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Alien primarily refers to:
* Alien (law), a person in a country who is not a national of that country
** Enemy alien, the above in times of war
* Extraterrestrial life, life which does not originate from Earth
** Specifically, intelligent extraterrestrial beings; see List of alleged extraterrestrial beings
** For fictional extraterrestrial life, see Extraterrestrials in fiction
* Introduced species, a species not native to its environment
Alien(s), or The Alien(s) may also refer to:
== Science and technology ==
* AliEn (ALICE Environment), a grid framework
* Alien (file converter), a Linux program
* Alien Technology, a manufacturer of RFID technology
== Arts and entertainment ==
* Alien (franchise), a media franchise
** Alien (creature in Alien franchise)
===Films===
* Alien (film), a 1979 film by Ridley Scott
** Aliens (film), second film in the franchise from 1986 by James Cameron
** Alien 3, third film in the franchise from 1992 by David Fincher
** Alien Resurrection, fourth film in the franchise from 1997 by Jean-Pierre Jeunet
** Alien vs. Predator (film), fifth film in the franchise from 2004 by Paul W. S. Anderson
** Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem, sixth film in the franchise from 2007 by the Brothers Strause
** Prometheus (2012 film), seventh film in the franchise from 2012 by Ridley Scott
** Alien: Covenant, eighth film in
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] |
the franchise from 2017 by Ridley Scott
* Alien 2: On Earth, a 1980 unofficial sequel of the 1979 Alien film
*Alien Visitor (also titled Epsilon) (1995 film) AustralianItalian science fiction film by Rolf de Heer
* The Alien (2016 film), a 2016 Mexican film
* The Alien (unproduced film), an incomplete 1960s IndianAmerican film
* Alien (2022 film), an upcoming South Korean film
=== Literature ===
* Alien novels, an extension of the Alien franchise
* Aliens: Colonial Marines Technical Manual, a 1995 book by Lee Brimmicombe-Wood, a guide to the fictional United States Colonial Marines
* Aliens (Tappan Wright novel), a 1902 novel by Mary Tappan Wright
* Aliens! (anthology) a 1980 anthology of science fiction edited by Gardner Dozois and Jack Dann
* The Alien (Animorphs), the eighth book in the Animorphs series
* The Aliens (play), a 2010 play by Annie Baker
=== Music ===
==== Performers ====
* Alien (band), a 1980s Swedish rock group
* The Aliens (Australian band), a 1970s new wave group
* The Aliens (Scottish band), a 2005–2008 rock group
==== Albums ====
* Alien (soundtrack), 1979
* Alien (Beam album), 2022
* Alien (Northlane album), 2019
* Alien (Strapping Young Lad album), 2005
* Alien, a 1989 EP by Tankard
* Aliens (soundtrack), 1987
==== Songs ====
* "Alien" (Britney Spears song), 2013
* "Alien" (Jonas Blue
|
Alien
|
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] |
and Sabrina Carpenter song), 2018
* "Alien", a song by Atlanta Rhythm from the album Quinella, 1981
* "Alien", a song by Bush from the album Sixteen Stone, 1994
* "Alien", a song by Erasure from the album Loveboat, 2000
* "Alien", a song by Japan from the album Quiet Life, 1979
* "Alien", a song by Lamb from the album Fear of Fours, 1999
* "Alien", a song by Nerina Pallot from the album Dear Frustrated Superstar, 2001
* "Alien", a song by P-Model from the album Landsale, 1980
* "Alien", a song by Pennywise from the album Straight Ahead, 1999
* "Alien", a song by Structures from the album Life Through a Window, 2014
* "Alien", a song by Third Day from the album Conspiracy No. 5, 1997
* "Alien", a song by Thriving Ivory from the album Thriving Ivory, 2003
* "Alien", a song by Tokio Hotel from the album Humanoid, 2009. Fans of the band call themselves "Aliens".
* "Alien", a 2020 song by Lee Suhyun
* "Aliens" (song), a 2017 song by Coldplay
* "Aliens", a 1984 song by Warlord
* "The Alien", a song by Dream Theater from the album A View from the Top of the World, 2021
=== Video games ===
* Alien (1984 video game), based on the film
*
|
Alien
|
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] |
Alien (Atari 2600), a 1982 maze game based on the 1979 film
* Alien: Isolation, a 2014 video game based on the Alien science fiction horror film series
* Aliens (1982 video game), a text-only clone of Space Invaders written for the CP/M operating system on the Kaypro computer
* Aliens (1990 video game), a game by Konami, based on the sequel of the film
*
=== Other media ===
* Alien (Armenian TV series), a 2017 melodrama series
* Alien (sculpture), a 2012 work by David Breuer-Weil, in Mottisfont, Hampshire, England
* Aliens (Dark Horse Comics line)
* The Aliens (TV series), 2016 British sci-fi television series
* "Aliens" (Roseanne), a 1992 television episode
== Other uses ==
* Alien (shipping company), a Russian company
* Alien Sun (born 1974), Singaporean actress
* Alien, a perfume by Thierry Mugler
== See also ==
* Alians, an Islamic order
* Alien Project (disambiguation)
* Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)
* Astrobiology, the study of hypothetical alien life
* ATLiens, a 1996 album by OutKast
* Predator (disambiguation)
* UFO (disambiguation)
* Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)
|
Alien
|
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] |
In law, an answer was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to someone or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defense, a reply to a question or response, or objection, or a correct solution of a problem.
In the common law, an answer is the first pleading by a defendant, usually filed and served upon the plaintiff within a certain strict time limit after a civil complaint or criminal information or indictment has been served upon the defendant. It may have been preceded by an optional "pre-answer" motion to dismiss or demurrer; if such a motion is unsuccessful, the defendant must file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse default judgment.
In a criminal case, there is usually an arraignment or some other kind of appearance before the defendant comes to court. The pleading in the criminal case, which is entered on the record in open court, is usually either guilty or not guilty. Generally speaking in private, civil cases there is no plea entered of guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of equitable remedy such as restitution or a permanent injunction. Criminal cases may lead to
|
Answer (law)
|
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] |
fines or other punishment, such as imprisonment.
The famous Latin Responsa Prudentium ("answers of the learned ones") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative.
During debates of a contentious nature, deflection, colloquially known as 'changing the topic', has been widely observed, and is often seen as a failure to answer a question.
==Notes==
Category:Common law
Category:Legal documents
|
Answer (law)
|
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] |
This article is about the demographic features of the population of Angola, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
According to 2014 census data, Angola had a population of 25,789,024 inhabitants in 2014.
