. When Isagoras attempted to create a narrow oligarchic government, the Athenian people, in a spontaneous and unprecedented move, expelled Cleomenes and Isagoras. Cleisthenes was thus restored to Athens (507 BC), and at breakneck speed began to reform the state with the aim of securing his position. The result was not actually a democracy or a real civic state, but he enabled the development of a fully democratic government, which would emerge in the next generation as the demos realized its power. The new-found freedom and self-governance of the Athenians meant that they were thereafter exceptionally hostile to the return of the tyranny of Hippias, or any form of outside subjugation, by Sparta, Persia, or anyone else. Cleomenes was not pleased with events, and marched on Athens with the Spartan army. Cleomenes's attempts to restore Isagoras to Athens ended in a debacle, but fearing the worst, the Athenians had by this point already sent an embassy to Artaphernes in Sardis, to request aid from the Persian empire. Artaphernes requested that the Athenians give him an 'earth and water', a traditional token of submission, to which the Athenian ambassadors acquiesced. They were, however, severely censured for this when they returned to Athens. At some later point Cleomenes instigated a plot to restore Hippias to the rule of Athens. This failed and Hippias again fled to Sardis and tried to persuade the Persians to subjugate Athens. The Athenians dispatched ambassadors to Artaphernes to dissuade him from taking action, but Artaphernes merely instructed the Athenians to take Hippias back as tyrant. The Athenians indignantly declined, and instead resolved to open war with Persia. Having thus become the enemy of Persia, Athens was already in a position to support the Ionian cities when they began their revolt. The fact that the Ionian democracies were inspired by the example the Athenians had set no doubt further persuaded the Athenians to support the Ionian Revolt, especially since the cities of Ionia were originally Athenian colonies. The Athenians and Eretrians sent a task force of 25 triremes to Asia Minor to aid the revolt. Whilst there, the Greek army surprised and outmaneuvered Artaphernes, marching to Sardis and burning the lower city. This was, however, as much as the Greeks achieved, and they were then repelled and pursued back to the coast by Persian horsemen, losing many men in the process. Despite the fact that their actions were ultimately fruitless, the Eretrians and in particular the Athenians had earned Darius's lasting enmity, and he vowed to punish both cities. The Persian naval victory at the Battle of Lade (494 BC) all but ended the Ionian Revolt, and by 493 BC, the last hold-outs were vanquished by the Persian fleet. The revolt was used as an opportunity by Darius to extend the empire's border to the islands of the eastern Aegean and the Propontis, which had not been part of the Persian dominions before. The pacification of Ionia allowed the Persians to begin planning their next moves; to extinguish the threat to the empire from Greece and to punish Athens and Eretria. In 492 BC, after the Ionian Revolt had finally been crushed, Darius dispatched an expedition to Greece under the command of his son-in-law, Mardonius. Mardonius re-subjugated Thrace and made Macedonia a fully subordinate part of the Persians; they had been vassals of the Persians since the late 6th century BC, but retained their general autonomy. Not long after however, his fleet became wrecked by a violent storm, which brought a premature end to the campaign. However, in 490 BC, following the successes of the previous campaign, Darius decided to send a maritime expedition led by Artaphernes, (son of the satrap to whom Hippias had fled) and Datis, a Median admiral. Mardonius had been injured in the prior campaign and had fallen out of favor. The expedition was intended to bring the Cyclades into the Persian empire, to punish Naxos (which had resisted a Persian assault in 499 BC) and then to head to Greece to force Eretria and Athens to submit to Darius or be destroyed. After island-hopping across the Aegean, including successfully attacking Naxos, the Persian task force arrived off Euboea in mid summer. The Persians then proceeded to besiege, capture, and burn Eretria. They then headed south down the coast of Attica, en route to complete the final objective of the campaign—punish Athens. ## Prelude The Persians sailed down the coast of Attica, and landed at the bay of Marathon, about 27 kilometres (17 mi) northeast of Athens, on the advice of the exiled Athenian tyrant Hippias (who had accompanied the expedition). Under the guidance of Miltiades, the Athenian general with the greatest experience of fighting the Persians, the Athenian army marched quickly to block the two exits from the plain of Marathon, and prevent the Persians moving inland. At the same time, Athens's greatest runner, Pheidippides (or Philippides in some accounts) had been sent to Sparta to request that the Spartan army march to the aid of Athens. Pheidippides arrived during the festival of Carneia, a sacrosanct period of peace, and was informed that the Spartan army could not march to war until the full moon rose; Athens could not expect reinforcement for at least ten days. The Athenians would have to hold out at Marathon for the time being, although they were reinforced by the full muster of 1,000 hoplites from the small city of Plataea, a gesture which did much to steady the nerves of the Athenians and won unending Athenian gratitude to Plataea. For approximately five days the armies therefore confronted each other across the plain of Marathon in stalemate. The flanks of the Athenian camp were protected by either a grove of trees or an abbatis of stakes (depending on the exact reading). Since every day brought the arrival of the Spartans closer, the delay worked in favor of the Athenians. There were ten Athenian strategoi (generals) at Marathon, elected by each of the ten tribes that the Athenians were divided into; Miltiades was one of these. In addition, in overall charge, was the War-Archon (polemarch), Callimachus, who had been elected by the whole citizen body. Herodotus suggests that command rotated between the strategoi, each taking in turn a day to command the army. He further suggests that each strategos, on his day in command, instead deferred to Miltiades. In Herodotus's account, Miltiades is keen to attack the Persians (despite knowing that the Spartans are coming to aid the Athenians), but strangely, chooses to wait until his actual day of command to attack. This passage is undoubtedly problematic; the Athenians had little to gain by attacking before the Spartans arrived, and there is no real evidence of this rotating generalship. There does, however, seem to have been a delay between the Athenian arrival at Marathon and the battle; Herodotus, who evidently believed that Miltiades was eager to attack, may have made a mistake while seeking to explain this delay. As is discussed below, the reason for the delay was probably simply that neither the Athenians nor the Persians were willing to risk battle initially. This then raises the question of why the battle occurred when it did. Herodotus explicitly tells us that the Greeks attacked the Persians (and the other sources confirm this), but it is not clear why they did this before the arrival of the Spartans. There are two main theories to explain this. The first theory is that the Persian cavalry left Marathon for an unspecified reason, and that the Greeks moved to take advantage of this by attacking. This theory is based on the absence of any mention of cavalry in Herodotus' account of the battle, and an entry in the Suda dictionary. The entry χωρίς ἱππέων ("without cavalry") is explained thus: > The cavalry left. When Datis surrendered and was ready for retreat, the Ionians climbed the trees and gave the Athenians the signal that the cavalry had left. And when Miltiades realized that, he attacked and thus won. From there comes the above-mentioned quote, which is used when someone breaks ranks before battle. There are many variations of this theory, but perhaps the most prevalent is that the cavalry were completing the time-consuming process of re-embarking on the ships, and were to be sent by sea to attack (undefended) Athens in the rear, whilst the rest of the Persians pinned down the Athenian army at Marathon. This theory therefore utilises Herodotus' suggestion that after Marathon, the Persian army began to re-embark, intending to sail around Cape Sounion to attack Athens directly. Thus, this re-embarcation would have occurred before the battle (and indeed have triggered the battle). The second theory is simply that the battle occurred because the Persians finally moved to attack the Athenians. Although this theory has the Persians moving to the strategic offensive, this can be reconciled with the traditional account of the Athenians attacking the Persians by assuming that, seeing the Persians advancing, the Athenians took the tactical offensive, and attacked them. Obviously, it cannot be firmly established which theory (if either) is correct. However, both theories imply that there was some kind of Persian activity which occurred on or about the fifth day which ultimately triggered the battle. It is also possible that both theories are correct: when the Persians sent the cavalry by ship to attack Athens, they simultaneously sent their infantry to attack at Marathon, triggering the Greek counterattack. ### Date of the battle Herodotus mentions for several events a date in the lunisolar calendar, of which each Greek city-state used a variant. Astronomical computation allows us to derive an absolute date in the proleptic Julian calendar which is much used by historians as the chronological frame. Philipp August Böckh in 1855 concluded that the battle took place on September 12, 490 BC in the Julian calendar, and this is the conventionally accepted date. However, this depends on when exactly the Spartans held their festival and it is possible that the Spartan calendar was one month ahead of that of Athens. In that case the battle took place on August 12, 490 BC. ## Opposing forces ### Athenians Herodotus does not give a figure for the size of the Athenian army. However, Cornelius Nepos, Pausanias and Plutarch all give the figure of 9,000 Athenians and 1,000 Plataeans; while Justin suggests that there were 10,000 Athenians and 1,000 Plataeans. These numbers are highly comparable to the number of troops Herodotus says that the Athenians and Plataeans sent to the Battle of Plataea 11 years later. Pausanias noticed on the monument to the battle the names of former slaves who were freed in exchange for military services. Modern historians generally accept these numbers as reasonable. The areas ruled by Athens (Attica) had a population of 315,000 at this time including slaves, which implies the full Athenian army at the times of both Marathon and Plataea numbered about 3% of the population. ### Persians According to Herodotus, the fleet sent by Darius consisted of 600 triremes. Herodotus does not estimate the size of the Persian army, only saying that they were a "large infantry that was well packed". Among ancient sources, the poet Simonides, another near-contemporary, says the campaign force numbered 200,000; while a later writer, the Roman Cornelius Nepos estimates 200,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, of which only 100,000 fought in the battle, while the rest were loaded into the fleet that was rounding Cape Sounion; Plutarch and Pausanias both independently give 300,000, as does the Suda dictionary. Plato and Lysias give 500,000; and Justinus 600,000. Modern historians have proposed wide-ranging numbers for the infantry, from 20,000 to 100,000 with a consensus of perhaps 25,000; estimates for the cavalry are in the range of 1,000. The fleet included various contingents from different parts of the Achaemenid Empire, particularly Ionians and Aeolians, although they are not mentioned as participating directly to the battle and may have remained on the ships: > Datis sailed with his army against Eretria first, taking with him Ionians and Aeolians. Regarding the ethnicities involved in the battle, Herodotus specifically mentions the presence of the Persians and the Sakae at the center of the Achaemenid line: > They fought a long time at Marathon. In the center of the line the foreigners prevailed, where the Persians and Sacae were arrayed. The foreigners prevailed there and broke through in pursuit inland, but on each wing the Athenians and Plataeans prevailed. In victory they let the routed foreigners flee, and brought the wings together to fight those who had broken through the center. The Athenians prevailed, then followed the fleeing Persians and struck them down. When they reached the sea they demanded fire and laid hold of the Persian ships. ## Strategic and tactical considerations From a strategic point of view, the Athenians had some disadvantages at Marathon. In order to face the Persians in battle, the Athenians had to summon all available hoplites; even then they were still probably outnumbered at least 2 to 1. Furthermore, raising such a large army had denuded Athens of defenders, and thus any secondary attack in the Athenian rear would cut the army off from the city; and any direct attack on the city could not be defended against. Still further, defeat at Marathon would mean the complete defeat of Athens, since no other Athenian army existed. The Athenian strategy was therefore to keep the Persian army pinned down at Marathon, blocking both exits from the plain, and thus preventing themselves from being outmaneuvered. However, these disadvantages were balanced by some advantages. The Athenians initially had no need to seek battle, since they had managed to confine the Persians to the plain of Marathon. Furthermore, time worked in their favour, as every day brought the arrival of the Spartans closer. Having everything to lose by attacking, and much to gain by waiting, the Athenians remained on the defensive in the run up to the battle. Tactically, hoplites were vulnerable to attacks by cavalry, and since the Persians had substantial numbers of cavalry, this made any offensive maneuver by the Athenians even more of a risk, and thus reinforced the defensive strategy of the Athenians. The Persian strategy, in contrast, was probably principally determined by tactical considerations. The Persian infantry was evidently lightly armoured, and no match for hoplites in a head-on confrontation (as would be demonstrated at the later battles of Thermopylae and Plataea.) Since the Athenians seem to have taken up a strong defensive position at Marathon, the Persian hesitance was probably a reluctance to attack the Athenians head-on. The camp of the Athenians was located on a spur of mount Agrieliki next to the plain of Marathon; remains of its fortifications are still visible. Whatever event eventually triggered the battle, it obviously altered the strategic or tactical balance sufficiently to induce the Athenians to attack the Persians. If the first theory is correct (see above), then the absence of cavalry removed the main Athenian tactical disadvantage, and the threat of being outflanked made it imperative to attack. But if the second theory is correct, then the Athenians were merely reacting to the Persians attacking them. Since the Persian force obviously contained a high proportion of missile troops, a static defensive position would have made little sense for the Athenians; the strength of the hoplite was in the melee, and the sooner that could be brought about, the better, from the Athenian point of view. If the second theory is correct, this raises the further question of why the Persians, having hesitated for several days, then attacked. There may have been several strategic reasons for this; perhaps they were aware (or suspected) that the Athenians were expecting reinforcements. Alternatively, they may have felt the need to force some kind of victory—they could hardly remain at Marathon indefinitely. ## Battle ### First phase: the two armies form their lines The distance between the two armies at the point of battle had narrowed to "a distance not less than 8 stadia" or about 1,500 meters. Miltiades ordered the two tribes forming the center of the Greek formation, the Leontis tribe led by Themistocles and the Antiochis tribe led by Aristides, to be arranged in the depth of four ranks while the rest of the tribes at their flanks were in ranks of eight. Some modern commentators have suggested this was a deliberate ploy to encourage a double envelopment of the Persian centre. However, this suggests a level of training that the Greeks are thought not to have possessed. There is little evidence for any such tactical thinking in Greek battles until Leuctra in 371 BC. It is therefore possible that this arrangement was made, perhaps at the last moment, so that the Athenian line was as long as the Persian line, and would not therefore be outflanked. ### Second phase: the Greeks attack and the lines make contact When the Athenian line was ready, according to one source, the simple signal to advance was given by Miltiades: "At them". Herodotus implies the Athenians ran the whole distance to the Persian lines, a feat under the weight of hoplite armory generally thought to be physically impossible. More likely, they marched until they reached the limit of the archers' effectiveness, the "beaten zone" (roughly 200 meters), and then broke into a run towards their enemy. Another possibility is that they ran up to the 200 meter-mark in broken ranks, and then reformed for the march into battle from there. Herodotus suggests that this was the first time a Greek army ran into battle in this way; this was probably because it was the first time that a Greek army had faced an enemy composed primarily of missile troops. All this was evidently much to the surprise of the Persians; "... in their minds they charged the Athenians with madness which must be fatal, seeing that they were few and yet were pressing forwards at a run, having neither cavalry nor archers". Indeed, based on their previous experience of the Greeks, the Persians might be excused for this; Herodotus tells us that the Athenians at Marathon were "first to endure looking at Median dress and men wearing it, for up until then just hearing the name of the Medes caused the Hellenes to panic". Passing through the hail of arrows launched by the Persian army, protected for the most part by their armour, the Greek line finally made contact with the enemy army. ### Third phase: the Greek center is pushed back > They fought a long time at Marathon. In the center of the line the foreigners prevailed, where the Persians and Sacae were arrayed. The foreigners prevailed there and broke through in pursuit inland, but on each wing the Athenians and Plataeans prevailed. ### Fourth phase: the Persian wings collapse The Athenian wings quickly routed the inferior Persian levies on the flanks, before turning inwards to surround the Persian centre, which had been more successful against the thin Greek centre. ### Fifth phase: the Persians are routed and retreat to their ships The battle ended when the Persian centre then broke in panic towards their ships, pursued by the Greeks. Some, unaware of the local terrain, ran towards the swamps where unknown numbers drowned. The Athenians pursued the Persians back to their ships, and managed to capture seven ships, though the majority were able to launch successfully. Herodotus recounts the story that Cynaegirus, brother of the playwright Aeschylus, who was also among the fighters, charged into the sea, grabbed one Persian trireme, and started pulling it towards shore. A member of the crew saw him, cut off his hand, and Cynaegirus died. Herodotus records that 6,400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield, and it is unknown how many more perished in the swamps. He also reported that the Athenians lost 192 men and the Plataeans 11. Among the dead were the war archon Callimachus and the general Stesilaos. ## Conclusions There are several explanations of the Greek success. Most scholars believe that the Greeks had better equipment and used superior tactics. According to Herodotus, the Greeks were better equipped. They did not use bronze upper body armour at this time, but that of leather or linen. The phalanx formation proved successful, because the hoplites had a long tradition in hand-to-hand combat, whereas the Persian soldiers were accustomed to a very different kind of conflict. At Marathon, the Athenians thinned their centre in order to make their army equal in length to the Persian army, not as a result of a tactical planning. It seems that the Persian centre tried to return, realizing that their wings had broken, and was caught in the flanks by the victorious Greek wings. Lazenby (1993) believes that the ultimate reason for the Greek success was the courage the Greeks displayed: > Marathon was won because ordinary, amateur soldiers found the courage to break into a trot when the arrows began to fall, instead of grinding to a halt, and when surprisingly the enemy wings fled, not to take the easy way out and follow them, but to stop and somehow come to the aid of the hard pressured centre. According to Vic Hurley, the Persian defeat is explained by the "complete failure ... to field a representative army", calling the battle the "most convincing" example of the fact that infantry-bowmen cannot defend any position while stationed in close-quarters and unsupported (i.e. by fortifications, or failing to support them by cavalry and chariots, as was the common Persian tactic). ## Aftermath In the immediate aftermath of the battle, Herodotus says that the Persian fleet sailed around Cape Sounion to attack Athens directly. As has been discussed above, some modern historians place this attempt just before the battle. Either way, the Athenians evidently realised that their city was still under threat, and marched as quickly as possible back to Athens. The two tribes which had been in the centre of the Athenian line stayed to guard the battlefield under the command of Aristides. The Athenians arrived in time to prevent the Persians from securing a landing, and seeing that the opportunity was lost, the Persians turned about and returned to Asia. Connected with this episode, Herodotus recounts a rumour that this manoeuver by the Persians had been planned in conjunction with the Alcmaeonids, the prominent Athenian aristocratic family, and that a "shield-signal" had been given after the battle. Although many interpretations of this have been offered, it is impossible to tell whether this was true, and if so, what exactly the signal meant. On the next day, the Spartan army arrived at Marathon, having covered the 220 kilometers (140 mi) in only three days. The Spartans toured the battlefield at Marathon, and agreed that the Athenians had won a great victory. The Athenian and Plataean dead of Marathon were buried on the battlefield in two tumuli. On the tomb of the Athenians this epigram composed by Simonides was written: > > Ἑλλήνων προμαχοῦντες Ἀθηναῖοι Μαραθῶνι χρυσοφόρων Μήδων ἐστόρεσαν δύναμιν > > > > Fighting at the forefront of the Greeks, the Athenians at Marathon laid low the army of the gilded Medes. Meanwhile, Darius began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition. Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece. The epic second Persian invasion of Greece finally began in 480 BC, and the Persians met with initial success at the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium. Defeat at the Battle of Salamis happened after Xerxes burnt Athens to the ground after Athenians left the city, and the next year the expedition was ended by the decisive Greek victory at the Battle of Plataea. ## Significance The defeat at Marathon barely touched the vast resources of the Persian empire, yet for the Greeks it was an enormously significant victory. It was the first time the Greeks had beaten the Persians, proving that the Persians were not invincible, and that resistance, rather than subjugation, was possible. The battle was a defining moment for the young Athenian democracy, showing what might be achieved through unity and self-belief; indeed, the battle effectively marks the start of a "golden age" for Athens. This was also applicable to Greece as a whole; "their victory endowed the Greeks with a faith in their destiny that was to endure for three centuries, during which Western culture was born". John Stuart Mill's famous opinion was that "the Battle of Marathon, even as an event in British history, is more important than the Battle of Hastings". According to Isaac Asimov, "if the Athenians had lost in Marathon, . . . Greece might have never gone to develop the peak of its civilization, a peak whose fruits we moderns have inherited." It seems that the Athenian playwright Aeschylus considered his participation at Marathon to be his greatest achievement in life (rather than his plays) since on his gravestone there was the following epigram: > > Αἰσχύλον Εὐφορίωνος Ἀθηναῖον τόδε κεύθει μνῆμα καταφθίμενον πυροφόροιο Γέλας· ἀλκὴν δ’ εὐδόκιμον Μαραθώνιον ἄλσος ἂν εἴποι καὶ βαθυχαιτήεις Μῆδος ἐπιστάμενος > > > > This tomb the dust of Aeschylus doth hide, Euphorion's son and fruitful Gela's pride. How tried his valor, Marathon may tell, And long-haired Medes, who knew it all too well. Militarily, a major lesson for the Greeks was the potential of the hoplite phalanx. This style had developed during internecine warfare amongst the Greeks; since each city-state fought in the same way, the advantages and disadvantages of the hoplite phalanx had not been obvious. Marathon was the first time a phalanx faced more lightly armed troops, and revealed how effective the hoplites could be in battle. The phalanx formation was still vulnerable to cavalry (the cause of much caution by the Greek forces at the Battle of Plataea), but used in the right circumstances, it was now shown to be a potentially devastating weapon. ## Legacy ### Legends associated with the battle The most famous legend associated with Marathon is that of the runner Pheidippides (or Philippides) bringing news to Athens of the battle, which is described below. Pheidippides' run to Sparta to bring aid has other legends associated with it. Herodotus mentions that Pheidippides was visited by the god Pan on his way to Sparta (or perhaps on his return journey). Pan asked why the Athenians did not honor him and the awed Pheidippides promised that they would do so from then on. The god apparently felt that the promise would be kept, so he appeared in battle and at the crucial moment he instilled the Persians with his own brand of fear, the mindless, frenzied fear that bore his name: "panic". After the battle, a sacred precinct was established for Pan in a grotto on the north slope of the Acropolis, and a sacrifice was annually offered. Similarly, after the victory the festival of the Agroteras Thysia ("sacrifice to the Agrotéra") was held at Agrae near Athens, in honor of Artemis Agrotera ("Artemis the Huntress"). This was in fulfillment of a vow made by the city before the battle, to offer in sacrifice a number of goats equal to that of the Persians slain in the conflict. The number was so great, it was decided to offer 500 goats yearly until the number was filled. Xenophon notes that at his time, 90 years after the battle, goats were still offered yearly. Plutarch mentions that the Athenians saw the phantom of King Theseus, the mythical hero of Athens, leading the army in full battle gear in the charge against the Persians, and indeed he was depicted in the mural of the Stoa Poikile fighting for the Athenians, along with the twelve Olympian gods and other heroes. Pausanias also tells us that: > They say too that there chanced to be present in the battle a man of rustic appearance and dress. Having slaughtered many of the foreigners with a plough he was seen no more after the engagement. When the Athenians made enquiries at the oracle, the god merely ordered them to honor Echetlaeus ("he of the Plough-tail") as a hero. Another tale from the conflict is of the dog of Marathon. Aelian relates that one hoplite brought his dog to the Athenian encampment. The dog followed his master to battle and attacked the Persians at his master's side. He also informs us that this dog is depicted in the mural of the Stoa Poikile. ### Marathon run According to Herodotus, an Athenian runner named Pheidippides was sent to run from Athens to Sparta to ask for assistance before the battle. He ran a distance of over 225 kilometers (140 miles), arriving in Sparta the day after he left. Then, following the battle, the Athenian army marched the 40 kilometers (25 miles) or so back to Athens at a very high pace (considering the quantity of armour, and the fatigue after the battle), in order to head off the Persian force sailing around Cape Sounion. They arrived back in the late afternoon, in time to see the Persian ships turn away from Athens, thus completing the Athenian victory. Later, in popular imagination, these two events were conflated, leading to a legendary but inaccurate version of events. This myth has Pheidippides running from Marathon to Athens after the battle, to announce the Greek victory with the word "nenikēkamen!" (Attic: νενικήκαμεν; we've won!), whereupon he promptly died of exhaustion. Most accounts incorrectly attribute this story to Herodotus; actually, the story first appears in Plutarch's On the Glory of Athens in the 1st century AD, who quotes from Heracleides of Pontus's lost work, giving the runner's name as either Thersipus of Erchius or Eucles. Lucian of Samosata (2nd century AD) gives the same story but names the runner Philippides (not Pheidippides). In some medieval codices of Herodotus, the name of the runner between Athens and Sparta before the battle is given as Philippides, and this name is also preferred in a few modern editions. When the idea of a modern Olympics became a reality at the end of the 19th century, the initiators and organizers were looking for a great popularizing event, recalling the ancient glory of Greece. The idea of organizing a "marathon race" came from Michel Bréal, who wanted the event to feature in the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 in Athens. This idea was heavily supported by Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympics, as well as the Greeks. This would echo the legendary version of events, with the competitors running from Marathon to Athens. So popular was this event that it quickly caught on, becoming a fixture at the Olympic games, with major cities staging their own annual events. The distance eventually became fixed at 42.195 kilometres (26 miles 385 yards), though for the first years it was variable, being around 40 kilometres (25 mi)—the approximate distance from Marathon to Athens. ## See also - Ancient Greek warfare - Timeline of ancient Greece

Kate Millett

American writer, educator, artist, and activist (1934–2017)

Katherine Murray Millett (September 14, 1934 – September 6, 2017) was an American feminist writer, educator, artist, and activist. She attended the University of Oxford and was the first American woman to be awarded a degree with first-class honors after studying at St Hilda's College, Oxford. She has been described as "a seminal influence on second-wave feminism", and is best known for her book Sexual Politics (1970), which was based on her doctoral dissertation at Columbia University. Journalist Liza Featherstone attributes the attainment of previously unimaginable "legal abortion, greater professional equality between the sexes, and a sexual freedom" in part to Millett's efforts. The feminist, human rights, peace, civil rights, and anti-psychiatry movements were some of Millett's principal causes. Her books were motivated by her activism, such as woman's rights and mental health reform, and several were autobiographical memoirs that explored her sexuality, mental health, and relationships. In the 1960s and 1970s, Millett taught at Waseda University, Bryn Mawr College, Barnard College, and the University of California, Berkeley. Some of her later written works are The Politics of Cruelty (1994), about state-sanctioned torture in many countries, and Mother Millett (2001), a book about her relationship with her mother. Between 2011 and 2013, she won the Lambda Pioneer Award for Literature, received Yoko Ono's Courage Award for the Arts, and was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. Millett was born and raised in Minnesota, and then spent most of her adult life in Manhattan and the Woman's Art Colony, established in Poughkeepsie, New York, which became the Millett Center for the Arts in 2012. Millett came out as a lesbian in 1970, the year the book Sexual Politics was published. However, late in the year 1970 she came out as bisexual. She was married to sculptor Fumio Yoshimura (1965 to 1985) and later, until her death in 2017, she was married to Sophie Keir. ## Early life and education Katherine Murray Millett was born on September 14, 1934, to James Albert and Helen () Millett in Saint Paul, Minnesota. According to Millett, she was afraid of her father, an engineer, who beat her. He was an alcoholic who abandoned the family when she was 14, "consigning them to a life of genteel poverty". Her mother was a teacher and insurance saleswoman. She had two sisters, Sally and Mallory; the latter was one of the subjects of Three Lives. Of Irish Catholic heritage, Kate Millett attended parochial schools in Saint Paul throughout her childhood. Millett graduated in 1956 magna cum laude from the University of Minnesota with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English literature; she was a member of the Kappa Alpha Theta sorority. A wealthy aunt paid for her education at St Hilda's College, Oxford gaining an English literature first-class honors degree in 1958. She was the first American woman to be awarded a degree with first-class honors having studied at St. Hilda's. After spending about 10 years as an educator and artist, Millett entered the graduate school program for English and comparative literature at Columbia University in 1968, during which she taught English at Barnard. While there, she championed student rights, women's liberation, and abortion reform. She completed her dissertation in September 1969 and was awarded her doctorate, with distinction, in March 1970. ## Career ### Early career as an artist and educator Millett taught English at the University of North Carolina after graduating from Oxford University, but she left mid-semester to study art. In New York City she worked as a kindergarten teacher and learned to sculpt and paint from 1959 to 1961. She then moved to Japan and studied sculpture. Millett met fellow sculptor Fumio Yoshimura, had her first one-woman show at Tokyo's Minami Gallery, and taught English at Waseda University. She left Japan in 1963 and moved to New York's Lower East Side. Millett taught English and exhibited her works of art at Barnard College beginning in 1964. She was among a group of young, radical, and untenured educators who wanted to modernize women's education; Millett wanted to provide them with "the critical tools necessary to understand their position in a patriarchal society." Her viewpoints on radical politics, her "stinging attack" against Barnard in Token Learning, and a budget cut at the college led to her being dismissed on December 23, 1968. Her artwork was featured in an exhibit at Greenwich Village's Judson Gallery. During these years Millett became interested in the peace and Civil Rights Movement, joined the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), and participated in their protests. In 1971, Millett taught sociology at Bryn Mawr College. She started buying and restoring property that year, near Poughkeepsie, New York; this became the Women's Art Colony and Tree Farm, a community of women artists and writers and Christmas tree farm. Two years later she was an educator at the University of California, Berkeley. ### The 1980s through 2000s In 1980, Millett was one of the ten invited artists whose work was exhibited in the Great American Lesbian Art Show at the Woman's Building in Los Angeles, although Millett identified as bisexual. Millett was also a contributor to On the Issues magazine, and continued writing into the early 2000s. She discussed state-sanctioned torture in The Politics of Cruelty (1994), bringing attention to the use of torture in many countries. Millett was involved in the controversy resulting from her appearance on a UK television programme called After Dark. Actor Oliver Reed, who had been drinking during the programme, moved in on her and tried to kiss her. Millett pushed him away but reportedly later asked for a tape of the show to entertain her friends. Throughout the programme Reed used sexist language. Millett was also involved in prison reform and campaigns against torture. Journalist Maureen Freely wrote of Millett's viewpoint regarding activism in her later years: "The best thing about being a freewheeler is that she can say what she pleases because 'nobody's giving me a chair in anything. I'm too old, mean and ornery. Everything depends on how well you argue.'" In 2012, The Women's Art Colony became a 501(c)3 non-profit organization and changed its name to the Millett Center for the Arts. ## Activism ### Feminism Millett was a leading figure in the women's movement, or second-wave feminism, of the 1960s and 1970s. For example, she and Sidney Abbott, Phyllis Birkby, Alma Routsong, and Artemis March were among the members of CR One, the first lesbian-feminist consciousness-raising group, although Millett identified as bisexual by late 1970. In 1966, Millett became a committee member of National Organization for Women and subsequently joined the New York Radical Women, Radical lesbians, and Downtown Radical Women organizations. She contributed the piece "Sexual politics (in literature)" to the 1970 anthology Sisterhood Is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings from the Women's Liberation Movement, edited by Robin Morgan. She became a spokesperson for the feminist movement following the success of the book Sexual Politics (1970), but struggled with conflicting perceptions of her as arrogant and elitist, and the expectations of others to speak for them, which she covered in her 1974 book, Flying. Millett was one of the first writers to describe the modern concept of patriarchy as the society-wide subjugation of women. Biographer Gayle Graham Yates said that "Millett articulated a theory of patriarchy and conceptualized the gender and sexual oppression of women in terms that demanded a sex role revolution with radical changes of personal and family lifestyles". Betty Friedan's focus, by comparison, was to improve leadership opportunities socially and politically and economic independence for women. Millett wrote several books on women's lives from a feminist perspective. For instance, in the book The Basement: Meditations on a Human Sacrifice (1979), completed over four years, she chronicled the torture and murder of Indianapolis teenager Sylvia Likens by Gertrude Baniszewski in 1965 that had preoccupied her for 14 years. With a feminist perspective, she explored the story of the defenseless girl and the dynamics of the individuals involved in her sexual, physical and emotional abuse. Biographer Roberta M. Hooks wrote, "Quite apart from any feminist polemics, The Basement can stand alone as an intensely felt and movingly written study of the problems of cruelty and submission." Millett said of the motivation of the perpetrator: "It is the story of the suppression of women. Gertrude seems to have wanted to administer some terrible truthful justice to this girl: that this was what it was to be a woman". Millett and Sophie Keir, a Canadian journalist, traveled to Tehran, Iran in 1979 for the Committee for Artistic and Intellectual Freedom to work for Iranian women's rights. Their trip followed actions taken by Ayatollah Khomeini's government to prevent girls from attending schools with boys, to require working women to wear veils, and not to allow women to divorce their husbands. Thousands of women attended a protest rally held at Tehran University on International Women's Day, March 8. About 20,000 women attended a march through the city's Freedom Square; many of whom were stabbed, beaten, or threatened with acid. Millett and Keir, who had attended the rallies and demonstrations, were removed from their hotel room and taken to a locked room in immigration headquarters two weeks after they arrived in Iran. They were threatened that they might be put in jail and, knowing that homosexuals were executed in Iran, Millett also feared she might be killed when she overheard officials say that she was a lesbian. After an overnight stay, the women were put on a plane that landed in Paris. Although Millett was relieved to have arrived safely in France, she was worried about the fate of Iranian women left behind, "They can't get on a plane. That's why international sisterhood is so important." She wrote about the experience in her 1982 book Going to Iran. Millett is featured in the feminist history film She's Beautiful When She's Angry (2014). ## Academic works ### Sexual Politics Sexual Politics originated as Millett's PhD dissertation and was published in 1970, the same year that she was awarded her doctorate from Columbia University. The bestselling book, a critique of patriarchy in Western society and literature, addressed the sexism and heterosexism of the modern novelists D. H. Lawrence, Henry Miller, and Norman Mailer and contrasted their perspectives with the dissenting viewpoint of the homosexual author Jean Genet. Millett questioned the origins of patriarchy, argued that sex-based oppression was both political and cultural, and posited that undoing the traditional family was the key to true sexual revolution. In its first year on the market, the book sold 80,000 copies and went through seven printings and is considered to be the movement's manifesto. As a symbol of the women's liberation movement, Millett was featured in a Time magazine cover story, "The Politics of Sex", which called Sexual Politics a "remarkable book" that provided a coherent theory about the feminist movement. Alice Neel created the depiction of Millett for the August 31, 1970, cover. According to biographer Peter Manso, The Prisoner of Sex was written by Norman Mailer in response to Millett's Sexual Politics. Andrew Wilson, author of Norman Mailer: An American Aesthetic, noted that "The Prisoner of Sex is structured as a contest. His rhetoric against her prose, his charm against her earnestness, his polemic rage against her vitriolic charges. The aim is to convert the larger audience, the stronger presence as the sustaining truth. The Prisoner of Sex combines self parody and satire..." ### Sexism and sexuality While Millett was speaking about sexual liberation at Columbia University, a woman in the audience asked her, "Why don't you say you're a lesbian, here, openly. You've said you were a lesbian in the past." Millett hesitantly responded, "Yes, I am a lesbian". A couple of weeks later, Time's December 8, 1970, article "Women's Lib: A Second Look" reported that Millett admitted she was bisexual, which it said would likely discredit her as a spokesperson for the feminist movement because it "reinforce[d] the views of those skeptics who routinely dismiss all liberationists as lesbians." In response, a press conference was organized two days later in Greenwich Village by lesbian feminists Ivy Bottini and Barbara Love. It led to a statement in which 30 lesbian and feminist leaders declared their "solidarity with the struggle of homosexuals to attain their liberation in a sexist society". Millett's 1971 film Three Lives is a 16 mm documentary made by an all-woman crew, including co-director Susan Kleckner, cameraperson Lenore Bode, and editor Robin Mide, under the name Women's Liberation Cinema. The 70-minute film focuses on three women—Mallory Millett-Jones, the director's sister; Lillian Shreve, a chemist; and Robin Mide, an artist—reminiscing about their lives. Vincent Canby, The New York Times' art critic, wrote: "Three Lives is a good, simple movie in that it can't be bothered to call attention to itself, only to its three subjects, and to how they grew in the same male-dominated society that Miss Millett, in her Sexual Politics, so systematically tore apart, shook up, ridiculed and undermined—while, apparently, tickling it pink." It received "generally excellent reviews" following its premiere at a New York City theater. In her 1971 book The Prostitution Papers, Millett interprets prostitution as residing at the core of the female's condition, exposing women's subjection more clearly than is done with marriage contracts. According to her, degradation and power, not sex, are being bought and sold in prostitution. She argues for the decriminalization of prostitution in a process directed by the sex workers themselves. In 1974 and 1977, respectively, Millett published two autobiographical books. Flying (1974), a "stream-of-consciousness memoir about her bisexuality", which explores her life after the success of Sexual Politics in what was described in The New York Times Book Review as an example of "dazzling exhibitionism". Millett captured life as she thought, experienced and lived it, in a style like a documentary film. Sita (1977) explores her sexuality, particularly her lesbian lover who committed suicide and the effect on Millett's personal and private life. Millett and Sidney Abbott, Phyllis Birkby, Alma Routsong, and Artemis March were among the members of CR One, the first lesbian-feminist consciousness-raising group. ### Views on pedophilia In an interview with Mark Blasius, Millett was sympathetic to the concept of intergenerational sex, describing age of consent laws as "very oppressive" to gay male youth in particular but repeatedly reminding the interviewer that the question cannot rest on the sexual access of older men or women to children but a rethinking of children's rights broadly understood. Millett added that "one of children's essential rights is to express themselves sexually, probably primarily with each other but with adults as well" and that "the sexual freedom of children is an important part of a sexual revolution ... if you don't change the social condition of children you still have an inescapable inequality". In this interview, Millett criticized those who wished to abolish age of consent laws, saying the issue was not focused on children's rights but "being approached as the right of men to have sex with kids below the age of consent" and added that "no mention is made of relationships between women and girls". Millett believes sexual access to children is only one part of a larger goal of liberating children from all forms of parental oppression. ### Mother Millett Kate wrote Mother Millett (2001) about her mother, who in her later years developed several serious health problems, including a brain tumor and hypercalcaemia. Made aware of her mother's declining health, Millett visited her in Minnesota; their visits included conversations about their relationship and outings to baseball games, museums, and restaurants. When her mother was no longer able to care for herself in her apartment, she was placed in a nursing home in St. Paul, Minnesota, which was one of Helen Millett's greatest fears. Kate visited her mother and was disturbed by the care she received and her mother's demoralized attitude. Nursing home residents who were labeled as "behavioral problems", as Helen was, were subject to forcible restraint. Helen said to Kate, "Now that you're here, we can leave." Aware of the efforts her mother made to give her life, support her and raise her, Millett became a care-giver and coordinator of many daily therapies, and pushed her mother to be active. She wanted to give her "independence and dignity". In the article "Her Mother, Herself", Pat Swift wrote: "Helen Millett might have been content to go "gently into that good night"—she was after all more afraid of the nursing home than dying—but daughter Kate was having none of that. Feminist warrior, human rights activists, gay liberationist, writer and artist, Kate Millett has not gone gently through life and never hesitates to rage at anyone—friend or foe, family or the system—to right a perceived wrong. When the dignity and quality of her ailing mother's life was at stake, this book's unfolding tale became inevitable." Even though Helen played a role in having her daughter committed to the University of Minnesota's Mayo wing, Kate had her mother removed from the nursing home and returned to her apartment, where attendants managed her care. During this period, Millett could also "bully" her mother for her lack of cultural sophistication and the amount of television she watched and could be harsh with caregivers. ## Personal life ### Interpersonal relationships Millett was not the "polite, middle-class girl" that many parents of her generation and social circle desired; she could be difficult, brutally honest, and tenacious. Liza Featherstone, author of "Daughterhood Is Powerful," says that these qualities helped to make her "one of the most influential radical feminists of the 1970s." They could also make for difficult interpersonal relationships. Millett wrote several autobiographical memoirs, with what Featherstone calls "brutal honesty," about herself, her husband, lovers, and family. Her relationship with her mother was strained by her radical politics, domineering personality, and unconventional lifestyle. Helen was particularly upset about examination of her lesbianism in her books. (Note that Millett identified as bisexual by late 1970.) Family relationships were further strained after Millett was involuntarily committed to psychiatric wards and again when she wrote The Loony Bin Trip. Millett focused on her mother in Mother Millett, a book about how she was made aware by her sister Sally of the seriousness of Helen Millett's declining health and poor nursing home care. Kate removed her mother from the home and returned her to an apartment, where caregivers managed her health and comfort. In the book, "Millett writes about the situation—her mother's distance and imperiousness, her family's failure to recognize the humanity of the old and the insane—with brutal honesty. Yet she also describes moments of forgiveness, humility and admiration." During this time, she developed a close relationship, previously inconceivable, with her mother, which she considered "a miracle and a grace, a gift." Her relationships with her sisters were troubled during this time, but they all came to support their mother's apartment-living. The suggestion of her role as the heroine in Mother Millett, however, may have been "at the expense of her two siblings". ### Marriage In 1961 Millett moved to Japan and met fellow sculptor Fumio Yoshimura. In 1963 Yoshimura and Millett left Japan and moved to New York's Lower East Side in the Bowery district. In 1965 they married to prevent Yoshimura from being deported, and during their marriage Millett said that they were "friends and lovers". She dedicated her book Sexual Politics to him. Author Estelle C. Jelinek says that during their marriage he "loves her, leads his own creative life, and accepts her woman lovers". In 1985 they were divorced. At the time of her death, Millett had recently married Sophie Keir, her partner for 39 years. ### Mental illness Mental illness affected Millett's personal and professional life from 1973, when she lived with her husband in California and was an activist and teacher at the University of California, Berkeley. Yoshimura and Sally, Kate's eldest sister, became concerned about Kate's extreme emotions. Her family claimed that she went for as many as five consecutive nights without sleep and could talk nonsensically for hours. During a screening of one of her films at University of California, Berkeley, Millett "began talking incoherently". According to her other sister, Mallory Millett-Danaher, "There were pained looks of confusion in the audience, then people whispered and slowly got up to leave." Sally, who was a law student in Nebraska, signed papers to have her younger sister committed. Millett was forcefully taken and held in psychiatric facilities for ten days. She signed herself out using a release form intended for voluntary admissions. During a visit to St. Paul, Minnesota, a couple of weeks later, her mother asked Kate to visit a psychiatrist and, based upon the psychiatrist's suggestion, signed commitment papers for Kate. She was released within three days, having won a sanity trial, due to the efforts of her friends and a pro bono attorney. Following the two involuntary confinements, Millett became depressed, particularly so about having been confined without due process. While in the mental hospitals, she was given "mind-altering" drugs or restrained, depending upon whether she complied or not. She was stigmatized for having been committed and diagnosed with manic depression (now commonly called bipolar disorder). The diagnosis affected how she was perceived by others and her ability to attain employment. In California doctors had recommended that she take lithium to manage wide manic and depression swings. Her depression became more severe when her housing in the Bowery was condemned and Yoshimura threatened divorce. To manage the depression, Millett again began taking lithium. In 1980, with support of two friends and photojournalist Sophie Keir, Millett stopped taking lithium to improve her mental clarity, relieve diarrhea and hand tremors, and better uphold her philosophies about mental health and treatment. She began to feel alienated and was "snappish" as Keir watched for behavioral changes. Her behavior was that of psychiatric drug withdrawal, including "mile-a-minute" speech, which turned her peaceful art colony to "a quarrelsome dystopia." Mallory Millett, having talked to Keir, tried to get her committed but was unsuccessful due to New York's laws concerning involuntary commitments. Millett visited Ireland in the fall of 1980 as an activist. Upon her intended return to the United States, there was a delay at the airport and she extended her stay in Ireland. She was involuntarily committed in Ireland after airport security "determined from someone in New York" that she had a "mental illness" and had stopped taking lithium. While confined, she was heavily drugged. To combat the aggressive pharmaceutical program of "the worst bin of all", she counteracted the effects of Thorazine and lithium by eating a lot of oranges or hid the pills in her mouth for later disposal. She said of the times when she was committed, "To remain sane in a bin is to defy its definition," she said. > [Millett] describes with loathing the days of television-induced boredom, nights of drug-induced terror, people deprived of a sense of time, of personal dignity, even of hope. What crime justifies being locked up like this, Millett asks. How can one not be crazy in such a place? After several days, she was found by her friend Margaretta D'Arcy. With the assistance of an Irish parliament member and a therapist-psychiatrist from Dublin, Millett was declared competent and released within several weeks. She returned to the United States, became severely depressed, and began taking lithium again. In 1986, Millett stopped taking lithium without adverse reactions. After one lithium-free year, Millett announced the news to stunned family and friends. Millett's involvement with psychiatry caused her to attempt suicide several times due to both damaging physical and emotional effects but also because of the slanderous nature of psychiatric labeling that affected her reputation and threatened her very existence in the world. She believed that her depression was due to grief and feeling broken. She said, "When you have been told that your mind is unsound, there is a kind of despair that takes over..." In The Loony Bin Trip, Millett wrote that she dreaded her depressed periods: > At one point, listening to others talk about her "freaking out," Millett muses, "How little weight my own perceptions seem to have," and goes on: "Depression is the victim's dread, not mania. For we could enjoy mania if we were permitted by the others around us ... A manic person permitted to think ten thousand miles a minute is happy and harmless and could, if encouraged and given time, perhaps be productive as well. Ah, but depression – that is what we all hate. We the afflicted. Whereas the relatives and shrinks ... they rather welcome it: You are quiet and you suffer. #### Views on mental illness Feminist author and historian Marilyn Yalom wrote that "Millett refuses the labels that would declare her insane", continuing "she conveys the paranoid terror of being judged cruelly by others for what seems to the afflicted person to be a reasonable act." #### Activism Angered by institutional psychiatric practices and lenient involuntary commitment processes, Millett became an activist. With her lawyer, she changed the State of Minnesota's commitment law so that a trial is required before a person is involuntarily committed. Millett was active in the anti-psychiatry movement. As a representative of MindFreedom International, she spoke out against psychiatric torture at the United Nations during the negotiations of the text of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2005). In 1978, Millett became an associate of the Women's Institute for Freedom of the Press (WIFP). WIFP is an American nonprofit publishing organization. The organization works to increase communication between women and connect the public with forms of women-based media. ### Bowery redevelopment In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Millett was involved in a dispute with the New York City authorities, who wanted to evict her from her home at 295 Bowery as part of a massive redevelopment plan. Millett and other tenants held out but ultimately lost their battle. Their building was demolished, and the residents were relocated. ## Scholarship Kristan Poirot, author of Mediating a Movement, Authorizing Discourse, says that the release of Millett's Sexual Politics (1970) was a pivotal event in the second wave of the feminist movement. Although there were other important moments in the movement, like the founding of the National Organization for Women and release of The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan, it was in 1970 that the media gave greater attention to the feminist movement, first with a front-page article in The New York Times and coverage on the three network's news programs about the Women's Strike for Equality event that summer. Millett used psychology, anthropology, the sexual revolution, and literary criticism to explain her theory of sexual politics, which is that western societies have been driven by a belief that men are superior to women. According to Poirot, the book, which received widespread media coverage, "was considered to be the first book-length exposition of second wave radical feminist theory." Published accounts of Millett's lesbianism played a part in the fracture in the feminist movement over lesbians' role within the movement and reduced her effectiveness as a women's rights activist. However, Millett identified as bisexual by late 1970. Scholar Camille Paglia described Millett's scholarship as deeply flawed, declaring that "American feminism's nose dive began" when Millett achieved prominence. According to Paglia, Millett's Sexual Politics "reduced complex artworks to their political content and attacked famous male artists and authors for their alleged sexism," thereby sending serious academic literary appreciation and criticism into eclipse. Millett wrote her autobiographical books Flying (1974) and Sita (1977) about coming out as gay, partly an important consciousness-raising activity. She realized beginning an open dialogue is important to break down the isolation and alienation that hiding in privacy can cause. She wrote in Flying what Alice Henry calls in her off our backs review of Sita an "excruciating public and political 'coming out'" and its effect on her personal, political, and artistic lives. While she discussed some of her love affairs in Flying, in Sita she provides insight into a lesbian love affair and her fears of being alone or inadequate. Henry writes, "Kate's transparent vulnerability and attempts to get to the root of herself and grasp her lover are typical of many women who love women." Millett recorded her visit to Iran and the demonstrations by Iranian feminists against the fundamentalist shift in Iran politics under Khomeini's government. Her book Going to Iran, with photography by Sophie Keir (1979) is "a rare and therefore valuable eyewitness account of a series of important developments in the history of Iranian women", albeit told from the perspective of a feminist from the western world. ## Death Millett died in Paris on September 6, 2017, from cardiac arrest, eight days before her 83rd birthday. Her spouse Sophie Keir was with her at the time of her death. ## Awards and honors Millett won the Best Books Award for Mother Millett from Library Journal in 2001. In 2012, she was awarded one of that year's Courage Award for the Arts by Yoko Ono, which Ono created to "recognize artists, musicians, collectors, curators, writers—those who sought the truth in their work and had the courage to stick to it, no matter what" and "honor their work as an expression of my vision of courage". Between 2011 and 2012, she was also awarded the Lambda Pioneer Award for Literature and a Foundation for Contemporary Arts Grants to Artists award (2012). She was honored in the summer of 2011 at a Veteran Feminists of America gala; attendees included feminists such as Susan Brownmiller and Gloria Steinem. In March 2013, the U.S. National Women's Hall of Fame announced that Millett was to be among the institution's 2013 inductees. Beverly P. Ryder, board of directors co-president, said that Millett was a "real pillar of the women's movement". The induction ceremony took place on October 24, 2013, at the National Women's Hall of Fame headquarters in Seneca Falls, New York. ## Works ### Books ### Other publications - 1968 – "Token Learning: A Study of Women's Higher Education in America". New York: National Organization for Women. - 1998 – "Out of the Loop". On the Issues. ### Exhibitions Some of her exhibitions and installations are: - 1963 – Minami Gallery, Tokyo - 1967 – Group exhibition, 12 Evenings of Manipulation, Judson Gallery, New York City - 1968 – Situations, Brooklyn Community College, New York - 1970 – The American Dream Goes to Pot, The People's Flag Show, Phoenix Art Museum; Judson Memorial Church, New York - 1972 – Terminal Piece, Women's Interart Center, New York - 1973 – Small Mysteries, Womanstyle Theatre Festival, New York - 1977 – Naked Ladies, Los Angeles Women's Building, California - 1977 – Solo exhibition, Andre Wauters Gallery, New York - 1977 – The Lesbian Body, Chuck Levitan Gallery, New York - 1978 – The Trial of Sylvia Likens, Noho Gallery, New York - 1979 – Elegy for Sita, Noho Gallery, New York - 1979 – Women's Caucus for Art - 1980 – Group exhibition, Great American Lesbian Art Show, Los Angeles - 1980 – Solo exhibition, Lesbian Erotica, Galerie de Ville, New Orleans; Second Floor Salon - 1981 – Solo exhibition, Lesbian Erotica, Galerie des Femmes, Paris - 1986 – Group exhibition, Feminists and Misogynists, Center on Contemporary Art, Seattle - 1988 – Fluxus, Museum of Modern Art, New York - 1991–1994 – Courtland Jessup Gallery, Provincetown, Massachusetts - 1992 – Group exhibition, Body Politic, La MaMa La Galleria - 1991 – Solo exhibition, Freedom from Captivity, Courtland Jessup Gallery, Provincetown, Massachusetts - 1997 – Kate Millett, Sculptor: The First 38 Years, Fine Arts Gallery, University of Maryland, Catonsville - 2009 – Black Madonna, multimedia show of 41 artists, HP Garcia Gallery, New York ### Film

Samus Aran

Video game character

Samus Aran (Japanese: サムス・アラン, Hepburn: Samusu Aran) is the protagonist of the video game series Metroid by Nintendo. She was created by Japanese video game designer Makoto Kano. She was introduced as a player character in the original 1986 video game Metroid. Raised and infused with the DNA of the Chozo, Samus Aran is an ex-soldier of the Galactic Federation who became a galactic bounty hunter, usually fitted with a powered exoskeleton that is equipped with weapons such as directed-energy weapons and missiles. Throughout the series, she executes missions given to her by the Galactic Federation and the Chozo while hunting the antagonistic Space Pirates and their leader Ridley (and his robotic duplicates), along with the manipulative cybernetic supercomputer Mother Brain, the energy-draining X Parasites and Metroids (with Samus adopting one of the latter), as well as rogue Chozo Raven Beak. Samus is the protagonist of several Metroid games, including the Metroid Prime series. She also appears in other media, including films, manga series, and a comic book continuation of the TV series Captain N: The Game Master. She also appears in several other game franchises, including as a playable character in every installment of the Super Smash Bros. series. In terms of gender representation in video games, she has received largely positive reception. She is also recognized as one of the earliest female video game protagonists and has remained a popular and well-received character. Her role in Metroid: Other M was less well-received due to how she was portrayed. ## Concept and creation Hiroji Kiyotake designed Samus Aran. Series co-creator Yoshio Sakamoto conceived of the idea of making Samus a woman midway through the first Metroid's development, which the development team voted in favor of. The game's instruction manual refers to Samus as if she were male to obscure her real sex until the surprise reveal at the end of the game. Her appearance outside of her suit was based on actress Sigourney Weaver in her role as Ellen Ripley from Aliens, and actress Kim Basinger's roles from 91⁄2 Weeks and My Stepmother Is an Alien. Sakamoto noted that during the course of the Metroid series, developers constantly try to express her femininity without sexually objectifying her. Her signature ability to collapse into a ball to travel through tight areas was initially called the Maru Mari, meaning "round ball" in Japanese, and was rechristened as the Morph Ball in Super Metroid. The Morph Ball was conceived by the developers because it requires less effort to animate than "a cyborg crawling on all fours", and the producer for Metroid, Gunpei Yokoi, took advantage of this shortcut. Sakamoto and Kiyotake said that the character's last name "Aran" was taken from Edson Arantes do Nascimento, the birth name of the famous football player Pelé. Despite Samus being identified as a bounty hunter, Nintendo later admitted that the occupation was initially chosen because they did not know what a bounty hunter was and simply liked the title, seeing her as an "altruistic" and "motherly" adventurer. She did not speak in the original NES games, and in Super Metroid, she only spoke in the prologue. Samus broke her silence further in Fusion and Other M, although the latter received criticism due to poor character development and bad voice acting. The developers decided to revert to Samus' original concept in later games. In October 2021, producer Yoshio Sakamoto explained the reason why Samus barely speaks in Metroid Dread is "to convey the current situation of Samus or what Samus is thinking right now, this would be better conveyed to the player not through actual words or actual voice, but more with acting or visuals. I want the player to think, 'What is going on? What is Samus feeling right now?' That is why I decided to go this way for this game". ### Design Samus Aran is typically seen wearing the Power Suit, a powered exoskeleton which protects her from most dangers she encounters and can be enhanced by power-ups collected during gameplay. She is generally considered a silent protagonist. With the Power Suit's Arm Cannon, Samus can fire various energy beams, charge beams to shoot an extra-powerful blast, or launch a limited number of missiles. The Power Suit can be reconfigured into a small, spherical form called the Morph Ball, which allows her to roll through tight areas, such as tunnels, and use Bombs. Additionally, its visor can be used to scan objects to learn more about them, a feature that has been used since Metroid Prime. Aside from her Power Suit, Samus is also in possession of a Gunship, which is used in the games to save progress and restore her health and ammunition. Early on, instances of Samus appearing without the Power Suit occur mainly in cutscenes, such as post-game screenshots of her in more revealing clothing, which are unlocked depending on difficulty level, game completion, or play time. Players could control Samus without her suit in the original Metroid using a passcode. Metroid: Zero Mission introduced the Zero Suit, a form-fitting jumpsuit that she wears beneath the Power Suit. In Metroid: Other M, the Zero Suit is capable of materializing the Power Suit from within itself. She is and 90 kilograms (200 lb) while wearing the Power Suit. The Super Metroid Nintendo's Player's Guide describes Samus as tall and weighs 198 pounds (90 kg) without her Power Suit. ## Appearances She was raised on the mining colony K-2L, and when she was a child, the planet was raided by Space Pirates led by Ridley in an attack that killed her parents and destroyed the colony. The orphaned Samus was then found by a bird-like alien race known as the Chozo, who brought her to their home planet, Zebes. To keep her alive, they infused their DNA into her, granting her superhuman athleticism and a strong resistance to foreign environments. After training her and granting her one of their artifacts, the Power Suit, Samus leaves and enlists in the Galactic Federation. She leaves after a dispute with her commanding officer, Adam Malkovich, but continues to assist them as a freelance bounty hunter afterward. ### In Metroid Samus first apeared in Metroid in 1986. The Galactic Federation sends Samus to track down the Space Pirates on their home planet of Zebes. Deep within their base, she battles Mother Brain, and escapes just as the base self-destructs. She appears again in Metroid II: Return of Samus, where she is tasked with exterminating the Metroid species on SR388. After defeating the Metroid Queen, she finds a lone baby Metroid that imprints on her, and she spares its life. This story is retold in the remake, Metroid: Samus Returns. Her nemesis Ridley steals the hatchling in Super Metroid, who Samus pursues through Zebes. She finds the baby Metroid fully grown, who sacrifices its life fighting a reborn Mother Brain. She gains Metroid powers and escapes the planet before it explodes. She later appears in Metroid Fusion, where she becomes infected by the X Parasite but is saved by DNA made from the hatchling. She explores a Space Station infected by the parasite and seeks to prevent it from spreading. She discovers Metroids are being grown here, and destroys the space station to destroy both the X and the Metroid. Metroid: Other M expands Samus's backstory and emotional scope, such as her brief motherly connection to the Metroid hatchling; the deep respect for her former commanding officer and father figure Adam Malkovich; her reignited feud with Mother Brain in the form of the android MB; and overcoming a posttraumatic episode upon once again encountering her arch-nemesis Ridley. In Metroid Dread, the Galactic Federation receives a video from an unknown source showing an X Parasite alive in the wild on Planet ZDR. To investigate, they send 7 EMMI (Extraplanetary Multiform Mobile Identifier) units. However, after losing contact with the units, they hire Samus once again as she is the only being in the universe immune to the X. Upon arriving on ZDR, Samus is attacked, left unconscious and stripped of her equipment by an unknown Chozo warrior. From there she travels through the planet to reach her ship on the surface, having to contend with the near invincible EMMI and other threats on the way. ### In Metroid Prime Samus also appears in the Metroid Prime series, starting with Metroid Prime. She explores the planet Tallon IV, which contains a Chozo colony in ruins and a Space Pirate base. There she learns of Phazon, a mysterious mutagen that can alter the genetic material of any organism. Samus is eventually able to access the source of the planet's Phazon contamination, a meteor impact crater, where she defeats the Phazon-infused creature Metroid Prime. In one ending, the Metroid Prime is shown reforming as a copy of Samus, dubbed in Metroid Prime 2: Echoes as Dark Samus. In Echoes, Samus is sent to the planet Aether, a Phazon meteor-ravaged planet split into light and dark dimensions. There she battles the Ing, creatures that are able to possess other organisms, and Dark Samus. In Metroid Prime 3: Corruption (2007), Dark Samus infects Samus with Phazon, which slowly corrupts her and further forces her to prevent it from spreading to other planets. By the end of the game, she renders all Phazon inert by destroying its original source, the planet Phaaze, and permanently destroys Dark Samus. Samus also appears in other Metroid Prime games, including Metroid Prime Pinball, a pinball version of the first Metroid Prime game. She also appears in Metroid Prime Hunters, where she is tasked with either retrieving or destroying an "ultimate power" while dealing with other bounty hunters. Metroid Prime Federation Force has her as a non-playable character, where she needs to be rescued from the Space Pirates by Galactic Federation soldiers. ### In other video games Outside of Metroid series. Samus appears as a playable character throughout the Super Smash Bros. series, where she can use her array of weapons in combat against characters from other Nintendo franchises. She first appears in Super Smash Bros. on the Nintendo 64 in her Power Suit. Starting with Super Smash Bros. Brawl, the third entry in the series, Samus gets a second character in the form of Zero Suit Samus, who has a completely different moveset. Both forms appear in every Smash game afterward. Super Smash Bros. Ultimate added Dark Samus, whose moveset and model are mostly the same aside from animations and design. Samus makes cameo appearances in the games Galactic Pinball (1995), Super Mario RPG (1996), Kirby Super Star (1996), and Kirby's Dream Land 3 (1997), and a non-playable appearance in Dead or Alive: Dimensions by Metroid: Other M co-developers Team Ninja. ### In literature #### In comic books Samus is featured in a series of comic books called Captain N: The Game Master, published by Valiant Comics in 1990, based on the animated series of the same name. In the comic series, set before the events of Metroid, Samus is portrayed as brash, money-hungry, and fiercely independent, and title character Kevin Keene is depicted as her love interest. Samus also appears in various print adaptation of Metroid games. #### In manga Samus appears as the main character of the 2003–2004 manga series Metroid, telling her backstory up to the events of Metroid. Adapting Samus' soldier background as previously provided in Captain N: The Game Master, the series was written by Kouji Tazawa and illustrated by Kenji Ishikawa. Samus is featured as a mentor character in the manga series Samus and Joey and its sequel series Metroid EX. Famous across the universe as the "Guardian of the Galaxy", Samus trains a young boy, frontier planeteer Joey Apronika, as her successor. ### In other media In the 2015 short fan film Metroid: The Sky Calls, Samus is portrayed by actresses Jessica Chobot and America Young. ## Merchandise Various figures based on the character were produced by various manufacturers. Samus is one of the twelve original amiibo in November 2014. ## Reception and legacy As a woman in a male-dominated role, Samus has been widely considered a breakthrough for female characters in video games, and is one of the most beloved video game characters of all time by critics and fans alike. Samus is one of the first major female protagonists in a video game. The reveal in the original game has been regarded as a significant moment in gaming by sources such as UGO Networks, Game Informer, and GameDaily. However, Rupert Goodwins of The Independent felt that the ambiguity of who might be in the suit made it "hardly a breakthrough for feminism." Various critics have discussed Samus' relation to sexuality; she was regarded as being one of the least sexualized female video game characters in the 2007 book Gaming Lives in the Twenty-First Century: Literate Connections, a belief shared by Steve Rabin in "Introduction to Game Development". Justin Hoeger of The Sacramento Bee appreciated that she was not a character who existed for sex appeal, as well as her "tough" personality. A writer for the Toronto Star however, felt distaste for the "sexual politics" surrounding Samus, feeling that she was neither a character created for sex appeal, but was also not a "leader in the struggle for video game civil rights." Featuring her in their 2004 list of "top ten forces of good" (one section on their list of top 50 "retro" game characters), Retro Gamer regarded her as a "distinct female character [who does not rely] on cheap thrills to capture the attention of gamers." Nevertheless, much of Samus' media reception came from her sex appeal, and she has been included in many video-game lists that rank women by their physical attractiveness. Paul O'Connor, the lead game designer for Sammy Studios and a fan of the Metroid series, remarked that players empathize and identify with Samus because she is often rewarded for indulging in her curiosity. The book Videogames and Art noted that in the original Metroid the player is not briefed on Samus's past or future; the only interaction that they have with the character is by being her through gameplay, while bits of information can be gleaned from the handbook and through concept art, adding, "Samus is very rare for the character intimacy gained solely through game play and for her stasis and then drastic change", referring to the revelation that she is a woman. Her controversial portrayal in Metroid: Other M received mixed reactions. Unlike other Metroid games, where Samus took full advantage of weapons and abilities available, she deactivated most of them until Commander Adam Malkovich authorized their use. G4 TV considered Samus needing permission to use her equipment and Samus' anxiety attack upon seeing Ridley as "sexist". According to GamePro, though Other M's story and Samus's monologues did not compel them, "it helped contextualize her entire existence" which developed the character to "an actual human being who's using the vastness of space to try and put some distance between herself and the past". 1UP.com's Justin Hayward found the portrayal "lifeless and boring" and "nonsensical". GamesRadar wrote that Other M painted Samus, widely considered a strong female lead character, as "an unsure, insecure woman who desperately wants the approval of her former [male] commanding officer". The A.V. Club echoed the misgivings about her immaturity, petulant behavior, and misguided loyalty. In Metroid Dread, several people noted that Samus never talks as a protagonist. Alex Donaldson of VG247 has claimed that the game proves that Samus is cooler than Master Chief. However, Ian Walker of Kotaku criticized and said that "Samus doesn't need to be an emotionless robot to be badass". In his review of Super Smash Bros., GameSpot's Jeff Gerstmann called Samus one of the characters that made Nintendo "what it is today". IGN ranked her as the third-best character for Super Smash Bros. Where Jeremy Parish of Polygon felt her Zero Suit "works as demonstration of the questionable design decisions" for female characters in the Smash series, he regards Samus as "by far the toughest lady in Nintendo’s stable of characters." Gavin Jasper of Den of Geek felt that Samus stood out among the rest of the cast due to concept, design, and backstory. He also appreciated Zero Suit Samus appearing in the game as a nod to the first Metroid game. ## See also - Gender representation in video games - List of female action heroes and villains - Women warriors in literature and culture

HMS Exeter (68)

York-class cruiser of the Royal Navy

HMS Exeter was the second and last York-class heavy cruiser built for the Royal Navy during the late 1920s. Aside from a temporary deployment with the Mediterranean Fleet during the Abyssinia Crisis of 1935–36, she spent the bulk of the 1930s assigned to the Atlantic Fleet or the North America and West Indies Station. When World War II began in September 1939, the cruiser was assigned to patrol South American waters against German commerce raiders. Exeter was one of three British cruisers that fought the German heavy cruiser Admiral Graf Spee, later that year in the Battle of the River Plate. She was severely damaged during the battle, and she was in the shipyard for over a year. After her repairs were completed, the ship spent most of 1941 on convoy escort duties before she was transferred to the Far East after the start of the Pacific War in December. Exeter was generally assigned to escorting convoys to and from Singapore during the Malayan Campaign, and she continued on those duties in early February 1942 as the Japanese prepared to invade the Dutch East Indies. Later that month, she was assigned to the Striking Force of the joint American-British-Dutch-Australian Command (ABDACOM), and she took on a more active role in the defence of the Dutch East Indies. The culmination of this was her engagement in the Battle of the Java Sea later in the month as the Allies attempted to intercept several Imperial Japanese Navy invasion convoys. Exeter was crippled early in the battle, and she did not play much of a role as she withdrew. Two days later, she attempted to escape approaching Japanese forces, but she was intercepted and sunk by Japanese ships at the beginning of March in the Second Battle of the Java Sea. Most of her crewmen survived the sinking and were rescued by the Japanese. About a quarter of them died during Japanese captivity. Her wreck was discovered in early 2007, and it was declared a war grave, but by 2016 her remains had been destroyed by illegal salvagers. ## Design and description Exeter was ordered two years after her sister ship York and her design incorporated improvements in light of experience with the latter. Her beam was increased by one foot (30 cm) to compensate for increases in topweight, and her boiler uptakes were trunked backwards from the boiler rooms, allowing for straight funnels further removed from the bridge rather than the raked funnels on York to ensure adequate dispersal of the flue gases. As the eight-inch (203 mm) gun turrets had proved not strong enough to accommodate the aircraft catapult originally intended, Exeter was given a pair of fixed catapults angled out from amidships in a "V" shape, with the associated crane placed to starboard. Consequently, the bridge was lowered (that of York being tall to give a view over the intended aircraft), and was of a streamlined, enclosed design that was incorporated into later cruisers. Exeter was slightly lighter than expected and displaced 8,390 long tons (8,520 t) at standard load and 10,620 long tons (10,790 t) at deep load. The ship had an overall length of 575 feet 1 inch (175.3 m), a beam of 58 feet (17.7 m) and a draught of 20 feet 3 inches (6.2 m) at deep load. She was powered by four Parsons geared steam turbine sets, each driving one shaft, using provided by eight Admiralty 3-drum boilers. The turbines developed a total of 80,000 shaft horsepower (60,000 kW) and gave a maximum speed of 32 knots (59 km/h; 37 mph). The ship could carry 1,900 long tons (1,930 t) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 10,000 nautical miles (18,520 km; 11,510 mi) at 14 knots (26 km/h; 16 mph). The ship's complement was 628 officers and ratings. The main armament of the York-class ships consisted of six BL eight in (203 mm) Mk VIII guns in three twin-gun turrets, designated "A", "B", and "Y" from fore to aft. "A" and "B" were superfiring forward of the superstructure and "Y" was aft of it. Defence against aircraft was provided by four QF four-inch (102 mm) Mk V anti-aircraft (AA) guns in single mounts amidships and a pair of two-pounder (40 mm (1.6 in)) light AA guns ("pom-poms") in single mounts. The ships also fitted with two triple torpedo tube above-water mounts for 21-inch (533 mm) torpedoes. The cruisers lacked a full-length waterline armour belt. The sides of Exeter's boiler and engine rooms and the sides of the magazines were protected by 3 inches (76 mm) of armour. The transverse bulkheads at the end of her propulsion machinery rooms were 3.5 inches (89 mm) thick. The top of the magazines were protected by 5.5 inches (140 mm) of armour and their ends were 4.375 inches (111 mm) thick. The lower deck over the machinery spaces and steering gear had a thickness of 1.5 inches (38 mm). ### Modifications In 1932 Exeter had her side plating extended to enclose her open main deck as far back as the fore funnel. During that same refit, her pair of fixed catapults were finally installed for her Fairey IIIF floatplanes. In 1934–1935, two quadruple mounts for Vickers 0.5 in (12.7 mm) antiaircraft machineguns replaced the pair of two-pounder "pom-poms" originally installed. While under repair in 1940–1941 after her battle with the Admiral Graf Spee, the Royal Navy decided to upgrade her armament and fire-control systems. The bridge was rebuilt and enlarged to accommodate a second High-Angle Control System aft of the Director-Control Tower (DCT) on top of the bridge, her single four-inch AA guns were replaced with twin-gun mounts for Mark XVI guns of the same calibre and a pair of octuple mounts for two-pounder "pom-poms" were added abreast her aft superstructure. Enclosures ("tubs") for single 20-millimetre (0.8 in) Oerlikon guns were added to the roof of both 'B' and 'Y' turrets, but these weapons were never installed, because of shortages in production, and lighter tripod-mounted machine guns were substituted. The pole masts were replaced by stronger tripod masts because the Type 279 early-warning radar had separate transmitting and receiving aerials, one at each masthead. In addition, a Type 284 fire-control radar was fitted to the DCT. ## Construction and career Exeter, the fourth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy, was laid down on 1 August 1928, launched on 18 July 1929 and completed on 27 July 1931. The ship was then assigned to the 2nd Cruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet, where she served between 1931 and 1933. In 1934 she was assigned to the America and West Indies Station and remained there, aside from a temporary deployment to the Mediterranean during the Abyssinian crisis of 1935–1936, until 1939. ### Second World War #### Battle of the River Plate At the outbreak of the Second World War, she formed part of the South American Division with the heavy cruiser Cumberland, under Commodore Henry Harwood. The ship, commanded by Captain Frederick Bell, was assigned to Force G to hunt for German commerce raiders off the eastern coast of South America on 6 October 1939. Two months later, Harwood ordered Exeter and the light cruiser to rendezvous with his own Ajax off the mouth of the Río de la Plata, while HMS Cumberland was refitting in the Falkland Islands. The two other ships arrived on 12 December, and then the Admiral Graf Spee spotted the Exeter during the following morning. Captain Hans Langsdorff decided to engage the British and closed at full speed. The British doctrine on how to engage ships like the Admiral Graf Spee had been developed by Harwood in 1936 and specified that the British force act as two divisions. Following this procedure, Exeter operated as a division on her own while Achilles and Ajax formed the other, splitting the fire of the German ship. They were only partially successful as the German ship concentrated her main armament of six 283-millimetre (11.1 in) guns on Exeter, and her secondary armament of eight 149-millimetre (5.9 in) guns on the light cruisers. Langsdorff opened fire on Exeter at 06:18 with high-explosive shells and she returned fire two minutes later at a range of 18,700 yards (17,100 m). The German ship straddled the British cruiser with her third salvo; shrapnel from the near misses killed the crew of the starboard torpedo tubes, started fires amidships and damaged both Supermarine Walrus seaplanes. After eight salvos from Exeter, Admiral Graf Spee scored a direct hit on 'B' turret that knocked it out of action and shrapnel from the hit killed all of the bridge personnel except three. Bell, wounded in the face, transferred to the aft conning position to continue the battle. His ship was hit twice more shortly afterwards, but her powerplant was not damaged and she remained seaworthy, although her aircraft had to be jettisoned. At 06:30, Langsdorff switched his fire to the light cruisers, but only inflicted shrapnel damage on them before some of Exeter's torpedoes forced him to turn away at 06:37 to evade them. Her second torpedo attack at 06:43 was also unsuccessful. In the meanwhile, Langsdorff had switched his main guns back to the heavy cruiser and scored several more hits. They knocked out 'A' turret, started a fire amidships that damaged the ship's fire-control and navigation circuits, and caused a seven-degree list with flooding. After "Y" turret had temporarily been disabled, Bell said, "I'm going to ram the --------. It will be the end of us but it will sink him too". The turret was repaired and she remained in action until flooding disabled the machinery for "Y" turret at 07:30. At 11:07, Bell informed Harwood that Exeter had a single eight-inch and a four-inch gun available in local control, and that she could make 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). Harwood ordered Bell to head to the Falklands for repair. The ship was hit by a total of seven 283 mm shells that killed 61 of her crew and wounded another 23. In return, the cruiser had hit Admiral Graf Spee three times; one shell penetrated her main armour belt and narrowly missed detonating in one of her engine rooms, but the most important of these disabled her oil-purification equipment. Without it, the ship was unlikely to be able to reach Germany. Several days later, unable to be repaired and apparently confronted by powerful Royal Navy reinforcements (including HMS Cumberland), the Admiral Graf Spee was scuttled by her captain in the harbour of Montevideo. Although very heavily damaged, Exeter was still able to make good speed—18 knots—though four feet down by the bows, with a list of about eight degrees to starboard, and decks covered in fuel oil and water, making movement within the ship very difficult. She made for Port Stanley for emergency repairs which took until January 1940. There were rumours that she would remain in Stanley, becoming a rusting hulk, until the end of the war, but First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill wrote to the First Sea Lord and others "We ought not readily to accept the non-repair during the war of Exeter. She should be strengthened and strutted internally as far as possible . . . and come home". She was repaired and modernised at HM Dockyard, Devonport between 14 February 1940 and 10 March 1941; Captain W.N.T. Beckett was appointed to relieve Bell on 12 December 1940. Then, on 10 March 1941, the day that Exeter was due to be recommissioned, Beckett died at Saltash Hospital from complications following exploratory surgery to repair poison gas injuries that he had received earlier in his career. His replacement was Captain Oliver Gordon. Lt Ron Atwill, who served in Exeter during the battle, described Exeter'''s battle, and detailed the damage done and the temporary repairs made to make the ship seaworthy enough to reach the Falklands. #### To the Far East Upon returning to the fleet, Exeter primarily spent time on 'working up' exercises, however she also conducted several patrols in northern waters, one on which she stopped in Iceland to refuel. On 22 May she departed from Britain (for the last time as it would turn out), escorting Convoy WS-8B to Aden (Yemen) via Freetown and Durban, South Africa (the beginning of which occurred at the very same time as the hunt for the German battleship Bismarck. was taking place). Exeter henceforth became attached to the East Indies Squadron (later redesignated as the Far East Fleet). Exeter then stayed on escort duty in the Indian Ocean (primarily off the coast of Africa) and the northern Arabian Sea (where she visited Bombay, India) until 13 October. On that day Exeter departed Aden for Colombo, British Ceylon) via Bombay, British India arriving on 24 October. Exeter then spent several days in a graving dock and after undocking (on the 29th) conducted exercises off Colombo and visited the Maldives. Upon return to Trincomalee (Ceylon) from the Maldives on 14 November, Exeter then departed for Calcutta on the 16th to cover a small two-ship convoy that left Calcutta for Rangoon (Burma) on the 26th and 27th. After the successful completion of that duty she was then tasked to escort another ship from Calcutta to Rangoon on 6 December. However, during that convoy, on 8 December, Exeter was ordered to urgently proceed to Singapore to reinforce Force Z, as the Pacific War had just begun. Exeter arrived at Singapore during the afternoon of 10 December, too late to support Repulse and Prince of Wales as they had both been sunk earlier that day, but some of the survivors from these two ships were treated in Exeter's sick bay. Exeter thus returned to Colombo the next day (11 December) and spent the next two months – until almost mid-February 1942 – escorting convoys (primarily from Bombay and Colombo) bound for Singapore – which fell to the Japanese on 15 February. During this time, in early 1942, Exeter was attached to the newly formed ABDA Command, (American-British-Dutch-Australian Command) which came into being in early January in Singapore, but soon shifted its headquarters to Java in the Dutch East Indies (present day Indonesia). #### The Gaspar Strait sortie On 13 February, Allied reconnaissance aircraft spotted Japanese invasion convoys north of Bangka Island and the new commander of ABDA naval forces, Vice Admiral Conrad Helfrich of the Royal Netherlands Navy, was ordered to assemble the Allied Striking Force of Exeter and three Dutch and one Australian light cruisers at Oosthaven on the morning of 14 February. Escorted by six American and three Dutch destroyers, the force departed that afternoon. The Dutch Rear Admiral Karel Doorman, commanding the force, took his ships through the Gaspar Strait and then northwest towards Bangka Island. While passing through the strait, the Dutch destroyer struck a rock in poor visibility and another Dutch destroyer was tasked to take off her crew. The Japanese spotted the Allied ships around 08:00 and repeatedly attacked them. The first was a group of seven Nakajima B5N "Kate" torpedo bombers from the light carrier Ryūjō that attacked Exeter with bombs around 10:30. The blast from a near miss badly damaged her Walrus, but the ship was only damaged by shrapnel. They were followed shortly afterwards by a group of 23 Mitsubishi G3M "Nell" bombers from the Genzan Air Group that inflicted no damage as they dropped their bombs from high altitude. Another group of six B5Ns attacked without effect at 11:30. The repeated aerial attacks persuaded Doorman that further progress was unwise in the face of Japanese aerial supremacy and he ordered his ships to reverse course and head for Tanjung Priok at 12:42. The attacks continued as 27 G3Ms of the Mihoro Air Group then bombed from high altitude. Seven more B5Ns attacked fruitlessly at 14:30; a half-dozen more followed an hour later. The final attack was made by 17 Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" bombers of the Kanoya Air Group shortly before dark. The Japanese attacks were almost entirely ineffectual, with no ship reporting anything more than shrapnel damage. In return, allied anti-aircraft fire was moderately effective with most of the attacking bombers damaged by shrapnel. In addition, one G4M crashed while attempting to land, and another was badly damaged upon landing. #### First Battle of the Java Sea On 25 February, Helfrich ordered all available warships to join Doorman's Eastern Striking Force at Surabaya. The Exeter and the Australian light cruiser , escorted by three British destroyers, Jupiter, Encounter, and Electra, set sail at once, leaving behind one Australian cruiser and two destroyers that were short of fuel. After they had arrived the following day, Doorman's entire force of five cruisers and nine destroyers departed Surabaya at 18:30 to patrol off Eastern Java in hopes of intercepting the oncoming invasion convoy which had been spotted earlier that morning. The Japanese were further north than he anticipated and his ships found nothing. His own ships were located at 09:35 on the following morning, 27 February, and were continuously tracked by the Japanese. Doorman ordered a return to Surabaya at 10:30, and his ships were attacked by eight bombers from the Kanoya Air Group at 14:37. They claimed to have made two hits on the Jupiter, but actually they missed the British destroyer. Just as his leading ships were entering harbour, he received reports of enemy ships 90 miles (140 km) to the north and Doorman ordered his ships to turn about to intercept them. Aware of Doorman's movements, the Japanese commander, Rear Admiral Takeo Takagi, detached the convoy's two escorting destroyer flotillas, each consisting of a light cruiser and seven destroyers, to intercept the Allied ships in conjunction with his own pair of heavy cruisers (Nachi and Haguro) which were escorted by a pair of destroyers. His heavy cruisers opened fire at long range at 15:47 with little effect. The light cruisers and destroyers closed to ranges between 13,000 and 15,000 yards (12,000 and 14,000 m) and began firing Type 93 "Long Lance" torpedoes beginning at 16:03. All of these torpedoes failed to damage their targets, although one torpedo hit Exeter and failed to detonate at 16:35. Three minutes later, Haguro changed the course of the battle when one of her shells penetrated the British ship's starboard aft twin four-inch gun mount before detonating in the 'B' or aft boiler room, knocking six of her boilers off-line and killing 14 of her crew. The ship sheered out of line to avoid another torpedo and slowed, followed by all of the trailing cruisers. Moments later a torpedo fired from Haguro stuck the Dutch destroyer , breaking her in half and sinking her almost immediately. Perth laid a smoke screen to protect Exeter and the Allied ships sorted themselves into separate groups as they attempted to disengage. Exeter was escorted by one Dutch and all three British destroyers in one group and the other cruisers and the American destroyers formed the other group. The Japanese did not initially press their pursuit as they manoeuvered to use their torpedoes against the crippled Exeter, which could only make 5 knots (9.3 km/h; 5.8 mph), and her escorts. The Japanese began launching torpedoes beginning at 17:20 at ranges of 10,000 to 18,500 yards (9,100 to 16,900 m), but they all missed. For some reason, two Japanese destroyers, Asagumo and Minegumo, continued to close before firing their torpedoes at 6,500 yards (5,900 m) and Encounter and Electra pulled out of line to counter-attack. Engaging at close range as they closed, Electra damaged Asagumo, but was sunk by the Japanese ship at 17:46. Meanwhile, the Exeter continued south to Surabaya, escorted by Encounter and the Dutch destroyer . Doorman's repeated, unsuccessful, and ultimately fatal attempts to reach the invasion convoy's transports concentrated the Japanese on the task of protecting those ships and allowed the damaged British cruiser to reach harbour. #### Second Battle of the Java Sea The following day, after making temporary repairs and refuelling, the Exeter, escorted by Encounter and the American destroyer Pope, was ordered to steam to Colombo, via the Sunda Strait. They departed on the evening of 28 February, but they were intercepted by the Japanese heavy cruisers Nachi, Haguro, Myōkō, and Ashigara, and by the destroyers Akebono, Inazuma, Yamakaze, and Kawakaze on the morning of 1 March. At about 0800, the British ships spotted two of the Japanese cruisers, one of which launched its spotting floatplanes. Two others were seen closing in, and both launched their aircraft before opening fire at about 09:30. The Allied ships laid smoke and turned away to the east with the Japanese to their north and south. Exeter was able to reach a speed of 26 knots (48 km/h; 30 mph) before the first hit on her detonated in her 'A', or forward, boiler room and catastrophically knocked out all power around 11:20. Now defenseless as no guns could train or traverse, and wanting to save as many lives as he could, and to avoid the ship's capture by the Japanese forces, Captain Gordon ordered the ship to be scuttled. As a result, Exeter began listing to port, and that list was said to be at "a considerable angle" by the time the abandonment was completed. Sensing a kill, the Japanese destroyers closed in and fired torpedoes, two of which (out of a total of 18 fired by Japanese combatants) from the destroyer Inazuma, hit the ship – starboard amidships, and starboard just forward of A turret, as confirmed when the wreck was first discovered in 2007. As a result, Exeter rapidly righted herself, paused briefly, and then capsized to starboard. Encounter and Pope were also lost; Encounter approximately fifteen minutes after Exeter, while Pope temporarily survived the initial melee, only to be sunk a couple of hours later. Japanese B5N Type-97s armed with one 250 kg (551 lb) and four 60 kg (132 lb) bombs assisted in the sinking of Pope, already crippled by bombing from seaplanes and land-based air, and closed in to make a level bombing attack. No direct hits were scored, but several more near-misses hastened the abandonment and scuttling of the vessel, and she was finished off by gunfire with the late arrival of the two IJN cruisers Ashigara and Myoko. The Japanese rescued 652 men of the crew of Exeter, including her captain, who became prisoners of war. Of these men, 152 died in Japanese captivity. ## Wreck site The wreck was discovered and positively identified by a group of exploration divers specifically searching for Exeter aboard MV Empress on 21 February 2007. The wreck was found lying on its starboard side in Indonesian waters at a depth of about 200 feet (61 m), 90 miles (140 km) north-west of Bawean Island – some 60 miles (97 km) from the estimated sinking position given by Captain Gordon after the war. In July 2008, HMS Kent performed a memorial service over the wreck of Exeter. Aboard, along with several British dignitaries and high ranking naval officers, were a BBC film crew and four of HMS Exeter'''s veteran survivors, and one of the 2007 wreck discovery dive team representing the other three dive team members. Her wreck, a British war grave, had been destroyed by illegal salvagers by the time another expedition surveyed the site in 2016.

Amanita daucipes

Species of fungus

Amanita daucipes is a species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae of the mushroom order Agaricales. Found exclusively in North America, the mushroom may be recognized in the field by the medium to large white caps with pale orange tints, and the dense covering of pale orange or reddish-brown powdery conical warts on the cap surface. The mushroom also has a characteristic large bulb at the base of its stem with a blunt short rooting base, whose shape is suggestive of the common names carrot-footed lepidella, carrot-foot amanita, or turnip-foot amanita. The mushroom has a strong odor that has been described variously as "sweet and nauseous", or compared to an old ham bone, or soap. Edibility is unknown for the species, but consumption is generally not recommended due its position in the Amanita subgroup Lepidella, which contains some poisonous members. ## Taxonomy Amanita daucipes was first described in 1856 by the mycologists Miles Joseph Berkeley and Camille Montagne, who named it Agaricus daucipes. It was later renamed to Amanitopsis daucipes by Pier Andrea Saccardo, in 1887. In 1899, American mycologist Curtis Gates Lloyd transferred the species to the genus Amanita. It is in the section Lepidella of the genus Amanita, in the subgenus Lepidella, a grouping of related Amanita mushrooms characterized by their amyloid spores. Other North American species in this subgenus include A. abrupta, A. atkinsoniana, A. chlorinosma, A. cokeri, A. mutabilis, A. onusta, A. pelioma, A. polypyramis, A. ravenelii and A. rhopalopus. Its common names include the "carrot-foot Amanita", the "turnip-foot Amanita", or the "carrot-footed Lepidella". The specific epithet daucipes means "carrot foot". ## Description The caps of the fruit bodies initially have a convex shape before flattening out in maturity, and measure 6 to 25 cm (2.4 to 9.8 in) in diameter. The cap surface is dry to shiny, and white with a pale orange hue. It is densely covered with white to pale orange or reddish-brown conical warts. The warts, remnants of the universal veil, are randomly distributed on the cap surface and become fluffier and cotton-like (flocculent) near the edge (or margin) of the cap. Drier specimens may have the cap surface completely cracked around the bases of the individual warts. The conical warts are detersile, meaning they may be easily removed from the cap surface without leaving a residue or a scar. The margin of the cap does not have striations, and like other Lepidella members, may have irregular veil remnants hanging from it. The gills are free, crowded closely together, moderately narrow, and white to yellowish white in color. The short gills that do not extend the full distance from the stem to the cap edge (known as lamellulae) are rounded to attenuate (gradually narrowing), and of varying lengths. The stem is 7.5 to 20 cm (3.0 to 7.9 in) long, 0.8 to 2.5 cm (0.3 to 1.0 in) thick, and is attached to the center of the cap. It tapers slightly towards the apex, and is solid, dry, white or sometimes with a pale orange tint, and covered with tufts of soft woolly hairs. If handled, the stem will slowly bruise and discolor to approximately the same color as the cap. The basal bulb is large, reaching up to 15 by 12 cm (5.9 by 4.7 in), and is broadly spindle- to turnip-shaped. The bulb has a circular ridge on its upper part where the universal veil was previously attached, and the bulb may have longitudinal splits. It is covered with pinkish to reddish veil remains. The partial veil forms an ephemeral ring on the upper part of the stem. It is white to pale yellow, and usually falls off as the cap expands; fragments of the ring may often be found lying on the ground near the base of the stem. The universal veil remnants, when present, are similar to that on the cap. The flesh is firm and white. Fruit bodies have an odor that is strong and unpleasant, described as "sweet and nauseous". The odor has also been compared to that of "an old ham bone or soap" or "decaying protein", especially older specimens. ### Microscopic characteristics Viewed in deposit, such as with a spore print, the spores of A. daucipes are white, cream, or yellowish in color. Viewed with a microscope, they have an ellipsoid to elongate shape (sometimes kidney-shape, or reniform), and dimensions of 8–11 by 5–7 μm. They are translucent (hyaline), with thin walls, and are amyloid, meaning that they absorb iodine when stained Melzer's reagent. The basidia (the spore-bearing cells) are 30–50 by 7–11 μm, club-shaped, and 4-spored, with clamps at their bases. The cheilocystidia are abundant, small, roughly spherical to club-shaped cells, with dimensions of 15–40 by 10–28 μm. The cap cuticle is between 75 and 180 μm thick, and consists of a dense layer of thin-walled, interwoven, and slightly gelatinized hyphae that are 2–5 μm in diameter. Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of this species. ### Edibility The edibility of A. daucipes is unknown, but the mushroom is not recommended for consumption because the Lepidella section of Amanita also contains several poisonous species. ### Similar species Amanita daucipes is superficially similar to another related North American species, the chlorine Lepidella (A. chlorinosma), but may be distinguished from the latter by its color and the large basal bulb. Further, A. daucipes has "tougher, more distinct volval scales that are tinged with orange-yellow to orange-brown or light reddish-brown." ## Habitat and distribution Amanita daucipes is a mycorrhizal species, and its fruit bodies may be found growing solitary or scattered on the ground in mixed coniferous and deciduous forests (especially those dominated by oak trees) in Maryland, North Carolina, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Texas; other associated tree species include hickory (genus Carya) and birch (Betula). A predilection for disturbed soil, such as roadsides, has been noted. Amanita authority Cornelis Bas, writing in his extensive 1969 monograph on the genus, claimed A. daucipes to be a rare species; subsequent investigations have shown it to be common in oak forests in the eastern United States. The southern end of its distribution extends to Sonora, Mexico. ## See also - List of Amanita species

3rd United States Colored Cavalry Regiment

The 3rd United States Colored Cavalry was a regiment in the United States Army organized as one of the units of the United States Colored Troops during the American Civil War. The regiment was originally formed in October 1863 at Vicksburg, Mississippi as the 1st Mississippi Cavalry Regiment (African Descent). The unit soon began taking part in expeditions near Vicksburg. In February–March 1864, the regiment saw action at Yazoo City. After being renamed the 3rd U.S. Colored Cavalry in March 1864, the regiment continued to participate in raids, including the Yazoo City expedition in May. In December 1864, the unit took part in a successful raid led by Benjamin Grierson during which the Battle of Egypt Station and other actions were fought. The regiment operated near Memphis, Tennessee, until April 1865, after which it returned to Vicksburg for occupation duties. The soldiers were mustered out of federal service in January 1866. ## 1st Mississippi Cavalry, African Descent ### Formation When President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on 1 January 1863, he also called for four regiments to be raised from African-Americans. Altogether, 166 so-called colored regiments were raised before the war ended, employing 300,000 soldiers. These included 1 engineer, 1 field artillery, 145 infantry, 12 heavy artillery, and 7 cavalry regiments, of which around 60 actually saw field operations. Of the personnel assigned to these regiments, 143 officers (who were white) and 2,751 enlisted men were killed or died of their wounds. The 1st Mississippi Cavalry Regiment (African Descent) was organized on 9 October 1863 at Vicksburg, Mississippi. On 10 October 1863, Colonel Embury D. Osband assumed command of the regiment. Osband was formerly a captain in the 4th Illinois Cavalry Regiment who joined that unit on 26 September 1861. The War Department established the Bureau for Colored Troops; this body determined which white soldiers to commission as officers for the new colored regiments. Non-commissioned officers were African-American. At first there was a stigma attached to white officers in the colored regiments, but this was quickly overcome by the prospect of rapid promotion. Soon there was a large volume of white applicants for the new positions. When Osband was presented with a list of five corporals and 15 privates from the 4th Illinois Cavalry to be commissioned as officers in the new regiment, he refused to accept it. Instead, he petitioned Brigadier General Lorenzo Thomas, who was in charge of organizing the colored regiments, to consider his own list of candidates. Osband's bid was successful and no one with a rank lower than sergeant was promoted to captain and only two privates were promoted to first lieutenant. Osband's company of the 4th Illinois Cavalry had served as escort to Major General Ulysses S. Grant since November 1861, which probably helped Osband's appeal. Grant suggested to Osband that he recruit his regiment, "from the plantations around [Vicksburg] owned by persons of disloyalty". The other men appointed field officers were Majors Jeremiah B. Cook, Charles H. Chapin, and Edwin M. Main. ### Service From its formation until January 1864, the 1st Mississippi Cavalry (African Descent) was attached to the post of Goodrich Landing, District of Northeast Louisiana. With the first formed company of the 1st Mississippi Cavalry (AD) and a battalion of the 4th Illinois Cavalry, Osband led a raid to Satartia, a village 30 mi (48 km) northeast of Vicksburg. By November 1863, the regiment had 131 officers and men organized into three companies. Their patrols seized six 500 lb (227 kg) bales of cotton and gathered 60 more recruits. On 10–13 November, the unit took part in an expedition to Tallulah, Louisiana. In December, Osband took 125 officers and men from the 1st Mississippi Cavalry (AD) and 76 from the 4th Illinois Cavalry across to the west bank of the Mississippi River. They rode 15 mi (24 km) inland and then followed the Boeuf River (Bayou Boeuf) north a short distance, capturing 15 Confederates along the way. That night, Osband posted vedettes on the roads and the troops camped at Meriwether Plantation. Before daylight on 13 December, over 100 Confederates from Capers' Partisan Louisiana Battalion opened fire on the campsite of the 4th Illinois. In the hour-long fight that followed, Osband's force lost 7 killed, 33 wounded, and 13 captured, of which 1 killed and 15 wounded were from the 1st Mississippi (AD). Osband then withdrew the expedition to Skipwith Landing. After performing garrison duty at Skipwith Landing until January 1864, the 1st Mississippi Cavalry (AD) was assigned to the 1st Brigade, U.S. Colored Troops, District of Vicksburg. On 31 January 1864, 947 officers and men of the 1st Mississippi Cavalry (AD), 8th Louisiana Infantry (AD), and 11th Illinois Infantry Regiments under Colonel James Henry Coates started from Vicksburg with five gunboats and six transports. The expedition entered Yazoo River and stopped at Haynes Bluff to pick up a detachment of 11 officers and 25 men from the 1st Mississippi (AD). At Satartia, the cavalry and some infantry were landed to drive Confederates out of the village. On 3 February, the expedition was fired on by artillery at Liverpool Heights, so troops were landed and skirmished with Brigadier General Lawrence Sullivan Ross' 500-man Texas cavalry brigade. The indecisive fighting cost the Federals 6 killed, 21 wounded, and 8 missing. Coates decided to report these activities to his superior at Vicksburg, so Sergeants Isaac Trendall and Washington Vincent of the 1st Mississippi Cavalry (AD) were selected to carry the message 60 mi (97 km) overland through Confederate-controlled territory. The two men dressed as plantation slaves and stole four horses along the way, successfully delivering the message to Vicksburg in 10 hours. Meanwhile, Ross' brigade was called away to oppose Major General William T. Sherman's Meridian campaign. Coates' expedition occupied Yazoo City on 9 February 1864 where they were joined by five companies of the 1st Mississippi Cavalry (AD) which marched overland. Coates' expedition moved up the Yazoo River to Greenwood on 14 February. Coates sent Osband and 250 cavalrymen to scout toward Grenada on 16 February and they returned the next day. Coates' force descended the Yazoo to reach Yazoo City with 1,729 bales of cotton by 28 February. By this time Ross' brigade returned to the area and routed a patrol of 43 troopers of the 1st Mississippi Cavalry (AD), inflicting 18 casualties. Osband later examined the scene and concluded that five of his soldiers had been murdered. Ross was soon joined by 550 men from Brigadier General Robert V. Richardson's Tennessee brigade and the combined force attacked in the Battle of Yazoo City on 5 March. The 11th Illinois was surrounded but refused to surrender. The other units were driven into the town but fought back, assisted by the fire of two Union gunboats. The Confederates recaptured some of the cotton bales, but finally withdrew after sustaining 64 casualties. Union casualties for the entire expedition numbered 183 of which 13 were from the 1st Mississippi (AD) and 144 from the 8th Louisiana (AD). The Federal expedition abandoned Yazoo City the next day and steamed downriver to Vicksburg with its cotton bales. Second Lieutenants Eugene E. Walter and Archibald Stewart were killed in action at Yazoo City on 5 March 1864. ## 3rd U.S. Colored Cavalry ### Spring and summer 1864 The 1st Mississippi Cavalry (African Descent) was renamed the 3rd U.S. Colored Cavalry Regiment (3rd USCC) on 11 March 1864. The unit was attached to the 1st Brigade, United States Colored Troops, District of Vicksburg, Department of the Tennessee until April 1864. The regiment performed duty in the Vicksburg District until December 1864. The 3rd USCC was in action at Roach's Plantation, Mississippi, on 30 March. It was assigned to Winslow's Cavalry Brigade, District of Vicksburg from April–December 1864. A detachment was sent to Columbus, Kentucky, where it was in action on 11 and 13 April. The regiment took part in an expedition from Haynes Bluff up the Yazoo River on 19–23 April, skirmishing at Mechanicsburg on 20 April. The unit transferred to the 3rd Brigade, Cavalry Division, District of West Tennessee until January 1865. The regiment participated in the Yazoo City expedition on 4–21 May, fighting at Benton on 7 and 9 May and Yazoo City on 13 May. Captain George C. Starr died 14 May 1864 of wounds received at Benton. On 2–10 July 1864, the 3rd USCC took part in an expedition from Vicksburg to the Pearl River. The primary objective was the destruction of a railroad bridge over the Pearl River near Jackson. A secondary objective was to divert Confederate forces in the area from joining General Nathan Bedford Forrest's troops opposing Union General Andrew Jackson Smith's expedition to Tupelo. The 2,800-man expedition reached Jackson and destroyed the bridge, but the Federals suffered 250 casualties, including 8 officers and men killed and 10 men wounded from the 3rd USCC. On 11 July, the expedition set out from the Big Black River and marched to Port Gibson and ultimately Grand Gulf. From the latter place, the expedition traveled via steamboat to Vicksburg, arriving on 17 July. On 26 August, the 3rd USCC was in action at Bayou Tensas in Louisiana. The unit also participated in an expedition from Goodrich Landing to Bayou Macon on 28–31 August. On 19 September, the Union commander at Natchez reported that Forrest's cavalry was foraging in the area. Meanwhile, Osband was appointed to command all the cavalry in the district, so Major Cook assumed command of the 3rd USCC. Osband ordered Cook and 330 troopers to march north from Vicksburg and destroy Confederate supplies in the area between the Mississippi and Yazoo Rivers. On 22 September, Cook's men chased 150 Confederate horsemen 15 mi (24 km) to the Sunflower River and burned the plantation where they were camped. On 23 September, the 3rd USCC discovered a herd of 300 cattle and killed five and captured eight herders. About 100 of the animals escaped by the time the regiment returned to Vicksburg on 26 September. ### Fall and winter 1864 On 29 September 1864, Osband led 1,000 men from the 3rd USCC and three white cavalry regiments down the Mississippi River by boat to Bruinsburg where they disembarked. After marching inland to Port Gibson, the force scattered a band of Confederate irregulars. Following the orders of his superior Major General Napoleon J.T. Dana, Osband seized 13 hostages and 125 cattle which they turned over to the 48th and 50th United States Colored Infantry Regiments. The cavalry column then headed for Natchez which was reached on 3 October. On 4 October, 1,200 cavalrymen from five cavalry regiments and two guns boarded steamboats at Natchez and went downstream to Tunica Bend where the force went ashore. Osband led the troops 20 mi (32 km) inland to Woodville which they reached on the evening of 5 October. After seizing a few prisoners and some supply wagons, they were informed by a local black man that a Confederate force was camped at the McGehee plantation nearby. Sending the 5th Illinois Cavalry Regiment behind the Confederates, Osband attacked in front. The 3rd USCC seized three cannons and forced the opposing troops to retreat toward the 5th Illinois, which captured 41 Confederates. There were no Federal casualties. After burning the plantation, the expedition returned to Natchez where it embarked for Vicksburg on 9 October. The 3rd USCC and three other cavalry regiments conducted operations in Issaqueena and Washington counties on 21–31 October 1864. Only two Confederate partisans were killed, but Osband reported that the expedition took hostages and seized 50,000 board-feet of lumber, 20,000 bricks, 100 horses and mules, 300 sheep, and 50 cattle. Osband also complained to Dana that the hardtack issued to the 3rd USCC was so riddled with worms that the men threw it away. The next operation was an expedition from Vicksburg to Gaines Landing, Arkansas, on 6–8 November. This proved abortive because of high water. On 23 November, Osband left Vicksburg with 2,200 cavalry, including the 3rd USCC and four other cavalry regiments, and eight guns with the goal of destroying the Mississippi Central Railroad bridge over the Big Black River at Vaughan's Station. The 3rd USCC and the 2nd Wisconsin Cavalry Regiment crossed the Big Black and marched 15 mi (24 km) east in a feint. At dark, the two regiments started campfires, but slipped back to the crossing point to rejoin the rest of the column. Leaving the 5th United States Colored Heavy Artillery Regiment to guard the crossing, the expedition moved northeast through Benton and reached Vaughan's Station on 27 November. Osband sent the 3rd USCC under Cook 4 mi (6.4 km) south to seize the bridge. The troopers captured a blockhouse, killing three defenders at a cost of three men wounded. Then they set the bridge on fire and rode away. Unknown to them, a Confederate cavalry force arrived soon after and put out the fire. After wrecking sections of the railroad, Osband's column moved west to Yazoo City on 29 November and southwest to Vicksburg on 4 December. Cook was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 27 November 1864. On Dana's orders, Osband's brigade moved to Memphis, where it joined Brigadier General Benjamin Grierson's division. On 21 December 1864, Grierson's 3,500 cavalry set out from Memphis to damage the Mobile and Ohio Railroad. In the rainy weather, many horses broke down and had to be abandoned, but other horses were seized from civilians by the soldiers. Grierson's column reached Ripley, Mississippi, and Osband's brigade wrecked 0.5 mi (0.8 km) of railroad track and trestles south of Tupelo. Grierson's column continued south to Egypt Station which it reached on 28 December. During the Battle of Egypt Station, Osband's brigade supported the brigade of Colonel Joseph Kargé which was already engaged. The 3rd USCC got in rear of the Confederate-held stockade, but by the time the regiment was ready to attack, the stockade's 500 defenders surrendered. Grierson's division marched west to Houston and southwest to Winona. On 1 January 1865, Grierson sent Osband's brigade south from Winona to destroy track on the Mississippi Central Railroad. The 3rd USCC and the 4th Illinois Cavalry Regiment destroyed 2.5 mi (4.0 km) of track and bridges. Learning that a Confederate force was ahead, Osband shifted his route farther to the west. On 2 January near Franklin, Osband's brigade with the 3rd USCC in the lead, ran into a Confederate force under Brigadier General William Wirt Adams. The 3rd USCC was soon supported by the 4th and 11th Illinois Cavalry Regiments and the 90 minute skirmish ended with both sides disengaging. Osband reported First Lieutenant Seward Pettingill of the 3rd USCC and three enlisted men killed, one officer and seven men wounded, and two men missing. Osband's brigade joined Grierson's main column that night. The raiders reached Vicksburg on 5 January. ### 1865–1866 The 3rd USCC moved from Vicksburg to Memphis on 5–10 January 1865. The regiment was assigned as Unattached Cavalry, District of West Tennessee in January–June 1865. On 28 January, Osband and 2,621 cavalry went ashore at Gaines Landing and headed inland toward Monroe, Louisiana. The 3rd USCC was the largest unit in the expedition, numbering 450 officers and men. The object of the raid was to destroy Confederate supplies. In snow and sleet storms, the column made it as far as Bastrop, Louisiana, before turning back to the Mississippi River, followed by 400 escaped slaves. Osband reported that it was, "the most fatiguing scout of my life". Eight soldiers of the 3rd USCC drowned and twenty escaped slaves died of exposure. The 3rd USCC performed duties in the District of West Tennessee until April 1865. The unit took part in an expedition from Memphis on 23–26 April, the object of which was the capture of guerillas. One man named in their orders was caught, tried, and hanged. The regiment moved to Vicksburg on 29 April – 1 May and searched for Jefferson Davis near Natchez and Fort Adams. After the war ended the regiment undertook occupation duties and was assigned to the 1st Brigade, Cavalry Division, District of West Tennessee from June 1865 to January 1866. The 3rd USCC mustered out of service on 26 January 1866. ## Casualties According to the Official Army Register, the 3rd USCC Regiment sustained the following recorded casualties. The only dates given were those listed for the Yazoo City actions. ## See also - List of United States Colored Troops Civil War units

Washington State Route 304

Highway in Washington

State Route 304 (SR 304) is a state highway in Kitsap County, Washington, United States. It connects SR 3, a regional freeway, to the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard and downtown Bremerton. The designation of SR 304 continues onto the Seattle–Bremerton ferry operated by Washington State Ferries to Colman Dock in Downtown Seattle, terminating at SR 519 on Alaskan Way. The highway was built in the early 20th century, running along Sinclair Inlet and through the town of Charleston before reaching Bremerton. It was added to the state highway system in 1915 as part of the Navy Yard Highway (State Road 21) and was later incorporated into Primary State Highway 21 (PSH 21). A branch of PSH 21 connecting the main highway to the Bremerton ferry terminal was added to the state system in 1961 and was renumbered to SR 304 in 1964. SR 304 originally terminated on the northwest side of the naval shipyard until SR 3 was relocated onto a bypass of Bremerton in the 1970s, necessitating a southwest extension. The highway was briefly removed from the state system by the state legislature from 1991 to 1993 and was extended over the Seattle–Bremerton in 1994. A major improvement project began in 1998, building a new boulevard to serve SR 304, widening the highway through Bremerton, and adding a short tunnel for westbound traffic from the ferry terminal. ## Route description SR 304 begins at a partial interchange with SR 3 in the community of Navy Yard City, southwest of downtown Bremerton. The interchange, adjacent to a wastewater treatment plant, lacks a ramp from southbound SR 3 to SR 304, but provides access in the remaining three directions. The five-lane highway (including a westbound high-occupancy vehicle lane during peak hours) carrying SR 304 travels northeast on Charleston Boulevard along a section of the Puget Sound and Pacific Railroad (owned by the U.S. Navy) and the shore of the Sinclair Inlet. It enters Bremerton and turns north to follow the western boundary of the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard and the Bremerton Annex of Naval Base Kitsap. SR 304 passes a Kitsap Transit busyard before shifting east onto North Callow Avenue and intersecting SR 310, which travels west on Kitsap Way to an interchange with SR 3. From its junction with SR 310, the highway turns east onto Burwell Street and continues through a residential neighborhood on the north side of the naval base. SR 304 then intersects SR 303 at Warren Avenue and enters downtown Bremerton, where it forms the northern and eastern boundary of the naval shipyard. At Park Avenue, the highway passes over a pedestrian tunnel connecting to the shipyard and splits into a couplet: the eastbound lanes turn onto Pacific Avenue and continue into the Bremerton ferry terminal, while westbound traffic departing from the ferry terminal use a 959-foot (292 m) tunnel. The ferry terminal, at the south end of downtown near the Puget Sound Navy Museum, is divided into two levels with a passenger waiting area and bus bays atop the vehicle holding area. Under state code, SR 304 continues onto the Seattle–Bremerton ferry operated by Washington State Ferries, a 14-nautical-mile (16 mi; 26 km) route that takes approximately 60 minutes. The corridor is also served by Kitsap Fast Ferries, a passenger ferry operated by Kitsap Transit, and terminates at Colman Dock in Downtown Seattle, which is also served by a state ferry to Bainbridge Island carrying SR 305 as well as several passenger ferries. SR 304 and SR 305 continue through the Seattle terminal and formally terminate at an intersection with SR 519 on Alaskan Way. The entire highway is as part of the National Highway System, a national network of roads identified as important to the national economy, defense, and mobility; it is also listed as part of the Strategic Highway Network by the U.S. Department of Defense. The Washington state government has also designated it as a Highway of Statewide Significance. SR 304 is maintained by the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT), which conducts an annual survey on state highways to measure traffic volume in terms of annual average daily traffic. Average traffic volumes on the highway in 2016 ranged from a minimum of 1,100 vehicles at the Bremerton ferry terminal to a maximum of 30,000 vehicles at the SR 3 interchange. The Seattle–Bremerton route operated by Washington State Ferries carried 2.46 million total passengers in 2019, including over 650,000 vehicles. ## History The Puget Sound Naval Shipyard was established by the U.S. Navy in September 1891 near the future townsite of Bremerton, which was platted three months later. The western side of Bremerton and neighboring Charleston were served at the turn of the 20th century by Washington Boulevard, which continued southwest along Sinclair Inlet to Gorst as an unpaved road. In 1915, local businessmen lobbied for the construction of the Navy Yard Highway to connect Bremerton with the Olympic Highway in Union, Poulsbo, and Kingston. The state legislature added the corridor to the state highway system that year as State Road 21 and appropriated funds to survey the route. The state legislature appropriated additional funds to design and construct State Road 21 in its 1917 and 1919 sessions, while the Union–Charleston was incorporated into the system as the Navy Yard Highway. The two highways were among the first in Washington to receive federal funding under the Federal Aid Road Act of 1916. Construction on the section through Charleston and western Bremerton began in late 1917 and the entire Navy Yard Highway was dedicated on June 12, 1923. The Navy Yard Highway was re-designated as State Road 14 and extended through Charleston in 1923, replacing a section of State Road 21, which remained a secondary state highway. State Road 21 was elevated to primary state highway status in 1929 and was re-designated as Primary State Highway 21 (PSH 21) during a 1937 restructuring of the highway system. A branch of PSH 21, connecting the main highway at Charleston to the Bremerton ferry terminal was added to the state highway system in 1961. The state ferry system was established in 1951 by acquiring the domestic operations of the Puget Sound Navigation Company, which included the Seattle–Bremerton ferry, notably served by the (built in 1935). PSH 21 was replaced by SR 3 in the 1964 state highway renumbering, while the Bremerton branch became SR 304. Following the construction of the Bremerton freeway bypass for SR 3 in the early 1970s, SR 304 was extended southwest through Charleston and Navy Yard City to its modern terminus. The junction with SR 3 was originally a signalized intersection until it was converted into an interchange in 1991 with the construction of a southbound flyover ramp. The ramp was initially two lanes wide, but was reduced to a single lane in 1997 to improve merging for traffic on SR 3. The highway was initially routed through downtown Bremerton on 6th Street, but was later realigned onto Burwell Street in the 1980s. In 1991, the state legislature inadvertently removed SR 304 from the state highway system; SR 306 had been intended to be removed and transferred to Kitsap County. WSDOT continued to maintain SR 304 and it was re-added to the state highway system in 1993. The Seattle–Bremerton ferry was added to SR 304 the following year as part of the incorporation of the ferry system into existing state highways by the legislature. ### Bremerton Gateway and other projects The southernmost section of SR 304 through Navy Yard City and Charleston was rebuilt in the 1990s as part of the Bremerton Gateway project, originally estimated to cost \$37.9 million (equivalent to \$ in dollars) and funded with state and federal grants. It was planned alongside a new building for the city's ferry terminal and the western expansion of the naval shipyard, which would close a section of Callow Avenue. The Bremerton city government considered a new highway connecting to SR 3 at the Loxie Eagans Boulevard interchange, but instead chose a landscaped four-lane boulevard (named Charleston Boulevard) west of Callow Avenue to carry SR 304. The new boulevard would connect with Burwell Street, which would remain a two-way street after earlier proposals to create a one-way couplet with 6th Street were rejected. A total of 150 properties were acquired for the Bremerton Gateway project, which began construction in October 1998 with demolition to make way for a widened Burwell Street and other downtown changes. In early 1999, Burwell Street reopened with four lanes and a pair of one-way streets were created from Pacific and Washington streets at the ferry terminal. The first section of Charleston Boulevard opened to traffic in February 2001, replacing a one-block turn onto Farragut Street to reach Callow Avenue by following the shipyard's outer fence. The expansion of Callow Avenue at the north end of the boulevard was completed in June 2001 and included a traffic signal to allow eastbound traffic to flow onto Burwell Street. The third phase of the Bremerton Gateway project, widening SR 304 between SR 3 and the shipyard, was delayed due to a funding gap that was filled with the state's 2003 gas tax. The highway's westbound high-occupancy vehicle lane (HOV lane), first proposed in 1996, was opened to traffic in July 2008. Traffic bound for southbound SR 3 was initially required to merge into the HOV lane until the flyover ramp at the interchange was re-striped for two lanes in 2018. A 959-foot-long (292 m) tunnel in downtown Bremerton opened on July 6, 2009, allowing westbound traffic from the ferry terminal to bypass several congested intersections on Washington Avenue; it took two years to construct and cost \$54 million. The tunnel's opening was criticized for impacting traffic for downtown businesses, but the lower vehicle volumes contributed to the area's walkability. ## Major intersections

Bovista pila

Species of fungus

Bovista pila, commonly known as the tumbling puffball, is a species of puffball fungus in the family Agaricaceae. A temperate species, it is widely distributed in North America, where it grows on the ground on road sides, in pastures, grassy areas, and open woods. There are few well-documented occurrences of B. pila outside North America. B. pila closely resembles the European B. nigrescens, from which it can be reliably distinguished only by microscopic characteristics. The egg-shaped to spherical puffball of B. pila measures up to 8 cm (3 in) in diameter. Its white outer skin flakes off in age to reveal a shiny, bronze-colored inner skin that encloses a spore sac. The spores are more or less spherical, with short tube-like extensions. The puffballs are initially attached to the ground by a small cord that readily breaks off, leaving the mature puffball to be blown about. Young puffballs are edible while their internal tissue is still white and firm. B. pila puffballs have been used by the Chippewa people of North America as a charm, and as an ethnoveterinary medicine for livestock farming in western Canada. ## Taxonomy The species was described as new to science in 1873 by Miles Joseph Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis, from specimens collected in Wisconsin. In their short description, they emphasize the short pedicels (tube-like extensions) on the spores, and indicate that these pedicels—initially about as long as the spore is wide—soon break off. According to the nomenclatural authority MycoBank, taxonomic synonyms (i.e., having different type specimens) include Pier Andrea Saccardo's 1882 Bovista tabacina, Job Bicknell Ellis and Benjamin Matlack Everhart's 1885 Mycenastrum oregonense, and Andrew Price Morgan's 1892 Bovista montana. William Chambers Coker and John Nathaniel Couch called B. pila "the American representative of B. nigrescens in Europe", referring to their close resemblance. Bovista pila is commonly known as the tumbling puffball, referring to the propensity of detached puffballs to be blown about by the wind. The specific epithet pila is Latin for "ball". ## Description B. pila has an egg-shaped to roughly spherical fruit body measuring up to 8 cm (3 in) in diameter. The thin (0.25 millimeter) outer tissue layer (exoperidium) is white to slightly pink. Its surface texture, initially appearing as if covered with minute flakes of bran (furfuraceous), becomes marked with irregular, crooked lines (rivulose). The exoperidium flakes off in maturity to reveal a thin, inner peridium (endoperidium). The color of this shiny inner skin, splotched with darker areas, resembles the metallic colors of bronze and copper. Bovista pila puffballs are attached to the ground by a small cord (a rhizomorph) that typically breaks off when the puffball is mature. The interior flesh, or gleba, comprises spores and surrounding capillitial tissue. Initially white and firm with tiny, irregularly shaped chambers (visible with a magnifying glass), the gleba later becomes greenish and then brown and powdery as the spores mature. In age, the upper surface of the puffball cracks and tears open. The resilient texture of the inner peridium enables the puffball to maintain its ball-like shape after it has detached from the ground. As the old puffballs get blown around, spores get shaken out of the tears. The spores of Bovista pila are spherical, smooth (when viewed with a light microscope), and measure 3.5–4.5 μm. They have thick walls and very short pedicels. Basidia (spore-bearing cells) are club-shaped, measuring 8–10.5 by 14–18 μm. They are usually four-spored (rarely, some are three-spored), with unequal length sterigmata between 4 and 7.4 μm. The capillitia (sterile fibers interspersed among the spores) tend to form loose balls about 2 mm in diameter. The main, trunk-like branches of the capillitia are up to 15 μm in diameter, with walls that are typically 2–3 μm thick. ### Similar species Characteristics typically used to identify Bovista pila in the field include its relatively small size, the metallic lustre of the endoperidium, and the presence of rhizomorphs. B. plumbea is similar in appearance, but can be distinguished by its typically smaller fruit body and the blue-gray color of its inner coat. Unlike B. pila, B. plumbea is attached to the ground by a mass of mycelial fibers known as a sterile base. Microscopically, B. plumbea has larger spores (5–7 by 4.5–6.0 μm); with long pedicels (9–14 μm). Another lookalike is the European B. nigrescens, which can most reliably be distinguished from B. pila by its microscopic characteristics. The spores of B. nigrescens are oval rather than spherical, rougher than those of B. pila, and have a hyaline (translucent) pedicel about equal in length to the spore diameter (5 μm). The puffball Disciseda pila was named for its external resemblance to B. pila. Found in Texas and Argentina, it has much larger, warted spores that measure 7.9–9.4 μm. ## Habitat and distribution Bovista pila is found in corrals, stables, roadsides, pastures and open woods. The puffballs fruit singly, scattered, or in groups on the ground. It is also known to grow in lawns and parks. The puffball spore cases are persistent and may overwinter. Fruiting occurs throughout the mushroom season. Bovista pila is widely distributed in North America (including Hawaii). There are few well-documented occurrences of B. pila outside North America. Hanns Kreisel recorded it from Russia, in what is now known as the Sakha Republic. The puffball has been tentatively identified from the Galápagos Islands, and has been collected from Pernambuco and São Paulo, Brazil. The South American material, however, has grayish-yellow coloration in the gleba, which may be indicative of not yet fully matured specimens. This renders identification of this material tentative, as unripe material may have different microscopic characteristics from mature material. Although the puffball has been reported from both the European part of Turkey as well as Anatolia, reports without supporting microscopic or macroscopic information are viewed with skepticism. ## Uses Edible when the interior gleba is still firm and white, Bovista pila puffballs have a mild taste and odor. The puffball was used by the Chippewa people of North America as a charm, and medicinally as a hemostat. In British Columbia, Canada, it is used by livestock farmers who are not allowed to use conventional drugs under certified organic programs. The spore mass of the puffball is applied to bleeding hoof trimming 'nicks', and then wrapped with breathable first-aid tape. It is also similarly used on bleeding areas resulting from disbudding, and wounds resulting from sternal abscesses.

Tundra orbit

Highly elliptical and highly inclined synchronous orbit

A Tundra orbit (Russian: орбита «Тундра») is a highly elliptical geosynchronous orbit with a high inclination (approximately 63.4°), an orbital period of one sidereal day, and a typical eccentricity between 0.2 and 0.3. A satellite placed in this orbit spends most of its time over a chosen area of the Earth, a phenomenon known as apogee dwell, which makes them particularly well suited for communications satellites serving high-latitude regions. The ground track of a satellite in a Tundra orbit is a closed figure 8 with a smaller loop over either the northern or southern hemisphere. This differentiates them from Molniya orbits designed to service high-latitude regions, which have the same inclination but half the period and do not loiter over a single region. ## Uses Tundra and Molniya orbits are used to provide high-latitude users with higher elevation angles than a geostationary orbit. This is desirable as broadcasting to these latitudes from a geostationary orbit (above the Earth's equator) requires considerable power due to the low elevation angles, and the extra distance and atmospheric attenuation that comes with it. Sites located above 81° latitude are unable to view geocentric satellites at all, and as a rule of thumb, elevation angles of less than 10° can cause problems, depending on the communications frequency. Highly elliptical orbits provide an alternative to geostationary ones, as they remain over their desired high-latitude regions for long periods of time at the apogee. Their convenience is mitigated by cost, however: two satellites are required to provide continuous coverage from a Tundra orbit (three from a Molniya orbit). A ground station receiving data from a satellite constellation in a highly elliptical orbit must periodically switch between satellites and deal with varying signal strengths, latency and Doppler shifts as the satellite's range changes throughout its orbit. These changes are less pronounced for satellites in a Tundra orbit, given their increased distance from the surface, making tracking and communication more efficient. Additionally, unlike the Molniya orbit, a satellite in a Tundra orbit avoids passing through the Van Allen belts. Despite these advantages the Tundra orbit is used less often than a Molniya orbit in part due to the higher launch energy required. ### Proposed uses In 2017 the ESA Space Debris office released a paper proposing that a Tundra-like orbit be used as a disposal orbit for old high-inclination geosynchronous satellites, as opposed to traditional graveyard orbits. ## Properties A typical Tundra orbit has the following properties: - Inclination: 63.4° - Argument of perigee: 270° - Period: 1436 minutes - Eccentricity: 0.24–0.4 - Semi-major axis: 42,164 km (26,199 mi) ### Orbital inclination In general, the oblateness of the Earth perturbs a satellite's argument of perigee ($\omega$) such that it gradually changes with time. If we only consider the first-order coefficient $J_2$, the perigee will change according to equation 1, unless it is constantly corrected with station-keeping thruster burns. where $i$ is the orbital inclination, $e$ is the eccentricity, $n$ is mean motion in degrees per day, $J_2$ is the perturbing factor, $R_E$ is the radius of the Earth, $a$ is the semimajor axis, and $\dot{\omega}$ is in degrees per day. To avoid this expenditure of fuel, the Tundra orbit uses an inclination of 63.4°, for which the factor $(4 - 5\sin^2 i)$ is zero, so that there is no change in the position of perigee over time. This is called the critical inclination, and an orbit designed in this manner is called a frozen orbit. ### Argument of perigee An argument of perigee of 270° places apogee at the northernmost point of the orbit. An argument of perigee of 90° would likewise serve the high southern latitudes. An argument of perigee of 0° or 180° would cause the satellite to dwell over the equator, but there would be little point to this as this could be better done with a conventional geostationary orbit. ### Period The period of one sidereal day ensures that the satellites follows the same ground track over time. This is controlled by the semi-major axis of the orbit. ### Eccentricity The eccentricity is chosen for the dwell time required, and changes the shape of the ground track. A Tundra orbit generally has an eccentricity of about 0.2; one with an eccentricity of about 0.4, changing the ground track from a figure 8 to a teardrop, is called a Supertundra orbit. ### Semi-major axis The exact height of a satellite in a Tundra orbit varies between missions, but a typical orbit will have a perigee of approximately 25,000 kilometres (16,000 mi) and an apogee of 39,700 kilometres (24,700 mi), for a semi-major axis of 46,000 kilometres (29,000 mi). ## Spacecraft using Tundra orbits From 2000 to 2016, Sirius Satellite Radio, now part of Sirius XM Holdings, operated a constellation of three satellites in Tundra orbits for satellite radio. The RAAN and mean anomaly of each satellite were offset by 120° so that when one satellite moved out of position, another had passed perigee and was ready to take over. The constellation was developed to better reach consumers in far northern latitudes, reduce the impact of urban canyons and required only 130 repeaters compared to 800 for a geostationary system. After Sirius' merger with XM it changed the design and orbit of the FM-6 replacement satellite from a tundra to a geostationary one. This supplemented the already geostationary FM-5 (launched 2009), and in 2016 Sirius discontinued broadcasting from tundra orbits. The Sirius satellites were the only commercial satellites to use a Tundra orbit. The Japanese Quasi-Zenith Satellite System uses a geosynchronous orbit similar to a Tundra orbit, but with an inclination of only 43°. It includes four satellites following the same ground track. It was tested from 2010 and became fully operational in November 2018. ### Proposed systems The Tundra orbit has been considered for use by the ESA's Archimedes project, a broadcasting system proposed in the 1990s. ## See also - Elliptic orbit - List of orbits - Molniya orbit

Blink (Doctor Who)

"Blink" is the tenth episode of the third series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. It was first broadcast on 9 June 2007 on BBC One. The episode was directed by Hettie MacDonald and written by Steven Moffat. The episode is based on a previous short story written by Moffat for the 2006 Doctor Who Annual, entitled "'What I Did on My Christmas Holidays' By Sally Sparrow". In the episode, the Tenth Doctor—a time travelling alien played by David Tennant—is trapped in 1969 and tries to communicate with a young woman in 2007, Sally Sparrow (Carey Mulligan), to prevent the statue-like Weeping Angels from taking control of the TARDIS. Sparrow and her best friend's brother, Larry Nightingale (Finlay Robertson), must unravel a set of cryptic clues sent through time by the marooned Doctor, left in DVD Easter eggs. Both the Doctor and his companion Martha Jones, played by Freema Agyeman, have very little screen time in this episode, which let another episode be filmed simultaneously; "Blink" is consequently sometimes referred to by fans as a "Doctor-lite" episode. The scenes at Wester Drumlins were shot in a derelict house in Newport. To create the angels, two actresses wore makeup and prosthetics. The episode was seen by 6.62 million viewers in the United Kingdom. "Blink" received widespread praise, and is widely considered to be one of the best episodes of the show. Moffat won the BAFTA Craft and BAFTA Cymru awards for Best Writer, and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form; while for her single performance in the series, Mulligan won the Constellation Award for Best Female Performance in a 2007 Science Fiction Television Episode. In 2009 the episode was voted the second best Doctor Who story ever by readers of Doctor Who Magazine. ## Plot In 2007, Sally Sparrow, intrigued by a message written to her under peeling wallpaper about "the Weeping Angels", explores the abandoned house Wester Drumlins a second time with her friend Kathy Nightingale. Kathy is sent back in time to 1920 by an angel statue. At that moment, Kathy's grandson Malcolm delivers to the house a message from 1987 about the long life Kathy led. Before leaving, Sally takes a Yale key hanging from the hand of a statue. Sally visits Kathy's brother Larry at work to tell him Kathy loves him, as she was asked to in the message. Larry explains that he has been documenting an Easter egg in seventeen different DVDs containing a video message of a man having half of a conversation with the viewer. Larry gives Sally a list of the DVDs. Four statues follow Sally to the police station, where they take an impounded fake police box and send DI Billy Shipton back to 1969. The man in the Easter egg, a time traveller called the Doctor, has also been sent to the past, and asks Billy to relay a message decades later. Billy puts the Easter egg on the DVDs. In 2007, a much older Billy phones Sally to visit him on his deathbed in the hospital. Before he dies, Billy instructs Sally to look at the list. The list is Sally's own DVD collection. Sally and Larry return to the house and play the Easter egg on a portable DVD player. Sally discovers she can converse with the Doctor in 1969, as he possesses a copy of the complete transcript that Larry is currently compiling. The Doctor explains that aliens called Weeping Angels turn to stone statues when any living creature observes them. He fears they are seeking the vast reserves of time energy in the police box, which is his time machine the TARDIS. A Weeping Angel pursues Sally and Larry to the basement where the TARDIS is. Sally and Larry use the Yale key to hide inside. Larry inserts a now-glowing DVD, which also functions as a control disk, in the console's DVD player. The ship returns to the Doctor, while leaving Sally and Larry behind. The Weeping Angels standing around the TARDIS get tricked into looking at each other and are permanently frozen. A year later, Sally meets the Doctor prior to his being stuck in 1969. She hands the Doctor the transcript, and warns that he will need it. ## Production ### Writing "Blink" was written by Steven Moffat. Part of the story for "Blink" is based on Moffat's Ninth Doctor short story from the Doctor Who Annual 2006 called "'What I Did on My Christmas Holidays' by Sally Sparrow". The short story is presented as a homework essay from Sally, though only 12 years old, who encounters evidence of the Doctor's presence from the past in her aunt's house while visiting. "What I Did" includes several elements that are reused in "Blink", including messages under the wallpaper and an ontological paradox involving a conversation between Sally and the Doctor, prerecorded on a video cassette, based on a written transcript—the essay itself; however, instead of the Weeping Angels, "What I Did" features the Doctor and the TARDIS inadvertently separated twenty years in time by a fault in the time machine, and the Doctor is able to instruct Sally how to bring it back to him in the past. Moffat had held the idea of the Weeping Angels since seeing an angel statue in a graveyard whilst on a family holiday, and had planned to use them for the next series in the episodes that became "Silence in the Library" and "Forest of the Dead". However, after withdrawing from the writing of series three's first two-part story—Helen Raynor took over these episodes, writing "Daleks in Manhattan" and "Evolution of the Daleks"—Moffat volunteered to write the series' Doctor-lite episode and opted to use the Weeping Angels in what would become "Blink". Moffat was also inspired to write the episode based on the popular children's game Statues, which he always found "frightening". Murray Gold, the composer for the series, later compared the creatures to the moving ghostly topiary animals in Stephen King's 1977 horror novel The Shining. "Blink" is the third story of the revived series to be adapted for television by the same writer from a piece of their spin-off writing. It follows the "Human Nature" and "The Family of Blood" story arc, which was adapted by Paul Cornell from his 1995 novel Human Nature; and "Dalek", which used the basic premise as well as several scenes and lines of dialogue adapted by Robert Shearman from his 2003 audio drama Jubilee. "Blink" is referred to as a "Doctor-Lite" episode because the Doctor and his companion have very little screen time. This allowed two episodes to be filmed simultaneously, a process known as "double banking". The practice began with the 2006 entry "Love & Monsters", and continued for episodes such as "Turn Left", "Midnight", and "The Girl Who Waited". Moffat stated that he felt relaxed when he was writing the script for "Blink", for if it proved to be unpopular, he could blame the "Doctor-lite" structure of the episode. Due to the show's tight schedule, "Blink" had only one script meeting. ### Filming "Blink" was directed by Hettie MacDonald, making her the first female director of a Doctor Who episode since the Sixth Doctor serial The Mark of the Rani. Russell T Davies, the series' executive producer, later noted that, due to MacDonald's work, the episode included some of "the most beautiful [visuals] we've ever had". British actress Carey Mulligan was chosen to play Sally Sparrow; Mulligan was reportedly ecstatic to have been cast in the series. She was initially concerned with the fact that Tennant would have little screen time, but after the episode aired was very pleased with the final result. Location shooting for scenes set at the Police Station Garage took place at the Coal Exchange and Mount Stuart Square, Cardiff Bay on 21 November 2006. Fields House, located in Newport, filled in for Wester Drumlins. The house was already abandoned and falling into disrepair when the filming crews arrived. Moffat noted that "very little of it was tarted up" for the shoot; Moffat later called the location "the creepiest house" he had ever seen. The name was taken from a previous residence that Moffat lived in during the late 1990s. Larry describes the residence as "Scooby-Doo's house", a reference to the dilapidated mansions that the Scooby-Doo gang would usually visit. The BBC Fact File for the episode notes that 1969—the year Martha, the Doctor and Billy are sent to—is the first year Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! aired. Originally, the producers considered having Michael Obiora play both the young and old version of Billy Shipton. However, it was decided that Obiora in makeup would look too fake, and so Louis Mahoney was cast to play the older version. Initially, Obiora played the role with a London accent; Mahoney, however, had a Gambian accent, and so Obiora had to re-dub his lines to match. Billy mentions that the windows of the TARDIS are the wrong size for a real police box. In 2004, when the first photographs of the new series' TARDIS prop were revealed, there was a vigorous discussion of the box's dimensions on the Outpost Gallifrey Doctor Who discussion forum, in which some fans complained that the prop's windows were too big. Moffat has confirmed that this line is an in-joke aimed at the Outpost Gallifrey forum. ### Effects Moffat joked that "since I was a kid, I've been thinking of Doctor Who monsters, just now when I do, it costs the art department [...] a lot of money". To create the rigid structure of the angels' dresses, prosthetics supervisors Rob Mayor soaked fabric in fibreglass resin, which was then painted over. Although they are never shown moving on screen, all of the Weeping Angels were played by actresses Aga Blonska and Elen Thomas wearing makeup and prosthetics. The actresses wore two distinct masks: one that was more docile looking, and one with fangs bared. Blonska later noted that "I'm partly painted, partly glued into the costume, but it's quite comfortable." Although the actresses were slightly "wobbly" when they stood still, the producers used digital effects to, in essence, freeze the angels on film. Moffat was very pleased with the results, and called them "fantastic". Mulligan later called the effects "so good" and "really creepy". To create the effect of the Angels rocking the TARDIS Mulligan and Robertson threw themselves around the ship's set. The camera's operator then shook the camera in the opposite direction that Mulligan and Robertson threw themselves. The scene wherein the Doctor talks to Sally via a DVD extra was created by writing a conversation, removing Sally's lines, then having David Tennant record his lines. Moffat felt that this one-way filming made the performance more convincing. Moffat initially wrote placeholder dialogue in the script for the scene where the Doctor tells Sally that he can hear her in the DVD shop, because he knew the lines that appeared would have to play "double duty later on" and be authentic and fresh both times. Gold called the sequences "the heart of the Chinese puzzle". ## Broadcast and reception "Blink" was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 9 June 2007. Overnight ratings showed that it was watched by 6.1 million viewers, which rose to 6.62 once time-shifted viewers were taken into account. The episode was the seventh most watched episode on BBC One for the week ending 10 June and was the lowest-rated episode of Doctor Who's third series. It received an Appreciation Index of 87, considered "excellent". In its initial broadcast, a short clip of a card reading "One Year Later" was shown before the episode's denouement. In the syndicated and the DVD version, this shot has been removed. A Region 2 DVD containing "Blink" together with the episodes "Human Nature" and "The Family of Blood" was released on 23 July 2007. It was re-released as part of the complete series three DVD on 5 November 2007. ### Critical reception and accolades "Blink" received positive reviews, with many praising the acting, the script, the level of fear and the Weeping Angels themselves. The Guardian's Stephen Brook called it a "wonderfully creepy episode" that "ultimately made sense" despite "barely featur[ing] the Doctor and Martha". David Bradley of SFX awarded "Blink" five out of five stars, saying that it could have featured any of the previous Doctors and predicted that its "timelessness" would ensure that it would "[go] down as one of the finest, scariest, cleverest Who episodes ever". IGN's Travis Fickett gave the episode 9.1 out of 10, praising the way the audience felt they had known Sally Sparrow for a while, as well as the strength of Mulligan's performance, although he noted that "all of the performances in this episode are exceptional". He concluded that, "it's difficult to believe that so much was accomplished in such a short amount of time. The story of not one, but two relationships was told, several time lines intersected and a new and rather frightening enemy was vanquished without The Doctor ever coming face to face with them". Ross Ruedinger of Slant Magazine believed that the episode was not just the best Doctor Who episode, but also a great episode of the science fiction and horror genre that could allow it to stand alone. He also praised the fear-inducing concept of the Weeping Angels as well as the "tenderness of the story and the characters" which were "quite intricate given how much is going on in these 45 minutes". The Daily Telegraph named the episode one of the best of the show's entire run, noting that, while the Doctor "is somewhat on the periphery here", it "adds to the threat". Many critics consider the episode one of the strongest during Tennant's time as the Doctor. IGN's Matt Wales named it the sixth best episode of Tennant's tenure, while Sam McPherson of TVOvermind listed it as the second best Tenth Doctor episode. In 2011, before the second half of the sixth series, The Huffington Post labelled "Blink" as one of the five essential episodes for new viewers to watch. The Weeping Angels also received critical praise. In 2009 SFX named the climax with the Weeping Angels advancing on Sally and Larry the scariest moment in Doctor Who's history, describing it as "a terrifying combination of scary concept and perfect direction". The Weeping Angels came in at number three in Neil Gaiman's "Top Ten New Classic Monsters" in Entertainment Weekly, while TV Squad named them the third scariest television characters. They were also rated the third-best "baddie" in Doctor Who by The Daily Telegraph, behind the Nestene Consciousness and Daleks. In 2009 SFX listed the Angels in their list of favourite things of the revival of Doctor Who, writing, "Scariest. Monsters. Ever." Writer Steven Moffat was awarded the 2008 BAFTA Craft and BAFTA Cymru awards for Best Writer for his work on this episode. "Blink" won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form, and Carey Mulligan received the Constellation Award for Best Female Performance in a 2007 Science Fiction Television Episode. The episode was nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Script, but lost to Pan's Labyrinth by Guillermo del Toro. ### Legacy "Blink" received the award for Best Story in the Doctor Who Magazine 2007 Survey. In Doctor Who Magazine's 2009 poll to find the greatest Doctor Who story ever, it came in second place after Peter Davison's final story, The Caves of Androzani. In a 2007 poll conducted by the BBC, taking votes from 2,000 readers of the Doctor Who Adventures magazine, the Weeping Angels were voted the scariest monsters of 2007 with 55% of the vote; the Master and the Daleks took second and third place with 15% and 4% of the vote. In a 2012 poll of over ten thousand respondents conducted by the Radio Times, the Weeping Angels were again voted the best Doctor Who monster with 49.4% of the vote. In Doctor Who Magazine's 2014 fan poll of the greatest episodes of all time, "Blink" again came in second, this time behind the 2013 episode "The Day of the Doctor". Moffat, after becoming lead writer of the programme, wrote "The Time of Angels" and "Flesh and Stone" for the fifth series as a more action-oriented sequel that brought back the Weeping Angels, believing that good monsters should come back with a different style of story. They also returned in "The Angels Take Manhattan" from the show's seventh series , featured in the mini-episode, "Good as Gold", written by children for a Blue Peter contest and have made cameo appearances in the episodes "The God Complex", "The Time of the Doctor", "Hell Bent", "Revolution of the Daleks" and in the finale to the first series of the Doctor Who spin-off, Class. They are also featured in the New Series Adventures novel Touched by an Angel by Jonathan Morris. They returned to face the Thirteenth Doctor in series 13, Flux. A line spoken by the Doctor, "The angels have the phone box", is rhetorically repeated by Larry and prompts him to say "I've got that on a T-shirt". As expected by Moffat and Gold, this led online retailers such as ThinkGeek, and Zazzle, among others, to offer versions of such a product for sale. In addition, the "wibbly-wobbly timey-wimey" line has been used to describe several of Moffat's complex time travel stories, such as "Let's Kill Hitler" and "The Big Bang". The line was also referenced in the first episode of the fifth series, "The Eleventh Hour", when the Eleventh Doctor (Matt Smith) scans the crack in young Amelia Pond's (Caitlin Blackwood) wall with his sonic screwdriver. BBC America created a series of four specials prior to the seventh series premiere of Doctor Who, including one entitled "The Timey-Wimey Stuff of Doctor Who". British "Timelord rock" band Chameleon Circuit, composed of YouTube bloggers Alex Day and Charlie McDonnell among others, wrote a song about the episode, also entitled "Blink", and released it on their debut eponymous album.

HMS Daring (H16)

D-class destroyer

HMS Daring was a D-class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s. The ship spent the bulk of her career on the China Station. She was briefly commanded by Louis Mountbatten before World War II. Daring escorted convoys in the Red Sea in October–November 1939 and then returned to the UK in January 1940 for the first time in five years. While escorting a convoy from Norway, she was sunk by the German submarine U-23 in February 1940. ## Description Daring displaced 1,375 long tons (1,397 t) at standard load and 1,890 long tons (1,920 t) at deep load. The ship had an overall length of 329 feet (100.3 m), a beam of 33 feet (10.1 m) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches (3.8 m). She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines, driving two shafts, which developed a total of 36,000 shaft horsepower (27,000 kW) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph). Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3-drum water-tube boilers. Daring carried a maximum of 473 long tons (481 t) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5,870 nautical miles (10,870 km; 6,760 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). The ship's complement was 145 officers and men. The ship mounted four 45-calibre 4.7-inch Mk IX guns in single mounts. For anti-aircraft (AA) defence, Daring had a single 3-inch (76.2 mm) QF gun between her funnels and two 40-millimetre (1.6 in) QF 2-pounder Mk II guns mounted on the side of her bridge. She was fitted with two above-water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21-inch torpedoes. One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted; 20 depth charges were originally carried, but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began. ## Career Daring was ordered on 2 February 1931 under the 1930 Naval Estimates, and was laid down at John I Thornycroft's yard at Woolston, Southampton on 18 June 1931. She was launched on 7 April 1932 and completed on 25 November 1932, at a total cost of £225,536, excluding equipment supplied by the Admiralty, such as weapons, ammunition and wireless equipment. The ship was initially assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean and made a brief deployment to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in September–October 1933. Lord Louis Mountbatten assumed command on 29 April 1934, and Daring was given a refit at Sheerness Dockyard from 3 September to 24 October to prepare the ship for service on the China Station. In December 1934 she sailed to join the 8th Destroyer Flotilla in the Far East and served there until the outbreak of war. Upon the ship's arrival at Singapore, Lord Mountbatten was transferred to command HMS Wishart and Commander Geoffrey Barnard assumed command. The ship and her sisters Duncan, Diana, and Dainty were transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet shortly before World War II began in September 1939. Daring was kept in the Red Sea for escort and patrol work until November 1939. She was overhauled in Malta from 25 November to 20 December. The ship escorted the Union-Castle Line ocean liner SS Dunnottar Castle to Belfast in early 1940 and was under repair at Portsmouth until 25 January. Daring joined the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla in Scapa Flow on 10 February 1940 for escort duties. While escorting Convoy HN12 from Norway, she was torpedoed on 18 February in position by U-23, under the command of Otto Kretschmer. Daring capsized and sank very quickly after having her stern blown off; 157 of the ship's company were lost. The five survivors were rescued by the submarine HMS Thistle, which had witnessed the attack. A model of HMS Daring by Norman A. Ough is held by the National Maritime Museum.

2021 La Paz gubernatorial election

Bolivian election

The 2021 La Paz gubernatorial election was held on Sunday, 7 March 2021, with a runoff taking place on 11 April 2021, involving separate contests for governor and all forty-five seats in the Departmental Legislative Assembly. Incumbent governor Félix Patzi unsuccessfully sought reelection to a second term, finishing in fourth place with 4.36 percent of the popular vote. The election was won by Jallalla La Paz's Santos Quispe, who attained 55.23 percent of the vote in the second round, defeating Franklin Flores of the Movement for Socialism. On the legislative ballot, the Movement for Socialism won sixteen of the twenty provincial circumscriptions and nine of the twenty party-list seats, retaining its twenty-five seat majority in the Legislative Assembly. Originally scheduled to take place in early 2020, this and other subnational elections were delayed by over a year as a result of the country's 2019 political crisis and the ongoing effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. The continued health crisis had a significant impact on the race, knocking out popular frontrunner Felipe Quispe and establishing a close contest between his son, Santos, and ruling party candidate Flores, trailed by Rafael Quispe, incumbent Patzi, and almost a dozen other candidates. Amid shifting demographics, this election was also noted for the fact that El Alto and the indigenous-majority provinces now held more electoral weight than the city of La Paz, a change reflected by the primarily indigenous identification of the candidates running. ## Background and electoral system In the 2015 gubernatorial election, former minister of education Félix Patzi of the Third System Movement (MTS), running in alliance with Sovereignty and Liberty (SOL.bo), successfully won the governorship in the first round by a margin of 50.09 percent of the popular vote to his closest competitor's 30.68 percent, dislodging the ruling Movement for Socialism (MAS-IPSP) from power. Despite its defeat in the governorship, the MAS retained its effective majority in the Departmental Legislative Assembly. As with other departmental, provincial, and municipal elected officials, Patzi and the Legislative Assembly's set term of office was due to expire in mid-2020, completing a five-year mandate started in 2015. However, due to the annulment of the 2019 general election results as an outcome of that year's political crisis, the terms of all subnational authorities were extended until after new national elections had taken place. The Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE) issued the call for subnational elections on 10 November 2020, scheduling them to be held on 7 March 2021. Individuals aged 18 by the election date or who had recently changed residency could register to vote between 3 and 17 December. 28 December was set as the deadline for political organizations to register their candidacies. For all nine autonomous departments, the electoral system has been in continuous use since 2010, involving separate contests for governor as the executive authority and all seats in the legislative body, known as the Departmental Legislative Assembly. All governorships are elected by a simple majority in a two-round system, with the top two candidates moving to a runoff if none of the contending parties attains fifty percent of the vote. Additionally, a second round may be avoided if one candidate achieves a forty percent plurality with ten percent more votes than the next closest competitor. Twenty seats in the Legislative Assembly are elected in provincial single-member circumscriptions (assembly members by territory), while the other twenty are elected on an electoral list in a single department-wide party-list circumscription (assembly members by population), allocated proportionally using the D'Hondt method. The remaining five seats are reserved for the department's indigenous nations, appointed or elected by indigenous authorities in accordance with usos y costumbres. ## Candidates and campaigns ### Jallalla La Paz In mid-November, Felipe Quispe, popularly known as "El Mallku", launched his gubernatorial candidacy. The former guerilla and trade union leader had previously contested 2015's gubernatorial race on behalf of the Movement for Sovereignty (MPS), which this time opted to run university professor Federico Zelada as its candidate. Though Quispe was a member of his own front, Forward United People (APU)—led by his son, Santos Quispe—the party lacked legal registration, leading him to seek out an authorized organization willing to lend him its acronym. In December, Santos Quispe sealed an alliance between APU and Jallalla La Paz of Leopoldo Chui, which agreed to nominate his father as its candidate. Quispe quickly established himself as an early frontrunner in the opening weeks of the campaign, with Ciesmori's first opinion poll published in late January giving him a quarter of the popular vote, trailed by a multitude of opposing candidates. By the time that poll was released, however, Quispe's prospects of attaining the governorship had been severely hampered, given that he was dead, having suffered from cardiac arrest a week prior. The Mallku's demise immediately put into question the electoral future of Jallalla, which was forced to seek an alternative candidate. Within a day of Quispe's death, his son, Santos, moved to "inherit" his father's candidacy, with APU's leadership announcing that it had selected him as the party's new nominee. Jallalla formally accepted the change on 2 February, following a meeting between representatives from all seventy-eight municipalities in which the organization had a presence. ### Movement for Socialism Within the Movement for Socialism, the candidate selection process operates under the framework of pluralism. Local party branches and affiliated social organizations are tasked with selecting pre-candidates, who are then evaluated by the party's leadership. The official nomination is a choice made solely by party leaders, together with allied social organizations. Just two prominent political leaders were presented as pre-candidates for the nomination. The first was Franklin Flores, a former member of the Chamber of Deputies, who was proclaimed by several agrarian workers' unions in his home province of Aroma, in addition to receiving the support of the Túpac Katari Peasant Federation. The second was Beimar Calep Mamani, the outgoing mayor of Palos Blancos, who enjoyed support from the Federation of Intercultural Communities of La Paz as well as various agrarian unions in the north of the department. Early into the internal primary process, Flores established himself as the favorite to win the nomination, enjoying the support of party leader Evo Morales. The former president announced that Flores had been designated as the MAS's candidate on 14 December, a position officialized two weeks later. According to Morales, Flores' selection had been reached "almost by consensus", a point denied by Mamani and the Intercultural Federation, with the former contending that Morales had been misinformed into believing that Flores was the only candidate in the running. The dispute led Página Siete to later describe Flores as having been "chosen by Evo", a point he denied, pointing out that over 2,000 local communities had backed him before he won Morales' endorsement. ### Somos Pueblo Of the major gubernatorial candidates, Rafael Quispe had been in the race the longest, having established himself as a contender years in advance. Quispe's gubernatorial aspirations stemmed as far back as 2014 when he unsuccessfully sought the National Unity Front's nomination to contest the 2015 gubernatorial election. Since then, the former deputy and former head of the Indigenous Development Fund had worked on structuring his own political organization, touring the department's rural areas with a view toward gaining support to seek the governorship. In late 2018, he joined Venceremos, a newly legally registered civic group led by El Alto Municipal Councillor Óscar Huanca. Reports at the time indicated that the group had selected Quispe as its gubernatorial candidate. By 2019, however, Quispe appeared to have moved away from Huanca, having instead founded his own political organization, Somos Pueblo. Venceremos, in turn, opted instead to nominate Juan Choque, Felipe Quispe's son-in-law, as its candidate. Quispe formally launched his gubernatorial campaign in September 2019, signing an alliance between Somos Pueblo and the Social Democratic Movement (MDS) to form Somos Pueblo Demócrata, a coalition that also included New Social Option (NOS), a small local party. As a result of the year-long delay in holding subnational elections, Quispe shelved his plans, relaunching the campaign in early November 2020. For this run, Quispe joined forces with Iván Arias to form For the Common Good – Somos Pueblo (PBCSP), an alliance between their two political organizations. As both fronts lacked legal registration, the MDS again sponsored the alliance, joined this time by Suma Escoma. Arias and Quispe jointly officialized their candidacies for mayor and governor, respectively, on 28 December. ### Third System Movement For incumbent governor Félix Patzi—whose party, the MTS, had attained legal registration since becoming governor—the question of whether he would seek reelection remained pendant until the final weeks preceding candidate registration. Patzi's most recent electoral endeavor had been his 2019 bid for the presidency, in which he attained a meager 3.18 percent in his home department. In addition, Patzi's poor handling of the COVID-19 pandemic left much to be desired, leaving him vulnerable in a future second-term bid. Given these concerns, on 5 December, the MTS held a party conference to define whether or not Patzi would seek reelection. The meeting, attended by party partisans and allied social organizations, concluded that Patzi's reelection was "necessary" in order to continue the public works projects initiated during his first term. ### Other political organizations This election was noted for the high degree of indigenous representation on the ballot, with a majority of gubernatorial candidates being of some indigenous descent. According to analyst Marcelo Arequipa, the prevalence of indigenous candidates reflected the shifting voting demographics in the department. For the first time, the Aymara city of El Alto and not the capital of La Paz enjoyed a majority of registered voters, making it, together with the provinces, the key to winning the election. Apart from the top four contenders—all ethnic Aymara—indigenous candidates running with minor fronts included Beatriz Álvarez. A chola Aymara, Álvarez had served as a La Paz municipal councillor on behalf of Sovereignty and Liberty (SOL.bo), the party that nominated her to seek the governorship. Of the fourteen candidates, only Álvarez and one other individual—Assemblywoman Claudia Bravo of the National Unity Front (UN)—were women. Other candidates included Franclin Gutiérrez, who was invited to run by the Front for Victory (FPV). The cocalero activist had led the Departmental Association of Coca Producers (ADEPCOCA) and was noted for having been arrested during the Morales administration, spending fifteen months in preventative detention on dubious charges that were dropped in 2019. On behalf of Civic Community — Autonomies (C-A), Samuel Sea was presented as a candidate for the governorship. In the 2020 elections, Sea had been a candidate for deputy in La Paz's circumscription 16 and was the alliance's coordinator in the provinces. As with Felipe Quispe, Sea's candidacy was cut short after he died from complications related to COVID-19. Sea was replaced on the ballot by Mateo Laura, who had previously governed La Paz as prefect—the precursor to governor—between 2002 and 2003. ## General election ### Opinion polling ### Results The death of Felipe Quispe significantly shifted the competitive nature of the campaign. Speaking to Página Siete, Rafael Quispe predicted that the Mallku's departure would serve to aid the candidates in second and third place; that is, Flores and himself. "The MAS supporters who were going to vote for the Mallku will return to the MAS, and the people who were going to vote for the Mallku because he was against the MAS will return to Rafael", Quispe stated. By 11 February, Ciesmori's second opinion poll found that the "posthumous vote" had not significantly carried over to Santos Quispe, who moved down to second place, putting Flores in the lead. Flores maintained his slight edger over the opposition candidates for the remainder of the race, though not by a high enough percentage to circumvent a runoff, even when calculating the results without taking the undecided and null vote into account. By election night, however, exit polling conducted by Ciesmori and Focaliza indicated a surge in MAS support, granting Flores nearly forty percent of the vote with an over ten-point lead above his closest competitor. The margin was substantial enough for Red UNO to call the race for Flores, believing that with the remaining votes, he would be able to avoid a second round. With that, Flores himself declared victory, as did Morales. For his part, Santos Quispe decried fraud, alleging irregularities in the vote counting process, for which his supporters installed vigils outside the Departmental Electoral Tribunal (TED)'s facilities. In the ensuing days, the ongoing vote count narrowed the race, placing Flores' victory in uncertainty. A week after the election, the TED released its final tabulation, giving Flores 39.7 percent of the first round vote, leaving him just three-tenths of a percent shy of winning the governorship outright and setting off a runoff in the department. With the second round underway, both Flores and Quispe went about shoring up their bases of support in the department, with Flores seeking to solidify the MAS vote in the provinces while Quispe campaigned in the capital. Both contenders also sought out alliances with other parties, with Flores attaining the support of the Bolivian National Action Party (PAN-BOL) and, more importantly, the MTS of outgoing governor Félix Patzi. According to analysts, Flores' main obstacle in reaching the governorship was surviving the vote in the city of La Paz, the only municipality that had not been won by either of the top two contenders, having lent its support to Rafael Quispe. For his part, Quispe expressed his dissatisfaction with both candidates, considering them "the same" and announcing his intent to vote null. His party, Somos Pueblo, similarly refused to endorse either the MAS or JALLALLA, encouraging supporters to make their own choice. For columnist José Luis Quiroga, Flores' chances of winning relied on whether voters in the capital switched their support to Santos Quispe—which was not a given—or opted instead to sit out the runoff. Ultimately, a majority of voters in the second round broke for Quispe, who defeated Flores by a margin of 55.23 percent to Flores' 44.77. Though voting was repeated on 25 April at four polling centers in El Alto and La Paz, the results, constituting 00.04 percent of the total vote, did not sway the election. ## Aftermath Quispe was formally accredited as governor-elect by the TED on 28 April, and within hours of receiving his credentials, broke his pact with Jallalla, announcing his intent to solidify APU as a political force. Quispe's actions led Chui to denounce him as a "traitor," and the governor was formally expelled from Jallalla on 10 May, seven days after his formal inauguration. The dispute precipitated a fraught tenure for Quispe, whose term was marked by a series of controversies, kicking off within his first few months in office. By mid-2023, mounting scandals, including an arrest for public intoxication and an investigation into rape allegations, among others, had caused the governor's public approval to plummet, with multiple fronts actively soliciting a recall referendum again him.

Phil Edwards (footballer)

English association football player (born 1985)

Philip Lee Edwards (born 8 November 1985) is an English former professional footballer who made 485 appearances in the EFL. Edwards began his football career at Wigan Athletic, progressing through the club's youth system before signing a professional contract at the age of 18. In September 2004, Edwards joined Morecambe on a month's loan, playing one game before returning to Wigan. He was loaned out again during the 2005–06 season, this time to Accrington Stanley in October 2005. He subsequently signed for the club permanently in January 2006, helping them win the Conference National. He spent five years at Accrington, playing over 250 games for them in all competitions. In June 2011, Edwards signed for Stevenage on a free transfer. In March 2012, he joined Rochdale on loan until the end of the 2011–12 season. Released by Stevenage in May 2012, he signed for Rochdale on a permanent basis in August 2012. After a season of regular first-team football at Rochdale, Edwards joined League Two club Burton Albion in June 2013. He helped the club earn back-to-back promotions into the Championship during his time there. Following a loan spell at Oxford United during the 2016–17 season, he was released by Burton and signed for Bury. After one season back at Accrington, Edwards signed for Warrington Town in November 2020. ## Career ### Early career Edwards started his career at Wigan Athletic, signing a professional contract with the club at the age of 18. He was sent out on a one-month loan to Morecambe in September 2004 in order to gain first-team experience. However, Edwards made just one appearance for the club, coming on as a substitute in the 36th minute of a 2–2 draw away at Northwich Victoria. He returned to Wigan in October 2004, playing regularly for the reserve team, although did not make any first-team appearances for the club. ### Accrington Stanley Edwards signed for Accrington Stanley on loan in October 2005, making his debut in a 3–3 Football League Trophy draw away at Rotherham United. He made his league debut on 29 October 2005, playing the whole match as Accrington beat York City 2–1 at the Crown Ground. During Edwards' first six games at Accrington, the club had won all six fixtures, conceding just two goals. This form had propelled the club to the top of the Conference National. His loan was later extended until the end of the 2005–06 season in November 2005. After playing regularly during the loan agreement, Edwards signed for Accrington on a permanent basis on 12 January 2006. Edwards was part of the team that earned promotion to the Football League following a 1–0 away victory at Woking on 15 April 2006. He played 27 times for Accrington during the campaign. He was an unused substitute in Accrington's first two games back in the Football League, both of which resulted in 2–0 defeats. He came on as an 85th-minute substitute in the club's 2–1 home win against Barnet in the following game on 12 August 2006, Accrington's first win of the 2006–07 season. He scored his first professional goal in a 3–3 home draw with Shrewsbury Town on 2 December 2006, scoring a header in the 55th-minute to restore parity after Accrington were trailing in the match. Edwards' last game of the 2006–07 season was in a 3–2 home win against Macclesfield Town, a win that ultimately secured the club's Football League status for another year. He played 39 times in all competitions that season, scoring one goal. He opted to remain at Accrington ahead of the 2007–08 season, signing a contract extension on 8 May 2007. He played his first game of the campaign on 25 August 2007, a 2–0 defeat at Lincoln City. Despite playing sporadically during the first half of the season, Edwards was ever-present in the first-team from December 2007 onwards. He scored his first goal of the 2007–08 season on 4 April 2008, the winning goal in a 1–0 win against Dagenham & Redbridge. The goal helped secure League Two survival for Accrington. It was his only goal of the season, playing 32 games in all competitions. Remaining at Accrington for the 2008–09 season, Edwards made his first appearance of the campaign in a 1–0 home defeat to newly promoted Aldershot Town on 9 August 2008. Accrington manager John Coleman praised Edwards for his form during the start of the season in October 2008, stating "I couldn't pay him enough compliments. I think the last six months he has been absolutely magnificent. I am convinced if he was three inches bigger he would be playing in the Premier League. He is our best defender and hopefully he'll continue to be a great player for us for a long time". Edwards remained a first-team regular before being substituted after 17 minutes in Accrington's 2–1 win against Shrewsbury Town on 21 October 2008. Despite needing eight stitches in his knee, Edwards played in Accrington's following league match four days later, a 1–0 home defeat to Wycombe Wanderers. Edwards played in all of Accrington's 50 games during the 2008–09 season, with the club finishing in 16th position in the league table. He signed a new two-year contract at Accrington. He scored his first goal of the 2009–10 season on 22 August 2009, "bundling" the ball into the goal from John Miles' corner kick in a 3–1 loss at Aldershot Town. Edwards scored nine times from central defence during the 2009–10 season, playing all 57 of the club's matches as Accrington finished in 15th place in League Two. He scored his first and second goals of the 2010–11 season on 2 October 2010, when he scored twice from the penalty spot in Accrington's 7–4 home win against Gillingham. Accrington cemented a place in the League Two play-offs after finishing in fifth place in League Two, Edwards played in both of the semi-final matches against Stevenage, which Accrington lost by a 3–0 aggregate scoreline. Edwards scored 13 goals from defence in 51 appearances during Accrington's 2010–11 campaign, finishing as Accrington's joint top goalscorer for the season alongside Terry Gornell and Sean McConville. He was offered a two-year contract extension at the end of the season. Accrington assistant manager Jimmy Bell stated "Phil has been offered a good deal and we're quietly confident, although there have been a few rumours about one or two clubs being interested. But Phil has been here since he was young, he can't drive, he gets looked after by the club and he gets lifts in to training, so he feels quite settled here". Edwards played 257 games for Accrington, scoring 24 goals. ### Stevenage Edwards signed for League One club Stevenage on 27 June 2011. He joined the club on a free transfer, rejecting a contract extension at Accrington. He signed a one-year deal with Stevenage, with the option of a second year. On joining the club he said "I wasn't particularly looking for another club and I didn't have any interest in any other clubs at the time, so I thought I'd still be at Accrington next season. However, the manager got in touch with my agent and discussed the offer and when I thought I had the chance of playing League One football I decided to sign for Stevenage". He made his Stevenage debut on the first day of the 2011–12 season, playing the whole match in a 0–0 home draw against Exeter City. Edwards made 13 starting appearances for the club, as well as a further 14 appearances from the substitutes' bench, during the first half of the club's first ever League One campaign. ### Rochdale After falling out of favour under new Stevenage manager Gary Smith, Edwards joined Rochdale on 9 March 2012, on a loan agreement until the end of the 2011–12 season. The move re-united him with manager John Coleman, who had managed Edwards for six years at Accrington Stanley. He made his first appearance for Rochdale a day after signing for the club, on 10 March 2012, coming on as a 61st-minute substitute as Rochdale came back twice to draw 2–2 against Huddersfield Town. Edwards made just three appearances for Rochdale during his loan spell due to a knee injury. At the end of the season, Edwards was released by Stevenage when his contract expired, after just one year at the club. He made 27 appearances during his time at Stevenage. Ahead of the 2012–13 season, Edwards signed for Rochdale on a permanent basis having briefly played on loan there the previous season. He signed a one-year deal with the club. He played regularly throughout the campaign, making 48 appearances in all competitions as Rochdale finished the campaign in a mid-table position. ### Burton Albion He opted to leave Rochdale after his first full season there, signing for fellow League Two club Burton Albion on a free transfer on 29 June 2013. On signing Edwards, Burton manager Gary Rowett stated "In Phil we have a player who knows what it takes to be successful at this level as well as the league above and he is a very consistent performer. At 27 he's also at a good age to continue progressing and I'm sure he'll prove to be a big asset to the club". He made his Burton debut in the club's first match of the 2013–14 season, a 2–2 draw with Cheltenham Town on 3 August 2013. Edwards scored his first goal for the club in a 1–0 away victory at Exeter City on 26 October 2013. He played regularly in defence during his first season with the club, making 51 appearances and scoring two goals, as Burton missed out on promotion after losing 1–0 to Fleetwood Town in the 2014 Football League Two play-off final. He scored six times in 50 matches the following season as Burton finished the 2014–15 season as League Two champions. This included goals in Burton's final two matches of the season, victories against Northampton Town and Cambridge United, as the club secured the League Two title on the final day of the season. Edwards signed a new one-year contract with Burton on 8 May 2015 and was once again a mainstay in the Burton defence during the 2015–16 campaign, making 49 appearances in all competitions. Burton finished the season in second-place in League One, meaning they had earned back-to-back promotions to the Championship. During his time at Burton, Edwards played 151 times and scored eight goals, and was described as having earned "cult hero status" during his three years there. #### Loan to Oxford United After making just one appearance for Burton in the opening month of the 2016–17 season, Edwards made the move back into League One when he signed a season-long loan contract with Oxford United on 19 August 2016. Burton manager Nigel Clough stated that whilst he did not want to loan out Edwards, it would have been "selfish" to keep him in the squad just in case of injuries. He debuted for Oxford a day later, playing the whole match in a 2–1 victory against Peterborough United. His equalising goal away at Scunthorpe United on 26 November 2016 served as his first goal for the club, and he went on to score five times from right-back during the season, making 51 appearances. This included eight appearances in the EFL Trophy, as Oxford lost to Coventry City in the EFL Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium. ### Bury Released by Burton at the end of the season, Edwards signed a two-year contract with League One club Bury on 14 May 2017. He tore a cartilage in his knee during pre-season, undergoing surgery in July 2017. Edwards returned to fitness and made his Bury debut in a 0–0 draw with former club Rochdale on 26 August 2017. Edwards played 42 times during the campaign, as Bury were relegated to League Two after finishing in last place in the League One standings. Edwards made just three appearances during the 2018–19 season, all of which came in the EFL Trophy. He left the club upon the expiry of his contract in June 2019. ### Return to Accrington Without a club at the start of the 2019–20 season, Edwards rejoined Accrington Stanley on a one-year contract on 1 August 2019. It was the third time Edwards had been signed by manager John Coleman, who stated signing Edwards once more was a "no risk signing". He made his first appearance back at Accrington as an 89th-minute substitute in the club's 2–1 victory over Milton Keynes Dons on 31 August 2019. Edwards played a peripheral role during his one year back at Accrington, making eight appearances in all competitions. He was released by Accrington on 24 June 2020. ### Warrington Town Edwards signed for Northern Premier League club Warrington Town on 3 November 2020. Warrington's 2020–21 season was curtailed due to the COVID-19 pandemic before he made any first-team appearances. ## Style of play Edwards has been deployed in a number of positions throughout his career and his versatility to play across all back four defensive positions has been highlighted as one of his strengths. At Stevenage, Edwards was also used in a defensive midfield role whereby he would offer additional protection in front of the back four. He was a regular penalty-kick taker at Accrington, scoring over 20 times from the penalty spot. Edwards has been praised for his worth ethic both in training and during matches. ## Personal life Born in Bootle, Merseyside, Edwards is a supporter of Everton. ## Career statistics ## Honours Accrington Stanley - Conference National: 2005–06 Burton Albion - League One runner-up: 2014–15 - League Two: 2014–15 Oxford United - EFL Trophy runner-up: 2016–17 Individual - PFA Team of the Year: 2014–15 League Two

Prophet's Mosque

Historic mosque in Medina, Saudi Arabia

The Prophet's Mosque or Mosque of the Prophet ([] Error: : no text (help)), is the second mosque built by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in Medina, after that of Quba, as well as the second largest mosque and holiest site in Islam, after the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, in the Saudi region of the Hejaz. The mosque is located at the heart of Medina, and is a major site of pilgrimage that falls under the purview of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. Muhammad himself was involved in the construction of the mosque. At the time, the mosque's land belonged to two young orphans, Sahl and Suhayl, and when they learned that Muhammad wished to acquire their land to erect a mosque, they went to Muhammad and offered the land to him as a gift; Muhammad insisted on paying a price for the land because they were orphaned children. The price agreed upon was paid by Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, who thus became the endower or donor (Arabic: وَاقِف, romanized: wāqif) of the mosque, on behalf or in favor of Muhammad. al-Ansari also accommodated Muhammad upon his arrival at Medina in 622. Originally an open-air building, the mosque served as a community center, a court of law, and a religious school. It contained a raised platform or pulpit (minbar) for the people who taught the Quran and for Muhammad to give the Friday sermon (khutbah). Subsequent Islamic rulers greatly expanded and decorated the mosque, naming its walls, doors and minarets after themselves and their forefathers. After an expansion during the reign of the Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I, it now incorporates the final resting place of Muhammad and the first two Rashidun caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar ibn Al-Khattab. One of the most notable features of the site is the Green Dome in the south-east corner of the mosque, originally Aisha's house, where the tomb of Muhammad is located. Many pilgrims who perform the Hajj also go to Medina to visit the Green Dome. In 1909, under the reign of Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II, it became the first place in the Arabian Peninsula to be provided with electrical lights. From the 14th century, the mosque was guarded by eunuchs, the last remaining guardians were photographed at the request of then-Prince Faisal bin Salman Al Saud, and in 2015, only five were left. It is generally open regardless of date or time, and has only been closed to visitors once in modern times, as Ramadan approached during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. ## History ### Under Muhammad and the Rashidun (622–660 AD) The mosque was built by Muhammad in 622 AD after his arrival in Medina. Riding a camel called Qaswa, he arrived at the place where this mosque was built, which was being used as a burial ground. Refusing to accept the land as a gift from the two orphans, Sahl and Suhayl, who owned the land, he bought the land which was paid for by Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, and it took seven months to complete the construction of the mosque. It measured 30.5 m × 35.62 m (100.1 ft × 116.9 ft). The roof which was supported by palm trunks was made of beaten clay and palm leaves. It was at a height of 3.60 m (11.8 ft). The three doors of the mosque were the Bāb ar-Raḥmah (بَاب ٱلرَّحْمَة, "Gate of the Mercy") to the south, Bāb Jibrīl (بَاب جِبْرِيْل, "Gate of Gabriel") to the west, and Bāb an-Nisāʾ (بَاب ٱلنِّسَاء, "Gate of the Women") to the east. At this time point in the history of the mosque, the wall of the qiblah was facing north to Jerusalem, and the Suffah was along the northern wall. In the year 7 AH, after the Battle of Khaybar, the mosque was expanded to 47.32 m (155.2 ft) on each side, and three rows of columns were built beside the west wall, which became the place of praying. The mosque remained unaltered during the reign of Abu Bakr. Umar demolished all the houses around the mosque, except those of Muhammad's wives, to expand it. The new mosque's dimensions became 57.49 m × 66.14 m (188.6 ft × 217.0 ft). Sun-dried mud bricks were used to construct the walls of the enclosure. Besides strewing pebbles on the floor, the roof's height was increased to 5.6 m (18 ft). Umar constructed three more gates for entrance. He also added Al-Buṭayḥah (ٱلْبُطَيْحَة) for people to recite poetry. The third Rashidun caliph Uthman demolished the mosque in 649. Ten months were spent in building the new rectangular shaped mosque whose face was turned towards the Kaaba in Mecca. The new mosque measured 81.40 m × 62.58 m (267.1 ft × 205.3 ft). The number of gates as well as their names remained the same. The enclosure was made of stones laid in mortar. The palm trunk columns were replaced by stone columns which were joined by iron clamps. Teakwood was used in reconstructing the ceiling filza. ### Under subsequent Islamic states (660–1517 CE or 40–923 AH) In 706 or 707, the Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I (r. 705–715) instructed his governor of Medina, the future caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, to significantly enlarge the mosque. According to the architectural historian Robert Hillenbrand, the building of a large scale mosque in Medina, the original center of the caliphate, was an "acknowledgement" by Al-Walid of "his own roots and those of Islam itself" and possibly an attempt to appease Medinan resentment at the loss of the city's political importance to Syria under the Umayyads. It took three years for the work to be completed. Raw materials were procured from the Byzantine Empire. Al-Walid lavished large sums for the mosque's reconstruction and supplied mosaics and Greek and Coptic craftsmen. The area of the mosque was increased from the area 5,094 square metres (54,830 sq ft) of Uthman's time, to 8,672 square metres (93,340 sq ft). Its redevelopment entailed the demolition of the living quarters of Muhammad's wives and the expansion of the structure to incorporate the graves of Muhammad, Abu Bakr and Umar. The vocal opposition to the demolition of Muhammad's home from local religious circles was dismissed by Al-Walid. A wall was built to segregate the mosque and the houses of the wives of Muhammad. The mosque was reconstructed in a trapezoid shape with the length of the longer side being 101.76 metres (333.9 ft). For the first time, porticoes were built in the mosque connecting the northern part of the structure to the sanctuary. Minarets were also built for the first time as Al-Walid constructed four minarets around it. The Abbasid caliph Al-Mahdi (r. 775–785) extended the mosque to the north by 50 metres (160 ft). His name was also inscribed on the walls of the mosque. He also planned to remove six steps to the minbar, but abandoned this idea, fearing damage to the wooden platforms on which they were built. According to an inscription of Ibn Qutaybah, the caliph Al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833) did "unspecified work" on the mosque. Al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861) lined the enclosure of Muhammad's tomb with marble. In 1269, the Mamluk Sultan Baibars sent dozens of artisans led by the eunuch Emir Jamal al-Din Muhsin al-Salihi to rebuild the sanctuary, including enclosures around the tombs of Muhammad and of Fatima. The Mamluk Sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghuri (r. 1501–1516) built a dome of stone over his grave in 1476. ### Ottoman period (1517–1805 & 1840–1919 CE, or 923–1220 & 1256–1337 AH) Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566) rebuilt the east and west walls of the mosque, and added the northeastern minaret known as Süleymaniyye. He added a new altar called Ahnaf next to Muhammad's altar, Shafi'iyya, and placed a new steel-covered dome on the tomb of Muhammad. Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent wrote the names of the Ottoman sultans from Osman Ghazi to himself (Kanuni) and revived the "Gate of Mercy" (Bab ur-Rahme) or the west gate. The pulpit that is used today was built under Sultan Murad III (r. 1574-1595). In 1817, Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839) completed the construction of "the Purified Residence" (Ar-Rawdah Al-Muṭahharah (ٱلرَّوْضَة ٱلْمُطَهَّرَة) in Arabic, and Ravza-i Mutahhara in Turkish) on the southeast side of the mosque, and covered with a new dome. The dome was painted green in 1837, and has been known as the "Green Dome" (Kubbe-i Khadra) ever since. Sultan Mahmud II's successor, Sultan Abdulmecid I (r. 1839–1861), took thirteen years to rebuild the mosque, beginning in 1849. Red stone bricks were used as the main material in reconstruction of the mosque. The floor area of the mosque was increased by 1,293 square metres (13,920 sq ft). The entire mosque was reorganized except for the tomb of Muhammad, the three altars, the pulpit and the Suleymaniye minaret. On the walls, verses from the Quran were inscribed in Islamic calligraphy. On the northern side of the mosque, a madrasah was built for teaching the Qur'an. An ablution site was added to the north side. The prayer place on the south side was doubled in width, and covered with small domes. The interiors of the domes were decorated with verses from the Qur'an and couplets from the poem Kaside-i Bürde. The qibli wall was covered with polished tiles with lines inscribed from the Qur'an. The places of prayer and courtyard were paved with marble and red stone. The fifth minaret, Mecidiyye, was built to the west of the surrounded area. Following the "Desert Tiger" Fakhri Pasha's arrest by his own officers having resisted for 72 days after the end of the Siege of Medina on 10 January 1919, 550 years of Ottoman rule in the region came to an end. #### Saudi insurgency (1805–1811 CE or 1220–1226 AH) When Saud bin Abdul-Aziz took Medina in 1805, his followers, the Wahhabis, demolished nearly every tomb and dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration, except the Green Dome. As per the sahih hadiths, they considered the veneration of tombs and places, which were thought to possess supernatural powers, as an offence against tawhid, and an act of shirk. Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornaments, but the dome was preserved either because of an unsuccessful attempt to demolish its complex and hardened structure, or because some time ago, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, founder of the Wahhabi movement, wrote that he did not wish to see the dome destroyed. ### Saudi rule and modern history (1925–present CE or 1344–present AH) The Saudi takeover was characterized by events similar to those that took place in 1805, when the Prince Mohammed ibn Abdulaziz retook the city on 5 December 1925. After the foundation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, the mosque underwent several major modifications. In 1951, King Abdulaziz (1932–1953) ordered demolitions around the mosque to make way for new wings to the east and west of the prayer hall, which consisted of concrete columns with pointed arches. Older columns were reinforced with concrete and braced with copper rings at the top. The Suleymaniyya and Mecidiyye minarets were replaced with two minarets in Mamluk revival style. Two additional minarets were erected to the northeast and northwest of the mosque. A library was built along the western wall to house historic Qurans and other religious texts. In 1974, King Faisal added 40,440 m² (435,300 sq ft) to the mosque. The area of the mosque was also expanded during the reign of King Fahd in 1985. Bulldozers were used to demolish buildings around the mosque. In 1992, when it was completed, the mosque took over 160,000 m² (1,700,000 sq ft) of space. Escalators and 27 courtyards were among the additions to the mosque. A \$6 billion project to increase the area of the mosque was announced in September 2012. After completion, the mosque should accommodate between 1.6 million to 2 million worshippers. In March of the following year, the Saudi Gazette reported that demolition work had been mostly complete, including the demolition of ten hotels on the eastern side, in addition to houses and other utilities. ## Architecture The modern-day mosque is situated on a rectangular plot and is two stories tall. The Ottoman prayer hall, which is the oldest part of the mosque, lies towards the south. It has a flat paved roof topped with 27 sliding domes on square bases. Holes pierced into the base of each dome illuminate the interior when the domes are closed. The sliding roof is closed during the afternoon prayer (Dhuhr) to protect the visitors. When the domes slide out on metal tracks to shade areas of the roof, they create light wells for the prayer hall. At these times, the courtyard of the Ottoman mosque is also shaded with umbrellas affixed to freestanding columns. The roof is accessed by stairs and escalators. The paved area around the mosque is also used for prayer, equipped with umbrella tents. The sliding domes and retractable umbrella-like canopies were designed by the German Muslim architect Mahmoud Bodo Rasch, his firm SL Rasch GmbH, and Buro Happold. ### The Green Dome The chamber adjacent to the Rawdah holds the tombs of Muhammad and two of his companions and father-in-laws, Abu Bakr and Umar. A fourth grave is reserved for ʿĪsā (Jesus), as Muslims believe that he will return and will be buried at the site. The site is covered by the Green Dome. It was constructed in 1817 CE during the reign of the Ottoman sultan Mahmud II and painted green in 1837 CE. ### The Rawdah Ar-Rawḍah ash-Sharīfah (Arabic: ٱلرَّوْضَة ٱلشَّرِيْفَة, lit. 'The Noble Garden') is an area between the minbar and the burial-chamber of Muhammad. It is regarded as one of the Riyāḍ al-Jannah (Arabic: رِيَاض ٱلْجَنَّة, lit. 'Gardens of the Paradise'). A green carpet was used to distinguish the area from the red carpet used in the rest of the mosque, though it is now also green. Considering visiting Madinah and performing the Ziyarah, Muhammad said: > “Whoever visits me after my death is like he who had visited me during my life.” > > "When a person stands at my grave reciting blessings on me, I hear it; and whoever calls for blessings on me in any other place, his every need in this world and in the hereafter is fulfilled and on the day of Qiyamah I shall be his witness and intercessor." ### Mihrabs There are two mihrabs or niches indicating the qiblah in the mosque, one was built by Muhammad and another was built by Uthman. The one built by the latter was larger than that of Muhammad's, and it acts as the functional mihrab, whereas Muhammad's mihrab is a "commemorative" mihrab. Besides the mihrab, the mosque also has other niches which act as indicators for praying. This includes the Miḥrāb Fāṭimah (Arabic: مِحْرَاب فَاطِمَة) or Miḥrāb at-Tahajjud (Arabic: مِحْرَاب ٱلتَّهَجُّد), which was built by Muhammad for the late-night prayer. ### Minbars The original minbar (مِنـۢبَر) used by Muhammad was a block of date palm wood. This was replaced by him with a tamarisk one, which had dimensions of 50 cm × 125 cm (20 in × 49 in). In 629 CE, a three staired ladder was added to it. Abu Bakr and Umar did not use the third step as a sign of respect to Muhammad, but Uthman placed a fabric dome over it, and the rest of the stairs were covered with ebony. The minbar was replaced by Baybars I, by Shaykh al-Mahmudi in 1417, and by Qaitbay in 1483. In 1590 it was replaced by the Ottoman sultan Murad III with a marble minbar, while Qaytbay's minbar was moved to the Quba Mosque. As of 2013, the Ottoman minbar is still used in the mosque. ### Minarets The first minarets (four in number) of 26 feet (7.9 m) high were constructed by Umar. In 1307, a minaret titled Bāb as-Salām (بَاب ٱلسَّلَام, "Gate of the Peace") was added by Muhammad ibn Kalavun which was renovated by Mehmed IV. After the renovation project of 1994, there were ten minarets which were 104 metres (341 ft) high. The minarets' upper, bottom and middle portion are cylindrical, octagonal and square shaped respectively. ## Gallery ## See also

2007–08 Sunderland A.F.C. season

The 2007–08 season was the 113th full season in Sunderland A.F.C.'s history, their 107th in the league system of English football, their 7th in the Premier League, and their 78th in the top flight. After finishing 1st in the Championship during the 2006–07 season, Sunderland were promoted to the Premier League as champions. Sunderland had been relegated in the 2005–06 season with the record low points tally at the time of 15. The 2007–08 season was Roy Keane's first as a manager in the Premier League having won the Championship in his debut season. Keane introduced 12 new signings in pre-season and allowed seven players to leave the club. They won their first game of the season, but subsequently started to struggle for points, winning just two games in their first 16. Their longest winning streak came towards the end of the season as they won three consecutive games. This late run helped Sunderland finish 15th, though they only won two away games, of which the first came in late March. The team suffered first round exits in two of the cup competitions they entered: in the second round of the League Cup and the third round of the FA Cup. Kenwyne Jones was the club's top goalscorer, recording 7 goals in the league. Left-back Danny Collins was named as Sunderland's player of the season, while on loan centre-back Jonny Evans was named as the club's young player of the season for the second season running. The club's average attendance of 42,728 was the fifth highest in the division. ## Background Discussions of takeover were held over the summer involving an Irish group, the Drumaville Consortium, led by Niall Quinn. They completed the takeover in July for £10 million as Quinn's group took 72.59% of the club's shares. During the 2006–07 season, Roy Keane took over as manager from chairman Niall Quinn, who served as manager for the first six games of the season. Keane had a successful start to his managerial career with a 2–1 win over Derby County on 11 September 2006. On transfer window deadline day, Keane signed new players; Dwight Yorke, Liam Miller, Ross Wallace, Stanislav Varga, Graham Kavanagh and David Connolly. A 2–0 win over Leicester City on 1 January 2007 sparked an 18-game unbeaten streak for Sunderland, which was eventually ended on 21 April 2007 after a 3–1 defeat at the hands of Colchester United. Sunderland reached the top of the Football League Championship for the first time in the season with a 2–1 win over Southampton, which included an 87th-minute winner from Grant Leadbitter. Their promotion was confirmed as third placed team Derby County lost 2–0 to Crystal Palace, as a result Birmingham City were also promoted. On the last day of the season, the Championship title would be decided. Sunderland won their game 5–0 against Luton Town, while Birmingham suffered a defeat against Preston North End thus crowning Sunderland as champions. ## Review ### Pre-season Sunderland's pre-season was busy with transfer activity, seeing eight players come in, and five players leave. Kenny Cunningham retired, Tommy Miller, William Mocquet, Kevin Smith were released, while Robbie Weir, Jamie Chandler and David Dowson were all promoted to the first team from the club's youth system. Their first signing of the season was of Greg Halford from Charlton Athletic, and their first transfer out of the club when Stephen Elliott moved to Wolverhampton Wanderers. On 13 July 2007, Sunderland signed the former Newcastle United player Michael Chopra from Cardiff City for £5 million and Manchester United midfielder Kieran Richardson on 16 July. Fellow north east team Darlington was Sunderland's first pre-season friendly, Sunderland won the game 2–0 with goals from Ross Wallace and Anthony Stokes at The Darlington Arena. This was followed up by a shock defeat to Scunthorpe United on 21 July where they were beaten 1–0. Sunderland went on a tour of Ireland, where they would play Bohemians, Cork City and Galway United. They beat Bohemians 1–0 on 28 July thanks to a Stern John goal, but were held to a 1–1 draw at Cork City as Liam Miller scored the Sunderland goal. Their final game of the tour against Galway United ended as a 4–0 win for Sunderland, with goals from Michael Chopra, Kieran Richardson, David Connolly and Stern John. Juventus travelled to the Stadium of Light to commemorate its ten-year anniversary. The game ended 1–1 as Daryl Murphy scored, but the Italian side scored with two minutes remaining to draw the game. Sunderland signed Dickson Etuhu from Norwich City for £1.5 million on 17 July, and Paul McShane from West Bromwich Albion on 26 July for £2.5 million. With the start of the Premier League season looming, Sunderland broke their transfer record to buy Scottish international goalkeeper Craig Gordon from Heart of Midlothian for £9 million. The club's last signing before the start of the season was Roy O'Donovan from Cork City for an undisclosed fee. ### August Sunderland's season started against Tottenham Hotspur on 11 August 2007. Sunderland won the game through a last minute goal from Michael Chopra in front of an attendance of 43,967. Their second game of the season was an away fixture to Birmingham City, a Paul McShane own goal had put Sunderland behind in the 28th minute, but Michael Chopra scored his second goal of the season to equalise. Birmingham took the lead again through Garry O'Connor but Sunderland scored another last minute goal, this time from Stern John to save a point. On 24 August ex Manchester United and Newcastle United striker Andy Cole joined the club on a free transfer from Portsmouth. Sunderland travelled to the JJB Stadium unbeaten on 18 August but lost 3–0 to Wigan Athletic. On 25 September Liverpool beat Sunderland 2–0 to give them their second consecutive defeat. On the same day, Tobias Hysén returned to his native Sweden with IFK Göteborg after he and his wife were suffering from home sickness. Luton Town produced a league cup shock as they beat Sunderland 3–0 at Kenilworth Road. Sunderland signed three more players before the transfer deadline; Ian Harte from Levante on a free transfer, Danny Higginbotham from Stoke City for £3 million, and Kenwyne Jones from Southampton for £6 million with Stern John going in the opposite direction. ### September Sunderland opened the month with a 1–0 defeat away to Manchester United on 1 September, Louis Saha scored the winner 18 minutes from full-time. Roy Keane said "I'm delighted with the overall performance. It would have been nice to test their goalkeeper a bit more but overall I'm delighted with the players' efforts." about the team's display. Jack Pelter signed for Sunderland on 8 September, from New Zealand team Canterbury United, on a free transfer in an original one-month deal. Two weeks after the defeat to Manchester United, Sunderland beat Reading 2–1 on 15 September. Kenwyne Jones and Ross Wallace scored the Sunderland goals in a game which was overshadowed by the tribute paid to 1973 FA Cup Final scorer Ian Porterfield who died on 11 September 2007. Sunderland met Middlesbrough on 22 September in their first north east derby of the season. Grant Leadbitter scored in the 2nd minute to put Sunderland in front, but two ex-Sunderland players; Julio Arca and Stewart Downing put Middlesbrough into the lead. Liam Miller scored an 89th minute volley to save a point for Sunderland. Grant Leadbitter scored his second goal in as many games on 29 September as Blackburn Rovers beat Sunderland 2–1. ### October October started with an away fixture against Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium on 7 October. Sunderland went 2–0 down within the first 14 minutes. However, Sunderland levelled the score at 2–2 with goals from Ross Wallace on the 25th minute and Kenwyne Jones on the 48 minute. Arsenal won the game 3–2 after a late Robin van Persie goal. Sunderland suffered back-to-back defeats when they lost 3–1 away to West Ham United on 21 October. Kenwyne Jones got the goal for Sunderland. Fulham came to the Stadium of Light on 27 October, Fulham took the lead in the 32nd minute with a 30-yard free kick from Simon Davies. Sunderland snatched a point when Kenywyne Jones scored an 86th-minute equaliser. The wearsiders had gone down to ten men in the 67th minute when Greg Halford was sent off. ### November Sunderland lost 1–0 away to Manchester City on 5 November after a goal from Stephen Ireland. Manager, Roy Keane, expressed his frustration in a post match interview saying "We didn't deserve anything. I don't feel we did enough to get anything out of the game. I don't think their keeper had too many saves to make, did he?". 10 November was the first Tyne–Wear derby of the season. Danny Higginbotham put Sunderland into the lead shortly after half time, but James Milner drew Newcastle level on the 68th minute after his cross beat goalkeeper Craig Gordon into the far post. Sunderland had a chance to win the game when ex-Newcastle forward Michael Chopra headed against the bar minutes from full-time. Sunderland ended the month on a low as they were beaten 7–1 away to Everton on 24 November. Dwight Yorke scored Sunderland's only goal just before half time. Roy Keane said "It's hard to take, but we lose as a team and I picked the team and sorted the tactics so I have no problem taking responsibility for what happened." ### December On 1 December Sunderland beat Derby County 1–0. The defeat against Everton led to Craig Gordon being dropped from the side. He was replaced by Darren Ward who made a save to push Kenny Miller's strike onto the post. With the game looking to be heading towards a draw, Anthony Stokes scrambled to ball in to win the game. On 8 December Sunderland travelled to Stamford Bridge to play Chelsea. Sunderland went behind in the 23rd minute through an Andriy Shevchenko goal. Chelsea won the game 2–0 after Liam Miller was sent off whilst giving a penalty away, which Frank Lampard scored. Sunderland played Aston Villa on 15 December, Danny Higginbotham put Sunderland ahead with a 10th-minute header. Villa midfielder Shaun Maloney equalised when he scored a from a 71st minute free kick. Sunderland could have won the game late on, but Danny Collins' header was ruled out by referee Steve Bennett for a foul. Roy Keane displayed his annoyance at Bennett saying "It sums up (the referee's) day. He was giving everything against us and to say we're disappointed would be an unbelievable understatement. You could sense he was waiting to blow his whistle. It would be nice to see him later." Reading reversed their defeat to Sunderland previously in the season by winning 2–1 on 22 December. Reading had led 1–0 after a 69th-minute goal from Ívar Ingimarsson. Michael Chopra levelled the match by scoring an 82nd-minute penalty. A goal by Stephen Hunt in the 90th minute sparked controversy as it appeared not to have crossed the line. Sunderland met Manchester United on Boxing Day at the Stadium of Light, they were beaten 4–0 in a game were Sunderland striker Martyn Waghorn made the step up from the club's Youth system to the first team. Martyn Waghorn promoted to first team from Youth system. Sunderland ended 2007 with a 3–1 home win to Bolton Wanderers on 29 December, Kieran Richardson, Kenwyne Jones and Daryl Murphy were the scorers. ### January Sunderland began the new year with a 1–0 away loss to Blackburn Rovers on 1 January. Dean Whitehead had the chance to put Sunderland in the lead, but missed his penalty kick. Minutes later, Blackburn won a penalty of their own; Benni McCarthy converted the penalty before Dwight Yorke was sent off late on. Jonny Evans returned to Sunderland on loan for the second time for the remainder of season from Manchester United. Sunderland met Wigan Athletic in the FA Cup third round as they lost 3–0 on 5 January. On 12 January Kieran Richardson scored a double to beat Portsmouth 2–0 at the Stadium of Light. Sunderland made their first permanent signing of the January transfer window when Frenchman Jean-Yves Mvoto signed from Paris Saint-Germain on 15 January for an undisclosed fee. Mvoto said "This is a big opportunity for me, I'm pleased to be at Sunderland." On 19 January Sunderland played Tottenham Hotspur. An early Aaron Lennon goal saw Spurs take the lead, and Robbie Keane's 100th goal for the club in the 90th minute won the game for Tottenham at White Hart Lane. Phil Bardsley signed for the club on 22 January from Manchester United for £2 million, the next day Rade Prica also signed for the club, from AaB Aalborg for £2 million. New signing Rade Prica scored a goal on his debut for Sunderland to wrap up a 2–0 win at home to Birmingham City on 29 January. Daryl Murphy scored the first goal in the 15th minute. Andy Reid signed for the club on the last day of the January transfer window deadline from Charlton Athletic for £4 million. ### February Sunderland had a poor start to the month, as they lost 3–0 away to Liverpool on 2 February. They had two penalty appeals turned down, prompting Roy Keane to comment, "We felt they were penalties. But I didn't feel we were going to get those decisions today." Following a recent heart attack in a League Cup game between Leicester City and Nottingham Forest, Clive Clarke had his Sunderland contract terminated on 5 February due to the event while on loan at Leicester. Sunderland bounced back from the defeat to Liverpool with a 2–0 win against Wigan Athletic on 9 February. Dickson Etuhu put them in the lead before Daryl Murphy scored a 25-yard strike in off the bar. Sunderland, however, lost their next game 1–0 to Portsmouth on 23 February at Fratton Park. ### March On 1 March Sunderland drew 0–0 away to Derby County. Michael Chopra could have put the team in the lead, only for it to be ruled out for offside. Sunderland's manager said, "He [Chopra] was clearly onside and we are always told that the advantage goes with the attacking player." An Andrew Johnson goal on the verge of half time helped Everton to a 1–0 win at the Stadium of Light on 8 March. Sunderland lost consecutive games when Chelsea beat them 1–0 on 15 March due to a Didier Drogba goal. Andy Reid came close to putting Sunderland in front as his free kick was plucked from the top corner by Carlo Cudicini. Sunderland's first away win of the season came on 22 March when they won 1–0 at Villa Park against Aston Villa. An 83rd minute Michael Chopra scored the winning goal for Sunderland. A 2–1 win at home to West Ham United on 29 March helped Sunderland to their first consecutive wins of the season. Kenwyne Jones' first goal since late December levelled the score at 1–1 and a 95th minute Andy Reid goal won the game. ### April A 3–1 away win to Fulham on 5 April helped Sunderland to nine points in three games, as goals came from Danny Collins, Michael Chopra and Kenwyne Jones. They lost 2–1 at home to Manchester City on 12 April. Manchester City were awarded a dubious penalty given by Mike Riley, and Elano converted it in the 79 minute. Dean Whitehead equalised with a near post volley after Andy Reid crossed the ball. Manchester City, however, still had time to win the game and Darius Vassell scored an 89th minute scuffed shot to beat Craig Gordon. On the return fixture of the Tyne and Wear derby on 19 April Sunderland were defeated 2–0 away to Newcastle United. The next game was another derby for Sunderland, this time the Tees–Wear derby on 26 April. Sunderland won the game 3–2 at home to Middlesbrough, with goals from Danny Higginbotham, Michael Chopra and an Emanuel Pogatetz own goal, thus securing their safety and staying in the Premier League. ### May After ensuring their own safety, Sunderland travelled to Bolton Wanderers on 3 May, who were not yet safe from relegation. Sunderland lost the game 2–0 at the Reebok Stadium. On 11 May, the last game of the Premier League season, Sunderland played Arsenal at the Stadium of Light. Arsenal won the game 1–0 through a Theo Walcott goal. Sunderland also recorded their highest home attendance of the season, when the match was watched by 47,802 people. Sunderland finished the season with 39 points in 15th place, with Kenwyne Jones as top goal scorer with seven goals. Left-back Danny Collins was named as Sunderland's player of the season, while on-loan centre-back Jonny Evans was named as the club's young player of the season for the second season running. They finished with an average home attendance of 42,728 which was the fifth highest in the league. ## Match results ### Legend ### Pre-season ### Premier League #### League table #### Results summary #### Results per matchday ### FA Cup ### League Cup ## Player details Sources ## Transfers ### In ### Out ### Loans in ### Loans out ## See also - 2007–08 in English football

Dennis Howard Green

English philologist

Dennis Howard Green FBA (26 June 1922 – 5 December 2008) was an English philologist who was Schröder Professor of German at the University of Cambridge. He specialized in Germanic philology, particularly the study of Medieval German literature, Germanic languages and Germanic antiquity. Green was considered one of the world's leading authorities in these subjects, on which he was the author of numerous influential works. ## Early life and education Dennis Howard Green was born in Bournemouth, England, on 26 June 1922, the son of Herbert Maurice Green and Agnes Edith Flemming. Just before World War II, at the age of eighteen, Green enrolled at Trinity College, Cambridge to study German. During the war, Green temporarily abandoned his studies to serve in the Royal Tank Regiment, where he rose to the rank of major and participated in the Normandy landings. During this time it is probable that he was a member of British intelligence. During the war, Green was once arrested for having spoken Dutch with a German accent, and in May 1945, he organised a military transport to Halle to enable him to acquire a complete set of Niemeyer medieval texts in exchange for rations. The discipline and order which Green became accustomed to in the military would become key characteristics of his future career. Returning to his studies at Cambridge after the war, Green gained his B.A. at Cambridge in 1946. He developed a strong scholarly interest in Germanic philology and Medieval German literature. Unable to conduct his future studies in war-ravaged Germany as he preferred, Green opted for the University of Basel, where he gained his Ph.D. in 1949 under the supervision of Friedrich Ranke. Ranke, who had been dismissed and exiled by the Nazis, was a known authority on Gottfried von Strassburg's Tristan. Green's Ph.D. thesis was a comparative study of the style of Konrad von Würzburg's Der trojanische Krieg and Gottfried's Tristan. Along with Frederick Pickering, Green became one of a selected group of elite British Germanists with qualifications from leading German-language universities. ## Early career Green was Lecturer in German at the University of St Andrews from 1949 to 1950. He was elected to a Research Fellowship at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1949, which he continued to hold for the rest of his life. Green gained an M.A. at Cambridge in 1950, and was University Lecturer in German at Cambridge from 1950 to 1966. A polyglot, Green spoke not only English and German, but also Portuguese, Romanian, Chinese and other languages, and was thoroughly acquainted with medieval languages and literatures, both Germanic and Romance. This enabled him to draw upon a wealth of sources for his works. From 1956 to 1979 Green was Chair of the Department of Other Languages at Cambridge. Apart from German, it covered a wide variety of languages, including Dutch, Portuguese, Hungarian and Greek. Green's The Carolingian Lord (1965) was a semantic study of forms of address for sovereign authority in Old High German. It drew upon a wide array of sources, including Old Saxon, Old English, Gothic, Old Norse and Latin. It established him as an international authority on medieval German studies. Aided by the widespread acclaim which The Carolingian Lord received, Green was from 1966 to 1979 Chair of Modern Languages at Cambridge. ## Schröder Professor of German In 1979 Green was elected Schröder Professor of German at Cambridge, succeeding Leonard Wilson Forster. He ran his Department of German with a firm hand, but was known as a brilliant teacher for those who were able to keep up with his pace. Among his more notable students was David Yeandle. Combined with his duties at Cambridge, Green was a productive writer. In 1975, he published all of the twenty book reviews for the Modern Language Review, which subsequently gave rise to Lex Green, whereby the editors of this journal were limited to permitting the publication of three reviews per person a year. In his Approaches to Wolfram von Eschenbach (1978), which he wrote with his colleague Leslie Peter Johnson, and The art of recognition in Wolfram's Parzival (1982), Green made a significant contribution to the study of Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival. Parzival was one of Green's favourite works, and he made a point of reading it once a year. His Irony in the Medieval Romance (1979) examined a vast amount of textual and literary sources of medieval romance from a comparative perspective, and is considered a pioneering work. Green was one of few medieval Germanists who were thoroughly acquainted with both Medieval German and Medieval French literature, and eagerly studied the two from a comparative perspective. He notably analyzed Medieval German literature within the whole range of the Germanic languages, and in the context of the Christianization of the Germanic peoples. Unlike many other Germanists, Green consistently wrote his monographs on Medieval German literature in English, which made them available to a broader audience. ## Retirement from Cambridge Green retired from Cambridge in 1989, and was elected a Fellow of the British Academy the same year. He was succeeded by Roger Paulin. Green was along with Arthur Thomas Hatto the only medieval Germanist who was a Fellow of the Academy, and became an influential figure there. His retirement ushered in a wave of scholarly productivity. His Medieval Listening and Reading (1994) examined orality and literacy in Medieval Europe. In 1998, Green returned to his scholarly roots by publishing Language and history in the early Germanic world. It examines major aspects of the culture of the early Germanic peoples, including the subjects of religion, law, kinship, warfare and kingship. Drawing upon the evidence from no less than twelve Germanic languages, it also examines contacts early Germanic peoples had with their non-Germanic neighbours, and their contacts with Christianity. Intended for both a scholarly and general readership, it gained a wide audience. Green was a member of several learned societies, including Modern Humanities Research Association and the International Association for Germanic Studies (IVG), of which he at one point served as Vice-President. He was a founding member of an interdisciplinary group of scholars which met annually in San Marino to discuss the Germanic peoples and languages, and he edited a collection of essays by this group published in 2003. Green continued writing books and book reviews well into his 80s. His monographs from this time, such as The Beginnings of Medieval Romance: fact and fiction 1150–1220 (2002) and Women Readers in the Middle Ages (2007), covered topics recently made relevant by critical theory, such as reading, listening, orality, literacy and the role of women. ## Death and legacy Green died on 5 December 2008. His final monograph, Women and marriage in German medieval romance (2009), which he had completed a few weeks before his death, was published posthumously by Cambridge University Press. At the time of his death, Green was working on a draft for a book on authorship in medieval literature. For more than half a century, Green was one of the most distinguished scholars of Cambridge, and he has been described as one of the last representatives of the so-called Cambridge tradition, dating back to the nineteenth century, in which the study of literature proceeded from philology and scholars of literature were thoroughly trained in historical linguistics. Following the death of Green, there remained few, if any, scholars in the United Kingdom with the broad competence in Germanic linguistics and philology which he had. He was largely responsible for making Cambridge the pre-eminent British institution on the study of Medieval German literature. After his death the D. H. Green Fund was established at the University of Cambridge "for the encouragement of medieval German studies". ## Personal life Green married Dorothy Warren in 1947. They had one daughter, and divorced in 1972. On 17 November 1972 he married Margaret Parry, who died in 1997. In 2001 Green married Sarah Redpath. A man of great wanderlust, Green made many exotic journeys during his life, including travelling the Silk Road and Machu Picchu. ## See also - Brian O. Murdoch - Winfred P. Lehmann - Hermann Reichert - Otto Höfler - Georg Baesecke - Jan de Vries (philologist) ## Selected works

Vito Cascio Ferro

Member of the Sicilian Mafia

Vito Cascio Ferro or Vito Cascioferro (; 22 January 1862 – 20 September 1943), also known as Don Vito, was a prominent member of the Sicilian Mafia. He also operated for several years in the United States. He is often depicted as the "boss of bosses", although such a position does not exist in the loose structure of Cosa Nostra in Sicily. Cascio Ferro's life is full of myth and mystery. He became a legend even when he was alive, and that legend is partially responsible for creating the image of the gallant gentleman capomafia (Mafia boss). He is widely considered to have been responsible for the 1909 murder of Joseph Petrosino, head of the New York City police department's Italian Squad. However, he was never convicted of the crime. With the rise of Fascism in Italy, his untouchable position declined. He was arrested and sentenced to death in 1930 and would remain in jail until his death. There is some confusion about the exact year of his death, but according to La Stampa, Cascio Ferro died on 20 September 1943, in the prison on the island of Procida ## Early life Although many sources have identified Cascio Ferro as a native of the rural town of Bisacquino, where he was raised, he was actually born in the city of Palermo, on 22 January 1862. His parents, Accursio Cascio Ferro and Santa Ippolito, were poor and illiterate. The family moved to Bisacquino when his father became a campiere (an armed guard) with the local landlord, Baron Antonino Inglese, a notorious usurper of state-owned land. The position of campiere often involved Mafiosi. According to other sources, at an early age, the family moved to Sambuca Zabut, where he lived for approximately 24 years before relocating to Bisacquino, his recognized power base in the Mafia. Cascio Ferro received no formal education. When still young, he married a teacher from Bisacquino, Brigida Giaccone, who instructed him how to read and write. He was inducted into the Mafia in the 1880s. He worked as a revenue collector as a young adult, using the position as a cover to carry out his protection racket. His criminal record began with an assault in 1884 and progressed through extortion, arson, and menacing, and eventually to the kidnapping of the 19-year-old Baroness Clorinda Peritelli di Valpetrosa in June 1898, for which he received a three-year sentence. ## Revolutionary mafioso While incarcerated for attempted extortion, Cascio Ferro was recruited into the Fasci Siciliani (Sicilian Leagues), a popular movement of democratic and socialist inspiration, by Bernardino Verro, the president of the League in Corleone. The Leagues needed muscle in their social struggle of 1893–94. Cascio Ferro became the president of the Fascio of Bisacquino. In January 1894, the Fasci were outlawed and brutally repressed on the orders of Prime Minister Francesco Crispi. Many leaders were put in jail; Cascio Ferro fled to Tunis for a year. After serving his sentence for his role in the peasant unrest, Cascio Ferro returned to a position of social power and pressured authorities in Palermo to put him in charge of granting emigration permits in the district of Corleone. According to Mafia historian Salvatore Lupo, Cascio Ferro was involved in clandestine emigration networks. ## In the United States Sentenced for the kidnapping of the Baroness of Valpetrosa in 1898, Cascio Ferro was released in 1900. To escape special police surveillance in Sicily, he sailed to the United States and arrived in New York City at the end of September 1901. He lived for about 21⁄2 years in New York, acting as an importer of fruits and foods. He also spent six months in New Orleans. On 21 May 1902, Cascio Ferro was arrested in connection with a large counterfeiting operation in Hackensack, New Jersey. He was arrested at the barbershop of Giuseppe Romano on First Avenue, from which the counterfeit money had been distributed. Cascio Ferro managed to escape conviction—his alibi was that he worked at a paper mill—while the other gang members were tried and sentenced. In New York, he became associated with the Morello gang in Harlem, headed by Giuseppe Morello and Ignazio Lupo. In September 1904, he returned to Sicily shortly after police sergeant Joseph Petrosino of the New York City Police Department ordered his arrest for involvement with the Barrel Murder; his application for American citizenship was consequently blocked. Petrosino traced him to New Orleans, where Cascio Ferro had gone to escape detection, but he had already slipped away. Some observers consider Cascio Ferro as the one who brought the extortion practice of "continuing protection" in exchange for protection money (pizzo) from Sicily to the United States. "You have to skim the cream off the milk without breaking the bottle," he summarized the system. "Don't throw people into bankruptcy with ridiculous demands for money. Offer them protection instead, help them to make their business prosperous, and not only will they be happy to pay but they'll kiss your hands out of gratitude." ## Back in Sicily Back in Sicily, Cascio Ferro rose to the position of a local notable. He was the capo elettore (ward heeler) of Domenico De Michele Ferrantelli, the mayor of Burgio and member of Parliament for the district of Bivona, as well as on good terms with the Baron Inglese. He exercised influence over several Mafia cosche (clans) in the towns of Bisacquino, Burgio, Campofiorito, Chiusa Sclafani, Contessa Entellina, Corleone, and Villafranca Sicula, as well as some districts in the city of Palermo. A semi-factual and romantic portrait by journalist Luigi Barzini contributed much to form the legend of Don Vito: > Don Vito brought the organization to its highest perfection without undue recourse to violence. The Mafia leader who scatters corpses all over the island in order to achieve his goal is considered as inept as the statesman who has to wage aggressive wars. Don Vito ruled and inspired fear mainly by the use of his great qualities and natural ascendancy. His awe-inspiring appearance helped him. ... His manners were princely, his demeanour humble but majestic. He was loved by all. Being very generous by nature, he never refused a request for aid and dispensed millions in loans, gifts and general philanthropy. He would personally go out of his way to redress a wrong. When he started a journey, every major, dressed in his best clothes, awaited him at the entrance of his village, kissed his hands, and paid homage, as if he were a king. And he was a king of sorts: under his reign peace and order were observed, the Mafia peace, of course, which was not what the official law of the Kingdom of Italy would have imposed, but people did not stop to draw too fine a distinction. Police reports described Cascio Ferro as notoriously associated with the "high" Mafia, leading a life of luxury, going to the theater, cafés, gambling high sums at the Circolo dei Civili – a club for gentlemen, reserved for those with pretensions to education and elite status. ## The Petrosino murder Cascio Ferro is considered to be the mastermind behind the murder of New York policeman and head of the Italian Squad, Joseph Petrosino, on 12 March 1909. He was shot and killed in Piazza Marina in Palermo; two men were seen running from the crime scene. Petrosino had gone to Sicily to gather information from local police files to help deport Italian gangsters from New York as illegal immigrants. The two men were very much aware of the danger to each other's survival; Petrosino carried a note describing Cascio Ferro as “a terrible criminal”, while Cascio Ferro had a photograph of the police officer. Many accounts claim that Cascio Ferro personally killed Petrosino. Legend has it that Cascio Ferro excused himself from a dinner party among the high society at the home of his political patron De Michele Ferrantelli, took a carriage (that of his host according to some), and drove to Piazza Marina in Palermo's city centre. He and Petrosino engaged in a brief conversation, then Cascio Ferro killed Petrosino and returned to join the dinner again. Historical reconstructions have dismissed this version and cannot locate Cascio Ferro at the scene of the crime. News of the murder spread fast in U.S. newspapers and a swell of anti-Italian sentiment spread across New York. Cascio Ferro pleaded his innocence and provided an alibi for the entire period when Petrosino was assassinated. He stayed in the house of De Michele Ferrantelli in Burgio. However, the alibi provided by De Michele Ferrantelli was suspicious, taking into account the relation between the two. Moreover, while in jail after his arrest and life sentence in 1930, Cascio Ferro apparently claimed that he had killed Petrosino. According to writer Arrigo Petacco in his 1972 book on Joe Petrosino, Cascio Ferro said: "In my whole life I have killed only one person, and I did that disinterestedly ... Petrosino was a brave adversary, and deserved better than a shameful death at the hands of some hired cut-throat." A report by Baldassare Ceola, the police commissioner of Palermo, concluded that the crime had probably been carried out by Mafiosi Carlo Costantino and Antonino Passananti under Cascio Ferro's direction. Evidence was thin, however, and the case was effectively closed when in July 1911 the Palermo Court of Appeals discharged Cascio Ferro, as well as Costantino and Passananti, due to insufficient evidence to send them to trial. Petrosino's murder was never solved. Nevertheless, Costantino and Passananti were identified as the most likely assassins. Costantino died in the late 1930s and Passananti, in March 1969. In 2014, more than a century after the assassination, the Italian police overheard a tapped phone conversation in which a sibling claimed that Paolo Palazzotto had been the killer on the orders of Cascio Ferro. Palazzotto had been arrested after the shooting, but had been released for lack of evidence. In a recorded conversation during an (unrelated) investigation by Italian police the suspected Mafia boss, Domenico Palazzotto, told other mafiosi that his great-uncle had killed Petrosino on behalf of Cascio Ferro. ## Downfall In 1923, the sub-prefect of Corleone warned the Ministry of Interior that Cascio Ferro was "one of the worst offenders, quite capable of committing any crime." In May 1925, he was arrested as the instigator of a murder. He was able to be released on bail, as usual. However, with the rise of Fascism, his reputation and immunity were declining. In May 1926, Prefect Cesare Mori, under orders from Fascist leader Benito Mussolini to destroy the Mafia, arrested Cascio Ferro in a big round-up in the area that included Corleone and Bisacquino. More than 150 people were arrested. Cascio Ferro's godson asked the local landlord to intervene, but he refused: "Times have changed", was the reply. He was indicted for participation in 20 murders, eight attempted murders, five robberies with violence, 37 acts of extortion, and 53 other offences including physical violence and threats. He was sentenced to life imprisonment on 27 June 1930, on the old murder charge. He remained silent during the trial. Cascio Ferro had been arrested some 69 times before and always had been acquitted, but this time it was different. After hearing the sentence the president of the court asked Cascio Ferro if he had something to say in his defense. Cascio Ferro stood up and said: "Gentlemen, as you have been unable to obtain proof of any of the numerous crimes I have committed, you have been reduced to condemning me for the only one I never committed." The "iron prefect", as Mori was known, wanted to give maximum publicity to the event. He had posters printed with pictures of Cascio Ferro and the text of the court sentence. ## Death and legacy There is uncertainty about the exact date of his death. The most common account is that he died of natural causes in 1945 while serving his sentence at Ucciardone prison in Palermo. Italian author Petacco found evidence for his 1972 book on Joe Petrosino that Cascio Ferro may have died of dehydration in the summer of 1943. According to Petacco, Cascio Ferro was left behind in his cell by prison guards while other inmates were evacuated in advance of the Allied invasion of Sicily. However, according to historian Giuseppe Carlo Marino, Cascio Ferro was transferred to another prison in Pozzuoli in 1940, and the octogenarian was left to die during an Allied bombardment of that prison in 1943 (other sources mention 1942). According to La Stampa, Cascio Ferro died on 20 September 1943, in the prison on the island of Procida. For years, a sentence believed to be carved by Cascio Ferro was legible on the wall of his Ucciardone cell: "Prison, sickness, and necessity, reveal the real heart of a man." Inmates considered occupying Don Vito's former cell a great honour. Historians consider this account a legend rather than fact.