Ethnically, there are three main groups, each speaking a Bantu language: the Ovimbundu who represent 37% of the population, the Ambundu with 25%, and the Bakongo 13%. Other numerically important groups include the closely interrelated Chokwe and Lunda, the Ganguela and Nyaneka-Khumbi (in both cases classification terms that stand for a variety of small groups), the Ovambo, the Herero, the Xindonga and scattered residual groups of San. In addition, mixed race (European and African) people amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically Portuguese.
As a former overseas territory of Portugal until 1975, Angola possesses a Portuguese population of over 200,000, a number that has been growing from 2000 onwards, because of Angola's growing demand for qualified human resources. Currently, over 300,000 Angolans are white, 1 million Angolans are mixed race (black and white) and 50,000 Angolans are from China, which accounts for 1.35 million people. In 1974, white Angolans made
|
Demographics of Angola
|
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] |
up a population of 330,000 to 350,000 people in an overall population of 6.3 million Angolans at that time. The only reliable source on these numbers is Gerald Bender & Stanley Yoder, Whites in Angola on the Eve of Independence: The Politics of Numbers, Africa Today, 21 (4) 1974, pp. 23 – 37. Today, many Angolans who are not ethnic Portuguese can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law. Estimates on the overall population are given in O País Portugueses em Angola quadruplicaram , Jornal de Notícias (March 10, 2009) Besides the Portuguese, significant numbers of people from other European and from diverse Latin American countries (especially Brazil) can be found. From the 2000s, many Chinese have settled and started up small businesses, while at least as many have come as workers for large enterprises (construction or other). Observers claim that the Chinese community in Angola might include as many as 300,000 persons at the end of 2010, but reliable statistics are not at this stage available. In 1974/75, over 25,000 Cuban soldiers arrived in Angola to help the MPLA forces at the beginning of the Angolan Civil War. Once this was over, a massive development cooperation in the field of health
|
Demographics of Angola
|
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] |
and education brought in numerous civil personnel from Cuba. However, only a very small percentage of all these people has remained in Angola, either for personal reasons (intermarriage) or as professionals (e.g., medical doctors).
The largest religious denomination is Catholicism, to which adheres about half the population. Roughly 26% are followers of traditional forms of Protestantism (Congregationals, Methodists, Baptista, Lutherans, Reformed), but over the last decades there has in addition been a growth of Pentecostal communities and African Initiated Churches. In 2006, one out of 221 people were Jehovah's Witnesses. Blacks from Mali, Nigeria and Senegal are mostly Sunnite Muslims, but do not make up more than 1 - 2% of the population. By now few Angolans retain African traditional religions following different ethnic faiths.
==Population==
According to the 2022 revision of the world factbook the total population was 34,795,287 in 2022. The proportion of children below the age of 14 in 2020 was 47.83%, 49.87% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.3% was 65 years or older.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right;"
|-
!
! width="80pt"|Total population
! width="80pt"|Population aged 0–14 (%)
! width="80pt"|Population aged 15–64 (%)
! width="80pt"|Population aged 65+ (%)
|-
| 1950
|4,148,000||41.2||55.7||3.1
|-
| 1955
|4,542,000||42.4||54.9||2.7
|-
| 1960
|4,963,000||43.7||53.6||2.7
|-
| 1965
|5,431,000||45.3||52.0||2.7
|-
| 1970
|5,926,000||46.0||51.3||2.7
|-
| 1975
|6,637,000||46.2||51.1||2.7
|-
| 1980
|7,638,000||46.5||50.8||2.7
|-
| 1985
|9,066,000||47.0||50.4||2.7
|-
| 1990
|10,335,000||47.5||49.9||2.6
|-
| 1995
|12,105,000||47.6||49.8||2.5
|-
| 2000
|13,926,000||47.7||49.9||2.5
|-
| 2005
|16,489,000||47.6||49.9||2.5
|-
| 2010
|19,082,000||46.6||50.9||2.5
|-
| 2014
|25,789,000||47.3||50.3||2.4
|-
| 2020
|32,522,339||47.8||49.9||2.3
|}
Population
|
Demographics of Angola
|
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] |
by Sex and Age Group (Census 16.V.2014):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 12 499 041
| align="right" | 13 289 983
| align="right" | 25 789 024
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 2 484 582
| align="right" | 2 513 566
| align="right" | 4 998 148
| align="right" | 19.38
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 2 062 888
| align="right" | 2 097 287
| align="right" | 4 160 174
| align="right" | 16.13
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 1 504 180
| align="right" | 1 533 993
| align="right" | 3 038 173
| align="right" | 11.78
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 1 222 700
| align="right" | 1 287 736
| align="right" | 2 510 436
| align="right" | 9.73
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 1 020 699
| align="right" | 1 153 802
| align="right" | 2 174 501
| align="right" | 8.43
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 913 726
| align="right" | 1 031 323
| align="right" | 1 945 050
| align="right" | 7.54
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 714 239
| align="right" | 789 281
| align="right" | 1 503 520
| align="right" | 5.83
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 654 408
| align="right" | 728 550
| align="right" | 1 382 959
| align="right" | 5.36
|-
| align="right" |
|
Demographics of Angola
|
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] |
40–44
| align="right" | 510 344
| align="right" | 539 742
| align="right" | 1 050 085
| align="right" | 4.07
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 417 953
| align="right" | 446 951
| align="right" | 864 904