The Allman Brothers Band (album)

Album by The Allman Brothers Band

The Allman Brothers Band is the debut studio album by American rock band the Allman Brothers Band. It was released in the United States by Atco Records' subsidiary Capricorn on November 4, 1969, and produced by Adrian Barber. Formed in 1969, the Allman Brothers Band came together following various musical pursuits by each individual member. Guitarist and bandleader Duane Allman moved to Jacksonville, Florida where he led large jam sessions with his new band, one he had envisioned as having two guitarists and two drummers. After rounding out the lineup with the addition of his brother, Gregg Allman, the band moved to Macon, Georgia, where they were to be one of the premiere acts on Capricorn. The album was recorded and mixed in two weeks at Atlantic Studios in New York City. Much of its material was premiered live over the preceding months and combines blues, jazz and country music to varying degrees. It includes re-workings of "Trouble No More" and "Don't Want You No More," as well as notable originals such as "Dreams", which highlighted the band's jazz influence, and "Whipping Post", which became a crowd favorite. Although the group was arranged to work with producer Tom Dowd (whose credits included Cream and John Coltrane), he was unavailable, and they instead recorded with house engineer Adrian Barber. The album's artwork was photographed in Macon and surrounding areas. The record initially received a poor commercial response, charting in the lower levels of Billboard's Top 200 Pop Albums chart. Despite this, the album received critical acclaim from publications such as Rolling Stone, who called it "subtle, and honest, and moving." Following the band's increased fame in the early 1970s, this album and its follow-up, Idlewild South (1970), were repackaged into the compilation album Beginnings. Owing to the band's dislike of Barber's original mix, their debut album was remixed by Tom Dowd. In 1973, Beginnings was certified gold for sales of 500,000 copies, according to the Recording Industry Association of America. In 2016 a Deluxe version of the album was released by Mercury Records that contained the "Original Stereo Mix by Adrian Barber" from 1969 and the "Beginnings" Stereo Mix by Tom Dowd from 1973. ## Background The Allman Brothers Band was formed in March 1969, during large jam sessions with various musicians in Jacksonville, Florida. Duane Allman and Jai Johanny Johanson (Jaimoe) had recently moved from Muscle Shoals, where Duane participated in session work at FAME Studios for artists such as Aretha Franklin, King Curtis, and Wilson Pickett, with whom he recorded a cover of the Beatles' "Hey Jude" that went to number 23 on the national charts. Duane began to put together a new band, and invited bassist Berry Oakley to jam with the new group; the pair had met in a Jacksonville, Florida club some time earlier, and became quick friends. The group had immediate chemistry, and Duane's vision for a "different" band — one with two lead guitarists and two drummers — began evolving. Meanwhile, Phil Walden, the manager of the late Otis Redding and several other R&B acts, was looking to expand into rock acts. Rick Hall became frustrated with the group's recording methods, and offered the tracks recorded and their contract to Walden and Jerry Wexler of Atlantic Records, who purchased them for \$10,000. (\$82,244 in 2023). Walden intended the upcoming group to be the centerpiece of his new Atlantic-distributed label, Capricorn. After the duo moved to Jacksonville, they began to put together large jam sessions. Dickey Betts had played in Oakley's previous band, the Second Coming, and became the group's second lead guitarist, while Butch Trucks, with whom Duane and Gregg had cut a demo less than a year prior, fulfilled the role of the second drummer. The Second Coming's Reese Wynans played keyboards, and Duane, Oakley and Betts all shared vocal duties. The unnamed group began to perform free shows in Willow Branch Park in Jacksonville, with an ever-changing, rotating cast of musicians. Duane felt strongly his brother should be the vocalist of the new group (which effectively eliminated Wynans' position, as Gregg also played keyboards). Gregg accepted the invitation and entered rehearsal on March 26, 1969, when the group was rehearsing "Trouble No More" by Muddy Waters. Although initially intimidated by the musicians, Duane pressured his brother "into singing [his] guts out." Four days later, the group made their début at the Jacksonville Armory. Although many names were suggested including Beelzebub, the six-piece eventually decided on the Allman Brothers Band. The group moved to Macon, Georgia by May 1, where Walden was establishing Capricorn Records. The band performed locally, as well as eighty miles north in Atlanta's Piedmont Park, and practiced at the newly minted Capricorn nearly each day. The group forged a strong brotherhood, spending countless hours rehearsing, consuming psychedelic drugs, and hanging out in Rose Hill Cemetery, where they would write songs. Their first performances outside the South came on May 30 and 31 in Boston, opening for the Velvet Underground. In need of more material, the group remade old blues numbers like "Trouble No More" and "One Way Out", in addition to improvised jams such as "Mountain Jam." Gregg, who had struggled to write in the past, became the band's sole songwriter, composing songs such as "Whipping Post" and "Black-Hearted Woman." Much of the material collected on The Allman Brothers Band was written between the period of May to August 1969 and premiered live. According to Johanson, the group gauged crowd reaction to the numbers and adjusted the songs accordingly. "Before we went into the studio, we had a very clear idea of what we were all trying to do musically and that it was unique, totally different from anything else that anyone was playing," said Betts. "From the earliest rehearsals, we all had the same mind-set." ## Recording and production The band set off from Macon for New York City in August 1969, and faced setbacks along the way, such as their equipment truck breaking down in South Carolina. In addition, they had arranged to work with Cream producer Tom Dowd, who was unavailable; Atlantic Records house engineer Adrian Barber recorded the sessions instead, and was credited as producer. Recalled Dowd, "I was supposed to have done the first album with the band up in New York, but some way or other I got detoured. Jerry Wexler made a deal to keep them in the studio for three or four days when they were supposed to be with me." The band had no commercial success in mind, having had troublesome experiences individually in the past with producers and labels that pushed for radio hits. The band felt that with time they would develop a small, devoted following and be strong enough to collect \$3–4,000 (about \$25-33,000 in 2023) per night. The Allman Brothers Band was recorded and mixed in two weeks, and according to biographer Alan Paul, "virtually no outtakes exist from the sessions." The band had performed their songs countless times in the preceding months and "[had] them down cold." Numerous artists, including Ray Charles, had recorded on the studio's house Hammond organ, but Gregg Allman set up his own instead, feeling unable to play on the same instrument as Charles. A red light on the recording board would go on when the band began recording, and it made Gregg Allman nervous; in order to perform takes as needed, he unscrewed the light. The two-week booking was initially designed for laying down basic tracks, with overdubs following later, but the group ended up cutting the entire record in six non-consecutive days. They first entered Atlantic Studios that Sunday night (August 3) to "get sounds"; the band laid down the album's openers, "Don’t Want You No More" and "It's Not My Cross to Bear", as well as "Dreams," which the band set aside. "Dreams" had previously been recorded as a demo at Macon's new Capiricorn Studios in April. On August 5, the band cut "Black Hearted Woman" and "Trouble No More", and the group completed "Whipping Post" after another day off on August 7 (it took the entirety of that day's session to complete the recording, despite the fact that they had performed the number countless times). The next day, the band attempted to record "Statesboro Blues," which was the song that influenced Duane Allman to begin slide playing. Unable to achieve the same energy as it would performed live, the band scrapped the recording and session for the day. "Every Hungry Woman" was recorded on August 11, and their last day in the studio on Tuesday, August 12 produced a final version of "Dreams". Johanson remembered the process as only taking four days; "We went in there, played our asses off, and that was it; we were done in four days and they spent the rest of the time mixing," said Johanson. Although Butch Trucks recalls the entire ensemble as comfortable with studio recording, another source claims that Johanson, Betts and Oakley were unfamiliar with studio recording, but nevertheless not intimidated. "They were out of their element in New York, hustled by a chap with an English accent," said Dowd of Barber. He spoke of Barber's direction as "perhaps intimidating, or push-push, shove-shove. 'Do what the guy says and let’s get out of here.'" "Dreams", which later gained regard among band members as the high point of the record, was the only song in which the group got stuck, due to Duane Allman's displeasure with his guitar solo. The performance captured on record came when Duane instructed the other members to turn off all the lights in the studio after the day's session, and sat in a corner beside his amp and baffle. Allman played slide guitar (which was not employed in previous attempts) and improvised the overdubbed performance, bringing all of the members to tears. "It was unbelievable," recalled Trucks. "It was just magic. It’s always been that the greatest music we played was from out of nowhere, that it wasn’t practiced, planned, or discussed." During their tenure in New York, the group made their debut over three non-consecutive nights at Ungano's in Manhattan, a club that would eventually become regarded within the ensemble as their "second home." Gregg Allman felt the band had rushed through their debut recording and was later unhappy with his vocal sound on the record; "They were recorded with the regular old tape echo "Heartbreak Hotel" setting," he recalled. Barber disagreed with this assessment, and, not wanting to cause any quarrels, Allman backed away. ## Composition The songs on the album were largely arranged after Gregg Allman joined the band in Jacksonville, Florida in March 1969. Most of the songs were devised from longer, impromptu jam sessions. The group's style evolved from a mix of jazz, country music, blues and rock, which was the result of each individual member turning the others onto their particular interests. Trucks introduced Johanson to the Grateful Dead and the Rolling Stones; Johanson likewise introduced the group to jazz musicians such as Miles Davis and John Coltrane, and Betts did the same with country music and Chuck Berry. Duane Allman had previously listened to Davis and Coltrane before Johanson's suggestion, and his two favorite songs — Coltrane's version of "My Favorite Things" and Miles Davis' "All Blues" — were the basis for the majority of the band's modal jamming, "without a lot of chord changes." The album opens with an instrumental, a cover of Spencer Davis' "Don't Want You No More," which had previously been employed on set lists of the Second Coming, Oakley and Betts' former band. Allman and Betts' guitars perform in unison on a five-note melody while Johanson concentrates on his hi-hat, and the song includes an organ solo. The song contains two guitar solos, with the latter "[coming] in behind the first one for a darting buildup that sound[s] like something taken from Brahms." It segues into a "lazy blues shuffle" titled "It's Not My Cross to Bear," which Allman had written in Los Angeles for a former lover. "Black Hearted Woman," also penned on the same subject, follows, and the album returns to a blues-based sound with a cover of "Trouble No More," featuring Duane's debut bottleneck guitar performance. Songs such as "Black Hearted Woman" and "Every Hungry Woman" were written about Allman's experiences with a girl named Stacy in Los Angeles. Among the most changed were two songs that would become the basis for two of the Allman Brothers' most famed epic concert numbers: "Dreams" and "Whipping Post". Oakley "played a huge role in the band’s arrangements," changing numbers such as "Whipping Post" from a ballad structure to a more hard-rocking song. "Dreams" developed from a jam in which the band toyed with the theme to the film 2001: A Space Odyssey, and has been referred to by Johanson as Coltrane's "My Favorite Things" with lyrics. Johanson's drum fills were pulled from Jimmy Cobb's performance on "All Blues"; he later commented that he "did a lot of copying, but only from the best." "Dreams" begins with "intricate, subdued drums playing under a soft organ with only the hint of guitars before Gregg begins singing about disillusionment and broken dreams." The final song on the record, "Whipping Post," was written shortly after Allman returned to Jacksonville. The song came to him shortly before bed, but he was unable to acquire a pencil and paper to write down his ideas, as there was a child asleep in the room and he could not turn on the lights. Turning to his next best alternative, he struck two kitchen matches (one for light and one, later blown out, as a charcoal writing utensil) and wrote down his lyrics on a bedside ironing board. "Whipping Post" was similar in composition to "Dreams" in its first incarnation, with Oakley later creating the heavy bassline that starts off the track. Duane and Betts take quick solos before the track builds to an "anguished climax," leading to Gregg Allman's solo voice, singing the song's refrain: "Good Lord, I feel like I'm dyin'." Allman had no idea the intro was written in 11/4 time — "I just saw it as three sets of three, and then two to jump on the next three sets with" — until his brother pointed it out for him. "My brother told me — I guess the day I wrote it — he said, 'That's good, man. I didn’t know you understood 11/4.' Of course I said something intelligent like, 'What's 11/4?' Duane just said, 'Okay, dumbass, I'll try to draw it up on paper for you.'" Gregg Allman's lyrical contributions to the band's debut album have been called "remarkably mature lyrical conceptions for such a young man, expertly executed in a minimalist, almost haiku style." Allman's inspiration came from his time in Los Angeles as a part of Hour Glass, "getting fucked by different land sharks in the business," experiencing great frustration among fierce competition. The traditional blues songs were, likewise, regarded as "songs that were so good they couldn’t be left off the album." On the writing of the record, Allman wrote in his memoir My Cross to Bear, "I wrote most of that whole first record in that one week. I had total peace of mind. L.A. and all its changes didn’t even cross my mind. I felt like I was starting all over, which I was." Most of the songs on the album were written at Rose Hill Cemetery. ## Artwork The cover for the album was taken by photographer Stephen Paley. Paley had gotten to know Duane Allman during photo shoots for Atlantic. Paley stayed for "about a week" in Macon with the band, partying with the group. They approached any areas about the town that appeared photogenic, such as "fields, old houses, railroad tracks, [and] the cemetery." The front album cover photo was taken at the entrance of the College House (now owned by Mercer University) next door at 315 College Street. The back cover photo of the album was taken at the Bond Tomb at Rose Hill Cemetery, located at 1091 Riverside Drive in Macon. The gatefold cover of the vinyl LP features the band posing nude in a brook. The shot was original manager Phil Walden's idea, and the brook was on his brother Alan's property. Alan later recalled, "The [inner sleeve] photo was taken in Round Oak, Georgia, down behind my log cabin there, which is also the back of Otis Redding's Big O Ranch". Rolling Stone editor Jann Wenner was present with Boz Scaggs, whom he was producing at the time. They brought bubbles to cover themselves up, but the bubbles were washed away by the stream. Trucks had sliced his leg open earlier that day, requiring thirteen stitches, and was unable to get in the water; he is standing behind Oakley in the shot. Walden suggested the band take a few shots standing full-frontal; the band was reluctant but he assured them they would never see the light of day. At their first performance at the Fillmore East that December, Trucks discovered the full-frontal shots were printed in a broadsheet alternative newspaper. Paley later said of the cover shoot, "I never liked a band more. I was one of them. It was like being a rock star. I hung out with a lot of rock stars but no one ever did that to the same extent. There was just an ease to the whole thing. They really were the kindest, most fun band I ever worked with." ## Release and reception The Allman Brothers Band was released in November 1969 through Atco and Capricorn Records. Atco was a subsidiary label of Atlantic Records, and Walden had not even created a logo for Capricorn Records; instead, the LP featured an Atco label with a "barely noticeable" line reading "Capricorn Records Series." The record received a poor commercial response, selling fewer than 35,000 copies upon initial release. Executives suggested to Walden that he relocate the band to New York or Los Angeles to "acclimate" them to the industry. "They wanted us to act "like a rock band" and we just told them to fuck themselves," remembered Trucks. For their part, the members of the band remained optimistic, electing to stay in the South. "Everyone told us we’d fall by the wayside down there," said Gregg Allman, but the collaboration between the band and Capricorn Records "transformed Macon from this sleepy little town into a very hip, wild, and crazy place filled with bikers and rockers." The band played shows along the East Coast in December 1969, attempting to kick-start the record onto Billboard's Top 200 Pop Albums chart. In January, the band performed at the Electric Factory in Philadelphia and the Fillmore West in San Francisco before debuting at the Whisky a Go Go in Los Angeles, representing the Allmans' first engagement there since their days in the Hour Glass. On the third day of their Whisky residency, the album logged at number 188 on the top 200, "enough to prove that the ABB was more than a regional outfit." Capricorn issued "Black Hearted Woman" as the album's single, edited down to nearly two minutes shorter in an effort to place on top 40 radio. Despite Ed Och's rave review in Billboard, the single failed to register on pop radio. Rather than employing the standard cover shot for the advertising campaign, marketing rather emphasized the nude group shot, alongside a quote from Och's Billboard review, describing the group as a "bad bunch of electric Southern longhairs." Rolling Stone's Lester Bangs called the album "consistently [...] subtle, and honest, and moving," describing the band as "a white group who've transcended their schooling to produce a volatile blues-rock sound of pure energy, inspiration and love." A retrospective review from Bruce Eder at Allmusic stated it "might be the best debut album ever delivered by an American blues band, a bold, powerful, hard-edged, soulful essay in electric blues with a native Southern ambience." ## Track listing All songs written by Gregg Allman, except where noted. ## Personnel All credits adapted from liner notes. The Allman Brothers Band - Gregg Allman – organ, lead vocals - Duane Allman – slide and lead guitars - Dickey Betts – lead guitar - Berry Oakley – bass guitar, backing vocals - Jai Johanny Johanson – drums, congas - Butch Trucks – drums, percussion Production - Adrian Barber – production, engineer - Robert Kingsbury – design - Stephen Paley – photography ## Charts ### Weekly charts

Tetrasomy X

Chromosomal disorder with 4 X chromosomes

Tetrasomy X, also known as 48,XXXX, is a chromosomal disorder in which a female has four, rather than two, copies of the X chromosome. It is associated with intellectual disability of varying severity, characteristic "coarse" facial features, heart defects, and skeletal anomalies such as increased height, clinodactyly (incurved pinky fingers), and radioulnar synostosis (fusion of the long bones in the forearm). Tetrasomy X is a rare condition, with few medically recognized cases; it is estimated to occur in approximately 1 in 50,000 females. The disorder has a wide range of symptoms, with phenotypes (presentations) ranging from slight to severe. It is suspected to be underdiagnosed, as are other sex chromosome disorders. Life outcomes vary; some women have had education, employment, and children, while others have remained dependent into adulthood. Life expectancy does not appear to be substantially reduced. Tetrasomy X has phenotypic overlap with a number of more common disorders, such as trisomy X and Down syndrome, and diagnosis is usually unclear prior to chromosomal testing. Tetrasomy X is generally not inherited, but rather occurs via a random event called nondisjunction during gamete or zygote development. The formal term for the karyotype observed in tetrasomy X is 48,XXXX, as the condition is typified by a 48-chromosome complement rather than the 46 chromosomes observed in normal human development. ## Presentation Tetrasomy X has a variable presentation with a spectrum of severity, and lacks obvious defining clinical abnormalities that can lead to a diagnosis in the absence of testing. Recognizable characteristics include increased height and mild intellectual disability; the average adult height in tetrasomy X is compared with a reference height of around for women in the Anglosphere, while a review of the first 27 women to be diagnosed with tetrasomy X found IQs ranging from 30 to 101 with a mean of 62. Although some degree of intellectual disability is traditionally characteristic, two medically reported cases were of normal intelligence, and patient organizations report members who are only afflicted by specific learning disabilities such as dyslexia. Speech and language delays may be associated with tetrasomy X, although the matter is unclear; some reports describe speech and language abilities in line with overall intelligence, while others describe problems independent of intelligence, in particular with subjects who have normal intelligence but significant language delays. A number of facial and musculoskeletal anomalies are common to all aneuploidies of the sex chromosomes, including X chromosome polysomy such as tetrasomy X. Epicanthic folds (additional skin folds in the corners of the eyes) and hypertelorism (wide-spaced eyes) are frequent facial features. Multiple reports have described the characteristic facial features as "coarse". These dysmorphic features are relatively mild and do not necessarily "stand out from the crowd"; in general, X chromosome polysomy is not associated with severe physical dysmorphism, although tetrasomy and pentasomy X tend to be somewhat more noticeable in this respect than the milder and more frequent trisomy X. Hypotonia (low muscle tone), often severe and early-onset, is a commonly observed musculoskeletal abnormality. Clinodactyly, the bending inwards of the pinky finger, and radioulnar synostosis, the fusion of the long bones in the forearm, are frequent. Dental abnormalities are associated with the syndrome, in particular taurodontism, where the pulp of the teeth is enlarged and extends into the roots. These findings are not unique to tetrasomy X; epicanthic folds and hypertelorism are seen in trisomy X, while clinodactyly and radioulnar synostosis are findings common to all sex chromosome aneuploidies and taurodontism is prevalent in X-chromosome polysomy specifically. Heart defects of various types have been associated with the syndrome, albeit at unclear prevalence. A patient organization reports approximately one-third of cases in its membership had congenital heart defects, a larger proportion than reported in the medical literature. Frequently reported heart defects include patent ductus arteriosus and ventricular septal defects. Kidney and bladder issues have been loosely associated with the syndrome, as has epilepsy. Epilepsy in sex chromosome aneuploidies generally is mild, amenable to treatment, and often attenuates or disappears with time. There is also a potential association between tetrasomy X and autoimmune disorders, particularly lupus, which has been recorded in two women with tetrasomy X and appears to become more common as the number of X chromosomes increase. The psychological and behavioural phenotype of tetrasomy X is understudied. Some reports describe girls and women with tetrasomy X as generally placid and pleasant, while others report emotional lability and inappropriate behaviour. Family background and environment has a significant impact on behaviour, and cases with severe behavioural dysfunction frequently have similarly dysfunctional unaffected relatives. Expressive language delays and executive dysfunction are common heralds of behavioural issues, due to the difficulties they cause for educational, vocational, and social functioning. In both men and women X-chromosome polysomy is known to be associated with psychosis, and a case is known of a girl with tetrasomy X and childhood-onset schizophrenia. Parent reports describe children and young adults who are generally pleasant and affectionate yet shy, and have issues relating to temper tantrums, mood swings, and frustration at an inability to communicate. Tetrasomy X can interfere with pubertal development. Of the adult women recorded with tetrasomy X, half have had normal pubertal development with menarche at an appropriate age, while the other half have had some form of pubertal dysfunction such as primary amenorrhea, irregular menstrual cycles, or incomplete development of secondary sex characteristics. Premature ovarian failure, or early menopause, has been recorded. In trisomy X, premature menopause has occurred between the ages of 19 and 40, while in tetrasomy X, it has been recorded as young as 15. In tetrasomy X as for other causes of premature menopause or incomplete puberty, some writers have recommended hormone replacement therapy. Fertility in tetrasomy X is possible. In the first discussion of the phenomenon, three cases have been reported of women bearing children. One woman had two children, one with a normal chromosome complement and the other with Down syndrome. Two women had one child each; one had a daughter with normal chromosomes, while the other had a stillbirth with an omphalocele. An additional woman was reported as having three children, all with normal chromosomes. ## Causes Tetrasomy X, like other aneuploidy disorders, is caused by a process called nondisjunction. Nondisjunction occurs when homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate properly during meiosis, the process that produces gametes (eggs or sperm), and result in gametes with too many or too few chromosomes. In the specific case of sex chromosome tetrasomy and pentasomy, nondisjunction occurs multiple times with the same parent; for tetrasomy X specifically, all known cases have inherited either three maternal X chromosomes and one paternal, or four maternal X chromosomes with no paternal contribution. The cause of this specific pattern of inheritance is unclear. An early research group proposed that due to the gap in prevalence between the related conditions 49,XXXXY, which has a similar prevalence to tetrasomy X, and pentasomy X, which is far rarer, the paternal X chromosomes may frequently be lost in high-level aneuploidy. More recently, speculation has been based in genomic imprinting, with the suggestion that a similarly high number of paternal X-chromosomes would be incompatible with life. Nondisjunction can also occur after conception, which frequently results in a mosaic karyotype. Nondisjunction is related to advanced maternal age. In common aneuploidies such as Down syndrome, the relationship with maternal age is extensively studied. In Klinefelter syndrome, the most common and most studied sex chromosome aneuploidy, incidence increases substantially as maternal age rises. Less is understood about the role of maternal age in sex chromosome tetrasomy and pentasomy conditions, primarily due to their rarity, and no clear relationship has been established. Tetrasomy X is generally a random occurrence and does not recur in the same family. In rare cases, it may be related to a mother having trisomy X, mosaic or otherwise. It is not caused by environmental factors. ## Diagnosis Chromosome aneuploidies such as tetrasomy X are diagnosed via karyotype, the process in which chromosomes are tested from blood, bone marrow, amniotic fluid, or placental cells. Due to significant differential diagnosis potential, diagnosis cannot be made on the basis of phenotype alone. ### Differential diagnosis Tetrasomy X has many possibilities for differential diagnosis, with multiple other conditions overlapping with the phenotype. One differential diagnosis is trisomy X, in which a female has three copies of the X chromosome. The two conditions have overlapping phenotypes with a broad range of severity. Both are associated with hypotonia, mild facial anomalies such as hypertelorism and epicanthic folds, increased height, premature ovarian failure, and some reduction in intelligence. However, the phenotype of tetrasomy X is generally more severe than that of trisomy X. In addition, while both are associated to some degree with tall stature, the association is much stronger for trisomy X. The clinical portrait is made more complex by the possibility of mosaicism, where both 47,XXX and 48,XXXX cell lines are present; such cases frequently, but not certainly, present closer to the tetrasomy than trisomy profile. As well as simple 47,XXX/48,XXXX mosaicism, complex 46,XX/47,XXX/48,XXXX mosaicism has been reported. Pentasomy X, a karyotype of five X chromosomes, is another major differential diagnosis. The phenotype of pentasomy X is similar but on average more severe. Intellectual disability is more severe, with an average IQ of 50, and pubertal delay or incomplete puberty appears more common. Unlike other X-chromosome polysomies, pentasomy X is associated with short stature. Similarly, pentasomy X is commonly associated with findings that are infrequent in tetrasomy X such as microcephaly and intrauterine growth restriction. Cases of 48,XXXX/49,XXXXX mosaicism have been reported, and are often categorized as cases of pentasomy X. More complex mosaics have been reported, such as 47,XXX/48,XXXX/49,XXXXX and 45,X0/46,XX/47,XXX/48,XXXX/49,XXXXX. An additional differential diagnosis in some cases is Down syndrome. Some cases of tetrasomy X have been described as having "a false air of trisomy 21" (the underlying chromosomal aneuploidy in Down's), and karyotyping resulting in a diagnosis of tetrasomy X has been performed due to suspicion of Down syndrome. However, this is only a differential diagnosis for a subset of cases, while others have more normal phenotypes or abnormalities inconsistent with the Down's profile. The matter is complicated by the observation that a number of women with X chromosome polysomy, including tetrasomy X, have had children with Down syndrome. ## Prognosis The long-term prognosis for tetrasomy X appears generally good. While life expectancy is unclear, patients have been diagnosed in their 50s and 60s, and long-term follow-up of individual cases shows healthy aging with good physical health. Some women live fully independent lives, while others require more persistent support from parents and caregivers, consistent with other intellectual disability syndromes of comparable severity. Many are able to work part-time, and some full-time; some young women attend tertiary education, mostly vocational. Girls and women with tetrasomy X and good outcomes are typified by supportive family environments and strong personal advocacy for their success; "[t]he children have been exposed to many varied activities and experiences and are praised for their strengths, while their limitations and delays are minimised". ## Epidemiology Tetrasomy X is estimated to occur in around 1 in 50,000 females. Considering the variable phenotype, tetrasomy X support organizations and researchers think it likely there are many cases that have not come to medical attention. This is common to all sex chromosome aneuploidies, which have very low diagnosis rates compared to their overall population prevalence. Overall, sex chromosome tetrasomy and pentasomy disorders occur in 1 in 18,000 to 1 in 100,000 male live births, and are somewhat rarer in females. Tetrasomy X only occurs in females, as the Y chromosome is in most cases necessary for male sexual development. ## History Tetrasomy X was first recorded in 1961 in two intellectually disabled women residing in an institution. The late 1950s and early 1960s were a period of frequent ascertainment of previously unknown sex chromosome aneuploidies, with the discovery of the 48,XXXX karyotype being alongside that of 45,X0, 47,XXY, and 47,XXX in 1959, 48,XXYY in 1960, and 47,XYY the same year. One of the two women first diagnosed with tetrasomy X was followed up twenty-six years later in her late fifties, by which time she had left the institution and was living semi-independently with her sister; she was in good physical health, had experienced menarche and menopause at typical ages (14 and 50), and showed no signs of cognitive decline. Much of the medical literature for tetrasomy X dates to the 1960s and 1970s, an era of particular interest in and research on sex chromosome aneuploidy. Early reports were frequently discovered during chromosome screenings in institutions for the intellectually disabled. The early preference for diagnosis of sex chromosome aneuploidy in selected samples, such as institution residents and prisoners, led to a biased perspective on the conditions that painted an unduly negative portrait of their phenotypes and prognoses. Further research on sex chromosome aneuploidy via unselected samples such as newborn screening allowed for major conditions such as XYY syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, and trisomy X to be re-defined by more representative phenotypes; however, rarer conditions such as tetrasomy X were not ascertained in any such studies, and therefore the medical literature continues to describe cases that were diagnosed due to developmental or behavioural issues. Aspects of the early studies remain accepted; a 1969 proposal that each supernumerary X chromosome reduces IQ by an average of 15 points is still used as a rule of thumb. Sex chromosome tetrasomy and pentasomy conditions have consistently received little attention compared to the more common trisomy conditions. Research into conditions such as tetrasomy X has been stymied by biased samples, outdated information, and a lack of publications above the case report level. Dedicated patient and family support groups, such as Unique and the Tetrasomy and Pentasomy X Support Group, began to appear online in the early 2000s. A patient registry in the United Kingdom was established in 2004, amidst concerns that little serious research had been conducted on tetrasomy X for many years. Diagnosis of sex chromosome aneuploidies is increasing, as is the number of supports available for families. The rarity of and variation in tetrasomy X limits the amount of specific support available, but major chromosome disorder organizations serve the condition and have members who are or are associates of people with it.

Happy Working Song

2007 song by Alan Menken and Stephen Schwartz

"Happy Working Song" is a song written by composer Alan Menken and lyricist Stephen Schwartz for Walt Disney Pictures' musical film Enchanted (2007). Recorded by American actress Amy Adams in her starring role as Giselle, the uptempo pop song both parodies and pays homage to a variety of songs from several Disney animated feature films, particularly "Whistle While You Work" from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). Produced by Menken, Schwartz and Danny Troob, the song appears on the film's soundtrack Enchanted: Original Soundtrack. "Happy Working Song" takes place in Robert's untidy apartment in Manhattan, New York, in which Giselle spends her first night in the city after having been magically transported there from the fictional Andalasia. The next morning, Giselle awakens to find the apartment in a state of neglect and decides to clean it, summoning several animals to her aid. Additionally, the musical number references similar scenes from Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Cinderella (1950). Based on 1950s music, "Happy Working Song"'s bridge deliberately references the song "Belle" from Disney's Beauty and the Beast (1991). Musically, "Happy Working Song" shares similarities with the songs "Heigh-Ho" from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, "The Work Song" from Cinderella and "Something There" from Beauty and the Beast. The song has garnered vastly positive reviews, with both film and music critics praising its humorous, witty lyrics, allusions and references to previous Disney films and songs, as well as Adams' performance. "Happy Working Song" was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 80th Academy Awards in 2008 alongside Enchanted's own "That's How You Know" and "So Close", making the film one of only four to achieve this feat. Ultimately, the song lost to "Falling Slowly" from Once (2007), while the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences subsequently decided to limit the total number of Best Original Song nominations to only two per film. ## Background, writing and references Veteran Disney composer, Alan Menken, became actively creatively involved with Enchanted in 2006, subsequently inviting his longtime collaborator, lyricist Stephen Schwartz, with whom Menken had previously worked on Disney's Pocahontas (1995) and The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996), to co-write the songs and musical numbers for Enchanted alongside him. Menken said of the general songwriting process, "the first challenge for us was finding that musical palette and lyrical palette and performance palette that really spoke to everybody and said that we are in the world of early Walt and to have that place to start." When it came to writing "Happy Working Song", Menken and Schwartz were directly influenced by the song "Whistle While You Work" from Disney's first full-length animated feature film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), with Schwartz describing "Happy Working Song" as a "spoof" and "one of the funniest sequences of the film". According to Schwartz, "Happy Working Song" was written rather quickly, having come "[to the songwriters] really fast". Schwartz elaborated, "'Happy Working Song' is ... pretty much out of Snow White and 'Whistle While You Work' and that little thing where they do the dishes and Dopey with the soap bubbles and everything." In addition to this, "Happy Working Song" features references to both the musical number "The Work Song" and "the busy little mice" from Disney's Cinderella (1950), but to a significantly lesser extent. Lyrically, Schwartz decided to approach the song comically as demonstrated by its phrase "Even though you are vermin." Conceptually, Menken explained that "As the characters become sort of three dimensional, songs become more contemporary." Ultimately, Menken believes that, melodically, "Happy Working Song" is very much similar to the songs "Belle" and "Something There" from Beauty and the Beast. Additionally, orchestrator and arranger Danny Troob revealed the bridge of "Happy Working Song" is directly based on the bridge of "Belle", particularly serving as "a deliberate reference on [the songwriters'] part." Addressing the musical similarities between "Happy Working Song" and "Something There", Troob explained that the former occupies a different "drive" and "attitude", additionally sounding "a little bit more brisk ... because [Giselle is] working." Troob elaborated, "Beauty and the Beast was, for its time, very forward-looking, and 'Happy Working Song' is deliberately retro." Troob decided to alter and deliberately steer the song away from Menken and Schwartz's original 1970s-inspired musical arrangement in an attempt to "make it feel like the 1950s" by "manipulating instruments [sic] textures." American actress, Amy Adams, who portrays Giselle, had previously "worked in musical theater before [she] moved to Los Angeles" in order to pursue a career as a film actress, and was therefore "very comfortable with the idea of singing". Citing both actress and singer Julie Andrews and several Disney Princesses as musical inspiration, Adams decided to perform the film's first song, "True Love's Kiss", in the style of an operetta before eventually replacing this with a more Broadway musical-style voice for "Happy Working Song". ## Context, scene and analysis Having just recently arrived in New York City after having been magically transported there from her fantastical world of Andalasia, a lost and hopelessly confused Giselle is discovered wandering around by Robert, a single father and divorce attorney, and his daughter Morgan. Robert decides to offer his assistance to Giselle by inviting her to spend a night's shelter in the safety of their apartment. The following morning, Giselle awakens to find Robert's apartment in a complete state of disarray. During the "Happy Working Song" musical sequence, described as one of the film's "large scale production numbers", Giselle, who is very much appalled by the untidy state of Robert's Manhattan apartment, decides to "repay ... the favour" by taking the liberty of confronting and cleaning up the apartment's mess herself. By performing a brief aria and "utilizing her animal-charming abilities", Giselle musically "summons the city's animals" in order "to help her tidy it up". This gesture and scene serves as a reference to similar scenes and musical sequences from preceding Disney animated fairy tale films such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) and Cinderella (1950). Demonstrating and suggesting "that Giselle really does have some magical power, even in [the real world]", – according to Sean Axmaker of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, "When she breaks into song ... sewer rats and cockroaches arrive to help with the housework" – the aria is immediately responded to by several animals, creatures and "vermin" typically associated with New York City, including rats, pigeons, roaches, and flies – visually meant to represent "makeshift 'forest friends'" – "as opposed to the woodland critters of the movie's opening animated segment." According to film critic Brent Simon of Shared Darkness, the comedic gag serves as one of the film's "amusing ways to contrast the two worlds" of Giselle's fictional Andalasia and the real-life New York City. Several professional film critics have allotted a variety of different terms and nicknames to the animals who appear during the "Happy Working Song" sequence. Neil Smith of BBC Online described the animals who appear during the scene as "a grotesque menagerie of CG vermin", while the Orlando Sentinel's Roger Moore jokingly referred to them as New York's own "woodland creatures", writing, "the rats and pigeons are merely the cuddlier ones". Manohla Dargis of The New York Times coined the creatures "urban critters." ## Composition and inspiration "Happy Working Song" is a "vibrant", uptempo pop song. Reminiscent of and influenced by a variety of "archetypal Disney" and "classical-sounding" musical numbers, the musical theater-inspired song runs a total length of two minutes and nine seconds. Incorporating into its lyrical structure a variety of "clever" words including "toilet", "hairball" and "vermin", while rhyming humorous terms such as "hum" and "scum" with "dum dum dum" and "vacu-um", "Happy Working Song"'s use of "comical", "tongue-in-cheek lyrics", according to Filmtracks.com, both describe and add narration to Giselle's "attempts to conjure an ultra happy tune while scrubbing floors and toilets in the real world" upon deciding "to clean her new home with the help of ... cockroaches and flies". Its musical instrumentation is heavily reliant on the use of the harpsichord, with Filmtracks.com additionally describing "Happy Working Song" as a "harpsichord-laced" song. Troob purposefully included the harpsichord in the song's instrumentation and orchestration in order to provide it with a more accurate "period setting". According to Common Sense Media, "Happy Working Song" shares similarities with and is also inspired by "Heigh-Ho" from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, in addition to "Whistle While You Work" from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and "The Work Song" from Cinderella. Additionally, the song is reminiscent of "Belle" and "Something There" from Beauty and the Beast, specifically when it comes to its bridge and "staccato quality". Written in the key of D major in alla breve cut common time, "Happy Working Song" is structured around a "lilting", Broadway musical-inspired melody. According to the song's official sheet music, published at Musicnotes.com by Walt Disney Music Publishing, "Happy Working Song" follows an upbeat, "perky and live" tempo of 88 beats per minute. In portrayal of Giselle, Adams performs the song using an "earnest", "tart ... soprano voice". Her high soprano vocal range spans approximately two octaves, from the low note of G₃ to the high note of D₅. The song's lyrics begin, "Come, my little friends, as we all sing a happy little working song, merry little voices clear and strong." ## Reception ### Critical reviews "Happy Working Song" has garnered widespread critical acclaim. Filmtracks.com hailed "Happy Working Song" as Menken and Schwartz's "best work together in Enchanted" Describing "Happy Working Song" as a "loving, well-crafted homage ... to Disney classics", Elisabeth Vincentelli of Amazon.com wrote, "tellingly, the lovely 'Happy Working Song' ... sounds like it could have been lifted from any number of Disney movies—and that's meant as a compliment." Drawing similarities between the song and "Heigh-Ho", Jacqueline Rupp of Common Sense Media commented, "the 'Hi-Ho'[sic]-inspired 'Happy Working Song' will have kids giggling and dancing." Jeff Swindoll of Monsters and Critics wrote that "Happy Working Song" successfully "ap[es]'Whistle While You Work' most amusingly." The New York Times' Manohla Dargis called "Happy Working Song" "brilliantly surrealistic". > The hilarious "Happy Working Song" production number ... encapsulates the joys of Enchanted — an unironic affection for classic Disney fairy tales of old, salted with modern smarts about how the non-Disney world really works for single parents, kids, working women, divorce lawyers, and cockroaches. > > <div class="templatequotecite"> > > — <cite>Film critic Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly'''s very positive review of "Happy Working Song".</cite> > > </div> Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly described "Happy Working Song" as a "hilarious ... production number" that successfully "encapsulates the joys of Enchanted". The Wall Street Journal's Joe Morgenstern enthusiastically praised both the song and the sequence, hailing the latter as "magical" while describing "Happy Working Song" as a "gleeful variation on theme of 'Whistle While You Work'". Similarly, Todd McCarthy of Variety called "Happy Working Song" "a hilarious variation on 'Whistle While You Work'". Sun Media's Kevin Williamson hailed the musical number as one of the film's "stand-outs", elaborating, "[']Happy Working Song[' is] a crowd-pleaser." The Mountain Xpress' Ken Hanke allotted particular praise to Adams', writing that when the actress is "singing her 'Happy Working Song' with her makeshift 'forest friends' ... she is the perfect cartoon heroine made flesh". Kerry Lengel of The Arizona Republic jokingly lauded "Happy Working Song" as "the funniest - and grossest - set piece in the film." Calling the sequence the "film's highlight", Carrie Rickey of The Philadelphia Inquirer commented, "The song, like the movie, is cheerfully gross enough to get boys - and their fathers - into theater seats for a story every tween and her mother will love." Film critics who generally disliked Enchanted tended to have mostly positive things to report about "Happy Working Song". Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian, who assigned the film a negative score of two out of five stars, in contrast gave "Happy Working Song" a positive review, describing it as "a funny opening song". Additionally, Bradshaw drew similarities between the musical number and scenes from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Disney's Mary Poppins (1964). One of the song's few negative reviews was written by Mary F. Pols of the Contra Costa Times, who opined, "a cleaning crew of vermin and cockroaches is just real enough to be crass rather than funny". Empire ranked "Happy Working Song" third on its list of the "10 Great Musical Numbers" of the decade, writing that although "Shrek set the benchmark for Disney song parodies at Everest levels ... it's Amy Adams calling on New York's creatures of the forest to tidy up Patrick Dempsey's apartment that pulls it off to perfection." ### Academy Award nomination and aftermath "Happy Working Song" was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 80th Academy Awards in 2008 alongside Enchanted songs "That's How You Know" and "So Close", ultimately dominating the category. However, the song was generally not favored to win by the media in spite of the fact that it was vastly a critical success. According to a poll conducted by Billboard in anticipation of the ceremony, when the magazine asked 155 of its readers "Who gets your vote for best original song in a motion picture at the Academy Awards?"; only 5% of them voted in favor of "Happy Working Song" winning the award while 10% voted for "So Close" and 24% voted for "That's How You Know". In addition to this, 6% of readers voted for August Rush's "Raise It Up" and 22% voted for Glen Hansard and Marketa Irglova's "Falling Slowly" from Once (2007). Ultimately, "Happy Working Song" lost to "Falling Slowly". Menken believes that his compositions did not win the Best Original Song award because three of them had been nominated at once. Famously, Enchanted became the fourth out of only four films in the history of the Academy Awards to receive three separate Academy Award nominations in the Best Original Song category, having been preceded by Disney's own Beauty and the Beast and The Lion King (1994) at the 64th and 67th Academy Awards in 1992 and 1995, respectively, and Dreamgirls (2006) at the 79th Academy Awards in 2007. In anticipation of the 81st Academy Awards occurring the following year in 2009, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ultimately decided to prohibit and prevent this rare feat from reoccurring at upcoming ceremonies by limiting the maximum number of Best Original Song nominations from any one film to a total of only two per film. ## Live performance and Kristin Chenoweth controversy Adams' first live performance of "Happy Working Song" was at the 80th Academy Awards ceremony in 2008. Performing at approximately 6:01 pm local time, Adams was reportedly very nervous during and after her performance, revealing to The Huffington Post, "I don't know how I did that. It's the thing that was the most terrifying that I've ever done, and the thing I'm most proud of in my career." Subsequently, Adams told Vulture.com that she would likely perform at the Academy Awards again "As long as [she] wasn't doing it by [her]self". Adams' live rendition of "Happy Working Song" was generally well-received by critics. George Lang of The Oklahoman described it as a "perky" performance, additionally commenting, "[Adams is] great ... and she should have already racked up her first Oscar for acting by now." The Boston Globe's Wesley Morris wrote, "Watching Amy Adams sing ... makes you appreciated [sic] the magic of the movies." However, the performance generated some mild controversy revolving around the fact that while Adams was selected to perform "Happy Working Song", Broadway actress and singer Kristin Chenoweth was hired to sing "That's How You Know" live at the ceremony. When questioned about this, Disney executives told the Los Angeles Times that "it's best [Adams] sing 'Happy Working Song' because it has so many parallels to Julie Andrews in Mary Poppins". However, some critics and journalists have argued that the decision stemmed from Disney and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences' belief that Adams, predominantly a film actress, would ultimately not be able to perform "That's How You Know" as adequately as the more experienced Chenoweth. Additionally, critics noted that while Chenoweth's Academy Award performance was staged and choreographed as a large, extravagant number featuring "dozens of colorfully costumed dancers", Adams performed by herself on a mostly barren stage highlighted by a "single spotlight". Vulture.com commented about the performance, "Adams didn't do terribly, but she's no Broadway star, and we felt kind of awful for her." During an interview, Adams told the New York Post ''that she was not upset by the Academy's decision, instead feeling that "That's How You Know" was "perfect" for Chenoweth to perform.

People v. Aguilar

Illinois Supreme Court case

People v. Aguilar, 2 N.E.3d 321 (Ill. 2013), was an Illinois Supreme Court case in which the Court held that the Aggravated Unlawful Use of a Weapon (AUUF) statute violated the right to keep and bear arms as guaranteed by the Second Amendment. The Court stated that this was because the statute amounted to a wholesale statutory ban on the exercise of a personal right that was specifically named in and guaranteed by the United States Constitution, as construed by the United States Supreme Court. A conviction for Unlawful Possession of a Firearm (UPF) was proper because the possession of handguns by minors was conduct that fell outside the scope of the Second Amendment's protection. In 2008, Alberto Aguilar, then 17, was arrested and charged with AUUF and UPF. After being convicted and sentenced to probation by the trial court, he appealed, arguing that both statutes were unconstitutional infringements of his Second Amendment rights. The Illinois Court of Appeals affirmed his conviction, and he appealed that ruling to the Illinois Supreme Court. While Aguilar's appeal was pending, the Federal Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals had ruled that the AUUF statute was unconstitutional. When the matter was decided by the Illinois Supreme Court, they agreed with the Seventh Circuit and declared the AUUF law unconstitutional, but upheld the constitutionality of the UPF law. ## Background ### Legal background Illinois was the last state in the nation to allow concealed carry of a handgun. Prior to 2013, Illinois prohibited the carry of a firearm in a loaded condition, other than at one's own property. If the firearm was loaded and not in a locked case, or if it was otherwise available for immediate use, it was a felony offense called Aggravated Unlawful Use of a Weapon (AUUF). Illinois courts had uniformly upheld the constitutionally of the statute prior to 2008. The state also had a law called Unlawful Possession of a Firearm (UPF), which prohibited anyone under the age of 18 from possessing a firearm. Additionally, the City of Chicago had enacted strict gun control laws prohibiting the possession of any handgun that had not been registered prior to 1982, when the law took effect. On June 26, 2008, exactly two weeks after Aguilar's arrest, the U.S. Supreme Court decided District of Columbia v. Heller. In Heller, the Court ruled that a law of the District of Columbia which had the effect of banning handguns in the city violated the Second Amendment and was unconstitutional. The Court said that the fundamental right protected by the Second Amendment was the right to self-defense; however since the District of Columbia was a federal jurisdiction, it was not clear that this applied to the individual states. ### Factual background On June 12, 2008, Chicago Police Officer Thomas Harris was in a surveillance position in the Little Village neighborhood of Chicago and observed a group of male teenagers creating a disturbance and throwing bottles at cars. Harris observed one of the teenagers, later identified as Alberto Aguilar, holding the right side of his waist, and Harris notified other officers. The other officers made contact with the teens and Officer John Dolan saw Aguilar drop a gun onto the ground. Aguilar, then 17, was arrested. The officers noted that the handgun had three rounds loaded in it and that the serial number was filed off. ### Lower courts #### Circuit Court Aguilar was tried for AUUF and UPF at the Circuit Court for Cook County. The officers testified that Aguilar had the gun and had dropped it, while Aguilar claimed that he never had a gun, but was waiting for his mother to pick him up when officers came running into the back yard and tackled him. Aguilar's testimony was corroborated by Romero Diaz, who stated that Aguilar did not have a gun. Judge Charles P. Burns determined that the officers were more credible and found Aguilar guilty on both counts, sentencing him to 24 months probation on the AUUF charge; he did not pass sentence on the UPF charge. #### Illinois Court of Appeals Aguilar then appealed his conviction, arguing that the AUUF statute violated the Second Amendment and was unconstitutional. The Court of Appeals, evaluating Heller, found that Heller only protected the right to possess a handgun in the home. The court also evaluated McDonald and found that while it applied the Second Amendment to the states, it also only applied to handguns possessed in the home. The court, using an intermediate scrutiny test, determined that the Illinois statute was substantially related to an important governmental objective to protect the public from gun violence. The court affirmed the conviction. ### Other relevant events #### McDonald v. City of Chicago In 2008, shortly after the Heller decision, three lawsuits were filed in Illinois, challenging the constitutionally of handgun bans in Chicago and Oak Park. All three cases were consolidated and heard in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois, and were dismissed based on earlier U.S. Supreme Court rulings that the Second Amendment did not apply to the states. The cases were appealed to the Seventh Circuit, which affirmed based on the same reasoning. The U.S. Supreme Court reversed that decision, holding that the Second Amendment was applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment, and clarified that "self-defense was 'the central component of the right itself.'" #### Moore v. Madigan In 2011, two federal lawsuits were filed in the Southern District of Illinois and the Central District of Illinois. In both cases, the plaintiffs claimed that AUUF statute violated the Second Amendment in that it did not allow any method for a citizen to bear arms outside the home. Mary Shepard argued that the statutes were facially unconstitutional, while Michael Moore argued that the statutes were unconstitutional as applied. In both cases, the judges granted the state's motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim, holding that the Second Amendment only protected the right to possess arms in the home. Both Moore and Shepard appealed their cases to the Seventh Circuit, where the cases were consolidated. The Seventh Circuit found that Illinois law did violate the Constitution in that there was no method for a person to carry a weapon for self-defense outside of the home. The court stated that the district courts had read Heller and McDonald too narrowly—that the right protected was self-defense, and there was as great if not greater need outside the home. The court rejected the state's argument that strict gun regulation lowered crime, noting that the evidence did not support that. The decisions of the district courts were reversed and the cases remanded to those courts with instructions to declare the Illinois law unconstitutional, issuing a permanent injunction against the law's enforcement. The court then stayed the order for 180 days to give the Illinois legislature an opportunity to amend the law to make it constitutional. #### Legislative actions In January 2013 the Illinois Legislature began to look at enacting legislation to address the Moore decision. Lt. Governor Sheila Simon formed a working group of thirteen Democrats and two Republicans to look into the issue. During hearings on the matter, debate centered on concealed carry permits, with gun rights groups preferring shall-issue permits while gun control groups favored may-issue permits. On May 31, 2013, the state house passed a shall-issue bill by a vote of 89–28, after state senate passed it by a vote of 45–12. Both had veto-proof margins. On July 9, 2013, the Illinois legislature overrode Governor Pat Quinn's veto, and concealed carry was authorized for the state once the Illinois State Police issued permits. ## Supreme Court of Illinois ### Arguments On appeal, Aguilar again argued that the AUUF statute was unconstitutional on its face. Aguilar also made the argument that the UPF statute was unconstitutional, since at the time the Second Amendment was adopted, 16- and 17-year-olds could lawfully bear arms. The state argued that Aguilar lacked standing to contest the constitutionality of the statute. The state claimed that since Aguilar denied having committing the act that the statute prohibited, he could not contest the constitutionality of it. ### Opinion of the court Justice Robert R. Thomas delivered the opinion of a unanimous court. Thomas first disposed of the standing argument by the state, noting that Aguilar was not challenging the statute as applied, but was arguing that the statute was facially unconstitutional since it did not provide for any person to legally bear arms. Since anyone could challenge the constitutionality of a statute when they were charged with violating it, even without admitting the underlying conduct, the state's argument was without merit. Thomas then evaluated the constitutionality of the AUUF statute, noting that the Heller court had "concluded that the second amendment 'guarantee[s] the individual right to possess and carry weapons in case of confrontation . . . .'" He noted that McDonald reiterated that self-defense was at the core of the right. He analyzed what other courts in Illinois had done, noting that they had all focused on the ruling in Heller that the right existed in the home, and that they had held the AUUF statute constitutional since it affected conduct outside of the home. Thomas then compared this to the ruling by the Seventh Circuit in Moore and concluded that their ruling was correct, that the AUUF statute did in fact infringe on the rights guaranteed by the Second Amendment. Since the statute was unconstitutional, Aguilar's conviction must be reversed. Thomas rejected the argument on the unconstitutionality of the UPF statute, noting that all courts that had addressed this issue had found that persons under 21 could be barred from possessing firearms. The conviction for UPF was affirmed, and the case was remanded. ## Subsequent developments Following the decision, Cook County prosecutors stated that they would drop charges against some of the pending cases for AUUF, but that only those with valid Illinois Firearms Owner Identification cards would have the charges dropped. By September 16, 2013, the first case had been dismissed in Cook County. A number of law enforcement agences, such as the Springfield Police and the Sangamon Sheriff's Office, made a plea to the public to not immediately begin to carry concealed handguns. Some prosecutors have already announced that they do not intend to prosecute these cases.

2019 West Coast Eagles season

The West Coast Eagles are an Australian rules football team based in Perth, Western Australia. Their 2019 season was their 33rd season in the Australian Football League (AFL), their sixth season under coach Adam Simpson, and their fifth and final season with Shannon Hurn as captain. Having won the 2018 AFL Grand Final, expectations were that West Coast would finish in the top four on the ladder. They won only three of their first six games, losing by greater than 40 points to the Brisbane Lions, Port Adelaide and Geelong, placing the Eagles 12th on the ladder at the end of round six. They then won 12 of their next 14 games, the losses being to Sydney by 45 points and to Collingwood by 1 point. By the end of round 21, West Coast had been in the top four since round 14, and were aiming to finish in the top two. They then had a disappointing six-point loss to Richmond, and a shock 38-point loss to Hawthorn at home, to finish the season fifth on the ladder. This meant West Coast missed out on the double chance that top four teams get in the AFL finals, significantly lowering their chances of winning the Grand Final. In the 2019 AFL finals series, they faced Essendon in an elimination final, beating them by 55 points, before losing to Geelong in a semi-final by 20 points, ending West Coast's season. Notable events include Daniel Venables suffering a career-ending concussion in round nine, Nic Naitanui returning from injury in round 15, having been out since round 17, 2018, and Willie Rioli being provisionally suspended before the semi-final after tampering with a drug test. Jack Darling, who kicked 59 goals, was the club's leading goal-scorer for the third time in his career. Darling, Hurn, Jeremy McGovern and Elliot Yeo were selected for the 2020 All-Australian team. Liam Ryan won Mark of the Year for a mark he took in round nine against . Luke Shuey was West Coast's best and fairest player, winning the John Worsfold Medal. West Coast fielded a reserves team in the West Australian Football League for the first time in 2019. ## Background The West Coast Eagles are an Australian rules football team based in Perth, Western Australia, that competes in the Australian Football League (AFL). They finished the 2018 home-and-away season second on the ladder. Continuing on through the finals series, they won the Grand Final against by five points, thus becoming the reigning premiers. Prior to the start of the 2019 season, most of a group of 15 AFL.com.au reporters predicted that West Coast would finish the season in the top four again. However, only Travis King predicted they would win the premiership, with most reporters predicting would do so instead. All eight members of a group of Western Australia-based people from Nine Entertainment predicted that West Coast would finish in the top four, and three of them predicted West Coast would win the premiership. In October 2018, it was announced that the West Australian Football League (WAFL) had decided to allow the West Coast Eagles to enter a reserve team into that competition starting in 2019, after the idea was unanimously endorsed by a meeting of WAFL club presidents. The Eagles paid a one-off licence fee of \$90,000, which was split evenly between the nine other WAFL clubs, as well an annual fee of \$800,000, to be spent in various areas. This was an increase on the previous \$467,000 annual fee for aligning with East Perth Football Club, which allowed Eagles players to play for East Perth; the five year agreement with East Perth had been mutually terminated in 2018. West Coast said the new arrangement would benefit its players that missed out on selection in AFL games or who were coming back from injury and wanted to play in the less intense WAFL games first. As part of the agreement, West Coast played all their WAFL home games at their opponents' home ground. West Coast's on-field leadership went unchanged going into the 2019 season. Shannon Hurn remained captain for his fifth year, Josh Kennedy and Luke Shuey remained as vice-captains, and Nic Naitanui, Jeremy McGovern and Andrew Gaff rounded out the leadership group. Adam Simpson was senior coach for a sixth season. The assistant coaches were Jaymie Graham (forwards), Nathan van Berlo (midfield), Daniel Pratt (backs), Adrian Hickmott (contested ball coordinator), and Matt Rosa (stoppages and structure). The head of development was Gavin Bell. The other development coaches were Chance Bateman (forwards), Luke Webster (midfield), and Mark Nicoski (backs). Webster was also the coach of West Coast's WAFL team. In March, Sam Kerr, the captain of Australia's women's national soccer team, was announced to be West Coast's number-one ticket holder for 2019–20. West Coast's major sponsors for 2019 were fast food outlet Hungry Jack's and online mortgage broker Lendi. West Coast had 90,445 members in 2019, which was the club's record. This was the second highest number of memberships out of the eighteen AFL teams in 2019. ## Playing list ### 2018 off-season changes After the end of the 2018 AFL season, Eric Mackenzie retired due to consistent struggles with fractures in his feet. Mark LeCras also retired, saying it was the right time, after becoming a premiership player in his 14th season with the Eagles. Scott Lycett left the club under the AFL's free agency rules, taking an offer from in his home state of South Australia. West Coast received a pick at the end of the first round of the 2018 draft as compensation. Malcolm Karpany and Luke Partington were delisted after having played no games in the 2018 season. Ryan Burrows, Callan England, Tony Olango and Tarir Bayok, who were all on the rookie list and did not play any AFL games, were also delisted. On 7 October 2018, the day before the start of the 2018 trade period, Andrew Gaff signed a new contract with West Coast, after much consideration to leaving under the AFL's free agency rules. Having been suspended for eight weeks near the end of the 2018 season for striking player Andrew Brayshaw in the jaw, Gaff was considering signing a contract with a club based in Victoria, his home state. Six clubs looked at potentially recruiting Gaff, including , who offered him a seven-year long deal worth about \$8 million. In the end, he chose to stay with West Coast, in the hopes of winning a premiership, signing a contract there worth less than the North Melbourne one. West Coast were one of the least active teams during the 2018 trade period, making one trade. Obtaining an experienced ruckman to replace Lycett while Nic Naitanui was recovering from injury was West Coast's top trade priority. They did that by giving St Kilda pick 39 and a 2019 fourth round pick in exchange for Tom Hickey, pick 60 and a 2019 fourth round pick. West Coast were also aiming for a trade with for Tim Kelly, who wanted to return to his home state of Western Australia. The Eagles offered picks 20, 22 and a 2019 second round pick to Geelong, but the two teams could not reach an agreement. West Coast's list manager Brady Rawlings said they will try to get a Tim Kelly trade done the following year, when he is out of contract. AFL.com.au rated West Coast's trade period an 8/10, saying that "Andrew Gaff's recommitment on the eve of the Trade Period meant anything else was a bonus." It also said that although the Eagles failed in a trade for Tim Kelly, it was good that they did not trade away the large number of picks that Geelong wanted in return. Fox Sports gave the trade period a "C" grade, with Nick Dal Santo saying "it was a good get because they had to get a ruckman. Tom Hickey is not a premium ruck, we completely understand that ...", and "... their biggest get this year was keeping Andrew Gaff." The Eagles made three trades during the draft. The first trade had West Coast receive pick 29 from in exchange for a 2019 third round pick. That was the first ever trade of draft picks during the draft, as that year was the first time it was allowed. The second trade had West Coast receive a 2019 second round pick for sending Sydney pick 25. Their last trade involved giving West Coast picks 27 and 32 for West Coast's pick 23 and a 2019 fifth round pick. In the draft, West Coast chose Xavier O'Neill (pick 28), Luke Foley (pick 31), Bailey Williams (pick 35) and Jarrod Cameron (pick 39). In the rookie draft, West Coast chose Harry Edwards (pick 18) and Josh Smith (pick 34), passing on pick 46. Patrick Bines and Brodie Riach, who both have a background in basketball, joined West Coast as category B rookies. Keegan Brooksby, who played for Gold Coast between 2015 and 2017, joined the club in the supplementary selection period, which allows clubs to select players who are previous AFL players that have not been in the AFL for over a year. AFL.com.au'''s Callum Twomey and Riley Beveridge complimented the Eagles on the trades they made during the draft. ESPN rated West Coast's draft a "B+". ### Statistics ## Season summary In the 2019 AFL season, each team played 22 games and had a mid-season bye. West Coast played , Collingwood, Fremantle, and twice, and the other teams once each. The teams that West Coast played twice were regarded as tough to beat before the start of the season. West Coast had an increase in prime time scheduled games compared to the 2018 season, with three Friday night games at home and a Thursday night game at home. They also had only six six-day breaks, and three matches at the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG), their equal highest number of matches there since 2005. As part of their pre-season, West Coast played Geelong and Fremantle in the JLT Community Series. West Coast beat both teams. ### Rounds 1–12 Going into the start of the season, Nic Naitanui, Andrew Gaff, Jamie Cripps, Josh Kennedy and Willie Rioli were unable to play. Naitanui had been out indefinitely since tearing his left anterior cruciate ligament in round 17, 2018. Gaff had been out due to an eight match ban received for striking Fremantle player Andrew Brayshaw in the jaw in round 20, 2018. Cripps, Kennedy and Rioli were out due to foot injuries. West Coast's first match of the regular season was against the at the Gabba on 23 March. The humidity was high, which made for wet and slippery conditions. The Lions, who finished 15th on the ladder in 2018, beat the Eagles by 44 points. West Coast started well, kicking six goals to Brisbane's one in the first quarter, but the Eagles kicked only two goals after that, compared to Brisbane's fourteen. It was the greatest defeat of an AFL reigning premier in round one since Richmond were beaten by Carlton by 62 points in 1981. Brisbane went on to finish the season second on the ladder, however at the time, Brisbane were regarded by most as a team that West Coast should have comfortably beaten. Liam Ryan was reported to the Match Review Panel for striking Darcy Gardiner in the final minutes of the match. He received a \$2,500 fine and no ban. West Coast won their next match, beating by 52 points at Optus Stadium. The Eagles unfurled their premiership flag in celebration of 2018's grand final victory. Josh Kennedy made a return from a foot injury, and Josh Smith made his West Coast debut, having played for Collingwood previously. The match was Shannon Hurn's 250th AFL match, and Kennedy's and Chris Masten's 200th AFL match. The first grand final rematch was in round three, resulting in a 20-point win over Collingwood at the MCG. Andrew Gaff returned from his suspension and Jamie Cripps returned from injury. Both played quite well, with Gaff having 34 disposals and Cripps kicking four goals. Luke Shuey played well too, having 24 disposals. Liam Duggan did not play due to a knee injury, with Josh Rotham making his AFL debut as replacement. In response to that match, AFL.com.au's Riley Beveridge declared that West Coast "remained the team to beat in 2019". In round four was the season's first Western Derby, the biannual home-and-away match between West Coast and their cross-town rivals Fremantle. West Coast won by 10 points, having lead for the entire match. However, there were a few times where the Dockers were potentially going to get in front, with West Coast being unable to build up a substantial margin. Shannon Hurn won the Glendinning–Allan Medal for the third time. The Eagles had their second loss of the season in round five against Port Adelaide, being beaten by 42 points at Optus Stadium. The match was played in heavy rain, which was a weakness for West Coast. One of the only highlights for the Eagles was Jack Petruccelle, who kicked five goals. He received a Rising Star award nomination for this match. In round six, West Coast suffered a 58-point loss to Geelong at GMHBA Stadium, leaving them 12th on the ladder at the end of the round, well below expectations. The Eagles won again in round seven, albeit unconvincingly. West Coast beat the Gold Coast Suns, the eventual wooden spooners, 80–57. West Coast had a lead of 42 points midway through the third quarter, but that narrowed down to just 11 points near the end of the final quarter, with the Suns kicking five goals in a row. The Eagles held off a potential comeback to win by 23 points. The following round, West Coast moved back into the top eight due to an 18-point win against St Kilda. Saints fans were angry at the 7–3 free-kick count for the first half, including two free kicks that resulted in West Coast goals. The Eagles' final quarter was lacklustre, kicking only one goal and eight behinds, but they held on to win 88–70. West Coast then won their round nine match against Melbourne, despite the Demons dominating the first three quarters. The Eagles kicked seven of the final eight goals to win by 22 points. Liam Ryan took a spectacular mark on top of 208-centimetre (6 ft 10 in) Melbourne ruckman Max Gawn, before kicking a goal to give West Coast the lead in the final ten minutes. Ryan went on to win the Mark of the Year award for that. The match was also Willie Rioli's first match since the 2018 Grand Final, having had a foot stress fracture since the pre-season. Daniel Venables had to be stretchered off the ground after being knocked out in the second quarter. He then missed the rest of the season and retired in 2021 as a result of his concussion. Lewis Jetta was suspended for one match due to a sling tackle on Tim Smith. The Eagles had another comeback victory in round ten, this time against Adelaide. The Crows entered half time 28 points ahead of West Coast, who kicked no goals in the second quarter, compared to Adelaide, who had five. West Coast dominated the rest of the match though, kicking ten goals in the second half, compared to Adelaide's three. The Eagles ended up as 11 point winners. In round 11, West Coast moved into the top four and increased their percentage considerably by defeating the 133–72. Jack Darling had six goals, Andrew Gaff had 36 touches, Jeremy McGovern had eight marks and Brad Sheppard had 22 disposals. The only injury was to Shannon Hurn, who suffered a hamstring strain, missing only the following game against Sydney. The Eagles' five-match winning streak ended in round 12, when Sydney beat West Coast 116–71. The Eagles were very unlikely to win from half time onwards. The loss continued West Coast's 20 year and eight match losing streak at the Sydney Cricket Ground. Willie Rioli and Nathan Vardy both received a one match suspension for rough conduct against Colin O'Riordan and Jackson Thurlow respectively. ### Rounds 13–23 West Coast had a bye in round 13. The following round, they dominated , however they only won by 35 points due to their inaccuracy. West Coast had 24 more inside 50s and 20 more scoring shots, but kicked twice as many behinds as goals in the first half. The final score was 106–71, leaving West Coast disappointed after what could have been a significant boost to their percentage. Jarrod Cameron made his debut that match, and Jeremy McGovern was given a one match suspension for pushing Matt Guelfi into the boundary fence. In round 15, Nic Naitanui made a much-anticipated return from injury to the AFL, having played one match for the Eagles' WAFL team the previous week. West Coast's match against Hawthorn at the MCG in wet weather was a narrow 77–71 victory. Scores had been level before Jamie Cripps kicked the winning goal with less than two minutes to go. Round 16 saw the Eagles win the 50th Western Derby 122–31; the 91-point margin was the second largest in a Western Derby, and Fremantle's 31 points their lowest score. The win meant that West Coast had a record-equalling nine game winning streak against Fremantle. Brad Sheppard won his first Glendinning–Allan Medal. The following round, West Coast lost to Collingwood by one point, despite leading for most of the match. West Coast were unable to score any goals for the last quarter and a half, allowing Collingwood to come back from an 18-point margin. Jarrod Cameron, playing his fourth AFL match, was one of the best on ground, kicking four goals. However, after that loss, West Coast were still in the top four. In round 18, West Coast played Melbourne at TIO Traeger Park in Alice Springs, their first time playing in the town. West Coast won the match 91–78, holding off a surge in goals by Melbourne. A late withdrawal by Shannon Hurn due to a calf injury enabled Francis Watson to make his debut. In round 19, West Coast defeated North Melbourne 121–72, placing the Eagles two wins inside the top four. Josh Kennedy kicked seven goals, one of which was his 600th goal. Shannon Hurn returned from injury for the Eagles' round 20 match against at Marvel Stadium. West Coast had a solid win, beating Carlton 99–75. This put the Eagles on 14 wins, the same number as the first-placed Geelong. West Coast then won their following match, against Adelaide, 90–80. The close score caused the Eagles to drop from second to third on the ladder despite the win. West Coast were still looking at a top two finish though. Oscar Allen received a Rising Star award nomination for his three goal effort against Adelaide. In round 22, West Coast faced Richmond, 2018's minor premiers, in what AFL.com.au called the "game of the season", and a possible preview for the Grand Final. West Coast played well in the first quarter of the match, kicking seven goals to Richmond's three. Richmond made a gradual comeback after quarter time though, kicking six of the next eight goals to be behind one point at three-quarter time. It had started raining at half time, which favoured Richmond's playing style over the Eagles'. Richmond gained the lead early in the final quarter, kicking the first two goals. West Coast tried to gain the lead back, but were unable to do so. Richmond ended up winning by six points. It was now unlikely for the Eagles to finish in the top two, with the results of other teams required to go their way, but a top four finish was still possible. Going into their round 23 match against Hawthorn, almost all expectations were that West Coast would win, and finish the home-and-away season firmly in the top four. Hawthorn were barely in finals contention, and West Coast were playing at home. Instead, Hawthorn won the match by 38 points, putting West Coast in a precarious position on the ladder, having to rely on other teams' results to go their way for a top four finish. When Richmond beat the Brisbane Lions the following day, West Coast moved down to fifth on the ladder, missing out on the double chance in the finals that comes to teams that finish in the top four, making it significantly harder to win the premiership. ### Finals West Coast had a 116–61 win in their elimination final against Essendon; Nic Naitanui was reported for shoving Essendon's Zach Merrett into the fence after Merrett pulled on Naitanui's hair. Both received a \$1000 fine for the incident. The elimination final was Luke Shuey's 200th AFL game. On the day before their semi-final, Willie Rioli was provisionally suspended, effective immediately, as a result of an incident on 20 August, where he substituted his urine with another substance during a drug test. In the second week of the finals, West Coast faced Geelong in a semi-final at the MCG. The Cats had come out of a loss to Collingwood in a qualifying final the previous weekend. Geelong started the match well, kicking five goals in the first quarter, whereas West Coast only kicked one. West Coast narrowed the margin, kicking two more goals than Geelong in the second quarter. The Eagles managed to take back the lead in the third quarter, but they were unable to get a lead of more than seven points. The margin at three quarter time was four points in favour of the Eagles. West Coast kicked no goals in the final quarter, and Geelong kicked four, giving the Cats a 20 point win. This eliminated the West Coast Eagles from the finals series. In a post-season review for AFL.com.au'', Travis King rated West Coast's season a "B−", writing that "inconsistency plagued the reigning premiers", and that "the Eagles could – and should – have finished top-four". He also said "their inability to put poor teams away cost them valuable percentage", but praised the decision to trade for Tom Hickey. ### Results ### Ladder ## WAFL team West Coast's WAFL team was captained by Fraser McInnes in its inaugural season. West Coast had a 9–9 win–loss record, finishing fourth out of ten on the ladder, qualifying them for the 2019 WAFL finals. They won an elimination final against West Perth, before losing a semi-final against Claremont. ## Awards Liam Ryan won the Mark of the Year award for a mark he took during West Coast's round nine match against Melbourne. This was the third time an Eagles player won the award. Ryan's mark during round 20 against Carlton was another one of the three Mark of the Year finalists. Jack Petruccelle and Oscar Allen were nominated for the Rising Star award in rounds five and twenty-one respectively. Jack Darling, Shannon Hurn, Jeremy McGovern and Elliot Yeo were selected for the 2019 All-Australian team, with Hurn being the vice-captain of the team. 2019 was the first time for Darling, second time for Hurn and Yeo, and fourth time for McGovern to be selected in the All-Australian team. Andrew Gaff, Brad Sheppard and Luke Shuey were in the 40-man initial squad, but missed out on being selected in the 22-man final team. West Coast's four players in the All-Australian team was the equal highest number that year. West Coast held its awards night on 3 October. Luke Shuey won the John Worsfold Medal for best and fairest player with 258 votes. Behind him were Elliot Yeo (239), Brad Sheppard (234), Andrew Gaff (231) and Jack Darling (199). This was Luke Shuey's second John Worsfold Medal, the first being in 2016. Other awards presented on the night were the Chris Mainwaring Medal for Best Clubman, awarded to Fraser McInnes; Emerging Talent, awarded to Oscar Allen; Player of the Finals, jointly awarded to Andrew Gaff and Luke Shuey; and Leading Goalkicker, awarded to Jack Darling, with 59 goals in the home-and-away season. West Coast's inaugural chairman Richard Colless, former players Chad Morrison and Mark Nicoski and former directors Robert Armstrong and Mark Hohnen were awarded life membership of the West Coast Eagles.

Nabucco

1842 opera by Giuseppe Verdi

Nabucco (, short for Nabucodonosor ; English: "Nebuchadnezzar") is an Italian-language opera in four acts composed in 1841 by Giuseppe Verdi to an Italian libretto by Temistocle Solera. The libretto is based on the biblical books of 2 Kings, Jeremiah, Lamentations, and Daniel, and on the 1836 play by Auguste Anicet-Bourgeois and Francis Cornu. However, Antonio Cortese's ballet adaptation of the play (with its necessary simplifications), given at La Scala in 1836, was a more important source for Solera than the play itself. Under its original name of Nabucodonosor, the opera was first performed at La Scala in Milan on 9 March 1842. Nabucco is the opera that is considered to have permanently established Verdi's reputation as a composer. He commented that "this is the opera with which my artistic career really begins. And though I had many difficulties to fight against, it is certain that Nabucco was born under a lucky star." The opera follows the plight of the Jews as they are assaulted, conquered and subsequently exiled from their homeland by the Babylonian king Nabucco (Nebuchadnezzar II). The historical events are used as background for a romantic and political plot. The best-known number from the opera is the "Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves" ("Va, pensiero, sull'ali dorate" / "Fly, thought, on golden wings"), a chorus that is regularly given an encore in many opera houses when performed today. ## Composition history The success of Verdi's first opera, Oberto, led Bartolomeo Merelli, La Scala's impresario, to offer Verdi a contract for three more works. After the failure of his second opera Un giorno di regno (completed in 1840 towards the end of a brutal two-year period during which both of his infant children and then his 26-year-old wife died), Verdi vowed never to compose again. In "An Autobiographical Sketch", written in 1879, Verdi tells the story of how he came to be twice persuaded by Merelli to change his mind and to write the opera. The duration of 38 years since the event may have led to a somewhat romanticized view; or, as Verdi scholar Julian Budden writes: "he was concerned to weave a protective legend about himself [since] it was all part of his fierce independence of spirit." However, in Volere è potere [it] ("Where there's a will ...") – written ten years closer to the event – the zoologist Michele Lessona provides a different account of the events, as allegedly recounted by Verdi himself. After a chance meeting with Merelli close to La Scala, the impresario gave him a copy of Temistocle Solera's libretto which had been rejected by the composer Otto Nicolai. Verdi describes how he took it home, and threw "it on the table with an almost violent gesture. ... In falling, it had opened of itself; without my realising it, my eyes clung to the open page and to one special line: 'Va, pensiero, sull'ali dorate'." While it has been noted that "Verdi read it enthusiastically" (and certainly he states that, while he attempted to sleep, he was kept awake and read and re-read the libretto three times), others have stated that he read the libretto very reluctantly or, as recounted by Lessona, that he "threw the libretto in a corner without looking at it anymore, and for the next five months he carried on with his reading of bad novels ... [when] towards the end of May he found himself with that blessed play in his hands: he read the last scene over again, the one with the death of Abigaille (which was later cut), seated himself almost mechanically at the piano ... and set the scene to music." Nevertheless, Verdi still refused to compose the music, taking the manuscript back to the impresario the next day. But Merelli would not accept the refusal; he immediately stuffed the papers back into Verdi's pocket and according to the composer, "not only threw me out of his office, but slammed the door in my face and locked himself in". Verdi claims that gradually he worked on the music: "This verse today, tomorrow that, here a note, there a whole phrase, and little by little the opera was written" so that by the autumn of 1841 it was complete. At the very least, both Verdi's and Lessona's versions end with a complete score. ## Performance history ### 19th century The opening performances, limited to only eight because the season was coming to an end, were "a colossal success." But, when the new season opened on 13 August 1842, around 60 performances had been added by the end of that year. Numerous Italian and foreign theatres put on this opera in the years immediately following, including La Fenice in Venice in December 1842. In 1843 Donizetti conducted it in Vienna, and other stagings took place that year in Lisbon and Cagliari. But the definitive name of Nabucco for the opera (and its protagonist) was first used at a performance at the San Giacomo Theatre of Corfu in September 1844. Nonetheless, a more plausible alternative for the establishment of this abbreviated form claims that it was the result of a revival of the opera in Teatro del Giglio of Lucca. The opera was first given in London at Her Majesty's Theatre on 3 March 1846 under the name of Nino, since the depiction of biblical characters on stage "was not considered proper". In the US it appeared at the Astor Opera House in New York on 4 April 1848. ### 20th century and beyond Nabucco is frequently heard around the world today. It has been on the Metropolitan Opera's roster since it was first presented there during the 1960/61 season. When the Metropolitan opened its season in September 2001, eleven days after the destruction of the World Trade Center, the chorus began by singing "Va, pensiero" in honor of the victims of the attack. Nabucco is also regularly performed at the Arena di Verona. Among the performances preserved on DVD are those at the Arena di Verona (1981 and 2007); La Scala (1987), Opera Australia (1996), Vienna State Opera (2001), Metropolitan Opera (2002), Genoa's Teatro Carlo Felice (2004), Teatro Municipale di Piacenza (2004), and Austria's St. Margarethen Opera Festival (2007). Many other companies have also performed it, including San Francisco Opera in 1982, Sarasota Opera in 1995 and 2019, London's Royal Opera House in 1996, Lyric Opera of Chicago in 1997 and 2016, the New National Theatre Tokyo in 1998, Teatro Colón in 2000, Baltimore Opera in 2006, and the Teatro Regio di Parma in 2008 as part of their on-going "Festival Verdi". Nabucco was presented by the Michigan Opera Theatre and the San Diego Opera as part of their 2009–2010 seasons. The Israeli Opera celebrated its 25th anniversary in 2010 with Nabucco at Masada, and performed it again in June 2019, accompanied by the Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, in the Sultan's Pool, just outside the wall surrounding the Old City of Jerusalem. It was performed at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden in 1972 with Colin Davis, and in March 2013 with director Daniele Abbado [it] for a new co-production with La Scala, which was relayed to cinemas and subsequently released on DVD. Seattle Opera produced its first-ever staging of Nabucco in August 2015. ## Roles ## Instrumentation Nabucco is scored for two flutes (one doubling piccolo), two oboes (one doubling English horn), two clarinets in A, two bassoons, four horns in D, two trumpets in D, three trombones (two tenor, one bass), one cimbasso, timpani, bass drum, cymbals, side drum, triangle, two harps, strings, and an onstage banda. ## Synopsis Time: 587 BC Place: Jerusalem and Babylon ### Act 1: Jerusalem 'Thus saith the Lord, Behold, I shall deliver this city into the hand of the King of Babylon, and he will burn it with fire' (Jeremiah 21:10) Interior of the Temple of Solomon The Israelites pray as the Babylonian army advances on their city ("Gli arredi festivi giù cadano infranti" / "Throw down and destroy all festive decorations"). The High Priest Zaccaria tells the people not to despair but to trust in God ("D'Egitto là su i lidi" / "On the shores of Egypt He saved the life of Moses"). The presence of a hostage, Fenena, younger daughter of Nabucco, King of Babylon, may yet secure peace ("Come notte a sol fulgente" / "Like darkness before the sun"). Zaccaria entrusts Fenena to Ismaele, nephew of the King of Jerusalem and a former envoy to Babylon. Left alone, Fenena and Ismaele recall how they fell in love when Ismaele was held prisoner by the Babylonians, and how Fenena helped him to escape to Israel. Nabucco's supposed elder daughter, Abigaille, enters the temple with Babylonian soldiers in disguise. She, too, loves Ismaele. Discovering the lovers, she threatens Ismaele: if he does not give up Fenena, Abigaille will accuse her of treason. If Ismaele returns Abigaille's love, however, Abigaille will petition Nabucco on the Israelites' behalf. Ismaele tells Abigaille that he cannot love her and she vows revenge. Nabucco enters with his warriors ("Viva Nabucco" / "Long live Nabucco"). Zaccaria defies him, threatening to kill Fenena if Nabucco attacks the temple. Ismaele intervenes to save Fenena, which removes any impediment from Nabucco destroying the temple. He orders this, while Zaccaria and the Israelites curse Ismaele as a traitor. ### Act 2: The Impious One 'Behold, the whirlwind of the Lord goeth forth, it shall fall upon the head of the wicked' (Jeremiah 30:23) Scene 1: Royal apartments in Babylon Nabucco has appointed Fenena regent and guardian of the Israelite prisoners, while he continues the battle against the Israelites. Abigaille has discovered a document that proves she is not Nabucco's real daughter, but the daughter of slaves. She reflects bitterly on Nabucco's refusal to allow her to play a role in the war with the Israelites and recalls past happiness ("Anch'io dischiuso un giorno" / "I too once opened my heart to happiness"). The High Priest of Bel informs Abigaille that Fenena has released the Israelite captives. He plans for Abigaille to become ruler of Babylon, and with this intention has spread the rumour that Nabucco has died in battle. Abigaille determines to seize the throne ("Salgo già del trono aurato" / "I already ascend the golden throne"). Scene 2: A room in the palace Zaccaria reads over the Tablets of Law ("Vieni, o Levita" / "Come, oh Levite!"), then goes to summon Fenena. A group of Levites accuse Ismaele of treachery. Zaccaria returns with Fenena and his sister Anna. Anna tells the Levites that Fenena has converted to Judaism, and urges them to forgive Ismaele. Abdallo, a soldier, announces the death of Nabucco and warns of the rebellion instigated by Abigaille. Abigaille enters with the High Priest of Bel and demands the crown from Fenena. Unexpectedly, Nabucco himself enters; pushing through the crowd, he seizes the crown and declares himself not only king of the Babylonians but also their god. The high priest Zaccaria curses him and warns of divine vengeance; an incensed Nabucco in turn orders the death of the Israelites. Fenena reveals to him that she has embraced the Jewish religion and will share the Israelites' fate. Nabucco is furious and repeats his conviction that he is now divine ("Non son più re, son dio" / "I am no longer King! I am God!"). A crashing thunderbolt strikes Nabucco down, and he promptly loses his senses. The crown falls from his head and is picked up by Abigaille, who pronounces herself ruler of the Babylonians. ### Act 3: The Prophecy 'Therefore the wild beasts of the desert with the wild beasts of the islands shall dwell there, and the owls shall dwell therein'. (Jeremiah 50:39) Scene 1: The Hanging Gardens of Babylon Abigaille is now Queen of Babylon. The High Priest of Bel presents her with the death warrant for the Israelites, as well as for Fenena. Nabucco, still insane, tries to reclaim the throne without success. Though his consent to the death warrant is no longer necessary, Abigaille tricks him into signing it. When Nabucco learns that he has consigned his (true) daughter to death, he is overcome with grief and anger. He tells Abigaille that he is not in fact her father and searches for the document evidencing her true origins as a slave. Abigaille mocks him, produces the document and tears it up. Realizing his powerlessness, Nabucco pleads for Fenena's life ("Oh di qual onta aggravasi questo mio crin canuto" / "Oh, what shame must my old head suffer"). Abigaille is unmoved and orders Nabucco to leave her. Scene 2: The banks of the River Euphrates The Israelites long for their homeland ("Va, pensiero, sull'ali dorate" / "Fly, thought, on golden wings"). The high priest Zaccaria once again exhorts them to have faith: God will destroy Babylon. The Israelites are inspired by his words. ### Act 4: The Broken Idol 'Bel is confounded, Merodach is broken to pieces; her idols are confounded, her images are broken in pieces.' (Jeremiah 50:2) Scene 1: Royal apartments in Babylon Nabucco awakens, still confused and raving. He sees Fenena in chains being taken to her death. In despair, he prays to the God of the Hebrews. He asks for forgiveness, and promises to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem and convert to Judaism if his prayers are answered ("Dio di Giuda" / "God of Judah!"). Miraculously, his strength and reason are immediately restored. Abdallo and loyal soldiers enter to release him. Nabucco resolves to rescue Fenena and the Israelites as well as to punish the traitors. Scene 2: The Hanging Gardens of Babylon Fenena and the Israelite prisoners are led in to be sacrificed (Orchestral Interlude & "Va! La palma del martirio" / "Go, win the palm of martyrdom"). Fenena serenely prepares for death ("O dischiuso è il firmamento" / "O open is the firmament"). Nabucco rushes in with Abdallo and other soldiers. He declares that he will rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem and worship the God of the Israelites, ordering the destruction of the idol of Bel. At his word, the idol falls to the ground of its own accord and shatters into pieces. Nabucco tells the Israelites that they are now free and all join in praise of Jehovah. Abigaille enters, supported by soldiers. She has poisoned herself. She begs forgiveness of Fenena, prays for God's mercy and dies. Zaccaria proclaims Nabucco the servant of God and king of kings. ## Historicity The historical Nebuchadnezzar II (c. 634–562 BC) took Jerusalem in 597 BC, but the madness plot of the opera differs from both archeological and biblical records of him. In the Book of Daniel, his madness lasts for seven years before his conversion to Judaism. But in the opera it only lasts for the time between the order to kill Fenena and the Jews, and it being carried out. The biblical story of seven years of madness followed by conversion bears more similarity to the Dead Sea Scrolls' story of Nabonidus (556–539 BC), father of Belshazzar in the Cylinders of Nabonidus, than to the historical Nebuchadnezzar. Nabonidus was the last king of Babylon, five kings later than Nebuchadnezzar, and Belshazzar was a temporary regent during Nabonidus' reign. Historical and biblical records agree that the Jews were freed and their temple was rebuilt not by the Babylonians but by Cyrus the Great following his conquest of Babylon in 539 BC. `The opera's Nabucco character is thus a composite of historical and biblical Nebuchadnezzar II, Nabonidus and Cyrus.` Babylonians addressed their own god as "Bel" (Italian: Belo), related to the deity Marduk, who assumed the title of "lord" after his exaltation. The title "Bel" was in fact used also in connection with Nergal. ## Critical reaction The opera was an instant success, dominating Donizetti's and Giovanni Pacini's operas playing nearby. While the public went mad with enthusiasm, the critics tempered their approval of the opera. One critic who found Nabucco revolting was Otto Nicolai, the composer to whom the libretto was first offered. A Prussian, Nicolai felt at odds with emotional Italian opera while he lived near Milan. After refusing to accept the libretto proposal from Merelli, Nicolai began work on another offer called Il Proscritto. Its disastrous premiere in March 1841 forced Nicolai to cancel his contract with Merelli and return to Vienna. From there he learned of the success of Nabucco and was enraged. "Verdi's operas are really horrible," he wrote. "He scores like a fool – technically he is not even professional – and he must have the heart of a donkey and in my view he is a pitiful, despicable composer ... Nabucco is nothing but "rage, invective, bloodshed and murder." However, Nicolai's opinions were in the minority. Nabucco secured Verdi's success. At the 1845 premiere of the opera in Paris critics complained about the excessive use of brass instruments and this word play epigram appeared: > Vraiment l'affiche est dans son tort, en faux on devrait la poursuivre. Pourquoi nous annoncer Nabucodonos-or quand c'est Nabucodonos-cuivre? > Really the poster is wrong, It should be indicted for falsehood. Why to announce a Nabucodonos-or when the question is about Nabucodonos-brass? Music historians have perpetuated a powerful myth about the famous "Va, pensiero" chorus sung in the third act by the Hebrew slaves. Scholars have long believed the audience, responding with nationalistic fervor to the slaves' powerful hymn of longing for their homeland, demanded an encore of the piece. As encores were expressly forbidden by the Austrian authorities ruling northern Italy at the time to prevent public protests, such a gesture would have been extremely significant. However, recent scholarship puts this and the corresponding myth of "Va, pensiero" as the national anthem of the Risorgimento to rest. Although the audience did indeed demand an encore, it was not for "Va, pensiero" but rather for the hymn "Immenso Jehova", sung by the Hebrew slaves in Act 4 to thank God for saving His people. In light of these revelations, Verdi's position as the musical figurehead of the Risorgimento has been correspondingly revised. At Verdi's funeral however, the crowds in the streets spontaneously broke into "Va, pensiero". When his body was moved to the crypt of the Casa di Riposo, "Va, pensiero" was conducted by Arturo Toscanini with a chorus of 820 singers, with a crowd of estimated 300,000 in attendance. ## Music The overture, often played outside the context of the complete work in orchestral concerts, mostly consists of themes from the opera, including the Chorus of Hebrew Slaves and the warlike music when the Israelites curse Ismaele for his betrayal. A stage band is used extensively in the opera, both for the march accompanying Nabucco on his arrival and for Fenena's funeral march. Propulsive energetic rhythms are a notable feature of much of the music, contrasted with more lyrical moments, providing dramatic pace. Both the bass Zaccaria in his prayer "Vieni o Levita", a quiet piece with the unusual accompaniment of six cellos, and the baritone Nabucco in his mad scene and other passages, are given music of great expressiveness, providing outstanding opportunities for the singers, but the tenor role of Ismaele is comparatively minor, unusual for a Verdi opera. The music for Abigaille is extremely demanding, requiring a soprano who can sing both very low and very high with dramatic force and is also capable of virtuoso vocal decoration. More than any of the soloists, however, the chorus, used in a new and dramatic fashion, is at the centre of the opera. ## Recordings

Spotted lanternfly

Species of planthopper indigenous to China

The spotted lanternfly (Lycorma delicatula) is a planthopper indigenous to parts of China and Vietnam. It has spread invasively to Japan, South Korea, and the United States. Its preferred host is tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), but it infests economically significant plants including soybean, grapes, stone fruits, and Malus spp. In its native habitat, L. delicatula populations are regulated by parasitic wasps. The spotted lanternfly's life cycle is often centered on its preferred host, Ailanthus altissima, but L. delicatula can associate with more than 173 plants. Early life stages (instars) of the spotted lanternfly are characterized by spotted black and white nymphs that develop a red pigmentation and wings as they mature. Early life instars display a large host range that narrows with maturation. Adult spotted lanternflies display a black head, grey wings, and red hind wings. Adults do not display any specialized feeding associations with herbaceous plants but have been known to cause extensive damage to crops and ornamental plants. The piercing wounds caused by their mouthparts and the honeydew waste they excrete have been found to be significantly detrimental to the health of host plants. Spotted lanternflies lay egg masses containing 30–50 eggs, often covered with a grayish mud-like coating. In temperate climates, these egg masses overwinter. The species was accidentally introduced into South Korea in 2006 and Japan in 2009, and has since been considered a pest. In September 2014, L. delicatula was first recorded in the United States, and as of 2022, it is an invasive species in much of Northeastern United States and is rapidly spreading south and west. L. delicatula's egg masses have been found to be the primary vector of spread, with Ailanthus altissima populations seen as a risk factor for further infestation globally. Ongoing pest control efforts have sought to limit population growth, due to the threat L. delicatula poses to global agricultural industries. ## Taxonomy and discovery Lycorma delicatula is a species in the genus Lycorma, in the planthopper family Fulgoridae, subfamily Aphaeninae. Species within this genus are found in Asia. L. delicatula was originally described by Adam White in 1845 as Aphaena delicatula, and the first scientific collections were made outside of Nanking, China. White described the species as similar to Aphaena variegata, another planthopper species native to Asia, and referenced prior descriptions by George Tradescant Lay in his initial classification of the spotted lanternfly. In 1863, the species was reclassified by Carl Stål as Lycorma delicatula delicatula, with two additional subspecies described: Lycorma delicatula jole and Lycorma delicatula operosa. Taxonomic classification places two other species (L. imperialis and L. meliae) as closely related to the spotted lanternfly. The name Lycorma delicatula derives from lyc/lyco, meaning "lamp" and delicatula, meaning "luxurious". L. delicatula is also referred to as the spot clothing wax cicada ("chu-ki" or "banyi-la-chan" in Chinese) and the Chinese blistering cicada ("ggot-mae-mi" 꽃매미 in Korean). In 2019, the genome of L. delicatula was fully sequenced, with Aphaena amabilis, and Pyrops candelaria both being classified as close relatives. ## Description Adult L. delicatula measure about 25 millimetres (1 in) long and 12 millimetres (1⁄2 in) wide. Adult lanternflies have a black head and gray-brown forewings adorned with black spots. White's original account identified L. delicatula as having a minimum of 20 black spots, with 6 spots located on the anterior margin of the forewings. When resting, the crimson hind wings are partially visible through the semi-translucent forewings, giving the lanternfly a red cast. Neatly spaced black rectangular markings color the tips of the forewings in a pattern sometimes likened to brick and mortar. In flight, the spotted lanternfly displays red hind wings with black spots on the proximal third, a white wedge in the middle of the wing, and a solid black wing tip. The abdomen is yellowish with black and white bands on the top and bottom. L. delicatula displays orange, bulbous antennae covered in needle-like tips. The spotted lanternfly is sexually dimorphic. Females have a set of red valvifers at the distal end of the abdomen, which males lack. When gravid (mated), the females' abdomens swell to the point where they have difficulty moving. Adult females, when measured from head to wing tip, have a body length of 20 to 27 millimetres (13⁄16 to 1+1⁄16 in) while males are a smaller size, between 21 and 22 millimetres (53⁄64 and 55⁄64 in). Females also have longer legs as compared to those of their male counterparts. The lanternfly is a planthopper, and uses its wings to assist these jumps rather than making sustained flights. The spotted lanternfly will perform a number of "successive collisions" upon jumping, employing both passive and active righting as it falls. This bouncing provides nymphs, and to a lesser extent adults, multiple opportunities to repeatedly attempt righting themselves following a jump. Additionally, the spotted lanternfly will also perform aerial reorientation and terrestrial righting as means to right itself, collectively giving the spotted lanternfly the ability to land on a variety of surfaces and spread rapidly through an environment. ## Host associations Ailanthus altissima is a tree native to China and invasive to many other areas worldwide. It is considered to be the key host for L. delicatula and plays an important role in the lanternfly life cycle. This tree is the preferred host at all documented locations where the lanternfly and A. altissima co-occur. The spotted lanternfly has a host range of over 173 plant species worldwide, including grape vines, fruit trees, ornamental trees, and woody trees, including apple trees and several Rosaceae with stone fruits. Depending on the life stage of L. delicatula is in, it may prefer other hosts, such as Juglans nigra, instead of A. altissima. The spotted lanternfly has feeding behavior associated with 103 plant taxa, accounting for 33 families and 17 orders, with 56 of these occurring in the United States. This host range includes many agricultural crops – most significantly soybean (Glycine max) – and common forest plants, as the nymphs have been known to associate with other plants beyond A. altissima. The lanternfly has also been recorded causing serious damage on at least 12 ornamental plants such as Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Phellodendron amurense, and Toona sinensis. In the United States, high populations are seen infesting common forest trees, such as maple, birch, and walnut; in Pennsylvania alone, L. delicatula has been found on more than 20 newly recorded host species of woody plants. L. delicatula feeds on woody and nonwoody plants, piercing the phloem tissue of foliage and stems with specialized mouthparts, and sucking the sap; it does not eat the fruit or the leaves per se. The sugary waste fluid they produce can coat leaves and stems, which encourages mold growth and can impede photosynthesis. Lycorma delicatula feed on sap from the trunk or branches of their host plants; because they can appear in such large numbers on a single plant, they can directly cause substantial damage to, and effectively kill parts or the whole of the host. L. delicatula also indirectly affects the health and productivity of their hosts and nearby plants through the production of large amounts of honeydew, the lanternfly's sugary secretions of excess waste and sap, as well as by leaving feeding scars in the host plant's branches that continue to drip sap. The accumulation of this thick honeydew and tree sap on leaves below the host plant canopy can lower plants' photosynthetic potential and affect their health; this reduction is even more pronounced by the possible growth of molds over the sugary compound, which further limits light available to affected plants. The accumulation of sap and honeydew also attracts many species of ants, bees, and wasps; infestations of L. delicatula may thus be hinted at by unusual amounts of molds or stinging insects around specific plants. ## Life cycle Beginning in late April to early May, nymphs hatch from their egg cases. A nymph passes through several immature stages, all of which are wingless. In the first instar, it is black with white spots. Later instars have red patches in addition to the white spots. The final nymphal instar has red wing pads and a red upper body, before molting to the adult form, with a black head and grayish wings with black spots. Nymphs hop or crawl to search for plants on which to feed. Young nymphs (first through third instars) appear to have a wider host range early on, which narrows as they grow older. Though lanternflies have been recorded feeding on several herbaceous plants, this is most likely due to early-instar nymphs climbing or falling onto these plants; late-instar nymphs and adult lanternflies have no reliable association with herbaceous plants. As early as July, adults can be seen, and they mate and lay eggs from late September through the onset of winter. During mating periods, spotted lanternflies will perform migratory flights. During these migrations, adult L. delicatula will perform a brief courtship and copulation which will last for up to 4 hours. In their native Indomalayan habitat, they lay their eggs preferably on tree of heaven (A. altissima), which has toxic metabolites, and is an introduced invasive tree in North America. This host choice is thought to have evolved as a mechanism of protection from natural enemies. The spotted lanternfly has been found to be capable of completing its life cycle with hosts other than A. altissima, but generally fail to thrive unless A. altissima is present. Many hypotheses are given as to why L. delicatula may have preferences for feeding on certain plants. Two examples of possible factors being investigated are the contribution of the overall sugar composition in the plant and the presence of toxic chemicals. The lanternfly lays eggs upon any smooth-trunked tree, stone, or vertical smooth surface, including man-made items such as vehicles, yard furniture, farm equipment, or other items stored outside. The egg masses contain 30–50 eggs covered in a yellowish-brown, waxy deposit, often referred to as an egg case. L. delicatula eggs undergo diapause during embryonic development, requiring two weeks of warm temperatures following winter before hatching is induced. Eggs overwintered for five months or longer demonstrate higher hatch rates and more synchronous hatching, suggesting that cold temperatures increase overall egg survival rates. The lanternfly's life expectancy is one year and the majority of adults die off by the end of December.Testing has been done to determine how overwintering affects the eggs of the species. The highest temperature that will still kill eggs was estimated by South Korean researchers to be between −12.7 and −3.4 °C (9.1 and 25.9 °F) on the basis of mean daily temperatures during their winter of 2009–2010. This estimate contrasts with eggs having survived the much colder winter 2013–14 temperatures in Pennsylvania, United States. Another study done at Rutgers University suggested that −25 °C (−13 °F) is about the temperature at which no eggs are hatched, while −15 °C (5 °F) still had limited hatching, depending upon how long they were chilled and where they were kept. ## Distribution ### Native range The spotted lanternfly is native to subtropical regions of Southeast Asia. Fossil evidence indicates L. delicatula evolved between 55 and 51.6 myr, during the Ypresian Era. Phylogenomic analysis has shown that L. delicatula originally evolved in southwest China, eventually diverging into six phylogeographic lineages. One of these lineages then moved northward, following the Yangtze River during the late Pleistocene Era. In the 1930s, L. delicatula was known to inhabit the Northern Provinces of Shanxi, Shandong and Hebei. Since then, it has expanded its range to include Anhui, Beijing, Guangdong, Henan, Jiangsu, Sichuan, Yunnan and Zhejiang. In traditional Chinese medicine, the spotted lanternfly is believed to be poisonous, and has been used since the 1100s for topical relief from swelling. L. delicatula has also been reported in Taiwan, Vietnam, and India, but ongoing research has yet to conclude whether the species is native to these regions. ### Accidental introduction Lycorma delicatula normally uses A. altissima for feeding and laying eggs, but if it is not present, the insect can lay its eggs on any stationary object, natural or man-made, and feeds on a wide variety of plants. Eggs can easily be moved from place to place without being noticed, giving them an easy way to spread to new areas. Its initial introduction to the United States is believed to have been through this pathway, hitchhiking on an object imported from Asia into Pennsylvania. Adults of L. delicatula jump around the area to find new host plants. As nymphs, they feed on whatever host plant the egg was laid on before moving to another in the area. L. delicatula is capable of surviving and completing its life cycle in environments without its preferred host, A. altissima, albeit with greatly reduced fitness. #### In South Korea In 2006, the spotted lanternfly was introduced in Korea, and has been considered a pest since about 2007. It has since expanded its host range, attacking at least 65 plant species, uninhibited by natural predators. The distribution of L. delicatula has since been predicted using a modeling approach, which showed that this pest has the potential to occur in the majority of South Korea. A possible correlation seems to exist between the widespread distribution of A. altissima and the overall damage on grapevines, as the tree is commonly found growing on the peripheries of Korean vineyards. L. delicatula has been documented to be a pest to grapevines, leading to a decline in the total number and overall quality of the harvested grapes. No quantitative data has been published supporting this correlation, but it has been widely hypothesized. #### In Japan In 2009, Japan reported their first confirmed presence of the spotted lanternfly in Komatsu city (Ishikawa Prefecture). In 2013, it was confirmed to have spread into the Fukui Prefecture. Researchers have estimated that the spotted lanternfly may have been entering the country sporadically since the 1930s, with it only establishing a population during the last two decades. Specimens found in Japan are genetically identical to populations in Beijing, Tianjin, Qingdao, and Shanghai, China. #### In the United States On 29 September 2014, the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture (PDA) and the Pennsylvania Game Commission first confirmed the presence of the spotted lanternfly in Berks County, Pennsylvania, northwest of Philadelphia. Based on its host affinities, it presented a threat to the state's grape, fruit tree, and logging industries. The greatest risk of spread was seen in transportation of materials containing egg masses laid on smooth bark, stone, and other vertical surfaces. The Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture banned the transport of items that could harbor the egg masses, including firewood, lawn mowers, outdoor chairs, trucks, and recreational vehicles from seven municipalities on 1 November 2014. Given the presence of old egg masses found, it has been estimated that the spotted lanternfly may have been in the United States since at least 2012, having survived the unusually cold 2013–14 winter. Since then, over 34 counties in Pennsylvania have declared quarantine. Pennsylvania State University has estimated statewide costs of the spotted lanternfly to be \$99.1 million in agricultural losses, and \$236.3 million to the forestry industry, annually. Models of the spotted lanternfly's spread have projected an annual loss of \$554.0 million, with an additional loss of 4,987 jobs, should it continue to spread to the entirety of Pennsylvania. A national working group led by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, consisting of Penn State Researchers and USDA scientists, was organized "to determine what is known about the lanternfly and what research is needed, including DNA analysis to pinpoint where the infestation originated." Other states began seeing spotted lanternflies as soon as 2018, and by 2021, they were also confirmed to be established in at least parts of Connecticut, Maryland, Massachusetts, Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Indiana, Virginia, and West Virginia, with several of these states issuing quarantine orders. In 2022, the species was confirmed to be present in North Carolina. A large potential range exists for the spotted lanternfly to become established if not prevented, covering almost all of the eastern part of the country, as well as critical wine- and hop-growing valleys of the Pacific coastal states. Interceptions of dead spotted lanternfly specimens have been reported in Michigan, Kansas, Oregon and California, although no live sightings have been reported from these states as of 2021. This increases concerns for possible accidental introduction of the insect to yet more states where they can potentially become established. #### In Canada Canadian Food Inspection Agency has identified a risk of the Spotted Lanternfly entering the country and has previously intercepted adult lanternflies traveling to Ontario in shipping crates. The primary concern is the potential damage the lanternflies could cause to the wine, fruit, and vegetable industries. The Canadian government and agricultural industries are concerned about maintaining quarantine and have expressed hope that quarantine efforts in the United States are successful. Although most of Canada is an unsuitable habitat for L. delicatula, southwestern Ontario and southerly parts of other provinces are modeled to have low suitability for inhabitation. L. delicatula has been theorized to be capable of maintaining a small population in the region although no specimens have yet been discovered. #### In Europe The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization classifies L. delicatula as an A1 pest and anticipates it becoming invasive in Europe. CLIMEX modeling of potential habitats for L. delicatula has found that the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain, and Italy may be capable of supporting small L. delicatula populations. Risk analysis of the spotted lanternfly to become established in Europe has been classified as a moderate to high risk, predominately due to the pervasiveness of A. altissima. #### In Australia Modeling for the life cycle of the spotted lanternfly in Australia has found that development and survival may vary throughout the country, should the spotted lanternfly be introduced. Australia's southwest coastal regions are estimated to have a high viability for the spotted lanternfly but Australian Great Dividing Range and Tasmania were found to have the lowest suitability. Both the pervasiveness of A. altissima and the lack of consistent freezing seasons are considered risk factors in L. delicatula establishing populations in the country. ## Possible pest control Pest control measures and guidelines have been issued by the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture and its PennState Extension. These guidelines include killing L. delicatula eggs between the months of October and May by scraping them off surfaces, "double bag them and throw them in the garbage." People can scrape the eggs directly into plastic bags containing alcohol and/or hand sanitizer to kill them. The PDA has recommended removal of preferred spotted lanternfly hosts, such as tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), saving only male trees to use as "trap" trees, since the spotted lanternfly is attracted to its preferred hosts. The remaining male "trap trees" should be wrapped with sticky bands starting in early spring to catch any nymphs. Wildlife experts have warned to cover the sticky bands on trees with chicken wire or another similar wire after many reports of other animals (e.g. birds) becoming trapped on them, resulting in injury and/or death. As of 2020, the PDA recommended several different pesticides to treat infestations, including insecticidal soaps, neem oil, pyrethrins, and essential oils, as well as bifenthrin, carbaryl, dinotefuran as bark spray, imidacloprid, spinosad, tebuconazole, and zeta-cypermethrin. Infested trees can be treated with systemic pesticides from June to August. The PDA recommends tree injection and bark sprays, applied by professional applicators, and soil drench and foliar sprays, which can be applied by homeowners. In Pennsylvania and Korea, use of brown sticky traps has been effective at capturing nymphs, though adults may be strong enough to escape the adhesive. The spotted lanternfly is known to avoid changes in tree texture and obstacles along the tree trunk, and inward facing traps have shown the greatest efficacy with minimized ecological impact. L. delicatula has been found to be attracted to certain kairomones released by their host plants, and adults and second- to fourth-instar nymphs are also attracted to spearmint oil. Such chemicals (like methyl salicylate) may be used to lure them into sticky traps to augment this pest control method. Researchers using infrared thermography have found that the spotted lanternfly emits long-wavelength infrared (8–14 μm) light during active feeding and rapid hemolymph circulation, indicating a means of early detection. Trained dogs are capable of detecting winterized egg masses. As of 2013, researchers are investigating another method of controlling lanternfly populations through reduction of Ailanthus altissima populations; the use of a fungal pathogen, Verticillium nonalfalfae, has been found to effectively kill the invasive trees by causing vascular wilt. It is thought that lanternflies, which feed on this host plant by piercing and sucking the sap from its vasculature, may be able to "aid" in the ongoing removal of A. altissima by functioning as a vector for the V. nonalfalfae pathogen between different individuals of the insects' preferred host. Researchers have not yet found this to be an effective method, and more research is needed to confirm if this is possible in field settings with V. nonalfalfae or other pathogens. Four species of fungal entomopathogens native to the United States have been identified to cause co-epizootics in the spotted lanternfly. Beauveria bassiana, Batkoa major, Metarhizium pemphigi and Ophiocordyceps delicatula (in the family Entomophthoraceae) have been found to parasitize and kill the spotted lanternfly, with Beauveria bassiana having also shown an ability to kill spotted lanternflies in biopesticide trials. A few natural predators have been identified in the lanternfly's native habitat in China, but are not yet used in biocontrol. Dryinus sinicus, a dryinidae wasp, and Ooencyrtus kuvanae, a chalcid wasp, have been found to parasitize spotted lanternfly eggs and nymphs. Ooencyrtus kuvanae was previously introduced into the United States in 1908 for population control of Lymantria dispar dispar and was first documented to parasitize spotted lanternfly egg masses in 2017. Another biocontrol predator being tested is the eupelmid wasp Anastatus orientalis, due to its high rates of parasitism of eggs. This wasp is under investigation in South Korea and in the United States, where it is being evaluated under quarantine until researchers are certain it will not become an invasive species and attack other insects. ## Potential benefits Spotted lanternfly DNA has been confirmed in southeast Pennsylvania honey samples, presumably caused by honeybees consuming lanternfly honeydew. The honeydew secreted by lanternflies which had feasted on the tree of heaven not only led to changes in flavor deemed beneficial to the marketing of late-summer Pennsylvania honey, but was reported to have less ash content than aphid honeydew. This property makes lanternfly honey a better cold-weather food source for bee colonies and confers some resistance to parasitic mite infestations. ## Photos

Adaptation (film)

2002 American film

Adaptation is a 2002 American meta comedy-drama film directed by Spike Jonze and written by Charlie Kaufman. It features an ensemble cast including Nicolas Cage, Meryl Streep, and Chris Cooper, with Cara Seymour, Brian Cox, Tilda Swinton, Ron Livingston, and Maggie Gyllenhaal in supporting roles. Kaufman based Adaptation on his struggles to adapt Susan Orlean's 1998 nonfiction book The Orchid Thief while suffering from writer's block. It involves elements adapted from the book, plus fictitious elements, including Kaufman's twin brother (also credited as a writer for the film) and a romance between Orlean and Laroche (Chris Cooper). It culminates in completely invented elements, including versions of Orlean and Laroche three years after the events of The Orchid Thief. Adaptation was praised for its direction, screenplay, humor, and the performances of Cage, Cooper, and Streep. It received awards at the 75th Academy Awards, 60th Golden Globe Awards, and 56th British Academy Film Awards, with Cooper winning the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and Kaufman winning the BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. A British Film Institute poll ranked it one of the thirty best films of the 2000s. ## Plot Self-loathing screenwriter Charlie Kaufman is hired to write the screenplay adaptation of Susan Orlean's The Orchid Thief. He struggles with anxiety, social phobia, depression, and low self-esteem. His twin brother, Donald, has moved into his house and is freeloading there. Donald decides to become a screenwriter like Charlie and attends seminars by screenwriting guru Robert McKee. Charlie, who rejects formulaic scriptwriting, wants to ensure that his script is a faithful adaptation of The Orchid Thief but comes to feel that the book does not have a usable narrative and is impossible to turn into a film, which leaves him with a serious case of writer's block. Already well past his deadline with Columbia Pictures and despairing of writing his script with self-reference, Charlie travels to New York City to discuss the screenplay with Orlean directly. Too shy and socially awkward to speak with her upon arriving at her office and after he received the surprising news that Donald's spec script for a clichéd psychological thriller, The 3, is selling for six or seven figures, Charlie resorts to attending McKee's seminar in New York and asks him for advice. Charlie ends up asking Donald to join him in New York to assist with the story structure. Donald, who is confident socially, pretends to be Charlie and interviews Orlean but finds her responses suspicious. He and Charlie follow Orlean to Florida, where she meets John Laroche, the orchid-stealing protagonist of her book and her secret lover. It is revealed that the Seminole wanted the ghost orchid to manufacture a mind-altering drug that causes fascination. Laroche introduces the drug to Orlean. After Laroche and Orlean catch Charlie observing them taking the drug and having sex, Orlean decides that Charlie must be killed to prevent him from potentially exposing them. Orlean forces Charlie to drive to the swamp at gunpoint, intending to kill him. Charlie and Donald escape and hide in the swamp, where they resolve their differences. Laroche accidentally shoots Donald. Charlie and Donald drive off but collide head-on with a ranger's truck. Donald is ejected through the windshield and dies moments later, but Charlie is saved by the airbag and runs into the swamp to hide. There he is spotted by Laroche, who is killed by an alligator before he can kill Charlie. Orlean is arrested. Charlie reconciles with his mother as he calls to inform her of Donald's death. He later tells his former love interest, Amelia, that he loves her. She responds that she loves him too. Charlie finishes the script, which ends with him announcing in a voice-over that the script is finished and that for the first time, he is filled with hope. ## Cast - Nicolas Cage as Charlie and Donald Kaufman - Meryl Streep as Susan Orlean - Chris Cooper as John Laroche - Cara Seymour as Amelia Kavan - Brian Cox as Robert McKee - Tilda Swinton as Valerie Thomas - Ron Livingston as Marty Bowen - Maggie Gyllenhaal as Caroline Cunningham - Judy Greer as Alice - Bob Yerkes as Charles Darwin - Jim Beaver as Ranger Tony - Litefoot as Russell - Jay Tavare as Matthew Osceola - Doug Jones as Augustus Margary - Peter Jason as Defense Attorney - Gary Farmer as Buster Baxley Tom Hanks was originally set for the double role of Charlie and Donald Kaufman. Cage took the role for a \$5 million salary, and wore a fatsuit during filming. Streep expressed strong interest in the role of Susan Orlean before being cast, and took a salary cut in recognition of the film's budget. John Turturro was approached to portray John Laroche. Cooper strongly considered turning down Laroche, but accepted it after his wife urged him to. Albert Finney, Christopher Plummer, Terence Stamp and Michael Caine were considered for the role of Robert McKee, but McKee personally suggested Brian Cox to filmmakers. John Cusack, Catherine Keener, John Malkovich, Lance Acord, Thomas Patrick Smith, and Spike Jonze have uncredited cameos as themselves in scenes where Charlie Kaufman is on the set of Being John Malkovich, which he also wrote. Additional cameos include director Curtis Hanson as Orlean's husband, and David O. Russell as a New Yorker journalist. ## Production The idea to do a film adaptation of Susan Orlean's The Orchid Thief dates back to 1994. Fox 2000 purchased the film rights in 1997, eventually selling them to Jonathan Demme, who set the project at Columbia Pictures. Charlie Kaufman was hired to write the script, but struggled with the adaptation and writer's block. Kaufman eventually created a script of his experience in adaptation, exaggerating events and creating a fictional twin brother. He put Donald Kaufman's name on the script and dedicated the film to him. By September 1999, Kaufman had written two drafts of the script; he turned in a third draft in November 2000. Kaufman said, "The idea of how to write the film didn't come to me until quite late. It was the only idea I had, I liked it, and I knew there was no way it would be approved if I pitched it. So I just wrote it and never told the people I was writing it for. I only told Spike Jonze, as we were making Being John Malkovich and he saw how frustrated I was. Had he said I was crazy, I don't know what I would have done". He also said, "I really thought I was ending my career by turning that in!" Adaptation went on fast track in April 2000, with Kaufman making some revisions. Scott Brake of IGN gave the script a positive review in June 2000, as did Drew McWeeny of Ain't It Cool News in October. Columbia Pictures committed to North America distribution only after Intermedia came aboard to finance the film in exchange for international distribution rights. Filming started in late March 2001 in Los Angeles and finished by June. The "evolution" fantasy sequence was created by Digital Domain, while Skywalker Sound handled audio post production services. The makeup effects (the Nicolas Cage double, Chris Cooper's teeth, and the alligator attack) are by makeup effects designer Tony Gardner and his effects company Alterian, Inc. ## Release Columbia Pictures at one point announced a late 2001 theatrical release date, but Adaptation opened on December 6, 2002, in the United States for a limited release. The film was released nationwide on February 14, 2003, earning \$1,130,480 in its opening weekend in 672 theaters. It went on to gross \$22.5 million in North America and \$10.3 million in foreign countries, for a total of \$32.8 million. ### Home media Adaptation was released on DVD and VHS by Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment in May 2003. Image Entertainment released a bare-bones Blu-ray in 2012, which was followed in 2020 by another release through Shout! Factory. ## Reception ### Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 91% based on 211 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Dizzyingly original, the loopy, multi-layered Adaptation is both funny and thought-provoking." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 83 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "universal acclaim." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C" on an A+ to F scale. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film four out of four stars, writing that it "leaves you breathless with curiosity, as it teases itself with the directions it might take. To watch the film is to be actively involved in the challenge of its creation." He later added the film to his "Great Movies" collection. At the end of 2009, Ebert named the film one of the best of the decade. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone also gave the film a four-star rating, writing, "Screenwriting this smart, inventive, passionate and rip-roaringly funny is a rare species. So all praise to Charlie Kaufman, working with director Spike Jonze to create the most original and outrageous film comedy since the two first teamed on Being John Malkovich, in 1999." Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe wrote, "This is epic, funny, tragic, demanding, strange, original, boldly sincere filmmaking. And the climax, the portion that either sinks the entire movie or self-critically explains how so many others derail, is bananas." David Ansen of Newsweek wrote that Meryl Streep had not "been this much fun to watch in years", while Mike Clark of USA Today gave a largely negative review, mainly criticizing the ending: "Too smart to ignore but a little too smugly superior to like, this could be a movie that ends up slapping its target audience in the face by shooting itself in the foot." Stanley Kauffmann of The New Republic wrote, "Adaptation is almost juvenile showing off—daring to make a film that is in search of a script". ### Accolades In a 2006 survey, the Writers Guild of America named Adaptation the 77th best movie screenplay ever written. ### Response from Susan Orlean Having been submitted the screenplay for approval, Susan Orlean was strongly opposed to the making of the film; she ended up reluctantly approving its production and was ultimately very impressed with the final result. In 2012, she said, "[reading the screenplay] was a complete shock. My first reaction was 'Absolutely not!' They had to get my permission and I just said: 'No! Are you kidding? This is going to ruin my career!' Very wisely, they didn't really pressure me. They told me that everybody else had agreed and I somehow got emboldened. It was certainly scary to see the movie for the first time. It took a while for me to get over the idea that I had been insane to agree to it, but I love the movie now." Orlean called Streep's portrayal of her "one of my favorite performances by her" and appreciated that her version of the character was based not on the real Orlean but on how Streep imagined Orlean based on The Orchid Thief. Despite the film's fictional parts, Orlean praised its fidelity to the book's spirit: "What I admire the most is that it's very true to the book's themes of life and obsession, and there are also insights into things which are much more subtle in the book about longing, and about disappointment." ## See also Films - Identity (2003), a film starring John Cusack containing plot elements similar to The 3, the fictional script by Donald Kaufman's character. - Three (2006), a film (based on Ted Dekker's eponymous novel), which bears a distinct resemblance to the plot of The 3. - List of films featuring fictional films Literature

May Childs Nerney

American civil rights activist

May Childs Nerney (also known as Mary; 1876/1877 – December 17, 1959) was an American civil rights activist and librarian. She was the secretary of the NAACP from 1912 to 1916, overseeing a large increase in the organization's size. She led protests against the segregation of federal government employees in Washington, D.C., and against the film The Birth of a Nation (1915). Nerney came into conflict with several members of the organization and resigned in 1916. She later worked on cataloging Thomas Edison's papers and published a 1934 biography on him, Thomas A. Edison, A Modern Olympian. She also worked with the League of Women Voters, the board of the Young Women's Christian Association, the Consumers Cooperative Services, and the New York Philharmonic Society. ## Early life May Childs Nerney was born in 1876 or 1877. She received degrees from Cornell University in 1902, and, three years later, the New York State Library School. After graduation, she was employed at the New York State Library, running their book purchases and history section. In 1910, Nerney left the New York State Library and accepted a position at the California State Library. As an experienced and educated librarian, Nerney was offered a position by California's state librarian, James Louis Gillis, as part of his efforts to develop the state's library. At the time California had no library school. Nerney moved to California with her mother, but only remained a few months before moving to New Jersey in October 1911. She was hired by the Newark Public Library in 1911. Nerney worked there as a reference librarian until 1912. ## NAACP involvement The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was founded in 1909 as an organization to advocate for civil rights of African-Americans in the United States. Its board initially controlled the organization and generally was first led by white Progressives and W. E. B. Du Bois, a prominent Black intellectual. While the organization's secretariat shifted over the next several decades to become predominantly Black, the first four secretaries of the NAACP were white— a Black secretary was not permanently appointed until James Weldon Johnson in 1920.' In 1912 Nerney was hired as secretary of the NAACP on the basis of her "obvious executive ability." She worked to expand the NAACP through fundraising, growing its membership, expanding the branch system, and managing general organization and coordination.' In 1967, historians Elliott Rudwick and August Meier described Nerney as one of the two most important white secretaries to hold the post of secretary of the NAACP before 1920, along with John R. Shillady, and the most effective. They describe her as "a prodigious worker ... also temperamental, tactless with colleagues, and inept at organizational infighting." She was very cognizant of the fact that she was white and led an organization aimed at improving the lives of Black people, and advocated for the NAACP to be predominantly led by Black people.'''' Historians Rudwick and Meier consider Nerney's most important work as secretary to have been her oversight of a dramatic increase in the NAACP's size. In her four-year stint as secretary, the organization grew from just 300 members across three branches, to 10,000 and 63 branches. She personally traveled around the country and was in communication with many members of the organization. Nerney also advocated for transitioning the group to fundraising predominantly from Black members rather than relying on large donations from white supporters, a move that was supported by members such as Joel Spingarn, who chaired the board. Nerney worked to increase the NAACP's publicity as well, working on many press releases and drawing attention to events. She coordinated legal efforts and would discuss cases with lawyers and investigate happenings, for instance determining that residential segregation in Richmond, Virginia, would not make a good test case. Rudwick and Meier describe procedures that she and Arthur B. Spingarn, who chaired the legal committee, developed as becoming "standard operations" for the NAACP. ### Campaigns and resignation In 1913 Nerney led campaigns protesting segregation of clerks in the federal government, twice visiting Washington, D.C., and she published a report on the situation titled Segregation in the Government Departments at Washington, which included interviews she had conducted with Black government employees describing segregated working conditions in federal workplaces. She also managed a publicity campaign that included efforts to write letters to the government over the issue. The report was eventually widely publicized, including by the Associated Press—the NAACP later claimed it reached "600 dailies, the colored press and secret societies, 50 religious papers, the radical press [...] all members of Congress, except southerners, magazines, and [...] a list of individuals who might be interested." When the controversial film The Birth of a Nation was released in 1915, the NAACP attempted to get it banned or have some scenes cut. Nerney supported attempts to organize a re-filming of the movie as well as state-wide protests, including in Ohio. At times she advocated for more power to be granted to the NAACP secretary role and sought to use her contacts on the board and in lower leadership to galvanize change. For instance, she successfully sought to award the first Spingarn Medal to a scientist, Ernest Everett Just, by pressuring Archibald Grimké and Charles Bentley. She frequently came into conflict with other leaders of the NAACP, including Oswald Garrison Villard, Mary White Ovington, and Du Bois. Nerney was described by Du Bois as having "excellent spirit and indefatigable energy" but wrote that she had "a violent temperature and [was] depressingly suspicious of motives." As conflict between Nerney and Du Bois increased, she submitted a resignation in February 1913 over a disagreement about Du Bois's secretary. She remained secretary and by November was aligned with Du Bois in efforts to strip Villard, at the time the NAACP's chair, of his power. Villard resigned before their plans were actioned. Throughout 1913 and onwards, tensions over the white leadership of the NAACP became increasingly noticeable; Du Bois wrote that Nerney "hasn't an ounce of conscious prejudice, but her every step is unconsciously along the color line." The majority of NAACP members, including Grimké continued to support the interracialness of the NAACP. In July 1914 tensions between Nerney and Du Bois came to a head after Nerney refused to support Du Bois presenting his opinions on laws restricting interracial marriage as NAACP policy. This convinced Du Bois that she had "discredited me behind my back." Rudwick and Meier suggest that Nerney in turn saw Du Bois's use of the NAACP magazine The Crisis as "a personal weapon" he was using to take control of the organization himself. She feared one person's control of the NAACP and instead proposed a three-person "executive committee". This was not successful. A 1914 financial crisis impeded the NAACP's fundraising efforts and the organization was forced to cut its budget. Nerney continued to work for the organization, but became less convinced it was effective, and her rifts continued to grow with several members. In January 1916 she stepped down from the post. She requested that she be replaced by a Black person, offering several suggestions such as Jessie Fauset, but Roy Nash was instead placed in the role. Historian Adam Fairclough described Nerney in 2002 as a "driving force behind the NAACP's early development." A 2004 profile credited her with "laying the fundamental groundwork for what would arise as the most powerful organization battling racial injustice." She also worked with the League of Women Voters, the board of the Young Women's Christian Association, the Consumers Cooperative Services, and the New York Philharmonic Society. ## Thomas Edison In 1928 Nerney was hired to work at the Edison Laboratory where she was the secretary of historical research, and worked to catalog Thomas Edison's papers. She subsequently wrote a biography on Edison because she did not think an adequate biography of Edison had been written. The book, Thomas A. Edison, A Modern Olympian,'' was published in 1934 by Harrison Smith and Robert Haas and was 334 pages long. Nerney had interviewed Edison for the book, and spent two years preparing papers for the work before writing it, including many anecdotes about Edison. A contemporary review by Waldemar Kaempffert wished the book had more substance than anecdotes and was more revealing about Edison. ## Later life Nerney left the Edison Laboratory to work at the Newark Library for a decade before her 1948 retirement. She died on December 17, 1959 at the age of eighty three.

Manzanita tornado

2016 tornado in Manzanita, Oregon

On October 14, 2016, a rare tornado struck the city of Manzanita, Oregon. A powerful extratropical cyclone traversing the Pacific Ocean produced localized supercell thunderstorms along coastal Oregon. The Portland branch of the National Weather Service issued a record-breaking ten tornado warnings that morning for their forecast area. One particular cell spawned an EF2 tornado at 8:18 a.m. PDT (15:18 UTC) which traveled through the center of Manzanita. Although it lasted only two minutes, the tornado damaged 128 homes, rendered one uninhabitable, and downed one-third of the city's trees. No injuries or deaths were reported and damage reached \$1 million. A state of emergency was declared for Manzanita immediately after the tornado; however, clean-up operations had to be delayed for two days as another storm system impacted the region. In the months following the tornado, approximately \$70,000 was raised through various donations. ## Meteorological synopsis During the overnight hours of October 13–14, 2016, a powerful extratropical cyclone approached the Pacific Northwest. The Storm Prediction Center noted a low possibility for thunderstorms in association with this system as it neared the coast, and primarily focused on the large-scale damaging wind threat. Atmospheric instability only reached modest levels locally, represented by convective available potential energy (CAPE) values of 200–400 J/kg. Low-level wind shear reached values just supportive enough for tornadic development within low-topped thunderstorms developing along a cold front offshore. Subsequent enhancement of mid-level lapse rates from cold air aloft in combination with the aforementioned factors yielded a localized environment favorable to low-topped supercells along the immediate Oregon coast. Several potentially tornadic storms developed during the morning hours and impacted the state, prompting a flurry of tornado warnings by the Portland branch of the National Weather Service. Ten tornado warnings were issued that day, the most ever by the office in a 24-hour period and almost as many as the total number issued between 1986 and 2015. At 8:16 a.m. PDT (15:16 UTC), a warning was issued for Tillamook County for a rotating thunderstorm. Two minutes later, a waterspout moved ashore along Treasure Cove Lane in Manzanita. The tornado traveled approximately 0.7 miles (1.1 km) through the center of the city, reaching a maximum width of 225 yards (206 m) and causing extensive damage, before dissipating two minutes later near Highway 101. Peak winds in the tornado were estimated at 125–130 mph (201–209 km/h), ranking it as a high-end EF2 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale. The parent thunderstorm soon encountered a more stable environment and weakened as it continued inland. A second tornado, also originating as a waterspout, was confirmed in Oceanside—18 miles (29 km) south of Manzanita—around 9:00 a.m. PDT (16:00 UTC), dissipated without causing damage, and was rated EFU. With two confirmed tornadoes, the October 14, 2016, event marked the first time since November 12, 1991, that more than one tornado touched down in a single day in Northwest Oregon. Furthermore, the Manzanita tornado was only the fifth tornado in Tillamook County since reliable records began in 1950. ## Impact and aftermath Although a short-lived tornado, the storm tracked directly through Manzanita and inflicted widespread damage. Assessments by the Tillamook County Sheriff and National Weather Service showed that 128 of the city's 600 homes sustained varying damage. Some homes had their windows blown out. Two businesses were destroyed and one home was rendered uninhabitable; multiple structures lost their roof. One home was shifted 19 inches (48 cm) off its cinderblock foundation. Approximately one-third of the trees in Manzanita were downed or otherwise damaged. Damage in the city amounted to \$1 million. The tornado and thunderstorm left 500 of the city's residents without power; 2,500 people suffered power outages across Tillamook County from the storms as a whole. Manzanita Mayor Garry Bullard declared a state of emergency immediately following the tornado. A public shelter was temporarily opened at the Calvary Bible Church by the American Red Cross for displaced residents, and volunteers from the relief group arrived to provide aid. However, residents were initially advised to shelter in place due to continued inclement weather. Additionally, 35 members of the Emergency Volunteer Corps of Nehalem Bay traveled to the city to help direct traffic and provide any assistance requested of them. The group opened two emergency shelters and provided food to residents and emergency officials. As a precautionary measure, volunteer firefighters were called in and an extra ambulance was provided by Tillamook County to the city. Soon after the tornado, another powerful storm system—associated with the remnants of Typhoon Songda—impacted the region, forcing residents to make quick, temporary repairs and delaying clean-up efforts until October 16. Heavy machinery, including snowplows, was brought in to clear roads, with assistance from local contractors. State and local officials asked people to avoid the damaged area for three days after the tornado. Residents of Manzanita, a tourism-driven community, banded together to establish a relief fund for affected home and business owners. In the months following the tornado, approximately \$70,000 was raised through donations: \$31,000 through various GoFundMe charities (including \$1,000 from the company itself), \$18,000 from mail-in individual donations, \$17,000 through local fundraisers, and \$2,625 though CARE. The City of Manzanita spent \$35,000 to remove debris by November 10. Reconstruction of damage homes began in November; however, insurance freezes delayed efforts. More than 200 trees were replanted by community members after Thanksgiving. Widespread strong winds from the parent storm system left 15,000 people without power in Oregon. Winds gusted up to 103 mph (166 km/h) at Cape Meares while Portland saw its rainiest October 13 since reliable records began. The inclement weather prompted multiple schools to delay openings on October 13 and 14. ## See also - List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks

Stokesay Castle

Historic house museum in Shropshire, England

Stokesay Castle is one of the finest surviving fortified manor houses in England, and situated at Stokesay in Shropshire. It was largely built in its present form in the late 13th century by Laurence of Ludlow, on the earlier castle (some of which still survives) founded by its original owners the de Lacy family, from whom it passed to their de Verdun heirs, who retained feudal overlordship of Stokesay until at least 1317. Laurence 'of' Ludlow was one of the leading wool merchants in England, who intended it to form a secure private house and generate income as a commercial estate. Laurence's descendants continued to own the castle until the 16th century, when it passed through various private owners. By the time of the outbreak of the First English Civil War in 1642, Stokesay was owned by William Craven, 1st Earl of Craven (1608–1697), a supporter of King Charles I. After the Royalist war effort collapsed in 1645, Parliamentary forces besieged the castle in June and quickly forced its garrison to surrender. Parliament ordered the property to be slighted, but only minor damage was done to the walls, allowing Stokesay to continue to be used as a house by the Baldwyn family until the end of the 17th century. In the 18th century the Baldwyns rented the castle out for a range of agricultural and manufacturing purposes. It fell into disrepair, and the antiquarian John Britton noted during his visit in 1813 that it had been "abandoned to neglect, and rapidly advancing to ruin". Restoration work was carried out in the 1830s and 1850s by William Craven, the second Earl of Craven. In 1869 the Craven estate, then heavily in debt, was sold to the wealthy industrialist John Derby Allcroft who paid for another round of extensive restoration during the 1870s. Both of these owners attempted to limit any alterations to the existing buildings during their conservation work, which was unusual for this period. The castle became a popular location for tourists and artists, and was formally opened to paying visitors in 1908. Allcroft's descendants fell into financial difficulties during the early 20th century, however, and it became increasingly difficult for them to cover the costs of maintaining Stokesay. In 1986 Jewell Magnus-Allcroft finally agreed to place Stokesay Castle into the guardianship of English Heritage, and the castle was left to the organisation on her death in 1992. English Heritage carried out extensive restoration of the castle in the late 1980s. In the 21st century, Stokesay Castle continues to be operated as a tourist attraction, receiving 39,218 visitors in 2010. Architecturally, Stokesay Castle is "one of the best-preserved medieval fortified manor houses in England", according to historian Henry Summerson. The castle comprises a walled, moated enclosure, with an entrance way through a 17th-century timber and plaster gatehouse. Inside, the courtyard faces a stone hall and solar block, protected by two stone towers. The hall features a 13th-century wooden-beamed ceiling, and 17th-century carved figures ornament the gatehouse and the solar. The castle was never intended to be a serious military fortification, but its style was intended to echo the much larger castles being built by Edward I in North Wales (Citation required). Originally designed as a prestigious, secure, comfortable home, the castle has changed very little since the 13th century, and is a rare, surviving example of a near complete set of medieval buildings. English Heritage has minimised the amount of interpretative material displayed at the property and kept the castle largely unfurnished. ## History ### 13th–15th centuries Stokesay took its name from the Anglo-Saxon word stoches, meaning cattle farm, and the surname of the de Says family, who had held the land from the beginning of the 12th century onwards. Stokesay was originally owned by the de Lacy family, who had built the first Ludlow Castle within their manor of Stanton Lacy. In Domesday Book, Roger de Laci is recorded as holding Stoches of the King in capite. The manor was later held under the de Lacys by members of the de Say family, whose name attached to 'Stoke' created the name - Stokesay - by which it is still known today. In 1241, the then lord of Stokesay, Walter de Lacy, Lord of Meath, died. His son Gilbert had predeceased him, so his extensive estates were divided among Walter's granddaughters. One of these, Margery, had married Sir John de Verdun of Alton Castle in Staffordshire, son of the heiress Roesia de Verdun and Theobald le Botiller. Margery's share of her grandfather's estates included Stokesay and a moiety of nearby Ludlow, which thereafter were held by the de Verduns. On 1 September 1270, to raise money to pay for going on the Eighth Crusade with Prince Edward, John de Verdun conveyed a tenancy of his manor of Stokesay to Philip de Whichecote for a term of 3 years, which was later extended for the term of Philip's life, when it would revert to John de Verdun. However, John died in 1274 and Stokesay was inherited by his son Theobald I de Verdun. The Inquisition Post Mortem following John's death revealed that the de Verduns' feoffee at Stokesay at the time was Reginald de Grey. In the feodaries of 1284, Laurence de Ludlow is said to hold the Vill of Stokesay for one knight's-fee under John de Grey, which John held it under Theobald de Verdun, who held of the King. Stokesay Castle was largely built in its present form during the 1280s and 1290s in the village of Stokesay by Laurence de Ludlow, who was a very wealthy wool merchant. By chance there may have been earlier connections between Laurence de Ludlow and the de Verduns, which may add to the context within which he became their tenant. Laurence de Ludlow's wife was Agnes de Audley, daughter of James de Audley, Justiciar of Ireland and Sheriff of Staffordshire and Shropshire. James de Audley's family had been tenants and close associates of the de Verdons of Alton. James's father, Henry de Audley was the son of Adam de Audley and Emma, daughter of Ralph/Radulphus fitzOrm whose niece Alina, daughter of Robert fitzOrm, had married Engenulph de Gresley, one of the de Stafford family whose great-grandfather was Robert de Stafford. Engenulph and Alina's daughter Hawise de Gresley was Henry de Audley's 2nd cousin; she had married Henry de Verdun, son of Bertram III de Verdun. This means that Laurence de Ludlow was related by marriage to cousins of his feudal lord Theobald de Verdun. Laurence's mother-in-law Ela de Audley was the daughter of William II Longespée, whose father William I Longespée, Earl of Salisbury was the illegitimate son of Henry II by Ida de Tosny, who became the wife of Roger Bigod, Earl of Norfolk. John de Verdun's grandfather, Nicholas de Verdun had been brought up at the court of Ida and Roger Bigod. Laurence bought the tenancy of Stokesay from Philip de Whichecote in 1281, possibly for around £266, which he could easily have afforded, as he had made a fortune from the wool trade. Laurence exported wool from the Welsh Marches, travelling across Europe to negotiate sales, and maintaining offices in Shrewsbury and London. He had become the most important wool merchant in England, helping to set government trade policies and lending money to the major nobility. Stokesay Castle would form a secure personal home for Laurence, well-positioned close to his other business operations in the region. It was also intended to be used as a commercial estate, as it was worth around £26 a year, with 120 acres (49 ha) of agricultural land, 6 acres (2.4 ha) of meadows, an expanse of woodland, along with watermills and a dovecot. Work began on the castle at some point after 1285, and Laurence moved into his new property in the early 1290s. The castle was, as Nigel Pounds describes it, "both pretentious and comfortable", initially comprising living accommodation and a tower to the north. In 1291 Laurence received permission from the King to fortify his castle - a document called a licence to crenellate - and he may have used this authority to construct the southern tower, which had a particularly martial appearance and was added onto the castle shortly afterwards. In November 1294 Laurence was drowned at sea off the south of England, and his son, William, may have finished some of the final work on Stokesay. His descendants, who took the Ludlow surname, continued to control Stokesay Castle until the end of the 15th century, when it passed into the Vernon family by marriage. It appears that in 1317, Stokesay was still being held by the Ludlows under the de Verduns. This is shown by the Inquest Post Mortem of Theobald II de Verdun (son of Theobald I de Verdun), taken in March of that year, which gives the Heirs of Sir William de Lodlowe as holding of the deceased a knight's-fee in Southstoke ('north Stoke' was one of the de Verdun's other manors in Shropshire, Stoke-on-Tern). It was only sometime after this date that Stokesay finally passed entirely into the possession of the Ludlow family. ### 16th–17th centuries Stokesay Castle was passed by Thomas Vernon to his grandson Henry Vernon in 1563. The family had hopes of becoming members of the peerage and, possibly as a consequence, the property began to be regularly called a "castle" for the first time during this period. Henry divided his time between London and Stokesay, probably staying in the north tower. Henry stood surety for an associate's debts and when they defaulted, he was pursued for this money, resulting in a period of imprisonment in Fleet Prison; by 1598 he sold the castle for £6,000 to pay off his own substantial debts. The new owner, Sir George Mainwaring, sold the property on again in 1620, via a consortium of investors, to the wealthy widow and former Mayoress of London, Dame Elizabeth Craven for £13,500. The estates around Stokesay were now valuable, bringing in over £300 a year in income. Elizabeth's son, William, spent little time at Stokesay and by the 1640s had leased it out to Charles Baldwyn, and his son Samuel. He rebuilt the gatehouse during 1640 and 1641, however, at a cost of around £533. In 1642 the English Civil War broke out between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament. A Royalist supporter, William spent the war years at Elizabeth Stuart's court at the Hague, and gave large sums of money to the King's war effort. William installed a garrison in the castle, where the Baldwins were also strong Royalists, and, as the conflict progressed, the county of Shropshire became increasingly Royalist in sympathies. Despite this, by late 1644 bands of vigilante clubmen had risen up in Shropshire, complaining about the activities of Royalist forces in the region, and demanding, among other things, the removal of the garrison from Stokesay Castle. By early 1645 the war had turned decisively against the King, and in February, Parliamentary forces seized the county town of Shrewsbury. This exposed the rest of the region to attack, and in June a force of 800 Parliamentary soldiers pushed south towards Ludlow, attacking Stokesay en route. The Royalist garrison, led by Captain Daurett, was heavily outnumbered and it would have been impossible for them to effectively defend the new gatehouse, which was essentially ornamental. Nonetheless, both sides complied with the protocols of warfare at the time, resulting in a bloodless victory for the Parliamentary force: the besiegers demanded that the garrison surrender, the garrison refused, the attackers demanded a surrender for a second time, and this time the garrison were able to give up the castle with dignity. Shortly afterwards on 9 June, a Royalist force led by Sir Michael Woodhouse attempted to recapture the castle, now garrisoned by Parliament. The counter-attack was unsuccessful, ending in the rout of the Royalist forces in a skirmish at the nearby village of Wistanstow. Unlike many castles in England which were deliberately seriously damaged, or slighted, to put them beyond military use, Stokesay escaped substantial harm after the war. Parliament sequestrated the property from William and ordered the slighting of the castle in 1647, but only pulled down the castle's curtain wall, leaving the rest of the complex intact. Samuel returned in 1649 to continue to rent the castle during the years of the Commonwealth, and put in wood panelling and new windows into parts of the property. With the restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660, William's lands were returned to him, and the Baldwyns continued to lease Stokesay Castle from him. ### 18th–19th centuries During the 18th century, Stokesay Castle continued to be leased by the Baldwyn family, although they sublet the property to a range of tenants; after this point it ceased to be used as a domestic dwelling. Two wood and plaster buildings, built against the side of the hall, were demolished around 1800, and by the early 19th century the castle was being used for storing grain and manufacturing, including barrel-making, coining and a smithy. The castle began to deteriorate, and the antiquarian John Britton noted during his visit in 1813 that it had been "abandoned to neglect, and rapidly advancing to ruin: the glass is destroyed, the ceilings and floors are falling, and the rains streams through the opening roof on the damp and mouldering walls". The smithy in the basement of the south tower resulted in a fire in 1830, which caused considerable damage to the castle, gutting the south tower. Extensive decay in the bases of the cruck tresses in the castle's roof posed a particular threat to the hall, as the decaying roof began to push the walls apart. Restoration work was carried out in the 1830s by William Craven, 2nd Earl of Craven. This was a deliberate attempt at conserving the existing building, rather than rebuilding it, and was a very unusual approach at this time. By 1845, stone buttresses and pillars had been added to support parts of the hall and its roof. Research by Thomas Turner was published in 1851, outlining the history of the castle. Frances Stackhouse Acton, a local landowner, took a particular interest in the castle, and in 1853 convinced William to carry out further repair work on the castle, under her supervision, at a cost of £103. In 1869 the Craven estate, 5,200 acres (2,100 ha) in size but by now heavily mortgaged, was purchased by John Derby Allcroft for £215,000. Allcroft was the head of Dents, a major glove manufacturer, through which he had become extremely wealthy. The estate included Stokesay Castle, where from around 1875 onwards Allcroft undertook extensive restoration work over several years. Stokesay was in serious need of repairs: the visiting writer Henry James noted in 1877 that the property was in "a state of extreme decay". Allcroft attempted what the archaeologist Gill Chitty has described as a "simple and unaffected" programme of work, which generally attempted to avoid excessive intervention. He may have been influenced by the contemporary writings of the local vicar, the Reverend James La Touche, who took a somewhat romanticised approach to the analysis of the castle's history and architecture. The castle had become a popular sight for tourists and artists by the 1870s and the gatehouse was fitted out to form a house for a caretaker to oversee the property. Following the work, the castle was in good condition once again by the late 1880s. ### 20th–21st centuries Further repairs to Stokesay Castle were required in 1902, carried out by Allcroft's heir, Herbert, with help from the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. The Allcroft family faced increasing financial difficulty in the 20th century and the castle was formally opened for visitors in 1908, with much of the revenue reinvested in the property, but funds for repairs remained in short supply. By the 1930s the Allcroft estate was in serious financial difficulties, and the payment of two sets of death duties in 1946 and 1950 added to the family's problems. Despite receiving considerable numbers of visitors - over 16,000 in 1955 - it was becoming increasingly impractical to maintain the castle, and calls were made for the State to take over the property. For several decades the owners, Philip and Jewell Magnus-Allcroft, declined these proposals and continued to run the castle privately. In 1986 Jewell finally agreed to place Stokesay Castle into the guardianship of English Heritage, and the castle was left to the organisation on her death in 1992. The castle was passed to English Heritage largely unfurnished, with minimal interpretative material in place, and it needed fresh restoration. There were various options for taking forward the work, including restoring the castle to resemble a particular period in its history; using interactive approaches such as "living history" to communicate the context to visitors; or using the site to demonstrate restoration techniques appropriate to different periods. These were rejected in favour of a policy of minimising any physical intervention during the restoration and preserving the building in the condition it was passed to English Heritage, including its unfurnished interior. The archaeologist Gill Chitty has described this as encouraging visitors to undergo a "personal discovery of a sense of historical relationship and event" around the castle. Against this background, an extensive programme of restoration work was carried out between August 1986 and December 1989. In the 21st century, Stokesay Castle continues to be operated by English Heritage as a tourist attraction, receiving 39,218 visitors in 2010. British Airways, in conjunction with English Heritage, named their last Boeing 757 aircraft Stokesay Castle in 2010 for its final month of flying. The castle is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building and as a scheduled monument. ## Architecture ### Structure Stokesay Castle was built on a patch of slightly rising ground in the basin of the River Onny. It took the form of a solar block and hall attached to a northern and southern tower; this combination of hall and tower existed elsewhere in England in the 13th century, particularly in northern England. A crenellated curtain wall, destroyed in the 17th century, enclosed a courtyard, with a gatehouse - probably originally constructed from stone, rebuilt in timber and plaster around 1640 - controlling the entrance. The wall would have reached 34 feet (10 m) high measured from the base of the moat. The courtyard, around 150 feet (46 m) by 125 feet (38 m), contained additional buildings during the castle's history, probably including a kitchen, bakehouse and storerooms, which were pulled down around 1800. The castle was surrounded by a moat, between 15 feet (4.6 m) and 25 feet (7.6 m) across, although it is uncertain whether this was originally a dry moat, as it is in the 21st century, or water-filled from the pond and nearby stream. The spoil from digging out the moat was used to raise the height of the courtyard. Beyond the moat were a lake and ponds that were probably intended to be viewed from the south tower. The parish church of St John the Baptist, of Norman origins but largely rebuilt in the middle of the 17th century, lies just alongside the castle. Stokesay Castle forms what archaeologist Gill Chitty describes as "a comparatively complete ensemble" of medieval buildings, and their survival, almost unchanged, is extremely unusual. Historian Henry Summerson considers it "one of the best-preserved medieval fortified manor houses in England". ### Buildings The gatehouse is a two-storied, 17th century building with exposed timber and plasterwork, constructed in a distinctively local Shropshire style. It features elaborate wooden carvings on the exterior and interior doorways, including angels, the biblical characters of Adam, Eve and the serpent from the Garden of Eden, as well as dragons and other nude figures. It was designed as essentially an ornamental building, with little defensive value. The south tower forms an unequal pentagon in shape, and has three storeys with thick walls. The walls were built to contain the stairs and garderobes, the unevenly positioned empty spaces weakening the structure, and this meant that two large buttresses had to be added to the tower during its construction to support the walls. The current floors are Victorian in origin, having been built after the fire of 1830, but the tower remains unglazed, as in the 13th century, with shutters at the windows providing protection in winter. The basement was originally only accessible from the first floor, and would have provided a secure area for storage, in addition to also containing a well. The first floor, which formed the original entrance to the tower, contains a 17th-century fireplace, reusing the original 13th-century chimney. The second floor has been subdivided in the past, but has been restored to form a single chamber, as it would have been when first built. The roof of the south tower provides views of the surrounding landscape; in the 13th-century protective wooden mantlets would have been fitted into the gaps of the merlons along the battlements, and during the English Civil War it was equipped with additional wooden defences to protect the garrison. The hall and solar block are adjacent to the south tower, and were designed to be symmetrical when seen from the courtyard, although the addition of the additional stone buttresses in the 19th century has altered this appearance. The hall is 54.5 feet (16.6 m) long and 31 feet (9.4 m) wide, with has three large, wooden 13th-century arches supporting the roof, unusually, given its size, using lateral wooden collars, but no vertical king-posts. The roof's cruck joists now rest on 19th-century stone supports, but would have originally reached down to the ground. The roof is considered by the historian Henry Summerson to be a "rare survival for the period". In the medieval period a wooden screen would have cut off the north end, providing a more secluded dining area. The solar block has two storeys and a cellar, and would have probably acted as the living space for Laurence of Ludlow when he first moved into the castle. The solar room itself is on the first floor, and is reached by external steps. The wood panelling and carved wooden fireplace are of 17th-century origin, probably from around 1640. This woodwork would have originally been brightly painted, and included spy-holes so that the hall could be observed from the solar. The three-storey north tower is reached by a 13th-century staircase in the hall, which leads onto the first floor. The first floor was divided into two separate rooms shortly after the construction of the tower, and contain various decorative tiles, probably from Laurence's house in Ludlow. The walls of the second floor are mostly half-timbered, jettying out above the stone walls beneath them; the tower has its original 13th-century fireplace, although the wooden roof is 19th-century, modeled on the 13th-century original, and the windows are 17th-century insertions. The details and the carpenters' personal marks on the woodwork show that the hall, solar and north tower were all constructed under the direction of the same carpenter in the late 1280s and early 1290s. ### Interpretation Stokesay Castle was never intended to be a serious military fortification. As long ago as 1787, the antiquarian Francis Grose observed that it was "a castellated mansion rather than a castle of strength", and more recently the historian Nigel Pounds has described the castle as forming "a lightly fortified home", providing security but not intended to resist a military attack. The historian Henry Summerson describes its military features as "superficial", and Oliver Creighton characterises Stokesay as being more of a "picturesque residence" than a fortification. Among its weaknesses were the positioning of its gatehouse, on the wrong side of the castle, facing away from the road, and the huge windows in the hall, reaching down to the ground and making access relatively easy to any intruder. Indeed, this vulnerability may have been intentional. Its builder Laurence was a newly moneyed member of the upper class, and he may not have wanted to erect a fortification that would have threatened the established Marcher Lords in the region. Nonetheless, Stokesay Castle was intended to have a dramatic, military appearance, echoing the castles then being built by Edward I in North Wales. Visitors would have approached the castle across a causeway, with an excellent view of the south tower, potentially framed by and reflected in the water-filled moat. The south tower was probably intended to resemble the gatehouses of contemporary castles such as Caernarfon and Denbigh, and would probably have originally shared the former's "banded" stonework. Cordingley describes the south tower as "adding prestige rather than security". Visitors would then have passed by the impressive outside of the main hall block, before entering the castle itself, which Robert Liddiard notes might have been an "anticlimax from the point of view of the medieval visitor". ### Carved 17th-century woodwork ## In folklore According to legend, Stokesay was once the home of two giants, one of whom lived on View Edge, and the other on Norton Camp. They kept their treasure in Stokesay Castle, but upon losing the key to the castle, they both died of grief. ## See also - Castles in Great Britain and Ireland - List of castles in England - Listed buildings in Craven Arms - Stokesay Court, built by John Derby Allcroft

Return of the Obra Dinn

2018 video game

Return of the Obra Dinn is a 2018 adventure and puzzle video game created by Lucas Pope and published by 3909 LLC. It was Pope's second commercial game, following 2013's Papers, Please, and was first released for macOS and Windows before being ported to Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One a year later. Return of the Obra Dinn was praised for its gameplay, art style, and narrative; it won several awards including the Seumas McNally Grand Prize. The game is set in 1807 with the player assuming the role of insurance inspector for the East India Company. The Obra Dinn, a merchant ship missing for five years, has reappeared off the coast of England with no one alive aboard. The player is dispatched to the ghost ship to perform an appraisal, reconstruct the events of the voyage, and determine the fates of all sixty souls aboard, providing a cause of death for those deceased or a probable current location for those presumed living. Investigation is accomplished through the use of the "Memento Mortem", a pocket watch capable of transporting its user to the moment of death of any corpse located. The game, played in first-person perspective, uses a "1-bit" monochromatic graphical style inspired by games on early Macintosh computers. ## Gameplay The Obra Dinn, insured by the East India Company, went missing in 1803 as it was to sail around the Cape of Good Hope. It has since washed up in port with all sixty passengers and crew dead or missing. The player is tasked with determining the fate of all souls on board, including their names, where and how they met their fate, who their killer was, and their location should they be alive. Return of the Obra Dinn is effectively one large logic puzzle. The game is played as a first-person adventure game, allowing the player to fully explore the Obra Dinn, using a monochromatic dithering style to mimic the shading and color methods of early computer games. To help track their progress, the player is given a logbook that includes a drawing of all the crew members, the crew roster, and a plan of the ship. They are also given the Memento Mortem, a pocketwatch-like device that can be used on a corpse. When activated, the player will hear the events that transpired in the seconds immediately before death, and can then explore the moment of death frozen in time. This is used to identify who was present, to capture moments in other rooms or on other decks, and to make note of details at the scene. These are used to help connect the faces of crewmates to their names and roles. While exploring a moment of death, the player can use the pocketwatch again to enter more corpses captured in the vision. With each death, the logbook automatically fills in basic information. The player is tasked only with naming those present and accurately describing their cause of death. Naming the crew is done through small clues, inferences, and logical deduction – mainly, narrowing possibilities as the game progresses. The causes of death are selected out of a catalogue, and some deaths will accept more than one solution. The player can revise their logbook as they gain more information, but to deter guesswork, correct "fates" are validated only in sets of three, with the exception of the last six fates discovered in a playthrough, which are validated in pairs. ## Plot The Obra Dinn, an East Indiaman trade ship, departs from Falmouth to the Orient in 1802 with 51 crewmen and 9 passengers. The ship fails to meet her rendezvous at the Cape of Good Hope, and is declared lost. Five years later, the Obra Dinn reappears off the coast of England with every hand either dead or missing. The East India Company sends its Chief Inspector to determine what happened aboard the ship. The inspector receives a logbook and the Memento Mortem stopwatch from Henry Evans, the ship's surgeon. The stopwatch, when used on a corpse, enables the user to experience and walk around the exact moment of the corpse's death, frozen in time. With this and the logbook, the inspector sets out to unravel the fate of all 60 aboard. The Obra Dinn had launched with a number of passengers, including two royal Formosans and their guards carrying an exquisite treasure chest. Initial calamity struck after launch, with one crew member killed by falling cargo, and two others taken by pneumonia. However, a small group of the crew saw the potential of stealing the Formosan chest and, as they neared the Canary Islands, tricked the Captain into executing the guard of the shell for a murder committed by a different crew member, abducted the royal Formosans and the chest via rowboat and fled. However, three mermaids ambushed the boats, killing most of the group. The mermaids' attack was quelled when a Formosan used a magical shell pulled from the chest to stun the mermaids, but this killed himself as well. The remaining crew member returned to the Obra Dinn, along with the captured mermaids (who also had shells), but he was shot on approach by the surviving Formosan guard. As they were brought aboard, the mermaids attacked and killed more of the crew before they were subdued and locked in the lazarette. The Obra Dinn circled around to return to England due to the increasing number of deaths. As they started their return, the mermaids caused a terrible storm to strike, and a pair of sea demons mounted on giant spider crabs boarded the ship intent on reaching the lazarette to liberate the mermaids, killing more of the crew before being put down. Shortly after dispelling the first assault, the ship was attacked by a kraken, killing more crewmen and the captain's wife. The captain went to the lazarette and threatened to kill all the mermaids in hopes of ending the attack. He executed two before the final one called off the kraken. The shells and the surviving mermaid were then tossed overboard by one of the Captain's mates, with the mermaid agreeing to guide the ship back to England. The surviving passengers and some of the crew decided to abandon the Obra Dinn and make for the western coast of Africa. Evans, knowing that the East India Company will investigate the ship via the Memento Mortem, purposefully killed his pet monkey inside the locked lazarette, and kept its paw for safekeeping before leaving for Africa with the others. The three remaining crewmen turned on the captain, wanting to reclaim the chest and shells as compensation for their hardships, not knowing they were already thrown overboard. The captain killed the mutineers, and then, next to his wife's body, committed suicide. Several years later, the insurance inspector is able to catalogue all the deaths on the ship, except those within the locked lazarette. After the inspector leaves the ship, a fierce storm rolls in and the Obra Dinn sinks. The completed logbook is mailed back to Evans, and an insurance report is written, compensating or fining the estates of lost crewmen, depending on their conduct. A year later, Jane Bird, one of the survivors who fled with Evans, mails the book back to the inspector along with the monkey's paw and a letter saying that Evans had died shortly after receiving the logbook back. The Inspector then uses the Memento Mortem on the monkey paw in order to deduce what happened in the lazarette, thereby completing the whole story of the Obra Dinn. ## Development Over the course of his career, American video game designer Lucas Pope had developed an appreciation of "1-bit" graphics used in many early Macintosh games. Following his prior game Papers, Please, Pope had wanted to use the 1-bit aesthetic in an experimental game, leading him to develop a game engine that allowed the player to move in a three dimensional space, rendered in a vintage style. Pope wanted to ensure the game was visually legible from most angles, challenging him on some of the rendering aspects. Separately, he found that while the 1-bit graphics worked fine when displayed in an on-screen window, at full screen resolution, players suffered from motion sickness. Rendering routines were modified to create the equivalent of motion blur for this dithering approach. At one point, Pope had considered creating a cathode ray tube render effect, but opted against this. With the style in place, Pope worked backwards to determine what game to make. His initial idea was one where the player character repeatedly died; the player would see the events of the death from their corpse, and would then be transported back one minute to manipulate the environment so as to recreate that death. However, Pope found this technically challenging, and instead sparked the idea of using freeze-frame flashbacks depicting moments of death to tell a story. The game's narrative took the longest portion of development. Pope teased Return of the Obra Dinn in 2014 while completing Papers, Please, anticipating a release the next year. Instead, it took four more years. Pope released a limited demo for the 2016 Game Developers Conference, which had only six fates for the player to deduce. Feedback from this was positive, so he began to expand the game's story more than he expected. Internally, Pope created spreadsheets to link all the various characters and their fates, and to ensure that players would be able to logically follow chains of deaths. This ended with him writing the necessary dialog for some scenes and hiring voice actors, provided by locals Pope auditioned, who could mimic the accents of the time period. With a more complete story, Pope created a new demo to take to PAX Australia in November 2016, adding thirteen additional characters to the original demo. However, unlike the first demo, the deaths were presented out of chronological order, and players were confused about how to progress. Pope realized this confusion would become worse with the full cast of characters. He found a solution by having ten events in the narrative serve as a catalyst for deaths, breaking the story into sections and allowing the plot to be more digestible to the player. Dividing the game into "chapters" then led to the creation of the logbook, serving as the timeline for the game and cataloguing the ship's crew in the same manner as the real East India Company. Pope stated he was not worried about how well Return of the Obra Dinn would perform financially, as he was still earning appreciable revenue from Papers, Please. He considered Obra Dinn a passion project and did not pressure himself with deadlines or marketing. Return of the Obra Dinn was released for macOS and Windows computers on October 17, 2018, published by the Japanese-based studio 3909. Versions for the Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One, ported by Warp Digital, were released on October 18, 2019. Physical editions were released through Limited Run Games for the PS4 and Nintendo Switch in 2020. ## Reception Return of the Obra Dinn received "generally favorable reviews", according to review aggregator website Metacritic. Polygon's Colin Campbell recommended the game, saying "Return of the Obra Dinn takes the whodunit's conventions and twists them into kaleidoscopic narratives that are perplexing and delightful. This isn't merely a great game, it's the work of an intense and creative intelligence." Patrick Hancock for Destructoid commented that Pope had "knocked it out of the park" as a follow-up to Papers, Please, and commented that even after finishing the game, he "could not stop thinking about" it. Game Informer's Javy Gwaltney called the art style "visually arresting", and praised the pacing and thought put into the game. However, they were less praising of the ending, commenting that the "ultimate payoff fails to complement the thoughtful gameplay". The game received praise for being unique. Andreas Inderwildi of Rock Paper Shotgun commented that the game was more than just about logical reasoning, but that players were supposed to take into account how humans would act in an emergency. In his review for Eurogamer, Christian Donlan commented that the graphical style in the game made it "feel like no other", and likened it to Sudoku. Gamasutra's Katherine Cross praised the game's minimalist feel, and that the characters "came off as people". Tom Marks for IGN described the game as being full of life, despite the use of still images to convey the story. Some outlets favorably compared the game to Her Story, a similar mystery-driven game where the player must work out the timeline of events and come to conclusions using numerous video clips. Campbell commented that the two games both made him reach for "a notepad and pen", whilst Andrew Webster writing for The Verge commented that both games were about creating clarity even in confusing situations. Webster went on to comment that there were many ways to enjoy the game, that a player could obsessively find the mysteries in the game, or simply enjoy the "grim, shocking story". ### Awards Several video game publications named Return of the Obra Dinn among 2018's best games, including Edge, Polygon, USGamer, GameSpot, The Nerdist, The Daily Telegraph, The New Yorker, and The Escapist. A 2023 poll published by GQ listed Return of the Obra Dinn as among the greatest games of all time.

Tropical Storm Linfa (2003)

Pacific severe tropical storm in 2003

Severe Tropical Storm Linfa, known in the Philippines as Tropical Storm Chedeng, brought deadly flooding to areas of the Philippines and Japan in May and June 2003. The fourth named storm within the northwestern Pacific that year, Linfa developed as a tropical depression just off the western coast of Luzon on May 25. The disturbance quickly intensified to reach tropical storm intensity a few hours after cyclogenesis. However, intensification leveled off as Linfa executed a small clockwise loop before a subsequent landfall on Luzon on May 27. Due to land interaction the storm temporarily weakened and decoupled before reforming in the Philippine Sea. Afterwards Linfa began reintensifying and reached its peak intensity on May 29 with maximum sustained winds of 100 km/h (65 mph) and a barometric pressure of 980 mbar (hPa; 28.94 inHg). Following its peak the tropical storm began to deteriorate and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on May 30; these extratropical remnants continued to track northward through Japan before dissipating in the Sea of Okhotsk on June 4. The erratic and slow movement of Linfa off the western Philippines was the catalyst for extreme rainfall and flooding, killing 41 persons in the archipelago. Precipitation peaked at 723 mm (28.5 in) near Dagupan. Rising floodwaters resulted in numerous mudslides and the temporary shutdown of government offices. In addition, strong winds caused widespread power outages. Overall damage from Linfa in the Philippines amounted to ₱192.3 million (US\$3.65 million). The floods also displaced 8,367 people in 1,686 families and destroyed 178 homes. Linfa and its extratropical remnants later brought torrential rainfall and widespread flooding to Japan, particularly southwestern regions. Rainfall there peaked at 727 mm (28.62 in). Flood damage was worst in Kōchi and Tokushima Prefectures, where several buildings were destroyed by floodwater. Other locations in Japan experienced considerable agricultural damage as well as numerous landslides. Overall, Linfa caused roughly \$28.2 million in damage, much of which occurred in Japan, though the entirety of deaths associated with the cyclone took place in the Philippines. ## Meteorological history In late-May an area of disturbed weather began to persist roughly 650 km (400 mi) west of Manila, Philippines in the South China Sea. Late on May 23, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) began to monitor the area for potential signs of tropical cyclogenesis. Over the next few days the disturbance began to consolidate towards a common low pressure center, resulting in a burst in convective activity. At 0000 UTC on May 25, the JTWC classified the resulting system as a tropical depression west of Luzon; six hours later both the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) and the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) began to monitor the newly formed tropical cyclone, though the latter classified it as a tropical storm. During these initial stages of development the tropical cyclone slowly intensified as it slowly tracked in a clockwise loop throughout the course of the day. At 1800 UTC, the JTWC upgraded the depression to tropical storm status while the JMA followed suit six hours later, thus designating the cyclone with the name Linfa. In response to a strengthening ridge to the south, Linfa began tracking eastward. Despite its proximity to land, the tropical storm's slow forward motion allowed for additional strengthening, and according to the JMA, Linfa reached an initial peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 90 km/h (50 mph) at 0000 UTC on May 27, just within the threshold of severe tropical storm status. Concurrently the cyclone made landfall near Dagupan, Luzon. Upon landfall, Linfa began to weaken as it crossed Luzon before emerging into the Pacific as a minimal tropical storm late that day. However, as a result of land interaction the initial surface circulation center of Linfa greatly weakened and was overtaken by a newly formed low-level circulation center on May 28, resulting in the storm's position to shift well northeastward. This was the primary basis on which the JTWC downgraded Linfa to tropical depression status early on May 28, though the JMA continued to analyze the system as a weak tropical storm. Afterwards, as the cyclone began to track northeastward, the new circulation center became more organized, resulting in the JTWC reclassifying Linfa as a tropical storm at 0600 UTC the following day. Gradual strengthening followed, and at 1800 UTC that day Linfa reached peak intensity with winds of 100 km/h (65 mph) and a minimum barometric pressure of 980 mbar (hPa; 28.94 inHg) south of Okinawa. Subsequently, the system began to take a more northward course and undergo extratropical transition, which was completed at 1200 UTC on May 30. Though by this time most tropical cyclone monitoring agencies ceased the monitoring of these extratropical remnants by this time, the JMA continued to track them as they made landfall near Uwajima, Ehime at 2130 UTC. Linfa's remnants then paralleled the western coast of Japan before dissipating on June 4 well into the Sea of Okhotsk. ## Impact and aftermath ### Philippines Linfa's slow movement off the western coast of Luzon, followed by its eventual landfall, allowed for copious amounts of rain to occur in areas of the Philippines, leading to widespread flooding. Prior to landfall, waves generated by Linfa offshore hampered search and rescue operations following the collision of the MV San Nicholas and SuperFerry 12 ships on May 25. Over land, precipitation amounts officially peaked at a station in Dagupan, near the tropical storm's point of landfall. There, 723 mm (28.5 in) of rainfall was observed, including 629 mm (24.8 in) of rain in a 12‐hour period. The second highest precipitation total from a station operated by the World Meteorological Organization observed 364 mm (14.3 in) of rain in Baguio. These rainfall totals were further enhanced by the concurrent southwesterly monsoon. The resulting floods forced then-President of the Philippines Gloria Macapagal Arroyo to order the temporary shutdown of government offices and mobilize city officials to aid in clearing threatened areas of people. In addition, commuter bus operations were forced to cease. The first documented fatality associated with the storm occurred in Taytay, Rizal, after heavy rains on May 27 triggered a mudslide that killed an infant and injured three other people. That same day the rains resulted in thick traffic jams in Manila. Strong winds in the capital city also toppled billboards and electric posts. Floodwaters forced over 600 families to evacuate in Valenzuela, a suburb located northwest of Manila. Similarly strong winds in Pangasinan caused widespread power outage to much of the province. Areas in the central parts of the province experienced their worst flooding conditions in at least 60 years. Two ferries capsized off of Minalabac, Camarines Sur, killing six people. Sixty-seven others were rescued in the search and rescue operation that followed the incident. Overall, Linfa killed 41 people in the Philippines due to flooding. Damage associated with the tropical storm included ₱66 million (US\$1.25 million) to agriculture and livestock, ₱83.4 million (US\$1.58 million) to fisheries, and ₱42.9 million (US\$800,000) to infrastructure, equating to a total of ₱192.3 million (US\$3.65 million) in damage in the Philippines. Nationwide, 8,367 persons in roughly 1,686 families evacuated into 44 evacuation centers at the height of the storm. The floods destroyed 178 homes and damaged an additional 2,040. In the immediate aftermath of the storm and associated flooding, the Department of Agriculture readied for the distribution of 3 million bangus fry, 250,000 tilapia fry, and 315 bags of rice seeds to affected regions. Furthermore, the National Food Authority allocated 200 sacks of rice to Pangasinan. The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council assisted in relief operations by allocating ₱10 million (US\$200,000) and 800 bags of rice for such efforts. In addition, one of eight regional Filipino health offices distributed roughly ₱600,000 (US\$10,000) worth of various medicines to Dagupan and Urdaneta, Pangasinan. According to the National Disaster Coordinating Council, ₱15.7 million (US\$300,000) worth in relief operations was allocated. ### Japan After tracking eastward across the Philippines, Linfa reorganized and curved northeastward toward Japan. The Japan Meteorological Agency anticipated heavy precipitation and strong winds in the island nation's southwestern regions. The agency also warned residents in low-lying areas of potential flooding. The JMA indicated the heightened possibility of landslides in the Tōhoku region due to a recent earthquake in the area. Due to the forecasted impacts and track, as many as 102 domestic flights were cancelled in a single day, particularly those associated with southwestern Japan. In addition, five ferry services were cancelled. Upon making landfall on Shikoku, Linfa became the first tropical cyclone since 1965 to strike Japan during May, as well as the third earliest tropical cyclone to make landfall on any of Japan's four main islands since standardized records began in 1951. Throughout Linfa's passage of Japan, the storm brought heavy rainfall across a wide swath of the country, resulting in extensive and damaging flooding. Damage was primarily concentrated on Kyushu Island. Precipitation peaked at 727 mm (28.62 in) at a station in Nakagoya, Miyazaki Prefecture. However, a station in Owase, Mie observed 497 mm (19.56 in) of rain in 24 hours, greater than any other location for that period of time. Despite making landfall on Ehime Prefecture, Linfa did not cause as much damage there relative to other provinces, particularly those bordering Ehime. Nonetheless, nearly 300 homes lost power during the storm there. Linfa's worst impacts occurred in Kōchi Prefecture, where severe flooding inundated several buildings and triggered numerous landslides. Damage there totaled ¥1.28 billion (US\$10.7 million). Similar effects took place in Tokushima Prefecture, in addition to widespread evacuations from impacted areas. Damage accrued by Linfa in Tokushima Prefecture reached ¥1.22 billion (US\$10.3 million). Located near the coast, high seas generated by Linfa were reported in Wakayama Prefecture, resulting in cancellations of offshore activities and transportation. However, much of the damage in Wakayama Prefecture was caused by torrential precipitation, damaging roads in seven locations, amounting to ¥197.45 million (US\$1.65 million). Severe flooding in Mie Prefecture resulted from heavy, prolonged rainfall, which peaked prefecture-wide at 497 mm (19.57 in) in Owase. Precipitation in Mie caused widespread power outages. As many as 65 buildings were flooded, and approximately 87 ha (215 ac) of arable land was inundated by rainwater. In addition to surface inundation, the rains caused twenty landslides, blocking roads the traffic and suspending some rail operations. Power outages were also widespread in Hyōgo Prefecture, including a localized outage stripping electricity from 900 homes in the Kita-ku ward in Kobe; similar impacts occurred in Osaka Prefecture. Rising floodwater in Kanagawa Prefecture engulfed the first floors of several office buildings and residences. The rain also deluged roads in Yokohama, Fujisawa, Chigasaki and Odawara. On Nishino-shima Island in Honshu's Shimane Prefecture, precipitation caused the deterioration of surface sediments, resulting in landslides that damaged several buildings. Agricultural damage totaled to ¥660,000 (US\$5,500), and three flights were cancelled at Oki Airport. Multiple landslides occurred in Miyagi Prefecture. In Kesennuma, the rains triggered a rockfall, prompting evacuations and damaging a home. A second rockfall incident occurred on June 2, destroying several buildings. Residents of Ogachi and Ishinomaki were ordered to evacuate due to the threat of additional rockfalls and landslides. In both Hino and Kurayoshi, Tottori, heavy rain caused damage to roads and farmland erosion. The precipitation also caused a river to flow over its banks, flooding adjacent land. Damage in Tottori Prefecture amounted to ¥8.9 million (US\$75,000). Significant damage occurred in Ōita Prefecture, where heavy rains caused landslides and suspended rail operations. Most of the damage in Ōita Prefecture was done to crops, particularly vegetables, and totaled ¥27.37 million (US\$230,000). Damage to sweet potato and tobacco crops alone in Kagoshima Prefecture reached ¥21 million (US\$180,000), while damage to agricultural infrastructure totaled ¥2 million (US\$16,800). Damage to tobacco crops in Miyazaki Prefecture were estimated even higher at ¥50.57 million (US\$420,000). In Nagasaki Prefecture, the rains also damaged forests, with damage estimated at ¥23 million (US\$190,000); other agricultural damage was estimated at ¥60 million (US\$500,000). Voluntary evacuation procedures took place in Fukue, Nagasaki due to the threat of building collapse. Despite transitioning into an extratropical cyclone during its passage of Japan, Linfa still maintained strong winds, which caused heavy damage to susceptible structures. The highest wind associated with Linfa in Japan was clocked at 119 km/h (74 mph) in Murotomisaki, Kōchi Prefecture. Operations on the Tōhoku Main Line were delayed as a result of strong winds onset by Linfa. Wind gusts as high as 55 km/h (35 mph) in Nakatsugawa in Tochigi Prefecture caused the complete destruction of at least five buildings and damaged several others, resulting in ¥\$760,000 (US\$6,400) in damage. More considerable damage occurred in Shiga Prefecture, where strong winds caused damage to greenhouses and nearby crops, accruing ¥36.75 million (US\$308,700) in damage. In addition, two people were injured after winds threw a section of plywood into the car they were occupying. ## See also - Other tropical cyclones named Linfa - Other tropical cyclones named Chedeng - Typhoon Vicki (1998) – brought flooding over areas of Luzon before leading to widespread disruption of air and ground traffic in Japan - Tropical Storm Merbok (2004) – short-lived tropical storm that exacerbated flood conditions in Luzon - Tropical Storm Halong (2008) – brought strong winds and heavy rain in the northern Philippines before impacting Japan as an extratropical cyclone

Attarsiya

Military leader of Ahhiya

Attarsiya was a 15th–14th century BCE military leader of Ahhiya. In the Hittite archives of circa 1400 BCE, he is described as a "man of Ahhiya", a country identified with the Achaeans and Mycenaean Greece. The campaigns of Attarsiya, as well as his conflict with the Hittite vassal, Madduwatta, represent the first recorded Mycenaean Greek military activity on the Anatolian mainland, as well as the first conflict between Achaeans and Hittites. He finally withdrew from Anatolia after Hittite intervention, but later launched a campaign against Alashiya (Cyprus). Contemporary Hittite accounts about the campaigns of Attarsiya and the Ahhiya in general may indicate that there was a possible Mycenaean empire centered on late Bronze Age Greece. Moreover, Attarsiya might be a possible Hittite reconstruction of the Greek name Atreus, a king of Mycenae according to Greek mythology. ## Background The activities of Attarsiya are recorded in the Hittite archives, in particular in the Indictment of Madduwata. He is described as a "man of Ahhiya", which was a typical Hittite way to refer to an enemy king. This makes Attarsiya the first known Achaean leader, but his exact authority inside the Achaean world remains unclear. The Hittite descriptions seem to agree that he was a local Achaean ruler in western Anatolia, rather than a High king of all the Achaeans. Moreover, the chronology of the correspondent Hittite texts was initially estimated at the end of the 13th century BCE. However, more recent research, based on a number of archaic characteristics the specific texts feature, place it together with the events described circa two centuries earlier (end of 15th-beginning of 14th century BCE). On the other hand, no relevant information is found in the contemporary Greek Linear B records. The latter, dealing only with administrative issues of the Mycenaean palaces, are of limited value concerning the political developments of the late Bronze Age era. Moreover, although the title of the Mycenaean kings, the wanax, has been read several times in the Linear B texts, no correspondent personal names have been found. ## Military campaigns ### Anatolia The Hittite archives of circa 1400 BCE, during the reign of Arnuwanda I, describe the military campaign of Attarsiya in southwest Anatolia, probably in the region of Lycia. The Achaean expedition in Anatolia is associated with increased Mycenaean findings in Miletus during this period (early 14th century BCE), indicating that a number of Greek people moved from mainland Greece to this region. Attarsiya probably used the city of Miletus, in west coast Anatolia, which was already under Achaean influence, as a military base. Attarsiya launched a campaign deploying an army that included 100 war chariots and attacked regions which were Hittite vassals, or at least under a certain degree of Hittite influence. Among them, he attacked the Hittite vassal, Madduwatta, likely a prince of the kingdom of Arzawa, and managed to expel him from his country. The latter found refuge in the court of the Hittite ruler and was installed by him as a vassal in Zipasla, somewhere in western Anatolia. Attarsiya launched a second attack against Madduwatta and managed again to defeat him. The Hittite vassal was unable to provide any opposition. As a result of Achaean military activity in the region, the Hittites dispatched an army under Kisnapli. The Indictment of Madduwatta gives a brief description of the battle: > Kisnapli went into battle against Attarsiya 100 [chariots and ... infantry] of Attarsiya [drew up]. And they fought. One officer of Attarsiya was killed, and one officer of ours, Zidanza, was killed. Then Attasiya ... to Madduwatta, and he went off to his own land. The way the conflict is described, by counting only two casualties, may point that there was a duel between the nobles of the two sides. However, it is also possible that the dead among the common soldiers were not considered important to mention. Although the outcome of the battle remained unresolved, Attarsiya decided to withdraw his troops from the battlefield. After his retreat from the Anatolian mainland, Madduwatta was again installed as a Hittite vassal in the region. ### Alashiya Later, Attarsiya, still posing a threat to the Hittites, invaded the island of Alashiya (Cyprus) together with a number of his Anatolian allies, including his former enemy Madduwatta. The defection to the camp of Attarsiya no doubt worried the Hittites, since they sought to do trade with the Mediterranean island themselves. Nonetheless, Alashiya at that time was raided and possibly came under the control of Madduwatta, who may have become king of Arzawa in western Anatolia, or Ahhiyawa , hostile to Hattusa. The Mycenaean presence in Cyprus is also associated with archaeological evidence of Mycenaean Greek settlers, if not settlements, dating from that time unearthed there. Direct settlements were established probably in the late 13th century BCE, according to archaeological finds. ## Legacy The campaigns of Attarsiya represent the earliest recorded Mycenaean Greek military activity on the Anatolian mainland, as well as the first conflict between Achaeans and Hittites. It appears that these military developments had a certain impact on the local populations. In this context, a decorated shard of pottery from the Hittite capital, Hattusa, depicts a warrior with body armor and boar's tusk helmet, typical of Achaean warfare, while the Hittite king offers a Mycenaean type thrusting sword to the Storm God, Teshub. Despite the withdrawal of Attarsiya after the Hittite intervention, the following decades (circa 1380-1320 BCE) were a period of Mycenaean expansion on the Anatolian coast. Achaean military activity in the region continues to be attested through several Hittite records until circa 1250 BCE. ### Link with mythical Atreus It has been suggested by several scholars that the term Attarsiya might be a possible Hittite reconstruction of the Greek name Atreus, a mythical king of Mycenae and father of Agamemnon. However, other scholars argue that even though the name is probably Greek, since he is described as an Ahhiya and connected to Atreus, the person carrying the name is not necessarily identical to the famous Atreus of Greek mythology. According to an alternative view presented by Hittitologist Albrecht Goetze, Attarsiya might possibly be a possessive adjective, meaning "belonging to Atreus" (Atreides), which was a typical Homeric term to refer to the sons of Atreus, Agamemnon and Menelaus, throughout the Iliad. British scholar Martin Litchfield West suggested that Atreus is a shorter form of an older Greek Bronze Αge era name, more closely connected with Attarsiya, like Atresias, Atersias or Atarsias. A further possible link to the grecophone sphere is the Linear B term ta-ra-si-ja, well attested in Pylian tablet series JN, a word which means "copper/bronze allotment" or "weight unit of copper/bronze", or something similar, applied to metalworkers. In the Pylos JN 415 tablet, there is also found an adjective a-ta-ra-si-jo, meaning "without copper/bronze". The context in which ta-ra-si-ja occurs during the Late Helladic period suggests that those who produced or worked with the allocated raw materials were a large work force and the work was of a low-paid status. Worth noting at Pylos around 1200 BCE is the independence of a-ta-ra-si-jo smiths from allotments accorded ta-ra-si-ja smiths. It was evidently optional for anyone able to obtain sufficient quantities of copper or bronze from sources outside the palace to do so as an a-ta-ra-si-jo. ## Possibility of a Mycenaean empire It has been established in modern scholarship that the Hittite term Ahhiya (or Ahhiyawa in latter texts) refers to Mycenaean Greek territory and its inhabitants, the Achaeans, one of the names that Homer used to refer to the Greeks in the Iliad. Historically important about the Achaeans in the time of Attarsiya is that they undertook an expedition to Anatolia, as well as Cyprus. The latter expedition indicates that the Achaean leader commanded a significant fleet and that the Achaeans were a sea power. According to the Hittite inscriptions, it appears that the Ahhiya were a powerful empire, at the same scale as contemporary Egypt, Assyria and the Hittite Empire. Moreover, based on the fact that Attarsiya launched a military campaign in Anatolia and fielded one hundred chariots, in addition to infantry, Dutch researcher Jorrit Kelder suggested that Ahhiya must have had the military capacity of at least three times the size of the Mycenaean kingdom of Pylos, based on the information recorded on the Linear B tablets unearthed from the specific palace. Based on this view, the Achaeans under Attarsiya may have formed some kind of alliance which included several Mycenaean kingdoms.

Tim Cross

Army officer (born 1951)

Major General Timothy Cross, CBE (born 19 April 1951) is a retired British Army officer and military logistics expert. He was commissioned in 1971 into the Royal Army Ordnance Corps and went on to serve in Germany, Northern Ireland and Cyprus, interspersed with staff duties and further education. He was posted to Paris in 1984, where he was involved in the development of the MILAN anti-tank weapon, before returning to his regiment as a company commander. He took command of 1 Ordnance Battalion in 1990 and was tasked with running logistics for 1st Armoured Division during the Gulf War. He went on to serve as Commander, Logistic Support for 3rd Infantry Division in 1992. Cross served his first of three tours in the Balkans, attached to the Implementation Force (IFOR), in 1995–1996. His second was in 1997, with the Stabilisation Force (SFOR), where he commanded 101 Logistic Brigade, and his third in 1999 with the Kosovo Force (KFOR). During his tour with KFOR, he was responsible for co-ordinating multinational troops and civilian agencies in establishing refugee camps in the aftermath of the Kosovo War. He was later appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) for his service with KFOR. Cross was promoted to major general (two-star rank in NATO terms) in 2000 and served as Director General, Defence Supply Chain until 2002, when he became involved in planning for the forthcoming invasion of Iraq. He was the most senior British officer involved in the planning and in the Coalition Provisional Authority. His last command was as General Officer Commanding, Theatre Troops, Iraq. Since retiring from the Army in 2007, Cross has been critical of the planning for Iraq after the removal of Saddam Hussein's government, giving evidence to the Iraq Inquiry that he urged politicians to delay the invasion, and calling the post-war planning "woefully thin". He serves as an advisor to the House of Commons Defence Select Committee and to several private companies, and is a visiting lecturer at several British universities. A convert to Christianity, he is a licensed lay reader in the Church of England and affiliated with several Christian organisations. Cross is married, with three children. ## Early life Cross is the son of Sidney George and Patricia Mary Cross. Having always wanted to be a soldier, he applied to join the Army at the age of fourteen, but was rejected due to his age. He joined the Army Cadet Force in 1964 and, after his secondary education, was accepted to study at Welbeck Defence Sixth Form College, before attending the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in 1969. ## Early military career Cross started at Sandhurst in 1969 and was commissioned into the Royal Army Ordnance Corps as a second lieutenant on 30 July 1971. His first tour was in West Germany, with the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR) in 1971, after which he undertook an in-service degree at the Royal Military College of Science. He was promoted to lieutenant in 1973. Having graduated as a Bachelor of Science in 1975, he served a tour with 22 Air Defence Regiment, Royal Artillery, with responsibility for the regiment's new Rapier missiles. Promoted to captain in 1977, he went on to train as an Ammunition Technical Officer (ATO) and was posted to Northern Ireland in 1978, where he was involved in explosive ordnance disposal along with inspection duties. Returning to the BAOR in 1979, Cross served as Adjutant to 1 Ordnance Battalion, before a tour in Cyprus, attached to the United Nations peace-keeping force in 1981. He studied for an MSc in guided weapons at Staff College, Camberley from 1982 to 1983 and was promoted major on 30 September 1983. Between 1984 and 1985, he was posted to Paris as a British liaison to the MILAN anti-tank missile programme, after which he rejoined 1 Ordnance Battalion as the company commander of 12 Ordnance Company. He was promoted to lieutenant-colonel on 30 June 1988. Returning to Staff College, Camberley later that year as a member of the Directing Staff, he was heavily involved in the modernisation of the Command and Staff Course. In 1990, Cross returned again to Germany to take command of 1 Ordnance Battalion, in which he had previously been adjutant and a company commander, and, in a double-hatted post, was appointed Commander Supply, 1st Armoured Division. In the latter role, he was posted to Kuwait and later Iraq, as part of Operation Granby during the Gulf War. After Iraq, Cross was appointed the first Commander, Logistic Support for 3rd Infantry Division in late 1992. During a re-organisation of the Army in 1993, the Royal Army Ordnance Corps was amalgamated to become part of the newly formed Royal Logistic Corps (RLC), into which Cross transferred and was promoted to colonel. Having completed the Higher Command and Staff Course earlier in 1995, he returned to 3rd Division and served in Bosnia as part of NATO's Implementation Force in 1995 and 1996. ## High command Cross was promoted to brigadier on 30 June 1996. He was appointed Director, Materiel Supply and Distribution (Army), a post which became Director, Materiel Support (Army) in 1997 as a result of re-organisation, based in Andover, Hampshire. At the end of 1997, he took command of the British National Support Element in the Balkans, responsible for supplying the British contingent of the NATO-led Stabilisation Force (SFOR). At the same time, he commanded the Combat Service Support Group, later renamed 101 Logistic Brigade. He returned to the UK in April 1998, only to be told that he would be returning to the Balkans in January 1999 as part of the Kosovo Force (KFOR). In this role, he was responsible for the humanitarian effort in the aftermath of the Kosovo War, establishing and maintaining refugee camps in Macedonia and Albania. He was tasked with commanding multinational troops, as well as coordinating the humanitarian efforts of personnel from the British Department for International Development, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and multiple non-governmental organisations. Speaking about his service with KFOR, he later called it a "challenging and demanding deployment" and "the first time that I have come face to face with a large-scale humanitarian crisis." He went on to say that the most challenging part was the military working alongside large numbers of civilian agencies and that the Army needed to learn how to better work with such organisations—a need he said was "widely recognised" outside the military. In recognition of his service in the Balkans, Cross was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2000 New Year Honours List. From January to August 2000, Cross attended the Royal College of Defence Studies, after which he was promoted to major general (two-star rank) and appointed Director General, Defence Supply Chain. While Director General, he was responsible for the establishment of the United Kingdom's Joint Force Logistic Component for the forthcoming operations in Iraq and became involved in planning for the invasion of the country. In early 2003, he became the British representative to the United States Department of Defense's Office for Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance, later the Coalition Provisional Authority following the invasion, and one of three deputies to American Lieutenant General Jay Garner. Cross was involved in coordinating the reconstruction of the country following the fall of Saddam Hussein's government, and was the most senior British officer involved in post-war planning for the country. Shortly after the invasion of Iraq, he appeared on BBC Breakfast with Frost, speaking to presenter Peter Sissons about his role. He praised the military campaign and went on to talk about the challenges of rebuilding the country, saying "I think in relative terms we are not as badly off as we might have feared", but agreed that there were insufficient "people on the ground" to ensure security in the aftermath of the invasion and removal of Saddam Hussein's government. He was later deeply critical of the planning made for post-war Iraq, and stated that he attempted to raise the issue of insufficient planning with politicians. However, he was never "overly concerned" by warnings from aid agencies of a massive humanitarian crisis in the aftermath of the invasion which, in the event, never materialised, though he admitted he had been too optimistic about the state of the Iraqi infrastructure. In the Breakfast with Frost interview, he drew an analogy with London, "if you imagine going into London and every Ministry building is completely empty of furniture, completely empty of people, most of the windows blown out, just trying to find the people who work in those Ministries, the equivalent of the Home Office and [finding] out who worked there, getting them back to work, beginning to pay their salaries which we're now beginning to do, and encouraging them to come back and work with us is bound to take a bit of time." Cross was given the honorary title of Colonel Commandant, Royal Logistic Corps, on 5 April 2003. On 9 October 2004, he was appointed General Officer Commanding, Theatre Troops, Iraq—commander of all British Army combat personnel in the Iraq War. He retired from active service on 20 January 2007, retaining the honorary title of Colonel Commandant, Royal Logistic Corps, and, in April 2007, was given the further ceremonial appointment of Honorary Colonel, 168 Pioneer Regiment (Volunteers), Royal Logistic Corps. ## Retirement Cross has lectured both in the UK and elsewhere since his retirement and is a visiting professor at several British universities including the University of Nottingham, University of Reading and Cranfield University. He serves as an advisor to a number of organisations. Since 2007, he has been army advisor to the House of Commons Defence Select Committee, as well as a defence advisor for Fujitsu and other companies. He is a non-executive chairman at Asuure Ltd, a British security company, and serves as a director at the Centre for International Humanitarian Cooperation and the Humanitarian International Services Group. Following his retirement, Cross attacked US foreign policy on Iraq, calling the plans "fatally flawed" shortly after General Sir Mike Jackson—Chief of the General Staff at the time of the invasion and also recently retired—called the same plans "intellectually bankrupt". In a 2009 interview, Cross praised the planning for the invasion and the removal of Saddam Hussein, but said that he "was very keen that we thought through carefully the postwar aspects of what we were going to do once the military campaign was over. And I think it's now very public knowledge that that was not well handled. It was not well thought through, it was not well executed. And we lived with the consequences of that." On 7 December 2009, Cross publicly testified before the Iraq Inquiry, having previously argued that the proceedings should be held in public as, eventually, they were. He gave evidence about the post-war planning done prior to the invasion of Iraq, stating that he had urged Prime Minister Tony Blair and his aide, Alastair Campbell, to delay the invasion two days prior to the beginning of the conflict. Cross told Sir John Chilcot, the inquiry chairman, that preparations for Iraq after the removal of Saddam Hussein were "woefully thin". He went on to tell the inquiry that "although I was confident that we would secure a military victory, I offered my view that we should not begin that campaign until we had a much more coherent postwar plan." In an interview for The Independent in January 2010, Cross, speaking again about post-war Iraq, claimed "A lot of senior generals were frustrated that they didn't have sufficient resources", and singled out both Blair and Clare Short, Secretary of State for International Development at the time of the invasion, as well as criticising the system in which funding was allocated for the Iraq campaign. ## Personal life Cross, a Christian, converted to Christianity while on leave from a posting to Cyprus in 1981. He visited Jerusalem over the Easter weekend and was inspired by a retired British Army officer he met there to convert. After converting, he considered leaving the Army, but has said in interviews that he reconciled his beliefs with his military service, contending that "the British Army as a community [...] recognises the issue of spirituality and goodness and righteousness and justice and evil and wrong probably far more than most". He is a licensed lay reader in the Church of England and has involvement with a number of Christian organisations, including as a trustee of the British and Foreign Bible Society and a former president of the Armed Forces Christian Union. In an interview for the Christian Broadcasting Network in 2009, he said "The moral component of fighting power is about leadership, it's about ethics, it's about culture, it's about how do you get people to fight and embedded within that is an element of justice and righteousness. [I]f you lose the moral component, you lose everything. I think we – collectively in the West – have gone through 30–40 years really of pretending that this moral component is not important, and that I don't need to have a biblical foundation in my life. And I challenge that." He has written on the subject in the British Army Review, an in house publication aimed at generating professional debate, where he described ideas of a secular Army as 'tripe' and 'dangerously wrong' and the rewrite of the motto of the Girl Guides, removing reference to God, as 'vapid and anodyne'. He married Christine in 1972. The couple live in Surrey and have two sons—one of whom served in the Royal Navy—one daughter and five grandchildren. Cross lists his interests as golf, sailing, walking, reading and writing—having written chapters and introductions for several books and papers.

Flag of Grenada

National flag

The flag of Grenada consists of two yellow triangles at the top and bottom and two green triangles at the hoist and fly. These are surrounded by a red border charged with six five-pointed yellow stars – three at the top centre and three at the bottom centre – along with an additional star on a red disc at the centre and a nutmeg at the hoist triangle. Adopted in 1974 to replace the temporary design used since the islands became an Associated State of the United Kingdom, it has been the flag of Grenada since the country gained independence that year. The representation of a nutmeg is symbolic of the islands' primary export, and was the one feature from the previous flag that was preserved. ## History Sovereignty over Grenada changed hands between the French and the British throughout the 18th century. This continued until 1783, when the Peace of Paris saw France permanently relinquish the island to the United Kingdom. It eventually became a crown colony within the latter's colonial empire in 1877. The territory joined the West Indies Federation in 1958 and was a member state until 1962. On 3 March 1967, five years after the federation was dissolved, Grenada became an Associated State. This gave Grenada full control over domestic matters, while Britain retained responsibility for the territory's foreign affairs and defence. A new flag for the territory was adopted, though this was only intended to be a temporary design. It consisted of a horizontal tricolour of blue, yellow, and green bands, charged with a nutmeg at the centre. Negotiations for independence commenced after the Grenada United Labour Party won the most seats in the election in August 1967, having campaigned in favour of sovereignty. A search for a national flag began soon after. The new design was created by Anthony C. George, a native Grenadian from Soubise in Saint Andrew Parish. It eschewed the commonly-used arrangement of a horizontal or vertical tricolour, while maintaining the nutmeg symbol from the previous flag. The new flag was hoisted at midnight on 7 February 1974, the day Grenada became an independent country, and was adopted by the government the same day. ## Design The colours and symbols of the flag carry cultural, political, and regional meanings. The green epitomises the islands' vegetation and agriculture, while the yellow evokes the sun, as well as the warmth and wisdom of Grenadians. The red represents harmony, unity, courage, and vitality. The yellow stars on the red border symbolise the country's parishes, while the yellow star on the red disc at the centre signifies its two sister islands, Carriacou and Petite Martinique which are counted as the country’s seventh parish. The symbol of a nutmeg at the hoist alludes to one of the primary agricultural exports of the islands. The country is the second-largest producer of nutmeg in the world, trailing only Indonesia. Consequently, Grenada has acquired the nicknames of "Isle of Spice" and "Spice Island". ## Variants The civil ensign (for merchant ships) is identical in design to the national flag, but has an aspect ratio of 1:2 (instead of 3:5). The naval ensign is based on the British white ensign, a red cross on a white field, with the addition of the national flag in the canton. ## Protocol Advice regarding flag etiquette is listed on the official website of the government, as well as on the websites of the country's embassies. When displayed together with the flags of other sovereign nations, the foreign flag should not be flown on top of or to the right (i.e. observer's left) of the Grenadian flag. The only exception to this recommendation is at foreign diplomatic missions on the island, which is also the only place where a foreign flag can be flown without the flag of Grenada accompanying it. When displayed together with domestic flags, the national flag ought to be situated at the centre and be the tallest one of the group. The Grenadian flag should not be smaller in size compared to other flags being flown adjacent to it. When carried in a procession, it should be located on the marching right (in a single file) or at the front of the centre (if there is more than one line). The guidelines also state that the flag is not to touch the ground, nor should it be dipped towards an individual or an object. It ought to be displayed either in or near every polling place when elections in Grenada are held. The national flag should be flown by merchant ships that are registered in the country, but should not be placed on top of motor vehicles (other than by the police force and during state events). It is not to be reproduced for commercial purposes without prior approval from the government. When it becomes damaged and is no longer fit to be publicly displayed, it is permissible to dispose of the national flag via burning. ## Historical flags

Tobruk (video game)

1987 video game

Tobruk: The Clash of Armour is a turn-based strategy video game developed by Data Design Systems and published by Personal Software Services. It was exclusively released in the United Kingdom for the Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC in 1987. It is the eleventh instalment of the Strategic Wargames series. The game is set during the 1941 Siege of Tobruk of the Western Desert Campaign in World War II and revolves around the Allied forces attempts to overthrow German field marshal Erwin Rommel from the city. The game is a turn-based strategy which focuses mainly on tank combat and contains elements of arcade gameplay. In the game, the player controls the Axis powers and must capture and hold various Allied bases in both Italian Libya and British Egypt, with the city of Tobruk being the ultimate goal. The game received mixed reviews upon release; critics were divided over the gameplay and were largely negative over its interface and tank mechanics. ## Gameplay The game is a top-down turn-based strategy which contains elements of arcade gameplay and focuses mainly on tank combat. It is a simulation of the 1941 Siege of Tobruk, a part of the Western Desert Campaign of World War II. The battle revolves around Australian and British (collectively referred to Allied forces) attempts to oust German field marshal Erwin Rommel from the city. If playing alone, the player controls the Axis powers and is not able to play on the side of the Allies unless a second player is involved. The main objective of the game is to capture and hold as many fortifications in Italian Libya as possible, with the city of Tobruk and the defence of Rommel being the ultimate goals. The main display map of the game is focused on Cyrenaica, a representation of the Allied minefield that was laid in the Gazala Line between Gazala and Bir Hachieim. The Axis troops begin the game on the western side of the line, whilst Allied forces begin the offensive in British Egypt. A command box in the game provides the player with an instant report of a unit or landscape once hovered over; data given on units includes their strength in terms of supply of infantry, provisions, artillery, and the number of moves that unit can make on one turn. Every two turns lasts one in-game day and units are available to enter combat phases once a day is finished. In a combat phase, the game shifts to an "arcade sequence", which allows the player to control a tank in the Sahara Desert. The arcade sequence presents a menu of tank functions; a gun turret, shell loading, firing and navigational buttons. Only one function can be used at a time; in order to drive the tank, the player has to use the navigational buttons to manoeuvre. If the tank becomes under attack, the gun turret or shell-firing mode must be activated for self-defence. Both the arcade sequence and tank controlling is optional, however, and is not required to finish the game. ## Reception The game received mixed reviews upon release. Richard Blaine of Your Sinclair praised the game's playability and value for money, stating that it provides an "interesting challenge". Philippa Irving of Crash, however, criticised the playability and tank mechanics as "stunningly badly designed" and "unplayable", whilst also stating that it was "rather unatmospheric". Gary Rook of Sinclair User summarised that Tobruk was "pretty disappointing" and "nowhere near as successful" as its direct predecessor, Bismarck. Rook criticised the interface of the game as "clumsily" executed and not "half as good" as that of other strategy games at the time of release. Regarding the arcade sequences of the game, Michael Sandford of ZX Computing said they worked well but recommended inexperienced player to avoid them, as its difficulty would affect gameplay. However, Sandford praised the overall experience of the game, stating that it was "one of the best" wargames and endorsed it to anybody interested in the genre. M. Evan Brooks reviewed the game for Computer Gaming World, and stated that "Simulations should break new ground or cover old ground in new and/or alternative conceptualizations. While Tobruk has an interesting operational interface, it is not groundbreaking in either of the above senses." Computer Gamer asserted that Tobruk was "undoubtedly one of the most enjoyable wargames ever" and heralded its originality and playability. Irving, however, criticised its authenticity; stating that the game was lacking in both "elusive quality" and atmosphere. Rook found that the developers' intention of attempting to "marry strategy gaming with arcade gaming" was unsuccessful and produced negative results. A 1993 Computer Gaming World survey of wargames agreed while giving the game one-plus stars out of five, stating that "the simulation and arcade aspects denigrate each other's appeal". ## Reviews - Jeux & Stratégie \#43

Phillips' Sound Recording Services

Recording studio in Liverpool, England

Phillips' Sound Recording Services was a studio in the house of Percy Francis Phillips (1896–1984) and his family at 38 Kensington, Kensington, Liverpool, England. Between 1955 and 1969, Phillips recorded numerous tapes and acetate discs for Liverpool acts, people and businesses in a small room behind the shop his family owned. Phillips first sold bicycles and motorbikes, but later started selling and recharging batteries in a shop in the front room of his house in 1925. After a decline in demand for batteries in the early 1950s, he started selling electrical goods and popular records. In 1955, Phillips set up a recording studio called Phillips' Sound Recording Services. In 1958, The Quarrymen (John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, John 'Duff' Lowe and Colin Hanton) recorded "That'll Be The Day" and "In Spite of All the Danger" in the studio. Other clients included Billy Fury, Ken Dodd, and Marty Wilde. Phillips died in 1984. The Quarrymen recording and the site of the studio were commemorated in 2005, when a Blue Plaque was unveiled by two of The Quarrymen (Lowe and Hanton) on the front of the house. ## Early years Percy Phillips was born in March 1896, in Warrington, Lancashire. He was a veteran of the First World War, and left the British Army (Royal North Lancashire Regiment) at the rank of Corporal in 1918, since he was wounded before the war ended. After the war, he started selling bicycles and motorbikes in a small shop in Brunswick Street, in the Kensington Fields area of Liverpool. He began selling and recharging batteries in 1925, opening a shop in the front room of his family's three-storey Georgian terraced house, called Phillips’ Battery Charging Depot, and had to install large accumulators in the cellar. Phillips ran the business for 30 years, even during WWII, but due to a decline in demand for batteries in the early 1950s (most people having electricity by then) he started selling household electrical goods. By late 1954, the shop was only selling records and record players; customers would buy recordings of American Country and Western, and Big Band music. As Phillips had supplied batteries to the Burtonwood air base during the war, he could buy and sell the latest records from America via his contacts there. ## Studio In 1955, several customers asked if Phillips could make demo discs. While on a trip to London to visit his son Frank, who was attending a sound recording course at EMI Electronics, Percy bought a 1/4 inch tape recorder (replaced in 1963 with a Vortexion portable), an MSS (Marguerite Sound Studios - after the owner's wife) disc cutting machine, an amplifier, a 4-track mixer, three microphones (a Reslo, an HMV ribbon microphone, and an AKG), and three pairs of headphones for £400. Phillips set up the equipment behind his shop in the (12 square feet) middle living room, with a piano and an overturned tin bath in the cellar as a reverb chamber, with a speaker and microphone linked to the studio above. The recordings would normally be on tape, and then transferred to disc, although the tape was recorded over again for each session. Because of trams, trucks, and horses passing the premises, Phillips hung heavy blankets over the studio door and a rear window to minimise noise intrusion. Phillips' first recording was of himself singing "Bonnie Marie of Argyle", (unaccompanied) and a few days later he recorded "Unchained Melody", with local dance band singer Betty Roy. The first disc he cut in the studio was on 7 August 1955, with his eight-year-old daughter, Carol, singing, "Mr Sandman". All the discs had "Play with a light-weight pick-up" on the label, as this would increase the life of the disc, which would eventually wear out. Phillips advertised the studio as Phillips' Sound Recording Services (also advertised as P. F. Phillips' Professional Tape & Disc Recording Service), with his business cards reading: "PF Phillips, 38 Kensington, Liverpool, 7. Television and Battery Service. Gramophone Record Dealer. Professional Tape and Disc Recording Studio." He cut discs for members of the public, and actors from the Liverpool Playhouse, who often stayed in the first-floor boarding rooms above the studio. Many of the actors would be asked by Phillips to record monologues and poems. These included the actors John Thaw, Richard Briers, and the ventriloquist Ray Alan. For the first couple of years, Phillips made music compilation discs for local businesses such as the local ice rink or cinema, men singing songs for loved ones, children playing an instrument, or even a neighbour's dog howling along to piano accompaniment. As the record shop and studio took over the business, he had a brass plate made which he put on the wall just outside the front door, and had labels made for the discs, but changed the design of the disc label every year. By 1957, Phillips was recording more and more groups of young men with guitars, basses, washboards and drums, who played skiffle. Ron Wycherly (a.k.a. Billy Fury) recorded several songs onto disc in the studio, including, "I'm Left You're Right She's Gone", "Playin' For Keeps", "Paralyzed" and "Come Go With Me" (all previously released by Elvis Presley) as well as, "Have I Told You Lately That I Love You" (Lulu Belle and Scotty) and his own composition, "Yodelling Song". Fury's mother sent the songs to impresario Larry Parnes, which started her son's singing career. The songs were released on DVD/CD in 2008. ## The Quarrymen recording Johnny 'Guitar' Byrne (from Rory Storm and The Hurricanes) and singer Paul Murphy recorded a version of "Butterfly" and "She's Got it" in the studio on 22 June 1957. Byrne later played the recording to George Harrison. On 12 July 1958, a local skiffle group, The Quarrymen (Lennon, McCartney, Harrison, Lowe and Hanton) visited Phillips' studio to record two songs, although the date has been disputed, as Lowe remembered that the recording was during cold weather (October or November, 1957) with the band wearing scarves. Hanton also mentioned the cold weather in interviews, and before recording, Lennon suggested that Hanton put his scarf over the snare drum to lower the volume. The group were surprised to see how small and technically basic the studio was, with only one microphone in the centre of the room. Phillips demanded that they pay for the recording before they set up the equipment, so each member paid 3 shillings and 6 pence, but he then asked for an extra surcharge (£1) to cover the cost of transferring the tape recording to acetate disc. As this was too expensive, Phillips said that for a cut-rate price they would not be taped first, but record directly to vinyl. The first song they recorded was "That'll Be The Day" (sung by Lennon with harmonies by McCartney). Phillips wanted them to immediately record the next song, but Lennon and McCartney could not decide on a song for the B-side of the disc. McCartney suggested the doo-wop ballad, "In Spite of All the Danger" (by McCartney and Harrison, but sung by Lennon) even though Lowe and Hanton had never heard it before. They asked for some time to rehearse, but Phillips refused, saying, "For seventeen and six 17/6d you're not here all day". Lowe and Hanton busked through the song, which was cut short by Phillips waving his hands to indicate that the cutting needle was getting close to the centre of the acetate. He then handed the band a fragile 78rpm 10-inch acetate record. It was later lost until Lowe rediscovered it in 1981, and planned to put it up for auction at Sotheby's, but sold it to McCartney for an undisclosed amount. McCartney later had the two songs digitally re-mastered and pressed 50 copies, giving them to friends as a Christmas present, although the two songs were released on 21 November 1995, as part of The Beatles Anthology (Anthology 1). McCartney later said, "The strangest thing for me, listening to it, is that it's like drowning, it's like your life flashing by in front of you. From the earliest things by me and John when we used to sag off school and the earliest demo tape we ever made, to the first little record we made which was a version of John singing "That'll Be The Day", and a little song of mine [and Harrison] on the other side that's never been released before." ## Later years Other customers of Phillips' studio included The Swinging Blue Jeans, Brian Epstein, Freddie Starr, Willy Russell, Liverpool F.C. supporters club, and players from Everton F.C. Denny Seyton and The Sabres recorded "Little Latin Lupe Lu" (Bill Medley) in the studio in 1963. Phillips closed the studio in 1969, the record shop in 1974, and died in 1984, at the Royal Liverpool Hospital. The recording of The Quarrymen acetate and the site of Phillips' Sound Recording Services was commemorated on 26 August 2005, when a Blue Plaque was unveiled by two of The Quarrymen (Lowe and Hanton) on the front of the house. Record Collector magazine valued the Beatles related disc (still owned by McCartney) at a value of £200,000 STG in their 2016 "Rare Record Price Guide." (A similar one off acetate recording by a pre famous Elvis Presley by Sam Phillips sold at auction for a similar amount previously).

MLS Cup 2020

2020 edition of the MLS Cup

MLS Cup 2020 was the 25th edition of the MLS Cup, the championship match of Major League Soccer (MLS), and was played at Mapfre Stadium in Columbus, Ohio. The match was originally set to take place on November 7, 2020, but was postponed to December 12 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the adjusted MLS season schedule. The match was contested by Columbus Crew SC and Seattle Sounders FC, the defending champions from MLS Cup 2019. A limited crowd of 1,500 spectators was permitted to attend the match; it was the final playoff match played at Mapfre Stadium, which was replaced by a new stadium in 2021. Both teams had previously won the MLS Cup and were seeded to host their playoffs matches at their respective home stadiums. The Crew won 3–0 to secure their second MLS Cup championship, scoring twice in the first half and preventing a Sounders comeback in the second half. MLS Cup MVP Lucas Zelarayán scored two goals and provided an assist to Derrick Etienne. Columbus manager Caleb Porter became the third coach to win the MLS Cup with different teams, repeating his feat from MLS Cup 2015, where the Portland Timbers defeated the Crew at Mapfre Stadium. ## Road to the final The MLS Cup is the post-season championship of Major League Soccer (MLS), a professional club soccer league in the United States and Canada. The 2020 season was the 25th in MLS history, and was contested by 26 teams organized into the Eastern and Western conferences. The 2020 regular season began on February 29, 2020, and was originally scheduled to conclude on October 4, 2020. The league was divided into two conferences of 13 teams, with each scheduled to play a 34-game schedule with 17 each of home and away matches. Each team was to play their intra-conference opponents twice—once home and once away for a total of 24 matches—and one match against 10 of the members of the opposite conference. The 2020 season was to be the first MLS season in which each team did not play every other team at least once. Due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, which caused several matches to be cancelled, MLS suspended all play on March 12—the first total interruption of league play since the September 11 attacks in 2001. The league resumed play with the MLS is Back Tournament, a special tournament of regular season matches played at the ESPN Wide World of Sports Complex at Walt Disney World in Bay Lake, Florida, with 24 teams participating following the withdrawal of FC Dallas and Nashville SC. The tournament, which included isolation of personnel and frequent COVID-19 testing, was organized into a group stage of three matches and a knockout bracket for the top 16 teams. It was played from July 8 to August 11 and concluded with the Portland Timbers defeating Orlando City SC. MLS announced that the regular season would resume in home markets on August 12 with all teams playing a total of 23 matches over the course of several phases. The first phase comprised six matches between conference opponents for U.S. clubs, while FC Dallas and Nashville SC (who were moved to the Eastern Conference) played each other an additional three times to make up for missed matches from the MLS is Back Tournament. The three Canadian clubs played six matches between themselves, as they were unable to play in the United States due to cross-border travel restrictions, including a mandatory 14-day quarantine. The second phase began September 18 with clubs continuing to play intra-conference matches within a smaller geographic bubble; the three Canadian clubs played their home matches from temporary venues in the U.S. The regular season concluded with Decision Day on November 8 and conference standings for the playoffs were determined by calculating points per game due to cancellations of matches late in the season, including an eight-match deficit for the Colorado Rapids after a COVID-19 outbreak. The MLS Cup Playoffs was contested using the single-elimination format adopted in 2019 by an expanded field of 18 teams—ten from the East and eight from the West. It began on November 20 with a play-in round for the four lowest seeds in the East and continued for four rounds hosted by the team with higher ranking as determined by points per game. A scheduled international break in the FIFA International Match Calendar between Decision Day and the first playoff matches forced clubs to play without some players due to quarantine rules, despite league-funded charter flights to circumvent it. The MLS Cup final was scheduled for December 12, its latest-ever staging. The finalists, Columbus Crew SC and Seattle Sounders FC, played each other in the 2010 U.S. Open Cup Final, which was won 2–1 by Seattle. The two teams had each previously won the MLS Cup, with the Crew defeating the New York Red Bulls in the 2008 final and losing in 2015 to the Portland Timbers. The Sounders were appearing in their fourth MLS Cup final in five years, having played Toronto FC in their three previous finals—winning in 2016 and 2019 and losing in 2017. The Sounders and Crew played each other once in the 2020 regular season, on March 7 in Seattle, which finished in a 1–1 draw. ### Columbus Crew SC The Columbus Crew underwent a major reorganization in January 2019, when the club's ownership was transferred from Anthony Precourt (who was awarded the rights to Austin FC by the league) to the Haslam and Edwards families. The Crew also announced the hiring of former Portland manager Caleb Porter and former Toronto FC team president Tim Bezbatchenko to rebuild the team ahead of the opening of a new stadium in 2021. The team missed the 2019 playoffs, finishing 10th in the Eastern Conference, but Porter and Bezbatchenko had begun rebuilding the roster with several acquisitions during the summer transfer window, including midfielders Luis Díaz and Youness Mokhtar. The club declined options on several key players, including star midfielder Federico Higuaín and former captain Wil Trapp, and was left with 13 empty roster positions to fill with new offseason signings. Columbus acquired midfielder Darlington Nagbe through a trade from Atlanta United FC and signed Lucas Zelarayán from UANL Tigres of Liga MX for a club-record \$7 million transfer fee. Nagbe and Zelarayán were placed at the center of Porter's preferred 4–2–3–1 formation and went on to contribute to the team's improved 2020 performance despite injury issues. The Crew opened their season with a 1–0 win against New York City FC at home, with Zelarayán scoring on his league debut. Following a 1–1 draw with the Sounders in Seattle, the MLS season was suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic. During the suspension, the club sent at-home workout plans and nutrition advice to its players, who were also monitored through video conferencing during training exercises. Players returned to the Crew's training facility in on May 13 for individual workouts, which was replaced by group training on June 4 and full-team sessions on June 12. Columbus was drawn into Group E at the MLS is Back Tournament alongside Atlanta United FC, in-state rivals FC Cincinnati, and the New York Red Bulls. The Crew topped Group E with three victories, all shutouts, and advanced to face Minnesota United FC in the Round of 16. Minnesota won 5–3 in a penalty shootout after a 1–1 draw, with one shot from the Crew saved by goalkeeper Tyler Miller. The Crew resumed the regular season atop the Eastern Conference and remained there through late September. The team, playing mostly at home, went on a six-match unbeaten streak but lost Nagbe and Zelarayán to multi-week injuries. The unbeaten streak was snapped by a 3–1 loss to Toronto, the first of several away matches that saw Columbus win only three of their remaining ten matches. The Crew finished third in the Eastern Conference, having tied Orlando City SC on points but bumped ahead by the wins tiebreaker, and were winless in away matches; the team went on to play the entire playoffs at home due to their seeding and regained Nagbe and Zelarayan, the latter of whom was named MLS Newcomer of the Year. Columbus played New York Red Bulls in the first round of the playoffs following a week-long break after the regular season ended. The Crew conceded a 23rd-minute goal to the Red Bulls, but responded with three goals from Pedro Santos, Nagbe, and Gyasi Zardes to win 3–2. Ahead of their Conference Semifinals fixture against expansion side Nashville SC, the team lost seven players to positive COVID-19 tests, including starting goalkeeper Eloy Room and midfielder Derrick Etienne. The semifinal match, the last of the season to be played behind closed doors, remained scoreless until extra time despite several chances from Nashville. Zardes assisted on the opening goal, finished by Pedro Santos in the 99th minute, and scored himself four minutes later to secure a 2–0 victory. The Crew faced the eighth-seeded New England Revolution in the Eastern Conference Final with 1,500 fans in attendance at Mapfre Stadium. Columbus advanced to their third MLS Cup final with a 1–0 win against New England, with the lone goal scored in the 59th minute by midfielder Artur after controlling the majority of shots but failing to create scoring chances. ### Seattle Sounders FC The Sounders won their second MLS Cup in 2019 by defeating Toronto 3–1 at CenturyLink Field in Seattle. The club retained most of their roster under head coach Brian Schmetzer, but lost midfielder Víctor Rodríguez and defenders Román Torres, Kim Kee-hee, and Brad Smith during the offseason. In January 2020, Seattle signed central midfielder João Paulo to a Designated Player contract and also acquired defenders Yeimar Gómez Andrade and Shane O'Neill to fill open positions in the backline. After a short preseason, the club played in the 2020 CONCACAF Champions League, where they were eliminated in the Round of 16 by Honduran champions C.D. Olimpia, who won in a penalty shootout following a 4–4 draw on aggregate. Seattle opened the regular season in March with two matches at home played in front of crowds despite the severe COVID-19 outbreak in Washington state and a state of emergency declared by Governor Jay Inslee. The Sounders won 2–1 against the Chicago Fire in the first match as striker Jordan Morris scored twice in the second half to overcome an earlier deficit. The following week, in front of the smallest attendance for a home match since 2009, the team drew 1–1 with the Columbus Crew. The club suspended all operations until further notice on March 12, days before a planned away fixture with the Houston Dynamo; a home match against FC Dallas on March 21 had already been postponed due to the state government's ban on large events amid the pandemic. The club organized virtual training sessions through video conferencing and nutrition plans to maintain fitness during the suspension, which was lifted for socially distant training at Starfire Sports on May 18 with approval from the state government. The Sounders were seeded during the MLS is Back Tournament draw and placed in Group B alongside Vancouver Whitecaps FC, the San Jose Earthquakes, and FC Dallas, who later withdrew due to a COVID-19 outbreak at the club. They finished second in Group B behind San Jose with a 1–1–1 record and a goal difference of +2. Seattle went on to be eliminated in the Round of 16 by Los Angeles FC, losing 4–1 due to several defensive mistakes. The Sounders returned to regular season play with a 3–0 victory against the Timbers in Portland that brought them to second place in the West, which was followed by the players cancelling an away match against the LA Galaxy by joining a multi-team boycott to protest racial injustice. The team returned to play their first home match of the restarted regular season on August 30, defeating Los Angeles FC 3–1, followed two days later by an away match against Real Salt Lake that ended in a 2–2 draw. The Sounders played their next three matches at home, losing 2–1 to the Timbers, but winning 7–1 against San Jose (setting a franchise record for goals scored) and 3–0 against Los Angeles FC to move to first in the Western Conference. Following a loss to the Timbers, Seattle went on a three-match winning streak to continue their lead in the West and contend for the Supporters' Shield title. Two defenders who left during the offseason, Brad Smith and Román Torres, returned to the club by early October to provide lineup flexibility ahead of the push to the playoffs, which came amid international call-ups for several starting players. A match on October 14 against the Colorado Rapids was postponed and later cancelled due to their COVID-19 outbreak; the Sounders were also without star forward Raúl Ruidíaz for two matches after he tested positive for COVID-19 while playing for the Peru national team. Seattle played to draws against San Jose and Portland before defeating the Vancouver Whitecaps to clinch their twelfth consecutive playoff berth. The Sounders fell to second in the West after losing 3–1 to the Colorado Rapids and tying 1–1 with the LA Galaxy, but won their Decision Day fixture against San Jose. The Sounders opened their playoffs campaign at home against seventh-place Los Angeles FC in a rematch of the previous Western Conference Final. While Seattle were expected to play with a full-strength squad, LAFC were missing several starting players who tested positive for COVID-19, among them MLS top goalscorer Diego Rossi and assists leader Brian Rodríguez. The home side won 3–1, with Ruidíaz scoring once and recording two assists as the team controlled possession against LAFC, who were unable to equalize after Carlos Vela missed an early penalty kick. Seattle hosted the Conference Semifinals against FC Dallas, who had upset Portland as the sixth seed, but were without midfielder Gustav Svensson due to quarantine protocols following an international call-up. The match ended in a 1–0 victory for the Sounders, with the lone goal scored by defender Shane O'Neill, who headed in a corner kick in the 49th minute amid a defensive stalemate between the two teams. Seattle hosted the Western Conference Final against Minnesota United FC, who had upset conference-leading Sporting Kansas City as the fourth seed with a 3–0 away victory. Minnesota led 2–0 early in the second half with a free kick scored by Emanuel Reynoso in the 27th minute and a header from Bakaye Dibassy in the 67th minute. The Sounders scored three goals in the final 18 minutes of the match to earn a 3–2 comeback victory, continuing a 15-match home unbeaten streak in the playoffs. Will Bruin scored two minutes after entering the match in the 73rd minute and was followed by an equalizer from Raúl Ruidíaz in the 89th minute, who shot off a rebound after a corner kick was deflected to him. Midfielder Gustav Svensson, who had returned from a COVID quarantine, scored the winning goal with a header in the third minute of stoppage time. ### Summary of results Note: In all results below, the score of the finalist is given first (H: home; A: away). ## Venue The MLS Cup final was played at Mapfre Stadium, the home venue of the Columbus Crew, who finished ahead of the Seattle Sounders on points per game. It opened in 1999 as the first soccer-specific stadium to be built for a MLS team and was replaced during the 2021 season by the new Lower.com Field in the Arena District. Mapfre Stadium previously hosted the MLS Cup in 2001 and 2015. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 20,000-seat venue was limited to 1,500 spectators in distanced seating to comply with local regulations. Earlier in the season, MLS officials had also prepared contingency plans to move the MLS Cup final to a neutral venue, such as Exploria Stadium in Orlando, Florida, in the event that a host market restricted all sporting activities. A statewide COVID-19 curfew issued on December 10 by Ohio governor Mike DeWine exempted the match and other sporting events held in large outdoor venues. ## Broadcasting The match was broadcast in English by Fox in the United States and TSN in Canada. UniMás and Univision Deportes carried the Spanish broadcast in the United States, while TVA Sports carried the French broadcast in Canada. The match was also broadcast in 190 countries by several international networks, including ESPN Latin America, BeIN Sports, and Abu Dhabi Sports. The MLS Cup final was watched by 1.071 million spectators on Fox, an increase of 30 percent from 2019, and 459,000 on UniMás in the United States. ## Match ### Pre-match Two days before the match, the Columbus Crew announced that two players had tested positive for COVID-19 and would not be able to play; Darlington Nagbe, Pedro Santos, and Vito Wormgoor were listed as being "medically not cleared to play". Eight Columbus players had previously tested positive for COVID during the MLS Cup Playoffs, but recovered and were allowed to play. The Sounders also announced that defender Xavier Arreaga, who had not played in the playoffs, would miss the match as he had remained in Seattle to await the birth of his child. Seattle was named as favorites to win the MLS Cup by FiveThirtyEight, ESPN FC, and USA Today based on their experience and stronger projected lineup. Jair Marrufo was announced as the head referee for the match, having previously officiated two MLS Cup finals in 2006 and 2015, the latter of which was also held at Mapfre Stadium. Kathryn Nesbitt was announced as an assistant referee, becoming the first woman to referee a championship match in North American professional men's sports. ### Summary The match kicked off at 8:30 p.m. Eastern Time at Mapfre Stadium in front of 1,500 spectators. Both teams fielded their starting lineup in a 4–2–3–1 formation, with Columbus making several key changes, including starting 19-year-old Aidan Morris, setting a record for youngest MLS Cup starter; Seattle had an unchanged lineup from the Conference Final. After trading various chances, the Crew earned four set-pieces and had the first major shot on goal, as Gyasi Zardes's shot off a corner kick rebound in the 17th minute was saved by Stefan Frei; an immediate counter-attack by the Sounders led to a strike by Jordan Morris from outside of the penalty area that went wide of the goal. Columbus opened the scoring in the 25th minute after a cross to the backpost from Harrison Afful found Lucas Zelarayán, whose left-footed volley rolled into the goal after deflecting off Frei. The Crew extended their lead six minutes later as Zelarayán received a cleared header at the top of the penalty area, faked a shot, and provided a square ball to Derrick Etienne, who scored with a curling shot. After attempts by Nouhou for Seattle and Aidan Morris for Columbus were deflected over the goal, the first half ended at 2–0. The Crew entered halftime with an 8–2 lead in shots and the majority of possession. The Sounders brought on leftback Brad Smith and midfielder Gustav Svensson at halftime and had several unsuccessful chances to score, including two Cristian Roldan shots and a deflection off Afful that turned into a conceded corner kick instead of an own goal. After a few missed attempts from Columbus, Seattle captain Nicolás Lodeiro received a laid-off ball from Jordan Morris at the top of the penalty area that he converted for a wide shot in the 71st minute that narrowly missed the outer post. Svensson added his own attempt with a header three minutes later that also went wide. Columbus goalkeeper Eloy Room made a one-handed save on a header from Jordan Morris in the 80th minute to preserve a shutout. Two minutes later, Zelarayán received a pass from Luis Díaz and scored his second goal of the match with a left-footed, upper-corner shot to extend the lead to three goals. The Sounders eventually took the majority of possession but were unable to convert their remaining chances, including a long-distance strike from Raúl Ruidíaz in stoppage time, into a consolation goal. The Crew won 3–0, clinching their second MLS Cup title. ### Details ## Post-match The Columbus Crew became the seventh team to win multiple MLS Cups and the seventh to score three or more goals in the title match. Caleb Porter became the third coach to win MLS Cup titles with multiple teams, having also won in 2015 with the Portland Timbers at Mapfre Stadium. Lucas Zelarayán was named the MLS Cup Most Valuable Player and became the first player to score twice in an MLS Cup since Alecko Eskandarian in 2004. The playoffs winning streak for Seattle Sounders FC was halted at eight matches, tied for the longest MLS Cup Playoffs streak in the post-shootout era. A virtual celebration for the Crew was held at Mapfre Stadium on December 13 in lieu of the traditional victory parade due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with speeches from Bezbatchenko, Porter, and several players. The club announced plans for a large in-person event at a later date after pandemic restrictions were lifted. As MLS Cup champions, Columbus earned a berth in the 2021 CONCACAF Champions League, the premier international club competition in North America. They were seeded into Pot 1 and faced Nicaraguan club Real Estelí FC in the Round of 16, winning 4–0 away and 1–0 at home to advance 5–0 on aggregate. In the quarterfinals, the Crew drew 2–2 with Mexican champions Monterrey at home but were eliminated after a 3–0 away loss. The Crew also qualified for the 2021 Campeones Cup, where they defeated Liga MX champion Cruz Azul 2–0 at Lower.com Field on September 29, 2021.