| align="right" | 3.35
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 332 638
| align="right" | 376 532
| align="right" | 709 169
| align="right" | 2.75
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 229 641
| align="right" | 253 678
| align="right" | 483 319
| align="right" | 1.87
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 165 937
| align="right" | 190 217
| align="right" | 356 154
| align="right" | 1.38
|-
| align="right" | 65-69
| align="right" | 95 614
| align="right" | 119 773
| align="right" | 215 387
| align="right" | 0.84
|-
| align="right" | 70-74
| align="right" | 78 673
| align="right" | 101 494
| align="right" | 180 167
| align="right" | 0.70
|-
| align="right" | 75-79
| align="right" | 39 257
| align="right" | 53 687
| align="right" | 92 944
| align="right" | 0.36
|-
| align="right" | 80-84
| align="right" | 28 351
| align="right" | 38 441
| align="right" | 66 792
| align="right" | 0.26
|-
| align="right" | 85-89
| align="right" | 9 967
| align="right" | 14 861
| align="right" | 24 828
| align="right" | 0.10
|-
| align="right" | 90-94
| align="right" | 7 603
| align="right" | 10 572
| align="right" | 18 175
| align="right" | 0.07
|-
| align="right" | 95+
|
|
Demographics of Angola
|
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] |
align="right" | 5 640
| align="right" | 8 498
| align="right" | 14 138
| align="right" | 0.05
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80"|Female
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 6 051 650
| align="right" | 6 144 846
| align="right" | 12 196 496
| align="right" | 47.29
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 6 182 286
| align="right" | 6 797 811
| align="right" | 12 980 097
| align="right" | 50.33
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 265 105
| align="right" | 347 326
| align="right" | 612 431
| align="right" | 2.37
|-
|}
Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2020):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 15 168 180
| align="right" | 15 959 494
| align="right" | 31 127 674
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 2 499 013
| align="right" | 2 501 045
| align="right" | 5 000 058
| align="right" | 16.06
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 2 486 762
| align="right" | 2 525 617
| align="right" | 5 012 379
| align="right" | 16.10
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 2 109 413
| align="right" | 2 147 502
| align="right" | 4 256 915
| align="right" | 13.68
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 1 646 467
| align="right" | 1 703 593
| align="right" | 3 350 060
| align="right" |
|
Demographics of Angola
|
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] |
10.76
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 1 324 586
| align="right" | 1 389 321
| align="right" | 2 713 907
| align="right" | 8.72
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 1 080 096
| align="right" | 1 160 339
| align="right" | 2 240 435
| align="right" | 7.20
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 893 015
| align="right" | 978 811
| align="right" | 1 871 826
| align="right" | 6.01
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 743 420
| align="right" | 828 169
| align="right" | 1 571 589
| align="right" | 5.05
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 618 724
| align="right" | 692 419
| align="right" | 1 311 143
| align="right" | 4.21
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 503 305
| align="right" | 556 808
| align="right" | 1 060 113
| align="right" | 3.41
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 401 888
| align="right" | 445 257
| align="right" | 847 145
| align="right" | 2.72
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 304 199
| align="right" | 343 355
| align="right" | 647 554
| align="right" | 2.08
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 222 814
| align="right" | 258 393
| align="right" | 481 207
| align="right" | 1.55
|-
| align="right" | 65-69
| align="right" | 148 455
| align="right" | 180 188
| align="right" | 328 643
| align="right" | 1.06
|-
| align="right" | 70-74
| align="right" | 93 883
| align="right"
|
Demographics of Angola
|
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] |
| 119 433
| align="right" | 213 316
| align="right" | 0.69
|-
| align="right" | 75-79
| align="right" | 53 235
| align="right" | 71 070
| align="right" | 124 305
| align="right" | 0.40
|-
| align="right" | 80+
| align="right" | 38 905
| align="right" | 58 174
| align="right" | 97 079
| align="right" | 0.31
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80"|Female
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 7 095 188
| align="right" | 7 174 164
| align="right" | 14 269 352
| align="right" | 45.84
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 7 738 514
| align="right" | 8 356 465
| align="right" | 16 094 979
| align="right" | 51.71
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 334 478
| align="right" | 428 865
| align="right" | 763 343
| align="right" | 2.45
|-
|}
==Vital statistics==
Registration of vital events in Angola is not complete. The website Our World in Data prepared the following estimates based on statistics from the Population Department of the United Nations.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|-
!
! style="width:80pt;"|Mid-year population (thousands)
! style="width:80pt;"|Live births (thousands)
! style="width:80pt;"|Deaths (thousands)
! style="width:80pt;"|Natural change (thousands)
! style="width:80pt;"|Crude birth rate (per 1000)
! style="width:80pt;"|Crude death rate (per 1000)
! style="width:80pt;"|Natural change (per 1000)
! style="width:80pt;"|Total fertility rate (TFR)
! style="width:80pt;"|Infant mortality (per 1000 live births)
! style="width:80pt;"|Life expectancy (in years)
|-
|1950
|4 478
| 207
| 119
| 88
|46.1
|26.5
|19.7
|5.77
|181.3
|36.35
|-
|1951
| 4 570
| 212
| 122
| 91
|46.5
|26.7
|19.8
|5.83
|180.9
|36.39
|-
|1952
| 4 664
| 220