Army of the Danube

Field army

The Army of the Danube (French: Armée du Danube) was a field army of the French Directory in the 1799 southwestern campaign in the Upper Danube valley. It was formed on 2 March 1799 by the simple expedient of renaming the Army of Observation, which had been observing Austrian movements on the border between French First Republic and the Holy Roman Empire. It was commanded by General Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, 1st Comte Jourdan (1762–1833). The formation of the army was part of the French Directory's long term strategy to undermine Habsburg influence in the Holy Roman Empire, and, conversely, to strengthen French hegemony in central Europe after the wars of the First Coalition and the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797. Despite the Treaty, Austria and France remained suspicious of each other's motives, and the purpose of the Army of the Observation was to watch for Austrian border transgressions. Understanding that the negotiations at the Congress of Rastatt were going no-where, the Army of Observation was instructed to cross the Rhine. Once across the Rhine, the Army of the Danube, was to secure strategic positions in southwestern Germany (present day Baden-Württemberg) and engage Archduke Charles' Habsburg army. In the meantime, the Army of Helvetia, under command of André Masséna, would secure such strategic locations as St. Gotthard Pass, the Swiss Plateau, and upper Rhine basin. The army participated in four battles. In the battles of Ostrach and first Stockach, the Army of the Danube withdrew after suffering heavy losses. After reorganization, in which elements of the army were combined with Massena's Army of Switzerland, it withdrew after an engagement with Charles' superior force at Zürich in early June 1799; only in the Second Battle of Zurich did the Army of the Danube secure an uncontested victory. In December 1799, the Army of the Danube merged with the Army of the Rhine. ## Background Initially, such rulers of Europe as Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor viewed the revolution in France as an event between the French king and his subjects, and not something in which they should interfere. As the rhetoric grew more strident, the monarchies started to view events with distrust. Leopold, who had succeeded Joseph as Emperor in 1791, saw the situation surrounding his sister, Marie Antoinette, and her children, with greater and greater alarm. As the revolution grew more and more radical, he still sought to avoid war, but in the late summer, he, in consultation with French émigré nobles and Frederick William II of Prussia, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, in which they declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe as one with the interests of Louis and his family. They threatened vague, but serious, consequences if anything should happen to the royal family. By 1792, the French republican position had become increasingly difficult. Compounding internal economic and social problems, French émigrés agitated abroad for support of a counter-revolution that would restore an absolute monarchy. Chief among them were Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé (cousin of Louis XVI), Condé's son, Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon, and Condé's grandson, Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien. From their base in Koblenz, immediately over the French border, they sought direct support for military intervention from the royal houses of Europe, and themselves raised a small army. The ascension of young and uncompromising Francis as Holy Roman Emperor-elect on the death of his father in July 1792 also contributed to their unease. On 20 April 1792, the French National Convention declared war on Austria. In this War of the First Coalition (1792–98), France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her, plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire. Although the Coalition forces achieved several victories at Verdun, Kaiserslautern, Neerwinden, Mainz, Amberg and Würzburg, the efforts of Napoleon Bonaparte in northern Italy pushed Austrian forces across the Italian-Austrian border and resulted in the negotiation of the Peace of Leoben (17 April 1797) and the subsequent Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1797). From October 1797 until the Army of the Danube crossed into Germany in March 1799, the signatories of the Treaty of Campo Formio had avoided armed conflict. Despite their agreement at Campo Formio, the two primary combatants, France and Austria, remained suspicious of each other's motives. Several diplomatic incidents undermined the agreement. The French demanded additional territory not mentioned in the Treaty. The Habsburgs were reluctance to hand over designated territories, much less additional ones. The Congress at Rastatt proved inept at orchestrating the transfer of territories to compensate the German princes for their losses. Ferdinand of Naples refused to pay tribute to France, followed by a general Neapolitan rebellion, the French suppression, and the subsequent establishment of the Parthenopean Republic. Republicans in the Swiss cantons, supported by the French army, overthrew the central government in Bern and established the Helvetic Republic. Other factors contributed to the rising tensions. On his way to Egypt, Napoleon had stopped on Malta and forcibly removed the Hospitallers from their possessions, angering Paul, Tsar of Russia, who was the honorary head of the Order. The French Directory, furthermore, was convinced that the Austrians were conniving to start another war. Indeed, the weaker the French Republic seemed, the more seriously the Austrians, the Neapolitans, the Russians and the English actually discussed this possibility. ## Purpose and formation Military planners in Paris understood that the northern Rhine Valley, the south-western German territories, and Switzerland were strategically important for the defense of the Republic. The Swiss passes commanded access to northern Italy; consequently, the army that held those passes could move troops to and from northern and southern theaters quickly. The river was a formidable barrier to what the French perceived as Austrian aggression, and the state that controlled its crossings controlled the river itself. Finally, control of the Upper Danube would allow France to move its troops from Italy to the North Sea, or any point in between, offering immense strategic value. Toward this end, in the early November 1798, Jourdan arrived in Hüningen, near the Swiss city of Basel, to take command of the Army of Observation, so-called because its function was to observe the security of the French border on the Rhine. Once there, Jourdan assessed the quality and disposition of the forces and identified needed supplies and manpower. He found the army woefully inadequate for its assignment. The Army, and its flanking armies, the Army of Helvetia (Switzerland) and the Army of Mayence, were equally short of manpower, supplies, ammunition, and training. Jourdan documented assiduously these shortages, pointing out in lengthy correspondence to the Directory the consequences of an under-manned and under-supplied army; his petitions seemed to have little effect on the Directory, which sent neither significant additional manpower nor supplies. Jourdan's orders were to take the army into Germany and secure strategic positions, particularly on the roads through Stockach and Schaffhausen, at the westernmost border of Lake Constance. Similarly, as commander of the Army of Helvetia, André Masséna would acquire strategic positions in Switzerland, in particular the St. Gotthard Pass, the passes above Feldkirch, particularly Maienfeld (St. Luciensteig), and hold the central plateau in and around Zürich and Winterthur. These positions would prevent the Allies of the Second Coalition from moving troops back and forth between the northern Italian and German theaters, and insure French access to these strategic passes. Ultimately, this positioning would allow the French to control all western roads leading to and from Vienna. Finally, to complete Vienna's isolation, the army of Mayence would sweep through the north, blocking further access to and from Vienna from any of the northern Provinces, or from Britain. ## Crossing the Rhine On March 1, 1799, the Army of Observation, in an order of battle of approximately 30,000 men in four divisions, crossed the Rhine at Kehl and Basel as units crossed, they took the name Army of the Danube. - Advance Guard, with approximately 9,000 men under General François Joseph Lefebvre, and temporarily commanded by Dominique Vandamme. This also included the detached left flank of 3,000 Vandamme eventually used to take Stuttgart. - I. Division, with approximately 8,000 men under General Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino. - II\. Division, with approximately 7,000 men under General Joseph Souham. - III\. Division, approximately 7,000 men under Laurent Saint-Cyr constituted the left flank. - Reserve, with approximately 3,000 men under Jean-Joseph Ange d'Hautpoul. The army advanced in four columns. First Division, the right wing, assembled at Hüningen, crossed at Basel and advanced eastward along the north shore of the Rhine toward Lake Constance. The Advanced Guard crossed at Kehl, and Vandamme led it north-east through the mountains via Freudenstadt. This column eventually became the left flank. It was followed across the Rhine, also at Kehl, by the II. Division. The Third Division and the Reserve also crossed at Kehl, and then divided into two columns, III. Division traveling through the Black Forest via Oberkirch, and the Reserve, with most of the artillery and horse, further south via the valley at Freiburg im Breisgau, where they would find more forage, and then over the mountains past the Titisee to Löffingen and Hüfingen. Although Jourdan could have established a position on the immediate eastern slope of the mountains—and indeed he might have been better advised to do so—he pushed eastward across the Danube plain, taking a temporary position between Rottweil and Tuttlingen. Eventually he directed the army to establish a line centered in Pfullendorf. He planned to engage the Habsburg army under the Habsburg commander-in-chief Archduke Charles on the Ostrach plateau. While this may have seemed like a good plan, Jourdan's choice of ground created problems for him later. The plain below Pfullendorf was riddled with such streams and brooks as the Ostrach, a Danube tributary, which drained out of the marshes and swamps of Pfrungenried; in the spring of most years, this was not the best choice of ground. Although from Pfullendorf and the more moderate heights to the north of the village of Ostrach, Jourdan could establish reasonable artillery positions, the softness of the marshland itself would diminish the impact of a cannonade on the Austrian line. The marsh was also prone to fogginess, which would hinder visual planning and tactics. Furthermore, the softness of the ground would make the use of cavalry difficult, and cavalry maneuvers would be made more difficult by the likelihood of fog. Finally, the major part of Charles' army had wintered immediately east of the Lech, which Jourdan knew, because he had sent agents into Germany with instructions to identify the location and strength of his enemy. This was less than 64 kilometers (40 mi) distant; any passage over the Lech was facilitated by available bridges, both of permanent construction and temporary pontoons and a traverse through friendly territory. ## Engagements In March 1799, the Army of the Danube engaged in two major battles, both in the southwestern German theater. At the Battle of Ostrach, 20–22 March 1799, the first battle of the War of the Second Coalition, Austrian forces, under the command of Archduke Charles, defeated French forces. The French suffered significant losses and were forced to retreat from the region, taking up new positions at Messkirch (also spelled Mößkirch or Meßkirch), and then at Stockach and Engen. At the second battle, in Stockach, on 25 March 1799, the Habsburg army achieved a decisive victory over the French forces, and again pushed the French army west. Jourdan instructed his generals to take up positions in the Black Forest, and he himself established a base at Hornberg. From there, General Jourdan relegated command of the army to his chief of staff, Jean Augustin Ernouf, and traveled to Paris to ask for more and better troops and, ultimately, when these were not forthcoming, to request a medical leave. The Army was reorganized, and a portion placed under the command of André Masséna and merged with the Army of Helvetia. Following the reorganization and change in command, the Army participated in the Battle of Winterthur and the First Battle of Zürich and, three months later, the Second Battle of Zürich. ### Battle of Ostrach The Battle of Ostrach, also called the Battle by Ostrach, occurred 20–23 March 1799. In early March, the Army of the Danube pressed forward toward Pfullendorf and Ostrach, the former an imperial city in Upper Swabia and the latter a nearby village of 300 belonging to the Imperial Abbey of Salem. Their goal was to cut the Austrian line at Switzerland, preventing the Coalition use of Switzerland as an overland route between central and southern Europe. This would ostensibly isolate the armies of the Coalition in northern Italy and Germany, and prevent them from assisting one another; furthermore, if the French held the interior passes in Switzerland, they could use the routes to move their own forces between the two theaters. The battle occurred during Holy Week in 1799, amid rain and dense fog, on the marsh southeast of the village. Initially, on 20 March, the French were able to take, and hold, the village of Ostrach and the nearby hamlet of Hoßkirch. On the morning of 21 March, as General Jourdan later wrote, as the Habsburg army attacked, his men seemed to disappear in a cloud of redcoats, which referred to the Habsburg Hussar and Grenadier uniforms. That evening, after more than 15 hours in general engagement, the Austrians flanked his left wing, and Saint Cyr's force was pressed back to the Pfullendorf heights. In the early morning, as the fog lifted, Jourdan could see the Archduke's formidable force arrayed on the plains below him. The archduke's arrangements made it clear that Jourdan could not keep the heights of Pfullendorf. As he withdrew, a portion of his right flank was cut off from the main force. Although casualties appeared even in numbers for both sides, the Austrians fielded a significantly larger fighting force of nearly 55,000 at Ostrach, with another 60,000 stretched along a line between Lake Constance and Ulm. French casualties amounted to more than 12 percent of their force, and Austrian, approximately four percent. The French were forced back to Stockach, where on 25 March the armies engaged again, this time with greater losses on both sides, and a decisive Austrian victory. ### Battle of Stockach At the Battle of Stockach, Jean-Baptiste Jourdan and Archduke Charles again directed the French force of 40,000 and the Habsburg force of 80,000, respectively. While attempting to rally his troops, Jourdan was dismounted, nearly trampled to death by his soldiers, and barely escaped capture by the Austrians. Charles' personal intervention was crucial for the Austrians, and he was in the thick of the fighting, buying time for reinforcements to arrive. The French were defeated and driven back upon the Rhine. The general engagement was brutal and bloody. Before daybreak on 25 March, the French left wing launched a headlong attack on the Austrian right wing, coordinated with assaults on the Austrian left. The ferocious attack forced the Austrians out of the woods in which they had been positioned overnight, and pushed them to the village of Schwanndorf. Fearing that his forces would shortly be flanked, Charles directed reinforcements to back up the right wing. The Archduke himself led eight battalions of Hungarian grenadiers into the fight, and during this part of the action, both the Prince of Anhalt and Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg were killed by French case shot. The main French assault on the Austrian center was stalled by the superior numbers. On the French right flank, General Ferino attempted to push the Austrians back, first with a cannonade, followed by an attack through the woods on both sides of the road between the hamlet of Asch and Stockach. A third charge succeeded in taking the road, but the Habsburg forces reformed the line and the artillery, now at the head of a wedge, bombarded the French troops. In a bayonet charge, the French took the hamlet of Wahlweiss, but Ferino's troops could not hold it and withdrew during the night. Jourdan then ordered a general withdrawal from the region, instructing his divisions to retreat along the lines of march they had followed into the region, and himself establishing a command post at Hornberg. He sent the cavalry to the western side of the Black Forest, where the horses could expect to find better forage. ### Battle of Winterthur By mid-May, 1799, the Austrians had wrested control of the eastern portions of the newly formed Helvetic Republic from the French as the forces of Hotze and pushed them out of the Grisons. Archduke Charles' own sizable force—about 110,000 strong—crossed the Rhine west of Schaffhausen, and prepared to join with the armies of Friedrich, Baron von Hotze and Friedrich Joseph, Count of Nauendorf on the Swiss Plateau by Zürich. The French Army of Helvetia and the Army of the Danube, now both under the command of André Masséna, tried to prevent this merger of the Habsburr forces at the Winterthur crossroads. Masséna sent the newly promoted General of Division Michel Ney and part of the Army of the Danube to Winterthur on 27 May 1799 to stop the Austrian advance from eastern Switzerland. If the Austrians succeeded in uniting Hotze's army from the east with Nauendorf's directly north of Zurich, and Archduke Charles' which lay to the north and west, the French would be half encircled at Zurich and dangerously exposed. On the morning of 27 May, Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze assembled his force into three columns and marched toward Winterthur. Opposite him, Michel Ney deployed his force around the heights, the so-called Ober-Winterthur, a ring of low-lying hills some 6 kilometers (4 mi) north of the city. The overall commander of the forward line, Jean Victor Tharreau, had informed Ney that he would send Jean-de-Dieu Soult's division to support him; Ney understood this to mean he was to make a stand along the entire outpost line, and that he would not be isolated. His small force would receive reinforcements from Soult's division. Consequently, Ney directed the weakest brigade, under the command of Gazan, to move up a long valley toward Frauenfeld, and another brigade, under the command of Roget, to take the right, preventing any Austrian flanking maneuver. By mid-morning, Hotze's advanced guard had encountered moderate French resistance first from the two brigades Ney had at his disposal. The Austrian advance troops quickly overran the weaker brigade and took possession of the woods surrounding the village of Islikon. After securing the villages of Gundeschwil, Schottikon, Wiesendangen, and Stogen, further west of Islikon, Hotze deployed two of his columns facing the French front, while a third angled to the French right, as Ney had expected he would. Soult never appeared (he was later court martialed for insubordination), and Ney withdrew his forces through Winterthur, regrouping with Tharreau's main force in the outskirts of Zurich. A day later, Hotze's force united with the main Habsburg force of Archduke Charles. ### First Battle of Zürich In the First Battle of Zürich, on 4–7 June 1799, approximately 45,000 French and 53,000 Austrians clashed on the plains around the city. On the left wing, Hotze had 20 battalions of infantry, plus support artillery, and 27 squadrons of cavalry, in total, 19,000 men. On the right wing, General Friedrich Joseph, Count of Nauendorf commanded another 18,000. The battle cost both sides dearly; General of Brigade Cherin was killed, on the French side, and on the Austrian side, Feldzeugmeister (General of Infantry) Olivier, Count of Wallis, was killed. On the French side, 500 died, 800 were wounded and 300 captured; on the Austrian side, 730 killed, 1,470 wounded, and 2,200 captured. When the Austrians took the French positions in the city, they also captured over 150 guns. Ultimately, French general André Masséna yielded the city to the Austrians, under Archduke Charles. Massena retreated beyond the Limmat, where he managed to fortify his positions. Hotze's force harassed their retreat, and secured the river shoreline. Despite Hotze's aggressive harassment of the French retreat, Charles did not follow up on the withdrawal; Masséna established himself on the opposite bank of the Limmat without threat of pursuit from the main body of the Habsburg Army, much to the annoyance of the Russian liaison officer, Alexander Ivanovich, Count Ostermann-Tolstoy. On 14 August 1799, a Russian force of 6,000 cavalry, 20,000 infantry, and 1,600 Cossacks, under Alexander Korsakov, joined Archduke Charles' force in Schaffhausen. In a vice-like operation, together with the Russians, they would surround André Masséna's smaller army on the banks of the Limmat, where it had taken refuge the previous spring. To divert this attack, General Claude Lecourbe attacked the pontoon bridges over which the Austrians crossed the Rhine, destroying most of them, and making the rest unusable. Before Charles could regroup, orders arrived from the Aulic Council, the imperial body in Vienna charged with conduct of war, to overset his plan; Charles' troops were to leave Zurich in the supposedly capable hands of Korsokov, re-cross the Rhine and march north to Mainz. Charles stalled this operation as long as he could, but eventually he had to concede to Vienna's orders. Consequently, the Russian troops under a novice general replaced the Austrian troops and their seasoned commander in the strategically important city. Charles withdrew his force to the north of the Rhine and marched slowly toward Mainz. In Italy, the Russian generalissimo, Alexander Suvorov, was horrified when he heard this: he depended upon a stable Austro-Russian presence in Switzerland to protect his flank and he expected to join this army by September or October at the latest. Although the order to Charles to recross the Rhine and march north was eventually countermanded, by the time such instructions reached him, he had gone too far to return to Zurich in time. ### Second Battle of Zürich In the Second Battle of Zürich, the French regained control of the city, along with the rest of Switzerland. Notably, Masséna out-generaled Korsakov; surrounded him, tricked him, and then took more than half his army as a prisoner. Massena also captured the baggage train and most of Korsakov cannons, and inflicted over 8,000 casualties. Most of the fighting took place on both banks of the river Limmat, up to the gates of Zürich, and in part within the city itself. Zürich had declared itself neutral, and was spared general destruction. General Oudinot commanded the French forces on the right bank and general Joseph Mortier, those on the left. At the same time, Soult led a small force, some 150 musket-men, across the river Linth—the men held their muskets over their heads and waded across, through water to their chests—and protected the crossing site for the remainder of the force. Baron von Hotze, commander of the Habsburg force there, advanced on the position near Richterswil to direct its defense, and was killed by a French musket ball. His successor, Franz Petrasch, could not push the French back, and organized a retreat from the region, falling back to St. Gallen and losing another 8,000 men and some guns. By the time Suvorov arrived in St. Gallen in early October, the Austrians and the Russians had been pushed out and he was forced to lead his men over the Alps to the Vorarlberg, resulting in additional losses. ## Organizational and command problems The French army experienced a variety of command problems, especially in its early operations in southwestern Germany. After the defeat at Stockach, the army withdrew into the Black Forest. Jourdan relinquished command provisionally to Ernouf, who was a capable staff officer but had insufficient experience to hold together a varied and demoralized force. Jourdan retired to Strasbourg, where he was, or claimed he was, indisposed. By the time Masséna arrived to take command, organization and discipline was in shambles. Only four divisional generals had remained at their posts: Klein, Ferino, Souham, and Vandamme. Decaen was under arrest in Strasbourg, pending a Courts-martial, as was d'Hautpoul, for his failure to organize a timely cavalry attack at Stockach. The others had disappeared to different parts of the southwest or had gone to France. No one knew where Bernadotte had gone, and Saint Cyr had retired to Mannheim. The latter was at least reachable. Lecourbe, who had been injured at Stockach, had withdrawn to Paris to recover; in a strategically astute move, he remained there until late November, when he was able to offer Napoleon direct assistance in his coup, and thus acquired Bonaparte's attention and gratitude. ### School for marshals Initially, the Army included five future Marshals of France: Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, its commander-in-chief, François Joseph Lefebvre, Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, and Édouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph Mortier. After the defeat at Ostrach, the Army was reorganized and command shifted to another future marshal, André Masséna. ## Subsequent variations The Army of Switzerland and portions of the Army of the Danube merged in a joint command under André Masséna in April 1799; in June, portions of the Army of the Danube were used to strengthen the Army of the Rhine. Both the Army of the Rhine and the Army of the Danube subsequently merged in 24 November 1799 to form a new, enlarged army designated the Army of the Rhine. ## Commanders

Chinese cruiser Jingyuan (1886)

Imperial Chinese Navy's Zhiyuan-class protected cruiser

Jingyuan (Chinese: 靖遠; pinyin: Jìngyuǎn; Wade–Giles: Ching Yuen) was a protected cruiser built for the Imperial Chinese Navy. She was built by Armstrong Whitworth in Elswick, England. She was one of two Zhiyuen-class protected cruisers built, alongside her sister ship Zhiyuen. Jingyuan was armed with a smaller number of large sized naval guns, as opposed to later ships of this type (such as the Royal Navy Pearl-class) which carried a larger number of smaller guns. This was because the medium-calibre quick-firing gun had yet to be introduced, thus a warship's firepower at the time was largely a function of individual shell weight rather than volume of fire. Both ships were assigned to the Beiyang Fleet. Jingyuan was part of a flotilla which toured ports during the summer of 1889. Jingyuan first saw action during the First Sino-Japanese War. At the Battle of the Yalu River on 17 September 1894, she was one of the surviving Chinese cruisers, although suffered fire damage. She was sunk the following February during the Battle of Weihaiwei from a shot fired from a captured Chinese fort. She sank upright in shallow water, and Admiral Ding Ruchang gave orders for her to be destroyed by a naval mine. She was raised the following year for scrap. ## Design and description At the time that Jingyuan was ordered in October 1885, there was a debate in naval circles over the differences between armored cruisers and protected cruisers. Viceroy of Zhili province, Li Hongzhang, was in Europe to order ships from builders in Western nations. He was unable to decide between the two types, so in an experiment, he placed orders for two vessels of each type. The order for the two Zhiyuen-class cruiser protected cruisers was given to Armstrong Whitworth in Elswick, England, known as the leading builder of these type of vessels during this period. Jingyuan was 268 feet (82 metres) long overall. She had a beam of 38 ft (12 m) and a draught of 15 ft (4.6 m). Jingyuan displaced 2,300 long tons (2,300 tonnes), and carried a crew of 204–260 officers and enlisted men. She was equipped with an internal protective armoured deck, which was 4 inches (10 cm) thick on the slopes and 3 in (7.6 cm) on the flat. The superstructure was divided into watertight compartments and had a raised forecastle and poop, a single funnel, and two masts. She was powered by a Compound-expansion steam engine with four boilers, driving two screws. This provided 6,850 indicated horsepower (5,110 kW) for a top speed of 18.5 knots (34.3 km/h; 21.3 mph). The ship was equipped with electrics and hydraulics throughout, which included the movement of the shot from the ammunition lockers to the guns. Earlier protected cruisers, such as the Chinese cruiser Chaoyong had been equipped with a small number of 10 in (25 cm) main guns but, although larger than this ship, Jingyuan was built with a higher freeboard to improve her seaworthiness over the smaller vessel. The resultant topweight considerations resulting from the desire to mount the main armament atop the forecastle and poop necessitated that she be armed with slightly smaller (and thus lighter) main guns than the Chaoyong. The main armament consisting of three breech-loading 8 in (20 cm) Krupp guns, two paired on a hydraulic powered rotating platform in front of the ship and a single gun mounted on a manual rotating platform in the stern, was still a powerful armament for a cruiser of her size. Both mounts were protected by 2 in (5.1 cm) thick gun shields. The secondary armament consisted of two 6-inch (15 cm) Armstrong guns mounted on sponsons on either side of the deck, compared to the four limited-traverse 4.7-inch breech-loading guns carried by the Chaoyong. The ship also had eight QF 6-pounder Hotchkiss guns on Vavasseur mountings, two QF 3-pounder Hotchkiss guns, and eight 1-pounder guns to supplement her main guns in attack or for close-range torpedo defence. Jingyuan was also equipped with weapons other than naval artillery, which included six gatling guns as well as four above water mounted torpedo tubes. One pair of the torpedo tubes was mounted forward, and another pair mounted aft where they were activated using electricity from the captain's cabin. ## Service record Following the orders for the two protected cruisers by Hongzhang on October 1885, Jingyuan was laid down later on 20 October. Construction continued throughout the majority of 1886, with the ship launched on 14 December. She was officially completed on 9 July 1887. Both Jingyuan and her sister ship was Zhiyuen were laid down at the same time, but despite Zhiyuen being launched six weeks earlier than Jingyuan, she was completed two weeks later than her sister. Following completion, both ships, along with the two armored cruisers Jingyuan and Laiyuan, as well as a newly built Chinese torpedo boat, converged in the solent near Portsmouth in August 1887. Imperial Chinese Admiral William M. Lang, formerly of the Royal Navy, was sent back to Europe to take command of the squadron as they travelled to China. With the exception of a handful of Western advisors, the ships were manned by Chinese crews. Jingyuan was under the command of Captain Yeh Tsu-kuei. While in the Solent, they were inspected by Hongzhang. It had been anticipated that they would immediately be underway for the passage to China, but following the loss of an anchor and some urgent repairs, they left on 12 September. They arrived in Amoy (now Xiamen) in November, where they remained during the winter before joining up with the Beiyang Fleet in Shanghai in the spring. During 1888, Jingyuan was repainted along with the rest of the Chinese Navy, changing from the all grey scheme she had sailed from England with, to a combination of a black hull, white above the waterline and buff coloured funnels, typical of the Victorian era. In May 1889, Jingyuan and the Beiyang Fleet were moved to fortify Weihaiwei (now Weihai). During the summer of that year, she was part of the flotilla led by Admiral Ding Ruchang, which travelled to Chefoo (now Yantai), Chemlupo (now Incheon, South Korea), and the Imperial Russian Navy base of Vladivostok. On the return leg of the journey, they stopped at Fusan (now Busan, South Korea). ### The Sino-Japanese War Jingyuan first saw action during one of the opening engagements of the First Sino-Japanese War, in the Battle of the Yalu River on 17 September 1894. Each Chinese ship was paired with another in a supporting role in case of a signalling failure, with Jingyuan and the armored cruiser Laiyuan grouped together. Shortly after the start of the battle, Admiral Ruchang's signalling mast aboard the ironclad warship Dingyuan was disabled by its own weapons. This meant that the entire Chinese fleet operated in these pairs throughout the battle without any central organisation. While Jingyuan and Laiyuan did not come under such heavy fire as other Chinese vessels, they each caught fire with extensive damage to Laiyuan. Along with the other ships of the Chinese fleet, Jingyuan made her way to Port Arthur (now Lüshunkou District) after the battle. During the battle, Jingyuan's sister ship, Zhiyuen was one of the Chinese cruisers sunk by the Japanese. Once the fleet was repaired, they sailed out on 20 October to Weihaiwei. While in the harbour, they found themselves under attack by the Imperial Japanese Army in January 1895 as the Battle of Weihaiwei commenced. As Japanese forces took control of the sea forts on either side of the harbour, the fleet found itself under bombardment during the day and torpedo boat attack during the night. One such attack during the night of 5 February saw Laiyuan sunk by a torpedo and capsized. Jingyuan was undamaged, but underwent a near-miss by a torpedo. On 9 February, while Jingyuan was operating in the eastern part of the harbour, was struck below the waterline and sank upright in shallow water. The shot was fired from one of the captured Chinese forts. To avoid eventual capture by the Japanese, Ruchang ordered for a naval mine to be placed below decks on Jingyuan and detonated later that day, destroying her. She was raised and scrapped the following year. ## Annotations

William Penney, Baron Penney

English mathematician and physicist (1909–1991)

William George Penney, Baron Penney, (24 June 1909 – 3 March 1991) was an English mathematician and professor of mathematical physics at the Imperial College London and later the rector of Imperial College London. He had a leading role in the development of High Explosive Research, Britain's clandestine nuclear programme that started in 1942 during the Second World War which produced the first British atomic bomb in 1952. As the head of the British delegation working on the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos Laboratory, Penney initially carried out calculations to predict the damage effects generated by the blast wave of an atomic bomb. Upon returning home, Penney directed the British nuclear weapons directorate, codenamed Tube Alloys and directed scientific research at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment which resulted in the first detonation of a British nuclear bomb in Operation Hurricane in 1952. After the test, Penney became chief advisor to the new United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA). He was later chairman of the authority, which he used in international negotiations to control nuclear testing with the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Penney's notable scientific contributions included the mathematics for complex wave dynamics, both in shock and gravity waves, proposing optimisation problems and solutions in hydrodynamics (which plays a major role in materials science and metallurgy.) During his later years, Penney lectured in mathematics and physics; he was the Rector of Imperial College London 1967–1973. ## Early life and education William George Penney was born in Gibraltar on 24 June 1909, the oldest child and only son of William Alfred Penney, a sergeant-major in the British Army's Ordnance Corps who was then serving overseas, and Blanche Evelyn Johnson, who had worked as a cashier before her marriage. His parents moved about frequently, but Penney did not always accompany them. After the outbreak of the First World War, Penney, his mother and his sisters moved to Sheerness, Kent, where he went to primary school. He then attended a school near Colchester, and finally, was at Sheerness Technical School for Boys from 1924 to 1926, where he displayed a talent for science. He participated in boxing and athletics, winning the school's 100-yard (91 m) dash. He also played cricket, and he was centre-forward on the school football team. In 1927, Penney's passion for science landed him in a local science laboratory where he worked for 10 shillings a week () as a laboratory assistant. This helped him to gain a Kent county scholarship and a royal scholarship to the Royal College of Science (RCS), a constituent college of Imperial College London. He played centre-forward on the RCS soccer team. He was permitted to skip the first year of the course, and graduated in 1929, obtaining his Bachelor of Science degree in mathematics with First Class Honours at age 20. His talent was recognised by the Governor's Prize for Mathematics from the faculty of science. Penney was offered a research position at the London University, where he studied for a doctorate. He spent a term at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands, where he worked with Ralph Kronig. Together, they developed the Kronig–Penney model, which described the motions of electrons in periodic fields. Penney was awarded his Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Mathematics in 1931. He accepted a Commonwealth Fund Fellowship and travelled to the United States, where he became foreign research associate at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, studying under John H. Van Vleck, and was awarded a Master of Arts degree. While in the United States he visited Carl Anderson's laboratory at the California Institute of Technology and Ernest Lawrence's Radiation Laboratory at the University of California. He was a guest at Robert Oppenheimer's ranch in New Mexico, saw Babe Ruth play baseball, and was a spectator at the 1932 Los Angeles Olympics. On returning to England in 1933, Penney was granted the 1851 Exhibition Scholarship to attend Trinity College, Cambridge. He changed his mathematical career to physics, and conducted a thorough research and theoretical investigation into the structure of metals and the magnetic properties of crystals with John Lennard-Jones. In 1935, Penney submitted his final thesis, which contained the fundamental work in the applications of quantum mechanics to the physics of crystals. The University of Cambridge awarded him a PhD in 1935 and a Doctor of Science in Mathematical Physics in 1936. In 1936, he was elected to the Stokes studentship at Pembroke College, Cambridge, but in the same year he returned to London and was appointed Reader in Mathematics at Imperial College London, a post he held from 1936 to 1945. On 27 July 1935, Penney married Adele Minnie Elms, a university student from Kent he had known since his days in Sheerness. They had two sons, Martin, who was born in 1938, and Christopher, who was born in 1941. ## Second World War ### Physex Penney registered himself as available for scientific war work, but heard nothing for several months after the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939. He was then approached by Geoffrey Taylor. Taylor was an expert on fluid dynamics, and was dealing with more questions from government departments regarding the effects of explosions than he had time to answer. He asked Penney if he could investigate the behaviour of an underwater explosion. Penney became a member of the Physics of Explosives Committee (Physex), and reported his results to another committee, Undex, which was run by the Admiralty and was interested in underwater explosions such as those created by mines, torpedoes and depth charges, and their effects on the hulls of ships and submarines. Most of the data on underwater explosions was from the First World War. With Royal Navy engineer officers Penney designed and supervised development of Bombardon breakwaters, steel structures that formed part of the Mulberry harbours that were placed off the Normandy beaches after the D-Day invasion. These mobile breakwaters protected landing craft and troops from the Atlantic rollers. Penney's job was to calculate the effects of waves on the Bombardons and devise the most efficient arrangement of them. ### Manhattan Project The August 1943 Quebec Agreement provided for British support of the American Manhattan Project, which aimed to develop atomic bombs. Over the objections of the Admiralty and Imperial College, Penney was sent to join the team of British scientists at the Manhattan Project's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, where expertise on explosions and their effects was in demand. At Los Alamos Penney gained recognition for his scientific talents, and also for his leadership qualities and ability to work in harmony with others. Within a few weeks of his arrival he was added to the core group of scientists making key decisions in the direction of the programme. Major General Leslie Groves, the director of the Manhattan Project, later wrote: > Throughout the life of the project, vital decisions were reached only after the most careful consideration and discussion with the men I thought were able to offer the soundest advice. Generally, for this operation, they were Oppenheimer, Von Neumann, Penney, Parsons and Ramsey. One of Penney's assignments at Los Alamos was to predict the damage effects from the blast wave of an atomic bomb. Soon after he arrived at Los Alamos, he gave a talk on the subject. Fellow Manhattan Project scientist Rudolf Peierls recalled that: > Soon after his arrival he gave a talk about the effect of blast waves on people, including many gruesome details to which his American audience was not accustomed. He presented all this with his usual cheerful manner, and so acquired for a time the sobriquet "the smiling killer." Penney's wife never recovered from post-natal depression after Christopher's birth, and died on 18 April 1945. He arranged for Joan Quennell, a nurse, to look after the boys. He wanted to return home, but Groves told James Chadwick, the British liaison to Manhattan Project in Washington, D.C., that Penney was too important to the project to be released. On 27 April 1945 Penney went to Washington for a target selection meeting. He gave advice regarding the height of the detonation which would ensure optimum destructive effects, whilst ensuring the fireball did not touch the earth, thereby avoiding permanent radiation contamination on the ground. The committee selected four cities from a list of seventeen. Penney attempted to forecast casualties and damage effects, but this was difficult because the exact energy of the bombs was not known. This was answered by the Trinity test detonation on 16 July 1945. Penney was assigned as an observer on an aircraft, but the flight was cancelled due to bad weather, and he did not witness the test. Five days later, Penney gave a presentation on the results of the test, during which he predicted that the bomb would level a city of three or four hundred thousand people. The following month Penney went to Tinian Island as part of Project Alberta, the group of scientists and military personnel that assembled the atomic bombs. Along with Royal Air Force (RAF) Group Captain Leonard Cheshire from the British Joint Staff Mission in Washington, he represented the United Kingdom. The American authorities stopped them observing the bombing of Hiroshima but, after an appeal to Chadwick, they were permitted to accompany the second mission. On 9 August 1945 Penney witnessed the bombing of Nagasaki, flying with Cheshire in the B-29 observation plane Big Stink. Big Stink missed its rendezvous with the bomber Bockscar, so they witnessed the flash of the Nagasaki detonation from the air at too great a distance to photograph the fireball and the target was obscured by clouds. As the leading expert on the effects of explosions, Penney was a member of the team of scientists and military analysts who entered Hiroshima and Nagasaki following the Japanese surrender on 15 August 1945 to assess the effects of nuclear weapons. Penney returned to the United Kingdom on a civilian flight from the United States in September 1945. He brought artefacts from Hiroshima and Nagasaki with him, and was charged for excess baggage. He married Joan Quennell on 3 November 1945. Penney returned to Imperial College, where he wrote a report on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. He estimated that the bomb dropped on the former had a yield of 10 kilotons of TNT (42 TJ) and that of the Nagasaki bomb of about 30 kilotons of TNT (130 TJ). He wanted to return to academic life, and he was offered a chair of mathematics at the University of Oxford. ## British Nuclear Weapons Programme At the end of the war the British government, now under the Labour Prime Minister, Clement Attlee, believed that America would share the technology that British leaders saw as a joint discovery under the terms of the 1943 Quebec Agreement and the 1944 Hyde Park Agreement. In December 1945, Attlee ordered the construction of an atomic pile to produce plutonium and requested a report to detail requirements for Britain's atomic bombs. Penney was approached by C. P. Snow and asked to take up post as Chief Superintendent Armament Research (CSAR, called "Caesar") at Fort Halstead in Kent, as he suspected Britain was going to build an atomic bomb of its own and he wanted Penney in this job. As CSAR he was responsible for all types of armaments research. In 1946, at the request of Groves and the United States Navy, Penney returned to the United States where he was put in charge of the blast effects studies for Operation Crossroads at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands in July 1946. He wrote the after action reports on the effects of the two nuclear detonations. His reputation was further enhanced when, after the sophisticated test gauges failed in the Able test due to the bomb missing the intended target, he was able to determine the yield using observations from simple devices made from petrol tins. The second test, Baker, was an underwater test, and it impressed Penney greatly. He speculated on the possible effects if an atomic bomb was exploded near a port city in the UK. The passage of the McMahon Act (Atomic Energy Act) in August 1946 made it clear that Britain would no longer be allowed access to US atomic research. Penney left the United States and returned to the United Kingdom where he drew up plans for an atomic weapons section in his department, submitting them to the Controller of Production, Atomic Energy, Marshal of the Royal Air Force Lord Portal, in November 1946. In January 1947, Penney went to the United States to attend a symposium on the Crossroads tests. With almost all other aspects of atomic co-operation between the countries at an end, his personal role was seen as keeping the contact alive between the parties. He returned to the UK at the end of February 1947. Attlee's government decided that Britain required the atomic bomb to maintain its great power status. In the words of the Foreign Secretary, Ernest Bevin, "We've got to have this thing over here, whatever it costs ... We've got to have the bloody Union Jack flying on top of it." Officially, the decision to proceed with the British atomic bomb project was made in January 1947. The government also endorsed Portal's proposal to place Penney in charge of the bomb development effort. The project was based at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, and was code-named "High Explosive Research" (HER). In May 1947, Penney was officially named to head the HER project. The following month he began assembling teams of scientists and engineers to work on the new technologies that had to be developed. He gathered 34 senior members of his fledgling team in the library at the Royal Arsenal and gave a two-hour talk on the principles of how to build an atomic bomb. By mid-1948, it was clear that Penney's initial estimate that he would require 220 staff was wide of the mark, and that he would need nearly 500. This meant not only taking personnel from other projects, but scrapping some entirely. In October 1948, he submitted a request for developing a new, separate site for HER on grounds of safety, security and economy. This was approved, but it took another six months to locate a suitable site. A former airbase, RAF Aldermaston, was selected. At the same time, it was decided to separate HER from the Armaments Weapons Research Establishment (AWRE). This resulted in a painful bureaucratic battle over personnel whose expertise was wanted for research on both nuclear weapons and guided missiles. In the end, HER kept 25 of the 30 key personnel that AWRE wanted. The site was taken over on 1 April 1950. Penney became Chief Superintendent High Explosive Research (CSHER). The first stage of work at Aldermaston was completed in December 1951, but the plutonium processing building was only handed over in April 1952, the month that the first plutonium was due to arrive from Windscale. At the peak of construction in 1953, over 4,000 personnel were working on the site. On 3 October 1952, under the code-name "Operation Hurricane", the first British nuclear device was successfully detonated off the west coast of Australia in the Monte Bello Islands. ## British hydrogen bomb Hurricane was but the first series of British nuclear weapons tests in Australia. Further tests required a site on land, so Penney visited Australia and chose a site at Emu Field in South Australia for the Operation Totem test series in 1953. Emu Field proved too remote, so Penney selected a more accessible site at Maralinga. The decision to develop a British hydrogen bomb meant that certain scientific information was urgently required and Maralinga was not yet ready, so a second series of tests, Operation Mosaic, was conducted in the Monte Bello Islands in 1956. The subsequent Operation Buffalo tests were carried out at Maralinga in September and October 1956. Penney personally supervised the Totem and Buffalo tests. Penney was aware of the public relations issues associated with the tests, and made clear-speaking presentations to the Australian press. Before one series of tests, Lord Carrington, the High Commissioner of the United Kingdom to Australia, described Penney's press presence: "Sir William Penney has established in Australia a reputation which is quite unique: his appearance, his obvious sincerity and honesty, and the general impression he gives that he would rather be digging his garden – and would be, but for the essential nature of his work – have made him a public figure of some magnitude in Australian eyes". Britain felt the need to quickly develop megaton-class weapons because it seemed that atmospheric testing could soon be outlawed by treaty. As a result, the UK wanted to demonstrate its ability to manufacture megaton-class weapons by proof-testing them before any legal prohibitions were in place. The Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, hoped to convince the US to change the McMahon Act, which prohibited sharing information even with the British, by demonstrating that the UK had the technology to make a thermonuclear weapon (an H-bomb), and he put Penney in charge of developing this bomb. The Orange Herald bomb was developed and was passed off as a thermonuclear bomb, when in fact it was a boosted fission weapon in which little of the energy came from fusion. The reports were unlikely to have fooled the American observers. The subsequent successful development of British thermonuclear weapons, which coincided with the Sputnik crisis led to the amendment of the McMahon Act, and the re-establishment of the nuclear Special Relationship with the United States. In the late 1950s there was domestic and international pressure to discontinue atmospheric nuclear testing. Penney headed the UK delegation at a conference convened in Geneva on 1 July 1958. Macmillan took Penney along as an advisor to the conference in Bermuda in December 1961, where Macmillan met with President John F. Kennedy and concluded the Nassau Agreement. Penney continued as the government's advisor on arms control and participated in the preliminary discussion leading up to, and the signing of, the Partial Test Ban Treaty in Moscow in July 1963. Nuclear development was transferred from the Ministry of Supply (MoS) to the newly formed United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA). Penney became a member of the UKAEA Board in 1954, and he chaired its official inquiry in the 1957 Windscale fire. When Sir John Cockcroft left in 1959 to become the master of Churchill College, Cambridge, Penney succeeded him as the Member for Scientific Research. He became deputy chairman in 1961 and chairman in 1964. The UKAEA had a difficult working relationship with the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB). Penney's management style was to avoid confrontation and seek consensus whenever possible, and the role of the UKAEA in the nuclear power industry was an advisory one. He endorsed the CEGB's 1966 decision to develop the Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor. He took the decision to proceed with the Prototype Fast Reactor at Dounreay and to upgrade the uranium enrichment plant at Capenhurst. ## Imperial College Penney was Rector of Imperial College London from 1967 to 1973. The job was far more trying than he anticipated, and there was no time for personal research. The university sector had expanded rapidly in the 1960s, and there were many personnel and financial difficulties to contend with. There was staff and student unrest that he had to deal with. Penney agreed to have student observers on the Board of Studies, and he brokered deals with the Association of University Teachers. Imperial College now had direct access to University Grants Committee funding and was no longer dependent on the University of London but money was still tight. Careful financial management created a surplus of income over expenditure. The college named the William Penney Laboratory at the South Kensington campus, which opened in 1988, in his honour. He served as the first chairman of the UK's Standing Committee on Structural Safety from 1976 to 1982. ## Honours and awards Penney was made a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1946. He was its treasurer from 1956 to 1960 and vice-president from 1958 to 1969. He became a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1962, a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1970, and a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1973. He received the Wilhelm Exner Medal in 1967. Among the honours he received in 1969 was the Rumford Medal by the Royal Society, the Glazebrook Medal and Prize of the Institute of Physics and the James Alfred Ewing Medal of the Institution of Civil Engineers, and he was awarded the Kelvin Gold Medal the following year. He was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Melbourne in 1956, the University of Durham in 1957, the University of Oxford in 1959, the University of Bath in 1966 and by the University of Reading in 1970. For his services to the United States, he was awarded the Medal of Freedom in 1946. Penney was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1946, and was raised to Knight Commander of the order in 1952. He was made a life peer, taking the title Baron Penney, of East Hendred in the Royal County of Berkshire on 7 July 1967, and was awarded the Order of Merit in 1969. As a life peer he was entitled to sit in the House of Lords, but did so only twelve times between 1967 and 1973, and voted for only three bills: for sanctions on Rhodesia in 1968, for an amendment to the redistribution bill in 1969, and for the accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities in 1970. ## Death and legacy In later years he admitted to qualms about his work but felt it was necessary. When aggressively questioned by the McClelland Royal Commission investigating the test programmes at Monte Bello and Maralinga in 1985, he acknowledged that at least one of the twelve tests had unsafe levels of fallout. However, he maintained that due care was taken and that the tests conformed to the internationally accepted safety standards of the time. Jim McClelland broadly accepted Penney's view but anecdotal evidence to the contrary received wide coverage in the press. By promoting a more Australian nationalist view, then current in the government of Bob Hawke, McClelland had also identified "villains" in the previous Australian and British administrations. As a senior witness Penney bore the brunt of the allegations, and his health was badly affected by the experience. He was diagnosed with cancer in 1991, and died on 3 March 1991 at his home in the village of East Hendred, aged 81. He burned his personal papers before he died. In Penney's obituary in the New York Times he was credited as the "father of the British bomb". The Guardian described him as its "guiding light" and his scientific and administrative leadership was said to be crucial in its successful and timely creation. His leadership of the team that exploded the first British hydrogen bomb at Christmas Island was instrumental in restoring the exchange of nuclear technology between Britain and the US in 1958, and he was credited as playing a leading part in the negotiations which led to the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963. His Kronig-Penney model for the behaviour of an electron in a periodic potential is still taught and used today in solid-state physics and is used to explain the origin of band gaps.

Tony Knowles (snooker player)

English snooker player

Anthony Knowles (born 13 June 1955) is an English former professional snooker player. He won the 1982 International Open and the 1983 Professional Players Tournament, and was a three times semi-finalist in the World Professional Snooker Championship in the 1980s. His highest world ranking was second, in the 1984/85 season. Knowles was the British under-19 snooker champion in 1972 and 1974. He turned professional in 1980, and surprisingly defeated the defending champion Steve Davis 10–1 in the first round of the 1982 World Snooker Championship. In 1984, tabloid stories about his personal life were published, and he was fined £5,000 by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association for bringing the game into disrepute. His other tournament victories included the 1984 Australian Masters and, as part of the England team with Davis and Tony Meo, the 1983 World Team Classic. ## Career Tony Knowles was born in Bolton on 13 June 1955. He began playing snooker at the age of 9 on the tables at the Tonge Moor Conservative Club, which was run by his father, Kevin. He went on to win the UK Junior Championship twice, in 1972 (against Matt Gibson) and in 1974. His application to the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA) to become a professional player was accepted in 1980, after a rejection in November 1979. He did not win a match in his first year, before progressing through two qualifying rounds to reach the first round of the 1981 World Snooker Championship where he lost 8–10 to Graham Miles. He reached the quarter-finals of the 1981 UK Championship by eliminating Geoff Foulds, Fred Davis and Doug Mountjoy from the competition before being defeated 5–9 by Terry Griffiths. Later that season, Knowles gained attention when he won 10–1 against defending champion Steve Davis in the first round of the 1982 World Snooker Championship, after staying out late at a nightclub following the first day's play when he had built an 8–1 lead. He defeated Miles 13–7 in the second round, before losing 11–13 to Eddie Charlton in the quarter-finals. In the 1982–83 snooker season, he followed up his performance in the World Championship by winning the 1982 International Open with a 9–6 victory against David Taylor. He had eliminated Eddie Sinclair 5–2 in the first round, Ray Reardon by the same score in round two, Cliff Wilson 5–4 in the quarter-finals, and Kirk Stevens 9–3 in the semi-finals. In the final, he led Taylor 5–3 after the first , after the pair had been level at 2–2. He compiled a of 114, the highest of the tournament, to win the ninth frame, before Taylor claimed the next two frames to leave Knowles one ahead at 6–5. Breaks of 63 and 43 in the next two frames saw Knowles restore a three-frame advantage. Taylor made a break of 74 to win the 14th frame, but Knowles secured his first major title by claiming the 15th frame with a break of 76. It was the first tournament apart from the World Snooker Championship to count in the snooker world rankings. He won only one match in four tournaments between the 1982 International Open and the 1983 World Snooker Championship. At the World Championship, he progressed to the semi-finals by defeating Miles, Reardon (the second seed), and Tony Meo. In the semi-final he led Cliff Thorburn 15–13 before losing 15–16 in the after Thorburn the final and went on to take the frame. He moved to fourth place in the 1983/1984 world rankings. The next season, he defeated Meo and Thorburn to reach the final of the 1983 Scottish Masters, which he lost 6–9 to Davis. Having failed to successfully defend the International Open title, losing 4–5 to John Spencer in the second round, Knowles started the 1983 Professional Players Tournament with a 5–1 win against Paul Medati and a 5–4 defeat of Rex Williams, then a 5–0 whitewash of Silvino Francisco. The same day as his match against Francisco, Knowles won 5–3 against John Campbell in the quarter-finals, after losing the opening two frames. In the semi-final, Knowles and Willie Thorne were level at 4–4 after the first session, with Knowles going on to prevail 9–7. In the final, he faced Joe Johnson and established a 6–1 lead, which Johnson reduced slightly to 6–2 by winning the last frame of the first session with the tournament's highest break, 135. Johnson was two frames behind at 4–6 and 5–7, but Knowles went three frames up with four to play at 8–5. Johnson won three successive frames to equalise at 8–8. In the deciding frame, Knowles won on the final to take the title. Just before the 1984 World Snooker Championship, Knowles appeared in a series of three articles in tabloid newspaper The Sun, in which he boasted of his sexual adventures, describing himself as "the hottest pot in snooker" and was dismissive of most other competitors in the tournament. He received £25,000 from the newspaper for the articles, and was subsequently fined £5,000 by the WPBSA for bringing the game into disrepute. He lost 7–10 to John Parrott in the first round. At the start of the 1984–85 snooker season, he won the 1984 Australian Masters by defeating John Virgo 7–3 in the final, and was the runner-up, 7–9 to Jimmy White, at the 1984 Carlsberg Challenge. He was the losing finalist to Davis, by a margin of 2–9, at both the 1984 International Open and the 1985 English Professional Championship. He reached the 1985 World Snooker Championship semi-final where he was eliminated 5–16 by Dennis Taylor. He reached two ranking tournament semi-finals, in the 1985–86 snooker season, at the Grand Prix and the World Championship, and the semi-finals of the Masters, but an inconsistent season included losses to lower-ranked players such as Williams, Jim Wych, and Patsy Fagan. The following year, he dropped from fourth to tenth in the rankings, with a semi-final place at the 1987 British Open the furthest he reached in a ranking tournament in a season that included a 6–10 first round defeat by Mike Hallett at the 1987 World Snooker Championship. He was ranked 21st for the 1990/1991 season, the first time he had not been in the top sixteen since 1982/1983 after a season where he only reached one quarter-final, at the 1989 Grand Prix. At the 1991 Dubai Classic, he defeated Gary Natale 5–1 in the qualifying competition, then Eugene Hughes 5–2, and Neal Foulds 5–0. A 5–2 win against Dennis Taylor in the quarter-final saw Knowles reach his first ranking semi-final since the 1988 Classic. He then gained his first ranking final place since the 1984 International Open by eliminating Steve James 6–2. in the semi-final. Facing reigning world champion Parrott in the final, Knowles fell 0–3 behind, but won three of the next four frames to trail 3–4 at the end of the first session. Parrott then won five consecutive frames in the next session to claim victory at 9–3. For the 1997–98 snooker season, only the top 64 players in the rankings at the end of the previous season retained full professional status. Those who finished from 65th to 192nd, including Knowles who was 72nd, played in a new WPBSA Qualifying School series which allowed qualifiers to regain full professional status. Knowles, however, lost his first match at each of the four Qualifying School events, and so was eligible to enter only the World Championship, the Benson and Hedges Championship, and the new "UK Tour" events during the season. He finished tenth in the UK Tour standings, which meant he regained his full professional status for 1998–99 snooker season, losing it again at the end of 2000–01. He continued to play on the Challenge Tour and in World Championship qualifying. In 2009, Knowles won the inaugural Snooker Super 6s tournament, which played as one-frame matches, with six red balls, rather than the usual fifteen reds, at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield. He defeated Neal Foulds in the semi-final, and 13-year-old Ross Muir in the final. He has entered competitions including World Championship qualifying, Players Tour Championship and Q School in the 21st century. In 2021, he announced that he would enter Q School in an attempt to regain his professional snooker status. He failed to regain his professional status, but reached the last 32 of Event 3, where he lost 2–4 to Mark Lloyd. During his professional career, Knowles reached the World Championship semi-finals on three occasions (in 1983, 1985 and 1986), but never the final. His highest ranking was second, in 1984/1985, and his highest tournament break was 139. As one of three members of the England Team alongside Davis and Meo, he was a winner of the 1983 World Team Classic, and was runner-up at the 1982 World Team Classic and 1985 World Cup. He partnered White at the 1983 World Doubles Championship, where they were the losing finalists to Davis and Meo. He was a director of the WPBSA in the early-to-mid-2000s. He manages a wine bar in the Lake District. The club in the comedy programme Phoenix Nights had a room named the "Tony Knowles Suite" after him. ## Performance and rankings timeline ## Career finals ### Ranking finals: 4 (2 titles) ### Non-ranking finals: 8 (3 titles) ### Team finals: 4 (1 title) ### Pro-am finals: 3 (1 title) ### Amateur finals: 2 (2 titles)

Scandinavian Airlines System Flight 347

1994 aircraft hijacking

Scandinavian Airlines System Flight 347 was a scheduled domestic flight which, on 3 November 1994, was hijacked shortly after take-off. The flight, from Bardufoss Airport via Bodø Airport to Oslo Airport, Fornebu in Norway, was operated by a McDonnell Douglas MD-82 belonging to Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS). The hijacker was Haris Keč, a Bosnian living in Norway, who made demands that Norwegian authorities help to stop the humanitarian suffering in his home country caused by the Bosnian War. No one was injured in the incident. Keč hijacked the aircraft with 122 passengers and a crew of six in mid-air after leaving Bardufoss. The aircraft landed as scheduled at Bodø, where all women, children and seniors were let off, along with two of the cabin crew. The aircraft then departed Bodø with 77 passengers and a crew of four. It was diverted to Gardermoen, where Keč made his demands. He surrendered at about 21:00, seven hours after take-off from Bardufoss, after some of his demands had been met. He was sentenced to four years prison for the incident. ## Hijacking SAS Flight 347 was a scheduled, domestic flight from Bardufoss Airport via Bodø Airport to Oslo Airport, Fornebu. Check-in and boarding ran as normal, without any security check. At Bardufoss, 122 people boarded the aircraft, including a large group of soldiers who were on leave of absence and on their way home to Southern Norway. Representatives from the ground handlers stated that none of the passengers acted suspiciously. During the first leg of the flight, at about 15:00, Keč, wearing a winter coat, got up from his seat and walked to the front of the aircraft. A flight attendant stopped him. After talking for a short while, and another flight attendant came by, he was let into the cockpit. No information about the hijacking was given to the passengers until arrival at Bodø. Bodø Airport was evacuated and the aircraft parked at Bodø Main Air Station, the military section. After landing, by order of the hijacker, the passengers were informed that all women, children under 18 and people over 60 were to leave the aircraft. After this had happened, there were 77 passengers and four crew members left. The aircraft departed Bodø at about 16:00 and headed for Oslo Airport, Gardermoen, which was closed for all other traffic. After the aircraft had landed at Gardermoen at 17:20, contact was established between Keč and the police negotiator Morten, who also had been the prime negotiator during Aeroflot Flight 137, a hijacking that also had taken place at the airport. Keč predominantly spoke English and insisted that he simply be referred to as "the Bosnian". He immediately informed that he had not hurt any of the crew or passengers, and that he was not affiliated with anyone. His immediate demands were that official representatives were to tell the world what needed to be done to solve the conflict in Bosnia. He then gave a presentation of the situation and that his only intentions were to help his countrymen. For several minutes, the conversion was about the lack of help Keč felt was being given to his home country. Eventually Morten requested that a helicopter with medical supplies be moved next to the aircraft, for which Keč granted permission. Contact between the pair was lost and Morten had to call Keč six times before getting a response. After 15 minutes, Keč again resumed communication. He demanded that he talk to someone from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and said he wanted media coverage of the incident. "I do not need publicity myself," he said. "I only need to arrange a press conference for the whole world community and the media, and that someone from the Norwegian government promises me and the world community that they will ensure that the United Nations (UN) in New York attempts to open all corridors in Bosnia to feed people in Bosnia so they can survive the winter." Keč indicated that if this did not lead to anything, he would go to the UN himself and that his friends would support him. He gave the authorities one hour to meet his demands before he would fly to another destination. At 19:02, Keč demanded 10 tonnes (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons) of aviation fuel and food for two to three days for 80 people. Three minutes later, Morten informed Keč that the chief of police had held a press conference where Keč's demands and goals had been presented and that it had been followed by all major Norwegian newspapers and television channels. Keč responded that he did not need the chief of police, but someone from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, such as Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland, Minister of Foreign Affairs Bjørn Tore Godal or the Norwegian Ambassador to the United Nations. Morten stated that it was not possible to get the prime minister to the airport in just five minutes. Keč responded that if this did not happen within reasonable time, he would fly to another country. At 20:04 stated that he did not believe in Thorvald Stoltenberg, the minister of foreign affairs, the prime minister or any UN ambassador. Six minutes later, he demanded 25 tonnes (25 long tons; 28 short tons) of medicines for Bosnia. After a positive response from Morten, Keč stated that he needed to make Bosnia's situation known in the media. He then demanded that Godal make a speech from the European Parliament. Later it was confirmed that requested medicines would be sent by air to Bosnia the following day. Morten then stated that they did not feel that Keč was doing things the right way. If he chose to fly to a new airport, negotiations would have to start again, perhaps in a different language. Morten urged Keč to calm down and that they wanted to solve the situation just as much as him. Keč responded by pleading for help for Bosnia. At 20:50, Keč stated "I wish to release everyone and myself. Both Bosnians and Norwegians will understand this". After confirming his surrender would occur at 21:00, Keč stated that he was "cold and calm" and that he intended to surrender without any trouble. Directed by the negotiation, Keč went to the door, opened it and was arrested. According to the police, the passengers behaved very calmly, given the circumstances. Keč allowed several of the passengers to use their mobile telephones, allowing one of them to communicate with the police and keep Sheriff Jan Bergen updated on the situation. Anti-terror police had been called to the scene, and there were plans to storm the aircraft if the situation escalated. After the incident, the police refused to say if they would have stormed the aircraft if Keč followed through his threats to depart to another airport. During the last stages of the incident, another aircraft was parked beside the MD-82, which the police confirmed played a role towards the end of the hijacking. All communication towards the central government was made to the Norwegian Ministry of Justice, and neither the prime minister or the minister of foreign affairs was ever contacted. No weapons were found on either the aircraft nor on the hijacker. ## Aftermath Haris Keč was at the time of the incident 25 years old. Born in Sarajevo, then in Yugoslavia and now in Bosnia and Herzegovina, he was a student and journalist while living in his home country. He moved to Norway on 11 July 1993, after having been granted a residential permit. After having lived in a refuge reception center in Alstahaug, he moved into his own home. He was a volunteer journalist for Landsforeningen Bosnia Hercegovina and had written several articles. Until the incident he had a clean criminal record. People who knew him described him as "sympathetic" and "resourceful", and doubted that he intended to harm anyone. A municipal immigrant consultant stated that he was "a person with initiative" who sought to get to know Norwegians and find work. Keč was charged with three criminal offenses: the hijacking itself, and fraud and forgery related to attempting to take out 50,000 Norwegian krone from a friend's bank account. He had confessed the crime and several witnesses could confirm he had committed the crime. The incident was the second court case in Norway regarding hijacking, after Braathens SAFE Flight 139 had been hijacked by a drunk in 1985. The law permitted a sentence from 2 to 21 years prison. On 16 June 1995, Keč was sentenced to four years prison by Eidsivating Court of Appeal. After receiving the sentence, he stated to the press: "I regret hijacking the aircraft. I have apologized to the victims. Hijacking an aircraft was a completely wrong way to create attention for the situation in Bosnia."

Laundry Service (album)

Laundry Service (Spanish: Servicio de Lavandería) is the fifth studio album and first English-language album by Colombian singer-songwriter Shakira, globally released on 13 November 2001 by Epic Records. After her fourth studio album Dónde Están los Ladrones? became a success in Latin America, Spain, Middle East and the Latin community in the United States, Shakira was encouraged by American singer Gloria Estefan to record songs in English as she believed her friend had the potential to cross over into the English-language pop market. Shakira was hesitant at first, but then decided to learn English well enough to write songs in the language. The title of the album reflects Shakira's views on love and music. It was released as Servicio de Lavandería in Hispanic regions in January 2002. Laundry Service is primarily a pop rock record but it also experiments with Andean music, dance-pop, Middle Eastern music, rock and roll and tango music. The album's theme is love and romance. Every song on it was written and produced by Shakira under the guidance of Emilio Estefan. Six singles were released from the album. The lead single "Whenever, Wherever" became an international success, reaching number one on record charts of Australia, Austria, Canada, France, Germany, Italy and Spain. The second English-language single "Underneath Your Clothes" repeated that success, topping the charts of Australia, Austria, and Belgium. Both singles charted in the top ten in the United Kingdom and United States. Spanish-language singles "Te Dejo Madrid" and "Que Me Quedes Tú" performed well in Hispanic regions, becoming hits in Spain and on the Latin record charts in the United States, respectively. The fourth single "Objection (Tango)" became a top ten hit in most countries around the world, while the sixth and final single "The One" was a moderate commercial success. To promote the album, Shakira embarked on her Tour of the Mongoose between 2002 and 2003. It was her first major worldwide tour and visited many countries and cities. Laundry Service received favourable to mixed reviews from music critics. Many critics complimented Shakira's varied musical styles and originality, while some critics argued that the album sounded too generic. Shakira's vocal talent also attracted praise. Laundry Service topped the charts of Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada and Switzerland, while reaching the top five in Argentina, France, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom. In the United States, Laundry Service peaked at number three on the Billboard 200 chart. The album received multiple record certifications, including sextuple platinum in Australia, quintuple in Canada, Spain and Switzerland. It was also certified multi-platinum in the United Kingdom and the United States, proving to be a successful crossover for Shakira. Globally, Laundry Service was the seventh best-selling album in 2002. The album sold around 13 million copies by 2011, making it one of the best-selling albums of the 21st century. The album is listed at number 172 of the "Definitive 200" by the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. ## Background In 1998, Shakira released her second major label studio album Dónde Están los Ladrones? (Where Are the Thieves?), which became a success in Latin America and received record certifications in various countries like Argentina, Colombia, Chile, Mexico and Spain. The rock en español-influenced Latin pop album drew comparisons to the work of Canadian-American singer songwriter Alanis Morissette and "cracked the lucrative US market wide open", spending a total of 11 weeks atop the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart. It became Shakira's first album to receive a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Dónde Están los Ladrones? spawned the Arabian-styled single "Ojos Así" ("Eyes Like Yours"), which became a hit and was deemed the "signature track" of the album. Shakira's record label at that time, Epic Records, opposed the decision to release and commission Laundry Service as they "wanted her just to throw a couple of songs in English on a Latin record." Gloria Estefan argued with Tommy Mottola, then head of Sony Music Entertainment (the parent company of Epic Records), and convinced him to release the album, arguing that an "American audience" would not buy a Spanish record simply due to its inclusion of a few English-language tracks. In an interview with Latina, she said "I got in the trenches there with Tommy [Mottola] - I fought for that. Because they didn't believe it. Just like they told us [her and Emilio during the Miami Sound Machine days]. They were trying to think in the box and I wanted to take her out of the box. And fortunately, Tommy, whom I love and adore and is a good friend, he really listened to me." ### Writing and recording The success of Dónde Están los Ladrones? prompted American singer Gloria Estefan in 1999, whose husband Emilio Estefan was managing Shakira at that time, to persuade Shakira to attempt to crossover into the mainstream pop industry. However, Shakira was initially hesitant to record songs in English as it was not her first language, so Estefan offered to translate "Ojos Así" into English in order to show her that "it could translate well." Shakira then began translating the song herself and showed it to Estefan, who responded "Quite honestly, I can't do this better!." As Shakira wanted to have full control over her recordings, she decided to learn English better to enable her to write her own songs. Wanting to find a method to express her "day-to-day stories in English", Shakira bought rhyming dictionaries, started analysing the lyrics of songs by Bob Dylan, reading poetry and the work of authors like Leonard Cohen and Walt Whitman and took English lessons from a private tutor. The first song she wrote was "Objection (Tango)" and in an interview with Faze, she revealed that writing songs in English proved to be challenging for her: "I prayed and asked God to send me a good song today, and I remember I started writing the song ['Objection (Tango)'] a couple of hours after. I wrote the music and lyrics at the same time, and when that happens it's really magical to me." After completing "Objection (Tango)", Shakira decided to write ten more songs and began setting up portable recording studios in the rural region of Uruguay. She wrote various songs with a "dictionary in one hand and a thesaurus in the other." During the songwriting process, Shakira wrote "Underneath Your Clothes" as a love song for de la Rúa. She explained that, "If you check the subject of my songs, most of them talk about my own experiences and feelings and what I was actually going through in my life." Shakira collaborated with various writers and producers on the album including Estefan, Lester Mendez, Luis Fernando Ochoa and Tim Mitchell. Being "more in control than ever", Shakira closely supervised the development of the album. The singer also served as the primary producer of the album. ## Composition Although primarily a pop rock album, Laundry Service also draws influences from a variety of musical genres. The singer credited this to her mixed ethnicity, saying "I am a fusion. That's my persona. I'm a fusion between black and white, between pop and rock, between cultures - between my Lebanese father and my mother's Spanish blood, the Colombian folklore and Arab dance I love and American music." Arabian and Middle Eastern elements, which had a high influence on Dónde Están los Ladrones?, are also present in Laundry Service, most prominently on "Eyes Like Yours" (Ojos Así). Musical styles from different South American countries surface on the album. Tango, a style of fast-paced ballroom dance that originated in Argentina, is evident on "Objection (Tango)", which also combines elements of rock and roll. The uptempo track features a guitar solo and a bridge in which Shakira delivers rap-like vocals. "Whenever, Wherever" blends pop rock with Andean music and contains instrumentation from panpipes and the charango - traditional instruments generally associated with the genre. A few songs are also influenced by dance-based genres; the "feisty" "Rules" is laced with new wave and "Ready for the Good Times" is inspired by disco music. The power ballad "Underneath Your Clothes" has Shakira delivering "racked" vocals and features brass instrumentation influenced by English rock band The Beatles. It contains a melody similar to the one in "Eternal Flame", a 1989 song by American all-female band The Bangles. Similarly, the tune of "The One", another power ballad on the album, is similar to that of "Michelle", a 1965 song by The Beatles. "Fool" and "Poem to a Horse" are more directly influenced by rock music. The former received comparisons to the work of Alanis Morissette while the latter also displays indie elements and contains instrumentation from a soul music-styled horn section and guitar riffs similar to the one present in songs by American grunge band Nirvana. Laundry Service also contains four Spanish tracks: "Que Me Quedes Tú" ("That You Remain With Me"), "Te Dejo Madrid" ("I Leave You Madrid"), "Suerte" ("Luck") and "Te Aviso, Te Anuncio (Tango)" ("I'm Warning You, I'm Announcing to You"); the latter two are Spanish translations of "Whenever, Wherever" and "Objection (Tango)", respectively. The lyrics of most songs in Laundry Service are based on issues and themes related to love, as they had been written after Shakira began a relationship Antonio de la Rúa, the son of former Argentine president Fernando de la Rúa. "Underneath Your Clothes" is an "ode" to the positivity one gains when pursuing a relationship with a good person. Shakira shows an "important side" in "The One", which is a song about how "you love your guy so much that you're actually going to learn to cook" and contains lines like "To buy more thongs and write more happy songs, it always takes a little help from someone." In "Rules", she aims to make her lover realise that he is "condemned" to her and lists "all the things your new boy can do." Songs like "Objection (Tango)" and "Fool" also deal with issues related to love but in a different manner. The former is dramatic and humorous in approach as Shakira commands her partner to end a love triangle and choose between her and the other lady; it was described as a "hell-hath-no-fury it's-her-or-me steam train." In the song, Shakira asserts that "Next to her cheap silicon I look minimal/That's why in front of your eyes I'm invisible", which a reviewer commented was a "brave statement in these days of suspiciously ripe teenybop flesh peddlers [sic]." "Fool" discusses how Shakira continues to try to build up a relationship with a "shitty, self-absorbed man" even after suffering a "soul-crushing defeat." ## Release The album was globally released on 13 November 2001 in nations including Australia, France, Italy, Switzerland and the United States. In Latin American countries like Mexico, the album was released as Servicio de Lavandería in January 2002. In the United Kingdom, Laundry Service was released on 11 March 2002. On 12 November 2002, a limited edition version of the album entitled Laundry Service: Washed and Dried was released; this version of the album features three additional remixes and a bonus disc which contains multimedia content related to "Objection (Tango)". Shakira chose to entitle the album Laundry Service as she wanted to represent her passion for love and music, which she compared to soap and water, saying "The reason I named it "Laundry Service" is because I've spent the year dedicated to my two great passions: love and music. Those two elements are like soap and water. It was a deep cleansing, almost like being reborn." The artwork of the album was also designed by Shakira and shows a close-up of the back of a blonde-haired Shakira; a star and the name of the album are seen tattooed on her arm. ## Singles "Whenever, Wherever" was released as the lead single from Laundry Service in early October 2001. The song was commercially successful, peaking at number one in countries including Australia, Austria, France, Germany Italy, and more than 14 countries worldwide. In the United States, "Whenever, Wherever" became Shakira's first single to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and peaked at number six. It stood as the singer's highest peaking single on the chart until "Hips Don't Lie" reached number one in 2006. "Whenever, Wherever" narrowly missed peaking atop the chart in the United Kingdom by reaching number two. "Suerte", the Spanish-language version of the song, was also released and peaked at number one in Spain and on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart. "Whenever, Wherever" attained numerous record certifications around the world, including multi-platinum certifications in Australia, Belgium, and Switzerland, platinum certifications in the United Kingdom, and a diamond certification in France. The accompanying music video of the song, which features Shakira belly dancing in various locations, was directed by Francis Lawrence and became popular on music video television channel MTV. "Te Dejo Madrid" was released as the second single from the album in January 2002. It peaked at number seven in Spain but performed poorly on the Latin record charts in the United States, peaking at number 45 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart. Spanish bullfighter Julián López Escobar, better known by his stage name El Juli, filed a lawsuit against Shakira for using scenes of one of his performances in the music video for "Te Dejo Madrid" without his permission. "Underneath Your Clothes" was released as the third single from the album in February 2002. The song peaked atop the charts in Australia, Austria, and Belgium; it was certified platinum in the three countries. In other countries, it became a top five hit. "Underneath Your Clothes" entered the top ten of the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, peaking at number nine, while in the United Kingdom it reached number three. The accompanying music video for "Underneath Your Clothes" was directed by Herb Ritts and depicts Shakira's life on tour. Shakira's then boyfriend Antonio de la Rua makes an appearance in the video and this led to music retailer Tower Records Argentina banning sales of her albums in the country. The reason behind the ban was that Antonio de la Rua's father Fernando de la Rúa, who was the President of Argentina at that time, had resigned "in the midst of profound economic and political turmoil in the country," and the decision to ban sales of Shakira's albums was a "direct protest against Antonio De la Rua—not Shakira." "Objection (Tango)" was released as the fourth single in May 2002. Although it was not a commercial success as big as "Whenever, Wherever" or "Underneath Your Clothes", the song performed well nonetheless. "Objection (Tango)" became a top ten hit in most countries and reached the top five in Australia and Netherlands. The song was certified platinum in Australia and gold in France. It became the last single from Laundry Service to chart on both the US Billboard Hot 100 and the UK Singles Chart, on which it peaked at numbers 55 and 17, respectively. Directed by Dave Meyers, the music video for "Objection (Tango)" features Shakira fighting her unfaithful lover and his mistress. "Que Me Quedes Tú" was released as the fifth single in November 2002 and peaked at number 10 on the Spanish Singles Chart. It became a success on the Latin record charts in the United States, topping both the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Latin Pop Airplay charts. "The One" was released as the sixth and final single from the album in December 2002. It was a moderate chart success and reached the top 20 in most countries. "The One" became the only single from the album to not appear on any US Billboard chart. The music video for "The One" was directed by Esteban Sapir and Ramiro Agulla and shows Shakira singing the song while walking outside in the rain. ## Tour To promote Laundry Service, Shakira embarked on the Tour of the Mongoose from 2002 to 2003. The tour was the singer's first worldwide tour and visited 50 cities and 30 countries, with its kick-off concert show held in San Diego, California. Various brands and franchises co-sponsored the tour, including international clothing brand Reebok and soft drink brand Pepsi. Seven buses and ten trailers were also employed to transport all the staff members. A stage covering 350 square meters was set up and preparations to arrange 280,000 watts of sound and light were made. A "solid nine-piece band" was hired to provide live instrumentation. Regarding the title of the tour, Shakira explained her decision to name it after the mongoose, saying: > "It's called the Tour of the Mongoose, and the mongoose is basically one of the few animals who can defeat the most venomous snakes with just one bite. And that's why I decided to name my tour that way, because I think that if we all have a little mongoose inside that can defeat the hatred and the resentment and the prejudice of everyday, we can probably win the battle." Likewise, the theme of the tour was highly influenced by Shakira's political views, and this was prominently seen during the performance of "Octavo Día", a song from Dónde Están los Ladrones?, during which a film showing puppet caricatures of George W. Bush, then-President of the United States, and Saddam Hussein, then-President of Iraq, playing chess with their moves being controlled by the Grim Reaper. During the opening of the concert shows, a "massive" stage curtain showing a "mongoose and a cobra preparing for battle" split and a giant cobra slowly began rising from the centre of the stage to reveal Shakira, who wore "black leather pants and a black bikini top" and performed barefoot. Shakira incorporated belly dancing moves in her performances and often played various instruments throughout the shows herself, including the harmonica. Eight songs from Laundry Service were included on the setlist of the tour. A more afro-punk oriented version of "Objection (Tango)" was performed and featured instrumentation from bongos. As an intro to "Rules", Shakira played the harmonica, guitar, and drums. She also played an electric guitar during the performance of "Fool". "Whenever, Wherever" was included in the encore segment of the shows and was "made to feel even more celebratory by the massive amount of confetti shot on the crowd midway through." Shakira also performed covers of "Dude Looks Like a Lady", a song by American hard rock band Aerosmith, and "Back in Black", a song by Australian hard rock band AC/DC. Many performances made use of pyrotechnics and "six-foot flames that shot from the stage." In 2004, a live album of the tour was released as Live & Off the Record. Aside from recording of the performances, the album included an hour-long documentary that shows Shakira "touring the world and doing such fun things as blowing bubbles, getting massages, and being serenaded by a mariachi band." A promotional CD single featuring the live performances of "Poem to a Horse" and "Whenever, Wherever" was also released to promote Live & Off the Record. The live album was certified platinum in France and gold in the United States. ## Critical reception Critical reception towards Laundry Service ranged from favourable to mixed, with critics expressing different opinions regarding the production and composition of the album. Alex Henderson from AllMusic commended Shakira's songwriting abilities in English, calling it a "challenge that she handles impressively well. Shakira, it turns out, sings quite convincingly in English," and also praised her different mixes of musical styles, saying "Like Shakira's Spanish-language albums, this self-produced CD is enjoyably eclectic; she successfully combines pop/rock with everything from tango on "Objection (Tango)" and Andean music on "Whenever, Wherever" to Middle Eastern music on "Eyes Like Yours". He concluded that "Dónde Están los Ladrones? remains Shakira's most essential album, but Laundry Service is an excellent English-language debut for the South American vocalist." A critic from Billboard also favoured the presence of various musical styles on the album and commented that "Laundry Service finds the 24-year-old artist unafraid of merging musical flavors," and complimented Shakira's vocal talent. Similarly, the Entertainment.ie review of the album deemed the lyrical content "surreal" and the production "no less bizarre [...] imposing breakneck tangos, twanging guitar solos and bizarre raps onto a familiar soft rock template." They felt that Laundry Service could not be called a "great album", reasoning that "the line between fascinatingly strange and offputtingly weird is a thin one, and Laundry Service crosses it far too often," but also stated that "Even so, Shakira's star quality can hardly be denied - and in today's increasingly conformist pop industry that deserves at least two cheers." Alexis Petridis from The Guardian lauded Shakira's originality, opining that "In an age of personality-free pop idols, Shakira's glorious eccentricity makes her a true star," and commented that "Every song contains at least one non sequitur so eccentric that it could be the work of 1970s rock surrealist Captain Beefheart" and "The music on Laundry Service gives the lyrics a run for their money in the oddball handicap." Although he felt that the use of samples on various songs "displays an attitude to plagiarism that Noel Gallagher would consider cavalier" and that "no one could claim Laundry Service was a groundbreaking work of art," he concluded that "its ramshackle production and imponderable lyrics are striking and unique. And these days, it's hard not to find any pop record that provokes those adjectives rather cheering." Music critic Robert Christgau termed Laundry Service "the Cher album Cher never made" and attributed this to Shakira's blend of Middle Eastern styles in her music; he commented that the "stylistic appetite of this Colombian superstar is pure rock en Español" and appreciated Shakira's confident songwriting. Christgau also noted Shakira's strong vibrato and constant changing of timbre in her vocals. Lisa Oliver from Yahoo! Music said that Shakira's experimentation with different styles yield "results ranging from corking to minging," but experienced difficulty with the formatting of the CD, saying "the biggest problem with 'Laundry Service' is the anti-copying device that renders the CD useless in anything other than a conventional CD player [...] A shame then, because this Latino hottie could dilate the musical pupils of even the most ardent homebody if only they could get off the computer long enough to hear it." At the same time Shakira's album evoked sharp criticism by a number of authors. David Browne from Entertainment Weekly, for instance, called the album a "the ultimate in crossover nightmares" and opined that Shakira's incorporation of different musical genres made it sound confusing, saying "Its wan ska-pop, faux-country ballads, and generic rock barely betray a Spanish accent or any musical heritage. (She can't decide if she wants to sound like Alanis or Shania)". Matt Cibula from PopMatters gave a more mixed view in his review of Laundry Service; he complimented some of the lyrics of the songs but expressed disappointment in Shakira's production of the album, writing it off as "generic". He felt that the album was "extremely safe" and speculated that the reason behind the album's "generic" sound was due to the Estefans' involvement, saying "when I read that she's [Gloria Estefan] helping you with lyrics and he's [Emilio Estefan] 'executive producer', and I hear the unmistakable hum of 'moneymoneymoneymoney' in the background [sic]." Ernesto Lechner from Rolling Stone complimented the singer's voice as a "wild and beautiful instrument [...] capable of delivering scorching moments of musical passion," but commented that the involvement of a "battalion of producers and songwriters" led to Shakira sounding "downright silly" on Laundry Service and also criticised "her efforts to spice things up with obvious touches of Latin American folklore." Some authors criticised Shakira's first English album for the clumsy rhyme of its songs. Elizabeth Mendez Berry's article in "Vibe" is particularly indicative in this sense. In reference to Shakira's texts in English, the journalist wrote: "While her Spanish-language albums sparkled with elegant wordplay, this record is rife with cliches, both musically and lyrically. [...] For Anglophone Latin lovers, Shakira's lyrics are best left to the imagination." ## Accolades Laundry Service garnered Shakira a number of awards. At the 2002 American Latino Media Arts Awards (ALMA Awards) ceremony, the album won the award for "Album of the Year" and Shakira won the award for "Outstanding Female Performer". At the inaugural MTV Video Music Awards Latin America (VMALA) ceremony in 2002, Shakira won a total of five awards, which included "Artist of the Year", "Video of the Year" (for "Suerte"), "Female Artist of the Year", "Pop Artist of the Year" and "Best Artist - North Latin America". At the inaugural Premios Oye! in the same year, the album received a nomination in the category of "Record of the Year", while Shakira won the awards for "International Female Artist of the Year" and "Latin Pop Female Artist of the Year". At the 2002 Premio Lo Nuestro ceremony, Shakira won the "Premio del Pueblo" ("People's Choice Award") in the category of "Pop/Rock" for Laundry Service. At the 2003 NRJ Music Awards, Laundry Service was announced as the winner of "Best International Album" and Shakira was named the "Best International Female Artist". The album was also nominated for "International Album of the Year" at the 2003 Juno Awards. ## Commercial performance In Austria, Laundry Service entered the Ö3 Austria Top 40 albums chart at number five and peaked at number one, spending a total of 71 weeks on the chart. The album was certified double-platinum by the IFPI Austria for selling 80,000 units. In the Dutch-speaking Flanders region of Belgium, it reached number one on the Ultratop chart, while it peaked at number five in the French-speaking Wallonia region of the country. After debuting at number 40 on the Finnish Albums Chart, Laundry Service quickly ascended to number one and charted for a total of 49 weeks. By 2007, the album had gone triple-platinum in the country and had sold a total of 90,140 units. In France, Laundry Service debuted at number nine on the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP) albums chart and peaked at number five for three weeks; its stay on the chart lasted for 89 weeks. It was certified double-platinum by the SNEP for sales of 600,000 units. It remained as Shakira's greatest certified album in the country until her ninth studio album Sale el Sol was certified diamond in 2011. In Germany, it peaked at number two on the Media Control chart and charted for 31 weeks. Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI) certified Laundry Service quintuple-gold in Germany for shipments of 750,000 units. In Hungary, it peaked at number four on the MAHASZ chart and was her highest charting album in the country until Sale el Sol reached the same position in 2010. The album was certified platinum in Hungary. After debuting at number three on the Italian Albums Chart, Laundry Service ascended to number two the following week but was kept from attaining the top position by Alanis Morissette's 2002 album Under Rug Swept. In Spain, Servicio de Lavanderia reached number two on the PROMUSICAE albums chart. It also charted in 2005 in the country along with Shakira's fifth and sixth studio albums Fijación Oral, Vol. 1 and Oral Fixation, Vol. 2, respectively. The album has been certified quintuple-platinum by PROMUSICAE for shipments of 500,000 units. In Sweden, Laundry Service debuted atop the Sverigetopplistan chart and stayed on the top position for three weeks. It was certified double platinum by IFPI Sweden in 2003. In Switzerland, the album entered the Schweizer Hitparade chart at number 81 and peaked at number one, spending a total of 84 weeks on the chart. Laundry Service was later certified quintuple-platinum by the IFPI for selling 200,000 units in Switzerland. In the United Kingdom, Laundry Service debuted at number three on the UK Albums Chart. It later peaked at number two. The album was certified double-platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments of 600,000 copies. By 2002, Laundry Service had sold more than four million copies in Europe alone and thus was certified quadruple-platinum by IFPI Europe. "Laundry Service" has become one of the best selling album of all time in Turkey and she has received a platinum disc by Sony Music Turkey in a press conference in Istanbul in 2002. In Australia, Laundry Service became Shakira's first album to chart on the ARIA Albums Chart after debuting at number two. It later peaked at number one for two weeks and in total it spent 54 weeks on the charts. Consequently, it became the second best-selling album of the year 2002 in the country, behind only American rapper Eminem's album The Eminem Show. The Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) certified Laundry Service quintuple-platinum for shipments of 350,000 units, making it Shakira's most successful album in the country and one of the best selling albums of all time in Australia, entering the all time chart at position of 29. The album also performed well in New Zealand, peaking at number four on the national albums chart and appearing on the chart for 47 weeks. By 2003, Laundry Service had been certified triple-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ) for shipping 45,000 units. In Canada, the album peaked atop the Billboard Canadian Albums Chart and is Shakira's only album to reach number one in the country. Eventually, Laundry Service was certified quintuple-platinum by Music Canada for shipments of 500,000 albums. In the United States, Laundry Service debuted and peaked at number three on the Billboard 200 chart, selling 200,000 copies in its first week. It stayed on the chart for a total of 61 weeks. The album also debuted and peaked at number six on the Billboard Top Internet Albums chart. It has sold over 1 million copies less than a month after its release. After around six months since its release, Laundry Service had been certified triple-platinum by the RIAA for shipments of 3,000,000 units in the United States. It is Shakira's best-selling album in the country, with sales of 3,526,000 units as of March 2014. According to Sony Music Canada, the album has been certified 4× Platinum in the United States. The album in its first year of release managed to sell 10 million copies worldwide making Shakira an award given by Sony Music for the highest recorded sales. According to the IFPI, Laundry Service was the seventh best-selling album in the world in 2002 with platinum certifications in 32 countries and gold certification in 10 countries. The album was named as one of the 100 biggest albums of the century by female artists in the United Kingdom by Official Charts, ranking at number 81. ## Impact and legacy The album's commercial success led to Shakira being deemed one of the most successful Latin crossover artists of all time, with Steve Huey from AllMusic calling her "Latin pop's biggest female crossover artist since Jennifer Lopez" and "an instant pop sensation, thanks to her quirky poetic sense and a sexy video image built on her hip-shaking belly dance moves." The success of the album also received considerable backlash, with many calling Shakira a "sellout". This negative response was further heightened by the fact that Shakira, a natural brunette, had bleached her hair blonde prior to the album's release, which many viewed as a tactic to "fit into the US market." Regarding this backlash, Shakira said, "I know my Latin people find this difficult. And I want [my success] to be good news to my country. But it's typical that when you see somebody who is so close to you growing, you feel that the very word 'growing' is synonymous with leaving. My hair is a coincidence. I dyed it more than two and a half years ago." On the other hand, many viewed Shakira's crossover success as a "strong cultural statement" as her musical style represented her mixed ethnicity. In 2002, the singer was interviewed by Nobel Literature Prize-winning Colombian novelist and journalist Gabriel García Márquez, who was "astonished by her fantastical work-rate" and said that "Shakira's music has a personal stamp that doesn't look like anyone else's and no one can sing or dance like her, at whatever age, with such an innocent sensuality, one that seems to be of her own invention." In the United States and the United Kingdom, Shakira drew comparisons to American pop singer Britney Spears as they looked similar and sported "bleached blonde curls and butter-wouldn't-melt smiles for the kids down the front." However, critics argued that Shakira's vocal style was very different from Spears', with Ted Kessler from The Observer calling the former an "operatic diva" and writing that "as soon as she opens her mouth, she slips into gear and motors powerfully past Britney's breathy bump'n'grind." In 2009, Julia Llewellyn Smith from The Daily Telegraph commented that "Shakira makes comparable Spanish-English 'crossover' acts such as Jennifer Lopez and Enrique Iglesias seem like minnows." In an interview with Latina magazine in 2011, Gloria Estefan was asked whether she felt another crossover artist like Shakira could emerge in her lifetime, to which she responded, "I'm always hopeful that somebody, any Latino, is going to succeed in what they do. And of course in music, undoubtedly." Shakira's crossover success has been such that the media point out that possibly without its crossover many Latin artists such as Karol G, Becky G, Bad Bunny, Maluma or J Balvin would possibly not have the recognition that they enjoy today, and it is seen as a great step in the Latin industry since with the voice of Shakira the music industry would stop only focusing on American artists and Latinas would enter the arena such as Paulina Rubio, Thalía and even Fey who also ventured to conquer other audiences. Noting that thanks to Shakira, Latino artists now have a greater space in an international music industry in which prejudice and even racism continue to exist. Shakira's belly-dancing ability came into attention and gathered coverage during this period, especially due to the music video of the lead single "Whenever, Wherever". The song also became famous for one of its lines in which Shakira sings "Lucky that my breasts are small and humble, so you don't confuse them with mountains"; it is often cited as an example of the unusual lyrical content of the singer's songs. According to Steve Huey from AllMusic, many critics were "divided as to the effectiveness of Shakira's English lyrics, but nearly all agreed on her unique poetic imagery." Huey further commented that the song and its video turned Shakira into a "star in the English-speaking world almost overnight." "Whenever, Wherever", along with "Underneath Your Clothes", is considered to be one of Shakira's signature songs. ## Track listing Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Laundry Service. Notes - signifies a co-producer - translated the song into English from the original Spanish-language version "Ojos Así" - remixed by Hani Kamai ## Personnel Credits adapted from AllMusic. - Shakira – producer, songwriter, arranger, vocals, harmonica, logo design - Emilio Estefan Jr. – executive producer, percussion - Terry Manning – engineer - Javier Garza – producer, engineer, mixer, arranger - Tim Mitchell – producer, arranger, guitar, mandolin, programmer - Lester Mendez – producer, arranger, horn arranger, keyboards - Pablo Flores – producer, arranger, programmer - Ted Jensen - Mastering - Luis Fernando Ochoa – arranger, guitar, keyboards - Jorge Calandrelli – arranger, piano arranger - David Campbell – conductor, string arranger - Alfred Figueroa – engineer - Kevin Dillon – production coordinator - Steven Menezes – studio coordinator - Adam Zimmon – guitar - Tim Pierce – guitar - Brian Ray – guitar - Paul Bushnell – bass guitar - Julio Hernandez – bass guitar - Pablo Aslan – acoustic bass - Brendan Buckley – drums, percussion - Abe Laboriel, Jr. – drums - Edwin Bonilla – percussion - Richard Bravo – percussion - Archie Pena – percussion - David Alsina - bandoneon ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### Decade-end charts ### All-time charts ## Certifications and sales ## See also - List of best-selling albums by women - List of best-selling albums of the 21st century - List of best-selling albums of the 2000s in Australia - List of best-selling albums in France - List of 200 Definitive Albums in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame

Mill Basin, Brooklyn

Mill Basin is a residential neighborhood in southeastern Brooklyn, New York City. It is on a peninsula abutting Jamaica Bay and is bordered by Avenue U on the northwest and the Mill Basin/Mill Island Inlet on its remaining sides. Mill Basin is adjacent to the neighborhood of Bergen Beach to the northeast, Flatlands to the northwest, Marine Park to the southwest, and Floyd Bennett Field and the former Barren Island to the southeast. Mill Basin also contains a subsection called Old Mill Basin, north of Avenue U. Mill Basin was originally Mill Island, Jamaica Bay. In the 17th century, a mill was built on Mill, Bergen, and Barren Islands. The archipelago was then occupied by the Schenck and Crooke families through the late 19th century, and remained a mostly rural area with oyster fishing. After Robert Crooke developed a smelting plant on Mill Island in 1890, industrial customers started developing the island and connected it to the rest of Brooklyn. In an effort to develop Mill Basin as a seaport district, ports and dry docks were built in the early 20th century, though a lack of railroad connections hindered the area's further growth. Residential development began in the 1950s, along with the rest of southeast Brooklyn, though some of the former industrial buildings remain. Mill Basin has some of the most luxurious houses in New York City, though it also contains commercial and industrial tenants, as well as the Kings Plaza shopping mall in its western part. The area around Mill Basin consists of a mostly white population as of the 2010 United States Census, and is sparsely served by public transportation. Nearby recreational areas include Floyd Bennett Field, the first municipal airport in New York City, which is part of the Gateway National Recreation Area and is just southeast of Mill Basin. Mill Basin is part of Brooklyn Community District 18, and its primary ZIP Code is 11234. It is patrolled by the 63rd Precinct of the New York City Police Department. ## Geography Originally, Mill Basin was an island in Jamaica Bay off the coast of Canarsie, called Mill Island. Most of the island was composed of low-lying meadows near sea level, but a very small part of it was arable uplands, or hilly areas above sea level. The area's original geography was vastly different from the modern geography. A bulkhead was built along Mill Island's shore in the late 1890s. It was later connected to the uplands of nearby Bergen Beach, creating the continuous embankment between Mill and Paerdegat basins later used for the construction of the Belt Parkway. Most of the earliest filling operations along the island were private; the city government took over later. Some parts of Mill Basin remained a wetland until the late 20th century. A stream ran where Avenue U is today, dividing Mill Island from the mainland. Maps show that Mill Island was connected to the mainland by 1926, but modern city maps still allude to "Mill Island". The New York Times described the neighborhood as a "mitten-shaped peninsula" enclosed to the south, west, and east by the eponymous waterway. Mill Basin is zoned as a predominantly residential neighborhood with one- or two-family residences. Small commercial overlays and recreational waterfront uses also exist, and the area between Avenue U and the Mill Basin waterway is zoned for heavy industry. Old Mill Basin is north of Avenue U. According to a map The New York Times published in 2009, Old Mill Basin can be considered to reach as far north as Avenue N. ## History ### Early settlement The local Lenape Native Americans originally inhabited the area. They referred to the surrounding area, including Mill and Barren Islands, as "Equendito" or "Equindito", a name that probably means "Broken Lands". In 1624, the Dutch Republic incorporated much of the current New York City area into the colony of New Netherland. In 1636, as Dutch settlers expanded outward from present-day Manhattan, they founded the town of Achtervelt (later Amersfoort, then Flatlands) and purchased 15,000 acres (6,100 ha) around Jamaica Bay. Amersfoort was centered around the present-day intersection of Flatbush Avenue and Flatlands Avenue. Canarsie Indian leaders signed three land agreements with Dutch settlers between 1636 and 1667, ceding much of their historic land, including Mill Island. Mill Island, as well as the nearby Barren Island, was sold to John Tilton Jr. and Samuel Spicer in 1664. At some point in the 1660s or 1670s, a settler named Elbert Elbertse leased Mill Island, along with Bergen and Barren Islands. The land was owned from 1675 by Jans Martense Schenck, who built a house on the land believed to be one of the oldest houses in New York City. Schenck also built a pier so he could load and unload cargo to or from the Netherlands. A tide mill had been built on the land by that time, but the exact date of the mill's construction is not known; sources give dates between 1660 and 1675. One of Schenck's relatives, a ship captain named Hendrick, allegedly formed an alliance with the pirate William Kidd and allowed Kidd to bury treasure on Mill Island. When Schenck died in 1689, his son Martin received ownership of the estate; the mill was later inherited by Nicholas Schenck. In 1784, the property was sold to Joris Martense of Flatbush. Martense also received "66 acres [27 ha] of uplands, 6 acres [2.4 ha] of woodlands, and a parcel of salt-meadows" in the transaction, as noted in a 1909 history of Brooklyn. By 1794, John Schenck was renting the property from Joris's widow. At the time, the mill was called "the mill of Martensen". The property, which included the mill, farm, and house, was later conveyed to Susan Caton, the daughter of Joris Martense. Caton named Robert L. Crooke as the trustee for Caton's daughter, Margaret Crooke, who was married to General Philip S. Crooke. In 1818, Margaret Crooke inherited the land. After this conveyance, the mill was called "Crooke's Mill". General Crooke was the trustee for the Crooke children, and upon Margaret's death, had the power to pass the property down to their children. In 1870, after Margaret died, he conveyed the property to Robert, who gave the property back in 1873. Over the next 30 years, there were a dozen more land conveyances and by 1906, Robert Crooke owned the property again. The name "Mill Island" is believed to have been first used in the late 19th century. Before then, settlers called it "the mill" because of the gristmill there. ### Industrial development Up to the late 19th century, the area retained its rural character, and the only structures on the island were a house and "three stable" buildings. The chief resources were the abundant crabs, oysters, and clams in Jamaica Bay. In 1890, Robert Crooke built a lead-smelting plant on Mill Island. The Crooke Smelting Company was bought out by the National Lead Company, and Robert sold the remainder of the land to the firm of McNulty and Fitzgerald, which erected bulkheads and filled in the marshes. By 1906, Mill Island reportedly received 4,000 short tons (3,600 t) of ore annually. The island's factories had a combined annual output of 3,800 short tons (3,400 t) of metals whose aggregate value was \$1.25 million (\$ in modern dollars). Boats delivered and received shipments via the nearby waterways. Crooke sold the former mill to Florence C. Smith in January 1906. The day after the sale, Smith deeded it to the real estate company Flatbush East, who transferred the land's ownership to Flatbush Improvement Company at the end of the year. The Flatbush Improvement Company brought marshland and engaged the firm of Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific to dredge creeks and fill in meadows. After the filling project was completed, the parcel had an area of 332 acres (134 ha) and was fit for industrial development. As compensation, Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific acquired ownership of the eastern portion of Mill Island, which comprised about 800 acres (320 ha) of land. Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific built factories and worker housing on its half of the island, and in 1916, began laying sidewalks and utilities. The expanded island attracted companies such as National Lead, Gulf Refining, and other leading firms engaged in heavy industry, which were operating plants along the Mill Island shoreline. Additionally, construction of an extension of Flatbush Avenue to the Rockaway Inlet started in 1913. In 1910, developers began dredging ports within Jamaica Bay in an effort to develop a seaport district there. Work on dredging a 500-foot-wide (150 m), 18-foot-deep (5.5 m) main ship channel started in 1912 and was completed the next year, but lawsuits delayed progress until the 1920s. The channel ran along the western and northern shores of Jamaica Bay. The first improvements to Mill Island itself started in 1915, when a wooden pier was installed along Flatbush Avenue. In 1916, 12,000 feet (3,700 m) of shoreline along Mill Island was incorporated into the proposed port. At the time, a 2-mile-long (3.2 km), 50-foot-wide (15 m) channel was to be excavated within Mill Basin, the waterway. This new channel would allow a proposed extension of the Flatbush Avenue Streetcar from Avenue N to the Mill Basin shoreline. In 1917 the New York City Department of Docks awarded a contract to dredge the Mill Basin channel, along the southern and western sides of the island, to the federal government. Mill Basin was eventually 1,000 feet (300 m) wide and 15 feet (4.6 m) deep. Work on the main ship channel restarted in 1923. After the entire main channel was dredged to 500 feet wide by 18 feet deep, it was re-dredged to 1,000 feet wide by 30 feet (9.1 m) deep. The project was completed by the late 1930s, eliminating many small islands in the bay and causing the expansion of another island, Canarsie Pol. The eastern branch of Mill Basin was created by the 1930s. In 1918, the city allowed several large piers to be constructed within the bay, though only one was built. The pier, which was built in order to receive landfill for the other proposed piers, stretched 1 mile (1.6 km) northeast of Barren Island, south of Mill Island, and was 700 feet (210 m) wide. A total of six piers were planned for this area. In June of that year, a 447-foot-long (136 m) municipally owned pier was opened at Mill Basin. At the time, there were proposals to fill in 8,000 acres (3,200 ha) between Mill and Barren Islands so 14 more piers could be built. By 1919, Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific was building three large dry docks on Mill Island. It was also constructing seven barges for the United States Navy. The fill for the docks came from as far away as Europe. As of that year, Mill Island was the site of at least six manufacturing and commercial concerns. One observer attributed the presence of several of these factories to the proposed improvements at Jamaica Bay. A contract for building concrete piers was awarded in 1921 and completed the next year. In 1925, the Flatbush Avenue extension to Rockaway Inlet opened, providing an additional 2,700 feet (820 m) of dock facilities and a strip of land for a road across the marshes. Construction of the docks started in 1927. During the late 1920s and 1930s, the New York City Department of Docks rented the docks to a number of small industrial firms. The development of the proposed docklands at Jamaica Bay spurred large increases in property values in Mill Basin, since the docklands was expected to gain a connection to the Long Island Rail Road. Planners wanted to create a spur of the Bay Ridge Branch south to Flatlands, with two branches to Canarsie and Mill Basin. A connection to Staten Island would be built via the planned Staten Island Tunnel, which would in turn allow freight to be delivered and shipped to the rest of the continental United States. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey offered to build the new railroad link for \$2 million and lease it to the city, but Mill Basin's further development was hindered when plans for rail service to the rest of Brooklyn went unrealized. Industrial activity continued through the 1960s. In 1927, United States Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover's "Fact-Finding Committee on Suitable Airport Facilities for the New York Metropolitan District" suggested Southeast Brooklyn as a possible site for a new municipal airport in New York City. The New York City Chamber of Commerce approved the 800-acre (320 ha) site in September of that year. Originally, real-estate developers suggested that 300 acres (120 ha) in Mill Basin could be used for the new airport, which would allow the airfield to open before the end of 1928. Ultimately, New York City's aeronautical engineer Clarence Chamberlin selected nearby Barren Island as the site for the new airport, which later became Floyd Bennett Field. The Belt Parkway was built through the neighborhood in the 1930s, and it opened in 1940. The construction of a drawbridge along the parkway, traversing Mill Basin, was approved in 1939 and completed the next year. ### Residential development Old Mill Basin, north of the Mill Basin peninsula, was developed beginning in the 1920s. The 1939 WPA Guide to New York City mentions that the area comprising present-day Mill Basin and Bergen Beach was the residence of "pathetic communities of squatters, who live in makeshift houses, and eke out a living by fishing and scouring the near-by city dumps for odd necessities". At the time, the southern shore was still marshland. Residential development on the peninsula began after World War II, when Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific sold a large plot of land to the firm of Flatbush Park Homes. The land was bounded to the north by Avenue U, to the east by East 68th Street and East Mill Basin/Mill Island, to the south by Basset Avenue, and to the west by Strickland Avenue and Mill Avenue. Over a hundred brick bungalows were built in the late 1940s and early 1950s, many of which were later replaced by big, custom-built, detached one-family houses on lots measuring 50 by 100 feet (15 by 30 m). The Crooke-Schenck House, on East 63rd Street, was dismantled in 1952 and later reassembled as an exhibit at the Brooklyn Museum. Starting in the 1950s, a series of suburban waterfront communities were rapidly developed in Southeast Brooklyn, including present-day Bergen Beach and Canarsie as well as Mill Basin. In 1956, builders announced the construction of 1,500 houses on the Mill Basin peninsula. As late as the 1960s, parts of the area were still a swamp. During the 1950s, private developers laid their own streets while constructing houses in the neighborhood, resulting in a patchwork of private roads. Some of these streets were poorly maintained: a newspaper article from 1954 described houses that flooded after heavy rains because there were no sewage pipes. In 1963, the city government asked the developers to fix these streets, which were already breaking down. The city argued that the streets would remain private roads until they were upgraded to city standards, but the developers made the opposite argument, saying that the streets were not up to city standards because they were private roads. After a controversy over the paving of the streets, the city ultimately dropped its requests for private builders to pave the streets, instead deciding that the city's Department of Highways would do the paving. The New York City Department of Buildings agreed not to grant any certificates of occupancy to any new building unless the street in front of it was paved. In 1964, a federal judge signed an order that transferred these private streets to city ownership, allowing the city to pave these streets. The area gained residential popularity by the end of the 1960s. By 1963, the South Shore High School in Canarsie was being constructed to accommodate the growing population. Due to a large number of new residents moving in, temporary classrooms were built on the playground of P.S. 236. A training school for sailors was also constructed in Mill Basin. The neighborhood had some of the most expensive houses in Brooklyn by 1972. Several controversies arose during the development of Mill Basin as a residential neighborhood. In 1954, the city indefinitely postponed the construction of a garbage incinerator that had been planned for the area. Another controversy in 1966 surrounded a "boatel", or motel with boating docks, that had been planned for the site of a marsh south of the Mill Basin waterway. The boatel site, at the intersection of Belt Parkway and Flatbush Avenue, was supposed to contain a shopping mall with docks for up to 300 boats. Residents opposed plans for the shopping center since it would have been on a wildlife sanctuary. Plans for the mall were scrapped the next year after the city denied a rezoning plan for Mill Basin that would have allowed its construction. Another mall, Kings Plaza, had been dedicated in 1968 at a site further north, on Avenue U. ## Community The New York Times has characterized Mill Basin as a suburban community with a nearly-360-degree shoreline. It is adjoined by the waterway of the same name to the south and west. Many residents own boats. Mill Basin is part of Brooklyn Community Board 18, which also includes Canarsie, Bergen Beach, Georgetown, Marine Park, and the southern portion of Flatlands. The neighborhood has evolved to include some of New York City's most luxurious houses. Most of the housing stock was developed in the late 20th century, and many waterfront houses include docks, water views, or high ceilings. Prices of houses often range in the millions. As of 2017, an unrenovated house on a 40-by-100-foot (12 by 30 m) lot along a main street had a minimum price around \$850,000. Housing prices rose based on the width of the lot, extent of renovations, and proximity to the water: the cheapest waterfront house is \$1.6 million. A few houses also had elevators, and several had features such as six-car garages and all-glass facades. In Georgetown, north of Mill Basin, there are two-family brick townhouses with overhanging balconies and awnings. Old Mill Basin, to the northeast, mostly has detached frame houses. It is defined as the portion of the neighborhood north of Avenue U. In Mill Island, the peninsular part of Mill Basin, houses are more expensive than in the rest of the neighborhood; the cheapest houses are in the northwest corner. The former Mill Island and Old Mill Basin are divided by Avenue U, at the Mill Basin waterway's innermost reaches. Some lead factories, built in the 20th century by Dutch businessmen, remain standing, but many are derelict. Commercial activities, mainly family-owned shops and restaurants, are primarily along Strickland Avenue and Avenue U. The Kings Plaza shopping mall, on a 23-acre (9.3 ha) plot at Avenue U and Flatbush Avenue, is Brooklyn's largest indoor shopping center. The neighborhood also contains Mill Plaza Mall, a strip mall at the northwest corner of Mill and Strickland Avenues. ## Demographics From the 1950s through the 1980s, the area was mainly Italian, but the predominant communities today are Russian and Israeli. By the end of the 20th century, the vast majority of Mill Basin residents were white, as were most residents of adjacent neighborhoods such as Bergen Beach and Marine Park. The 1990 United States Census counted 10 African-Americans living in Mill Basin; by the 2000 United States Census, there were 26. By 2011, the number of black residents in Southeast Brooklyn had risen 241%, the steepest such increase of any area in the city. As of that year, the African American population in these neighborhoods represented 10.9% of the total population. Mill Basin is in ZIP Code 11234, which also includes Georgetown, Marine Park, Bergen Beach, and the southern portion of Flatlands. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the combined population of Georgetown, Marine Park, Bergen Beach, and Mill Basin was 45,231, an increase of 2,291 (5.3%) from the 42,940 counted in the 2000 United States Census. Covering an area of 1,662.88 acres (672.94 ha), the neighborhood had a population density of 27.2 inhabitants per acre (17,400/sq mi; 6,700/km²). According to the 2010 Census, the racial makeup of Southeast Brooklyn was 73.8% (33,399) White, 10.9% (4,952) African American, 0.1% (47) Native American, 5.6% (2,521) Asian, 0.0% (7) Pacific Islander, 0.3% (144) from other races, and 1.3% (578) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.9% (3,583) of the population. ## Police and crime Mill Basin is patrolled by the New York City Police Department's 63rd Precinct. The precinct also covers Bergen Beach, Marine Park, and part of Flatlands. The 63rd Precinct ranked 31st safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. The 63rd Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 85.9% between 1990 and 2018. The precinct reported 5 murders, 14 rapes, 88 robberies, 131 felony assaults, 92 burglaries, 495 grand larcenies, and 62 grand larcenies auto in 2018. ## Recreation There are several parks in Mill Basin. The only park on the peninsula proper is Lindower Park, a 6.7-acre (2.7 ha) park at the southwest corner of Mill and Strickland Avenues. The park is named after Alex Lindower, a lawyer and community activist who lived in Mill Basin. The city bought the land in 1959 and made it into a public park in 1963, the year before Lindower died. It contains baseball fields, basketball and handball courts, and a children's playground. There are two smaller parks in Old Mill Basin. The James Marshall Power Playground, at Avenue N and Utica Avenue, is a frequent gathering point for softball teams. The Monsignor Crawford Athletic Field, on Avenue U between East 58th and East 60th Streets, contains two baseball fields. It is named after Monsignor Thomas J. Crawford, the first pastor of the Mary Queen of Heaven Church, four blocks north of the ballfields. Mill Basin is also adjacent to Floyd Bennett Field, to the immediate south of Mill Basin, across the Belt Parkway and Mill Basin Inlet. Named after aviator Floyd Bennett, the field was formerly the city's first municipal airport, and is now part of the Gateway National Recreation Area. The bowler Lou Seda purchased the Gil Hodges Lanes, a bowling alley in Mill Basin, in 2009. It was then rebranded into a new bowling alley called Strike 10 Lanes, which as of 2012 was one of Brooklyn's few remaining bowling alleys. ## Education The New York City Department of Education operates several schools in the neighborhood, including P.S. 312, P.S. 236, and P.S. 203, all of which have historically ranked among the city's top public schools. There are several private schools around Mill Basin, such as the Yeshivah of Crown Heights, the Mary Queen of Catholic Academy and St. Bernard Catholic Academy. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn operates Catholic schools in that borough. Mary Queen of Heaven Catholic Academy was in the Mill Basin area, but closed in 2019 after falling into debt. The Canarsie Courier stated that St. Bernard was the closest remaining Catholic school. Brooklyn Public Library operates the Mill Basin Library at 2385 Ralph Avenue, near Avenue N. The Mill Basin Library first opened in 1940, and it has been in its current building since 1975. ## Transportation Mill Basin is served by the bus routes, operated by MTA Regional Bus Operations. There are no New York City Subway stations in the neighborhood; the closest is the Kings Highway station in Midwood, serving the . BM1 express bus service to Manhattan started in 1973, mainly as a result of the area's isolation from the subway. The Mill Basin Bridge is a vital component of the Belt Parkway and Jamaica Bay Greenway connecting the southern coastlines of Brooklyn and Queens. Originally built in 1940 as a drawbridge, it was reconstructed between 2015 and 2019. The modern bridge has two parallel fixed spans with a clearance of 60 feet (18 m) above Mean High Water. Throughout the mid-20th century, there was a seaplane base, Brooklyn Skyport, near Avenue U and Flatbush Avenue, around the present-day site of the Kings Plaza Marina. It consisted of a single hangar, takeoff area, and landing ramp. The airport could fit eight seaplanes at a time. It was heavily used during Prohibition in the late 1920s and early 1930s, when seaplanes and ships exchanged cargo. Brooklyn Skyport operated until at least 1947. By 1950, the site was apparently being used as an aviation school. Mill Basin Inlet contains a navigable channel allowing access to the area's multiple marinas. The inlet's eastern branch was dredged in the 1930s, and the western branch was widened. ## Religion There are several houses of worship in Mill Basin, including ten synagogues. Some of these have been converted from residential structures. ## Notable people - Frank Bisignano (born 1959), businessman and chairman/CEO of First Data - Norman Finkelstein (born 1953), political scientist, activist, professor and author - Jimmy Kimmel (born 1967), comedian, grew up in Mill Basin - Meade Esposito (1907-1993), longtime Chairman of the Kings County Democratic Committee and major party boss ## See also - List of Brooklyn neighborhoods - Geography of New York City

Godzilla Raids Again

1955 Japanese film directed by Motoyoshi Oda

Godzilla Raids Again (Japanese: ゴジラの逆襲, Hepburn: Gojira no Gyakushū, lit. 'Godzilla's Counterattack') is a 1955 Japanese kaiju film directed by Motoyoshi Oda, with special effects by Eiji Tsuburaya. Produced and distributed by Toho Co., Ltd., it is the second film in the Godzilla franchise. The film stars Hiroshi Koizumi, Setsuko Wakayama, Minoru Chiaki, and Takashi Shimura, with Haruo Nakajima as Godzilla and Katsumi Tezuka as Anguirus. In the film, Japan struggles to survive Godzilla's return, as well as its destructive battle against its ancient foe Anguirus. Executive producer Iwao Mori instructed producer Tomoyuki Tanaka to immediately commence production on a second Godzilla film, fearing to lose the momentum of the first film's success. Oda was chosen to direct the film as Ishirō Honda was busy directing Lovetide. Godzilla Raids Again was released theatrically in Japan on April 24, 1955. A re-edited, English dubbed version was released theatrically in the United States on June 2, 1959, by Warner Bros. Pictures, under the title Gigantis, the Fire Monster. The film was followed by King Kong vs. Godzilla, released on August 11, 1962. ## Plot Working for the Kaiyo Fishing, Inc., a pilot named Shoichi Tsukioka guides a fishing trawler towards a school of Bonito. Koji Kobayashi, another pilot, faces engine troubles and makes an emergency landing on Iwato Island. Tsukioka is sent to rescue Kobayashi, but they both encounter two giant dinosaur-like creatures locked in battle: Godzilla and a new quadruped monster. The pilots escape as the monsters tumble into the sea. Tsukioka and Kobayashi go to Osaka to help Dr. Yamane and the authorities investigate the encounter. The new monster is identified as an Ankylosaurus and is named Anguirus. Dr. Yamane shows the authorities footage of the first Godzilla attack and notes that it was killed by the Oxygen Destroyer, but its inventor died, and that there are no proven countermeasures left against Godzilla. Dr. Yamane suggests issuing a blackout and using drop flares to lure Godzilla away due to the first Godzilla being sensitive to light. Tsukioka’s girlfriend, Hidemi, expresses her concern for Osaka to him, and he reveals that he thought about her when he thought he might die on Iwato Island. They watch as the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) takeoff to find Godzilla, but scientists note that it may prove difficult due to the possibility of Godzilla hiding in caves within the seabed. Later, Godzilla is spotted heading for the Kii Channel between Shikoku and Wakayama Prefecture. Yamaji, Tsukioka’s boss and Hidemi’s father, notes that if Godzilla wreaks havoc in those waters, their fishing company will lose valuable fishing ground and strike a blow at production. Later, an alert is issued for the Osaka region as Godzilla changes course for Osaka Bay. The Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) cut off the lights in the city and lure Godzilla with flares. Tsukioka leaves Hidemi at her home for safety and leaves with Kobayashi to meet Yamaji at his cannery. Convicts escape from their transport and lead police on a chase that ends with a few convicts crashing into an oil refinery, triggering an explosion, while other convicts escape into Osaka. The explosion lures Godzilla back to Osaka, forcing the JSDF to attack it. Attracted by the flares, Anguirus emerges and engages Godzilla. The monsters battle throughout the city, destroying Yamaji’s cannery and killing the convicts in the process. Godzilla kills Anguirus and returns to the sea after burning the body with its atomic breath. In the aftermath, Yamaji moves operations to Hokkaido to make full use of the fisheries and cannery, and also sends Kobayashi to guide trawlers. During a company dinner, Tsukioka reunites with Tajima, a friend from college, and the war. Kobayashi hints to Hidemi that he’s fallen in love with a certain woman. The dinner is interrupted by news that a ship was sunk by Godzilla. The following morning, Tsukioka helps the JASDF search for Godzilla and tracks its location on Kamiko Island. Kobayashi departs to aide Tsukioka but leaves his notebook behind. Hidemi peaks at the notebook and discovers a picture of her inside. Kobayashi attempts to stop Godzilla from escaping but is struck by Godzilla’s atomic breath and crashes into the mountaintop, killing him. The crash creates a small avalanche that engulfs Godzilla, inspiring the JASDF to bury it with a bigger avalanche but lack firepower. The JASDF return to base to reload missiles and Tajima reluctantly accepts Tsukioka’s request to take him. The JSDF creates a wall of fire to block Godzilla’s escape, while the JASDF triggers avalanches by blasting the mountaintops. Godzilla exhales one last atomic breath before being completely buried by the last avalanche triggered by Tsukioka. Relieved, Tsukioka lets Kobayashi’s spirit know that they have finally defeated Godzilla. ## Cast Cast taken from Japan's Favorite Mon-star, except where cited otherwise. ## Production ### Crew - Motoyoshi Oda – director - Eiji Tsuburaya – special effects director - Eiji Iwashiro – assistant director - Kazuo Baba – production coordinator - Takeo Kita – art director - Sadamasa Arikawa – special effects photography - Akira Watanabe – special effects art director - Kiroshi Mukoyama – optical effects - Masayoshi Onuma – lighting - Masanobu Miyazawa – sound recording - Ichiro Mitsunawa – sound effects Personnel taken from Japan's Favorite Mon-star. ### Development A few weeks after Godzilla was released in November 1954, a welcome home party was held for executive producer Iwao Mori. During the party, Mori instructed producer Tomoyuki Tanaka to produce a sequel, due to Mori being pleased with the box office results for the first film. Ishirō Honda, director of the first Godzilla film, was unavailable to return to direct the sequel due to directing Lovetide at the time. Japanese publications indicated that Tanaka attached Motoyoshi Oda to direct the film, rather than waiting for Honda, due to Mori fearing to lose the momentum of the first Godzilla film's success. Film historians Steve Ryfle and David Kalat deduced that Oda was chosen to direct due to his experience with effects-driven films such as Eagle of the Pacific, and his then-latest film The Invisible Avenger. Kalat added that Oda was a director content with accepting B–picture level assignments, stating, "putting such a man in charge of the Godzilla sequel then was a clear signal of intent: This was to be a quickie profit center, not an artistic indulgence." Screenwriter Takeo Murata originally wanted to show a scene of chaos and looting in the middle of the monster battle, but time and budget limitations forced him to drop this idea. The Dinosaur Book by Edwin H. Colbert was used during the film's conference scene. ### Special effects The film's special effects were directed by Eiji Tsuburaya. Some of the effects footage was shot at a slower speed, 18 frames per second. Three cameras were set to capture the effects footage. Two cameras were set at high speed, while the third was indirectly left at slow speed. Despite the error, Tsuburaya felt the slow speed footage was usable and since then, used different camera speeds for different scenes. Some Japanese publications identified Yoichi Manoda as the cameraman who accidentally left the third camera on slow speed, while others identified Koichi Takano as the culprit. Haruo Nakajima portrayed Godzilla and Katsumi Tezuka portrayed Anguirus, respectively. Nakajima and Tezuka were able to move in the suits more fluidly due to the suits being made from lighter materials, as well as casting them from plaster molds to fit the suit performers' physiques. For Godzilla, the new design was sculpted by Teizo Toshimitsu. The Godzilla suit was constructed with a cloth-base where latex was applied over it. A motor was built into the head to move the eyes and mouth, with the batteries built at the base of the tail. Due to this, Nakajima felt discomfort each time he jumped in the suit. For Anguirus, Tezuka had to crawl on his knees with the bottom of his feet exposed. The effects crew hid this by placing trees, buildings, and other obstacles in the foreground and filming from certain angles that hid the hind legs. Hand puppets were built for close-up shots. The Godzilla puppet had a spray built in to depict the atomic breath. Some of the monster battles were photographed from low angles to emphasize size and scale. The Osaka miniature set was constructed at Toho's then-new soundstage No. 8, which allowed the effects crew more space to work in. The Osaka castle miniature failed to crumble as planned. Wires were attached to the castle that ran beneath the platform. Due to heavy construction, the model failed to collapse even when the suit performers rammed into it as the crew members pulled the wires. Tsuburaya ordered to "cut" but the crew members did not hear him and the castle model collapsed when camera were not rolling. Due to this, the model had to be partially rebuilt. The ice island battle was partially filmed on an outdoor set. To bury Godzilla in ice, an ice machine was borrowed from the Tokyo skating rink. For the opening scene, Nakajima and Tezuka were required to be in the suits as they plummeted into the water in order to avoid having the suits float upon impact. Several handlers were on-set to prevent Nakajima and Tezuka from drowning. A Godzilla prop equipped with a wind up motor was built to walk during the ice island scenes, however, the prop malfunctioned and was filmed in a stationary position instead. Real snow was added for the ice island set. Several shots of Godzilla reacting to the ice canyon explosions were filmed outdoors in order to avoid filming the roof of the studio set. ## Release ### Theatrical Godzilla Raids Again was distributed theatrically in Japan by Toho on April 24, 1955. The film generated 8.3 million tickets, less than what the first Godzilla film drew but still considered moderate business. The film drew little enthusiasm from audiences, the press, and Toho staff. Tanaka later admitted that the crew had little time to prepare and hardly considers the film a success. The Japanese version was released to Japanese speaking theaters in the United States prior to the altered American version. The film was Toho's fourth highest-grossing film of the year domestically, and the 10th highest grossing Japanese release domestically. A re-edited English dubbed version titled Gigantis, the Fire Monster was released theatrically in the United States by Warner Bros. Pictures on May 21, 1959, where it played as a double feature with Teenagers from Outer Space. Some drive-ins paired the film with Rodan. ### American version The North American rights to the film were purchased by Harry Rybnick, Richard Kay, Edward Barison, Paul Schreibman, and Edmund Goldman, the same producers who acquired the rights to Godzilla and released it as Godzilla, King of the Monsters!. Instead of dubbing the film, the producers first planned to produce a new film titled The Volcano Monsters, while utilizing the effects footage from the original Japanese film. The producers announced in Variety that filming was expected to commence on June 17, 1957. Rybnick hired Ib Melchior and Edwin Watson to write the screenplay. Melchior and Watson spent hours watching the Japanese version on a Moviola to build an American story around the footage and to note down footage of the monsters, military mobilization, crowds fleeing, and jets flying and attacking. The duo completed a 129 paged script, dated May 7, 1957, with instructions for the editor of where the Japanese footage was to be used. In their script, Godzilla and Anguirus were changed to dinosaurs, with Godzilla identified as a female Tyrannosaurus. All shots of Godzilla using his atomic breath were eliminated, to be replaced with new footage of Godzilla swiping his claws at jets. Panic, disaster, and military mobilization scenes from news reels were to be included between the Japanese monster footage. The blackout was re-written to signify that the monsters destroyed a power plant. The new effects footage was to be shot at Howard A. Anderson's special effects studio. Toho approved of the idea and in early 1957, shipped the Godzilla and Anguirus suits to Los Angeles for additional photography. While filming Invasion of the Saucer Men, Bob Burns III and Paul Blaisdell recalled stumbling upon two crates holding the Godzilla and Anguirus suits. Burns recalls that the suits were made out of rubber over canvas and had already been used due to significant burns and damages. Howard A. Anderson Jr. told Burns that they recently received them at the time and were intended for "shooting some inserts." Rybnick and Barison initially struck a deal with AB-PT Pictures Corp. to co-finance the film but the company closed shop in 1957. Schreibman, Goldman, and then-new financier Newton P. Jacobs decided to dub the film instead. Hugo Grimaldi was hired to oversee the dubbing and editing of the film. Masaru Sato's original music was replaced (except for a couple of tracks) with stock music from various libraries, including the MUTEL library, as well as music from films such as Kronos (1957), Project Moonbase (1958) and The Deerslayer (1957). Godzilla's roar was largely replaced with Anguirus' roar. This version had the working title of Godzilla Raids Again, but was changed to Gigantis, the Fire Monster upon its release. Schreibman took full credit for changing Godzilla's name to Gigantis, which was an attempt to convince audiences that "Gigantis" was a brand new monster, stating, "We called it 'Gigantis' because we did not want it to be confused with 'Godzilla' [who had clearly been killed irreparably by the oxygenator]." At one point, Schreibman inaccurately told reporters that the original Japanese film was called Angirus. The film was dubbed at Ryder Sound Services in New York and featured the voice talents of Keye Luke, Paul Frees, and George Takei. The English dialogue was based on a loose interpretation, rather than an accurate translation, of the original Japanese dialogue. Credit for the English dialogue script had not been revealed since the release of the film. According to Takei, the word "banana oil" was created by the dub's director due to having difficulty finding a word to match the lip movement of the original Japanese word "bakayaro". Takei stated that people laughed during the recording due to the word being an outdated expression. The English version utilizes stock footage from various films, such as Unknown Island and the first Godzilla film, as well as news reels, military footage, the space program, and educational films. Prior to the film's release, Schreibman approached Bill Foreman (then-President of Pacific Theaters) and convinced him to purchase the theatrical and television rights to both Gigantis and Teenagers from Outer Space and helped Foreman sell the theatrical rights to Warner Bros. According to the deal, Foreman agreed to show both films in all of his theaters while Warner Bros. would distribute the films to other theaters and were given the American and Latin American theatrical rights to both films for four years. After the film reverted to Foreman and his attorney Harry B. Swerdlow (who became designated owner of both films because Foreman did not want his name to appear on the copyright notices), they did not pursue any interest in continuing to sell the television rights, which resulted in Gigantis the Fire Monster disappearing from American theatres and television for two decades until the rights reverted to Toho in the mid-1980s. ### Critical response On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 64% based on 11 reviews, with an average rating of 5.00/10. From contemporary reviews in the United States, Joe R. Patrick of Des Moines Tribune described the film as "amateurish", finding the acting to be "confined primarily to facial expressions, in tight close-ups" and that the film "suffers most of all from dubbed-in English." The review did praise the animation of the monsters as "at times very good, at other times poor," and concluded that the film was not as well made as its double feature, Rodan. Donald Willis of Variety declared the film as being "inept and tedious" but declared the miniature work as "remarkably good" specifically that scenes of "the dinosaur-like animal crunching his way through houses, traffic and high-tension wires are interesting and exciting." Ishirō Honda (director of the previous Godzilla film) noted that reviews for Godzilla Raids Again were more positive compared to the previous film, stating that it was considered "stupid" by the media for a director to add "ideas or themes" into a science fiction film, he commented, "That's why I think that the first Godzilla was only considered a 'weird' movie. That's probably why they liked the second movie much better." Film historian Steve Ryfle noted that some writers felt that while Godzilla (1954) was a metaphor for the Hiroshima bombing, Godzilla Raids Again serves as metaphor for the Nagasaki bombing. Ryfle noted the scene of Hidemi gazing at the flames of Osaka strikes parallels with the imagery of a mushroom cloud. ## Home media ### Japan In 1982, the Japanese version was released on VHS in Japan by Toho. In 1986, Toho released the film on LaserDisc. In 1991, Toho reissued the film on VHS. In 1993, Toho released a new master of the film on LaserDisc. In 2001, Toho released the film on DVD. In 2005, Toho included the film on the Godzilla Final Box DVD Set. In 2014, Toho released the film on Blu-ray. In 2008, Toho remastered the film in High-definition and premiered it on the Japanese Movie Speciality Channel, along with the rest of the Godzilla films also remastered in HD. ### United States In 1989, Video Treasures released the American version on EP and LP VHS in the United States and Canada. In 2007, Classic Media and Sony BMG Home Entertainment released both the Japanese and American versions on DVD in the United States and Canada. The special features include an audio commentary by Steve Ryfle, a featurette titled The Art of Suit Acting by Ed Godziszewski and Bill Gudmundson, and a slideshow of the film's theatrical posters. Per Toho's request, the original title card for Gigantis, the Fire Monster was replaced with a new title card sporting the film's official English title. In 2017, Janus Films and The Criterion Collection acquired the film, as well as other Godzilla titles, to stream on Starz and FilmStruck. In 2019, the Japanese version was included as part of a Blu-ray box set released by The Criterion Collection, which includes all 15 films from the franchise's Shōwa era. In May 2020, the Japanese version became available on HBO Max upon its launch. ## Legacy The film was followed by King Kong vs. Godzilla, released on August 11, 1962. Godzilla Raids Again introduced the monster vs. monster formula that would be become prominent and synonymous with the franchise. After the release of the film, Toho featured Anguirus in various multimedia (see Appearances).

Babel Proclamation

Proclamation issued in Iowa

The Babel Proclamation was issued by Iowa's Governor William L. Harding on May 23, 1918. It forbade the speaking of any language besides English in public. The proclamation was controversial, supported by many established English-speaking Iowans and notably opposed by citizens who spoke languages other than English. Harding repealed it on December 4, 1918. The Babel Proclamation marked the peak of a wave of anti-German sentiment in Iowa during World War I. ## Rise in anti-German sentiment As America became involved in World War I on the side of the Allies and against Germany, the nation saw a rise in anti-German sentiment. Nativism, which had existed before the war, became increasingly mainstream as a result of American intervention. The state of Iowa saw a particularly large rise in anti-German sentiment. On November 23, 1917, the Iowa State Council for Defense determined that German should not be taught in public schools and took actions to that effect, such as burning German books. Iowa also saw places that had German-related names renamed, such as Germania being renamed to Lakota. Some German-Americans were attacked for speaking their language in public. In 1900 there were 46 German-language newspapers in Iowa; 20 years later there were just 16. ## Description The Governor of Iowa, William L. Harding, issued the Babel Proclamation on May 23, 1918. It stated that Iowa schools must teach their courses in English, public conversations had to be in English, addresses in public were to be given in English, and religious services were to be in English. Harding asserted that allowing languages other than English to be spoken "disturbs the peace and quiet of the community" and would lead to "discord among neighbors and citizens." He maintained that all non-English languages could be used to spread German propaganda. He further argued that the proclamation would "save the lives of American boys overseas by curbing sedition at home." Harding stated that the proclamation should be treated as law, although it was accused of violating the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which guarantees freedom of speech. He argued that the amendment did not apply to languages other than English. In response to the mandate, there were several protests, including one led by a priest at St. Wenceslaus Catholic Church on May 30. Scandinavian speakers were not excluded from the discrimination; one Lutheran pastor wrote to his representative in May 1918 complaining that half his congregation would be unable to understand the service if it were not conducted in Norwegian, the language in which he had been preaching for the past 40 years. However, it was generally popular among English-speaking, well established Iowans. Former US President Theodore Roosevelt publicly supported Harding's decision in a speech given on May 27, saying "America is a nation—not a polyglot boarding house ... There can be but one loyalty—to the Stars and Stripes; one nationality—the American—and therefore only one language—the English language." Virtually all ethnic minorities who spoke languages other than English opposed the proclamation to some extent. The proclamation was seriously enforced, and many "patriotic organizations" issued fines to violators. The majority of violators were caught when telephone operators listened to conversations for violations. For instance, in Le Claire Township, Scott County, four or five women received fines after they spoke German over the telephone. They ended up paying \$225, which was donated to the Red Cross. Nebraska issued a similar proclamation. Across the Midwestern United States, 18,000 people eventually faced charges of violating English mandates. The proclamation became "the major political issue" in Iowa for 1918. The Des Moines Register led opposition, publishing several op-eds against the proclamation.A Jewish leader in Des Moines contacted Louis Marshall, then the president of the American Jewish Committee, for advice. Marshall responded that he couldn't "conceive the possibility that the people of any state could be guilty of such an absurdity." However, he advised the Jewish community to avoid publicly going against the proclamation. On June 13 Marshall wrote a letter of protest to Harding. People debated the proclamation across the state and more generally what it meant to be "American". Some newspapers called English "American", as calling it English would suggest that it was "borrowed, and therefore any European tongue would be as legitimate as English." After World War I ended, Harding repealed the proclamation on December 4, 1918. ## Legacy A 2018 op-ed published in The Des Moines Register called the Babel Proclamation "perhaps the most infamous executive order" in Iowa's history. Several articles have cited the proclamation as an early example of anti-immigrant sentiment. A hearing in the United States House of Representatives in 2006 called the proclamation "the most famous" of several "English-only" restrictions passed around the same time.

Pacorus II

King of Kings of the Parthian Empire (ruled 78-110)

Pacorus II (also spelled Pakoros II; 𐭐𐭊𐭅𐭓) was the King of Kings of the Parthian Empire from 78 to 110. He was the son and successor of Vologases I (r. 51–78). During the latter part of his father's reign, Pacorus ruled the Parthian Empire along with him. After Vologases I's death in 78, Pacorus became the sole ruler, but was quickly met by a revolt by his brother Vologases II, which lasted until the latter's defeat in 80. In 79/80, Pacorus' rule was contended by another Parthian prince—Artabanus III—whom he had defeated by 81. A third Parthian contender, Osroes I, appeared in 109. The following year, Pacorus was succeeded by his son Vologases III, who continued his father's struggle with Osroes I over the Parthian crown. Like his father, Pacorus continued the same policies of the prominent former Parthian king Artabanus II (r. 12–38/41), which included increasing the economic sources of the Parthian Empire by establishing a new trade system and strengthening relations with other powers, such as Han China. Parthian interest also continued to grow in eastern lands of Khwarazm, Bactria, and the Hindu Kush. The influence of the Parthians is demonstrated by the existence of their aspects in the coinage of numerous political entities in those areas. Under Pacorus, the usage of the image of the Greek goddess Tyche on the reverse of Parthian coins became more regular than that of the seated king with a bow, specifically on the coin minted at Ecbatana. Tyche was either a representation of the Iranian goddesses Anahita or Ashi. ## Name The name Pacorus is the Latin form of the Greek Pakoros (Πακώρος), itself a variant of the Middle Iranian Pakur, derived from Old Iranian bag-puhr ('son of a god'). The Armenian and Georgian transliteration is Bakur (respectively; Բակուր, ბაკური). Pacorus II's name is recorded in the bilingual inscription on the famous bronze statue of Heracles in Seleucia as Greek Pakhorou (Παχόρου, genitive) and Parthian pkwr (𐭐𐭊𐭅𐭓 'Pakur'). ## Background Pacorus was one of the younger sons of the Parthian king Vologases I (r. 51–78), being born in c. 61/2. Under Vologases I, the empire experienced a resurgence. During the last years of his reign, Pacorus ruled alongside him. After Vologases I's death in 78, Pacorus became the sole ruler of the empire. ## Reign Pacorus was soon met by a revolt by his brother Vologases II, which lasted until the latter's defeat in 80. In 79/80, Pacorus' rule was contended by another Parthian prince—Artabanus III, who seemed to have little support in the empire, with the exception of Babylonia. Artabanus III's most notable action was to give refuge to a Pseudo-Nero named Terentius Maximus. Artabanus III initially agreed to lend military aid to Terentius Maximus to capture Rome, until he found about the real identity of the impostor. Coin mints of Artabanus III disappear after 81, which suggests that by this year Pacorus had defeated him. Like his father, Pacorus sought to accomplish the goal of Artabanus II (r. 12–38/41), by attempting to establish a long and structured trade-route that spanned through East Asia, India and the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. This planned long trade-route would greatly improve the economy of the Parthian Empire. In order to accomplish this, Pacorus strengthened relations with other powers whom he was able to establish long distance trade with, most notably Han China. In 97, the Chinese general Ban Chao, the Protector-General of the Western Regions, sent his emissary Gan Ying on a diplomatic mission to reach the Roman Empire. Gan visited the court of Pacorus at Hecatompylos before departing towards Rome. He traveled as far west as the Persian Gulf, where the Parthian authorities convinced him that an arduous sea voyage around the Arabian Peninsula was the only means to reach Rome. Discouraged by this, Gan Ying returned to the Han court and provided Emperor He of Han (r. 88–105) with a detailed report on the Roman Empire based on oral accounts of his Parthian hosts. The modern historian William Watson speculated that the Parthians would have been relieved at the failed efforts by the Han Empire to open diplomatic relations with Rome, especially after Ban Chao's military victories against the Xiongnu in eastern Central Asia. Parthian interest also continued to grow in eastern lands of Khwarazm, Bactria, and the Hindu Kush. The influence of the Parthian Empire is demonstrated by the existence of Parthian aspects in the coinage of numerous political entities in those areas. During his last years of rule, Pacorus co-ruled with his son Vologases III. In 109, a third Parthian contender named Osroes I appeared. In 110, Pacorus sold the Arsacid vassal kingdom of Osroene to Abgar VII. Pacorus died in the same year, and was succeeded by Vologases III, who continued his father's struggle with Osroes I over the Arsacid crown. ## Coinage On the observe of his coins, Pacorus is portrayed simply wearing a diadem. At first, he appeared beardless on his coins, a rare feature in Parthian coinage that demonstrated his youth, having ascended the throne around the age of sixteen or seventeen. From 82/3, he is depicted with a beard. From 93–96, Pacorus is portrayed with his father's tiara. The modern historian Marek Jan Olbrycht surmises that the wearing of the tiara in the latter part of his reign was reflected the power and status of his empire at this time. The reverse of his coins portrayed the Greek goddess Tyche investing him as king. Under Pacorus, the usage of the image of Tyche on the reverse of Parthian coins became more regular than that of the seated king with a bow, specifically on the coin minted at Ecbatana. This lasted until the reign of his son and successor, Vologases III. In the Parthian era, Iranians used Hellenistic iconography to portray their divine figures, thus the investiture scene can be associated with the Avestan khvarenah, i.e., kingly glory, with Tyche representing one of the Iranian goddesses Anahita or Ashi. ## Offspring Besides Vologases III, Pacorus had three other sons: Axidares, and Parthamasiris, who successively served as kings of Armenia, and Meredates, who served as king of Characene in the mid-2nd century.

Percy Cherry

Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross

Percy Herbert Cherry, VC, MC (4 June 1895 – 27 March 1917) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest decoration for gallantry "in the face of the enemy" that can be awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces. The award was granted posthumously for Cherry's actions during an attack on the French village of Lagnicourt which was strongly defended by German forces. Born in the Australian state of Victoria, Cherry moved to Tasmania at the age of seven when his family took up an apple orchard. Becoming an expert apple packer, he was also a skilled rifle shot and member of the Franklin rowing club. In 1913, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 93rd Infantry Regiment, Citizens Military Force, and served as a drill instructor at the outbreak of war. Enlisting in the Australian Imperial Force in March 1915, he served at Gallipoli before transferring to the Western Front and fighting in the Battle of the Somme. In early March 1917 during the Battle of Arras, Cherry was decorated with the Military Cross following an attack on Malt Trench, in which he led a party in capturing two German machine gun posts. He was killed by a German shell the day following his Victoria Cross action. ## Early life Cherry was born on 4 June 1895 at Drysdale, Victoria, to John Gawley Cherry and his wife Elizabeth, née Russel. When he was seven years old, the family moved to Tasmania and took up an apple orchard near Cradoc. Cherry attended the local state school until he was thirteen, after which he received private tuition. He worked with his father and became an expert apple packer; at fourteen he won a local case-making competition at the Launceston Fruit Show by packing thirty-five cases of apples in an hour. Joining the Australian Army Cadets in 1908, Cherry soon became a sergeant and later a second lieutenant, where he used to drill cadets in four different districts. At the age of sixteen, he won the President's Trophy and Gold Medal for being the best shot at the rifle range in Franklin. He also rowed with the Franklin rowing club, played the cornet in the Franklin brass band and sang in the Anglican church choir. In 1913, Cherry joined the Citizens Military Force and was commissioned into the 93rd Infantry Regiment as a second lieutenant. ## First World War ### Enlistment, March 1915 to Western Front, March 1917 At the outbreak of war, Cherry was sent to Claremont Camp and assumed duties as a drill instructor. On 5 March 1915, he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force and was allotted to the 26th Battalion, where he qualified as an infantry officer, but was considered too young for a commission in the Australian Imperial Force and was instead made a Quartermaster Sergeant. On 29 June, the battalion embarked from Brisbane for Egypt with Cherry aboard HMAT Aeneas. On arrival, the battalion spent several months training in the desert, where Cherry was promoted to company sergeant major in August. On 12 September, the battalion landed at Gallipoli and played a defensive role at Courtney’s and Steele’s Posts, and Russell’s Top. On 1 December, injured by bomb wounds to his face and head, Cherry was evacuated to Egypt, where he was commissioned as a second lieutenant on 9 December. Three days later, the 26th Battalion was withdrawn from Gallipoli and evacuated to Egypt where Cherry rejoined them in preparation for service on the Western Front. Remaining in Egypt during this time, Cherry was selected to attend a machine gun course in March 1916. After completion of this, he was transferred to the 7th Machine Gun Company in France. He commanded the company's 1st Battery at Fleurbaix, Messines and on the Somme until 5 August, when he was wounded in a duel with a German officer at Pozières. He and a German officer—who was leading an attack against Cherry's position—were exchanging shots from neighbouring shell-holes. Eventually, they both rose, firing simultaneously. The German officer hit Cherry in the neck but was mortally wounded by Cherry in return. Cherry approached the dying man, who pulled a package of letters from his pocket, and asked Cherry to have them censored and posted. Cherry promised to do so and the German handed over the letters, with the words; "And so it ends". He died shortly afterwards. As a result of his wounds, Cherry was evacuated to England for treatment. Promoted to lieutenant on 25 August 1916, Cherry returned to his unit on the Somme in November. The following month he was made a temporary captain and transferred back to the 26th Battalion as the commanding officer of C Company. His rank was confirmed on 14 February 1917, and on 1–2 March he was involved in the battalion's actions around the village of Warlencourt. At 03:00 on 2 March, Cherry led his company in an attack on the German held position of Malt Trench, situated between the villages of Warlencourt and Bapaume. Artillery fire had failed to adequately cut the barbed wire lines for the advancing troops, and Cherry led a section of men along the wire until he found a break in it. Once through the gap, he rushed two machine gun posts, capturing one single-handed, and turned one on the fleeing Germans before being wounded himself. For his actions during the engagement, Cherry was awarded the Military Cross, the notification of which was published in a supplement of the London Gazette on 26 April 1917. ### Victoria Cross On 26 March 1917, the 7th Brigade—of which the 26th Battalion was part—was tasked with the capture of Lagnicourt as part of the Battle of Arras. It was during this engagement where Cherry was to earn the Victoria Cross. An artillery barrage opened up on the village at 05:15 and continued for twenty minutes, allowing the infantry to close in. The plan was that Cherry's company would storm the village itself while the battalion's other companies encircled it. For the assault, Cherry split his company into two sections; he commanded one section himself and placed the other under Lieutenant William Frederick Joseph Hamilton. The company was soon in action. Cherry's section captured a large fortified farm on the edge of the village. As they entered the muddy main street, the Australians came under heavy fire from the houses lining the road and from an adjacent stable yard. Cherry "rushed the stable yard" and a fierce firefight developed, before the Germans surrendered. As Cherry and his men moved through Lagnicourt, they found the main resistance coming from a large chalky crater, "spotted with white chalk", at the crossroads in the village centre. The Germans' stout defence was holding up the advance and Cherry sent a messenger back for more Stokes mortars. Becoming impatient at the delay, Cherry decided to rush the position under the cover of Lewis Gun and rifle grenade fire. Capturing the crater, he found Lieutenant Harold Hereward Bieske at the bottom wounded. Bieske had taken over command of the second section when Lieutenant Hamilton was wounded, and it had now been reduced to six men. After capturing the crater, Cherry pushed on through the village, where his party emerged from among the buildings on the far side. Another stiff fight ensured with a group of Germans in dug-outs by the side of the road, before the company was able to meet up with its fellow units which had bypassed the village and were already established to the north and east of the area. Cherry's orders were to fall back into reserve, but he disregarded them as he sensed a counter-attack was forthcoming. At 09:00 on 27 March, the Germans launched a very strong counter-attack under heavy artillery fire. At one point, Cherry noticed that the Germans were firing yellow flares to pinpoint Australian positions to their gunners. He found some of these flares, and fired them away from his position. The German attempts to retake Lagnicourt—at a cost to the 7th Brigade of 377 casualties—raged all day before they abandoned the counterattack. ### Death and legacy In the afternoon of 27 March 1917, a shell burst in a sunken road to the east of Lagnicourt, killing Cherry and several other men. He was buried in Quéant Road Cemetery, Buissy, Plot VIII, Row C, Grave 10. The full citation for Cherry's posthumous award of the Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette on 11 May 1917, reading: > War Office, 11th May, 1917 > > His Majesty the KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Officers and Man:— > > 2nd Lt. (temp. Capt.) Percy Herbert Cherry, M.C., late Aus. Imp. Force. > > For most conspicuous bravery, determination and leadership when in command of a company detailed to storm and clear a village. > > After all the officers of his company had become casualties he carried on with care and determination, in the face of fierce opposition, and cleared the village of the enemy. > > He sent frequent reports of progress made, and when held up for some time by an enemy strong point he organised machine gun and bomb parties and captured the position. His leadership, coolness and bravery set a wonderful example to his men. > > Having cleared the village, he took charge of the situation and beat off the most resolute and heavy counter-attacks made by the enemy. > > Wounded about 6.30 a.m., he refused to leave his post, and there remained, encouraging all to hold out at all costs, until, about 4.30 p.m., this very gallant officer was killed by an enemy shell. Cherry's Victoria Cross was presented to his father by the Governor of Tasmania, Sir Francis Newdegate, in Hobart during October 1917. In 1932, a photograph of Cherry was unveiled at the headquarters of the 26th Battalion, Australian Imperial Force, at Annerley, Brisbane. His Victoria Cross is currently on display at the Australian War Memorial along with his other medals.

The Light of the Sun

The Light of the Sun is the fourth studio album by American singer Jill Scott. It was recorded after Scott's four-year break from her music career and departure from her former label, Hidden Beach Recordings. The Light of the Sun was recorded at several studios and produced primarily by Scott and JR Hutson, a songwriter and producer who had previously worked on her 2007 record The Real Thing: Words and Sounds Vol. 3. Music journalists noted The Light of the Sun for its neo soul sound, element of improvisation, and Scott's themes of emotion and womanhood. The Light of the Sun was released on June 21, 2011, by Scott's imprint label, Blue Babe Records. It received positive reviews from most critics and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 in the United States, where it sold 135,000 copies in its first week. The album became Scott's first American number-one record, and as of March 2015, it had sold 478,000 copies in the US. It was promoted with three singles: "So in Love", "So Gone (What My Mind Says)", and "Blessed". Scott also promoted the album with her Summer Block Party concert tour. ## Background Following her 2007 album, The Real Thing: Words and Sounds Vol. 3, Scott took a break from recording music. She undertook acting roles in the movies Tyler Perry's Why Did I Get Married? and Hounddog, and she had a starring role in the television series The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency. During her break, she divorced her husband of six years Lyzel Williams in 2007, became engaged to the former drummer Lil' John Roberts in 2008, gave birth to their son Jett Hamilton in 2009, and broke up with Roberts. Scott subsequently began sessions for The Light of the Sun. In 2009, Scott left her former record label Hidden Beach Recordings. During the album's recording, she was sued by Hidden Beach, which claimed she had left without fulfilling a six-album contract. The lawsuit was settled in 2011, with Hidden Beach planning to release the compilation album The Original Jill Scott from the Vault, Vol. 1 in August, the first in a planned album series of Scott's previously unreleased recordings. In 2010, Warner Bros. Records signed Scott to a deal that gave her direct control over her marketing and promotion. In a strategy to re-establish Scott's presence with fans, she signed a multi-tour deal with Live Nation/Haymon Ventures to expand her concert touring. Scott co-headlined a national, 20-date arena tour with the recording artist Maxwell, called Maxwell & Jill Scott: The Tour, in 2010. ## Recording The album was recorded at several recording studios, including Fever Recording Studios in North Hollywood, 9th Street Studios and Threshold Sound & Vision in Santa Monica, Studio 609 and The Studio in Philadelphia, The Boom Boom Room in Burbank and The Village Studios in West Los Angeles. Scott worked with producers Terry Lewis, JR Hutson and Justice League for the album. Scott had first worked with Hutson on her previous album The Real Thing. In an interview for HitQuarters, Hutson said of Scott's approach to The Light of the Sun, "She's now in charge of a lot of different things and with it comes a lot of trials and tribulations, and I think her goal is to just give people a very realistic glimpse of where she is in her life right now." Scott has noted songs such as "Hear My Call" and "Quick" as reflective of the "darkest moments" in her life and has said that much of the album's music developed from studio jams and freestyle sessions. In an interview for Metro, she said of the "largely improvised" recording process: > I went into a studio with no lyrics, nothing written out. I got together a great group – featuring Adam Blackstone on bass and Randy Bowland on guitar – and just put them in a studio and got them to play while I improvised lyrics. From the first note, you could hear little tunes emerging, and that would inspire me to freestyle lyrics. We call it 'going in'. You go inside yourself, inside your spirit, and you explore. It's exhausting. When we were done, there was a lot of whooping and hugging and high-fiving. It's that kind of record. ## Release and promotion The album was released in the United States on June 21, 2011, on Scott's own imprint label, Blues Babe Records, distributed by Warner Bros. Records, her first release by the label. It is the first release under the distribution deal between Blues Babe and Warner Bros. It was released on June 27 in the United Kingdom. In the first week of release, the album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, selling 135,000 copies in the US. It was her first number-one album there. It sold 55,000 copies the following week, and by May 2015, it had sold 479,000 copies. The album's first single, "So in Love" featuring Anthony Hamilton, was released on June 26. It spent nine weeks on the US Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, peaking at number 10 on the chart, one week on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number 97, and three weeks on Billboard's Radio Songs, peaking at number 71 on the chart. This had been preceded by the April release of "Shame" on Scott's SoundCloud account, featuring rapper Eve and vocal ensemble The A Group. Its music video was filmed at the Cecil B. Moore Recreational Center in Philadelphia, where Eve and the rapper Black Thought were in attendance. Scott said in an interview for CNN that she spent several summers at the recreation center and that it was at risk of being demolished. The video was premiered on April 13 on Essence.com. It was later released as the album's second single in the United Kingdom. Scott promoted the album with her Summer Block Party concert tour, beginning on July 28, 2012, and concluding on August 28. The tour featured Anthony Hamilton and Mint Condition as opening acts, Doug E. Fresh as a host, and Jazzy Jeff as the DJ. Scott also promoted the album with performances on the television shows The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Jimmy Kimmel Live! and Live with Regis and Kelly. She headlined the Essence Music Festival on July 1. On December 18th, Scott co-headlined VH1 Divas Celebrates Soul alongside Mary J. Blige, Jennifer Hudson, Kelly Clarkson, Florence + the Machine, and Jessie J, performing "Hear My Call" and collaborating with The Roots and Erykah Badu on "You Got Me." ## Critical reception The Light of the Sun received generally positive reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 73, based on 15 reviews. Mikael Wood from Entertainment Weekly complimented its "earnest introspection and earthy textures", and observed "a distinctly early-aughties vibe". In The New York Times, Jon Pareles praised Scott's "proudly and forthrightly feminine" themes and said the songs are "springy with a sense of improvisation, both in the rhythms and in their elaborate vocal overlays". The Washington Post's Bill Friskics-Warren noted its "sumptuous orchestration, jazzy flourishes and neo-soul beats", and wrote, "The full range of human emotion, from defiance to hurt and hope, is expressed over the course of the album." AllMusic's Thom Jurek said that "Scott sounds more in control than ever; her spoken and sung phrasing (now a trademark), songwriting, and production instincts are all solid". In the Chicago Tribune, Greg Kot wrote, "She's perfected a style that toggles between singing and conversing, and balances more conventional pop structure with spontaneity." Caroline Sullivan in The Guardian noted its "uplifting sung-spoken pieces" and wrote, "It's Scott's warm womanliness over the whole album that makes it a must-hear." In a mixed review, Andy Gill from The Independent criticized Scott's lyrics as "a sticky puddle of self-regard" and found its songs "[un]developed much beyond a languid soul–jazz vamp". Rolling Stone writer Jon Dolan gave the album three out of five stars and called her "trademark" musical style "warm and inviting, if rarely thrilling, neo-soul". Daryl Easlea of BBC Online wrote that it "at times [...] veers towards self-indulgence, and some of its ideas are not fully followed through", but complimented its "freewheeling vibe" and called it "a lovely, bittersweet album that celebrates the joy of life". ## Track listing Notes - signifies a co-producer ## Personnel Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes. - The A Group – background vocals - Nathaniel Alford – engineer - Yameen Allworld – background vocals - Sherlen Archibald – publicity - Ashaunna Ayars – marketing - Todd Bergman – assistant - Michelle Bishop – violin - Adam Blackstone – bass guitar, electric bass, keyboards, producer - Randy Bowland – 7-string electric guitar, guitar, producer - Bruce Buechner – engineer, production engineer - Luke Burland – publicity - Sandra Campbell – project coordinator - Warryn Campbell – instrumentation, producer, programming, vocal arrangement - Chris Chambers – publicity - Jeff Chestek – string engineer - Sean Cooper – sound design - Eli Davis – production coordination - Kimre Davis – production coordination - Aaron Draper – background vocals, percussion - Dré – producer - Corte Ellis – background vocals - Luis Eric – horn - Teresa Evans – production coordination - Rick Friedrick – assistant - Larry Gold – string arrangements, string conductor - Steven Gomillion – photography - Robert Greene – make-up - Bernie Grundman – mastering - Andre Harris – engineer - Donald Hayes – horn - J.R. Hutson – A&R, background vocals, engineer, executive producer, instrumentation, keyboards, producer, scratching - Bruce Irvine – engineer - Liza Joseph – A&R - Brandon Kilgour – engineer - Emma Kummrow – violin - Dennis Leupold – photography - Damien Lewis – assistant - Jennie Lorenzo – cello - Glen Marchese – engineer, mixing - Khari Mateen – instrumentation, producer - Luigi Mazzocchi – violin - George "Spanky" McCurdy – drums, producer - Susan Moses – stylist - Jairus Mozee – bass, guitar - Peter Nocella – viola - Rickey Pageot – keyboards - Charles Parker – violin - Vanessa Parr – engineer - Dave Pensado – mixing - Rebecca Proudfoot – A&R - Zachariah Redding – assistant - Lacy Redway – hair stylist - Tim Reid – marketing - James Chul Rim – engineer, vocal engineer - "V" Roane – background vocals - John Roberts – drums, horn - Montez Roberts – assistant engineer, engineer - James Darrell Robinson – drums, producer - Eric Rousseau – sound design - Jill Scott – A&R, art direction, background vocals, executive producer, producer, vocal arrangement - Phillip "Logann" Scott III – engineer - Paris Strother – keyboards - Sean Tallman – engineer - Phil Tan – mixing - Vidal – producer - Courtney Walter – design - Ayana Webb – background vocals - Kelvin Wooten – bass guitar, drum programming, guitar, keyboards, piano, producer - Eric Wortham – keyboards, producer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## See also - List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2011 - List of Billboard number-one R&B albums of 2011

Thallium

Thallium is a chemical element with the symbol Tl and atomic number 81. It is a gray post-transition metal that is not found free in nature. When isolated, thallium resembles tin, but discolors when exposed to air. Chemists William Crookes and Claude-Auguste Lamy discovered thallium independently in 1861, in residues of sulfuric acid production. Both used the newly developed method of flame spectroscopy, in which thallium produces a notable green spectral line. Thallium, from Greek θαλλός, thallós, meaning "green shoot" or "twig", was named by Crookes. It was isolated by both Lamy and Crookes in 1862; Lamy by electrolysis, and Crookes by precipitation and melting of the resultant powder. Crookes exhibited it as a powder precipitated by zinc at the international exhibition, which opened on 1 May that year. Thallium tends to form the +3 and +1 oxidation states. The +3 state resembles that of the other elements in group 13 (boron, aluminium, gallium, indium). However, the +1 state, which is far more prominent in thallium than the elements above it, recalls the chemistry of alkali metals, and thallium(I) ions are found geologically mostly in potassium-based ores, and (when ingested) are handled in many ways like potassium ions (K⁺) by ion pumps in living cells. Commercially, thallium is produced not from potassium ores, but as a byproduct from refining of heavy-metal sulfide ores. Approximately 65% of thallium production is used in the electronics industry, and the remainder is used in the pharmaceutical industry and in glass manufacturing. It is also used in infrared detectors. The radioisotope thallium-201 (as the soluble chloride TlCl) is used in small amounts as an agent in a nuclear medicine scan, during one type of nuclear cardiac stress test. Soluble thallium salts (many of which are nearly tasteless) are highly toxic, and they were historically used in rat poisons and insecticides. Because of their nonselective toxicity, use of these compounds has been restricted or banned in many countries. Thallium poisoning usually results in hair loss. Because of its historic popularity as a murder weapon, thallium has gained notoriety as "the poisoner's poison" and "inheritance powder" (alongside arsenic). ## Characteristics A thallium atom has 81 electrons, arranged in the electron configuration [Xe]4f¹⁴5d¹⁰6s²6p¹; of these, the three outermost electrons in the sixth shell are valence electrons. Due to the inert pair effect, the 6s electron pair is relativistically stabilised and it is more difficult to get these involved in chemical bonding than it is for the heavier elements. Thus, very few electrons are available for metallic bonding, similar to the neighboring elements mercury and lead. Thallium, then, like its congeners, is a soft, highly electrically conducting metal with a low melting point, of 304 °C. A number of standard electrode potentials, depending on the reaction under study, are reported for thallium, reflecting the greatly decreased stability of the +3 oxidation state: Thallium is the first element in group 13 where the reduction of the +3 oxidation state to the +1 oxidation state is spontaneous under standard conditions. Since bond energies decrease down the group, with thallium, the energy released in forming two additional bonds and attaining the +3 state is not always enough to outweigh the energy needed to involve the 6s-electrons. Accordingly, thallium(I) oxide and hydroxide are more basic and thallium(III) oxide and hydroxide are more acidic, showing that thallium conforms to the general rule of elements being more electropositive in their lower oxidation states. Thallium is malleable and sectile enough to be cut with a knife at room temperature. It has a metallic luster that, when exposed to air, quickly tarnishes to a bluish-gray tinge, resembling lead. It may be preserved by immersion in oil. A heavy layer of oxide builds up on thallium if left in air. In the presence of water, thallium hydroxide is formed. Sulfuric and nitric acids dissolve thallium rapidly to make the sulfate and nitrate salts, while hydrochloric acid forms an insoluble thallium(I) chloride layer. ### Isotopes Thallium has 41 isotopes which have atomic masses that range from 176 to 216. ²⁰³Tl and ²⁰⁵Tl are the only stable isotopes and make up nearly all of natural thallium. ²⁰⁴Tl is the most stable radioisotope, with a half-life of 3.78 years. It is made by the neutron activation of stable thallium in a nuclear reactor. The most useful radioisotope, ²⁰¹Tl (half-life 73 hours), decays by electron capture, emitting X-rays (\~70–80 keV), and photons of 135 and 167 keV in 10% total abundance; therefore, it has good imaging characteristics without an excessive patient-radiation dose. It is the most popular isotope used for thallium nuclear cardiac stress tests. ## Compounds ### Thallium(III) Thallium(III) compounds resemble the corresponding aluminium(III) compounds. They are moderately strong oxidizing agents and are usually unstable, as illustrated by the positive reduction potential for the Tl³⁺/Tl couple. Some mixed-valence compounds are also known, such as Tl₄O₃ and TlCl₂, which contain both thallium(I) and thallium(III). Thallium(III) oxide, Tl₂O₃, is a black solid which decomposes above 800 °C, forming the thallium(I) oxide and oxygen. The simplest possible thallium compound, thallane (TlH₃), is too unstable to exist in bulk, both due to the instability of the +3 oxidation state as well as poor overlap of the valence 6s and 6p orbitals of thallium with the 1s orbital of hydrogen. The trihalides are more stable, although they are chemically distinct from those of the lighter group 13 elements and are still the least stable in the whole group. For instance, thallium(III) fluoride, TlF₃, has the β-BiF₃ structure rather than that of the lighter group 13 trifluorides, and does not form the TlF⁻ ₄ complex anion in aqueous solution. The trichloride and tribromide disproportionate just above room temperature to give the monohalides, and thallium triiodide contains the linear triiodide anion (I⁻ ₃) and is actually a thallium(I) compound. Thallium(III) sesquichalcogenides do not exist. ### Thallium(I) The thallium(I) halides are stable. In keeping with the large size of the Tl⁺ cation, the chloride and bromide have the caesium chloride structure, while the fluoride and iodide have distorted sodium chloride structures. Like the analogous silver compounds, TlCl, TlBr, and TlI are photosensitive and display poor solubility in water. The stability of thallium(I) compounds demonstrates its differences from the rest of the group: a stable oxide, hydroxide, and carbonate are known, as are many chalcogenides. The double salt Tl ₄(OH) ₂CO ₃ has been shown to have hydroxyl-centred triangles of thallium, [Tl ₃(OH)]²⁺ , as a recurring motif throughout its solid structure. The metalorganic compound thallium ethoxide (TlOEt, TlOC₂H₅) is a heavy liquid (ρ 3.49 g·cm⁻³, m.p. −3 °C), often used as a basic and soluble thallium source in organic and organometallic chemistry. ### Organothallium compounds Organothallium compounds tend to be thermally unstable, in concordance with the trend of decreasing thermal stability down group 13. The chemical reactivity of the Tl–C bond is also the lowest in the group, especially for ionic compounds of the type R₂TlX. Thallium forms the stable [Tl(CH₃)₂]⁺ ion in aqueous solution; like the isoelectronic Hg(CH₃)₂ and [Pb(CH₃)₂]²⁺, it is linear. Trimethylthallium and triethylthallium are, like the corresponding gallium and indium compounds, flammable liquids with low melting points. Like indium, thallium cyclopentadienyl compounds contain thallium(I), in contrast to gallium(III). ## History Thallium (Greek θαλλός, thallos, meaning "a green shoot or twig") was discovered by William Crookes and Claude Auguste Lamy, working independently, both using flame spectroscopy (Crookes was first to publish his findings, on March 30, 1861). The name comes from thallium's bright green spectral emission lines. After the publication of the improved method of flame spectroscopy by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff and the discovery of caesium and rubidium in the years 1859 to 1860, flame spectroscopy became an approved method to determine the composition of minerals and chemical products. Crookes and Lamy both started to use the new method. Crookes used it to make spectroscopic determinations for tellurium on selenium compounds deposited in the lead chamber of a sulfuric acid production plant near Tilkerode in the Harz mountains. He had obtained the samples for his research on selenium cyanide from August Hofmann years earlier. By 1862, Crookes was able to isolate small quantities of the new element and determine the properties of a few compounds. Claude-Auguste Lamy used a spectrometer that was similar to Crookes' to determine the composition of a selenium-containing substance which was deposited during the production of sulfuric acid from pyrite. He also noticed the new green line in the spectra and concluded that a new element was present. Lamy had received this material from the sulfuric acid plant of his friend Frédéric Kuhlmann and this by-product was available in large quantities. Lamy started to isolate the new element from that source. The fact that Lamy was able to work ample quantities of thallium enabled him to determine the properties of several compounds and in addition he prepared a small ingot of metallic thallium which he prepared by remelting thallium he had obtained by electrolysis of thallium salts. As both scientists discovered thallium independently and a large part of the work, especially the isolation of the metallic thallium was done by Lamy, Crookes tried to secure his own priority on the work. Lamy was awarded a medal at the International Exhibition in London 1862: For the discovery of a new and abundant source of thallium and after heavy protest Crookes also received a medal: thallium, for the discovery of the new element. The controversy between both scientists continued through 1862 and 1863. Most of the discussion ended after Crookes was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in June 1863. The dominant use of thallium was the use as poison for rodents. After several accidents the use as poison was banned in the United States by Presidential Executive Order 11643 in February 1972. In subsequent years several other countries also banned its use. ## Occurrence and production Although thallium is a modestly abundant element in the Earth's crust, with a concentration estimated to be 0.7 mg/kg, mostly in association with potassium-based minerals in clays, soils, and granites, thallium is not generally economically recoverable from these sources. The major source of thallium for practical purposes is the trace amount that is found in copper, lead, zinc, and other heavy-metal-sulfide ores. Thallium is found in the minerals crookesite TlCu₇Se₄, hutchinsonite TlPbAs₅S₉, and lorándite TlAsS₂. Thallium also occurs as a trace element in iron pyrite, and thallium is extracted as a by-product of roasting this mineral for the production of sulfuric acid. Thallium can also be obtained from the smelting of lead and zinc ores. Manganese nodules found on the ocean floor contain some thallium, but the collection of these nodules has been prohibitively expensive. There is also the potential for damaging the oceanic environment. In addition, several other thallium minerals, containing 16% to 60% thallium, occur in nature as complexes of sulfides or selenides that primarily contain antimony, arsenic, copper, lead, and silver. These minerals are rare, and have had no commercial importance as sources of thallium. The Allchar deposit in southern North Macedonia was the only area where thallium was actively mined. This deposit still contains an estimated 500 tonnes of thallium, and it is a source for several rare thallium minerals, for example lorándite. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimates that the annual worldwide production of thallium is 10 metric tonnes as a by-product from the smelting of copper, zinc, and lead ores. Thallium is either extracted from the dusts from the smelter flues or from residues such as slag that are collected at the end of the smelting process. The raw materials used for thallium production contain large amounts of other materials and therefore a purification is the first step. The thallium is leached either by the use of a base or sulfuric acid from the material. The thallium is precipitated several times from the solution to remove impurities. At the end it is converted to thallium sulfate and the thallium is extracted by electrolysis on platinum or stainless steel plates. The production of thallium decreased by about 33% in the period from 1995 to 2009 – from about 15 metric tonnes to about 10 tonnes. Since there are several small deposits or ores with relatively high thallium content, it would be possible to increase the production if a new application, such as a thallium-containing high-temperature superconductor, becomes practical for widespread use outside of the laboratory. ## Applications ### Historic uses The odorless and tasteless thallium sulfate was once widely used as rat poison and ant killer. Since 1972 this use has been prohibited in the United States due to safety concerns. Many other countries followed this example. Thallium salts were used in the treatment of ringworm, other skin infections and to reduce the night sweating of tuberculosis patients. This use has been limited due to their narrow therapeutic index, and the development of improved medicines for these conditions. ### Optics Thallium(I) bromide and thallium(I) iodide crystals have been used as infrared optical materials, because they are harder than other common infrared optics, and because they have transmission at significantly longer wavelengths. The trade name KRS-5 refers to this material. Thallium(I) oxide has been used to manufacture glasses that have a high index of refraction. Combined with sulfur or selenium and arsenic, thallium has been used in the production of high-density glasses that have low melting points in the range of 125 and 150 Celsius°. These glasses have room-temperature properties that are similar to ordinary glasses and are durable, insoluble in water and have unique refractive indices. ### Electronics Thallium(I) sulfide's electrical conductivity changes with exposure to infrared light, making this compound useful in photoresistors. Thallium selenide has been used in bolometers for infrared detection. Doping selenium semiconductors with thallium improves their performance, thus it is used in trace amounts in selenium rectifiers. Another application of thallium doping is the sodium iodide crystals in gamma radiation detection devices. In these, the sodium iodide crystals are doped with a small amount of thallium to improve their efficiency as scintillation generators. Some of the electrodes in dissolved oxygen analyzers contain thallium. ### High-temperature superconductivity Research activity with thallium is ongoing to develop high-temperature superconducting materials for such applications as magnetic resonance imaging, storage of magnetic energy, magnetic propulsion, and electric power generation and transmission. The research in applications started after the discovery of the first thallium barium calcium copper oxide superconductor in 1988. Thallium cuprate superconductors have been discovered that have transition temperatures above 120 K. Some mercury-doped thallium-cuprate superconductors have transition temperatures above 130 K at ambient pressure, nearly as high as the world-record-holding mercury cuprates. ### Nuclear medicine Before the widespread application of technetium-99m in nuclear medicine, the radioactive isotope thallium-201, with a half-life of 73 hours, was the main substance for nuclear cardiography. The nuclide is still used for stress tests for risk stratification in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). This isotope of thallium can be generated using a transportable generator, which is similar to the technetium-99m generator. The generator contains lead-201 (half-life 9.33 hours), which decays by electron capture to thallium-201. The lead-201 can be produced in a cyclotron by the bombardment of thallium with protons or deuterons by the (p,3n) and (d,4n) reactions. #### Thallium stress test A thallium stress test is a form of scintigraphy in which the amount of thallium in tissues correlates with tissue blood supply. Viable cardiac cells have normal Na⁺/K⁺ ion-exchange pumps. The Tl⁺ cation binds the K⁺ pumps and is transported into the cells. Exercise or dipyridamole induces widening (vasodilation) of arteries in the body. This produces coronary steal by areas where arteries are maximally dilated. Areas of infarct or ischemic tissue will remain "cold". Pre- and post-stress thallium may indicate areas that will benefit from myocardial revascularization. Redistribution indicates the existence of coronary steal and the presence of ischemic coronary artery disease. ### Other uses A mercury–thallium alloy, which forms a eutectic at 8.5% thallium, is reported to freeze at −60 °C, some 20 °C below the freezing point of mercury. This alloy is used in thermometers and low-temperature switches. In organic synthesis, thallium(III) salts, as thallium trinitrate or triacetate, are useful reagents for performing different transformations in aromatics, ketones and olefins, among others. Thallium is a constituent of the alloy in the anode plates of magnesium seawater batteries. Soluble thallium salts are added to gold plating baths to increase the speed of plating and to reduce grain size within the gold layer. A saturated solution of equal parts of thallium(I) formate (Tl(HCO₂)) and thallium(I) malonate (Tl(C₃H₃O₄)) in water is known as Clerici solution. It is a mobile, odorless liquid which changes from yellowish to colorless upon reducing the concentration of the thallium salts. With a density of 4.25 g/cm³ at 20 °C, Clerici solution is one of the heaviest aqueous solutions known. It was used in the 20th century for measuring the density of minerals by the flotation method, but its use has discontinued due to the high toxicity and corrosiveness of the solution. Thallium iodide is frequently used as an additive in metal-halide lamps, often together with one or two halides of other metals. It allows optimization of the lamp temperature and color rendering, and shifts the spectral output to the green region, which is useful for underwater lighting. ## Toxicity Thallium and its compounds are extremely toxic, with numerous recorded cases of fatal thallium poisoning. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for thallium exposure in the workplace as 0.1 mg/m² skin exposure over an eight-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) also set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.1 mg/m² skin exposure over an eight-hour workday. At levels of 15 mg/m², thallium is immediately dangerous to life and health. Contact with skin is dangerous, and adequate ventilation is necessary when melting this metal. Thallium(I) compounds have a high aqueous solubility and are readily absorbed through the skin, and care should be taken to avoid this route of exposure, as cutaneous absorption can exceed the absorbed dose received by inhalation at the permissible exposure limit (PEL). Exposure by inhalation cannot safely exceed 0.1 mg/m² in an eight-hour time-weighted average (40-hour work week). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) states, "Thallium is not classifiable as a carcinogen, and it is not suspected to be a carcinogen. It is unknown whether chronic or repeated exposure to thallium increases the risk of reproductive toxicity or developmental toxicity. Chronic high level exposure to thallium through inhalation has been reported to cause nervous system effects, such as numbness of fingers and toes." For a long time thallium compounds were readily available as rat poison. This fact and that it is water-soluble and nearly tasteless led to frequent intoxication caused by accident or criminal intent. One of the main methods of removing thallium (both radioactive and stable) from humans is to use Prussian blue, a material which absorbs thallium. Up to 20 grams per day of Prussian blue is fed by mouth to the patient, and it passes through their digestive system and comes out in their stool. Hemodialysis and hemoperfusion are also used to remove thallium from the blood serum. At later stages of the treatment, additional potassium is used to mobilize thallium from the tissues. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), artificially-made sources of thallium pollution include gaseous emission of cement factories, coal-burning power plants, and metal sewers. The main source of elevated thallium concentrations in water is the leaching of thallium from ore processing operations. ## See also - Myocardial perfusion imaging ## General bibliography

Madonna Live: The Virgin Tour

Madonna Live: The Virgin Tour is the second video album and the first live release by American singer-songwriter Madonna. It was released by Warner Music Video and Sire Records on November 13, 1985 and contains the concert footage from The Virgin Tour, filmed at Cobo Arena in Detroit, Michigan on May 25, 1985. Director Daniel Kleinman, who presided over the shooting of the tour on video, submitted the footage to Warner Bros. Records, who decided to release it as a video album. Madonna wanted to have a proper introduction added before the concert footage and asked director James Foley to shoot one, which portrayed her with her first image makeover, reciting lines related to how she became famous. After its release, Madonna Live: The Virgin Tour received mixed reviews from critics, but went on to become a commercial success, topping the Music Video Sales chart of Billboard and becoming the top selling music video cassette of 1986. The video was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipment of 100,000 copies and in September 1986, it received a "Video Software Dealers Award" for the Most Popular Music Video. The live performances of "Like a Virgin" and "Dress You Up" were released as music videos on MTV to promote the video album. Both videos were nominated for "Best Choreography" at the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards. ## Background Madonna's first concert tour, The Virgin Tour, promoted her first two studio albums, Madonna and Like a Virgin. The tour was a commercial success, with Billboard Boxscore reporting a gross of US \$3.3 million. After the tour was over, Madonna started recording her third studio album, True Blue. Film director Daniel Kleinman, who presided over the shooting of the tour on video, submitted the footage to Warner Bros. Records, who decided to release it as a video album. Madonna Live: The Virgin Tour chronicled The Virgin Tour as shot at Cobo Arena in Detroit, Michigan on May 25, 1985. Madonna, who was busy with True Blue and shooting for the comedy film Shanghai Surprise, was contacted by Kleinman to ask about her approval of the shot footage. She felt that the video "needed a proper introduction. I asked [James] Foley darling to shoot me saying something for adding it before the concert starts." Foley, who directed the music video of her song "Live to Tell", shot an introduction which was added at the beginning of the video. It portrayed Madonna in her first image makeover, with platinum blond curls, and conservative wardrobe. Madonna wanted to include a summation of her biography—which was used at the beginning of The Virgin Tour—to be added with the footage. Hence, with the footage, Madonna's voice was heard, declaring, > "I went to New York. I had a dream. I wanted to be a big star, I didn't know anybody, I wanted to dance, I wanted to sing, I wanted to do all those things, I wanted to make people happy, I wanted to be famous, I wanted everybody to love me. I wanted to be a star. I worked really hard, and my dream came true." This was followed by the concert, beginning with "Dress You Up". The performances of "Angel", "Borderline" and "Burning Up" were removed from the track list of the video, as Kleinman believed that Madonna's performance was not her best in them. While shooting the tour on May 25, during the performance of "Like a Virgin", a fan suddenly came up on the stage and tried to get hold of Madonna, but was swiftly whisked away by security. Kleinman decided to keep the shot, as he felt that it illustrated the fanaticism which had grown around Madonna, and her popularity. The live performances of "Like a Virgin" and "Dress You Up" were released as music video on MTV to promote the video album. Both videos were nominated for "Best Choreography" at the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards. However, Madonna lost the award to Prince and The Revolution with their video "Raspberry Beret." ## Reception ### Critical response The video received mixed reviews from critics. Annie Temple from Philadelphia Daily News said that the release was "not so flattering" and "was a sloppy job". Dennis Hunt from Los Angeles Times said that "the video is sometimes distracting and blurry, wonder what went wrong during recording. The angles are awkward, especially when the audience members are shown touching Madonna's hand. Was it really necessary to show a fan coming unannounced on the stage?" Terry Atkinson from the same paper said, "This follows the typical concert video format of putting you in the best seat in the hall and letting the aura of a superior performer encaptivate your senses." Sylvia Chase from The Wichita Eagle said that "seeing Madonna live in an arena and seeing her up, close and personal in the tour cassette is totally different. The energy, the movements, the provocation—all captures you more." Stephen Holden from The New York Times gave it a positive review, stating "filmed with abrupt, swooping camera movements that accentuate the singer's flouncing, slightly ungainly style of dancing, Madonna Live vividly captures the contradictory elements that have made the performer into a cultural icon in spite of a shrill, limited singing voice. In close-up, Madonna's provocative pouts, wiggles and come-hither glances become a more than half-deliberate burlesque of erotic centerfold photography. Both her post-disco music and defiant strut suggest a child's parody of grown-up posturing." ### Commercial performance The release debuted at 14 on Billboard's Top Music Videocassettes chart, on December 7, 1985 and climbed to number 11, the next week. The video started a slow climb on the chart, and on the issue dated January 18, 1986, it reached the top of the chart, replacing Prince & The Revolution: Live by The Revolution. On May 24, 1986, the video again climbed back in the top ten of the chart, at position two. It was present on the chart for a total of 65 weeks. Madonna Live: The Virgin Tour was the top selling music videocassette for 1986. The video was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipment of 100,000 copies and received a "Video Software Dealers Award" for the Most Popular Music Video, in September 1986. By 1992, the release sold 35,000 copies of laserdiscs in the United States according to The Hollywood Reporter. ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications and sales ## Track listing Notes - "Like a Virgin" contains an excerpt from "Billie Jean." ### Formats It was released on VHS and later on Laserdisc. ## Credits and personnel - Daniel Kleinman – director - James Foley – director (opening sequence) - Simon Fields – producer - Jerry Watson – cinematography - Jan de Bont – cinematography (opening sequence) - Mitchell Sinoway – editor - Kenneth C. Barrows – camera operator - Brad Jeffries – choreographer - Rick Uber – online editor - Limelight Productions – production company - Steve Carlton - post production sound supervisor Credits adapted from the video's liner notes.

Beat Goes On (Madonna song)

2007 song by Madonna

"Beat Goes On" is a song recorded by American singer-songwriter Madonna for her eleventh studio album, Hard Candy (2008). The song features American rapper Kanye West and background vocals by Pharrell Williams. It was co-written by West in collaboration with its producers, Madonna and The Neptunes. The song was leaked in August 2007, featuring only Williams and different lyrics than the album's version, which was released a year later, having additional vocals by West. "Beat Goes On" is a disco song with hip-hop influences, featuring instrumentation from bells, handclaps and whistles. Lyrically, "Beat Goes On" encourages people to say whatever they like and do whatever they feel. The song received generally favorable reviews from music critics, who commended the disco environment, while also praising Williams' production. However, some felt that the leaked version was better than the final version featuring West. "Beat Goes On" was certified platinum in Brazil for selling over 60,000 digital downloads. It also charted inside the top-twenty in Finland and on the Canadian Hot 100 chart. The song was performed live during the Sticky & Sweet Tour, featuring Madonna and her dancers on a 1935 Auburn Speedster, while Williams and West appeared in the video being displayed on backdrops. ## Background and composition In early 2007, it was reported that Madonna was recording songs with American singer-songwriter Justin Timberlake for her upcoming album. Later, it was also announced that record producers Timbaland and Pharrell Williams were working with her on the album, and Timbaland confirmed that a song titled "Candy Shop" was being produced by Williams. A month later, a song called "The Beat Goes On", featuring Madonna's vocals and production by Williams, leaked online. The song started with Madonna saying, "Let's do something different, let's change things up," followed by DFA handclaps and cowbells, Bee Gees-like falsettos on the chorus and "Williams background interjections sprinkled throughout the track," as noted by Maura Johnson from Idolator. During the pre-chorus Madonna sings the line, "Always a bridesmaid, never the bride", followed by "I'll throw you some rope, if it'll give you hope." In December 2007, it was announced that a new version of the song was being developed with American rapper Kanye West as featured guest. "Beat Goes On" was re-recorded in October 2007 by Spike Spent, Andrew Coleman and Alex Dromgoole at Sarm Studios, London, and at the Record Plant Studios, California. Spent and Coleman also mixed the track at the Record Plant. Williams' production team, The Neptunes, produced the track, with Madonna. The song was written by Madonna and Williams, with rap vocals by West, and the title is a reference to The Whispers' disco track "And the Beat Goes On" (1980). "Beat Goes On" is a disco song, with funk and hip-hop influences, drum beat and bell chimes, as well as Williams' shimmering, thumping production, which according to Bradley Stern from Idolator, "offers Madonna the perfect groove to wax bombastic about the cathartic pleasures of dancing." Lyrically, "Beat Goes On" is a song about the freedom to dance, where people are urged to say whatever they like and do whatever they feel. ## Reception "Beat Goes On" received generally mixed to positive reviews from music critics. Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone felt that the usage of bells and whistles as instrumentation, along with the disco sounds made the track connect to two of Madonna's inspirations, that of Chic, and Donna Summer. Ganz went on to criticize West's appearance, calling it "uninspired". In a similar review, Thomas Hauner of PopMatters wrote that the song "continues the Donna Summer touch, this time opting for 'beep beep' vocals on a surprisingly sweet track." Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine praised the song's "flattering sonic facelift", feeling that it "transports [the track] from 2001 to 1979". Talia Soghomolian of musicOMH praised "the variations in its tempo", making it "the perfect dance floor tune, merging old school and modern takes on urbanity." Stern wrote a positive review for Idolator that "by the time West shows up unexpectedly for his rap at the end, you have no choice but to heed his call to get down, beep beep, and get up outta your seat." Miles Marshall Lewis of The Village Voice was not favourable to West's verses, calling them as "playfully tepid lines", while a reviewer from Blender panned his contributions. Jaime Gill of Yahoo! Music echoed the same thought, calling West's rap as "awful" and his addition to the track as redundant. Joan Anderman of The Boston Globe was mixed in his review of the song, praising Madonna's endeavors in "Beat Goes On" while questioning West's appearance in it. Conversely, Tony Robert Whyte of Drowned in Sound called him "a decent guest". Allan Raible of ABC News summarized the track as a "standard disco number". He complimented Madonna's vocals but added that the song felt rejuvenated with the addition of West's vocals. "Beat Goes On" was certified platinum by the Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos, for exceeding 60,000 digital downloads. In Finland, the song debuted and peaked at number 15 in August 2009. In Canada, the song also made its debut, peaking at number 82 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart. In the US, the song made an entry on the Billboard Pop 100 (now discontinued) chart for a week, at number 97. ## Live performance "Beat Goes On" was performed during the Sticky & Sweet Tour (2008–09) as the second song of the opening segment, "Pimp". After descending the throne during the first song, "Candy Shop", Madonna and her dancers are featured on a 1935 Auburn Speedster to the performance of the song. Both Williams and West appeared in the videos being displayed on the backdrops. Sarah Liss of CBC News called the performance "pulsating," noting that "her studio collaborators—Pharrell Williams and Kanye West—present in spirit and countenance (their virtual likenesses grimaced from those massive screens) if not in body." Michael Roffman of Consequence of Sound praised the performance, writing that "by the second song, 'Beat Goes On', it was clear that this was going to be one hell of an innovative show." Roffman also pointed out that "a digital Kanye West joined Madonna on stage, rapping along as the singer flipped and bounced on the floor." During a Chicago concert, Paul Schrodt of Slant Magazine wrote that "a song about the freedom to dance ("Beat Goes On") becomes an anthem for political frustration, and it's the only moment that's generated any real controversy, but she doesn't say anything about either the Republican or the Democratic candidate that she hasn't said before. The power of any great Madonna song is implicit: 'Say what you like/Do what you feel/You know exactly who you are'." The live performance of the song at River Plate Stadium of Buenos Aires, Argentina, was recorded and released on the live CD-DVD album, Sticky & Sweet Tour (2010). ## Personnel Credits and personnel adapted from Hard Candy album liner notes. - Madonna – songwriter, lead vocals, producer - Pharrell Williams – songwriter, background vocals, producer - Kanye West – songwriter, featured vocals - Chad Hugo – producer - Spike Spent – mixing, recording - Andrew Coleman – mixing, recording - Alex Dromgoole – recording ## Charts and certifications ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### Certifications

Amelia (novel)

Novel by Henry Fielding

Amelia is a sentimental novel written by Henry Fielding and published in December 1751. It was the fourth and final novel written by Fielding, and it was printed in only one edition while the author was alive, although 5,000 copies were published of the first edition. Amelia follows the life of Amelia and Captain William Booth after they are married. It contains many allusions to classical literature and focuses on the theme of marriage and feminine intelligence, but Fielding's stance on gender issues cannot be determined because of the lack of authorial commentary discussing the matter. Although the novel received praise from many writers and critics, it received more criticism from Fielding's competition, possibly resulting from the "paper war" in which the author was involved. ## Background Fielding began writing Amelia in the autumn of 1749. He turned to his own life for inspiration, and the main character, Amelia, was possibly modelled on Fielding's first wife, Charlotte, who died in November 1744. Likewise, the hero, Captain Booth, was partly modelled after Fielding himself, as well as on the author's father, General Edmund Fielding, famous for his careless management of his family's money. It has recently been argued that, on account of his name and the dramatic nature of the character itself, Billy Booth also owes a debt to Barton Booth, a famous tragic actor of the early eighteenth century. "Amelia" was advertised on 2 December 1751 by the publisher, Andrew Millar, in The General Advertiser. In it, Millar claimed that "to satisfy the earnest Demand of the Publick, this Work is now printing at four Presses; but the Proprietor not-withstanding finds it impossible to get them bound in Time without spoiling the Beauty of the Impression, and therefore will sell them sew'd at Half a Guinea a Sett." Millar ordered William Strahan to print the work on two of his printing presses to produce a total of 5,000 copies for the first run of the work (in comparison, only 3,500 copies of The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling were printed for the first and second edition). This amount proved to be enough for Millar to sell, although he had to back down from a second printing of 3,000 copies immediately after the first edition to ensure that the originals were completely sold. The work had two German translations published in 1752, a Dutch translation in 1756, and a French edition in 1762. It finally went into a second edition in 1762. However, this edition was posthumous and in Millar's Works of Henry Fielding. In the prefatory essay, the Works editor, Arthur Murphy, claimed that "Amelia, in this edition, is printed from a copy corrected by the author's own hand. The exceptionable passages, which inadvertency had thrown out, are here retrenched; and the work, upon the whole, will be found nearer perfection than it was in its original state." Although most critics agree that Murphy was telling the truth, it is possible that only some of the alterations were completed by Fielding and that other alterations were by Murphy or another editor employed by Murphy. ## Plot summary Amelia is a domestic novel taking place largely in London during 1733. It describes the hardships suffered by a young couple newly married. Against her mother's wishes, Amelia marries Captain William Booth, a dashing young army officer. The couple run away to London. In Book II, William is unjustly imprisoned in Newgate, and is subsequently seduced by Miss Matthews. During this time, it is revealed that Amelia was in a carriage accident and that her nose was ruined. Although this brings about jokes at Amelia's expense, Booth refuses to regard her as anything but beautiful. Amelia, by contrast, resists the attentions paid to her by several men in William's absence and stays faithful to him. She forgives his transgression, but William soon draws them into trouble again as he accrues gambling debts trying to lift the couple out of poverty. He soon finds himself in debtors' prison. Amelia then discovers that she is her mother's heiress and, the debt being settled, William is released and the couple retires to the country. The second edition contains many changes to the text. A whole chapter on a dispute between doctors was completely removed, along with various sections of dialogue and praise of the Glastonbury Waters. The edition also contains many new passages, such as an addition of a scene in which a doctor repairs Amelia's nose and Booth remarking on the surgery (in Book II, Chapter 1, where Booth is talking to Miss Matthews). ## Themes ### Virgilian There are strong Virgilian overtones in Amelia. Fielding claimed, in his 28 January The Covent Garden Journal, that there were connections of the work to both Homer and Virgil, but that the "learned Reader will see that the latter was the noble model, which I made use of on this Occasion." The parallels are between more than the plot, and the novel follows a "twelve-book structure" that matches the Aeneid. Even the characters have Virgilian counterparts, with Booth being comparable to Aeneas and Miss Mathews Fielding's version of Dido. Fielding does not shy away from such comparisons, but embraces them with his use of the line "Furens quid Foemina possit" (translated as "what a woman can do in frenzy"), in Book IV, Chapter Five; this line is directly taken from the Aeneid. Likewise, Fielding's bailiff misstates Virgil's "dolus an virtus, quis in hoste requirat" (translated as "whether deceit or valour, who would ask in the enemy") when he says "Bolus and Virtus, quis in a Hostess equirit" in Book VIII, Chapter One. However, these are not the only quotes, and Fielding cites many passages of Latin and Greek while not providing direct translations for them. To these Virgilian parallels, Samuel Richardson claimed that Fielding "must mean Cotton's Virgil Travestied; where the women are drabs, and the men scoundrels." ### Feminine intelligence Although the novel deals with marriage and life after marriage, it also gives three "histories": the history of Miss Mathews, Mrs Bennet, and Mrs Atkinson. It is the third story, that of Mrs Atkinson, which demonstrates feminine intellect. According to her story, she received her understanding of the classics from her father. To demonstrate her knowledge, she quotes from the Aeneid, an action that Fielding describes, in Book VI, Chapter 8, as her performing "with so strong an Emphasis, that she almost frightened Amelia out of her Wits." However, Fielding follows that by claiming she spoke on "that great Absurdity, (for so she termed it,) of excluding Women from Learning; for which they were equally qualified with the Men, and in which so many had made so notable a Proficiency" and this idea was not accepted by either Amelia or Mrs. Booth. Unlike the two women, Dr Harrison criticises Mrs Atkinson and declares, in Book X, Chapter One, that women are "incapable of Learning." A dispute forms between the various characters on the issue, and Sergeant Atkinson, Mrs Atkinson's husband, tries to stop the fight. Although his words provoke a harsh reaction from his wife, they soon come to accept each other's intellectual capabilities. However, Mrs Atkinson's status as a woman educated in the classics and as an advocate for other women to be educated, could have provoked deeper tension between herself and her husband. Her feminine intellect was described by Jill Campbell as a "threatening" force which her husband once reacted violently against, even though his violence was contained to him acting on it only in a dream-like state. The actual nature of the plot lacks a certainty that would allow an overall stance on women's issues to be determined, and it is not even certain as to where Fielding stood on the issue. His lack of authorial comments seems to reinforce a possible "anxieties about gender confusion" in the plot, and the characters' sexual identities are blurred; the dispute between Mrs Atkinson and Dr Harrison continues until the very end of the novel. Fielding did not comment on the gender roles, but Richardson's friend, Anne Donnellan, did, and she asked, "must we suppose that if a woman knows a little Greek and Latin she must be a drunkard, and virago?" ## Critical response John Cleland was one of the first reviewers of the novel, and in the December 1751 Monthly Review, claimed the work as "the boldest stroke that has yet been attempted in this species of writing" and that Fielding "takes up his heroine at the very point at which all his predecessors have dropped their capital personages." However, he also stated that parts of the novel "stand in need of an apology." A review in the London Magazine in the same month claimed that there were too many anachronisms. This piece was also the first to mention Amelia's nose, and on it the writer claims that Fielding "should have taken care to have had Amelia's nose so compleatly cured, and set to rights, after it being beat all to pieces, by the help of some eminent surgeon, that not so much as a scar remained." John Hill soon attacked Amelia in the London Daily Advertiser on 8 January 1752 where he claimed that the book's title character "could charm the World without the Help of a Nose." During this time, personal works, such as Fielding's Amelia, became targets for a "paper war" between various London writers. Fielding was quick to respond, and on 11 January 1752 in a piece published in The Covent-Garden Journal, he ironically stated: "a famous Surgeon, who absolutely cured one Mrs Amelia Booth, of a violent Hurt in her Nose, insomuch, that she had scarce a Scar left on it, intends to bring Actions against several ill-meaning and slanderous People, who have reported that the said Lady had no Nose, merely because the Author of her History, in a Hurry, forgot to inform his Readers of that Particular." However, Hill was not the only one to attack during this time; Bonnell Thornton wrote satires of Amelia in the Drury-Lane Journal. Thornton's satires were first published on 16 January 1752 and included a fake advertisement for a parody novel called "Shamelia", playing off of title of Fielding's parody Shamela. He later parodied the work on 13 February 1752 in a piece called "A New Chapter in Amelia." Tobias Smollett joined in and published the pamphlet Habbakkuk Hilding anonymously on 15 January 1752. Although there was much criticism, there was some support for the work, and an anonymous pamphlet was written to attack "Hill and 'the Town'" and praise the novel. On 25 January 1752, Fielding defended his work again by bringing the novel before the imaginary "Court of Censorial Enquiry", in which the prosecutors are Hill and the other critics and it is they, not Amelia that are truly put on trial. Fielding's rival, Samuel Richardson, declared in February 1752 that the novel "is as dead as if it had been published forty years ago, as to sale." Previously, he attacked the "lowness" of the novel and claimed that "his brawls, his jarrs, his gaols, his spunging-houses, are all drawn from what he has seen and known." However, Richardson also claimed to have never read Amelia but, years later, Sir Walter Scott argued that Amelia was "a continuation of Tom Jones." The second edition of Amelia was criticized for its various changes to the text. Some aspects of the revision, such as removing of Fielding's Universal Register Office, were seen as "damaging" the work, although they were intended to remove anachronisms. In The Bible in Spain (1843) George Borrow, describing his first visit to Lisbon, wrote: "Let travellers devote one entire morning to inspecting the Arcos and the Mai das Agoas, after which they may repair to the English church and cemetery, Pere-la-chaise in miniature, where, if they be of England, they may well be excused if they kiss the cold tomb, as I did, of the author of Amelia, the most singular genius which their island ever produced, whose works it has long been the fashion to abuse in public and to read in secret." In recent years, critics have examined various aspects of the novel that were previous ignored; on the Virgilian images in Amelia, Ronald Paulson claimed that they "elevate the domestic (marriage) plot and to connect it with public issues of a degenerating society and nation." However, those like Peter Sabor do not agree that the themes create "an elevating experience".

Dion Fortune

British occultist and author (1890–1946)