|
|
Demographics of Angola
|
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] |
125
| 95
|47.2
|26.8
|20.4
|5.95
|180.0
|36.52
|-
|1953
| 4 759
| 227
| 128
| 100
|47.8
|26.8
|21.0
|6.06
|179.1
|36.73
|-
|1954
| 4 850
| 235
| 130
| 105
|48.4
|26.8
|21.5
|6.17
|178.1
|36.89
|-
|1955
| 4 938
| 242
| 133
| 109
|48.9
|26.8
|22.0
|6.27
|177.0
|37.12
|-
|1956
| 5 022
| 249
| 136
| 113
|49.4
|26.9
|22.5
|6.36
|175.8
|37.28
|-
|1957
| 5 104
| 256
| 138
| 118
|49.9
|26.9
|23.0
|6.46
|174.6
|37.50
|-
|1958
| 5 186
| 262
| 140
| 122
|50.3
|26.9
|23.5
|6.54
|173.3
|37.70
|-
|1959
| 5 270
| 268
| 142
| 127
|50.7
|26.8
|24.0
|6.63
|171.9
|37.97
|-
|1960
| 5 357
| 275
| 143
| 131
|51.0
|26.7
|24.4
|6.71
|170.4
|38.21
|-
|1961
| 5 441
| 280
| 150
| 130
|51.3
|27.5
|23.8
|6.79
|168.9
|37.27
|-
|1962
| 5 521
| 285
| 151
| 134
|51.3
|27.2
|24.1
|6.87
|167.2
|37.54
|-
|1963
| 5 600
| 289
| 152
| 137
|51.3
|26.9
|24.4
|6.95
|165.5
|37.82
|-
|1964
| 5 673
| 293
| 152
| 141
|51.3
|26.6
|24.7
|7.04
|163.8
|38.13
|-
|1965
| 5 737
| 296
| 151
| 145
|51.3
|26.2
|25.1
|7.12
|161.9
|38.50
|-
|1966
| 5 787
| 300
| 151
| 148
|51.3
|25.9
|25.4
|7.19
|160.1
|38.76
|-
|1967
| 5 828
| 302
| 151
| 151
|51.3
|25.6
|25.7
|7.27
|158.1
|39.09
|-
|1968
| 5 868
| 304
| 149
| 155
|51.3
|25.2
|26.2
|7.33
|156.2
|39.48
|-
|1969
| 5 928
| 307
| 148
| 158
|51.4
|24.8
|26.5
|7.39
|154.3
|39.83
|-
|1970
| 6 030
| 310
| 148
| 162
|51.3
|24.4
|26.9
|7.43
|152.4
|40.19
|-
|1971
| 6 177
| 313
| 148
| 165
|50.7
|23.9
|26.8
|7.47
|150.5
|40.55
|-
|1972
| 6 365
| 320
| 149
| 172
|50.5
|23.4
|27.0
|7.49
|148.6
|40.91
|-
|1973
| 6 578
| 331
| 151
| 180
|50.5
|23.0
|27.5
|7.50
|146.8
|41.27
|-
|1974
| 6 802
| 342
| 153
| 189
|50.5
|22.6
|27.9
|7.50
|145.0
|41.65
|-
|1975
| 7 033
| 354
| 161
| 194
|50.5
|22.9
|27.6
|7.49
|144.6
|41.19
|-
|1976
| 7 267
| 366
| 166
| 201
|50.5
|22.8
|27.7
|7.49
|143.6
|41.16
|-
|1977
| 7 512
| 378
| 169
| 209
|50.5
|22.6
|28.0
|7.48
|142.0
|41.44
|-
|1978
| 7 772
| 392
| 172
| 220
|50.6
|22.2
|28.4
|7.47
|140.5
|41.83
|-
|1979
| 8 043
| 407
| 176
| 231
|50.7
|21.9
|28.8
|7.46
|139.1
|42.18
|-
|1980
| 8 330
| 423
| 180
| 242
|50.9
|21.7
|29.2
|7.46
|137.8
|42.45
|-
|1981
| 8 631
| 440
| 185
| 255
|51.1
|21.5
|29.6
|7.46
|136.5
|42.77
|-
|1982
| 8 947
| 458
| 190
| 268
|51.3
|21.2
|30.1
|7.46
|135.2
|43.05
|-
|1983
| 9 277
| 477
| 203
| 274
|51.6
|22.0
|29.6
|7.46
|136.1
|42.09
|-
|1984
| 9 618
| 498
| 209
| 289
|51.9
|21.8
|30.1
|7.46
|135.0
|42.35
|-
|1985
| 9 971
| 519
| 215
| 304
|52.1
|21.6
|30.6
|7.45
|134.0
|42.65
|-
|1986
| 10 333
| 538
| 221
| 317
|52.2
|21.4
|30.8
|7.44
|133.2
|42.84
|-
|1987
| 10 694
| 557
| 245
| 312
|52.1
|22.9
|29.2
|7.41
|136.5
|40.92
|-
|1988
| 11 060
| 574
| 247
| 327
|52.0
|22.4
|29.6
|7.37
|135.2
|41.55
|-
|1989
| 11 439
| 590
| 253
| 337
|51.7
|22.2
|29.5
|7.33
|134.8
|41.77
|-
|1990
| 11 829
| 606
| 260
| 347
|51.3
|22.0
|29.4
|7.27
|134.5
|41.89
|-
|1991
| 12 229
| 622
| 250
| 372
|50.9
|20.5
|30.5
|7.21
|131.1
|43.81
|-
|1992
| 12 633
| 635
|
|
Demographics of Angola
|
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] |
273
| 363
|50.4
|21.6
|28.7
|7.14
|134.6
|42.21
|-
|1993
| 13 038
| 650
| 279
| 371
|49.9
|21.4
|28.5
|7.07
|131.2
|42.10
|-
|1994
| 13 462
| 666
| 274
| 392
|49.6
|20.4
|29.2
|6.99
|129.0
|43.42
|-
|1995
| 13 912
| 683
| 262
| 422
|49.2
|18.8
|30.4
|6.92
|128.6
|45.85
|-
|1996
| 14 383
| 702
| 268
| 434
|48.9
|18.6
|30.2
|6.85
|127.8
|46.03
|-
|1997
| 14 871
| 719
| 273
| 446
|48.4
|18.4
|30.0
|6.79
|126.5
|46.31
|-
|1998
| 15 367
| 737
| 293
| 443
|48.0
|19.1
|28.9
|6.73
|127.2
|45.06
|-
|1999
| 15 871
| 757
| 296
| 461
|47.8
|18.7
|29.1
|6.68
|123.7
|45.39
|-
|2000
| 16 394
| 780
| 299
| 481
|47.6
|18.3
|29.4
|6.64
|122.4
|46.02
|-
|2001
| 16 942
| 805
| 301
| 504
|47.6
|17.8
|29.8
|6.60
|118.5
|46.59
|-
|2002
| 17 516
| 830
| 302
| 528
|47.4
|17.3
|30.2
|6.57
|116.0
|47.39
|-
|2003
| 18 124
| 855
| 286
| 569
|47.2
|15.8
|31.4
|6.53
|110.0
|49.62
|-
|2004
| 18 771
| 883
| 284
| 599
|47.1
|15.2
|31.9
|6.50
|105.7
|50.59
|-
|2005
| 19 451
| 912
| 282
| 630
|46.9
|14.5
|32.4
|6.46
|101.1
|51.57
|-
|2006
| 20 162
| 939
| 281
| 658
|46.6
|13.9
|32.7
|6.42
|96.5
|52.37
|-
|2007
| 20 910
| 966
| 274
| 692
|46.3
|13.1
|33.2
|6.37
|91.4
|53.64
|-
|2008
| 21 692
| 994
| 270
| 724
|45.9
|12.5
|33.4
|6.32
|86.5
|54.63
|-
|2009
| 22 508
| 1 022
| 265
| 758
|45.5
|11.8
|33.7
|6.26
|81.8
|55.75
|-
|2010
| 23 364
| 1 049
| 261
| 788
|45.0
|11.2
|33.8
|6.19
|77.2
|56.73
|-
|2011
| 24 259
| 1 074
| 257
| 817
|44.4
|10.6
|33.7
|6.12
|73.0
|57.60
|-
|2012
| 25 188
| 1 103
| 252
| 851
|43.9
|10.0
|33.8
|6.04
|68.8
|58.62
|-
|2013
| 26 147
| 1 130
| 251
| 879
|43.3
|9.6
|33.7
|5.95
|65.2
|59.31
|-
|2014
| 27 128
| 1 156
| 249
| 907
|42.7
|9.2
|33.5
|5.86
|62.0
|60.04
|-
|2015
| 28 128
| 1 181
| 248
| 933
|42.0
|8.8
|33.2
|5.77
|59.4
|60.66
|-
|2016
| 29 155
| 1 205
| 249
| 956
|41.4
|8.6
|32.8
|5.69
|57.0
|61.09
|-
|2017
| 30 209
| 1 231
| 249
| 983
|40.8
|8.2
|32.6
|5.60
|54.9
|61.68
|-
|2018
| 31 274
| 1 257
| 250
| 1 008
|40.2
|8.0
|32.2
|5.52
|53.0
|62.14
|-
|2019
| 32 354
| 1 284
| 253
| 1 032
|39.7
|7.8
|31.9
|5.44
|51.3
|62.45
|-
|2020
| 33 428
| 1 313
| 261
| 1 051
|39.3
|7.8
|31.5
|5.37
|49.6
|62.26
|-
|2021
| 34 504
| 1 339
| 276
| 1 063
|38.8
|8.0
|30.8
|5.30
|48.1
|61.64
|-
|}
===Fertility and Births===
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted TFR) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width:50pt;"| Year
! style="width:50pt;"| CBR (Total)
! style="width:50pt;"| TFR (Total)
! style="width:50pt;"| CBR (Urban)
! style="width:50pt;"| TFR (Urban)
! style="width:50pt;"| CBR (Rural)
! style="width:50pt;"| TFR (Rural)
|-
| 2006-2007
| style="text-align:right;"| 42.4
|
|
Demographics of Angola
|
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] |
style="text-align:right;"| 5.8
| style="text-align:right;"| 35.0
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.4
| style="text-align:right;"| 50.2
| style="text-align:right;"| 7.7
|-
| 2011
| style="text-align:right;"| 45.5
| style="text-align:right;"| 6.3
| style="text-align:right;"| 36.5
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.6
| style="text-align:right;"| 51.8
| style="text-align:right;"| 7.7
|-
| 2014 (census)
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"| 5.7
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"| 5.2
| style="text-align:right;"|
| style="text-align:right;"| 6.5
|-
| 2015-16
| style="text-align:right;"| 43.4
| style="text-align:right;"| 6.2 (5.2)
| style="text-align:right;"| 40.6
| style="text-align:right;"| 5.3 (4.4)
| style="text-align:right;"| 48.4
| style="text-align:right;"| 8.2 (7.1)
|-
|}
==Other demographics statistics==
Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.
*One birth every 23 seconds
*One death every 2 minutes
*One net migrant every 360 minutes
*Net gain of one person every 29 seconds
The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.
===Population===
:34,795,287 (2022 est.)
:30,355,880 (July 2018 est.)
:29,310,273 (July 2017 est.)
===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 47.83% (male 7,758,636 /female 7,797,869)
:15-24 years: 18.64% (male 2,950,999 /female 3,109,741)
:25-54 years: 27.80% (male 4,301,618 /female 4,740,463)
:55-64 years: 3.43% (male 523,517 /female 591,249)
:65 years and over: 2.3% (male 312,197 /female 436,050) (2020 est.)
:0-14 years: 48.07% (male 7,257,155 /female 7,336,084)
:15-24 years: 18.33% (male 2,701,123 /female 2,863,950)
:25-54 years: 27.95% (male 4,044,944 /female 4,441,028)
:55-64 years: 3.32% (male 466,085 /female 540,452)
:65 years and over: 2.32% (male 296,411 /female 408,648) (2018 est.)
===Total fertility rate===
:5.83 children born/woman (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 2nd
:6.09 children born/woman (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 2nd
===Birth rate===
:41.8 births/1,000 population
|
Demographics of Angola
|
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] |
(2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 2nd
:43.7 births/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 1st
===Death rate===
:8.01 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 88th
:9 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 60th
===Median age===
:total: 15.9 years. Country comparison to the world: 225th
:male: 15.4 years
:female: 16.4 years (2020 est.)
:total: 15.9 years. Country comparison to the world: 224th
:male: 15.4 years
:female: 16.3 years (2018 est.)
===Population growth rate===
:3.36% (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 6th
:3.49% (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 2nd
The population is growing by 3.52% annually. There are 44.2 births and 9.2 deaths per 1,000 citizens. The net migration rate is 0.2 migrants per 1,000 citizens. The fertility rate of Angola is 6.16 children born per woman as of 2017. The infant mortality rate is 67.6 deaths for every 1,000 live births with 73.3 deaths for males and 61.8 deaths for females for every 1,000 live births. Life expectancy at birth is 60.2 years; 58.2 years for males and 62.3 years for females.
===Net migration rate===
:-0.19 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 108th
:0.2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.) Country comparison to the world: 67th
===Mother's mean age at first birth===
:19.4 years (2015/16
|
Demographics of Angola
|
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est.)
:note: median age at first birth among women 20-49
===Life expectancy at birth===
:total population: 62.11 years (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 214th
:male: 60.05 years (2022 est.)
:female: 64.24 years (2022 est.)
:total population: 60.6 years (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 207th
:male: 58.5 years (2018 est.)
:female: 62.7 years (2018 est.)
===Contraceptive prevalence rate===
:13.7% (2015/16)
:57.1% (2012/13)
===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===
:total: 10 years (2011)
:male: 13 years (2011)
:female: 8 years (2011)
===Sex ratio===
*At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
*Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
*15–64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
*65 years and older: .79 male(s)/female
*Total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2011 est.)
===Urbanization===
:urban population: 68.1% of total population (2022 est.)
:4.04% annual rate of change (2020-2025 est.)
===Health===
According to the CIA World Factbook, 2% of adults (aged 15–49) are living with HIV/AIDS (as of 2009). The risk of contracting disease is very high. There are food and waterborne diseases, bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever; vectorborne diseases, malaria, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness); respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis, and schistosomiasis, a water contact disease, as of 2005.
===Ethnic groups===
Roughly 37% of Angolans are Ovimbundu, 25% are Ambundu, 13% are Bakongo, 2% are mestiço, 1-2% are white Africans, and people from other African ethnicities make up 22% of Angola's population.
Romani people were deported to Angola from
|
Demographics of Angola
|
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Portugal.REPORT ON ROMA PEOPLE - Romaninet
===Religions===
Angola is a majority Christian country. Official statistics do not exist, however it is estimated that over 80% belong to a Christian church or community. More than half are Catholic, the remaining ones comprising members of traditional Protestant churches as well as of Pentecostal communities. Only 0.1% are Muslims - generally immigrants from other African countries. Traditional indigenous religions are practiced by a very small minority, generally in peripheral rural societies.
===Education===
Literacy is quite low, with 71.1% of the population over the age of 15 able to read and write in Portuguese. 82% of males and 60.7% of women are literate as of 2015.