Dion Fortune (born Violet Mary Firth, 6 December 1890 – 6 January 1946) was a British occultist, ceremonial magician, novelist and author. She was a co-founder of the Fraternity of the Inner Light, an occult organisation that promoted philosophies which she claimed had been taught to her by spiritual entities known as the Ascended Masters. A prolific writer, she produced a large number of articles and books on her occult ideas and also authored seven novels, several of which expound occult themes. Fortune was born in Llandudno, Caernarfonshire, North Wales, to a wealthy upper middle-class English family, although little is known of her early life. By her teenage years she was living in England's West Country, where she wrote two books of poetry. After time spent at a horticultural college she began studying psychology and psychoanalysis at the University of London before working as a counsellor in a psychotherapy clinic. During the First World War she joined the Women's Land Army and established a company selling soy milk products. She became interested in esotericism through the teachings of the Theosophical Society, before joining an occult lodge led by Theodore Moriarty and then the Alpha et Omega occult organisation. She came to believe that she was being contacted by the Ascended Masters, including "the Master Jesus", and underwent trance mediumship to channel the Masters' messages. In 1922 Fortune and Charles Loveday claimed that during one of these ceremonies they were contacted by Masters who provided them with a text, The Cosmic Doctrine. Although she became the president of the Christian Mystic Lodge of the Theosophical Society, she believed the society to be uninterested in Christianity, and split from it to form the Community of the Inner Light, a group later renamed the Fraternity of the Inner Light. With Loveday she established bases in both Glastonbury and Bayswater, London, began issuing a magazine, gave public lectures, and promoted the growth of their society. During the Second World War she organised a project of meditations and visualisations designed to protect Britain. She began planning for what she believed was a coming post-war Age of Aquarius, although she died of leukemia shortly after the war's end. Fortune is recognised as one of the most significant occultists and ceremonial magicians of the early 20th century. The Fraternity she founded survived her and in later decades spawned a variety of related groups based upon her teachings. Her novels in particular proved an influence on later occult and modern Pagan groups such as Wicca. ## Biography ### Early life: 1890–1913 Fortune was born Violet Mary Firth on 6 December 1890 at her family home on Bryn-y-Bia Road in Llandudno, North Wales. Her background was upper middle-class; the Firths were a wealthy English family who had gained their money through the steel industry in Sheffield, Yorkshire, where they had specialised in the production of guns. Fortune's paternal grandfather John Firth had devised a family motto, "Deo, non Fortuna" ("God, not Luck"), to mark out their nouveau riche status; she would later make use of it in creating her pseudonym. One of John's sons – and Fortune's uncle – was the historian Charles Harding Firth, while her father, Arthur, had run a Sheffield law firm prior to establishing a hydropathic establishment in Limpley Stoke, Wiltshire. In August 1886 Arthur Firth married Sarah Jane Smith, before they relocated to Llandudno where Arthur established the new Craigside Hydrotherapeutic Establishment. Sarah was keenly interested in Christian Science, and while biographer Gareth Knight suggested that both of Firth's parents were active practitioners of the religion, fellow biographer Alan Richardson argued that there was insufficient evidence to support this idea. Little is known about Fortune's time in Wales, in part because throughout her life she was deliberately elusive when providing biographical details about herself. In later life she reported that from the age of four she had experienced visions of Atlantis, something which she believed were past life memories. The Firths were still in Llandudno in 1900, although by 1904 Fortune was living in Somerset, south-west England. That year, she authored a book of poetry, titled Violets, which was likely published by her family. It was reviewed in the May 1905 volume of The Girls' Room, in which it was accompanied by the only known photograph of Fortune as a girl. In 1906, her second book of poetry, More Violets, was published. After John Firth's death, Arthur moved with his family to London. According to Richardson they lived in the area around Liverpool Street in the east of the city, although Knight gives a different account, stating that they lived first in Bedford Park and then Kensington, both in the west of the city. From January 1911 to December 1912 Fortune studied at Studley Agricultural College in Warwickshire, a horticultural institution which advertised itself as being ideal for girls with psychological problems. Her proficiency with poultry led her to become a staff member at the college from January to April 1913. She later claimed that at the college she was the victim of mental manipulation from her employer, the college warden Lillias Hamilton, resulting in a mental breakdown that made her abandon the institution and return to her parental home. ### Psychotherapy and esotericism: 1913–22 To recover from her experience at Studley, Fortune began studying psychotherapy. Her initial interest was in the work of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler, though she later moved on to that of Carl Jung. She studied psychology and psychoanalysis under John Flügel at the University of London, before gaining employment at a psychology clinic in London's Brunswick Square, which was likely run under the jurisdiction of the London School of Medicine for Women. Working as a counsellor from 1914 until 1916, she found that most of those she dealt with were coming to terms with sexual urges that were considered taboo in British society. Through her affiliation with the Society for the Study of Orthopsychics, she gave a series of lectures that were later published in 1922 as The Machinery of the Mind. While working at the clinic, she developed her interest in esotericism by attending lunchtime lectures organised by the Theosophical Society and reading some of the organisation's literature. With her interest in occultism increasing, Fortune became increasingly dissatisfied with the effectiveness of psychotherapy. After the United Kingdom entered the First World War, Fortune joined the Women's Land Army. She was initially stationed on a farm near to Bishop's Stortford on the borders between Essex and Hertfordshire, before later being relocated to an experimental base for the Food Production Department. There she carried out experiments in the production of soy milk, subsequently founding the Letchworth-based Garden City Pure Food Company to sell her products and publishing The Soya Bean: An Appeal to Humanitarians in 1925. It was while working at the base that she underwent a spiritual experience and subsequently further immersed herself in Theosophical literature. After doing so, she became preoccupied by the idea of the 'Ascended Masters' or 'Secret Chiefs', claiming to have had visions of two such entities, the Master Jesus and the Master Rakoczi. Her first magical mentor was the Irish occultist and Freemason Theodore Moriarty. She had befriended him while still involved in psychotherapy, believing that he could help one of her patients, a young man who had been fighting on the Western Front and claimed to be plagued by unexplained physical phenomena. Moriarty performed an exorcism, claiming that the young man was the victim of the soul of a deceased East European soldier which had latched onto him as a parasite. Fortune became an acolyte of Moriarty's Masonic-influenced lodge, which was based in Hammersmith, and joined his community of followers living at Gwen Stafford-Allen's home in Bishop's Stortford. Moriarty spent much time talking about the lost city of Atlantis, a topic that would also come to be embraced by Fortune. Fortune later fictionalised Moriarty as the character Dr. Taverner, who appeared in a number of short stories first published in 1922, later assembled in a collected volume as The Secrets of Dr. Taverner in 1926. Like Moriarty, Dr. Taverner was portrayed as carrying out exorcisms to protect humans from the attacks of etheric vampires. In tandem with her studies under Moriarty, in 1919 Fortune had been initiated into the London Temple of the Alpha et Omega, an occult group that had developed from the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Here, her primary teacher was Maiya Curtis-Webb, a longstanding friend of the Firth family. Fortune later claimed that in the period after the First World War, the Order had been "manned mainly by widows and grey-bearded ancients". She was not enamoured with the ceremonial magic system that had been developed by the Golden Dawn, however it did provide her with the grounding in the study of the Hermetic Qabalah which would exert a great influence over her esoteric world-view. It was also through her involvement in the group that she embraced her family's "Deo, non Fortuna" as her personal magical motto. In January and March 1921 Fortune and Curtis-Webb embarked on a series of experiments in trance mediumship. This culminated in an act of trance mediumship that Fortune conducted in the Somerset town of Glastonbury with her mother and Frederick Bligh Bond. She claimed that in doing so, she had contacted spirit-entities known as "the Watchers of Avalon" who informed her that Glastonbury had once been the site of an ancient druidic college. Bond subsequently commissioned Fortune to write an article, "Psychology and Occultism", which was published in the transactions of the College of Psychic Science in 1922. ### Glastonbury and The Cosmic Doctrine: 1922–26 In September 1922, Fortune returned to Glastonbury to visit her friend Charles Loveday. Along with an anonymous woman known only as "E. P.", the pair carried out acts of trance mediumship, claiming that in doing so they entered into psychic contact with the Ascended Masters; Fortune later identified these as Socrates, Thomas Erskine, and a young military officer named David Carstairs who had died at the Battle of Ypres. Fortune and Loveday characterised their method of communication as "inspirational mediumship", believing that in this process the Masters communicated through the medium's subconscious mind; they contrasted this with "automatic mediumship", which they believed involved the medium becoming completely dissociated from their own body. It was in this manner that Fortune and Loveday claimed that they received a text, The Cosmic Doctrine, which was dictated to them in segments by the Masters between July 1923 and February 1925. These communications discussed the existence of seven planes of the universe, and were very similar to the ideas promoted in Moriarty's writings, in particular his Aphorism of Creation and Cosmic Principles. The cosmology present in this book was also similar to that presented in Theosophy. In the following years, Fortune distributed this material among her senior students, before publishing an edited version of The Cosmic Doctrine in 1949. In August 1923 Moriarty died, and Fortune—who had never been particularly popular among his followers—tried to convince them that she should be their new leader. A few accepted her offer, but many others instead accepted the leadership of Stafford-Allen. Meanwhile, Fortune's parents relocated to the garden city of Letchworth, Hertfordshire in 1922, and it was here that Fortune carried out what she deemed to be additional communications with the Masters through trance mediumship between 1923 and 1925. On 20 August 1924, Fortune, Loveday, and others established themselves as a formal occult group. Fortune appointed herself as the group's "Adeptus", while five acolytes also joined. Loveday—who had inherited a number of properties from his father—sold some of them to fund the group's acquisitions. That year, they purchased a house on Queensborough Terrace in Bayswater, Central London to use as a temple and headquarters, renting out some of the rooms to tenants to finance their operation. While the top floors were used as living quarters, the middle floor contained the temple space, and the lower floors held an office and private library. The group soon grew; it admitted four initiates in 1925, six in 1926, and ten in 1927. In November 1926, a second degree was established into which these initiates could progress. In 1924, the group also obtained an old orchard at the foot of Glastonbury Tor, there erecting a hut and eventually a veranda and series of chalets. At Whitsun 1926, Fortune and several other members of her group were on Glastonbury Tor when they underwent a spiritual experience that produced a feeling of ecstasy among them. They later came to believe that this experience was a result of a messenger from the Elemental Kingdoms, and it greatly influenced their developing beliefs. Fortune's activities—including her leadership of the new group and a series of articles that she wrote for The Occult Review—raised concerns for Alpha et Omega leader Moina Mathers. After Fortune suggested that her own organisation could serve as a feeder group to Mathers's Alpha et Omega, Mathers expelled her from the order, claiming that this was necessitated by Fortune having the wrong signs in her aura. Fortune later claimed that she subsequently came under psychic attack from Mathers, during which she was confronted and assaulted by both real and etheric cats. ### The Theosophical Society and the Community of the Inner Light: 1927–30 Later claiming that she was acting under instruction from the Ascended Masters, Fortune and Loveday joined the Christian Mystic Lodge of the Theosophical Society, which was run by Daisy M. Grove. Fortune soon became its president, and under her leadership the group's membership expanded and the readership of its published Transactions also grew. Throughout this period, she foregrounded the need for a Christian perspective within the Theosophical movement, emphasising the centrality and importance of the 'Master Jesus' in her various articles. She publicly criticised another Theosophical group, the Liberal Catholic Church founded by J. I. Wedgwood and Charles Webster Leadbeater, alleging that it was not concerned with the Master Jesus and was instead preoccupied with the Master Maitreya. One of the prominent figures in the Church, Bishop Piggott, accused her of attributing false claims to him in The Occult Review. Amid these arguments with other sectors of the Theosophical movement, she resigned from the Theosophical Society in October. Her Christian Mystic Lodge abandoned its affiliation with the Society and renamed itself the Community of the Inner Light. Within this Community was established a group called the Guild of the Master Jesus, which held regular church services on Sundays at their Queensborough Terrace base from 1928 until 1939; in 1936 this group renamed itself the Church of the Graal. Fortune directed many seekers who lacked the self-discipline for ceremonial magical activity to the Guild, whose members were known by one senior Community member as the "teeny-weenies". When Jiddu Krishnamurti abandoned Theosophy, causing problems for the Theosophical movement, Fortune endorsed the 'Back to Blavatsky' faction, attacking Leadbeater in print by accusing him of being a practitioner of black magic. She then involved herself with Bomanji Wadia and his United Lodge of Theosophists, through which she claimed to have contacted the Himalayan Masters. She nevertheless was cautious about these Himalayan adepts, relating that although she felt that they were "not evil", she thought them "alien and unsympathetic" and "hostile to my race". Unhappy with the concept of promoting Indian religious beliefs in Britain, she left the group. Subsequently, she claimed that Wadia had begun to psychically attack her. In April 1927, Fortune married Tom Penry Evans—a Welsh medical doctor from a working-class background—at Paddington Registry Office, before the couple embarked on a honeymoon in Glastonbury. Their marriage was initially happy, although Evans may have been perturbed at having to immerse himself in occultism to a greater extent than he had planned. He was present throughout a program of trance mediumship in which Fortune claimed to be channelling the messages of a "Master of Medicine". Beginning in August 1927, the channelled messages focused around issues of alternative medicine and diagnostics and were later assembled as The Principles of Esoteric Medicine, which was privately circulated among Fortune's senior students. Some members of Fortune's group believed that the "Master of Medicine" was actually Paracelsus, although a later channelled message claimed that this Master's earthly identity had been Ignaz Semmelweis. In 1927 Fortune published her first occult novel, The Demon Lover, which received a brief but positive review in The Times Literary Supplement. The following year she published The Problem of Purity, her final book to appear under the name of "Violet Firth". In 1928 she published a textbook on her esoteric beliefs, The Esoteric Orders and their Work, which she followed with a companion work in 1930, The Training and Work of an Initiate. In 1930 this was followed by Psychic Self-Defense, which contained many autobiographical elements and which was probably her most commercially popular book. According to the historian Claire Fanger, this book was "part anecdotal evidence, part do-it-yourself exorcism manual, part autobiography, and some part no doubt fiction." Fortune and her group focused on 'Outer Court' work, which entailed engaging in publicity to boost membership. They held regular lectures at their Bayswater premises, with Fortune herself lecturing there twice a week for much of 1928. At their Glastonbury property, which they called the Chalice Orchard, they established a guest house and a social centre which was open in the summer, and where lectures were also carried out. In October 1927 they began production of a magazine, The Inner Light, with the initial print-run of 500 selling out in a fortnight. The magazine gained a wide readership, with many subscribers located outside of Britain. Within the group they formulated a three degree system, through which the initiate could progress as they gained a better knowledge and understanding of the group, its teachings, and its rituals. Progress through these degrees could be fairly rapid, with the only requirement being that an individual remain in one degree for at least three months before entering the next. Training in these three degrees was referred to as the 'Lesser Mysteries', allowing a practitioner to ascend into the 'Greater Mysteries'. The membership that they attracted was largely female, with 21 women to only 5 men being members in this period. All members, whether male or female, were initially referred to as "Brother", although this system later gave way to the term "Server Brother". At Midwinter 1928, they ritually established the Fraternity of the Inner Light—a sector of the group concerned with the 'Lesser Mysteries' that they could present to their membership—with Fortune, Evans, and Loveday as its principal officers. ### Declining activity: 1930–38 At the vernal equinox of 1930, Fortune declared that—with the 'Lesser Mysteries' and three degree system now properly established—she wanted to turn away from public work and focus on personal spiritual development. At the vernal equinox of 1931, Fortune stepped down as leader of the Fraternity, with Loveday being appointed Magus of the Lodge in her place. During the 1930s, Fortune's emphasis moved away from mediumship and towards ritual, while at the same time other Fraternity members embraced mediumship in order to channel the messages of the Masters. In late 1931, Fortune began mooting the idea of the construction of a permanent base, or Sanctuary, at the Chalice Orchard, and despite the economic obstacles of the Great Depression was able to raise sufficient funds. The group experienced a growth in the numbers attending its lectures, subscribing to its correspondence course, and using their private library; conversely, their Sunday services were not very popular, with a move from the morning to the evening seeing no effect. One significant individual who joined the Fraternity was Christine Campbell Thomson, who had been Fortune's literary agent since 1926. Fortune subsequently aided Thomson in separating from her abusive husband, after which she grew close to another Fraternity member, Colonel C. R. F. Seymour, in 1937. Although Seymour became a senior member of the Fraternity, relations between him and Fortune were strained, and during the Second World War he left London and settled in Liverpool, terminating his involvement with Fortune's Bayswater temple. By 1933, tensions in Fortune's marriage were tearing it apart. There were rumours that Evans was having extra-marital affairs with other women, while Fortune confided in female members of the Fraternity that she had married him for magical reasons rather than because she loved him. Evans eventually asked for a divorce in order to marry another woman; Fortune was appalled, but did not contest it. Fortune had begun renting The Belfry, a converted Presbyterian chapel in West Halkin Street, where she then took up residence. It was here, during the latter 1930s, that she produced a number of rituals, among them the Rite of Isis and the Rite of Pan. As these and other aspects of her work testify, during the latter half of the decade Fortune had moved in what Richardson described as "an increasingly pagan orientation". Fortune published many articles in Inner Light magazine, a number of which were collected together and published in books. In 1930, the first such collection was published as Mystical Meditations upon the Collects, in which Fortune emphasised her Christian commitments. In 1931 a number of her Inner Light articles on Spiritualism appeared as Spiritualism in the Light of Occult Science. In this book Fortune expressed reservations about Spiritualism. She drew a distinction between normal Spiritualist mediums and 'cosmic mediums' such as herself who contacted the Ascended Masters, also arguing that the spirits of the dead should not be contacted without good reason, a view that generated controversy among the occult milieu. In 1934, she assembled a number of her Inner Light articles on Glastonbury as Avalon of the Heart, while further Inner Light articles were assembled as Practical Occultism in Daily Life, a book aimed at a general reader. A number of Fortune's articles from The Occult Review were also collected to produce the book Sane Occultism. Over four years, Fortune also published a number of articles in Inner Light that discussed the Hermetic Qabalah. These articles were then assembled as the book The Mystical Qabalah, which is widely perceived as a milestone in her esoteric career. While lambasting most of Fortune's works as "rather vulgar pot-boiling journalism", the writer Francis X. King characterised The Mystical Qabalah as "undoubtedly a classic of the Western Tradition". The work constituted a theoretical discussion based in the Golden Dawn system of correspondences to the Qabalic Tree of Life which she had obtained through her membership of the Alpha et Omega group. However, it was also rooted in her own personal experiences and visions; while meditating, she believed that she had visited the various Sephiroth of the Qabalic tree. In 1935 she published her second occult novel, The Winged Bull—which was again reviewed in The Times Literary Review—and in 1936 her third, The Goat-Foot God. In 1938 Fortune wrote a fourth occult novel, The Sea Priestess, which was eventually self-published through the Fraternity after being declined by Williams and Norgate, who had published the previous two. Her final novel, Moon Magic, was apparently left unfinished prior to the outbreak of the Second World War; a protégé later completed it, claiming to have done so through channeling Blavatsky's disembodied spirit, and it was published posthumously. Fortune corresponded with a number of prominent occultists in this period. One of these was Israel Regardie, whose book The Tree of Life was regarded by Fortune as "quite the best book on magic" that she had read. Regardie later publicly criticised her for misrepresenting his works in her reviews of them; she had claimed that his works bolstered her beliefs about the Masters, although Regardie insisted that he was sceptical about the existence of such entities. Fortune also corresponded with Olga Fröbe-Kapteyn, the Dutch esotericist who founded Eranos in Switzerland. She also renewed her interest in Jungian psychology, which was then growing in influence among the esoteric milieu, and was influenced by her reading of Friedrich Nietzsche's The Birth of Tragedy. ### Later life: 1939–46 The outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 saw some of the Fraternity's members enlist in the armed forces, putting a stop to many of the group's activities. From October 1939 through to October 1942, Fortune organised group meditations every Sunday with the intent of focusing Fraternity members towards the cause of peace. In February 1940, she undertook a visualisation in which she imagined angelic forces patrolling Britain's coast, believing that in doing so she was helping to make these forces a reality. She urged Fraternity members to repeat a mantra every time the German Luftwaffe began bombing Britain, through which she hoped to call upon "Invisible Helpers" from the "Inner Planes" to aid the people affected. The Fraternity's London headquarters were damaged during the Blitz, although roofing repairs were made and the group were able to move back into the building after a week. In August 1940, the group had to suspend publication of Inner Light as a result of paper shortages in Britain. After the United States entered the conflict in December 1941, Fortune began assembling plans for the post-war period, believing it would mark the dawning of the Age of Aquarius. In the spring of 1942 the Fraternity recommenced the Guild's Sunday services, and in March 1943 Fortune announced a new study course for aspiring members. As part of her plans for the post-war period, Fortune began mooting the idea of bringing together all of Europe's occultists to pool their knowledge. She also began discussing the possibility of uniting occult groups with the Spiritualist movement, writing articles that were more favourable towards Spiritualist mediums than she had previously been and meeting with Charles Richard Cammell, the editor of Light—the magazine of the College of Psychic Studies—who then published a favourable article about her. By at least 1942, Fortune corresponded with the prominent occultist and ceremonial magician Aleister Crowley, praising him as "a genuine adept" despite the many differences between their respective occult philosophies. She later visited him at his home in Hastings, with Crowley's assistant Kenneth Grant noting that the pair got along well. In August 1940, Fortune embarked on a further project of trance mediumship, this time with her Alpha et Omega mentor, Curtis-Webb (now renamed Maiya Tranchall-Hayes), in the hope of contacting the same Masters who they believed had aided the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. In doing so, they believed that they were channelling messages from an entity known as "the Shemesh of the Aquarian Age". These communications were received between April 1941 and February 1942, and together became known as "the Arthurian Formula"; they provided the basis of much of the Fraternity's 'Greater Mystery' work following the war. The claims produced in these channelled meditations presented the Arthurian myths as racial memories that had been passed down from Atlantis, having been brought to Britain by Atlantean settlers after the cataclysm that destroyed their island. It also set forward a threefold system of training: that of Arthur and his Round Table Fellowship, that of Merlin and the Faery Woman, and that of Guinevere and the Forces of Love. In late 1945, Fortune fell ill, and was unable to give her scheduled address to the Fraternity on that year's winter solstice. She died at Middlesex Hospital of leukaemia in January 1946, at the age of 55. Her body was transferred to Glastonbury, where it was buried in a funeral overseen by the Reverend L. S. Lewis, vicar of St. John's Church. When Loveday died shortly after, he was buried close to her. She bequeathed most of her money to her Society. During Fortune's lifetime, some of the Fraternity members had expressed concerns with regard to the organisation becoming a personality cult revolving around her, and so following her death they did not encourage an interest in her biography. Members of the society have alleged that her successor destroyed most of her diaries, correspondences, and photographs. However, a number of her books would be published posthumously, among them The Cosmic Doctrine, which appeared in 1949, and her novel Moon Magic, published in 1956. ## Novels Fortune completed seven novels during her lifetime. Four were occult and fantasy themed: The Demon Lover, The Winged Bull, The Goat-Foot God, and The Sea Priestess. The literary scholar Susan Johnson Graf categorises these alongside the work of H. Rider Haggard, Algernon Blackwood, Charles Williams, and Arthur Machen. The other three were romantic thrillers published under the pseudonym of "V. M. Steele": The Scarred Wrists, Hunters of Humans, and Beloved of Ishmael. Writing thrillers was one of few activities Fortune took part in unconnected to her magical work, and was something she did not publicise. Knight believed these three novels testified to the idea that "she must really have loved writing for writing's sake". An eighth novel, Moon Magic, was left unfinished but completed by her protégé and published posthumously. Fortune saw her occult novels as an important part of her Fraternity work, initiating readers into the realms of occultism by speaking to their subconscious, even when their conscious mind rejects occult teachings. She thus perceived them as a means of disseminating her teachings to a wider audience. Each was related to one of the Sephirah on the Qabalic Tree of Life: The Winged Bull was associated with Tiphareth, The Goat-Foot God with Malkuth, and The Sea Priestess with Yesod. Fortune's first novel was The Demon Lover, which tells the story of Veronica Mainwaring, a young virgin woman who becomes the secretary to a malevolent magician, Justin Lucas, who seeks to exploit her latent mediumistic powers for his own purposes. Although she falls in love with him, she eventually escapes his entrapments through her devotion to Christianity. Her next work, The Winged Bull, focuses on Ursula Brangwyn, who had been harmed by her involvement in an unscrupulous occult group but meets with Ted Murchison, whom she subsequently marries. The characters in The Winged Bull are based upon real people in Fortune's life; Murchison is based on her husband, for example, and she modeled Brangwyn after herself. The character of Hugo Astley has been interpreted as a "barely veiled fictional portrait" of Aleister Crowley. Richardson felt that The Winged Bull was "in many ways the worst of her books". The scholar Andrew Radford suggested that the novel reflected a "zeal in promoting a socially responsible occultism rooted in orthodox gender roles" and demonstrated her growing concern that occultism was increasingly being associated with what she regarded as an immoral cosmopolitan elite synonymous with Crowley and his activities. The Goat-Foot God revolves around a wealthy widower, Hugh Patson, who teams up with an esoteric bookseller to seek out the ancient Greek god Pan. They achieve this with the aid of a poverty-stricken artist, Mona Wilton, who becomes close to Patson as the novel progresses. Richardson described The Goat-Foot God as "a masterpiece ... the finest occult novel ever written". The Sea Priestess is about Wilfred Maxwell, a man living with his mother and sister who learns to commune with the Moon after an asthma attack. He meets with Le Fay Morgan, a spiritual adept, and together they enter an obsessive (on Wilfred's part) but platonic relationship while establishing a temple to the sea gods. Fortune's novels all follow the same basic theme: a heroine – a priestess and initiatrix who is magically experienced and assertive – who meets a man and saves him from himself. In her later novels this entails the duos reconstructing or revitalising a ritual space and working magical rituals to channel cosmic forces and bring them into balance. In her discussion of Fortune's work, Sonja Sadovsky stated that the "unique element" of Fortune's fiction was "the recurring plotline of esoteric romance told from the priestess's viewpoint", suggesting that her female characters provided a template from which female readers could build upon in their own spiritual practice. Sadovsky further suggested that there were two types of priestess who appeared in Fortune's novels, the "Earth Mother" and the "Moon Mistress". According to Sadovsky, the "Earth Mother" was represented by the character of Mona Wilkins in The Goat-Foot God and that of Molly Coke in The Sea Priestess. She suggested that these characters derived their power from the masculine/feminine polarity and the creative power of sex, and that they also required a male priest in order to initiate them into their spiritual mysteries and to reach their full potential. The second type of priestess, the "Moon Mistress", appeared as Vivien/Lilith le Fay Morgan in The Sea Priestess and then becomes more dominant in Moon Magic. According to Sadovsky, this is a celibate figure who concentrates her creative powers on training priestesses and dealing with occult matters. ## Belief and teachings ### Religion and race Fortune identified her beliefs as being part of what she termed "the Western Mystery Tradition". She adhered to a form of esoteric Christianity, and has been described both as a Christian Qabalist, and as "a devout mystical Christian", albeit "a very unorthodox one". She expressed the opinion that "in any school of Western mysticism the author and finisher of our faith must be Christ Jesus, the Great Initiator of the West", and treated "the Master Jesus" as her personal spiritual guide. She believed that the teachings passed down from the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn served the purpose of recovering "sacred mysteries" or gnosis that had been overlooked by mainstream Christianity. Accordingly, she had no allegiance to any established Christian churches and was often critical of mainstream clergy. Moreover, she rejected a number of traditional Christian doctrines, such as that surrounding Heaven and Hell. There is no evidence that Fortune considered herself to be a "Pagan". However, by the late 1930s, Fortune had developed some interest in the religion of ancient Egypt, but treated it as a preparation for the higher truth of Christianity. In the 1930s her attitude began to change as she became more favourable to pre-Christian religion, likely under the influence of her husband, Seymour, and D. H. Lawrence's The Rainbow, of which she was a fan. By The Winged Bull, she was declaring that pre-Christian gods were just as valid as facets of the divine as the Christian God, and around this time she began to adopt an increasingly critical attitude to Christianity, stating that it had been greatly degraded since its origins and distorted by "those two crusty old bachelors", Paul the Apostle and Augustine of Hippo. In her next novel, The Goat-Foot God, Fortune had fully embraced the idea of a modern Paganism reviving the belief systems of pre-Christian Europe, referring to this as "Vitamin P" and declaring that it was needed to heal the modern world. Around this time she began promoting the claim that "All the gods are one god, and all the goddesses are one goddess". However, during the Second World War her writings became more pronouncedly Christian once again. Fortune believed in the existence of an underlying commonality between the teachings of Western esoteric orders and Asian religious traditions. Nevertheless, she believed that particular spiritual traditions were allotted to specific racial groups, stating that "the Great White Lodge gives to each race the religion suited to its needs". Writing in The Occult Review, Fortune stated: "Do not let it be forgotten that our traditions are racial. What that great initiate Rudolf Steiner did for the German-speaking races someone must do for those who use a Latin-root language and the Anglo-Saxon tongue." She did not agree with allowing spiritual and magical techniques to transmit between different cultures, believing that to do so caused damage; she for instance cautioned against allowing Western esoteric teachings to be practised in India because "the Hindu dies readily from shock". Equally she strongly opposed the adoption of Asian religious techniques into Western esotericism, distancing herself from occultists who did so. In her words, she must "recommend to the white races the traditional Western system, which is admirably adapted to their psychic constitution". She nevertheless perceived value in Westerners studying Asian disciplines like Yoga on a theoretical level, so long as they eschewed any attempt to put these teachings into practice. The religious studies scholar Gordan Djurdjevic highlighted that 21st century readers would likely deem there to be "a strong cultural essentialism and even racial prejudice in her writings", but that ideas regarding the close relationship between "culture, race, and religion" were "a part of everyday discourse" in Britain during her lifetime. ### Magic Fortune was a ceremonial magician. The magical principles on which her Fraternity was based were adopted from the late nineteenth century Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, with other influences coming from Theosophy and Christian Science. The magical ceremonies performed by Fortune's Fraternity were placed into two categories: initiations, in which the candidate was introduced to magical forces, and evocation, in which these forces were manipulated for a given purpose. The Fraternity's rituals at their Bayswater temple were carried out under a dim light, with Fortune claiming that bright light disperses etheric forces. An altar was placed in the centre of a room, with the colours of the altar-cloth and the symbols on the altar varying according to the ceremony being performed. A light was placed on the altar while incense, usually frankincense, was burned. The senior officers sat in a row along the eastern end of the room, while officers—who were believed to be channels for cosmic forces—were positioned at various positions on the floor. The lodge was opened by walking around the room in a circle chanting, with the intent of building a psychic force up as a wall. Next, the cosmic entities would be invoked, with the members believing that these entities would manifest in astral form and interact with the chosen officers. Fortune was particularly concerned with the issue of sex. In her early works she displayed a prudish attitude regarding sexuality, warning her readers about the perceived perils of masturbation, extra-marital sex, same-sex sexual activity, abortion, and free love. The only form of sexual expression that she considered appropriate was that between a heterosexual married couple, and she promoted a form of 'psychic masturbation' to quell any sexual urges that a celibate individual may have. According to Richardson, she was "a prude, at least by today's standards". In her later works she exhibited a more positive attitude toward sexuality, describing the sexual union between a man and woman as the most powerful expression of a "life-force" which flows throughout the universe. She believed that this erotic attraction between men and women could be harnessed for use in magic. She urged her followers to be naked under their robes when carrying out magical rituals, for this would increase the creative sexual tension between the men and women present. Although sex features in her novels, it is never described in graphic detail. Nevertheless, her later occult novels entail depictions of heterosexual sex outside of marriage, suggesting that by this point Fortune no longer believed that sex must be restrained to wedlock. The scholar Andrew Radford noted that Fortune's "reactionary and highly heteronormative" view of "sacralised sexuality" should be seen as part of a wider tradition among esoteric currents, going back to the ideas of Emanuel Swedenborg and Andrew Jackson Davis and also being found in the work of occultists like Paschal Beverly Randolph and Ida Craddock. Fortune was among those who popularised the idea of a division between the left-hand path and right-hand path which had been introduced to Western esotericism by the Theosophist Helena Blavatsky. In doing so Fortune connected her disparaging views on what she considered to be the left hand path to the moral panic surrounding homosexuality in British society. Her works contained commentaries in which she condemned the "homosexual techniques" of malevolent male magicians, and she claimed that the acceptance of homosexuality was the cause of the downfall of the ancient Greek and Roman civilisations. The manner in which she sought to demonise the left hand path has been compared to that found in the work of English novelist Dennis Wheatley. ## Personality and personal life The historian Claire Fanger noted that Fortune exhibited a "dynamic personality and confident leadership". Janine Chapman, an esotericist who researched Fortune's life, stated that "in her prime", Fortune was "a strong, magnetic personality" with "an active, intellectually curious mind" who was also "physically imposing". Chapman noted that while studying at horticultural college, Fortune had earned a reputation for having a "keen sense of humor", being particularly fond of practical jokes. Richardson characterised Fortune as being "honest, and often ruthless with her honesty", adding that she was "an essentially good woman who had strands of darkness within". Chapman noted that she "set an example of super-achievement, self-sacrifice, and personal integrity" and that "sexually, she was modest, faithful, and chaste". In her later years, she earned a nickname among her friends in the Fraternity; "The Fluff". Chapman characterised Fortune's marriage as "rocky", and the marriage produced no children. In later life, there were unsubstantiated rumours that Fortune had sexual relationships with both men and women, and in particular that she had a relationship with Tranchall-Hayes. Fortune did not involve herself or her group in any explicitly political movement or party. The historian Ronald Hutton noted that in her political and social views, Fortune was likely a High Tory, with Richardson noting that politically, she was "somewhat aligned" to the ideas of the Conservative politician Winston Churchill. Graf noted that although Fortune was not involved in the feminist movement and did not associate with feminists, she "thought herself every bit as powerful, capable, independent, and discerning as any man, and she worked to spiritually empower women." When staying at Queensborough, Fortune kept to a vegetarian diet. ## Reception and legacy According to Richardson, Fortune fell into "relative obscurity" after her death, having been overshadowed by her more famous contemporary, Aleister Crowley. The historian of esotericism Dave Evans agreed, stating that Fortune had been "somewhat less" influential than Crowley. Hutton nevertheless considered her to be the "foremost female figure" of early 20th century British occultism, while historian Alex Owen referred to her as "one of the most significant clairvoyants and occultists of the postwar period". Similarly, Knight termed her "one of the leading occultists of her generation", and the anthropologist Tanya Luhrmann referred to her as "one of the most influential twentieth-century magicians". Another esotericism scholar, Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, said Fortune was an "important heir of the Golden Dawn, and she had a significant influence on modern Western esotericism". Religious studies scholar Stephen Sutcliffe described her as having "played a key role in the cult of Glastonbury in the interwar years", while anthropologist Susan Greenwood thought Fortune's emphasis on a masculine/feminine polarity as the basis for magical working was a significant influence on both later ceremonial magic and Wicca. Fortune's Fraternity survived her, and was renamed the Society of the Inner Light in 1946; the change was a legal refinement to help the group achieve charitable status. It continues to operate into the early 21st century. The Society sold the Chalice Orchard, which was eventually purchased by Geoffrey Ashe, and in 1959 sold their Bayswater headquarters after the socio-economic decline of the area, instead establishing a base in North London. While retaining its basis in Fortune's original teachings, the Society has changed its emphasis according to who has led it over the years. At various points it has been heavily influenced by Alice Bailey's ideas about the Ascended Masters, the ideas of Subud, and the use of Scientology's E-meters. In 1961, the Society adopted a new approach which further emphasised and foregrounded its Christian identity. This generated controversy in the group, with Gareth Knight leaving to form his own lodge based on Fortune's teachings, known as the Gareth Knight Group. In 1973 one of Fortune's students, W. E. Butler, likewise split with the Fraternity to found his own group in Jersey, the Servants of the Light, which would later be taken over by Dolores Ashcroft-Nowicki and remains one of the world's largest esoteric organizations in the early 21st century maintaining about 1000 active students. In 1975, another member of the Society, Alan Adams, departed to start the London Group, which was initially based in outer London but later moved to the East Midlands. By the late 1990s the Society's membership had dropped to a few dozen, and under the control of a new warden it invited Knight to return to the group in order to help promote it. Knight agreed, leaving his own lodge to publish two works by Fortune based on her material in the Society's archive, and authoring a biography of her. The 1990s saw a number of pioneering biographical studies of Fortune, including Alan Richardson's in 1991 and Janine Chapman's in 1993. Richardson's book relied heavily on the recollections of Christine Hartley, while the publication of Fielding and Carr was based upon the authors' interactions with older members of the Society. However, in 2007 Graf noted that Fortune had yet to receive much scholarly attention. In the early 21st century, Evans noted that Fortune's work was "still influential in some magical quarters", highlighting that in his experience she was one of only three female ceremonial magicians—alongside Leah Hirsig and Jaq Hawkins—that modern esotericists could readily name. ### Fortune's literary influence on modern Paganism The religious studies scholar Hugh Urban noted that Fortune was "one of the key links" between early twentieth-century ceremonial magic and the developing Pagan religion of Wicca. Similarly, the Wiccan high priestess Vivianne Crowley characterised Fortune as a "proto-Pagan". The scholar and esotericist Nevill Drury stated that Fortune "in many ways anticipated feminist ideas in contemporary Wicca", particularly through her belief that all goddesses were a manifestation of a single Great Goddess. Graf agreed, adding that Fortune's works found "resonance" in the work of the later feminist Wiccan Starhawk, and in particular in the latter's 1979 book, The Spiral Dance. In researching ceremonial magic orders and other esoteric groups active in the London area during the 1980s, Luhrmann found that within them, Fortune's novels were treated as "fictionalized ideals" and that they were recommended to newcomers as the best way to understand magic. The Pagan studies scholar Joanne Pearson added that Fortune's books, and in particular the novels The Sea Priestess and Moon Magic, were owned by many Wiccans and other Pagans. The religious studies scholar Graham Harvey compared The Sea Priestess to the Wiccan Gerald Gardner's 1949 novel High Magic's Aid, stating that while neither were "great literature", they "evoke Paganism better than later more didactic works". Fortune's priestesses were an influence on the characters of Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of Avalon, and her ideas were adopted as the basis for the Aquarian Order of the Restoration, a ceremonial magic group led by Bradley. Her works also influenced Bradley's collaborator and fellow Order member Diana Paxson. As of 2007, Fortune's latter three novels remained in print and had a wide readership. Evans nevertheless believed that her writings were "stuck in their era" in many places; as evidence, he highlighted passages in which Fortune warns her readers that their Indian servants may steal their body waste products for use in the worship of the Hindu goddess Kali. ## See also - Margaret Lumley Brown

John Shurna

American basketball player (born 1990)

John William Shurna (born April 30, 1990) is an American–Lithuanian professional basketball player for Gran Canaria of the Spanish Liga ACB and the EuroCup. He is the 2012 Big Ten scoring champion. He played in the 2012 NBA Summer League with the Atlanta Hawks. He then signed with the New York Knicks, but was waived at the end of the preseason. He played college basketball for the Northwestern Wildcats. He has been a three-time All-Big Ten Conference selection (2010–2nd team; 2011–3rd team coaches/honorable mention media; 2012–1st team) and the Northwestern statistical leader in several categories. He was the 2010 Sporting News Most Improved Player. He holds several Northwestern all-time records, including single-season and career scoring. He was selected as an honorable mention Associated Press 2012 NCAA Men's Basketball All-American. He won the State Farm College 3-Point Championship three-point shooting contest at the 2012 Final Four. In high school, he was the 2008 Illinois High School Association (IHSA) Class 4A Slam Dunk Champion. He was a member of the gold-medal-winning USA Basketball team at the 2009 FIBA Under-19 World Championship. ## High school career Shurna was a 2007 and 2008 Chicago Tribune All-State boys basketball team special mention selection. As a junior, in March 2007, he led Glenbard West High School to the Class AA supersectional for the first time since 1938, but they lost to Lockport Township High School 53–50 despite 27 points by Shurna, according to the Chicago Sun-Times, but only 21 according to the Daily Southtown and Chicago Tribune. He committed to Northwestern University on May 13, 2007, but he did not sign his National Letter of Intent until November 14. As a senior, he was selected to the IHSA 4A all-state second-team by Associated Press and the 3A/4A all-state first-team by Illinois Basketball Coaches Association. In addition, he won the 2008 IHSA 4A slam dunk championship at the state tournament, but finished second to Marland Johnson by a point in a contest of the winners of the four classes. As a senior, he finished 8th in the Illinois Mr. Basketball voting. Following his senior season, he participated in local and regional All-Star contests such as the 34th annual Foundation For Student Athletes city-suburban all-star event. Although ESPN.com ranked Shurna as the 53rd best high school basketball power forward in the national class of 2008, he was not among the ranked players by state or position according to either Rivals.com or Scout.com. ## College career ### Freshman As a true freshman, he started all 31 games for the 2008–09 Northwestern Wildcats. Shurna was a member of Team USA basketball during the 2009 FIBA Under-19 World Championship competition held in Auckland, New Zealand from July 2, 2009 until July 12. He played in all 9 games, starting 2. Despite averaging the fewest minutes (12.2), he was fifth on the team in rebounding with (3.9). The USA team earned the gold medal. ### Sophomore He played forward for the 2009–10 Northwestern Wildcats and led the team in scoring and rebounding. Following the 2009–10 All-Big Ten Conference regular season, he was named a second-team All-conference selection by both the coaches and the media. He was twice named Big Ten men's basketball player of the week during the season. He was recognized as an All-District second-team selection by the National Association of Basketball Coaches making him eligible for the State Farm Division I All‐America teams. He finished his sophomore season among the Big Ten leaders in many statistical categories: 3rd in scoring, 7th in rebounding, 10th in free throw percentage, 8th in blocked shots, and 6th in minutes played. He was recognized by Sporting News as the Most Improved Player after raising his scoring average from 7.3 points as a freshman to 18.5 as a sophomore, while improving his rebounding average from 2.6 to 6.4. During the season, he established new Northwestern Wildcats basketball single-season records in both total points (619), surpassing Evan Eschmeyer, and field goals made (217), surpassing Dale Kelly. In so doing, he helped Northwestern establish a new school record for single-season wins with 20. ### Junior As a junior, he was a preseason top 50 candidate for both the John R. Wooden Award and the Naismith College Player of the Year. In the first game of his junior season, Shurna tied his career-high with 31 points on his way to Big Ten Player of the Week honors. On December 20, in week 6 of the season, Shurna repeated as conference player of the week. Following the 2010–11 Big Ten Conference men's basketball season, he was a third team All-Big Ten selection by the coaches and an honorable mention by the media. Sports Illustrated named him as one of the ten best players in the Big Ten Conference. Shurna submitted the paperwork to declare for the 2011 NBA draft following the season, though he did not hire an agent. He withdrew his name prior to the May 8 deadline and chose to return for his senior year. He was one of 20 players who tried out to represent USA Basketball at the 2011 Summer Universiade, but did not make the team. ### Senior As a senior, he repeated as a preseason top 50 watchlist selection for the Wooden Award and the Naismith Award. He was also a Sporting News Preseason All-American (2nd team). When Shurna scored 37 points on November 17 against it heralded a career-high and tied for the most points scored by a Northwestern player during the 12-year Bill Carmody era. On December 18, he scored 32 points as Northwestern defeated . Shurna earned Co-Big Ten Player of the week on February 6 after averaging 26 points, 4 rebounds and 2 steals in wins over Nebraska and Illinois on February 2 and 5, respectively. On February 12, he posted his third 30-point game of the season against Purdue. With three 30-point games as a senior, he brought his career total to six. On February 18 he became Northwestern's all-time leading scorer in a game against Minnesota, passing Billy McKinney's record of 1,900 points. He was selected as a first team All-Big Ten selection by both the coaches and the media. He was selected by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association to its 10-man 2011–12 Men's All-District V (OH, IN, IL, MI, MN, WI) Team. Shurna was a first team selection to the National Association of Basketball Coaches Division I All‐District 7 team on March 14. Shurna finished the season with a 20.0 point per game average, which led the Big Ten Conference. He was named an honorable mention Associated Press All-American. He competed in the 2012 State Farm 3-Point Contest, beating Juan Fernandez 21–20 in the final round by making his final seven shots. Shurna was also selected to participate in the NABC 2012 Reese's Division I All-Star Game at the 2012 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament final four. Shurna had 12 points in the game. ## Professional career After going undrafted in the 2012 NBA draft, Shurna signed a 2012 Las Vegas NBA Summer League contract with the Atlanta Hawks. On September 10, 2012, Shurna signed a 1-year partially guaranteed contract with the New York Knicks. He was waived at the end of the preseason. By the beginning of December 2012, he had made his professional debut with Strasbourg IG of LNB Pro A. Shurna was originally signed as an injury replacement for Nicolas de Jong until the end of 2012, but was signed longer term as it became apparent that de Jong would be out for an extended period. After he played on the Milwaukee Bucks' 2013 NBA Summer League team, Shurna signed a 2-year contract with Joventut Badalona. He signed with the Toronto Raptors for the 2014 NBA Summer League and posted 21 points on 6-for-9 field goal shooting including 5 three point shots in his July 11 debut. In August 2014, he signed a one-year contract with Turkish Basketball League team Darüşşafaka. He played in the 2015 NBA Summer League with the Cleveland Cavaliers. On July 27, 2015, he signed a one-year contract with Valencia Basket of Spain. On November 13, 2016, Shurna signed with Croatian club Cedevita Zagreb for the rest of the season. On July 27, 2017, Shurna signed a one-year deal with MoraBanc Andorra of the Liga ACB. On August 18, 2018, Shurna re-signed a one-year deal with MoraBanc Andorra of the Liga ACB. On July 27, 2019, he signed with Herbalife Gran Canaria. Shurna was re-signed to a two-year contract with the team on June 11, 2021. ## Personal life Shurna was born in Glen Ellyn, Illinois, to Tony and Suzy Shurna. At Northwestern, he was a double major in sociology and learning and organizational change. On July 11, 2014, Shurna acquired Lithuanian citizenship per Lithuanian nationality law.

The Job (The Office)

"The Job" is the third-season finale of the American version of The Office, and the show's 52nd and 53rd episodes overall. In this episode, Michael prepares for his interview for the corporate job and names Dwight as his successor, whose managing methods are unpopular. Jan arrives at the office to see Michael and everyone is shocked when it appears she has undergone breast augmentation. Jim and Karen also interview for the corporate position, and Pam deals with the consequences of her earlier outburst. The episode was written by Paul Lieberstein and Michael Schur, and was directed by Ken Kwapis. It was cut down from an hour and twelve minutes to forty-two minutes, making it the season's second hour-long episode after "A Benihana Christmas". Kwapis carefully shot Jim's reaction shots, as he did not want to reveal Jim's choice of Karen or Pam to the audience. The cast were unaware how the season would end, as multiple endings were shot by the crew. Filming wrapped up in April 2007. The finale first aired in the United States on May 17, 2007 on NBC. An estimated 7.9 million viewers watched the episode; it earned a 3.9/12 ratings share among adults 18–49, making it rank first for the night. Television critics gave positive reviews to the finale, with many finding the ending scene between Jim and Pam satisfying. It won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay – Episodic Comedy and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series. In addition, Jenna Fischer received a nomination for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. ## Synopsis Confident that he will get the corporate job in New York City, Michael Scott (Steve Carell) sells his condo and names Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) his successor as Regional Manager. Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) cheerfully withstands her colleagues' teasing over her speech from "Beach Games", and tells Karen Filippelli (Rashida Jones) that she is not sorry about what she said but regrets putting Karen in an awkward position. Meanwhile, Kevin Malone (Brian Baumgartner) asks Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) whom he finds more attractive between Karen and Pam. Though Jim initially refuses to answer, he becomes intrigued when Kevin starts to compare the two women. He tells Kevin to keep thinking about it in a joking way, but appears to be very interested in the results. Jan Levinson (Melora Hardin) arrives at the office to win Michael back. In a panic, Michael consults the women of the office. Pam tells him not to reconcile with Jan. Michael attempts to reject Jan, but reverses himself immediately when he sees that she has had a breast augmentation. Jim and Karen drive to New York City together and spend the night before their interviews. Karen tells Jim that if either of them gets the job, both should move to New York. She promises to do so, but is met with awkward silence when she asks Jim to reciprocate. Meanwhile, Dwight begins his new regime, assigning Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) the role of his number two (albeit because he is the only one to apply) and asking Pam to be his secret "Assistant to the Regional Manager". Dwight's new motivational style is not popular, and so he and Andy repaint the walls of Dwight's new office black in order to instill intimidation. During his interview at Corporate, Michael learns from CFO David Wallace (Andy Buckley) that he is interviewing for the job currently held by Jan, who will be fired. Michael goes to Jan's office after the interview and quickly bumbles into revealing her impending termination. Jan storms into Wallace's office, interrupting Karen's interview (who stated to David that Michael "would be a disaster" in the new job), and refuses to leave. After Jan is escorted out by security, Michael learns that he will not be getting the position. On the drive home, Jan tells Michael that she will make their relationship her "full-time job”, making Michael visibly uncomfortable. Jim's interview with David goes well until he discovers an encouraging note from Pam along with a yogurt lid medal, reminiscent of the earlier episode "Office Olympics", throwing him off. Jim recalls a conversation with Pam after her confession on the beach. He discreetly admits that he left Scranton because of her rejection and that he feels that he has "never really come back," meaning that he has been actively fighting his feelings for her. Pam tells him that she wishes that he would come back. Just as Pam is telling the cameras that she accepts that she does not think that it would work out between her and Jim, he bursts into the room and asks her out to dinner. Stunned, she agrees, and Jim says, "Alright. Then, it's a date." After Jim exits the room, Pam becomes visibly joyous and forgets what she was talking about. During a phone call, David Wallace offers the job to Ryan Howard (B. J. Novak), who accepts and immediately breaks up with Kelly Kapoor (Mindy Kaling). ## Production "The Job" was written by Paul Lieberstein and Michael Schur. It was directed by Ken Kwapis, who had, around the same time, directed The Office actors John Krasinski, Brian Baumgartner, Mindy Kaling, and Angela Kinsey in the 2007 film License to Wed. Script reading for the episode took place on a beach during the filming of the season's twenty-third episode, "Beach Games". Actress Kate Flannery remarked that "we were so excited that we almost had another hot dog eating contest. Not. It's a great script. Lots of questions answered. Lots. The Office fans have been anxiously awaiting a one-hour episode, and guess what? You got it." The original cut of the episode was an hour and twelve minutes long, and had to be edited down to forty-two minutes of screentime. It was the second Office episode to fill the entire hour timeslot; the first was the third-season episode "A Benihana Christmas". Krasinski received a haircut due to production on another film, Leatherheads (2008), which he thought "ended up working perfectly" for the season finale. Co-creator Greg Daniels had wanted Jim to get a haircut for a while, as he thought it would "change [him] up a little bit." Krasinski thought it was "really smart" to make it seem like Karen's idea. Kwapis was careful with Jim's reaction shots in the episode, as he did not want to "tip anything" to the audience about Jim's choice of Karen or Pam. Kwapis explained, "That to me was actually one of the big challenges of the episode is how to keep you on your toes in terms of not knowing where the story was going." Jim's flashback scene with Pam on the beach was initially intended to be the cold open of the episode before Michael Schur suggested it be moved. Kwapis shot multiple endings, and the cast was unaware how the season would end. Jenna Fischer enjoyed doing her individual scenes with Rainn Wilson because their characters rarely interacted one-on-one. The filming of these scenes took place on the last days of production for the season, and not many people were still on set. The episode finished shooting in April 2007. Two weeks before the finale, actor Oscar Nunez gave brief allusions in an interview with Entertainment Weekly, "There will be some movement. Major things moving. Major shifts that affect the entire office. So there's some good stuff coming up. That's all I can say." ## Reception The episode first aired in the United States on May 17, 2007, several days after NBC announced a fourth season. "The Job" attracted 7.9 million viewers and earned a 3.9/12 ratings share among adults 18 to 49. It ranked first for the night in that demographic, and was NBC's highest among adults and total viewers in its timeslot since the broadcast of "Cocktails". Among total viewers, The Office ranked third in its timeslot (behind a CBS tribute to the retiring Bob Barker and ABC's first season finale of Ugly Betty). The season finale received generally positive reviews from television critics. Entertainment Weekly columnist Abby West wrote that it "was hands down one of the most satisfying hours of television I have ever had the pleasure of watching," explaining that it created "entirely new dynamics" for the fourth season, hit "all major beats," and had "real story progression" and heart. Give Me My Remote writer Kath Skerry declared that the episode was "brilliantly written, acted, and well paced. It was filled with twists and turns that I didn’t see coming. And I know that it sounds cliche, and I know saying it sounds cliche, sounds cliche. Maybe I’m being cliche but I don’t care. I am what I am – a full fledged Office addict who got exactly what she wanted, and in fact needed from the finale." James Poniewozik of Time magazine voiced similar sentiments, believing the finale to be a "good if not great season-ender, and if the conclusion didn't have the holy-crap factor of The Kiss last year, Pam’s closeup reaction to Jim’s return during her interview was–like everything Jenna Fischer does on this show–winning and sweet." Poniewozik disliked how the season left Karen, calling it "an uncharacteristic way to end this love triangle, which was distinguished by the writers’ refusal to make anyone the bad guy." IGN's Travis Fickett rated "The Job" 8.2/10. He believed that the episode "pulled off some rather brilliant turns" with the storylines concerning Jan and Jim, Karen, and Pam; additionally noting that the episode was at its weakest during Dwight's take-over scenes in Scranton since he knew Michael would be returning and that Ryan's selection "makes for some interesting scenarios for next season." AOL TV contributor Jay Black highlighted scenes he found humorous, including Dwight's preferred choice of an assistant and Michael's reaction to Jan's implants. He gave the episode "7 Shrute Bucks out of 7." Various cast members were also lauded for their performances, including Jenna Fischer, John Krasinski, and Melora Hardin. In an article written after the episode's broadcast, actress Kate Flannery observed that "lots of questions" were answered and that it was "like a movie." Referring to the agreed-to date between Jim and Pam, Flannery said, "The point is that the elephant in the room has not only been addressed but asked to dinner. Makes Season 4 seem filled with possibilities – like an empty glass in front of a full bar." In an article written around the time of actor Steve Carell's last performance on The Office in 2011, IGN's Cindy White listed Michael's quote about Jan's "breast enhancement" as among the best of the series. Dan Philipps, another writer for IGN, ranked Jim's date proposal among the best moments for the couple, stating that "after toying with fans' expectations for two whole seasons, the series' writers finally allowed fans to breathe a sigh of relief. For many, the moment was well worth the wait." For their writing of "The Job", Paul Lieberstein and Michael Schur won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay – Episodic Comedy, beating The Office episodes "Local Ad" and "Phyllis' Wedding" as well as episodes of 30 Rock, Flight of the Conchords, and Pushing Daisies. At the 59th Creative Arts Emmy Awards, editors David Rogers and Dean Holland won for Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series. For her work in "The Job", Jenna Fischer received a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, but lost to Jaime Pressly for her performance in My Name is Earl.

Cyclone Alessia

Category 1 Australian region tropical cyclone in 2013

Tropical Cyclone Alessia was the first tropical cyclone to affect the Northern Territory of Australia in November since Cyclone Joan in 1975. The storm was first identified as a tropical low on 20 November 2013 well to the northwest of Australia. Tracking generally west to west-southwest, the small system steadily organized into a tropical cyclone by 22 November. Maintaining a small central dense overcast, Alessia brushed the Kimberley region before making landfall in the Top End region with winds of 65 km/h (40 mph) on 23 and 24 November respectively. Some weakening took place as the system moved over land; however, reorganization occurred as it neared the Gulf of Carpentaria. After moving over water on 26 November, it redeveloped gale-force winds. Alessia reached its peak intensity on 27 November with winds of 85 km/h (53 mph) and a barometric pressure of 991 mbar (hPa; 29.26 inHg) and subsequently made its final landfall near Wollogorang. Weakening ensued once more as the storm traveled over land; though, Alessia's remnants looped eastward back over water before doubling back to the west. The system was last noted moving inland again over the Northern Territory on 1 December. Throughout Alessia's existence, it caused only minimal damage. Several areas experienced gale-force winds, with gusts measured up to 109 km/h (68 mph) on Centre Island. Moderate to heavy rains accompanied the system as well, with a storm maxima of 290.4 mm (11.43 in) also occurring on Centre Island. ## Meteorological history On 20 November 2013, an area of low pressure, accompanied by persistent deep convection, developed over the southern Indian Ocean, roughly 1,465 km (910 mi) north of RAAF Learmonth in Western Australia. At the mid-levels, the circulation appeared more broad in nature, with notable rainbands wrapping into the low. Environmental conditions favored tropical cyclogenesis, with moderate wind shear, high sea surface temperatures, and prominent outflow that extended into the mid-latitude westerlies. By this time, the Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) noted this system as a tropical low just outside their area of responsibility. Owing to increasing organization over the following day, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert for the system late on 21 November. Subsequently, the JTWC began issuing advisories on the system under the identifier Tropical Cyclone 02S on 22 November, estimating it to have attained gale-force winds. Situated along the edge of a near-equatorial ridge, the storm tracked generally east and was forecast to maintain this movement for much of its existence. Later on 21 November, the BOM classified the system as a Category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian cyclone intensity scale and assigned it the name Alessia, at which time it was located 390 km (240 mi) north of Broome. A smaller-than-average cyclone, Alessia featured a core of deep convection but no notable banding features, making Dvorak satellite intensity estimates difficult. The storm, having a maximum diameter of no more than 335 km (208 mi) with gale-force winds covering less than half that distance, maintained a very small central dense overcast as it approached the Kimberley region. Around 0600 UTC on 23 November, the JTWC estimated Alessia to have attained one-minute sustained winds of 85 km/h (53 mph). Throughout 23 November, a slight northerly component took place in the track, with Alessia remaining offshore as it brushed the Kimberley region. However, dry air from over Australia was drawn into the system, causing a dramatic decrease in convection. At this time, Alessia became the first storm since Tropical Cyclone Anika in 2008 to affect Western Australia during November. Later that day, the storm passed over Troughton Island where gale-force winds were measured. Moving over the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf at the southern end of the Timor Sea early on 24 November, a burst in convection over Alessia's center indicated it was maintaining its intensity as a minimal tropical cyclone. Continued reorganization of the cyclone's structure took place as it accelerated east toward the Top End region, with defined banding apparent on satellite imagery and a tight circulation center seen on local radar. Alessia made landfall at 0930 UTC on 24 November near the Daly River mouth, south of Darwin, Northern Territory, before rapidly weakening to a tropical low. Alessia's movement onshore marked the first time since Cyclone Joan in 1975 that a tropical cyclone affected the Northern Territory during November. In light of the system moving overland, the JTWC issues their final advisory on the cyclone. Moving steadily eastward across Top End, Alessia remained weak but its proximity to water allowed significant bursts of convection to develop during this time. Early on 26 November, the former cyclone emerged over the Gulf of Carpentaria near Blue Mud Bay. Once offshore, a break in the upper-level ridge previously steering the storm eastward caused a southward shift in the track, bringing it directly over Groote Eylandt for several hours. Gale-force winds soon redeveloped over the southeastern quadrant of Alessia; however, it was not re-designated as a tropical cyclone until 27 November when the winds extended halfway around the circulation. As Alessia re-intensified over the southwestern Gulf, its movement became more southeasterly, taking the circulation parallel to the coast. With an anticyclone over the Northern Territory providing modest outflow for the cyclone, it continued to intensify; the JTWC also re-initiated advisories on the storm by 0600 UTC on 27 November. Hours later, Alessia reached its peak strength with winds of 85 km/h (53 mph) and a barometric pressure estimated at 991 mbar (hPa; 29.27 inHg). Simultaneously, it moved ashore near Wollogorang, roughly 130 km (81 mi) east of Borroloola. Increasing shear and land interaction caused the low- and mid-level circulations to separate, with the later continuing eastward over water. The storm soon weakened to a tropical low and its movement became erratic. Its remnants persisted for several days in the same general region, executing a clockwise loop before moving back over the Gulf of Carpentaria on 28 November. While environmental conditions favored redevelopment once again and deep convection had formed over the system, its low-level circulation remained poorly organized. Failing to regenerate, Alessia moved eastward before doubling back to the west, passing near the Sir Edward Pellew Group of Islands on 30 November. It was last noted on 1 December over the Top End region. ## Preparations and impact ### Kimberley and Top End On 21 November, a cyclone watch was raised for coastal and nearby inland areas of Western Australia between Wyndham and Beagle Bay. This watch was soon expanded to encompass areas east to the Western Australia–Northern Territory border and west to the Mitchell Plateau. Additionally, areas from Mitchell Plateau to Cockatoo Island were placed under a cyclone warning. The following day, watches extended to Cape Hotham Light in the Northern Territory, including the city of Darwin and the Tiwi Islands. As the cyclone intensified, warnings gradually spread eastward. Warnings reached as far east as Point Stuart prior to Alessia's landfall. All watches and warnings were dropped on 24 November as Alessia moved inland and degraded to a tropical low. Though impact from the storm was expected to be fairly minimal, residents were still advised to stock up on emergency supplies and be prepared. Northern Territory Police Commissioner, John McRoberts, urged residents to heed warnings despite the generally non-threatening nature of the storm, "complacency can often be your worst enemy in these types of events." Many stores across Darwin reported a sharp increase in the sales of bottled water due to the storm. Despite the approaching storm, regional airports, schools, and businesses remained open. Ferry service to the Tiwi Islands, however, was suspended for 24 November. On 23 November, Cyclone Alessia brushed the Kimberley coastline of Western Australia as a low-end Category 1. The strongest winds were measured on Troughton Island at 69 km/h (43 mph) with gusts to 94 km/h (58 mph). The storm's brisk forward motion limited rainfall, however, with only 24.8 mm (0.98 in) falling on the island. Farther west, Kalumburu received 37.8 mm (1.49 in) of rain. Effects across the Top End region were similar to Kimberly, some reports of gale-force winds with generally light to moderate rain, peaking at 126 mm (5.0 in) along the Upper Wickham River. Owing to previously dry conditions, the rains proved mostly beneficial to the region. Flash flooding along the Goomadeer River in Arnhem Land caught at least seven people off-guard, including one infant, as their two vehicles were overcome with water. Six people safely made it out while another was swept downstream. He was rescued two days later by local police. In Darwin, strong winds downed a few trees in the Northern Suburbs and Howard Springs while localised flooding occurred in Palmerston. Additionally, one power line was downed in the city. Local authorities reported no serious traffic accidents in relation to the storm nor injuries. In Milne, a few residents seeking shelter at a local fire station found themselves locked out despite officials advising people to seek shelter if necessary. ### Gulf of Carpentaria Following Alessia's reorganization over the Gulf of Carpentaria early on 27 November, a cyclone warning was raised for areas between Port Roper, Northern Territory to Karumba, Queensland, including Mornington Island. Once the storm moved onshore in the Northern Territory, all watches and warnings were dropped later that same day. On Centre Island, daily rainfall peaked at 162.8 mm (6.41 in) on 27 November, with an additional 127.6 mm (5.02 in) falling over the subsequent three days as Alessia moved erratically in the southwestern Gulf of Carpentaria. Sustained winds of 87 km/h (54 mph) and gusts to 109 km/h (68 mph) affected the island during the storm's passage. The McArthur River zinc mine received 200 mm (7.9 in) of rain on 27 November. Heavy rains extended eastward into Queensland with 164.4 mm (6.47 in) falling on Mornington Island over a five-day period. ## See also - 2013–14 Australian region cyclone season - Cyclone Helen (2008)

Ad hominem

Attacking the person rather than the argument

Ad hominem (Latin for 'to the person'), short for argumentum ad hominem, is a term that refers to several types of arguments, most of which are fallacious. Typically this term refers to a rhetorical strategy where the speaker attacks the character, motive, or some other attribute of the person making an argument rather than attacking the substance of the argument itself. This avoids genuine debate by creating a diversion to some irrelevant but often highly charged issue. The most common form of this fallacy is "A makes a claim x, B asserts that A holds a property that is unwelcome, and hence B concludes that argument x is wrong". The valid types of ad hominem arguments are generally only encountered in specialized philosophical usage. These typically refer to the dialectical strategy of using the target's own beliefs and arguments against them, while not agreeing with the validity of those beliefs and arguments. Ad hominem arguments were first studied in ancient Greece; John Locke revived the examination of ad hominem arguments in the 17th century. Many contemporary politicians routinely use ad hominem attacks, which can be encapsulated to a derogatory nickname for a political opponent. ## History The various types of ad hominem arguments have been known in the West since at least the ancient Greeks. Aristotle, in his work Sophistical Refutations, detailed the fallaciousness of putting the questioner but not the argument under scrutiny. His description was somewhat different from the modern understanding, referring to a class of sophistry that applies an ambiguously worded question about people to a specific person. The proper refutation, he wrote, is not to debate the attributes of the person (solutio ad hominem) but to address the original ambiguity. Many examples of ancient non-fallacious ad hominem arguments are preserved in the works of the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus. In these arguments, the concepts and assumptions of the opponents are used as part of a dialectical strategy against them to demonstrate the unsoundness of their own arguments and assumptions. In this way, the arguments are to the person (ad hominem), but without attacking the properties of the individuals making the arguments. This kind of argument is also known as "argument from commitment". Italian polymath Galileo Galilei and British philosopher John Locke also examined the argument from commitment, a form of the ad hominem argument, meaning examining an argument on the basis of whether it stands true to the principles of the person carrying the argument. In the mid-19th century, the modern understanding of the term ad hominem started to take shape, with the broad definition given by English logician Richard Whately. According to Whately, ad hominem arguments were "addressed to the peculiar circumstances, character, avowed opinions, or past conduct of the individual". Over time, the term acquired a different meaning; by the beginning of the 20th century, it was linked to a logical fallacy, in which a debater, instead of disproving an argument, attacked their opponent. This approach was also popularized in philosophical textbooks of the mid-20th century, and it was challenged by Australian philosopher Charles Leonard Hamblin in the second half of the 20th century. In a detailed work, he suggested that the inclusion of a statement against a person in an argument does not necessarily make it a fallacious argument since that particular phrase is not a premise that leads to a conclusion. While Hablin's criticism was not widely accepted, Canadian philosopher Douglas N. Walton examined the fallaciousness of the ad hominem argument even further. Nowadays, except within specialized philosophical usages, the usage of the term ad hominem signifies a straight attack at the character and ethos of a person, in an attempt to refute their argument. ## Terminology The Latin phase argumentum ad hominem stands for "argument against the person". "Ad" corresponds to "against" but it could also mean "to" or "towards". The terms ad mulierem and ad feminam have been used specifically when the person receiving the criticism is female. ## Types of ad hominem arguments Fallacious ad hominem reasoning is categorized among informal fallacies, more precisely as a genetic fallacy, a subcategory of fallacies of irrelevance. Ad hominem fallacies can be separated into various types, such as tu quoque, circumstantial ad hominem, guilt by association, and abusive ad hominem. All of them are similar to the general scheme of ad hominem argument, that is instead of dealing with the essence of someone's argument or trying to refute it, the interlocutor is attacking the character of the proponent of the argument and concluding that it is a sufficient reason to drop the initial argument. ### Tu quoque Ad hominem tu quoque (literally: "You also") is a response to a personal attack (or ad hominem argument) that itself is a personal attack. Tu quoque appears as: - A makes a claim a. - B attacks the character of A by saying they hold a property x, which is bad. - A defends themself by attacking B, saying they also hold the same property x. Here is an example given by philosophy professor George Wrisley to illustrate the above: A businessman and politician is giving a lecture at a University about how good his company is and how nicely the system works. A student asks him "Is it true that you and your company are selling weapons to third world rulers who use those arms against their own people?" and the businessman replies "is it true that your university gets funding by the same company that you are claiming is selling guns to those countries? You are not a white dove either". The ad hominem accusation of the student is relevant to the narrative the businessman tries to project thus not fallacious. On the other hand, the attack on the student (that is, the student being inconsistent) is irrelevant to the opening narrative. So the businessman's tu quoque response is fallacious. Canadian philosopher Christopher Tindale approaches somewhat different the tu quoque fallacy. According to Tindale, a tu quoque fallacy appears when a response to an argument is made on the history of the arguer. This argument is also invalid because it does not disprove the premise; if the premise is true, then source A may be a hypocrite or even changed their mind, but this does not make the statement less credible from a logical perspective. A common example, given by Tindale, is when a doctor advises a patient to lose weight, but the patient argues that there is no need for him to go on a diet because the doctor is also overweight. ### Circumstantial Circumstantial ad hominem points out that someone is in circumstances (for instance, their job, wealth, property, or relations) such that they are disposed to take a particular position. It constitutes an attack on the bias of a source. As with other types of ad hominem attack, circumstantial attack could be fallacious or not. It could be fallacious because a disposition to make a certain argument does not make the argument invalid; this overlaps with the genetic fallacy (an argument that a claim is incorrect due to its source). But it also may be a sound argument, if the premises are correct and the bias is relevant to the argument. A simple example is: a father may tell his daughter not to start smoking because she will damage her health, and she may point out that he is or was a smoker. This does not alter the fact that smoking might cause various diseases. Her father's inconsistency is not a proper reason to reject his claim. Philosopher and pundit on informal fallacies Douglas N. Walton argues that a circumstantial ad hominem argument can be non-fallacious. This could be the case when someone (A) attacks the personality of another person (B), making an argument (a) while the personality of B is relevant to argument a, i.e. B talks as an authority figure. To illustrate this reasoning, Walton gives the example of a witness at a trial: if he had been caught lying and cheating in his own life, should the jury take his word for granted? No, according to Walton. ### Guilt by association Guilt by association, that is accusing an arguer because of his alleged connection with a discredited person or group, can sometimes also be a type of ad hominem fallacy when the argument attacks a source because of the similarity between the views of someone making an argument and other proponents of the argument. This form of the argument is as follows: 1. Individual S makes claim C. 2. Individual S is also associated with Group G, who has an unfavorable reputation 3. Therefore, individual S and his views are questionable. Academic Leigh Kolb gives as an example that the 2008 US vice‐presidential candidate Sarah Palin attacked Barack Obama for having worked with Bill Ayers, who had been a leader in the Weather Underground terrorist group in the 1960s. Despite Obama denouncing every act of terrorism, he was still associated by his opponents with terrorism. Guilt by association is frequently found in social and political debates. It also appears after major events (such as scandals and terrorism) linked to a specific group. An example, given also by Leigh Kolb, is the peak of attacks against Muslims in the US after the September 11 attacks. ### Abusive ad hominem Abusive ad hominem argument (or direct ad hominem) is associated with an attack to the character of the person carrying an argument. This kind of argument, besides usually being fallacious, is also counterproductive, as a proper dialogue is hard to achieve after such an attack. Key issues in examining an argument to determine whether it is an ad hominem fallacy or not are whether the accusation against the person stands true or not, and whether the accusation is relevant to the argument. An example is a dialogue at the court, where the attorney cross-examines an eyewitness, bringing to light the fact that the witness was convicted in the past for lying. If the attorney's conclusion is that the witness is lying, that would be wrong. But if his argument would be that the witness should not be trusted, that would not be a fallacy. ### Argument from commitment An ad hominem argument from commitment is a type of valid argument that employs, as a dialectical strategy, the exclusive utilization of the beliefs, convictions, and assumptions of those holding the position being argued against, i.e., arguments constructed on the basis of what other people hold to be true. This usage is generally only encountered in specialist philosophical usage or in pre-20th century usages. This type of argument is also known as the ex concessis argument (Latin for "from what has been conceded already"). ## Usage in debates Ad hominem fallacies are considered to be uncivil and do not help creating a constructive atmosphere for dialogue to flourish. An ad hominem attack is an attack on the character of the target who tends to feel the necessity to defend himself or herself from the accusation of being hypocritical. Walton has noted that it is so powerful of an argument that it is employed in many political debates. Since it is associated with negativity and dirty tricks, it has gained a bad fame, of being always fallacious. Author Eithan Orkibi, having studied Israeli politics prior to elections, described two other forms of ad hominem attacks that are common during election periods. They both depend on the collective memory shared by both proponents and the audience. The first is the precedent ad hominem, according to which the previous history of someone means that they do not fit for the office. It goes like this: "My opponent was (allegedly) wrong in the past, therefore he is wrong now". The second one is a behavioral ad hominem: "my opponent was not decent in his arguments in the past, so he is not now either". These kinds of attacks are based on the inability of the audience to have a clear view of the amount of false statements by both parts of the debate. ## Criticism as a fallacy Walton has argued that ad hominem reasoning is not always fallacious, and that in some instances, questions of personal conduct, character, motives, etc., are legitimate and relevant to the issue, as when it directly involves hypocrisy, or actions contradicting the subject's words. The philosopher Charles Taylor has argued that ad hominem reasoning (discussing facts about the speaker or author relative to the value of his statements) is essential to understanding certain moral issues due to the connection between individual persons and morality (or moral claims), and contrasts this sort of reasoning with the apodictic reasoning (involving facts beyond dispute or clearly established) of philosophical naturalism. ## See also - "And you are lynching Negroes" - Appeal to authority - Appeal to emotion - Appeal to motive - The Art of Being Right - Character assassination - Ergo decedo - Fair game (Scientology) - Fake news - Fundamental attribution error - Gaslighting - Hostile witness - Negative campaigning - Poisoning the well - Presumption of guilt - Race card - Red herring - Reputation - Shooting the messenger - Smear campaign - Straw man - Tone policing - Whataboutism

Whitey Wistert

American football and baseball player (1912–1985)

Francis Michael "Whitey" Wistert (February 20, 1912 – April 23, 1985) was an American football and baseball player. He played college football and college baseball at the University of Michigan. Wistert was the first of the three Wistert brothers—he was succeeded by Albert (Al) and Alvin—who were named All-American tackles at Michigan and later inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. He was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1967. During his time at Michigan, Wistert played on three consecutive Big Ten Conference football championships teams, including two that won back-to-back national championships. He was also Big Ten Conference MVP in baseball in college and later played for Major League Baseball's Cincinnati Reds. The Wistert brothers all wore jersey No. 11 at Michigan and are among the seven players who have had their numbers retired by the Michigan Wolverines football program. Their number will be put back into circulation starting on November 10, 2012 before a Michigan home game against Northwestern as part of the Michigan Football Legend program. ## Early years Wistert was born in 1912 in Chicago. His parents, Kazimir J. Wistert and Josephine (Shukis) Wistert, immigrated to the United States from Lithuania in 1894 and were married at Chicago in 1907. His father was a policeman in Chicago from at least 1910 to 1927. At the time of the 1920 United States Census, Wistert's family lived at 5647 Waveland Avenue in Chicago's 27th Ward and consisted of parents, Kazimir and Josephine, and five children: Josephine (age 11), Isabelle (age 10), Francis (age 7), Evelyn (age 6), and Alvin (age 3-1/2). Wistert's father was shot while on duty and pursuing a robbery suspect in July 1926. By the spring of 1927, Wistert's father, who had served in the U.S. Army from 1898 to 1901, was disabled due to "chest emphysema with draining sinus" and was admitted to the U.S. National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. He died in June 1927 when Whitey was 15 years old. At the time of the 1930 United States Census, Wistert's family continued to live at 5647 Waveland Avenue in Chicago. The household at that time consisted of Wistert's mother, Josephine, and five children: Josephine (age 22, employed as a bookkeeper), Francis (age 18, employed as a tube maker for a radio company), Evelyn (age 16, employed as a "saleslady" at a variety store), Alvin (age 13), and Albert (age 8). ## College athletics After graduating from Chicago's Schurz High School in 1929, Wistert attended the University of Michigan where he was a star athlete in both football and baseball from 1931 to 1933. ### The Wistert brothers of Michigan Wistert was the first of three brothers to play for Michigan. The other two are Al Wistert and Alvin Wistert. All three Wistert brothers wore number 11 for the Wolverines football team, and all three were All-Americans. Interviewed by The Detroit News in 2004, Alvin recalled: "And if I'm not mistaken I think this is unprecedented in the annals of college football: that three brothers all would go to the same school, all played football. All played tackle, all wore the same number 11, all made All-American. Two of us played on four national championship teams. And all were inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame." The Wistert brothers grew up on the northwest side of Chicago and were the sons of a Lithuanian family. Their father was a Spanish–American War veteran who was later killed in the line of duty while working for the Chicago Police Department. According to brother Alvin Wistert, their father "was born Casmir Vistertus and he Anglicized it when he came to America to Wistert." The story of the Wistert brothers at Michigan began when Whitey's Carl Schurz High School classmate John Kowalik was invited to visit the University of Michigan. At the time, Whitey Wistert "was working in a factory building Majestic radios." Kowalik took Whitey with him on his visit to Ann Arbor, and according to Alvin, "that's how it started: the Wisterts of Michigan." ### Football As a football player, Wistert played for consecutive undefeated national championship teams in 1932 and 1933 and was a consensus All-American in 1933. The 1934 University of Michigan yearbook, the Michiganensian, included the following quote from Grantland Rice: "Wistert was unanimously selected as the best tackle in the Middle-West this year. He was the key to Michigan's defensive line play. He was a sure tackler and it was next to impossible to fool him on trick maneuvers. He was keen, quick, and accurate in diagnosing plays." Wistert and Chuck Bernard were the leaders of the 1933 offensive line when the team went 7–0–1 with a tie to the Minnesota Golden Gophers. One of Wistert's teammates on the 1932 and 1933 Michigan football teams was future U.S. President Gerald Ford. In an interview in the February 1974 issue of "Michigan Alumnus", Wistert said of Ford: "He was a real good competitor – a real bulldog type. Even during a losing year, he was voted MVP by his teammates. They felt he was one guy who could stay and fight for a losing cause." In 1936, he was a member Michigan football coaching staff under Coach Harry Kipke. ### Baseball Wistert also earned varsity letters in baseball three years and was selected as the Most Valuable Player in the Big Ten Conference in 1934. The 1934 Michiganensian yearbook reports that the final game of the baseball season was a 4–0 shutout by Wistert against the University of Chicago Maroons. "Wistert, for the Wolves, allowed only five well-scattered hits during the game. Although Whitey Wistert walked four men, he more than off-set this by striking out nine of the Maroons to face him." Wistert also pitched a four-hitter against Ohio State. ### Honors Wistert was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1967, one year before his brother Albert. In 1981, he was named to the University of Michigan Hall of Honor in the fourth class of inductees alongside his brothers. Only five Michigan football players earned this honor before him. ## Professional baseball Wistert had a short cup of coffee in Major League Baseball, appearing in three games for the Cincinnati Reds between September 11, 1934 and September 25, 1934. In two appearances as a pitcher, Wistert allowed only one run in eight innings, for a career ERA of 1.13. The only career earned run he ever allowed came off the bat of a 17-year old phenom who was also a Chicago Public Schools alum in Phil Cavarretta of his hometown Chicago Cubs, who hit his first career home run in the 2nd inning of a 1-0 Reds loss. In three plate appearances, he went hitless and struck out twice. Although he only played briefly at the major league level, Wistert played five years of professional baseball. Fellow 1933 Michigan Wolverines football All-American, Ted Petoskey also debuted for the Reds in September 1934. ## Late life After retiring from sports, Wistert became a New York lawyer. He went on to become a vice-president of an industrial relations firm in Toledo, Ohio. He served in the United States Navy as a lieutenant during World War II. ## See also - 1932 Michigan Wolverines football team - 1933 Michigan Wolverines football team - List of Michigan Wolverines football All-Americans - University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor

First Flight (Star Trek: Enterprise)

"First Flight" is the fiftieth episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Enterprise, the twenty-fourth episode of the second season. It first aired on May 14, 2003, on UPN. It was written by John Shiban and Chris Black, and was directed by Star Trek: The Next Generation actor LeVar Burton (Geordi La Forge). Set in the 22nd century, the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise, registration NX-01. In this episode, after Captain Jonathan Archer (Scott Bakula) is informed of the death of his former colleague, A.G. Robinson (Keith Carradine), he relates the story of breaking the warp 2.5 barrier to T'Pol (Jolene Blalock) while investigating a dark matter nebula. The episode was inspired by the story of the first American astronauts as seen in the film The Right Stuff. Several sets were specifically built for this episode, and a reference to the designer of the Enterprise from the original Star Trek series is included in the story. Three crew-members from the U.S. Navy aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CVN-65) appeared in this episode, and handed over a flag from the ship to the cast and crew. Critical reception to this episode was mostly positive, with praise directed at Scott Bakula. The episode received the second-lowest number of viewers received by Enterprise at that point, which was blamed on it being aired opposite the series finale of Dawson's Creek. ## Plot As Enterprise is about to investigate a dark matter cloud, Captain Archer is informed by Admiral Forrest that his former Starfleet colleague, Captain Robinson, has died in a rock climbing accident. Archer, seeking solitude, desires to travel into the nebula in a shuttlepod armed with spatial charges to excite the dark matter. Sub-Commander T'Pol, noting that captains are prohibited from traveling off-ship unaccompanied, joins him and convinces him to tell the story of his friend Robinson and the Warp 5 program. In a series of flashbacks, Commander Archer meets with Commodore Forrest, and is informed that although he excelled in simulations, his colleague Commander Robinson has been awarded the warp 3 test ship, the NX Alpha. Disappointed, Archer goes to the 602 Club, a local bar, bumping into Robinson there. Later, Robinson takes the scheduled flight aboard the NX Alpha, breaking the warp 2.0 barrier. He refuses a command from Forrest to stop and instead increases speed; the craft soon destabilizes and is destroyed as it approaches warp 2.2, but Robinson escapes. The Vulcans argue that the warp program should be postponed, but Archer wants the program, and his father's engine research, to continue. Archer, and his new friend Lieutenant Tucker, then go to the 602 Club to discuss the problem. Robinson arrives and blames Archer's father, and he and Archer end up in a fist fight. The next day Archer discovers Robinson packing up the contents of his locker. He concedes that it is primarily an intermix problem, but that the engine could still work. Archer and Robinson then steal the NX Beta, with Tucker in flight control, but it starts to suffer the same issues as the Alpha. As Starfleet security detains Tucker, Archer and Robinson coax the engines to warp 2.5. Archer and Robinson are reprimanded, and the program is grounded for a year, but they have proved that his father's design was sound. Archer launches his final two charges into the cloud, and a breathtaking nebula slowly reveals itself. Archer calls T'Pol to watch the actual nebula with her eyes, rather than monitor it through the sensors. T'Pol mentions the human tradition of first discoverers of astronomical phenomena having naming rights. Archer makes a sarcastic crack about calling it the "T'Pol/Archer Nebula". T'Pol gently responds that she was thinking Archer could name it the "Robinson Nebula", after his friend. ## Production "First Flight" was inspired by the 1983 film The Right Stuff, the story of the test pilots at Edwards Air Force Base and the first NASA astronauts. Reference is also made to the Apollo 11 lunar landing, when Archer mentions that no-one remembers astronaut Buzz Aldrin's first words when he stepped onto the moon. Aldrin's actual first words were "Beautiful view." Warp drive was first mentioned in Gene Roddenberry's first-draft pitch for Star Trek, dated March 11, 1964, although in that version it was referred to as a "space-warp drive". The drive allows for a vessel to travel faster than the speed of light by warping space-time around the ship itself. In 1994, physicist Miguel Alcubierre proposed the Alcubierre drive, using a similar theory. In the Star Trek universe, Zefram Cochrane invented the drive in 2063. Cochrane was portrayed by James Cromwell in the film Star Trek: First Contact and re-appeared in this role in the pilot of Enterprise, "Broken Bow". That episode showed the culmination of the development of the warp 5 engine, which was designed by Jonathan Archer's father, Henry, in the launch of the Enterprise itself. The Vulcans during this period gave oversight and advice to Starfleet in the development of the warp drive, but sought to slow the progress of the humans. "First Flight" showed a previously unseen period in the development of the fictional warp drive, with the pursuit of the warp 2 barrier. The dark matter mentioned in this episode is a real phenomenon, although it is unclear exactly what it is. It cannot be seen by telescopes, and it is theorised that it makes up a great deal of the matter in the universe. John Shiban and Chris Black wrote "First Flight", the fiftieth episode of Enterprise. Former Star Trek: The Next Generation actor LeVar Burton directed the episode, his second of the season and fourth overall. He had previously directed episodes of other shows in the franchise, including the hundredth episode of Star Trek: Voyager, "Timeless". In this episode, Tucker states that his commanding officer at the testing facility is Captain Jefferies, this is a direct reference to artist and set designer Matt Jefferies, designer of the original USS Enterprise (NCC-1701). Jefferies died two months after the episode was aired. Production began on March 10, 2003, and concluded on March 18. The first days' shoot consisted of scenes in the shuttlepod with Blalock and Bakula as other members of the cast were still shooting scenes for the episodes "Horizon" and "Regeneration". The present-day scenes were completed on the second day of filming, with the remaining five days of shooting being devoted to the flashback scenes. Sets were built specifically for this episode, including the NX Command Center, the 602 Club and the interior of the NX prototype vessels. ### Casting The guest cast in "First Flight" included the return of Vaughn Armstrong in the recurring role of Admiral Forrest, although this was his most demanding shoot so far, requiring him to be on set for five of the seven days of filming. Keith Carradine was cast as A. G. Robinson; Carradine is also a musician, and won the Academy Award for Best Original Song for "I'm Easy" from the 1975 film Nashville. He is also the half-brother of fellow actor David Carradine. This episode also saw the return of some actors who had appeared in other series of the Star Trek franchise. These included Michael Canavan, who appeared in this episode as a Vulcan advisor, but previously appeared in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Defiant" as a member of the Maquis terrorist group. Also appearing in "First Flight" was Victor Bevine. He had previously appeared in DS9, Voyager and the movie Star Trek: First Contact. "First Flight" also provided the stage for an exchange with the United States Navy aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CVN-65). Three crew members of the real-life Enterprise had been voted as "Sailors of the Year" by the U.S. Navy, and so were given the roles of extras in this episode. This was not the first time such an exchange had occurred; previous winners had appeared as crew members on board the fictional Enterprise in the episode "Desert Crossing". This time around they were given roles at the NX Command Center instead. Aviation Maintenance Administrationman 2nd Class James D. Frey portrayed a technician, Navy Counselor 1st Class Kathleen J. Grant played a Senator and Hospital Corpsman 3rd Class Thomas P. Hunt was the Senator's assistant. All three were pleased to be appearing on the show, with Grant saying that "My nephew told all of the kids at his school his aunt was going to be on Star Trek. That makes the experience even more of a thrill for me", and Hunt saying "This will be on reruns for years to come, when I'm 60, I'll be able to say, 'Hey, that's me on Enterprise.'". In return, the three sailors presented the cast and crew of Star Trek: Enterprise with a flag that had been flying on the aircraft carrier earlier in the month. ## Reception "First Flight" was first shown in the United States on May 14, 2003 on UPN. It was aired on the same night as the following episode, "Bounty". Both episodes saw a reduction in viewing figures compared to previous weeks, which was attributed to them being broadcast at the same time as the series finale of Dawson's Creek on The WB. "First Flight" received a 2.4/4% share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. This means that it was seen by 2.4 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and 4 percent of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. It was the second lowest rating received by the series at that point, and "Bounty" received a slightly decreased rating of 2.3/4%, but the viewing figures were higher. "Bounty" was watched by 3.54 million viewers, whereas "First Flight" was watched by 3.3 million. "First Flight" was the 93rd most watched programme of the evening. The episode aired during the following week was the season two finale, whose figures rebounded slightly; "The Expanse" had a final rating of 2.8/4% with an audience of 3.88 million. Michelle Erica Green reviewed the episode for TrekNation, and thought that Scott Bakula in particular gave one of his best performances of the show so far. Both he and Carradine worked well together, but thought that the other characters in the flashback were clichéd. Overall, she thought it was a "superbly filmed episode" with several new sets which were well used, and the visual effects were good. Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website "Jammer's Reviews" gave the episode a score of three out of four, saying that he welcomed the back story to the series being fleshed out in this episode. He thought that the episode itself wasn't very challenging to watch, but thought that the melancholy ending was fitting. He even thought that it might be worthwhile to go further back in time to see the actual founding of Starfleet. In his 2022 rewatch, Keith DeCandido of Tor.com gave it 4 out of 10. In 2009, Den of Geek ranked this the ninth best episode of this television series. In 2021, The Digital Fix called it a "surprising charming episode" that helped provide context for the Enterprise'''s mission, but that it should have come in season one. ## Home media release "First Flight" was first released for home media use on DVD as part of the second series box set of Star Trek: Enterprise. The release featured text commentary on the episode from Star Trek and NASA designers Michael and Denise Okuda. The episode also featured as one of the three Enterprise episodes on the Star Trek Fan Collective DVD Set "Captain's Log". The set featured episodes selected by each of the Captains from the Star Trek'' series, and several chosen by the fans, a total of seventeen episodes. A release on Blu-ray Disc for season two occurred on August 20, 2013.

Tiberius Julius Alexander

1st century AD Roman governor and general

Tiberius Julius Alexander (fl. 1st century) was an equestrian governor and general in the Roman Empire. Born into a wealthy Jewish family of Alexandria but abandoning or neglecting the Jewish religion, he rose to become the 2nd procurator of Judea (c. 46 – 48) under Claudius. While Prefect of Egypt (66–69), he employed his legions against the Alexandrian Jews in a brutal response to ethnic violence, and was instrumental in the Emperor Vespasian's rise to power. In 70, he participated in the Siege of Jerusalem as Titus' second-in-command. He became the most powerful Jew of his age, and is ranked as one of the most prominent Jews in military history. ## Early life Tiberius Julius Alexander was probably born early in the reign of the Emperor Tiberius (14–37). His father was Alexander, an Alexandrian Jew who held the office of Alabarch as head of customs on the Arabian frontier, but it may have denoted a senior customs official. The family of the older Alexander, a member of the Egyptian gentry, had Roman citizenship, something not infrequent among the wealthy Jews of Alexandria. He also had business connections both with Agrippa, grandson of Herod the Great, and with Antonia, mother of the emperor Claudius. Another prominent member of Tiberius Alexander's family was his uncle, the philosopher Philo. With both Tiberius and his younger brother Marcus Julius Alexander, the father preferred to give them a grounding in classical languages, rather than have them receive a traditional Jewish education, and both had been groomed to enter into the Roman bureaucracy Marcus Julius Alexander was the first husband of Herodian Princess Berenice. Marcus died in 43 or 44, leaving no children. The Jewish historian Josephus introduces his portrait of Tiberius by condemning him for impiety, explaining that he "did not remain in his ancestral customs". This has traditionally been taken to mean that he became an apostate from Judaism at an early age, a view which finds some support in his appearance as a character in two of Philo's philosophical dialogues, making arguments against divine providence which Philo attempts to refute. However, some more recent scholars believe that Josephus is criticizing Alexander simply for his decision to take up the service of Rome, placing the interests of the Empire above the Jewish religion. He nevertheless continued to benefit from his family's connections, which were enhanced after the Emperor Claudius came to power in 41. Agrippa had helped to secure Claudius' accession after the assassination of Caligula, and was appointed king of Judea. Tiberius' father, who had been imprisoned by Caligula, was released on Claudius' orders, and it was at this time that his younger brother Marcus became Berenice's husband. Tiberius's first senior appointment was as governor of the Thebaid in 42 CE. ## Career until 63 Tiberius Alexander was evidently well enough connected for an equestrian career in Roman public life. The first position he is known to have held, beginning in about 42, was that of epistrategus of the Thebaid, one of the three regions into which the Roman province of Egypt was divided. This was an administrative and judicial post involving no military command. He may have perhaps maintained contacts with his brother Marcus, who was trading in the same area until his premature death in 43 or 44. In recognition of his administrative abilities in the Thebaid after four years of service there, Claudius appointed him procurator of Judea in 46 CE. The province had returned to direct Roman rule only after the death of Agrippa in 44, and from the tenure of Alexander's predecessor Cuspius Fadus it had been a hotbed of zealot nationalism. Despite the opinion of some fellow Jews that he was a turncoat, his period of office as Procurator in Judea was marked by peace, as Josephus himself writes. He did condemn James and Simon, sons of an earlier rebel named Judas of Galilee, to crucifixion. It was also at this time that Judea was afflicted by a severe famine. In 48 he was succeeded by Ventidius Cumanus. Alexander appears to have risen in the ranks – though the details are unknown, until, with the reign of Nero, he served as a staff officer under the prominent general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo during campaigns against Parthia, under whom he distinguished himself. In 63 he was dispatched along with Corbulo's son-in-law to escort the Armenian king Tiridates, with whom he himself had initiated negotiations, to the Roman camp, on the first stage of his journey to receive the status of client king from Nero. ## Prefecture of Egypt In May 66, after Corbulo had backed him, Nero appointed Alexander Prefect of Egypt, one of the two most prestigious posts available to an equestrian along with Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. Alexander may have benefitted from a philhellenic tendency in equestrian appointments under Nero, but his experience of Egypt must also have commended him. The year he assumed office saw the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War in Judea, and aggression inevitably spilled over into the large Jewish community of Alexandria. An outbreak of ethnic violence during a Greek assembly escalated when the Greeks took prisoners, leading the Jewish side to threaten to burn the assembled Greeks to death. Alexander sent mediators to calm the Jews, warning he would have to use the Roman legions if violence continued. The threat was ineffective, and Josephus describes the outcome: > [Alexander] then let loose among them the two Roman legions, and with them 2,000 soldiers who happened to have come from Libya, with fearful consequences for the Jews. He gave the men leave not merely to kill them but also to plunder their property and burn down their houses. The soldiers rushed into the area called Delta where the Jews were concentrated, and proceeded to carry out their orders, but not without bloodshed on their own side; for the Jews stood shoulder to shoulder with their most heavily armed men in front and held their ground magnificently, but when once the line gave they were destroyed wholesale. Death came upon them in every form; some were overtaken in the open, others driven into their houses, which the Romans first looted and then burnt down. They felt no pity for infants, no respect for the aged; old and young were slaughtered right and left, so that the whole district was deluged with blood and 50,000 corpses were heaped up: even the remnant would not have survived had they not begged for mercy till Alexander, pitying them, ordered the Romans to retire. A less violent side to Alexander's government is demonstrated by other evidence. Over a century after his time, his administrative decisions were still being cited as precedents. Some of these are known from a surviving edict issued on 6 July 68, less than a month after Nero's death. This denounces, and introduces measures against, a variety of abuses including inaccurate tax assessments, malicious prosecutions and the imprisonment of debtors by private creditors. The edict's only allusion to the chaotic political situation comes as a call for trust in the benevolence of the new Emperor, Galba, and his ability to put right the wrongs of the past. Alexander was making representations to Galba on behalf of the provincials, presumably representing the desired reforms as the price of loyalty from this vital grain-producing province. Neither Galba nor his successor Otho survived long in office. In April 69, Vitellius was recognized as Emperor by the Roman Senate, but his opponents were beginning to rally behind Vespasian, commander of the Roman forces conducting the war in Judea. The loyalties of Alexander, who commanded two legions and had control of the grain shipments from Alexandria to Rome, were of crucial importance. Fortunately for Vespasian, Alexander was willing to correspond with him secretly; go-betweens suspected by modern historians include Berenice (soon to be lover of Vespasian's son Titus), and an Egyptian official named Basilides. On 1 July Alexander became the first to make a decisive move against Vitellius: on receipt of a letter from Vespasian, he instructed his forces to take the oath of allegiance to Vespasian as Emperor. His lead was followed by legions throughout the eastern Empire, and the anniversary of Vespasian's accession was later celebrated on this date. ## Siege of Jerusalem Vespasian moved rapidly to Egypt, leaving the Jewish war under the command of Titus. At the same time Alexander, as a proven commander with experience of Jewish affairs, was sent by Vespasian to join Titus as his chief of staff and adviser, second only to Titus himself. The siege of Jerusalem was conducted by four legions, and even after the city walls were overcome, the defenders held out in the Temple. Alexander participated in an initial decision not to destroy the Temple, which would remain an ornament, but to quench the fire. Two subsequent assaults by Jewish forces were repelled, and the survivors retreated to the inner temple. In a sortie, according to Josephus they clashed with the Roman troops tasked with putting the flames out, and one enraged Roman soldier threw a brand into the sanctum, destroying it. Josephus's accounts of the sequence of events, and of who was responsible, is highly contradictory, though, as in rabbinic tradition, both this and the earlier destruction of the Temple were due to God's will, Nebuchadnezzer and the Romans being but his instruments. He makes Titus willing and unwilling to destroy the Temple, depending on what passage of his works one relies on. ## Later career By this time, Vespasian's position in Rome was secure. The details of Alexander's career under the new emperor remain unclear. A damaged papyrus refers to Alexander as holding the position of "Praetorian Prefect", which is open to two interpretations. It could indicate his rank during Titus' campaign in 70, which would mean that he held his own independent imperium (commanding authority). According to another view, it means that he became Prefect of the Praetorian Guard at Rome, which in later years became a common position for former Prefects of Egypt. In either case, Alexander attained a position in the Roman Empire that was unparalleled for a man of Jewish birth, not to mention one who suffered from the further stigma of an Egyptian origin. The xenophobic speaker of Juvenal's first Satire, composed in the late 1st or early in the 2nd century AD, complains of passing the Forum's triumphal statues, "where some Egyptian Arabarch's had the nerve to set up his titles. At his image it's right to do more than piss!" This is very likely a reference to Alexander. ## See also - Prefects, Procurators, and Legates of Roman Judaea

1988–89 Arsenal F.C. season

103rd season in existence of Arsenal F.C.

The 1988–89 season was the 94th in the history of Arsenal Football Club. It began on 1 July 1988 and concluded on 30 June 1989, with competitive matches played between August and May. The club ended its 18-year wait for the league title by winning the Football League First Division championship in the most closely fought title race in the competition's history. Arsenal beat Liverpool 2–0 in the final match of the season to take the title on goals scored, as both clubs shared the same points total and goal difference. During the season Arsenal also enjoyed success in the Football League Centenary Trophy, but exited the League Cup to Liverpool in the third round and fell at the same stage of the FA Cup to West Ham United. Earlier in the year manager George Graham had started to assemble a squad with a blend of youth and experience. Having already signed defenders Steve Bould and Lee Dixon, he set about trimming the squad letting Steve Williams and Kenny Sansom leave. Arsenal were not considered favourites for the league title at the start of the season, but a 5–1 win away at Wimbledon on the opening day led to talk over their chances. They continued their fine start to the campaign, particularly away from home and led the table from the Christmas period. At one stage Arsenal were 11 points clear of Liverpool, but a series of draws and surprising defeats allowed the gap to be closed. By the time Arsenal faced Liverpool on the final day, they were faced with an improbable challenge – winning by a two-goal margin against the defending champions to claim the title. Graham's cautious approach paid dividends as Arsenal led after the break, and deep into stoppage time midfielder Michael Thomas scored the all-important second goal. 17 different players represented Arsenal in four competitions and there were 14 different goalscorers. Arsenal's top goalscorer was Alan Smith, who scored 25 goals in 46 appearances. Smith and David Rocastle were the only Arsenal representatives in the PFA Team of the Year. Forward Paul Merson was named the PFA Young Player of the Year, an award voted for by his fellow peers. Once the league season finished, Arsenal players and staff paraded the trophy before a crowd of 250,000 on their way to a civic reception. ## Background In May 1986, George Graham was appointed as Arsenal manager. He made an instant impact, guiding his team to League Cup success, and the club finished fourth in the Football League First Division. Arsenal however slipped to sixth in the league the following season, and lost out to Luton Town in the League Cup final a year later. Graham sought to resolve inconsistencies by freshening up his squad, promoting number of academy graduates while selling ageing players. By the summer of 1988, he achieved a blend of youth and experience, but little was thought of Arsenal's chances of winning the First Division. ### Transfers Arsenal sold a number of fringe players throughout the season so Graham could freshen the squad with new players. Having already signed Lee Dixon and Steve Bould from Stoke City, defender Kenny Sansom became surplus to requirement and eventually joined Newcastle United. Steve Williams was sold to Luton Town for £300,000 in June 1988. as the player felt first-team opportunities were scarce; the fee Luton paid was £100,000 less than Arsenal originally wanted. Graham Rix went to Caen on a free transfer. Other transfers saw Rhys Wilmot leave the club he joined as a trainee in 1977 after failing to displace John Lukic as first choice, and Andy Marriott left to join Brian Clough's Nottingham Forest in a deal worth £50,000. Out Loan out ## Pre-season and friendlies ## Football League First Division A total of 20 teams competed in the First Division in the 1988–89 season. Each team played 38 matches; two against every other team and one match at each club's stadium. Three points were awarded for each win, one point per draw, and none for defeats. ### August–November Arsenal began the league season away at Plough Lane, where they faced Wimbledon on 27 August 1988. The team started badly, going a goal behind after eight minutes but came back to win 5–1 with Alan Smith scoring a hat-trick. The manner of Arsenal's comeback had journalist Dennis Signy mulling over the club's chances of winning the league; he wrote in his Times match report: "...the Gunners made the bookmakers' odds of 16–1 against them for the championship look generous." At Highbury, Arsenal were beaten by newly promoted Aston Villa; for much of the first half Graham's side struggled to break through Villa's back five. The visitors were two goals up in the match before Arsenal equalised in the space of ten minutes. Andy Gray scored the winner in the 62nd minute from a free-kick contentiously awarded by the referee. Arsenal then faced Tottenham Hotspur in the season's first North London Derby, staged at White Hart Lane. A fast-paced and open first-half saw five goals in 17 minutes with Arsenal running out 3–2 winners. Graham later described it a "great" and "wonderful advertisement for the game," and felt the supporters and media would go away happy. Arsenal's home form continued to blight them as the team dropped two points against Southampton on 17 September 1988. The match was best remembered for an altercation between Paul Davis and Glenn Cockerill. The Arsenal midfielder punched Cockerill which was missed by the referee, but caught on camera. Davis was later banned for nine matches and handed a record £3,000 fine. Arsenal ended the month with a 2–1 defeat away to Sheffield Wednesday and sat in seventh position. "He's anaemic, but he's leading the line superbly," was Graham's assessment of Smith as the striker scored two goals in Arsenal's 4–1 win at West Ham United. David Rocastle and Michael Thomas were the other goalscorers, contributing to the team's 13 league goals in four away matches. Goals from Adams and Smith saw Arsenal defeat Queens Park Rangers at home two weeks later, but they were held to a 1–1 draw at Luton Town despite dominating much of the game. Adams scored his second league goal of the season, at home to Coventry City to earn three points for the team. They also extended their unbeaten run in all competitions to seven matches. Kevin Richardson and Brian Marwood were singled out for praise by journalist Vince Wright, with the former "doing an excellent job on [David] Speedie," and the latter seemingly "involved in every penetrating move." A live match audience witnessed Arsenal trounce Nottingham Forest at the City Ground in early November. Steve Bould, Brian Marwood, Adams and Smith each scored as the team came back from a goal behind to win. "It was a performance of true quality which must have made excellent viewing," was Graham's verdict and he described it as "satisfying" to beat Forest at their home ground. Arsenal were not at their fluent best against Newcastle United though came away from St James' Park with a clean sheet and a 1–0 win – Bould scored for the second successive match. Paul Merson scored twice against Middlesbrough as Arsenal recorded a 3–0 win and moved into second place, just two points behind Norwich City. Arsenal's five England internationals, who featured against Saudi Arabia a week before, were lauded in The Times for their performances, despite playing tamely for country. The match reporter suggested the club versus country dilemma could be solved by including more Arsenal players, something Graham was sceptical about when put to him. "I want England to do very well. It's just I want Arsenal to do better," he said. Arsenal's unbeaten run came to an end against Derby County, where at the Baseball Ground a debatable penalty was awarded to the home side which allowed them to get back into the game. ### December–February The visit of champions Liverpool in early December was seen by Graham and the media as a test of Arsenal's championship credentials. Arsenal entered the match boasting the division's best attacking record, while Liverpool conceded the fewest in the competition. In the game Liverpool went ahead through left winger John Barnes, but their lead was short lived as Smith equalised. Both sides spurned chances to win the game late on and the score stayed 1–1 at full time; Kenny Dalglish, the Liverpool player-manager however was delighted with a point and said afterwards: "That was as entertaining as any of the other four games we have played against each other this season." Arsenal failed to score for the first time in the season when they played league leaders Norwich City on 10 December 1988. The team returned to winning ways during the Christmas period. More than 37,000 spectators saw Arsenal defeat Manchester United by two goals to one, and on Boxing Day a brace from Marwood ensured Arsenal beat Charlton Athletic to go top of the league table. They continued their good form on New Year's Eve, beating Aston Villa 3–0. The Highbury clock was unveiled in an elevated position before the game against Tottenham Hotspur as part of the ground's refurbishment work. Merson and Thomas scored a goal apiece against their bitter rivals, handing the team a fourth straight league win and send them two points clear of Norwich City. Match reporter Clive White conceded Tottenham had a legitimate claim for a penalty in the first half, but felt they never merited anything from the game, contrasting the visitor's disappointing play to Arsenal – "the epitome of pure, free-flowing football." The team continued their good away form by taking apart Everton at Goodison Park. Graham labelled his team as "nice and solid" after a goalless first half and the visitors sprung to life in the second, scoring three goals. Richardson, scorer of Arsenal's third, assessed the squad was more experienced than last year, adding "Everybody knows what they have to do." Arsenal failed to record a sixth straight win as Sheffield Wednesday held on for a 1–1 draw at Highbury the following weekend. Victory against West Ham United moved Arsenal 10 points clear of third-place Coventry City and significantly ahead of defending champions Liverpool. The team came from behind against Millwall to seal another win. Their performance up until the second half was insipid, and after the interval they did as their manager asked and "upped their tempo" in search of an equaliser. Marwood eventually scored and the midfielder had a part to play in Smith getting the winning goal. Arsenal dropped two points away to Queens Park Rangers and were beaten by Coventry City – Bould conceded a late second-half penalty which was converted by Brian Kilcline. John Sillett, the manager of Coventry City felt pressure on Arsenal was "beginning to tell on them" and wanted to exploit that. Smith and Perry Groves each scored in Arsenal's 2–0 win against Luton Town, but February ended with a goalless draw at home to Millwall. Doubts were raised over Arsenal's championship credentials as Millwall successfully nullified their opponents' attacking threat. The visitors' own attacking duo – Teddy Sheringham and Tony Cascarino got the better of a struggling Adams, who was fortunate not to have conceded a penalty in the first half. Though Arsenal remained in first place after 27 matches, the gap built at the start of the calendar year was diminishing. ### March–May Arsenal's limitations were laid bare at home to Nottingham Forest as they were beaten 3–1. Clough's team, "the supreme masters of the counter-attack", produced a first-half performance of quality and hit the hosts on the break to score three times. Arsenal's form dipped as they drew 2–2 with Charlton Athletic, leaving themselves 11 points behind Liverpool who had three games in hand. Davis returned to the line-up for only his third league start since October, and made a noticeable difference, "restor[ing] Arsenal's confidence" and gave their attack "imagination." He put Arsenal 2–1 up in the match, but Charlton equalised when Steve MacKenzie raced into the penalty area and from the right unleashed a shot that bobbled over Lukic. Consecutive away fixtures brought mixed results; Arsenal beat Southampton 3–1 before drawing one-all at Old Trafford against Manchester United. Adams, a target for jeers by the crowd, had scored at both ends. The day after the game he saw a picture of himself on the back page of the Daily Mirror with donkey ears. The jibes affected Adams privately, but he later recollected how it motivated him to "play that much better." Arsenal strengthened their position at the top of the table with four straight wins, conceding no goals. Lee Dixon and Niall Quinn each scored against Everton and the team then beat Newcastle United by a single goal. It was a "nervous" performance and "hardly the stuff of potential champions," reflected by the narrow scoreline, though the team did create notable chances throughout the game. Richardson and Marwood were denied by last-ditch tackles, interventions and goalkeeping saves. Arsenal turned on the style against Norwich City a few weeks later, recording their biggest win of the season. Smith, Thomas, Rocastle and Nigel Winterburn were all on the scoresheet and the 5–0 victory opened up a six-point gap at the top of the table. The Guardian correspondent David Lacey opined that the combination play between Smith and Merson was "crucial to Arsenal's momentum" as was Rocastle's athleticism down the right. Martin Hayes made a rare start for Arsenal and crucially scored the winner against Middlesbrough, all but relegating the North-East side. The absence of Davis, out with an injury, was felt as Arsenal unexpectedly lost at home to Derby County. In their final home match of the season Arsenal were held to a 2–2 draw by Wimbledon, paving the way for Liverpool to leapfrog them into first place and move three points clear. With one game remaining, Arsenal's title chances were as good as over. #### Title decider Arsenal's final match of the league season – against Liverpool, was originally scheduled a month earlier, but the events at Hillsborough, which saw 96 of Liverpool's supporters crushed to death in a stadium disaster, meant the game was postponed and rearranged. By the time the fixture drew ever closer, both clubs were close enough on points for it to act as a title decider; the odds however were against Arsenal as they had not won at Anfield in 15 years. Liverpool moreover had not lost by two goals – the margin Arsenal required to win the championship – in three years. The game took place on a Friday evening and was televised to a national audience of over 12 million. Graham made a slight adjustment to his team's formation, bringing David O'Leary in to play as a sweeper in a back five. His thinking was to nullify Liverpool's attacking threat and for much of the first half, Arsenal stemmed their opponents' usual passing game. In the second half, Smith scored, but it looked increasingly likely the title would remain at Anfield as Arsenal struggled to increase their lead. However, deep into stoppage time, Thomas evaded a challenge by Steve Nicol and raced into the penalty area, before slipping the ball past advancing Bruce Grobbelaar to make the score 2–0. The final whistle was blown seconds later, ending Arsenal's 18-year wait to be crowned league champions. Described as "the most dramatic finish in the 120-year history of the English top flight" by BBC Sport in 2008, the title decider at Anfield generated interest in the sport and the events were depicted in Nick Hornby's best-selling book Fever Pitch. ### Results ### Classification #### Results summary #### Results by round ## FA Cup Arsenal entered the FA Cup in the third round (last 64), in which they were drawn to face fellow First Division club West Ham United away from home. Their time in the competition was brief; Arsenal resiliently came from two goals down at Upton Park to force a replay, but they lost the tie at home by a single goal. Graham commended West Ham's approach afterwards, admitting they had done "...a very good job on us. They stopped us scoring and hoped they would nick one." ### Match results Key - In result column, Arsenal's score shown first - H = Home match - A = Away match - pen. = Penalty kick - o.g. = Own goal ## Football League Cup Arsenal entered the Football League Cup in the second round, where they were drawn against Hull City in a two-legged tie. At Boothferry Park, Marwood scored against his former side in a 2–1 win. Arsenal made light work of the second leg, where at Highbury Smith scored twice to make certain of progress into the fourth round. It was at that stage the team exited the competition, against Liverpool. The original tie at Anfield ended in a 1–1 draw, which meant it was replayed at Highbury. Both sides failed to convert their chances over 90 minutes, resulting in a second replay at Villa Park. Merson opened the scoring, before Steve McMahon brought Liverpool level and then his teammate John Aldridge got their second to knock Arsenal out of the competition. ### Match results Key - In result column, Arsenal's score shown first - H = Home match - A = Away match - N = Neutral match - pen. = Penalty kick - o.g. = Own goal ## Football League Centenary Trophy The Football League Centenary Trophy was held during the 1988–89 season to celebrate the 100th birthday of the Football League. It was a knockout competition, between the top eight sides from the 1987–88 First Division. In the quarter-final stage, Arsenal played Queens Park Rangers. Goals from Adams and Marwood were enough to send the club into the following round, where they then faced a makeshift Liverpool side at home. Arsenal took the lead in the tie, when Groves scored, but with 10 minutes of normal time remaining Steve Staunton equalised for the visitors. Arsenal quickly regained the lead however when Marwood's volley looped over goalkeeper Mike Hooper and into the net. The final, staged at Villa Park, pitted Arsenal against Manchester United. Arsenal raced into a 2–0 lead before half-time, but United finished the game strongly and Clayton Blackmore scored to make it a tense finale. Graham's side however held on for the trophy, and the club also received a prize fund of £50,000. ## Squad statistics Arsenal used a total of 17 players during the 1988–89 season and there were 14 different goalscorers. Thomas featured in 47 matches – the most of any Arsenal player in the campaign. Lukic, Winterburn and Rocastle started in all 38 league matches. The team scored a total of 87 goals in all competitions. The top goalscorer was Smith, with 25 goals – 23 of which were scored in the league. Smith and Rocastle were the only Arsenal players named in the PFA Team of the Year for 1988–89; for Rocastle, it was his second consecutive appearance, as he featured in the line up a season ago. Merson was awarded the PFA Young Player of the Year in April 1989, an award voted by his fellow peers and professionals. The ceremony, which was held at London's Hilton Hotel, took place a day after the Hillsborough tragedy. A minute's silence was held and pre-planned extravaganzas were cancelled in respect. Key No. = Squad number Pos = Playing position Nat. = Nationality Apps = Appearances GK = Goalkeeper DF = Defender MF = Midfielder FW = Forward Source: ## See also - 1988–89 in English football - List of Arsenal F.C. seasons