===Languages===
Portuguese is the official language of Angola, but Bantu and other African languages are also widely spoken. In fact, Kikongo, Kimbundu, Umbundu, Tuchokwe, Ganguela, and Ukanyama have the official status of "national languages". The mastery of Portuguese is widespread; in the cities the overwhelming majority are either fluent in Portuguese or have at least a reasonable working knowledge of this language; an increasing minority are native Portuguese speakers and have a poor, if any, knowledge of an African language.
==References==
Attribution:
*
* 2003
==External links==
* Population cartogram of Angola
Category:Society of Angola
|
Demographics of Angola
|
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] |
Algorithms is a monthly peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal of mathematics, covering design, analysis, and experiments on algorithms. The journal is published by MDPI and was established in 2008. The founding editor-in-chief was Kazuo Iwama (Kyoto University).. From May 2014 to September 2019, the editor-in-chief was Henning Fernau (Universität Trier). The current editor-in-chief is Frank Werner (Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg).
==Abstracting and indexing==
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
==See also==
Journals with similar scope include:
*ACM Transactions on Algorithms
*Algorithmica
*Journal of Algorithms (Elsevier)
==References==
==External links==
*
Category:Computer science journals
Category:Open access journals
Category:MDPI academic journals
Category:English-language journals
Category:Publications established in 2008
Category:Mathematics journals
Category:Monthly journals
|
Algorithms (journal)
|
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The aardvark ( ; Orycteropus afer) is a medium-sized, burrowing, nocturnal mammal native to Africa."Aardvark, n." Dictionary of South African English. Dictionary Unit for South African English, 2018. 26 February 2019. It is the only living species of the order Tubulidentata, although other prehistoric species and genera of Tubulidentata are known. Unlike most other insectivores, it has a long pig-like snout, which is used to sniff out food.
It roams over most of the southern two-thirds of the African continent, avoiding areas that are mainly rocky. A nocturnal feeder, it subsists on ants and termites, which it will dig out of their hills using its sharp claws and powerful legs. It also digs to create burrows in which to live and rear its young. The animal is listed as "least concern" by the IUCN, although its numbers are decreasing. Aardvarks are afrotheres, a clade which also includes elephants, manatees, and hyraxes.
==Name and taxonomy==
=== Name ===
The aardvark is sometimes colloquially called the "African ant bear", "anteater" (not to be confused with the South American anteater), or the "Cape anteater" after the Cape of Good Hope. The name "aardvark" is Afrikaans (), comes from earlier Afrikaans erdvark and means "earth pig" or "ground
|
Aardvark
|
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] |
pig" (aarde: "earth/ground", vark: "pig"), because of its burrowing habits.
"aardvark, n." OED Online, Oxford University Press, March 2018, www.oed.com/view/Entry/22. Accessed 24 May 2018."Aardvark, n." Dictionary of South African English. Dictionary Unit for South African English, 2018. 25 February 2019. The name Orycteropus means "burrowing foot", and the name afer refers to Africa. The name of the aardvark's order, Tubulidentata, comes from the tubule-style teeth.
=== Taxonomy ===
The aardvark is not closely related to the pig; rather, it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian order Tubulidentata, in which it is usually considered to form one variable species of the genus Orycteropus, the sole surviving genus in the family Orycteropodidae. The aardvark is not closely related to the South American anteater, despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance. The similarities are based on convergent evolution. The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the elephant shrews, tenrecs, and golden moles. Along with the sirenians, hyraxes, elephants, and their extinct relatives, these animals form the superorder Afrotheria. Studies of the brain have shown the similarities with Condylarthra, and given the clade's status as a wastebasket taxon it may mean some species traditionally classified as "condylarths" are actually stem-aardvarks.
=== Evolutionary history
|
Aardvark
|
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===
Based on fossils, Bryan Patterson has concluded that early relatives of the aardvark appeared in Africa around the end of the Paleocene. The ptolemaiidans, a mysterious clade of mammals with uncertain affinities, may actually be stem-aardvarks, either as a sister clade to Tubulidentata or as a grade leading to true tubulidentates.
The first unambiguous tubulidentate was probably Myorycteropus africanus from Kenyan Miocene deposits. The earliest example from the genus Orycteropus was Orycteropus mauritanicus, found in Algeria in deposits from the middle Miocene, with an equally old version found in Kenya. Fossils from the aardvark have been dated to 5 million years, and have been located throughout Europe and the Near East.
The mysterious Pleistocene Plesiorycteropus from Madagascar was originally thought to be a tubulidentate that was descended from ancestors that entered the island during the Eocene. However, a number of subtle anatomical differences coupled with recent molecular evidence now lead researchers to believe that Plesiorycteropus is a relative of golden moles and tenrecs that achieved an aardvark-like appearance and ecological niche through convergent evolution.
===Subspecies===
The aardvark has seventeen poorly defined subspecies listed:
* Orycteropus afer afer
* O. a. adametzi Grote, 1921
* O. a. aethiopicus Sundevall, 1843
* O. a. angolensis Zukowsky &
|
Aardvark
|
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] |
Haltenorth, 1957
* O. a. erikssoni Lönnberg, 1906
* O. a. faradjius Hatt, 1932
* O. a. haussanus Matschie, 1900
* O. a. kordofanicus Rothschild, 1927
* O. a. lademanni Grote, 1911
* O. a. leptodon Hirst, 1906
* O. a. matschiei Grote, 1921
* O. a. observandus Grote, 1921
* O. a. ruvanensis Grote, 1921
* O. a. senegalensis Lesson, 1840
* O. a. somalicus Lydekker, 1908
* O. a. wardi Lydekker, 1908
* O. a. wertheri Matschie, 1898
The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica also mentions O. a. capensis or Cape ant-bear from South Africa.
==Description==
The aardvark is vaguely pig-like in appearance. Its body is stout with a prominently arched back and is sparsely covered with coarse hairs. The limbs are of moderate length, with the rear legs being longer than the forelegs. The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb'), resulting in four toes, while the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robust nail which is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between a claw and a hoof. Whereas the aardvark is considered digitigrade, it appears at times to be plantigrade. This confusion happens because when it squats it stands on its soles. A contributing characteristic to
|
Aardvark
|
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] |
the burrow digging capabilities of aardvarks is an endosteal tissue called compacted coarse cancellous bone (CCCB). The stress and strain resistance provided by CCCB allows aardvarks to create their burrows, ultimately leading to a favorable environment for plants and a variety of animals.