Magic: The Gathering

Collectible card game

Magic: The Gathering (colloquially known as Magic or MTG) is a tabletop and digital collectible card game created by Richard Garfield. Released in 1993 by Wizards of the Coast (now a subsidiary of Hasbro), Magic was the first trading card game and had approximately thirty-five million players as of December 2018, and over twenty billion Magic cards were produced in the period from 2008 to 2016, during which time it grew in popularity. A player in Magic takes the role of a Planeswalker, a powerful wizard who can travel ("walk") between dimensions ("planes") of the Multiverse, doing battle with other players as Planeswalkers by casting spells, using artifacts, and summoning creatures as depicted on individual cards drawn from their individual decks. A player defeats their opponent typically (but not always) by casting spells and attacking with creatures to deal damage to the opponent's "life total", with the objective being to reduce it from 20 to 0, or 40 to 0 in some group formats. Although the original concept of the game drew heavily from the motifs of traditional fantasy role-playing games such as Dungeons & Dragons, the gameplay bears little similarity to pen-and-paper games, while simultaneously having substantially more cards and more complex rules than many other card games. Magic can be played by two or more players, either in person with printed cards or on a computer, smartphone or tablet with virtual cards through the Internet-based software Magic: The Gathering Online or other video games such as Magic: The Gathering Arena and Magic Duels. It can be played in various rule formats, which fall into two categories: constructed and limited. Limited formats involve players building a deck spontaneously out of a pool of random cards with a minimum deck size of 40 cards; in constructed formats, players create decks from cards they own, usually with a minimum of 60 cards per deck. New cards are released on a regular basis through expansion sets. Further developments include the Wizards Play Network played at the international level and the worldwide community Players Tour, as well as a substantial resale market for Magic cards. Certain cards can be valuable due to their rarity in production and utility in gameplay, with prices ranging from a few cents to tens of thousands of dollars. ## Gameplay Cards in Magic: The Gathering have a consistent format, with half of the face of the card showing the card's art, and the other half listing the card's mechanics, often relying on commonly-reused keywords to simplify the card's text. Cards fall into generally two classes: lands and spells. Lands produce mana, or magical energy. Players usually can only play one land card per turn, with most land providing a specific color of mana when they are "tapped" (usually by rotating the card 90 degrees to show it has been used that turn); each land can be tapped for mana only once per turn. Meanwhile, spells consume mana, typically requiring at least one mana of a specific color. More powerful spells cost more, and more specifically colored, mana, so as the game progresses, more land will be in play, more mana will be available, and the quantity and relative power of the spells played tends to increase. Spells come in several varieties: non-permanents like "sorceries" and "instants" have a single, one-time effect before they go to the "graveyard" (discard pile); "enchantments" and "artifacts" that remain in play after being cast to provide a lasting magical effect; and "creature" spells summon creatures that can attack and damage an opponent as well as used to defend from the opponent's creature attacks; "planeswalker" spells that summon powerful allies that act similarly to other players. Land, enchantments, artifacts, and creature cards are considered "permanents" as they remain in play until removed by other spells, ability, or combat effects. Players begin the game by shuffling their decks and then drawing seven cards. On each player's turn, following a set phase order, they draw a card, tap their lands and other permanents as necessary to gain mana as to cast spells, engage their creatures in a single attack round against their opponent who may use their own creatures to block the attack, and then complete other actions with any remaining mana. Most actions that a player can perform enter the "Stack", a concept similar to the stack in computer programming, as either player can react to these actions with other actions, such as counter-spells; the stack provides a method of resolving complex interactions that may result in certain scenarios. ### Deck construction Most sanctioned games for Magic: The Gathering under the Wizards Play Network (WPN) use the based Constructed format that require players to build their decks from their own library of cards. In general, this requires a minimum of sixty cards in the deck, and, except for basic land cards, no more than four cards of the same named card. The pool of cards is also typically limited to the Standard rotation, which consists of only recently released cards. The Standard format helps to prevent "power creep" that can be difficult to predict with the size of the Magic card library and help give newer players a fair advantage with long-term players. Other Constructed formats exist that allow for use of older expansions to give more variety for decks. A large variety of formats have been defined by the WPN which allows different pools of expansions to be used or alter deck construction rules for special events. Commander (Magic: The Gathering) is a one hundred card constructed format that makes many changes to typical deck building rules. In Commander, each of the one hundred cards must be uniquely named, excluding lands and cards that have text that supersede that rule. Additionally, Commander is also a historic format, denoting that any cards from any set release can be used, excluding any specific cards that have been banned from play. Commander as a format has a separate ban list than other Constructed formats. In the Limited format, a small number of cards are opened for play from booster packs or tournament packs, and a minimum deck size of forty cards is enforced. One of the most popular limited formats is Booster Draft, in which players open a booster pack, choose a card from it, and pass it to the player seated next to them. This continues until all the cards have been picked, and then a new pack is opened. Three packs are opened in total, and the direction of passing alternates left-right-left. Once the draft is done, players create 40-card decks out of the cards they picked, basic land cards being provided for free, and play games with the players they drafted with. #### Limitations ### Colors of Magic Most cards in Magic are based on one of five colors that make up the game's "Color Wheel" or "Color Pie", shown on the back of each card, and each representing a school or realm of magic: white, blue, black, red, and green. The arrangement of these colors on the wheel describes relationships between the schools, which can broadly affect deck construction and game execution. For a given color such as white, the two colors immediately adjacent to it, green and blue, are considered complementary, while the two colors on the opposite side, black and red, are its opposing schools. The Research and Development (R&D) team at Wizards of the Coast aimed to balance power and abilities among the five colors by using the Color Pie to differentiate the strengths and weaknesses of each. This guideline lays out the capabilities, themes, and mechanics of each color and allows for every color to have its own distinct attributes and gameplay. The Color Pie is used to ensure new cards are thematically in the correct color and do not infringe on the territory of other colors. The concepts behind each of the colors on the Color Wheel, based on a series of articles written by Mark Rosewater, are as follows: - White represents order, peace, and light, and draws mana from plains. White planeswalkers can summon individually weak creatures that are collectively strong as a group such as soldiers, as well as powerful creatures and leaders that can strengthen all of the player's creatures with additional abilities or strength. Their spells tend to focus on healing or preventing damage, protecting their allies, and neutralizing an opponent's advantages on the battlefield. - Blue represents intellect, logic, manipulation, and trickery, and pulls its mana from islands. Its magic is typically associated with the classical elements of air and water. Many of Blue's spells can interact or interfere with the opponent's spells as well as with the general flow of the game. Blue's magic is also associated with control, allowing the player to gain temporary or full control of the opponent's creatures. Blue creatures often tend to be weak but evasive and difficult to target. - Black represents power, death, corruption, and sacrifice, drawing mana from swamps. Many of Black's creatures are undead, and several can be sacrificed to make other creatures more powerful, destroy opponent's creatures or permanents, or other effects. Black creatures may be able to draw the life taken in an attack back to their caster, or may even be able to kill creatures through a deathtouch effect. Black's spells similarly coerce sacrifice by the player or their opponent through cards or life. - Red represents freedom, chaos, fury, and warfare, pulling its power from mountains. Its powers are associated with the classical fire and earth elements, and tends to have the strongest spells such as fireballs that can be powered-up by tapping additional mana when cast. Red is an offense-oriented class: in addition to powerful creatures like dragons, red planeswalkers can summon weak creatures that can strike quickly to gain the short-term edge. - Green is the color of life, nature, evolution, and indulgence, drawing mana from forests. Green has the widest array of creatures to draw upon, ranging across all power levels, and generally is able to dominate the battlefield with many creatures in play at once. Green creatures and spells can generate life points and mana, and can also gain massive strength through spells. Most cards in Magic: The Gathering are based on a single color, shown along the card's border. The cost to play them requires some mana of that color and potentially any amount of mana from any other color. Multicolored cards were introduced in the Legends expansion and typically use a gold border. Their casting cost includes mana from at least two colors plus additional mana from any color. Hybrid cards, included with Ravnica, use a two-color gradient border. These cards can be cast using mana from either color shown, in addition to other mana costs. Finally, colorless cards, such as some artifacts, do not have any colored mana requirements but still require a general amount of mana to be spent to play. The color wheel can influence deck construction choices. Cards from colors that are aligned such as red and green often provide synergistic effects, either due to the core nature of the schools or through designs of cards, but may leave the deck vulnerable to the magic of the common color in conflict, blue in the case of red and green. Alternatively, decks constructed with opposing colors like green and blue may not have many favorable combinations but will be capable of dealing with decks based on any other colors. There are no limits to how many colors can be in a deck, but the more colors in a deck, the more difficult it may be to provide mana of the right color. ### Luck vs. skill Magic, like many other games, combines chance and skill. One frequent complaint about the game involves the notion that there is too much luck involved, especially concerning drawing too many or too few lands. Early in the game especially, too many or too few lands could ruin a player's chance at victory without the player having made a mistake. This in-game statistical variance can be minimized by proper deck construction, as an appropriate land count can reduce mana problems. In Duels of the Planeswalkers 2012, the land count is automatically adjusted to 40% of the total deck size. A "mulligan" rule was introduced into the game, first informally in casual play and then in the official game rules. In multiplayer, a player may take one mulligan without penalty, while subsequent mulligans will cost one card (a rule known as "Partial Paris mulligan"). The original mulligan allowed a player a single redraw of seven new cards if that player's initial hand contained seven or zero lands. A variation of this rule called a "forced mulligan" is still used in some casual play circles and in multiplayer formats on Magic Online, and allows a single "free" redraw of seven new cards if a player's initial hand contains seven, six, one or zero lands. With the release of the Core Set 2020, a new mulligan system was introduced for competitive play known as the London Mulligan. Under this rule, after taking a mulligan, the player redraws 7 new cards, and then chooses 1 card to place on the bottom of their library for each mulligan they have taken (or chooses to mulligan again, drawing another 7 cards.) This mulligan rule is generally considered less punishing to mulligans than the prior mulligan rule, in which a player would simply draw one less card each time they mulliganed, rather than drawing 7 new cards after each mulligan, and subsequently choosing to “bottom” one card per mulligan taken. Confessing his love for games combining both luck and skill, Magic creator Richard Garfield admitted its influence in his design of Magic. In addressing the complaint about luck influencing a game, Garfield states that new and casual players tend to appreciate luck as a leveling effect, since randomness can increase their chances of winning against a more skilled player. Meanwhile, a player with higher skills appreciates a game with less chance, as the higher degree of control increases their chances of winning. According to Garfield, Magic has and would likely continue decreasing its degree of luck as the game matured. The "Mulligan rule", as well as card design, past vs. present, are good examples of this trend. He feels that this is a universal trend for maturing games. Garfield explained using chess as an example, that unlike modern chess, in predecessors, players would use dice to determine which chess piece to move. ### Gambling The original set of rules prescribed that all games were to be played for ante. Garfield was partly inspired by the game of marbles and added this rule because he wanted the players to play with the cards rather than simply collect them. The ante rule stated that each player must remove a card at random from the deck they wished to play with before the game began, and the two cards would be set aside together as the ante. At the end of the match, the winner would take and keep both cards. Early sets included a few cards with rules designed to interact with this gambling aspect, allowing replacements of cards up for ante, adding more cards to the ante, or even permanently trading ownership of cards in play. The ante concept became controversial because many regions had restrictions on games of chance. The ante rule was soon made optional because of these restrictions and because of players' reluctance to possibly lose a card that they owned. The gambling rule was also forbidden at sanctioned events. The last card to mention ante was printed in the 1995 expansion set Homelands. ## Organized play The Wizards Play Network (WPN), formerly the Duelists' Convocation International (DCI), is the organizing body for sanctioned Magic events; it is owned and operated by Wizards of the Coast. The WPN establishes the set allowances and card restrictions for the Constructed and Limited formats for regulation play for tournaments as well as for other events. "Thousands of games shops" participate in Friday Night Magic (FNM), an event sponsored by the WPN; it is advertised as "the event where new players can approach the game, and start building their community". FNM offers both sanctioned tournament formats and all casual formats. In 2018, The New Yorker reported that "even as it has grown in popularity and size, Magic flies low to the ground. It thrives on the people who gather at lunch tables, in apartments, or in one of the six thousand stores worldwide that Wizards has licensed to put on weekly tournaments dubbed Friday Night Magic". FNM tournaments can act as a stepping-stone to more competitive play. ### Tournaments Magic tournaments regularly occur in gaming stores and other venues. Larger tournaments with hundreds of competitors from around the globe sponsored by Wizards of the Coast are arranged many times every year, with substantial cash prizes for the top finishers. A number of websites report on tournament news, give complete lists for the most currently popular decks, and feature articles on current issues of debate about the game. Additionally, the WPN maintains a set of rules for being able to sanction tournaments, as well as runs its own circuit. #### The Pro Tour and Pro Club (2005-2019) The WPN ran the Pro Tour as a series of major tournaments to attract interest. The right to compete in a Pro Tour had to be earned by either winning a Pro Tour Qualifier Tournament or being successful in a previous tournament on a similar level. The Pro Tour would take place over the course of three days. The first two days were usually structured in a Swiss format. On the final day, the top eight players would compete with each other in a single-elimination format to select the winner. At the end of the competition in a Pro Tour, players were awarded Pro Points depending on their finishing place. If the player finished high enough, they would also be awarded prize money. Frequent winners of these events made names for themselves in the Magic community, such as Luis Scott-Vargas, Gabriel Nassif, Kai Budde and Jon Finkel. As a promotional tool, the DCI launched the Hall of Fame in 2005 to honor selected players. At the end of the year the Magic World Championship would be held. The World Championship functioned like a Pro Tour, except that competitors had to present their skill in three different formats (usually Standard, booster draft, and a second constructed format) rather than one. Another difference was that invitations to the World Championship could not be gained through Pro Tour Qualifiers. They could only be earned via the national championship of a country. Most countries sent their top four players of the tournament as representatives, though nations with minor Magic playing communities would sometimes only send one player. The World Championship also has a team-based competition, where the national teams compete with each other. At the beginning of the World Championship, new members were inducted into the Hall of Fame. The tournament also concluded the current season of tournament play and at the end of the event, the player who earned the most Pro Points during the year was awarded the title "Pro Player of the Year". The player who earned the most Pro Points and did not compete in any previous season was awarded the title "Rookie of the Year". Invitation to a Pro Tour, Pro Points, and prize money could also be earned in lesser tournaments called Grand Prix that were open to the general public and held more frequently throughout the year. Grand Prix events were usually the largest Magic tournaments, sometimes drawing more than 2,000 players. The largest Magic tournament ever held was Grand Prix: Las Vegas in June 2013 with a total of 4,500 players. In 2018, Wizards of the Coast announced that 2019 would be the last season for The Pro Tour and the Pro Club. With these changes, the system eliminated Nationals, the World Magic Cup, and the Team Series. #### The Magic Pro League and the Player's Tour (2019-2022) Starting with a partial season in 2019, the new organized play structure for Magic: The Gathering split into digital and tabletop play with separate Mythic Championships for Magic: The Gathering Arena and tabletop play. The Magic Pro League (MPL) included the top 32 players from the previous season, although two players turned down their spots. The players were notably given a \$75,000/year salary and the opportunity to win much more money in exclusive, tournaments. The new system consisted of several interconnected circuits: The Player's Tour, The Magic Pro League, Challengers/Rivals, Tabletop Mythic Championships, and Arena Mythic Championships. The new organized play system did maintain the yearly World Championship, but it was made a more exclusive 16 player tournament. In order to compete in the World Championship in this structure you must have placed top four in MPL, placed top four in the Challengers/Rivals League, won one of the seven tabletop or arena Mythic Championships, or won of the previous year's World Championship. While the Mythic Championships and Magic Pro League catered to the highest level of competitive play, the Player's Tour system was meant to give a path for average players to go from their local game store to the World Championship. There were three regional Player's Tours for Europe, Asia-Pacific, and the Americas. There were several ways to qualify for a reginal Player's Tour, including local store events, accumulating points at Gran Prix/MagicFests, and winning on Magic: The Gathering Online. In 2021, it was announced that the competitive play system would undergo another shift. Wizards of the Coast stressed a return to in-person play and the disbandment of The Magic Pro League after the 2021–2022 season. According to several players from the MPL, the messaging they received was that competitive Magic would no longer be supported as a full-time, high-paid esports profession. ##### The Return of The Pro Tour After announcing that The Magic Pro League would no longer be supported, Wizards of the Coast announced a return to the branding of The Pro Tour. With a simplified structure, the new Pro Tour system kept some of the original aspects from the system introduced in 2005, like a point system and the World Championship tournament each year. The new system starts players at Regional Championship qualifiers, which are exclusively held by local game shops. Winners of local qualifiers advance to Regional Championships which would be comparable to a Grand Prix in the previous systems. If a player performs well enough at their Regional Championship, they can qualify for a Pro Tour tournament. Players who earned 10 wins in the previous pro tour or have enough Adjusted Match Win (AMW) points from the previous season also earn a Pro Tour Qualification. The World Championship under the new system will have around 128 players who will compete for a \$1,000,000 prize pool. ## Development ### Inception Richard Garfield had an early attachment to games during his youth: before settling down in Oregon, his father, an architect, had brought his family to Bangladesh and Nepal during his work projects. Garfield did not speak the native languages, but was able to make friends with the local youth through playing cards or marbles. Once back in the United States, he had heard of Dungeons & Dragons but neither his local game store nor his friends had a copy, so he developed his own version of what he thought the game would be based on the descriptions he had read, which considered closer to Clue, with players moving from room to room fighting monsters with a fixed end-goal. When Garfield eventually got copies of the Dungeons & Dragons rulesets, he was surprised that it was a more open-ended game but was "dreadfully written". Dungeons & Dragons's open-endedness inspired him, like many others, to develop their own game ideas from it. For Garfield, this was a game he called Five Magics, based on five elemental magics that were drawn from geographically diverse areas. While this remained the core concept of Five Magics, Garfield continued to refine the game while growing up, often drastically changing the base type of game, though never planned to publish this game. In 1991, Garfield was a doctoral candidate in combinatorial mathematics at University of Pennsylvania and had been brought on as an adjunct professor at Whitman College. During his candidacy, he developed his ideas and had playtested RoboRally, a board game based on moving robots through a factory filled with hazards. Garfield had been seeking publishers for the title, and his colleague, Mike Davis, suggested the newly formed Wizards of the Coast, a small outfit established by Peter Adkison, a systems analyst for Boeing in Seattle. In mid-1991, the three arranged to meet in Oregon near Garfield's parents' home. Adkison was impressed by RoboRally but considered that it had too many logistics and would be too risky for him to publish. He told Garfield and Davis that he liked Garfield's ideas and that he was looking for a portable game that could be played in the downtime that frequently occurs at gaming conventions. After the meeting, Garfield remained in Oregon to contemplate Adkison's advice. While hiking near Multnomah Falls, he was inspired to take his Five Magics concept but apply it to collectible color-themed cards, so that each player could make a customizable deck, something each player could consider part of their identity. Garfield arranged to meet with Adkison back in Seattle within the week, and when Adkison heard the idea, he recognized the potential that this would be a game that could be expanded on indefinitely with new cards in contrast to most typical tabletop games; Adkison later wrote on the idea on a USENET post "If executed properly, [the cards] would make us millions." Adkison immediately agreed to produce it. ### Initial design Garfield returned to Pennsylvania and set off designing the game's core rules and initial cards, with about 150 completed in the few months after his return. The type of gameplay centered on each color remained consistent with how Five Magics had been and with how Magic: The Gathering would stay in the future, such as red representing aggressive attacks. Other games also influenced the design at this point, with Garfield citing games like Cosmic Encounter and Strat-o-matic Baseball as games that differ each time they are played because of different sets of cards being in play. Initial "cards" were based on using available copyrighted art, and copied to paper to be tested by groups of volunteers at the university. About six months after the meeting with Adkison, Garfield had refined the first complete version of his game. Garfield also began to set the narrative of the game in "Dominia", a multiverse of infinite "planes" from which players, as wizards, can draw power from, which would allow for the vast array of creatures and magics that he was planning for the cards. Garfield has stated that two major influences in his creation of Magic: the Gathering were the games Cosmic Encounter, which first used the concept that normal rules could sometimes be overridden, and Dungeons & Dragons. One of the "Magic Golden Rules" states that "Whenever a card's text directly contradicts these rules, the card takes precedence." The Comprehensive Rules, a detailed rulebook, exists to clarify conflicts. Simultaneously, Adkison sought investment into Wizards of the Coast to prepare to publish the game. The company had already committed to completing The Primal Order rulebook, aimed to be compatible with most other role-playing systems on the market, which most investment was drawn to. He had to bring in a number of local Cornish artists to create the fantasy art for Garfield's cards, offering them shares in Wizards of the Coast in payment. After The Primal Order was published in 1992, Wizards of the Coast was sued by Palladium for copyright infringement, a case that was settled out of court and with the result that a second printing of The Primal Order removed the rules relevant to Palladium's system, but this case also financially harmed Wizards of the Coast. Adkison decided to create a separate company, Garfield Games, for publishing the card game. While the game was simply called Magic through most of playtesting, when the game had to be officially named a lawyer informed them that the name Magic was too generic to be trademarked. Mana Clash was instead chosen to be the name used in the first solicitation of the game. However, everybody involved with the game continued to refer to it simply as Magic. After further legal consultation, it was decided to rename the game Magic: The Gathering, thus enabling the name to be trademarked. ### First releases By 1993, Garfield and Adkison had gotten everything ready to premiere Magic: The Gathering at that year's Gen Con in Milwaukee that August, but did not have the funds for a production run to have shipped to game stores in time. Adkison took a single box of cards with a handful of complete decks to the Wizards booth at Origins Game Fair hoping to secure the funds by demonstrating the game. Among those he demonstrated to were representatives of Wargames West, manufacturers of historical tactics games; the representatives eventually brought their CEO over, and after seeing the game, took Adkison to dinner and negotiated funding terms. Adkison returned with , enough to make the necessary orders. Magic: The Gathering underwent a general release on August 5, 1993. After shipping the orders, Adkison and his wife drove towards Milwaukee while making stops at game stores and demonstrate the game to drum up support for Gen Con. Their initial stops were quiet, but word of mouth from previous stops spread, and as they traveled south and west, they found larger and larger crowds anxiously awaiting their arrival. Garfield met up with Adkison at Gen Con, where their shipment of 2.5 million cards had been delayed a day. Despite this, by the end of the convention, they had completely sold out. Magic was an immediate success for Wizards of the Coast. By October 1993, they had sold out their supply of 10 million cards. Wizards was even reluctant to advertise the game because they were unable to keep pace with existing demand. Initially Magic attracted many Dungeons & Dragons players, but the following included all types of other people as well. ### Expansions The success of the initial edition prompted a reissue later in 1993, along with expansions to the game. Arabian Nights was released as the first expansion in December 1993. New expansions and revisions of the base game ("Core Sets") have since been released on a regular basis, amounting to four releases a year. By the end of 1994, the game had printed over a billion cards. Until the release of Mirage in 1996, expansions were released on an irregular basis. Beginning in 2009 one revision of the core set and a set of three related expansions called a "block" were released every year. This system was revised in 2015, with the Core Set being eliminated and blocks now consisting of two sets, released semiannually. A further revision occurred in 2018, reversing the elimination of the core sets and no longer constraining sets to blocks. While the essence of the game has always stayed the same, the rules of Magic have undergone three major revisions with the release of the Revised Edition in 1994, Classic Edition in 1999, and Magic 2010 in July 2009. With the release of the Eighth Edition in 2003, Magic also received a major visual redesign. In 1996, Wizards of the Coast established the "Pro Tour", a circuit of tournaments where players can compete for sizeable cash prizes over the course of a single weekend-long tournament. In 2009 the top prize at a single tournament was US\$40,000. Sanctioned through the DCI, the tournaments added an element of prestige to the game by virtue of the cash payouts and media coverage from within the community. For a brief period of time, ESPN2 televised the tournaments. By April 1997, 2 billion cards had been sold. In 1999, Wizards of The Coast was acquired by Hasbro for \$325 million, making Magic a Hasbro game. A patent was granted to Wizards of the Coast in 1997 for "a novel method of game play and game components that in one embodiment are in the form of trading cards" that includes claims covering games whose rules include many of Magic'''s elements in combination, including concepts such as changing orientation of a game component to indicate use (referred to in the rules of Magic and later of Garfield's games such as Vampire: The Eternal Struggle as "tapping") and constructing a deck by selecting cards from a larger pool. The patent has aroused criticism from some observers, who believe some of its claims to be invalid. In 2003, the patent was an element of a larger legal dispute between Wizards of the Coast and Nintendo, regarding trade secrets related to Nintendo's Pokémon Trading Card Game. The legal action was settled out of court, and its terms were not disclosed. While unofficial methods of online play existed previously, Magic Online (often shortened to "MTGO" or "Modo"), an official online version of the game, was released in 2002. A new, updated version of Magic Online was released in April 2008. In February 2018, Wizards noted that between the years of 2008 and 2016 they had printed over 20 billion Magic: the Gathering cards. In 2022, CBR reported that "over 20,000 unique MTG cards have been created" since the game's release. ## Production and marketing Magic: The Gathering cards are produced in much the same way as normal playing cards. Each Magic card, approximately 63 × 88 mm in size (2.5 by 3.5 inches), has a face which displays the card's name and rules text as well as an illustration appropriate to the card's concept. 23,318 unique cards have been produced for the game as of September 2016, many of them with variant editions, artwork, or layouts, and 600–1000 new ones are added each year. The first Magic cards were printed exclusively in English, but current sets are also printed in Simplified Chinese, Traditional Chinese, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish. The overwhelming majority of Magic cards are issued and marketed in the form of sets. For the majority of its history there were two types: the Core Set and the themed expansion sets. Under Wizards of the Coast's current production and marketing scheme, a new set is released quarterly. Various products are released with each set to appeal to different segments of the Magic playing community: - The majority of cards are sold in booster packs, which contain fifteen cards normally divided into four rarities, which can be differentiated by the color of the expansion symbol. A fifteen-card Booster Pack will typically contain one rare (gold), three uncommons (silver), ten commons (black), and one basic land (colored black, as commons). Sets prior to Shards of Alara contained eleven commons instead of a basic land. Shards of Alara also debuted mythic rares (red-orange), which replace one in eight rare cards on average. There are also premium versions of every card with holographic foil, randomly inserted into some boosters in place of a common, which replace about one in seventy cards. - Each set since Kaladesh features two Planeswalker decks, which are meant to help new players learn the game. They contain a 60-card pre-constructed deck with an exclusive Planeswalker, as well as several exclusive cards, two booster packs from the set they accompany, as well as a rule guide and a card board box with an image of the included Planeswalker. - Each set from Shards of Alara to Eldritch Moon featured five Intro Packs, which fulfilled the same function as planeswalker decks. They contained a 60-card pre-constructed deck, as well as two booster packs from the set they accompany and a rule guide. - Each set from Mirrodin Besieged to Gatecrash featured two Event Decks, which were pre-constructed decks designed as an introduction to tournament play. Beginning with Dragon's Maze, each set featured only one Event Deck. However, event decks were discontinued after the set "Battle for Zendikar". - Previously, cards were also sold in Tournament Packs typically containing three rares, ten uncommons, thirty-two commons, and thirty basic lands. Tournament Packs were discontinued after Shards of Alara. As of 2018, the number of consecutive sets set on the same world varies. For example, although Dominaria takes place in one set, the Guilds of Ravnica block takes place over three sets. In addition, small sets have been removed due to developmental problems and all sets are now large. Prior to this change, sets were put into two-set blocks, starting with a large set and ending with a smaller one three months later. Prior to 2016, expansion sets were released in a three-set block (again, beginning with a larger set followed by two smaller sets). These sets consist almost exclusively of newly designed cards. In contrast with the wide-ranging Core Set, each expansion focuses on a subset of mechanics and ties into a set storyline. Expansions also dedicate several cards to a handful of particular, often newly introduced, game mechanics. The Core Sets began to be released annually (previously biennially) in July 2009 coinciding with the name change from 10th Edition to Magic 2010. This shift also introduced new, never before printed cards into the core set, something that previously had never been done. However, core sets were discontinued following the release of Magic Origins, on July 17, 2015, at the same time that two-set blocks were introduced. Wizards of Coast announced on June 12, 2017, that they plan on revamping and reintroducing a revamped core set, and Core Set 2019 was released on July 13, 2018. In addition to the quarterly set releases, Magic cards are released in other products as well, such as the Planechase and Archenemy spin-off games. These combine reprinted Magic cards with new, oversized cards with new functionality. Magic cards are also printed specifically for collectors, such as the From the Vault and Premium Deck Series sets, which contain exclusively premium foil cards. In 2003, starting with the Eighth Edition Core Set, the game went through its biggest visual change since its creation—a new card frame layout was developed to allow more rules text and larger art on the cards, while reducing the thick, colored border to a minimum. The new frame design aimed to improve contrast and readability using black type instead of the previous white, a new font, and partitioned areas for the name, card type, and power and toughness. The card frame was changed once again in Core Set 2015, which maintained the same templating, but made the card sleeker and added a holo-foil stamp to every rare and mythic card to curtail counterfeiting. For the first few years of its production, Magic: The Gathering featured a small number of cards with names or artwork with demonic or occultist themes, in 1995 the company elected to remove such references from the game. In 2002, believing that the depiction of demons was becoming less controversial and that the game had established itself sufficiently, Wizards of the Coast reversed this policy and resumed printing cards with "demon" in their names. In 2019, starting with Throne of Eldraine, booster packs have a chance of containing an alternate art "showcase card". This is to increase the reward of buying boosters and making it more exciting. A new format, "Jumpstart", was introduced in July 2020 alongside the Core 2021 set. These are special themed 20-card booster packs, based on nearly 500 cards, several being reprints of cards from previous sets, with 121 possible packs available. Each is a curated set rather than random selection of cards, built around a theme, such as "Pirates" or "Unicorns". Each theme has a small number of possible card sets on that theme, distributed on a rarity basis, such that the specific booster that a player purchases will still be a random selection. Because many are reprints, not all Jumpstart cards are available to be used in the various Constructed formats but can be used in other modes of play. Jumpstart was designed to make it much easier to get into Magic by eliminating the deck-building but still providing some customization and randomness that comes with card acquisition and deck building. A special Jumpstart format was introduced for these boosters, where players select two desired themes, and are given a random booster from those themes and sufficient land cards to make a 60-card deck. ### Writing and storyline Garfield had established that Magic: The Gathering took place in a Multiverse with countless possible worlds (planes), the game's primary events taking place on the planes of Dominaria, Ravnica, Zendikar, and Innistrad. Only extremely rare beings called Planeswalkers are capable of traversing the Multiverse. This allows the game to frequently change worlds so as to renew its mechanical inspiration, while maintaining planeswalkers as recurrent, common elements across worlds. Players represent planeswalkers able to draw on the magics and entities of these planes to do battle with others. Story elements were told through the cards' flavor text, and a driving narrative. The first expansion Arabian Nights designed by Garfield was based on One Thousand and One Nights folklore and include figures from that like Aladdin. Early expansions were designed separately, each with their own internal narrative to establish concepts, keywords, and flavoring. With Weatherlight, the team wanted to start a longer arc that would cover multiple expansions over five years that would also extend into comics, magazines, and other media. However, with a change in oversight of the Magic: The Gathering team, player fatigue, and a disconnect between the novels and cards, this plan was scrapped. returning to the general approach of designing a narrative specific to one expansion. Wizards, which had regained the license from Harper Prism and Armada (an imprint of Acclaim Entertainment) to write novels for Magic: The Gathering, still worked to integrate the novel writing staff with the game designers so that there was some cohesion between the game and books, but did not seek to make this a key priority as the Weatherlight goal had been. Novels soon gave way to eBooks and later to shorter stories posted on the Wizards' website which fared better in terms of popularity. In 2017, Wizards hired novelist and scriptwriter Nic Kelman as their Head of Story and Entertainment. Kelman became responsible for crafting the Magic: The Gathering story bible from all established lore as reference for further expansions and for the external media. This task helped Kelmen to prepare the novel War of the Spark: Ravnica that was published just prior to the new set War of the Spark, with cards retaining continuity with the novel and past events. ### Artwork Each card has an illustration to represent the flavor of the card, often reflecting the setting of the expansion for which it was designed. Much of Magic's early artwork was commissioned with little specific direction or concern for visual cohesion. One infamous example was the printing of the creature Whippoorwill without the "flying" ability even though its art showed a bird in flight. The art direction team later decided to impose a few constraints so that the artistic vision more closely aligned with the design and development of the cards. Each block of cards now has its own style guide with sketches and descriptions of the various races and places featured in the setting. A few early sets experimented with alternate art for cards. However, Wizards came to believe that this impeded easy recognition of a card and that having multiple versions caused confusion when identifying a card at a glance. Consequently, alternate art is now only used sparingly and mostly for promotional cards. When older cards are reprinted in new sets, however, Wizards of the Coast usually prints them with new art to make the older cards more collectible, though they sometimes reuse well-received artwork if it makes sense thematically. At the back of each card, at the end of the word "Deckmaster", a pen stroke is visible. According to Wizards of the Coast, this is a printing error which was never corrected, as all card backs have to look the same. As Magic has expanded across the globe, its artwork has had to change for its international audience. Artwork has been edited or given alternate art to comply with the governmental standards. For example, the portrayal of skeletons and most undead in artwork was prohibited by the Chinese government until 2008. ### Promotional crossovers Wizards of the Coast has introduced specials cards and sets that include cross-promotional elements with other brands typically as promotional cards, not legal for Standard play and may not be playable even in eternal formats. Four promotional cards were sold at HasCon 2017, featuring three other Hasbro brands, Transformers, Nerf, and Dungeons & Dragons. A special three-card set based on characters from My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic (another Hasbro brand) was sold as both physical product and digital items within MTG Arena to support the Extra Life charity. The "Ikoria, Lair of Behemoths" set released in April 2020 included 16 kaiju monsters from Toho as promotional cards, such as Godzilla. The new Universes Beyond series will bring other crossover properties into Magic such as Warhammer 40,000 and The Lord of the Rings. Polygon reported that the Lord of the Rings themed set, planned for 2023, "will be a complete, Modern-legal set of cards" and "it will be a full product line. That means players will be able to draft cards for pick-up play, and compete in multiplayer games with one of four preconstructed Commander decks". The Secret Lair promotional series has also been used to introduce crossover cards from other brands. As part of the Secret Lair set in 2020, a number of cards were made that featured crossovers with AMC's television show The Walking Dead, which the development team felt was a natural fit since zombies were already part of the Magic game. A limited set of land cards in the Secret Lair featured paintings from Bob Ross, licensed through his estate. In June 2021, Wizards of the Coast announced a Secret Lair based on Dungeons and Dragon cartoon. A planned 2021 Secret Lair drop will feature cards based on Stranger Things, while Fortnite and Street Fighter will be featured in the Secret Lair drop in 2022. Additionally, Wizards has continued to develop a strong connection between the Magic and the Dungeons & Dragons (D&D) universes. Greg Tito, Wizards of the Coast Senior Communications Manager, said that "there is a huge crossover between Magic players and D&D players". In July 2021, a D&D themed set expansion, Adventures in the Forgotten Realms, was released; it is based on the Forgotten Realms campaign setting. Separately, elements of Magic have been brought into the role-playing game. The first such official crossover was a D&D campaign setting book for the plane of Ravnica, a Magic expansion introduced in 2005 and 2006 and later revisited in the 2018 expansion Guilds of Ravnica. Guildmasters' Guide to Ravnica was also published in 2018 to correspond with the newer Magic expansion's release. A second campaign setting book, Mythic Odysseys of Theros (2020), introduced the plane of Theros to D&D and corresponded with the 2020 Theros Beyond Death expansion. Strixhaven: A Curriculum of Chaos (2021) introduces the 2021 Magic expansion as a D&D campaign setting; it was released in December 2021. ## Reception ### Critical reviews Scott Haring reviewed Magic: The Gathering in Pyramid \#4 (Nov./Dec., 1993), and stated that "Not only is Magic the best gaming bargain to come down the pike in memory; not only is it the most original idea in years; it's also a delightfully addictive game that you and your friends will find impossible to put down." Marcelo A. Figueroa reviewed the game in a 1993 issue of Space Gamer/Fantasy Gamer, noting both positives and negatives, stating that, "despite all of its flaws, it's as endearing as Star Fleet Battles". Overall, Figueroa rated the game a 7 out of 10. A 2004 article in USA Today suggested that playing Magic might help improve the social and mental skills of some of the players. The article interviewed players' parents who believe that the game, similar to sports, teaches children how to more gracefully win and lose. Magic also contains a great amount of strategy and vocabulary that children may not be exposed to on a regular basis. Parents also claimed that playing Magic helped keep their children out of trouble, such as using illegal drugs or joining criminal gangs. On the other hand, the article also briefly mentions that Magic can be highly addictive, leading to parents worried about their children's Magic obsession. In addition, until 2007, some of the better players had opportunities to compete for a small number of scholarships. Jordan Weisman, an American game designer and entrepreneur, commented > I love games that challenge and change our definition of adventure gaming, and Magic: The Gathering is definitely one of a very short list of titles that has accomplished that elusive goal. By combining the collecting and trading elements of baseball cards with the fantasy play dynamics of role-playing games, Magic created a whole new genre of product that changed our industry forever." In 2015, The Guardian reported that an estimated 20 million people played Magic around the world and that the game had a thriving tournament scene, a professional league and a weekly organized game program called Friday Night Magic. A July 2019 article in Bloomberg reported that "Magic is part of the [Hasbro’s] 'franchise brands,' a segment that accounted for \$2.45 billion in net revenue for the company last year, bigger than its emerging, partner and gaming brand units combined. [Chris] Cocks said Magic accounts for a 'meaningful portion' of that, with KeyBanc estimating the game’s contribution is already more than \$500 million—including both the physical cards and the nascent digital version. Of the franchise brands, only Magic and Monopoly logged revenue gains last year". Magic: The Gathering Arena, in open beta testing since September 2018, is a free-to-play digital collectible card game with microtransaction purchases based on Magic. Brett Andress, an analyst at KeyBanc Capital Markets, predicts Magic: The Gathering Arena adding as much as 98 cents a share in incremental earnings to results by 2021 (which is at least a 20% boost). Joe Deaux, for Bloomberg, wrote that "nearly 3 million active users will be playing Arena by the end of this year, KeyBanc estimates, and that could swell to nearly 11 million by 2021 according to its bull case scenario—especially if it expands from PCs to mobile. That’s just active users, and registered users could be higher by the millions. Already, according to Hasbro, a billion games have been played online". ### Awards - 1994: Mensa Select Award winner - 1994: Origins Awards for Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Board game of 1993 and Best Graphic Presentation of a Board game of 1993 - 1994: Origins Award for the Legends expansion as Best Game Accessory - 1995: Deutscher Spiele Preis special award for new game mechanics - 1995: Italian Gaming Society Gioco dell'Anno award winner - 1996: Super As d'Or award for "Best New Game Concept and Genre Introduced in France" - 1997: InQuest Fan Award for Best CCG Expansion for the Weatherlight expansion - 1998: Origins Award for the Urza's Saga expansion as Collectible Card Game Expansion of the Year - 1999: Inducted alongside Richard Garfield into the Origins Hall of Fame - 2003: Games Magazine selected Magic for its Games Hall of Fame - 2005: Origins Award for the Ravnica: City of Guilds expansion as Collectible Card Game Expansion of the Year - 2009: Origins Award for the Shards of Alara expansion as Collectible Card Game Expansion of the Year - 2012: Origins Award for the Innistrad expansion as Collectible Card Game Expansion of the Year - 2015: Origins Award for the Khans of Tarkir expansion as Best Collectible Card Game of the Year - 2019: Inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame In addition, several individuals including Richard Garfield and Donato Giancola won personal awards for their contributions to Magic. ### Legacy The success of Magic: The Gathering led to the creation of similar games by other companies as well as Wizards of the Coast themselves. Companion Games produced the Galactic Empires CCG (the first science fiction trading card game), which allowed players to pay for and design their own promotional cards, while TSR created the Spellfire game, which eventually included five editions in six languages, plus twelve expansion sets. Wizards of the Coast produced Jyhad (now called Vampire: The Eternal Struggle), a game about modern-day vampires. Other similar games included trading card games based on Star Trek and Star Wars. Magic is often cited as an example of a 1990s collecting fad, though the game's makers were able to overcome the bubble traditionally associated with collecting fads. Its popularity often was associated with addictive behavior similar to gambling through the allure of gaining new cards in booster packs and expansions, and due to this, Magic: The Gathering has been sometimes called "cardboard crack" by both fans and critics. There was a brief resurgence of a satanic panic over Magic: The Gathering in the mid-1990s, following a similar panic over Dungeons and Dragons, though did not persist for long. ### Secondary market There is an active secondary market in individual cards among players and game shops. This market arose from two different facets: players seeking specific cards to help complete or enhance their existing decks and thus were less concerned on the value of the cards themselves, and from collectors seeking the rarer cards for their monetary value to complete collections. Many physical and online stores sell single cards or "playsets" of four of a card. Common cards rarely sell for more than a few cents and are usually sold in bulk. Uncommon cards and weak rare cards typically sell from 10¢ up to US\$1. The more expensive cards in Standard tournament play—a rotating format featuring the newest cards designed to be fairer and more accessible to newer players—are typically priced between \$1 and \$25. A second format, Modern, comprising an intermediate level of power and allowing most cards released since roughly 2003, has staple cards that often value between \$5 and \$100, with higher rarity and demand but reprints every few years intended to keep the format affordable. Foil versions of rare and mythic rare cards are typically priced at about twice as much as the regular versions. Some of the more sought-after rare and mythic rare cards can have foil versions that cost up to three or four times more than the non-foil versions. A few of the oldest cards, due to smaller printings and limited distribution, are highly valued and rare. This is partly due to the Reserved List, a list of cards from the sets Alpha to Urza's Destiny (1994–1999) that Wizards has promised never to reprint. Legacy-only cards on the Reserved List, which are barred from reprint under a voluntary but genuine legal obligation, are in short supply due to smaller print runs of the game in its oldest days, and may be worth \$200 to \$1,000 or higher. And certain Vintage cards—the oldest cards in Magic, with most on the Reserved List, such as the so-called "Power Nine"—can easily cost more than \$1,000 apiece. The most expensive card that was in regular print (versus a promotional or special printing) is the Black Lotus, which are currently worth thousands of dollars. In 2019, an anonymous buyer purchased an unsigned "Pristine 9.5 grade" Beckett Grading Services-graded Alpha Black Lotus for a record \$166,100. A PSA "Gem Mint 10" graded Alpha Black Lotus, framed in a case signed by its artist Christopher Rush, sold at auction for \$511,100 in January 2021, while a similar Black Lotus of the same quality sold for \$540,000 in March 2023. In July 2023, the singleton "One Ring" card printed as part of The Lord of the Rings crossover set was found by a retail worker in Toronto, who later sold it to rapper Post Malone for . The secondary market started with comic book stores, and hobby shops displaying and selling cards, with the cards' values determined somewhat arbitrarily by the employees of the store. Hobbyist magazines, already tracking prices of sports trading cards, engaged with the Magic secondary market by surveying the stores to inquire on current prices to cards, which they then published. With the expansion of the Internet, prices of cards were determined by the number of tournament deck lists a given card would appear in. If a card was played in a tournament more frequently, the cost of the card would be higher (in addition to the market availability of the card). When eBay, Amazon, and other large online markets started to gain popularity, the Magic secondary market evolved substantially, with the site TCGPlayer.com launched in 2008 being the first that not only compiled the pricing data but allowed for players to buy and sell cards for Magic and other CCGs directly via the site. TCGPlayer developed a metric called the TCG Market Price for each card that was based on the most recent sales, allowing for near real-time valuation of a card in the same manner as a stock market. Buying and selling Magic cards online became a source of income for people who learned how to manipulate the market. Today, the secondary market is so large and complex, it has become an area of study for consumer research called Magic: The Gathering finance. Some people make a career out of market manipulation, creating mathematical models to analyze the growth of cards' worth, and predict the market value of both individual cards, and entire sets of cards. Magic's economy has also been tied to the introduction of Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies, as Magic cards represent a physical asset that can be converted back and forth into the virtual currency. Nearly all of Magic's trading market is unregulated, and issues related to insider trading based on planned changes to the game have occurred. Active Magic financial traders have gained a sour reputation with more casual Magic players due to the lack of regulations, and that the market manipulations makes it costly for casual players to buy single cards simply for purposes for improving decks. As of late 2013, Wizards of the Coast has expressed concern over the increasing number of counterfeit cards in the secondary market. Wizards of the Coast has since made an effort to counteract the rise of counterfeits by introducing a new holofoil stamp on all rare and mythic rare cards as of Magic 2015. ### Academic analysis There are several examples of academic, peer-reviewed research concerning different aspects of Magic: The Gathering. One study examined how players use their imaginations when playing. This research studied hobby players and showed how players sought to create and participate in an epic fantasy narrative. Another example used online auctions for Magic cards to test revenue outcomes for various auction types. A third example uses probability to examine Magic card-collecting strategies. Using a specific set of cards in a specialized manner has shown Magic: The Gathering to be Turing complete. Further, by proving this, the researchers assert that Magic: The Gathering is so complex as to be Turing complete and capable of being "programmed" to perform any task, that in terms of playing an actual game of Magic, "the winning strategy is non-computable", making it an improbable challenge to devise computer opponents that can play Magic in a mathematically optimal manner. ## Franchise Magic: The Gathering video games, comics, and books have been produced under licensing or directly by Wizards of the Coast. ### Other traditional games In 2015 Wizards of the Coast and Hasbro published Magic: The Gathering – Arena of the Planeswalkers. Arena of the Planeswalkers is a tactical boardgame where the players maneuver miniatures over a customizable board game, and the ruleset and terrain is based on Heroscape, but with an addition of spell cards and summoning. The original master set includes miniatures that represent the five Planeswalkers Gideon, Jace, Liliana, Chandra, and Nissa as well as select creatures from the Magic: The Gathering universe. They later released an expansion Battle for Zendikar featuring multi-color Planeswalkers Kiora and Ob Nixilis and a colorless Eldrazi Ruiner, and a second master set Shadows Over Innistrad which has 4 new Planeswalkers and also includes the addition of cryptoliths. ### Video games There are currently two official video game adaptions of Magic: The Gathering for online play. Magic: The Gathering Online, first introduced in 2002, allows for players to buy cards and boosters and play against others including in officially-sanctioned tournaments for prize money. Magic: The Gathering Arena, introduced in 2019, is fashioned after the free-to-play Hearthstone, with players able to acquire new cards for free or through spending real-world funds. Arena currently limited online events with in-game prizes, but is currently being positioned by Wizards of the Coast to also serve as a means for official tournament play, particularly after the COVID-19 pandemic. Both Online and Arena are regularly updated with new Core and Expansion cards as well as all rule changes made by Wizards. In addition, Wizards of the Coast has worked with other developers for various iterations of Magic: The Gathering as a card game in a single-player game format. Microprose developed 1997 Magic: The Gathering and its expansions, which had the player travel the world of Shandalar to challenge computer opponents, earn cards to customize their decks, improve their own Planeswalker attributes and ultimately defeat a powerful Planeswalker. Stainless Games developed a series of titles starting with 2009's Magic: The Gathering – Duels of the Planeswalkers and culminating with 2015's Magic Duels, a free-to-play title. The Duels series did not feature full sets of Magic cards but selected subsets, and were initially designed to couple a challenging single-player experience with an advanced artificial-intelligence computer opponent. Later games in the series added in more deck-building options and multiplayer support. Additional games have tried other variations of the Magic: The Gathering gameplay in other genres. Acclaim developed a real-time strategy game Magic: The Gathering: BattleMage in 2003, in which the player's abilities were inspired by the various cards. Acclaim also had made a 1997 arcade game Magic: The Gathering – Armageddon, a Breakout-style trackball-based game, but only as many as six cabinets were known to have been made. Hiberium and D3 Publisher developed Magic: The Gathering – Puzzle Quest, combining deck building with match-3-style casual gaming. This was released in December 2015 as a freemium game and continues to be updated with new card sets from the physical game. Cryptic Studios and Perfect World Entertainment have started beta tests for Magic: Legends, a massively multiplayer online action role-playing game for personal computers and consoles. The title was cancelled ahead of its full release in 2021; executive producer Stephen Ricossa explained that the game's creative vision had "missed the mark". In addition to official programs, a number of unofficial programs were developed to help user to track their Magic: The Gathering library and allow for rudimentary play between online players. Examples of such programs included Apprentice, Magic Workstation, XMage, and Cockatrice. These programs are not endorsed by Wizards of the Coast. ### Novels Harper Prism originally had an exclusive license to produce novels for Magic: The Gathering, and published ten books between 1994 and 1996. Around 1997, the license reverted to Wizards, and the company published its own novels to better tie these works to the expansion sets from 1998 to about 2011. ### Comics In 1994, Wizards of the Coast gave an exclusive license to Armada Comics, an imprint of Acclaim Entertainment, to publish comic books. The comics were not developed in concert with the game and were created with divergent ideas to the game. However, "much of the lore established" by Armada Comics was "the foundation from which the rest of continuity was built. [...] Some of the details changed (or were 'retconned', in popular fan speak), but for the most part the core of these stories stayed the same". The comics came to a sudden end in 1996 when Acclaim started to run into financial trouble. In 1998, a new four-issue limited comic series was published by Dark Horse. In September 2011, Hasbro and IDW Publishing accorded to make a four-issue mini-series about Magic: The Gathering with a new story but heavily based on MTG elements and with a new Planeswalker called Dack Fayden, the story of which mainly developed in the planes of Ravnica and Innistrad. The series started in February 2012. In 2018, a four-issue mini-series on the Planeswalker Chandra Nalaar was released. A sequel mini-series was announced in 2019, however, it was cancelled before publication. In January 2021, Boom! Studios acquired the comic license of Magic: The Gathering and announced for a new Magic series for April 2021. ### Film In January 2014, 20th Century Fox acquired the rights to produce a Magic: The Gathering film with Simon Kinberg as producer and TSG Entertainment (its co-financing partner), and Allspark Pictures as co-financers, after Universal Pictures allegedly dropped the film from their schedule (both Universal and Hasbro had been developing the original Magic: The Gathering film since 2009). In June 2014, Fox hired screenwriter Bryan Cogman to write the script for the film. In 2019 following Disney's acquisition of 21st Century Fox's assets, the film along with numerous other properties in development at Fox were cancelled. In April 2016, Enter the Battlefield, a documentary about life on the Magic Pro Tour was released. The film was written by Greg Collins, Nathan Holt, and Shawn Kornhauser. The production team behind The Toys That Made Us will produce a documentary Igniting the Spark, The Story of Magic: The Gathering. ### Television In June 2019, Variety reported that Joe and Anthony Russo, Wizards of the Coast, and Hasbro's Entertainment One have teamed with Netflix for an animated Magic: The Gathering television series. In July 2019 at the San Diego Comic-Con, the Russos revealed the logo of the animated series and spoke about doing a live-action series. During the Magic Showcase virtual event in August 2021, they revealed that Brandon Routh would be the voice of Gideon Jura, and that the series will premiere sometime in 2023. The Russo brothers, along with Henry Gilroy and Jose Molina, have since separated from the project, and production has been entrusted to Jeff Kline. ### Parodies In 1998, PGI Limited created Havic: The Bothering, which was a parody of Magic: The Gathering. Wizards of the Coast, which owned the rights to Magic: The Gathering, took active steps to hinder the distribution of the game and successfully shut out PGI Limited from attending GenCon in July 1998. In an attempt to avoid breaching copyright and Richard Garfield's patent, each starter deck of Havic had printed on the back side, "This is a Parody", and on the bottom of the rule card was printed, "Do not have each player: construct their own library of predetermined number of game components by examining and selecting [the] game components from [a] reservoir of game components or you may infringe on U.S. Patent No. 5,662,332 to Garfield." Five official parody expansions of Magic exist: Unglued, Unhinged, Unstable, Unsanctioned, and Unfinity''. Most of the cards in these sets feature silver borders and humorous themes. The silver-bordered cards are not legal for play in WPN-sanctioned tournaments.

Maine-class battleship

Pre-dreadnought battleship class of the United States Navy

The three Maine-class battleships—Maine, Missouri, and Ohio—were built at the turn of the 20th century for the United States Navy. Based on the preceding Illinois class, they incorporated several significant technological advances over the earlier ships. They were the first American battleships to incorporate Krupp cemented armor, which was stronger than Harvey armor, smokeless powder, which allowed for higher-velocity guns and water-tube boilers, which were more efficient and lighter. The Maines were armed with four 12-inch (305 mm) guns and sixteen 6-inch (152 mm) guns, and they could steam at a speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph), a significant increase over the Illinois class. The three Maine-class battleships served in a variety of roles throughout their careers. Maine and Missouri remained in the Atlantic Fleet for their careers, though Ohio initially served with the Asiatic Fleet from 1904 to 1907. All three ships took part in the cruise of the Great White Fleet in 1907–1909, though Maine's excessive coal consumption forced her to proceed independently for most of the voyage. Missouri was used as a training ship for much of the rest of her career, and Ohio took part in the American intervention in the Mexican Revolution in 1914. All three ships were employed as training ships during World War I. After the war, all three ships were withdrawn from service between 1919 and 1920 before being sold for scrap in 1922 and 1923 and broken up. ## Design By 1897, the US Navy had five battleships under construction, and no plans to request additional units for 1898. With the destruction of the armored cruiser Maine in Havana harbor and the subsequent declaration of war on Spain on 25 April 1898, however, a large naval expansion program was passed through Congress. The program called for three new battleships, the first of which would be named for the destroyed Maine. Design work began immediately, though the broad parameters for the new battleships proved to be contentious. The Board on Construction advocated a design based on Iowa, to be armed with 13-, 8-, and 6-inch (330, 203, and 152 mm) guns, though others on the board argued that repeating the Illinois class, which was armed with 13 in (330 mm) and 6 in guns and had a speed of 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph), would save construction time. Additionally, they pointed out that 8 in guns could not be incorporated within the displacement limit. Several important technological advances had become available by this time, however, which necessitated several changes to the design. The advent of smokeless powder permitted smaller guns with greater muzzle velocities; the Navy had accordingly designed a 12-inch (305 mm) 40-caliber high-velocity gun. In addition, Krupp cemented armor had been developed in Germany; the steel was a significant improvement over the older Harvey process. Since the steel was stronger, thinner armor plating could achieve the same level of protection and more importantly, significant savings in weight. Water-tube boilers were also now sufficiently reliable for use in warships. These were lighter and substantially more efficient than older fire-tube boilers. Shortly after the three ships had been authorized, the Navy learned that the Russian battleship Retvizan, recently ordered from William Cramp & Sons in Philadelphia, would be capable of steaming at 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph), a margin of 2 knots (3.7 km/h; 2.3 mph) over the Maine design. The Navy requested that the shipyards submitting designs for the contract increase the speed of their proposed ships to match the Russian vessel. Cramp & Sons responded by lengthening the hull by 15 feet (4.6 m) to increase its fineness (and thus reduce drag) and incorporate new Niclausse boilers, while the Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Company lengthened the hull by 20 feet (6.1 m) and increased the horsepower of the propulsion system by sixty percent, to 16,000 indicated horsepower (12,000 kW). Ultimately, the Newport design was chosen for the new ships. ### General characteristics and machinery The ships of the Maine class were 388 feet (118 m) long at the waterline and 393 ft 11 in (120.07 m) long overall. They had a beam of 72 ft 3 in (22.02 m) and a draft of 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m) to 24 ft 4 in (7.42 m). They displaced 12,362 to 12,846 long tons (12,560 to 13,052 t) as designed and up to 13,700 long tons (13,900 t) at full load. The ships had a metacentric height of 2.36 ft (0.72 m). They had a forecastle deck that extended to the main mast. As built, they were fitted with heavy military masts with fighting tops, but these were replaced by cage masts in 1909. They had a crew of 40 officers and 521 enlisted men, which increased to 779–813 officers and men. The ships were powered by two-shaft triple-expansion steam engines rated at 16,000 indicated horsepower (12,000 kW). Steam was provided by twelve coal-fired Thornycroft boilers for Missouri and Ohio, and twenty-four Niclausse boilers for Maine, which were trunked into three tall funnels amidships. The ships' engines generated a top speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph), though Ohio only made 17.82 knots (33.00 km/h; 20.51 mph) on her speed trials. Normal coal capacity was 1,000 long tons (1,016 t), though Maine could carry up to 1,867 long tons (1,897 t), Missouri had capacity for 1,837 long tons (1,866 t), and Ohio could store 2,150 long tons (2,180 t) of coal. At a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph), the ships had a designed endurance of 4,900 nautical miles (9,100 km; 5,600 mi), though they could steam for 5,660 nmi (10,480 km; 6,510 mi) at that speed. Ohio's significantly greater coal capacity allowed her to cruise for 6,560 nmi (12,150 km; 7,550 mi) at that speed. Steering was controlled by a single rudder, and the ships had a turning radius of 350 yards (320 m) at 10 knots. ### Armament The ships were armed with a main battery of four 12-inch/40 caliber Mark 3 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline, one forward and aft. The guns fired a 870-pound (390 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2,400 feet per second (730 m/s). The turrets were Mark IV mounts, which required the guns to be horizontal to be reloaded. These mounts could elevate to 15 degrees and depress to -5 degrees, and they were electrically operated, and the guns could be operated independently. The secondary battery consisted of sixteen 6-inch/50 caliber Mark 6 guns, which were placed in casemates in the hull. Ten were mounted in a battery on the upper deck, four more were located in another battery directly above on the forecastle deck, and the last two were placed in sponsoned casemates in the bow. They fired a 105 lb (48 kg) shell at 2,800 ft/s (850 m/s). For close-range defense against torpedo boats, they carried six 3-inch (76 mm)/50 caliber guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull, eight 3-pounder guns, and six 1-pounder guns. As was standard for capital ships of the period, the Maine-class battleships carried two 18 in (457 mm) torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside. They were initially equipped with the Mark II Whitehead design, which carried a 140-pound (64 kg) warhead and had a range of 800 yards (730 m) at a speed of 27 knots (50 km/h; 31 mph). ### Armor The ships' armor consisted of both Krupp cemented and Harvey steel. Their main armored belt was 11 in (279 mm) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and tapered down to 7.5 in (191 mm) on the lower edge. The belt was 8.5 in (216 mm) elsewhere and reduced to 5.875 in (149 mm) on the bottom edge. The belt extended from 3 ft 3 in (0.99 m) above the waterline to 4 ft 3 in (1.30 m) below. The main deck was 2.5 in (64 mm) thick and was increased slightly to 2.75 in (70 mm) on the sloped sides that connected it to the belt. The deck was increased to 4 in at the stern. The main battery gun turrets had 12 in thick faces, and the supporting barbettes had the same thickness of armor plating on their exposed sides. 9 in (229 mm) thick bulkheads connected the belt with the barbettes; behind these, the barbettes were protected with 8 in of steel. Armor that was 6 in thick protected the secondary battery. The conning tower had 10 in (254 mm) thick sides with a 2 in (51 mm) thick roof. ## Construction ## Service history After Maine and Missouri entered service, they were assigned to the North Atlantic Fleet, while Ohio, built on the West Coast of the United States, was instead sent to serve as the flagship of the Asiatic Fleet based in the Philippines. In April 1904, a turret fire killed 36 men aboard Missouri, but the quick action of three men prevented the fire from reaching the magazines and destroying the ship, for which they were awarded the Medal of Honor. In 1907, Ohio returned from the western Pacific and joined her sisters in what was now the Atlantic Fleet. During this period, Maine served as the flagship of the Atlantic Fleet until she was relieved in April 1907. In December 1907, the three ships and the other battleships in the Atlantic Fleet steamed out of Hampton Roads, Virginia, at the start of the cruise of the Great White Fleet. The fleet steamed south, around South America and back north to the US west coast. Maine was detached owing to her excessive use of coal along with the battleship Alabama; the two ships continued the journey independently and on a greatly shortened itinerary. The rest of the ships then crossed the Pacific and stopped in Australia, the Philippines, and Japan before continuing on through the Indian Ocean. They transited the Suez Canal and toured the Mediterranean before crossing the Atlantic, arriving bank in Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909 for a naval review with President Theodore Roosevelt. Over the following six years, the ships had fairly uneventful careers. Missouri spent most of the time out of active service, only recommissioning for summer training cruises with midshipmen from the US Naval Academy. In 1914, Ohio was sent to Mexican waters to protect American interests in the country during the Mexican Revolution. After the United States entered World War I by declaring war on Germany on 6 April 1917, all three ships were used to train naval recruits for the expanding wartime fleet. Following the German surrender in November 1918, Missouri was used to ferry American soldiers back from France, though the other two vessels were not so employed, since their short range and lack of sufficient accommodations would have made them inefficient transports. The three ships remained in active service only very briefly after the war. Ohio was decommissioned in January 1919 and Missouri and Maine followed in September 1919 and May 1920, respectively. All three ships were sold for scrap, with Maine and Missouri going to the breakers' yard in January 1922 and Ohio joining them in March 1923.

96th Street station (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line)

New York City Subway station in Manhattan

The 96th Street station is an express station on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. Located at the intersection of 96th Street and Broadway on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, it is served by the 1, 2, and 3 trains at all times. The 96th Street station was constructed for the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) as part of the city's first subway line, which was approved in 1900. Construction of the line segment that includes the 96th Street station began on August 22 of the same year. The station opened on October 27, 1904, as one of the original 28 stations of the New York City Subway. The 96th Street station's platforms were lengthened in 1960 as part of an improvement project along the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line. A new head house and elevators were constructed between 2007 and 2010. The 96th Street station contains two island platforms, two unused side platforms, and four tracks. The outer tracks are used by local trains while the inner two tracks are used by express trains. The station contains two sets of exits: a head house at the northern end, in the median of Broadway at 96th Street, as well as staircases at Broadway and 94th Street. The head house contains elevators, which make the station compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. ## History ### Construction and opening Planning for a subway line in New York City dates to 1864. However, development of what would become the city's first subway line did not start until 1894, when the New York State Legislature passed the Rapid Transit Act. The subway plans were drawn up by a team of engineers led by William Barclay Parsons, the Rapid Transit Commission's chief engineer. It called for a subway line from New York City Hall in lower Manhattan to the Upper West Side, where two branches would lead north into the Bronx. A plan was formally adopted in 1897, and all legal conflicts concerning the route alignment were resolved near the end of 1899. The Rapid Transit Construction Company, organized by John B. McDonald and funded by August Belmont Jr., signed the initial Contract 1 with the Rapid Transit Commission in February 1900, under which it would construct the subway and maintain a 50-year operating lease from the opening of the line. In 1901, the firm of Heins & LaFarge was hired to design the underground stations. Belmont incorporated the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) in April 1902 to operate the subway. The 96th Street station was constructed as part of the IRT's West Side Line (now the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line) from 82nd Street to 104th Street, for which work had begun on August 22, 1900. Work for that section had been awarded to William Bradley. By late 1903, the subway was nearly complete, but the IRT Powerhouse and the system's electrical substations were still under construction, delaying the system's opening. The 96th Street station opened on October 27, 1904, as one of the original 28 stations of the New York City Subway from City Hall to 145th Street on the West Side Branch. ### Early 20th century East Side local trains and West Side express trains crossed over at an at-grade junction north of 96th Street, creating heavy congestion during rush hours. In April 1907, the IRT submitted a report to the RTC, proposing to alleviate the congestion by building extra tracks. On June 27, 1907, a modification called the 96th Street Improvement was made to Contract 1 to add additional tracks at 96th Street in order to remove the at-grade junction north of the 96th Street station. Here, trains from Lenox Avenue and Broadway would switch to get to the express or local tracks and would delay service. The new tracks would have been constructed with the necessary fly-under tracks and switches. The estimated cost of the work was \$850,000. Neighboring property owners objected to the plan since the work required tearing up the street above the tunnel. Accordingly, in December 1908, city officials announced they would introduce speed-control signals, making the 96th Street Improvement unnecessary. Some ramps had already been completed, so provisions were left to allow the work to be completed later on. The signals were put into place at 96th Street on April 23, 1909. The new signals allowed trains approaching a station to run more closely to the stopped train, eliminating the need to be separated by hundreds of feet. When the station opened, the station served as the terminus of local trains; express trains would run as locals north to 145th Street. The first subway line was extended several times, ultimately reaching its full length in 1908, when the northernmost section to the Van Cortlandt Park–242nd Street station opened. the station was served by local and express trains along both the West Side (now the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line to Van Cortlandt Park–242nd Street) and East Side (now the Lenox Avenue Line). West Side local trains had their southern terminus at City Hall during rush hours and South Ferry at other times, and had their northern terminus at 242nd Street. East Side local trains ran from City Hall to Lenox Avenue (145th Street). Express trains had their southern terminus at South Ferry or Atlantic Avenue and had their northern terminus at 242nd Street, Lenox Avenue (145th Street), or West Farms (180th Street). Express trains to 145th Street were later eliminated, and West Farms express trains and rush-hour Broadway express trains operated through to Brooklyn. The platforms were originally 350 feet (110 m) long, like at other express stations, and 18 feet (5.5 m) wide. To address overcrowding, in 1909, the New York Public Service Commission proposed lengthening the platforms at stations along the original IRT subway. As part of a modification to the IRT's construction contracts made on January 18, 1910, the company was to lengthen station platforms to accommodate ten-car express and six-car local trains. In addition to \$1.5 million (equivalent to \$ million in ) spent on platform lengthening, \$500,000 (equivalent to \$ million in ) was spent on building additional entrances and exits. It was anticipated that these improvements would increase capacity by 25 percent. At the 96th Street station, the northbound island platform was extended 100 feet (30 m) south, while the southbound island platform was extended 135 feet (41 m) south, necessitating the replacement of some structural steel girders. Six-car local trains began operating in October 1910. On January 23, 1911, ten-car express trains began running on the Lenox Avenue Line, and the following day, ten-car express trains were inaugurated on the West Side Line. In 1915, the IRT considered constructing a new mezzanine and entrance at the southern end of the station leading to the central mall of Broadway at 94th Street, with an estimated cost of \$60,000. The additional entrance would have reduced congestion at the station, and reduce travel times for people south of 94th Street. In addition, two additional staircases would have been constructed to each island platform. Plans were prepared in 1923. Though the IRT sent a proposed agreement for the construction of the entrance to the New York City Board of Estimate, the Board of Estimate suggested that staircases be constructed on the sidewalk. The IRT decided not to pursue this option since it would cost twice as much, or \$100,000, and decided not to construct a new entrance at the southern end of the station at the time. In 1918, the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line opened south of Times Square–42nd Street, and the original line was divided into an "H"-shaped system. The original subway north of Times Square thus became part of the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line. Local trains (Broadway and Lenox Avenue) were sent to South Ferry, while express trains (Broadway and West Farms) used the new Clark Street Tunnel to Brooklyn. ### Mid- and late 20th century The city government took over the IRT's operations on June 12, 1940. The IRT routes were given numbered designations in 1948 with the introduction of "R-type" rolling stock, which contained rollsigns with numbered designations for each service. The Broadway route to 242nd Street became known as the 1, the White Plains Road (formerly West Farms) route as the 2, and the Lenox Avenue route as the 3. A bottleneck still existed at 96th Street. By 1955, the bottleneck forced some southbound express trains from the 242nd Street branch to remain on the local track at 96th Street, skipping local stops before switching to the express track at 72nd Street. On June 14, 1956, the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) announced a \$100 million (equivalent to \$ million) project to modernize the IRT Broadway—Seventh Avenue Line and improve service. It was estimated that the project would be completed in 2.5 years. In 1957, work began to lengthen station platforms between Times Square and 96th Street, with the exception of 91st Street, to 525 feet (160 m) to accommodate ten-car trains. Originally, stations north of Times Squares could barely fit local trains of five or six cars depending on the configuration of the trains. In 1960, work was completed on improvements at the 96th Street station, including the installation of fluorescent lighting, as well as platform extensions. To make room for the platform extensions, the local tracks and the outside walls had to be moved. A new mezzanine with stairways to the street, and direct access to both express platforms, was built between 93rd and 94th Streets. Once most of the work on the project was completed on February 6, 1959, all 1 trains became local, running at an increased frequency, and all 2 and 3 trains became express, and eight-car local trains began operation. Due to the lengthening of the platforms at 86th Street and 96th Street, the intermediate 91st Street station was closed on February 2, 1959, because it was too close to the other two stations. In November 1959, the Warshaw Construction Company received a contract to remove fifteen entrance/exit kiosks on IRT lines, including four at the 96th Street station. This was part of a citywide initiative to remove the kiosks, which obstructed motorists' views of pedestrians. On August 9, 1964, the NYCTA announced the letting of a \$7.6 million (equivalent to \$ million) contract to lengthen platforms at stations from Rector Street to 34th Street–Penn Station on the line, and stations from Central Park North–110th Street to 145th Street on the Lenox Avenue Line. The completion of the project would allow express trains to be lengthened from nine-car trains to ten-car trains, and to lengthen locals from eight-car trains to ten-car trains. In 1977, a special committee of the NYCTA Board issued a report advising the MTA to halt plans to reduce the hours of 21 token booths, including that at the 96th Street station. A member of the special committee said that the savings from reducing the hours at token booths often was not significant enough to outweigh inconveniences to riders. By 1981, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority had listed the station among the 69 most deteriorated stations in the subway system. In 1983, the MTA added funding for a renovation of the 96th Street station to its 1980–1984 capital plan. The 96th Street station was the location of a chase scene in the 1979 cult film The Warriors. However, the scenes were actually filmed at the unused outer tracks of the Hoyt–Schermerhorn Streets station on the IND Fulton Street Line in Brooklyn. The exterior shots were filmed at the 72nd Street station. ### 21st century In July 2006, Manhattan Community Board 7 approved an \$80 million renovation of the station. Construction started in 2007 on a new head house in the median of Broadway between 95th and 96th Streets, with elevators to the platforms to comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA). Broadway was reconfigured for four blocks to accommodate this. By 2008, renovation of the 40,000 square feet (3,716 m²) station was nearly finished below budget (only \$65 million was used to complete the renovation) and on schedule. Urbahn Architects also restored the platform level to its original design. By 2009, the opening of the new head house was set to be 20 months early and \$26 million cheaper due to budget cuts. The new head house opened on April 5, 2010, and replaced the underpass and side platforms. The side platforms became office and control space, and the entrances were removed to accommodate narrowed sidewalks to offset the new head house's protrusion into the roadway. The elevators opened on November 9, 2010, making the station wheelchair-accessible. Local residents voiced dissatisfaction with the significant loss of sidewalks adjacent to businesses. The intersection of 96th Street and Broadway saw numerous pedestrian and vehicular crashes after its completion; the New York Daily News described the crossing to the new station entrance as "treacherous" in 2014. ## Station layout 96th Street contains four tracks and two island platforms that allow for cross-platform interchanges between local and express trains heading in the same direction. Express trains run on the innermost two tracks, while local trains run on the outer pair. The local tracks are used by the 1 at all times and by the 2 during late nights; the express tracks are used by the 2 train during daytime hours and the 3 train at all times. The next stop to the north is 103rd Street for trains and Central Park North–110th Street for trains. The next stop to the south is 86th Street for local trains and 72nd Street for express trains. When the subway opened, the next local stop to the south was 91st Street; that station closed in the mid-20th century. The 96th Street station is fully wheelchair-accessible, with elevators connecting the street and platforms. As a result of the 1958–1959 platform extension, the platforms are 520 feet (160 m) long. During normal service, southbound local trains use track B1 and southbound express trains use track B2. Northbound express trains use track B3 and northbound local trains use track B4. These track designations are not posted in the station, but are used in the chaining of each individual track, used to measure distance by train crews on the subway. There are two unused side platforms, one beside either local track. A combination of island and side platforms was also used at Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall and 14th Street–Union Square on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line. As originally intended, the island platforms facilitated an easy transfer between local and express trains, while the shorter side platforms provided easy access from local trains to the street. When the subway first opened, it was possible to open both sides of the train at once. As this is not practical on more modern trains, only the doors facing the island platforms are used (to permit transfers between local and express trains), and the side platforms were abandoned. The unused side platforms have been turned into storage space and offices. Before the completion of the main head house in 2010, the station could be entered through stairways along the sidewalks of Broadway, to the extreme north end of the side platforms, then to the island platforms via an underpass. Engineers were unable to build a mezzanine level similar to other express stations for a few reasons. First, directly to the north of the station is an interlocking, and trains heading to the two branches are at the greatest gradients trains can operate on. Lowering the station to provide ample space for a mezzanine would have led to gradients that would have hindered efficient train operation. In addition, it was determined to be too costly to lower a large 6.5 feet (2.0 m)-wide trunk sewer in 96th Street, which was at the bottom of a drainage valley, enough to provide room for a mezzanine. The sewer was lowered 2.25 feet (0.69 m), when an additional 7 to 8 feet (2.1 to 2.4 m) of lowering would be needed to fit a mezzanine. ### Design As with other stations built as part of the original IRT, the station was constructed using a cut-and-cover method. The tunnel is covered by a "U"-shaped trough that contains utility pipes and wires. The bottom of this trough contains a foundation of concrete no less than 4 inches (100 mm) thick. Each platform consists of 3-inch-thick (76 mm) concrete slabs, beneath which are drainage basins. The original platforms contain circular, cast-iron Doric-style columns spaced every 15 feet (4.6 m), while the platform extensions contain I-beam columns. Additional columns between the tracks, spaced every 5 feet (1.5 m), support the jack-arched concrete station roofs. There is a 1-inch (25 mm) gap between the trough wall and the platform walls, which are made of 4-inch (100 mm)-thick brick covered over by a tiled finish. The decorative scheme consists of red tile tablets, pink tile bands, a buff cornice, and buff plaques. The mosaic tiles at all original IRT stations were manufactured by the American Encaustic Tile Company, which subcontracted the installations at each station. The decorative work was performed by tile contractor Alfred Boote Company. ### Track layout North of 96th Street, there are crossovers between the uptown and downtown pairs of tracks, and between the express tracks. The express tracks then descend and turn east under West 104th Street and running northeast under Central Park on their way to the IRT Lenox Avenue Line at West 110th Street. The local tracks remain on the upper level to Riverdale, Bronx. After the express tracks diverge, a center track starts at approximately 100th Street; it is not in regular use. Some evidence remains of the 96th Street Improvement of 1907. As part of the project, one additional track would have run from 96th Street along the east side of Broadway, branching off the northbound local track and descending to the lower level, with a spur connecting to the Lenox tracks at 100th Street. The new northbound track would have then risen and merged with the northbound local track at 102nd Street. At 100th Street, a spur would connect to the other tracks. Two additional tracks would have been constructed, running along the west side of Broadway from 96th Street to 101st Street. The first of these two tracks would have branched off of the southbound local track and run parallel before merging back into that track at 101st Street. The second of these two tracks would have diverged from the first additional track on the west side of Broadway, and would run parallel and at the same grade until 98th Street. Here, the track would descend to the lower level. At 101st Street the track would curve and connect with the southbound track of the Lenox Avenue Line. The completed parts of this project include the third northbound track, which was finished by February 1908. ### Entrances and exits #### Current exits There are two sets of entrances and exits at the station. The main, ADA-accessible entrance is through a domed, glass-clad head house on the Broadway median between 95th and 96th Streets. According to the head house's designer Urbahn Architects, the structure "is a reinterpretation of the archetypal 19th Century train shed", with a vaulted roof made of titanium. Entrances are on both the 95th and 96th Street sides of the head house. Above each of the head house's entrances, the entrance's name plaque reads simply "96" in white letters upon glass, and light-up red circles containing the numbers "1", "2", and "3", the services of the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line. On the 96th Street side, there is a fare booth. The head house contains an artwork by Sigi Moeslinger and Masamichi Udagawa, entitled Bloemendaal. The name recalls the historical name of the Bloomingdale neighborhood. The work consists of 180 stainless-steel flowers, each weighing 3 pounds (1.4 kg). The flowers are placed on seven ceiling beams 12 feet (3.7 m) high, and they can shake slightly to give the impression of a "shimmering garden". There are two staircases each at the southeastern and southwestern corners of 94th Street and Broadway. There is a crossover within fare control at this end of the station. #### Former exits There were two staircases at the intersection of 96th Street and Broadway, one each at the southeastern and southwestern corners. Although fare control was at platform level (on the unused side platforms), there was a free cross-under at this end of the station upon entering the paid area. The staircases were closed when the head house was opened on April 5, 2010, but a part of the original cross-under inside the fare control still exists. There was a control house in the median of Broadway (now removed), which dated to the station's opening in 1904. It was built as one of several station houses on the original IRT; similar station houses were built at Bowling Green and 72nd, 103rd, and 116th Streets.

Great Northern Highway

Highway in Western Australia

Great Northern Highway is an Australian highway that links Western Australia's capital city Perth with its northernmost port, Wyndham. With a length of almost 3,200 kilometres (2,000 mi), it is the longest highway in Australia, with the majority included as part of the Perth Darwin National Highway. The highway is constructed as a sealed, predominantly two-lane single carriageway, but with some single-lane bridges in the Kimberley. The Great Northern Highway travels through remote areas of the state, and is the only sealed road link between the Northern Territory and northern Western Australia. Economically, it provides vital access through the Wheatbelt and Mid West to the resource-rich regions of the Pilbara and Kimberley. In these areas, the key industries of mining, agriculture and pastoral stations, and tourism are all dependent on the highway. In Perth, the highway begins in Midland near Great Eastern Highway, and further north intersects the Reid and Roe highways, which together form Perth's ring road. There are also three rural highways that spur off Great Northern Highway. Brand Highway and North West Coastal Highway provide an alternative coastal route between Muchea and Port Hedland, while Victoria Highway carries the National Highway route and interstate traffic into the Northern Territory. Various road routes are allocated to sections of Great Northern Highway, including the Highway 1 routes National Route 1 and National Highway 1, as well as National Highway 95. The highway was created in 1944 from existing roads in the Wheatbelt and a series of tracks through remote pastoral areas. However, it was a hazardous route that could be dusty in the dry season, and boggy or washed away in the wet season. Some sections were effectively impassable sand, while others contained limestone outcrops. Economic growth and development in northern Western Australia prompted initial improvement efforts, and the federal government's Beef Roads Scheme in the 1960s resulted in a noticeably higher-quality road in the Kimberley. Construction of a sealed road from Perth to Wyndham, including numerous bridges to reduce the impact of seasonal flooding, took many years to complete. The last section opened on 16 December 1989, and received national media coverage. However, by then many older sections were either worn out or not up to modern standards. Various upgrades have been carried out in small sections, across the length of the highway, with further works planned. The southernmost part of the highway, from Midland to Muchea, was bypassed in 2020 by the NorthLink WA project that upgraded and extended the Tonkin Highway to Muchea. This section remains in use for local traffic and tourism to the Swan Valley area. ## Route description Great Northern Highway is the main north-south route between Perth and the northern areas of Western Australia. Covering a distance of 3,195 kilometres (1,985 mi), it is the longest highway in Australia. From Midland in Perth's north-east, the highway heads generally north-east through the Wheatbelt and Mid West to Newman, north-west to the coastal Pilbara town of Port Hedland, along the coastline to Broome, east to Halls Creek, and finally north to Wyndham, on the state's northern coastline. Sixty kilometres (37 mi) out from Wyndham, the highway intersects the start of Victoria Highway, which carries interstate traffic to the Northern Territory via Kununurra. Various road routes are allocated to sections of Great Northern Highway, which is mostly a National Highway route, and also forms part of Australia's Highway 1. It is signed as National Route 1 from Midland to Middle Swan, National Highway 95 and National Route 1 concurrently from Middle Swan to Muchea, National Highway 95 from Muchea to Mundabullangana, and National Highway 1 from Mundabullangana to Victoria Highway. The vast majority of the highway is a two-lane single carriageway, although as of 2014 there are thirteen single-lane bridges and four single-lane floodways in the Kimberley. The speed limit is 110 kilometres per hour (70 mph) except in and around built up areas. Great Northern Highway travels to remote areas of Western Australia, including the Munjina Roadhouse near the Hamersley Ranges, and the communities of Eighty Mile Beach, Wallal, Sandfire and Mandora, which are located between Broome and Port Hedland. It is the only sealed road between the Northern Territory border and major population centres in the north of the state. Economically, Great Northern Highway is also a vital link in the resource rich regions of the Wheatbelt, Mid West, Pilbara, and Kimberley. The key industries of mining, agriculture, and pastoral stations are all dependent on the highway as a significant and in some cases only method of transport. Tourism accounts for a significant portion of the road's traffic, and is a growing part of or potential growth source for the regional economies. The highway provides access to a variety of tourist attractions, including New Norcia and various national parks, including Karijini. Parts of the highway itself are included in the tourist routes Swan Valley Tourist Drive (Tourist Drive 203) in Perth, Chittering Valley Tourist Way (Tourist Drive 359) in Bullsbrook, Midlands Tourist Way (Tourist Drive 360) from Upper Swan to Walebing, and Geikie–Windjana Tourist Way (Tourist Drive 350) from Geikie Gorge National Park to Fitzroy Crossing. Main Roads Western Australia monitors traffic volume across the state's road network, including various locations along Great Northern Highway. From 2007/08 to 2008/09, the recorded traffic volumes ranged between 7,830 and 17,710 vehicles per weekday in Perth, 510 to 2,990 in the Wheatbelt, 470 to 590 in the Mid West, 390 to 10,840 in the Pilbara, and 170 to 4,090 in the Kimberley. The highest percentage of heavy traffic was 52.5%, north of Newman Drive in the Pilbara. Overall, Great Northern Highway performs favourably in terms of road safety, compared to other major highways in Western Australia. Whilst making up two thirds of the state's National Highway network, it was the location of only half of all recorded fatalities for 2005–2009. For that period, the sections of the highway from Wubin to the Sandfire Roadhouse, north-east of Port Hedland, were considered by the Australian Automobile Association to be among the lowest risk highway links in the state. However, the section from Perth to Wubin was rated as medium risk, and the northern sections of the highway were rated medium-high and high risk. In 2013, Great Northern Highway received a similar rating, still higher overall than the other highways. Out of five stars, 21% was rated as one- or two-star, and 79% was rated three- or four-star, with the southern and northern ends of the highway generally less safe than the portion from Wubin to the Sandfire Roadhouse. ### Perth Great Northern Highway begins at Morrison Road, Midland, in Perth's north-eastern suburbs, signed as National Route 1. Though it originally commenced at Great Eastern Highway, that section is no longer contiguous, and is now named Old Great Northern Highway. The highway heads north through Middle Swan, intersecting the start of Toodyay Road after 1.3 kilometres (0.8 mi), and then the meeting point of Reid and Roe Highways after another 1.4 kilometres (0.9 mi). Those highways come together from Perth's ring road, signed as State Route 3, and north of this intersection Great Northern Highway is concurrently allocated National Highway 95 and National Route 1. It continues north through the Swan Valley for 9.5 kilometres (6 mi), passing many wineries, restaurants, and other tourist attractions. The highway crosses the Swan River and intersects West Swan Road, before turning north-east to travel around the residential part of Upper Swan. Great Northern Highway continues north for thirteen kilometres (8 mi) beyond West Swan Road, past larger agricultural properties, to reach Bullsbrook, the last urban area within the Perth Metropolitan Region. After 11.5 kilometres (7 mi) beyond Bullsbrook, the highway reaches the edge of the Perth metropolitan area at the City of Swan–Shire of Chittering boundary, where it passes into the Wheatbelt. ### Wheatbelt In the Wheatbelt, Great Northern Highway links small town sites with the surrounding rural farmland, occasionally passing by remnant patches of woodlands. From the north-eastern edge of Perth, the highway travels north for three kilometres (2 mi) to Muchea. At Muchea the road curves to the west to approach a roundabout interchange with both Brand Highway and Tonkin Highway. Unlike other interchanges in the outskirts of Perth, Great Northern Highway is not free flowing with the interchange configured to have an overpass connecting the northern continuation of Great Northern Highway with Tonkin Highway to the south instead. Traffic wanting to continue on Great Northern Highway needs to turn right at the roundabout to continue northwards while southbound traffic needs to exit the main carriageway and turn left at the roundabout. Brand Highway and National Route 1 continues to the west of the roundabout. There is also a Road train assembly area in the southeast quadrant of the interchange. `Great Northern Highway and National Highway 95 then continues north-east for 26 kilometres (16 mi). It passes to the west of Lake Chittering, curves east to cross the Brockman River, and then back north to Bindoon. Five kilometres (3 mi) further north, Bindoon–Moora Road branches off to the north-west, while the highway skirts east briefly then continues north, reaching New Norcia after 46 kilometres (29 mi). The starting point of The Midlands Road is located at Walebing, 35 kilometres (22 mi) further north; from there, Great Northern Highway heads north-east for 18 kilometres (11 mi) to Bindi Bindi, north for 17 kilometres (11 mi) to Miling, then east for 33 kilometres (21 mi) to the northern end of Northam–Pithara Road, and shortly thereafter Pithara. From here, another 16 kilometres (10 mi) takes the road to Dalwallinu, and Wubin is 20 kilometres (12 mi) further north.` ### Mid West As Great Northern Highway heads north-east from Wubin out of the Wheatbelt, the vegetation changes to arid shrubland. In the Mid West region, the long stretches between settlements show few signs of human activity, other than the highway itself. The first such settlement is Paynes Find, 154 kilometres (96 mi) out from Wubin. At this point the highway heads north again, reaching Mount Magnet after 143 kilometres (89 mi), and then Cue after another 80 kilometres (50 mi). The road travels north-east for 115 kilometres (71 mi) to Meekatharra, and then has a long 412-kilometre (256 mi) stretch up to the northern edge of the Mid West at the Fortescue River, near Newman Airport. Halfway along this stretch the highway passes a roadhouse at Kumarina. ### Pilbara Four kilometres (2.5 mi) after crossing the Fortescue River, Great Northern Highway intersects Marble Bar Road, the highway's original alignment. It proceeds north to Marble Bar, mostly as an unsealed road, whilst the highway deviates north-west, reaching Newman after three kilometres (2 mi). The flat landscape gives way to gentle ranges, which the highway meanders around as it heads west-north-west for 109 kilometres (68 mi). It then curves around to the north, proceeding over a distance of 48 kilometres (30 mi) to Karijini Road, the entrance road to the Karijini National Park. The highway continues north for another 35 kilometres (22 mi), travelling through the north-eastern corner of the national park to Nanutarra Munjina Road. Great Northern Highway proceeds on its journey north, crossing the Yule River and its tributaries. The highway then runs parallel to the Turner River over a 220-kilometre (140 mi) distance until it reaches North West Coastal Highway. This junction is the northern terminus of the National Highway 95, and Great Northern Highway continues north-east as National Highway 1 – part of Australia's Highway 1, which is signed as National Route 1 along North West Coastal Highway. The turnoff for Port Hedland is 32 kilometres (20 mi) north-east of the intersection, and from there the highway heads east for 40 kilometres (25 mi) to the northern end of Marble Bar Road, reaching Pardoo after another 72 kilometres (45 mi). It parallels the coastline thereafter, passing into the Kimberley region shortly after the Pardoo Roadhouse. ### Kimberley From Pardoo, Great Northern Highway travels north-east, paralleling the coastline for 455 kilometres (283 mi), and passing Eighty Mile Beach near the Sandfire Roadhouse. The vegetation becomes denser woodlands once more as the highway heads into the Kimberley's tropical monsoon climate. At Roebuck the highway turns east, heading inland, while Broome Roads spurs off to the west, connecting to Broome. After 145 kilometres (90 mi), the highway crosses the Fitzroy River on Willare Bridge and reaches the turnoff for Derby, Derby Highway, in Willare. Great Northern Highway continues east for 217 kilometres (135 mi) to Fitzroy Crossing, where it crosses the Fitzroy River a second time. It continues east, curving around the southern side of the Margaret River, and reaching Tanami Road after 272 kilometres (169 mi). The town of Halls Creek and the Duncan Road turnoff are 17 kilometres (11 mi) north-east of there. From here the highway heads north for 313 kilometres (194 mi), past Warmun to Victoria Highway. The national highway route turns off at Victoria Highway, travelling past Kununurra to cross into the Northern Territory. Great Northern Highway, however, continues north-west without a route number, passing the eastern end of Gibb River Road after eight kilometres (5 mi), and reaching Wyndham following another 48 kilometres (30 mi). The highway continues on for six kilometres (3.7 mi) to reach the original townsite and the harbour, where it takes on the local names Odonnell Street, McPhee Street, and Harbour Road. ## History ### Highway origins The name Great Northern Highway was first proposed in October 1940 by the state's Nomenclature Advisory Committee, to describe the main route from Midland to Geraldton, Western Australia. This was following the naming of the Great Eastern and Great Southern highways. The Midland Junction Municipal Council approved the name, however at the Geraldton Municipal Council meeting, one councillor suggested that Great Midland Highway would be a better name. The reasoning was that Geraldton was in the centre of the state's coastline, not in the north. It was explained that the highway would continue north past Geraldton, and the council voted to approve the name. By July 1941, the Nomenclature Advisory Committee's proposal had expanded to three highway names for the roads in the state's northern areas: Great Northern Highway for "the road from Midland Junction Town Hall to Wyndham, via Walebing, Pithara, Wubin, Payne's Find, Mt. Magnet, Cue, Nannine, Meekatharra, Roy Hill, Nullagine, Marble Bar, Mulyee, De Grey, Pardoo, Wallal, Anna Plains, Le Grange, Broome, Derby, Noonkanbah, Fitzroy Crossing, Christmas Creek, Louisa Downs, Hall's Creek and Turkey Creek", North West Coastal Highway for "the road from Geraldton to De Grey, via Northampton, Galena, Carnarvon, Boolaganoo, Winning Pool, Giralia, Yanrey, Onslow, Peedamullah, Mardie, Karratha, Roebourne, Whim Creek, Mundabullangana and Port Hedland", and Geraldton Highway for "the road from Walebing to Geraldton via Mingenew". The proposal was well received by the local municipal councils and road boards. The name Great Northern Highway was gazetted on 10 March 1944, under section 10 of the Land Act, 1933–1939. However, the highway was mostly a series of tracks through remote pastoral areas, with the sealed road ending just past the Wheatbelt town of Miling in 1950. Driving was difficult and hazardous all year round. The road was very dusty in the dry season, and some sections of the road were effectively impassable sand, while other sections contained limestone outcrops that damaged tyres. During the wet season, when rivers flooded, sections of road were essentially bogs, or worse still, were completely washed away. ### Sealing the highway #### Initial efforts Economic growth and development in Western Australia's northern regions in the 1940s prompted the state to quadruple road funding between 1946 and 1952. Five "gangs" of workers were allocated to a 2,600-kilometre (1,600 mi) length of Great Northern Highway between Meekatharra and Wyndham. However, given the vast distance the highway travelled, and destructive cyclones in the Pilbara and Gascoyne that could destroy multiple weeks worth of work, the overall improvement was relatively insignificant. Over time, though, the road was improved. New alignments were constructed, such as between Derby and Fitzroy Crossing in the late 1940s, which had originally followed the curve of the Fitzroy River, along its floodplain, and could only be used in the dry season. The new alignment was a more direct 290-kilometre (180 mi) section, with the first eight kilometres (5 mi) sealed, a total of 109 kilometres (68 mi) of gravel road, and the remainder simply formed earth. Despite this low construction standard, the road remained passable except for short periods during heavy rain. #### Beef Roads Scheme In 1961, the federal government passed the Western Australian Grants (Beef Cattle Roads) Act 1961, known as the Beef Roads Scheme, that encouraged road building in the Kimberley. This had followed on from an earlier federal grant scheme in 1949 for the construction of a road from Nicholson to Wyndham. The road allowed trucks to efficiently transport cattle to port, rather than the slow cattle drives that could lose stock and take weeks to complete. The 1961 Beef Roads Scheme initially included upgrading the Wyndham to Halls Creek section of Great Northern Highway as one of three projects in the region. One year later the scheme was expanded to include the Broome to Halls Creek section of the highway, and several bridge construction projects. However, the resources allocated to Great Northern Highway were needed to maintain the highway as an unsealed road in a usable condition, rather than to completely seal the roadway. In 1963, work was completed on stabilising a 68-kilometre (42 mi) sandy section to prevent vehicles from becoming bogged, a 47-kilometre (29 mi) section was realigned to avoid the Fortescue River floodplain, and 40 kilometres (25 mi) between Marble Bar and Port Hedland was also realigned to minimise the effects of wet weather. #### Perth to Newman The projects funded by the Beef Roads Scheme resulted in a noticeably higher quality road in the Kimberley, but work still progressed on other sections of the highway. In 1970, a single-lane sealed section was completed between Perth and Meekatharra. The project was one of the first in the state to be constructed by contractors rather than by Main Roads directly. It cost \$9 million, two-thirds of which was spent after 1959. The next section to be upgraded and sealed was from Meekatharra to Newman, a 414-kilometre-long (257 mi) project that would take four and a half years to construct. Due to the remoteness of the location, airstrips were built alongside the highway, so that workers could be flown in from Geraldton. The highway was realigned in several spots, to avoid difficult areas, improve river crossings, or give drivers a more scenic view of the surrounding area. New bridges were constructed along the route, including a reinforced concrete bridge at the Fortescue River, and a four-span bridge over the Gascoyne River's Middle Branch. By December 1978, the sealed road reached Newman, with the project completed three months ahead of schedule, and at a cost of \$20 million, \$1 million under budget. With a 7.4-metre-wide (24 ft) seal and 2.4-metre-wide (8 ft) shoulders, the road could easily accommodate two lanes of traffic. Previously sealed sections, totalling 485 kilometres (301 mi) of the highway, were less than half that width. Premier Charles Court opened the new and improved highway on 12 December 1978. #### Port Hedland to Wyndham The two-lane sealed road between Halls Creek and Wyndham was also completed in 1978. It involved the construction of 21 bridges, and extensive earthworks designed to blend the road into the terrain. The section was opened on 23 July 1978 by the Minister for Transport, at a cost of over \$20 million. Meanwhile, work on sealing and upgrading the 476-kilometre-long (296 mi) section from Port Hedland to Broome began in 1976. With up to five contractors and four Main Roads teams working throughout the project, it was completed at an extraordinarily rapid pace. It opened in April 1981 at a cost of \$56 million. With the opening of this section, tourist traffic escalated. Cape Keraudren, Eighty Mile Beach, and Broome became increasingly favoured destinations, especially for residents of the Pilbara. Work accelerated in the 1980s as part of the Australian Bicentenary Road Development program. From October 1982, the program provided \$2.5 billion to upgrade the country's roads in the lead up to Australia's bicentenary in 1988. By this time, the only sections of Great Northern Highway yet to be sealed were a 275-kilometre (171 mi) stretch from Fitzroy Crossing to Halls Creek, and another 416 kilometres (258 mi) between Newman and Port Hedland. Construction of the Fitzroy Crossing to Halls Creek section began in October 1981. The route had been surveyed in 1979; with the collaboration of the Western Australian Museum, Main Roads ensured it would not impact important Aboriginal heritage sites. After five years of work, including the construction of nine bridges, the widened and sealed section was completed on 7 September 1986. At the time, this was the final section of the nationwide Highway 1 to be sealed, and there was national interest. The media captured the completion on camera, while the federal Minister for Transport, Peter Morris, together with the Western Australian Minister for the North West, Ernie Bridge, rode on the bitumen truck for the final spray. With this section completed, the Newman to Port Hedland section of Great Northern Highway was the only significant section of unsealed highway in Western Australia. #### Newman to Port Hedland A realignment of the highway between Newman and Port Hedland had been proposed since 1976, which would see the road deviate to the west at Newman, and travel via Wittenoom instead of Marble Bar. In the early 1980s, eleven route corridors were investigated by Main Roads. The potential impacts on the natural environment, regional economy, tourism, and resident population were considered, with particular concern for the crossing of the Hamersley Range. As the highway would pass through the Hamersley National Park, the Environmental Protection Authority decided in 1983 that an Environment Review and Management Program report was required for the Newman to White Springs section. Consultants prepared the report for Main Roads, which found that the key risks were erosion, visual impact, and possible damage to flora. A detailed survey was carried out, which included the use of laser and infra-red measuring devices from within a helicopter, and numerous field trips to determine the final alignment and bridge sites. A comprehensive Environmental Impact Statement was then produced, and the project was approved in mid-1984. In early 1986, the contract for this 12-kilometre (7.5 mi) segment through the Munjina and Mungina East gorges was awarded. Construction of this segment involved tight control over earthworks and machinery movements, to protect the National Park ecology. The finished road was a scenic route curving down through the Munjina Gorge and out onto the Fortescue River flood plain, with cuttings and embankments blending it in with the natural environment. It was opened on 12 June 1987 by the federal Minister for Transport, Peter Morris, having cost \$28.4 million. Other portions of the Newman – Port Hedland link were completed over the next two years, with the last part officially opened on 16 December 1989 by Bob Brown and Bob Pearce, the federal and state transport ministers. This last section of Great Northern Highway also completed the sealing of the National Highway, and the opening ceremony, held on location 212 kilometres (132 mi) south of Port Hedland, received national media coverage. ### Fitzroy River crossing, Willare In the late 1960s, Main Roads investigated alternative crossing points over the Fitzroy River, to replace the existing low-level bridge at Yeeda. Flooding in January 1966 had demonstrated that Willare was the best site. The new route would be thirteen kilometres (8 mi) longer, and required two bridges, but would result in a better quality road. When tenders were called, the river flooded again, washing away 52 metres (171 ft) of the old bridge. Rather than reconstruct the low-level crossing, the construction timeframe was shortened from 18 months to 38 weeks. The 390-metre-long (1,280 ft) Willare Bridge and 200-metre-long (660 ft) Minnie River Bridge opened on 12 June 1968, having cost almost \$700,000. While situated two point one metres (6 ft 11 in) higher than the worst known flood level, the single-lane bridges were designed to accommodate more extensive flood levels, with the water flowing over them if necessary. By the early 1980s, it was clear that the Fitzroy River crossing was still inadequate. Seasonal flooding had closed the road several times, and damaged the embankments leading up the bridges. The crossing had been closed for twenty four days in 1982; while in 1983, the most severe flooding since 1914 extensively damaged 2.6 kilometres (1.6 mi) of the highway, closing it for twenty-five days. To alleviate the problem, two new bridges were built in 1985, and the road was widened and raised two to three metres (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) above the flood plain. The earthworks for the project included constructing guide banks to direct excess water to flow over floodways, which were protected with rocks. This was designed to minimise the time the road would be closed in such a scenario. The \$11 million upgraded crossing was opened on 19 December 1985 by the federal Minister for Transport, Peter Morris. Then, one month later, Cyclone Hector produced 70% more water than the crossing had been designed for. Water overflowed the road all along the flood plain, not just at designated floodways, ravaging the shoulders and then destroying sections of road. Four to five kilometres (2.5 to 3.1 mi) of the highway was washed away, leaving the bridges isolated and disconnected. The road was closed from 27 January to 14 February 1986, with \$200,000 spent just to make the crossing passable. It was then redesigned and rebuilt at a cost of \$1.9 million to make it more flood resistant. ### Further improvements Despite the provision of a completely sealed road, there was still much work to be done on the highway, with many older sections either worn out or not up to modern standards. Narrow sections were widened to a full seven metres (23 ft), and repairs made to the road, shoulders, fencing, and line markings as required, with work carried out in sections and progressing along the length of the highway. Four overtaking lanes were constructed between Mount Magnet and Cue in 1991; and between 1991 and 1993, there were eight contracts awarded to widen, reconstruct, and seal a combined total of more than 190 kilometres (120 mi) of the highway. A range of projects were carried out across the length of the highway between 1996 and 2006. By 1998, a 157-kilometre (98 mi) section between the Sandfire Roadhouse and Victoria Highway had been improved at a cost of \$1.1 million, and another 42 kilometres (26 mi) north of Meekatharra was improved for \$12 million in 1999. Two bridges were constructed in the vicinity of Halls Creek in 2000, and another four in 2004/05, replacing floodways so that the highway would remain open during floods. Similarly, 100 kilometres (62 mi) north of Halls Creek, the 240-metre-long (0.15 mi) Jarlalu Bridge over the Ord River was constructed to replace a single-lane floodway, and was opened in January 2003. That same year, the bridges over the Fortescue and Gascoyne Rivers were strengthened to increase the highway's load capacity. Modifications were made to the steep ascent of the Darling Scarp at Bindoon Hill between February 2002 and April 2003, and Great Northern Highway was realigned to bypass the Dalwallinu town centre. Work on Great Northern Highway has been continuous. From 2004 to 2010, the Muchea to Wubin section was upgraded, with parts reconstructed and realigned, and traffic lights installed at the intersection with Brand Highway. In the Kimberley, five sections between Halls Creek and Victoria Highway were improved between 2008 and 2009 with regards to pavement strength, alignment, safety, and flood resistance. From 2005 to 2010, the Perth section, through the Swan Valley, was upgraded, with the road widened, turning and overtaking lanes constructed, and street lighting improved. Construction of a realignment around Port Hedland's Wedgefield industrial area, including a new parclo interchange at Wilson Street, began towards the end of 2012. It was opened to traffic on 17 June 2014, and on 23 July 2014, Deputy Prime Minister Warren Truss, Federal Member for Durack Melissa Price, and Pilbara MLA Brendon Grylls officially opened the project. It was finalised in August. In October 2013, construction began on a project to straighten and widen Great Northern Highway's curves around Bindi Bindi. The project was completed and opened to traffic on 27 February 2015, and allowed the speed limit to be raised from 80 to 110 km/h (50 to 70 mph). A 21-kilometre-long (13 mi) section between Batty Bog Road (north of New Norcia) and Walebing was reconstructed between September 2014 and 2015. ### Perth Darwin National Highway In the early 1990s, a corridor study conducted by Main Roads into the long-term needs of the Perth to Darwin National Highway concluded the existing Great Northern Highway, with bypasses around rural towns and the Swan Valley, was the most suitable route for the National Highway. Planning the alignment for the southernmost section, from Reid Highway in Perth to Bindoon, was undertaken from 2003 to 2013. It resulted in the planned alignment commencing from Tonkin Highway, bypassing the Swan Valley and Bullsbrook before reconnecting with Great Northern Highway near Brand Highway. Great Northern Highway is then followed until the Brockman River, where the planned route deviates to the east to bypass Bindoon, reconnecting with the existing Highway near Bindoon–Moora Road. The first stage of construction was undertaken as part of the NorthLink WA project. Tonkin Highway's original northern section was made grade separated, and a dual carriageway extended from the original northern end of Tonkin Highway (near Reid Highway) past Ellenbrook and through the Swan Valley to an interchange with Great Northern Highway and a new part of Brand Highway, with the extension continuing on as Great Northern Highway. The previously planned route of the bypass, prior to 2012, followed Lord Street, east of Whiteman Park. The project is funded by both the state and federal governments. Construction began in June 2017, and was completed on 23 April 2020. ### Environmental hazards As observed in the 2018 Broome flood, the highway, and its river crossings are always at risk in extreme weather situations. In 2023, Rio Tinto lost a radioactive capsule somewhere along the Great Northern Highway between Perth and Newman. On 2 February 2023, the capsule was found by a search vehicle which detected its radiation south of Newman. ## Future Further upgrading is planned for Great Northern Highway towards its southern end, as well as elsewhere along the highway. Planning has been completed for widening an 11.4-kilometre (7.1 mi) section of Fitzroy Crossing, including replacing two single-lane bridges. As of 2014, the project is awaiting federal approval, and construction is unfunded. ### Muchea to Wubin Stage 2 Upgrade In late 2015 Main Roads completed a planning review for an upgrade of the highway between Muchea and Wubin. Known as Muchea to Wubin Stage 2 Upgrade, the project continues work undertaken on this section from 2000 to improve the road to National Highway standards. Several bypasses, realignments, and other improvements have been planned at or near Muchea, Bindoon, New Norcia, Walebing, Miling, Pithara, Dalwallinu, Nugadong, and Wubin. Sections near Bindi Bindi and Batty Bog, completed in 2015, were included in the review. The highest priority works These include the New Norcia Bypass, Miling Straight section, Muchea North section (designed to link to the NorthLink WA project), and Miling Bypass. As of November 2015, designs are being finalised for the Walebing Curve, Dalwallinu Bypass, Nugadong, and Wubin Bypass section, while funding has not been confirmed for the Bindoon upgrades. ## Further upgrades The Northern Australia Roads Program announced in 2016 included three projects for the Great Northern Highway. ### Maggie Creek to Wyndham The project for widening and reconstruction works and improvements to road alignments on the Wyndham Spur was completed in mid 2019 at a total cost of \$48.1 million. ### Bow River bridge The project for replacement of the existing low-level single lane bridge with a new two-lane high-level bridge was completed in late 2018 at a total cost of \$23.2 million. ### Ord River north section (stage 2) The project for widening and reconstruction works, including building a new bridge over Tickalara Creek ## Beef road upgrade The Northern Australia Beef Roads Program announced in 2016 included the following project for the Great Northern Highway. ### Ord River north section (stage 1) The project for widening, overlay and reconstruction works, including realigning 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) of road was completed in late 2019 at a total cost of \$15.6 million. ## Major intersections ## See also - Highways in Australia - List of highways in Western Australia - List of major roads in rural Western Australia - List of roadhouses in Western Australia

The World of Strawberry Shortcake

1980 television film

The World of Strawberry Shortcake is a 1980 animated television special written by Romeo Muller, directed by Charles Swenson, and produced by Swenson, Muller, and Fred Wolf. Starring the voices of Romeo Muller, Russi Taylor, Julie McWhirter, and Joan Gerber, it was made by Murakami-Wolf-Swenson in the United States in partnership with Toei Animation in Japan. The soundtrack was written and performed by Flo & Eddie of the rock group, The Turtles, for the opening theme of the series. The plot follows the title character, Strawberry Shortcake, who lives in a fictional place called Strawberryland. In the special, narrated by Mr. Sun, she and her friends celebrate her sixth birthday, and with preparations for her party underway, a villain called the Peculiar Purple Pieman plots to steal the berries from Strawberry's home for making the "pies" that Strawberry baked. The special was produced and sponsored by the Kenner toy company, as the first special to feature the American Greetings character, Strawberry Shortcake. Despite bypassing network television, it aired on March 28, 1980, having been syndicated across over ninety American cities, and was later released on 16mm film, VHS, Betamax, and DVD. The special received two positive reviews in the School Library Journal: in 1983 and 2007. ## Plot Strawberry Shortcake lives in a place called Strawberryland, with her calico cat Custard; her house resembles a shortcake. Her friends – Huckleberry Pie, Blueberry Muffin, Raspberry Tart, Plum Puddin' and toddler Apple Dumplin' – also live close by. One morning, during their Market Day, Strawberry's friends discuss plans for her sixth birthday – all except for Huckleberry Pie. Strawberry's villain, the Peculiar Purple Pieman, lives atop the Pie Tin Palace on a desolate wasteland called Porcupine Peak. While she is doing chores, the Pieman sends his crows – "berry birds" – to retrieve some berries for his pies. Strawberry tries shooing the flock away with her broom, but a moving tree helps out as a scarecrow, and she thanks him for helping. In desperation, the Pieman heads down to Strawberryland himself to get his supply, dressed as a kind old peddler. At noon, Strawberry calls her friends over for lunch, but they leave her behind and go to Lilac Park to prepare for her surprise party. Soon after, the disguised Pieman meets her and offers watering cans for sale. To his chagrin, Strawberry cannot afford to buy a magical one guaranteed to produce strawberries seven feet tall. Assisted by Lucky Bug, Huckleberry's ladybug aide, he goes to the Park, where Huckleberry pays for the equipment. Strawberry soon arrives at the venue to see her friends, who greet her with "Happy Birthday" and give her a present: the Pieman's watering can. The device fails to grow anything and spills over instead, flooding the Park and much of Strawberryland. The children are dismayed that the Pieman tricked them for his berry-stealing plot, and soon they harvest every bit of that supply over to him. The group travels to the Pie Tin Palace on rafts made of flotsam. Landing upon a mud field, they find out from Lucky Bug that Apple Dumplin' ended up at the Palace; they now have no way to rescue her. Mr. Sun, the narrator of the story, grants Strawberry a wish. She wishes to defeat the Pieman, and a grove of marching trees help her accomplish this; their stomping causes the Palace to collapse. Afterward, Apple Dumplin' gives him a note demanding that he surrender and do good deeds; he reluctantly does so, giving the toddler and berries back to Strawberry and her friends. At the end of the special, Strawberry Shortcake offers him a chance to sell his pies at Strawberry Market, and become friends with her, if only she isn't sure. ## Cast ## Production Produced and sponsored by the Kenner toy company, The World of Strawberry Shortcake was the first of six television specials to star the title character. The franchise began in 1977, when American Greetings staff member Muriel Fahrion drew the first designs of Strawberry and her pet cat Custard. In 1979, she appeared in greeting cards; dolls, books and games soon followed. The special was made by Murakami-Wolf-Swenson, which previously worked on The Point! and Frank Zappa's 200 Motels, both from 1971; RLR Associates of New York City was another production partner. Animation work was also handled by Japan's Toei Doga. At the time of production, the producers called it a "morality play for tots". One of the crewmembers was Romeo Muller, writer for several Rankin/Bass television specials. Muller served as writer, co-producer and lyricist of the Strawberry Shortcake special; he also voiced Mr. Sun, the narrator. After he proposed the idea to Kenner, the company and American Greetings agreed to do it. According to Jack Chojnacki, co-president of Those Characters from Cleveland, a subsidiary of American Greetings, the card manufacturer considered new additions to the script, and reminded the writer that every character should be marketable. With those suggestions in mind, Muller came up with a villain called the Peculiar Purple Pieman. The Toy Group division of General Mills, which owned Kenner at the time, spent US\$400,000 on the special. For the music, director Charles Swenson invited the duo Flo & Eddie, who were also involved with 200 Motels and who had an office near the Murakami-Wolf-Swenson headquarters. They wrote three songs in a day, which were approved by both Swenson and Muller, and went on to score the whole special. Mark Volman stated that he and Howard Kaylan aimed "to do something different with children's records", which "weren't really a respected medium and companies weren't used to paying people for producing something slick for kids", with songs that could stand on their own and be liked by fans of the duo's old group, The Turtles, while also providing positive messages for children. The tracks were recorded by Flo & Eddie at Sun Swept Studios, with the only outside musician being the facility's owner, John Hoier. ## Release Upon completion, Muller was satisfied with how The World of Strawberry Shortcake turned out. Although he pointed out the lack of such influences in the special, he told The New York Times in April 1981 that he supposed the show to be a commercial. Some time after the title character's debut at the 1980 American International Toy Fair, major television networks in the U.S. were offered a chance to air the special. They also deemed it an advertisement for the toy line, and rejected it. On March 28, 1980, the special debuted on independent stations in over 90 U.S. cities; it aired on WNEW (now WNYW) in the New York City market, and on KTLA in Los Angeles. Kenner launched a collection of dolls and toys based on the special, concurrently with the original broadcast. This led John J. O'Connor of The New York Times to proclaim, "Onward and upward with the art of marketing!" In 1981, the Lexington Broadcast Services Company acquired syndication rights to The World of Strawberry Shortcake, along with its follow-up, Strawberry Shortcake in Big Apple City. By 1986, the Television Program Source took over the rights for the first special. It was released on 16 mm film by the Coronet company in 1982, and on VHS and Beta in October 1985 by Family Home Entertainment. A Region 1 DVD from Illumination FilmWorks, featuring this special and Big Apple City, was released on March 6, 2007. In Germany, the original special premiered on ZDF on April 4, 1983, as Emily im Erdbeerland. A soundtrack album was released by Kid Stuff Records the same year as the original airing. The track list featured the "Strawberry Shortcake Theme", along with "Smile a Sunny Morning", "Sunflower Market", "Monster Trees" and "Berry Talk". ## Reception The World of Strawberry Shortcake was reviewed twice by the School Library Journal. In December 1983 issue, Margaret Bush said that the "story, characters, dialogue and bits of stage business are busy, bright, contrived, and will appeal of young children". She added, however, that "some of the lyrics and dialogue are not easily understood – it sounds as if adult voices may be attempting to simulate the voices of small children". In 1987, Kathleen Pulcini of The Video Directory called it "delightful fun for children". ## See also - List of 1980s Strawberry Shortcake specials

Northumberland Avenue

Street in central London

Northumberland Avenue is a street in the City of Westminster, Central London, running from Trafalgar Square in the west to the Thames Embankment in the east. The road was built on the site of Northumberland House, the London home of the Percy family, the Dukes of Northumberland between 1874 and 1876, and on part of the parallel Northumberland Street. When built, the street was designed for luxury accommodation, including the seven-storey Grand Hotel, the Victoria and the Metropole. The Playhouse Theatre opened in 1882 and become a significant venue in London. From the 1930s onwards, properties were used less for hotels and more for British Government departments, including the War Office and Air Ministry, later the Ministry of Defence. The street has been commemorated in the Sherlock Holmes novels including The Hound of the Baskervilles, and is a square on the British Monopoly board. ## Location The street is around 0.2 miles (320 m) long and part of the A400, a local road connecting Westminster to Camden Town. It runs from Trafalgar Square eastwards towards the Thames Embankment. At the eastern end are the Whitehall Gardens and the Golden Jubilee Bridges over the River Thames. The nearest tube stations are Charing Cross and Embankment, and numerous bus routes serve the western end of the street. ## History The area which is now occupied by Northumberland Avenue was originally called Hartshorn Lane. It was formed around 1491 after the Abbott of Westminster granted land to the grocer, Thomas Walker, including an inn known as the Christopher and stables. The land was sold to Humfrey Cooke in 1516, then to John Russell in 1531. In 1546, it was sold back to Henry VIII. In 1608–09, Henry Howard, 1st Earl of Northampton built a house on the eastern side of the former Chapel and Hospital of St. Mary Rounceval, at Charing Cross, including gardens running to the River Thames and adjoining Scotland Yard to the west. The estate became the property of Algernon Percy, 10th Earl of Northumberland when he married Howard's great-great niece, Lady Elizabeth, in 1642, whereupon it was known as Northumberland House. In turn, the street was named Northumberland Street. The house was damaged in the Wilkes' election riots of 1768, but was saved after its owner, Hugh Percy, 1st Duke of Northumberland opened the nearby Ship Ale House, driving off rioters. By the 18th century, Northumberland Street was primarily used as a thoroughfare between markets in the West End of London and the wharfs along the Thames. In 1720, historian John Strype wrote that Northumberland Street was "much clogged and pestered with Carts repairing to the Wharfs". In June 1874, the whole of Northumberland House was purchased by the Metropolitan Board of Works and demolished to form Northumberland Avenue, which would accommodate hotels. Contemporary planning permissions forbade hotels to be taller than the width of the road they were on; consequently Northumberland Avenue was built with a wide carriageway. Part of the parallel Northumberland Street was demolished in order to make way for the avenue's eastern end. The street was open by 1876. The hotels were popular for American visitors as they were near to the West End, government buildings on Whitehall and all the mainline stations. By the 1930s, accommodation on Park Lane and Piccadilly was more popular, leading to closures on Northumberland Avenue. The seven floor Grand Hotel at No. 8 became a retail headquarters. It is now an events venue for corporations including Marks & Spencer. The venue is the first in Europe to install amBX lighting. ## Properties Several British government departments have been located in buildings on Northumberland Avenue; the Ministry of Defence and the Air Ministry formerly occupied the triangular-shaped Hotel Metropole on the street. Other buildings include the Nigerian High Commission at No. 9 and a London School of Economics halls of residence. The Playhouse Theatre on Northumberland Avenue was built by Sefton Parry and opened in 1882 as the Avenue Theatre. George Alexander produced his first play here. In 1905, the theatre was destroyed after part of Charing Cross Station fell on it, and was rebuilt two years later. Alec Guinness first performed on stage at the theatre. It was used for BBC broadcasts from 1951 to 1975, broadcasting radio comedies such as The Goon Show and several sessions by the Beatles. The Grand Hotel was built between 1882 and 1887. It had seven floors, 500 rooms and a large ballroom which has largely survived intact from its original design. The original reception room was renamed the Mayflower Room in 1923, and is now called the Salon. Unlike other hotels on Northumberland Avenue that were taken over by the War Office, the Grand has survived as an entertainment and exhibition venue. The Hotel Metropole was designed by Frederick Gordon and constructed between 1883 and 1885. Prince Albert, later King Edward VII, was a regular visitor to the hotel, entertaining guests in its Royal Suite. It had become one of the most popular hotels in London by the turn of the 20th century, being described by the War Office in 1914 as "of world-wide reputation", and was the original location of the Aero Club and Alpine Club. In 1936, it was leased to the Government for £300,000 (now £) to provide temporary accommodation for various departments. During World War II, room 424 was used as the headquarters of MI9, the principal section of military intelligence supporting Allied prisoners of war. The hotel continued to be operated as a government building after the war, and began to be used by the Air Ministry in 1951. The building was sold by the Crown Estates in 2007 and reopened in 2011 as part of the Corinthia Hotel London. The Hotel Victoria opened in 1887, its name commemorating the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria held that year. It held 500 bedrooms and was the second largest hotel in London of its type on opening, overrunning its budget by around £520,000 (now £). The hotel was self-powered, generating its own electricity from dynamos. It was bought by Frederick Gordon in 1893, giving him a monopoly on all hotels on Northumberland Avenue. A refurbishment was started in 1911, though delayed due to the First World War, which resulted in a new annexe, the Edward VII Rooms. It closed in 1940 and was used by the War Office in need of extra accommodation. The War Office bought the building outright in 1951, renaming it the Victoria Buildings. It was subsequently renamed Northumberland House. Thomas Edison's British headquarters, Edison House, was situated on the road. Several prominent personalities of the late 19th century had their voices recorded there by phonograph, including Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone and poet Robert Browning. Mary Helen Ferguson, the first English female audio typist, worked at Edison House and supervised all musical recordings. In 1890, retired military trumpeter Martin Lanfried recorded at Edison House using a bugle he believed to have been sounded at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 and the Charge of the Light Brigade in 1854. The Royal Commonwealth Society was at No. 18 Northumberland Avenue. It was founded in 1868 as the Colonial Society to improve relationships with colonies in the British Empire including Canada and Australia, and moved to its Northumberland Avenue premises in 1885. The current name dates from 1958, reflecting the change from the Empire to the Commonwealth of Nations. It is now a hotel. The Commonwealth Club opened on the premises in 1998 and features the only suspended glass dining room in London. The Royal African Society was based at the same location, before moving to the School of Oriental and African Studies in Russell Square. ## Cultural references Northumberland Avenue is referenced several times in Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes novels, including The Greek Interpreter and The Hound of the Baskervilles. The stories refer to wealthy Oriental visitors staying in hotels along the avenue, including the Grand, the Metropole and the Victoria. The Northumberland Arms, at the junction of Northumberland Street and Northumberland Avenue, a public house, was renamed the Sherlock Holmes in 1957, and contains numerous Holmes-related exhibits from the 1951 Festival of London. The street is part of a group of three on the London Monopoly board, with Pall Mall and Whitehall. All three streets connect at Trafalgar Square. Northumberland Avenue formed part of the marathon course of the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. The women's Olympic marathon took place on 5 August and the men's Olympic marathon on 12 August, with the Paralympics following on 9 September. ## See also - List of eponymous roads in London