An aardvark's weight is typically between . An aardvark's length is usually between , and can reach lengths of when its tail (which can be up to ) is taken into account. It is tall at the shoulder, and has a girth of about . It is the largest member of the proposed clade Afroinsectiphilia. The aardvark is pale yellowish-gray in color and often stained reddish-brown by soil. The aardvark's coat is thin, and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin. Its hair is short on its head and tail; however its legs tend to have longer hair. The hair on the majority of its body is grouped in clusters of 3-4 hairs. The hair surrounding its nostrils is dense to help filter particulate matter out as it digs. Its tail is very thick at the base and gradually tapers.
===Head===
The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and the end of the
|
Aardvark
|
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] |
snout bears a disc, which houses the nostrils. It contains a thin but complete zygomatic arch. The head of the aardvark contains many unique and different features. One of the most distinctive characteristics of the Tubulidentata is their teeth. Instead of having a pulp cavity, each tooth has a cluster of thin, hexagonal, upright, parallel tubes of vasodentin (a modified form of dentine), with individual pulp canals, held together by cementum. The number of columns is dependent on the size of the tooth, with the largest having about 1,500. The teeth have no enamel coating and are worn away and regrow continuously. The aardvark is born with conventional incisors and canines at the front of the jaw, which fall out and are not replaced. Adult aardvarks have only cheek teeth at the back of the jaw, and have a dental formula of: These remaining teeth are peg-like and rootless and are of unique composition. The teeth consist of 14 upper and 12 lower jaw molars. The nasal area of the aardvark is another unique area, as it contains ten nasal conchae, more than any other placental mammal.
The sides of the nostrils are thick with hair. The tip of the
|
Aardvark
|
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] |
snout is highly mobile and is moved by modified mimetic muscles. The fleshy dividing tissue between its nostrils probably has sensory functions, but it is uncertain whether they are olfactory or vibratory in nature. Its nose is made up of more turbinate bones than any other mammal, with between 9 and 11, compared to dogs with 4 to 5. With a large quantity of turbinate bones, the aardvark has more space for the moist epithelium, which is the location of the olfactory bulb. The nose contains nine olfactory bulbs, more than any other mammal. Its keen sense of smell is not just from the quantity of bulbs in the nose but also in the development of the brain, as its olfactory lobe is very developed. The snout resembles an elongated pig snout. The mouth is small and tubular, typical of species that feed on ants and termites. The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue (as much as long) and elaborate structures supporting a keen sense of smell. The ears, which are very effective, are disproportionately long, about long. The eyes are small for its head, and consist only of rods.
===Digestive system===
The aardvark's stomach has a muscular
|
Aardvark
|
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pyloric area that acts as a gizzard to grind swallowed food up, thereby rendering chewing unnecessary. Its cecum is large. Both sexes emit a strong smelling secretion from an anal gland. Its salivary glands are highly developed and almost completely ring the neck; their output is what causes the tongue to maintain its tackiness. The female has two pairs of teats in the inguinal region.
Genetically speaking, the aardvark is a living fossil, as its chromosomes are highly conserved, reflecting much of the early eutherian arrangement before the divergence of the major modern taxa.
==Habitat and range==
Aardvarks are found in sub-Saharan Africa, where suitable habitat (savannas, grasslands, woodlands and bushland) and food (i.e., ants and termites) is available. They spend the daylight hours in dark burrows to avoid the heat of the day. The only major habitat that they are not present in is swamp forest, as the high water table precludes digging to a sufficient depth. They also avoid terrain rocky enough to cause problems with digging. They have been documented as high as in Ethiopia. They are present throughout sub-Saharan Africa all the way to South Africa with few exceptions including the coastal areas of Namibia, Ivory Coast, and
|
Aardvark
|
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] |
Ghana. They are not found in Madagascar.
==Ecology and behaviour==
Aardvarks live for up to 23 years in captivity. Its keen hearing warns it of predators: lions, leopards, cheetahs, African wild dogs, hyenas, and pythons. Some humans also hunt aardvarks for meat. Aardvarks can dig fast or run in zigzag fashion to elude enemies, but if all else fails, they will strike with their claws, tail and shoulders, sometimes flipping onto their backs lying motionless except to lash out with all four feet. They are capable of causing substantial damage to unprotected areas of an attacker. They will also dig to escape as they can. Sometimes, when pressed, aardvarks can dig extremely quickly.
===Feeding===
The aardvark is nocturnal and is a solitary creature that feeds almost exclusively on ants and termites (myrmecophagy); the only fruit eaten by aardvarks is the aardvark cucumber. In fact, the cucumber and the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship as they eat the subterranean fruit, then defecate the seeds near their burrows, which then grow rapidly due to the loose soil and fertile nature of the area. The time spent in the intestine of the aardvark helps the fertility of the seed, and the fruit provides needed moisture for the aardvark.
|
Aardvark
|
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] |
They avoid eating the African driver ant and red ants. Due to their stringent diet requirements, they require a large range to survive. An aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range encompassing . While foraging for food, the aardvark will keep its nose to the ground and its ears pointed forward, which indicates that both smell and hearing are involved in the search for food. They zig-zag as they forage and will usually not repeat a route for 5–8 days as they appear to allow time for the termite nests to recover before feeding on it again.
During a foraging period, they will stop to dig a "V" shaped trench with their forefeet and then sniff it profusely as a means to explore their location. When a concentration of ants or termites is detected, the aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number of insects with its long, sticky tongue—as many as 50,000 in one night have been recorded. Its claws enable it to dig through the extremely hard crust of a
|
Aardvark
|
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termite or ant mound quickly. It avoids inhaling the dust by sealing the nostrils. When successful, the aardvark's long (up to ) tongue licks up the insects; the termites' biting, or the ants' stinging attacks are rendered futile by the tough skin. After an aardvark visit at a termite mound, other animals will visit to pick up all the leftovers. Termite mounds alone do not provide enough food for the aardvark, so they look for termites that are on the move. When these insects move, they can form columns long and these tend to provide easy pickings with little effort exerted by the aardvark. These columns are more common in areas of livestock or other hoofed animals. The trampled grass and dung attract termites from the Odontotermes, Microtermes, and Pseudacanthotermes genera.
On a nightly basis they tend to be more active during the first portion of night (roughly the four hours between 8:00p.m. and 12:00a.m.); however, they don't seem to prefer bright or dark nights over the other. During adverse weather or if disturbed they will retreat to their burrow systems. They cover between per night; however, some studies have shown that they may traverse as far as
|
Aardvark
|
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] |
in a night.
===Vocalization===
The aardvark is a rather quiet animal. However, it does make soft grunting sounds as it forages and loud grunts as it makes for its tunnel entrance. It makes a bleating sound if frightened. When it is threatened it will make for one of its burrows. If one is not close it will dig a new one rapidly. This new one will be short and require the aardvark to back out when the coast is clear.
===Movement===
The aardvark is known to be a good swimmer and has been witnessed successfully swimming in strong currents. It can dig a yard of tunnel in about five minutes, but otherwise moves fairly slowly.
When leaving the burrow at night, they pause at the entrance for about ten minutes, sniffing and listening. After this period of watchfulness, it will bound out and within seconds it will be away. It will then pause, prick its ears, twisting its head to listen, then jump and move off to start foraging.
Aside from digging out ants and termites, the aardvark also excavates burrows in which to live, which generally fall into one of three categories: burrows made while foraging, refuge and resting location, and permanent homes. Temporary
|
Aardvark
|
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] |
sites are scattered around the home range and are used as refuges, while the main burrow is also used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances and can be as long as . These burrows can be large enough for a person to enter. The aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow regularly, and periodically moves on and makes a new one. The old burrows are an important part of the African wildlife scene. As they are vacated, then they are inhabited by smaller animals like the African wild dog, ant-eating chat, Nycteris thebaica and warthogs. Other animals that use them are hares, mongooses, hyenas, owls, pythons, and lizards. Without these refuges many animals would die during wildfire season. Only mothers and young share burrows; however, the aardvark is known to live in small family groups or as a solitary creature. If attacked in the tunnel, it will escape by digging out of the tunnel thereby placing the fresh fill between it and its predator, or if it decides to fight it will roll onto its back, and attack with its claws. The aardvark has been known to sleep in a recently excavated ant
|
Aardvark
|
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nest, which also serves as protection from its predators.
===Reproduction===
Aardvarks pair only during the breeding season; after a gestation period of seven months, one cub weighing around is born during May–July. When born, the young has flaccid ears and many wrinkles. When nursing, it will nurse off each teat in succession. After two weeks, the folds of skin disappear and after three, the ears can be held upright. After 5–6 weeks, body hair starts growing. It is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks and eats termites at 9 weeks, and is weaned between three months and 16 weeks. At six months of age, it is able to dig its own burrows, but it will often remain with the mother until the next mating season, and is sexually mature from approximately two years of age.
==Conservation==
Aardvarks were thought to have declining numbers, however, this is possibly because they are not readily seen. There are no definitive counts because of their nocturnal and secretive habits; however, their numbers seem to be stable overall. They are not considered common anywhere in Africa, but due to their large range, they maintain sufficient numbers. There may be a slight decrease in
|
Aardvark
|
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numbers in eastern, northern, and western Africa. Southern African numbers are not decreasing. It receives an official designation from the IUCN as least concern. However, they are a species in a precarious situation, as they are so dependent on such specific food; therefore if a problem arises with the abundance of termites, the species as a whole would be affected drastically.
Aardvarks handle captivity well. The first zoo to have one was London Zoo in 1869, which had an animal from South Africa.
==Mythology and popular culture==
In African folklore, the aardvark is much admired because of its diligent quest for food and its fearless response to soldier ants. Hausa magicians make a charm from the heart, skin, forehead, and nails of the aardvark, which they then proceed to pound together with the root of a certain tree. Wrapped in a piece of skin and worn on the chest, the charm is said to give the owner the ability to pass through walls or roofs at night. The charm is said to be used by burglars and those seeking to visit young girls without their parents' permission. Also, some tribes, such as the Margbetu, Ayanda, and Logo, will use aardvark teeth to make
|
Aardvark
|
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bracelets, which are regarded as good luck charms. The meat, which has a resemblance to pork, is eaten in certain cultures.
The ancient Egyptian god Set is usually depicted with the head of an unidentified animal, whose similarity to an aardvark has been noted in scholarship.
The titular character of Arthur, an animated television series for children based on a book series and produced by WGBH, shown in more than 180 countries, is an aardvark. In the first book of the series, Arthur's Nose (1976), he has a long, aardvark-like nose,Arthur's Nose, Thriftbooks; accessed 2020.09.29. but in later books, his face becomes more rounded.Arthur's Eyes, Thriftbooks; accesses 2020.09.29.
Otis the Aardvark was a puppet character used on Children's BBC programming.
An aardvark features as the antagonist in the cartoon The Ant and the Aardvark as well as in the Canadian animated series The Raccoons.
The supersonic fighter-bomber F-111/FB-111 was nicknamed the Aardvark because of its long nose resembling the animal. It also had similarities with its nocturnal missions flown at a very low level employing ordnance that could penetrate deep into the ground. In the US Navy, the squadron VF-114 was nicknamed the Aardvarks, flying F-4s and then F-14s. The squadron mascot was adapted from
|
Aardvark
|
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] |
the animal in the comic strip B.C., which the F-4 was said to resemble.
Cerebus the Aardvark is a 300-issue comic book series by Dave Sim.
==Footnotes==
==References==
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==External links==
* IUCN/SSC Afrotheria Specialist Group
* A YouTube video introducing the Bronx Zoo's aardvarks
* "The Biology of the Aardvark (Orycteropus afer)" a diploma thesis (without images)
* "The Biology of the Aardvark" (Orycteropus afer)" the thesis with images
*
Category:Orycteropus
Category:Mammals of Africa
Category:Myrmecophagous mammals
Category:Mammals described in 1766
Category:Extant Zanclean first appearances
Category:Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas
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Aardvark
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] |
The foreign relations of Angola are based on Angola's strong support of U.S. foreign policy as the Angolan economy is dependent on U.S. foreign aid.
From 1975 to 1989, Angola was aligned with the Eastern bloc, in particular the Soviet Union, Libya, and Cuba. Since then, it has focused on improving relationships with Western countries, cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries, and asserting its own national interests in Central Africa through military and diplomatic intervention. In 1993, it established formal diplomatic relations with the United States. It has entered the Southern African Development Community as a vehicle for improving ties with its largely Anglophone neighbors to the south. Zimbabwe and Namibia joined Angola in its military intervention in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where Angolan troops remain in support of the Joseph Kabila government. It also has intervened in the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) in support of Denis Sassou-Nguesso in the civil war.
Since 1998, Angola has successfully worked with the United Nations Security Council to impose and carry out sanctions on UNITA. More recently, it has extended those efforts to controls on conflict diamonds, the primary source of revenue for UNITA during the Civil War that ended in 2002.
|
Foreign relations of Angola
|
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] |
At the same time, Angola has promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP) as a forum for cultural exchange and expanding ties with Portugal (its former ruler) and Brazil (which shares many cultural affinities with Angola) in particular. Angola is a member of the Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa (PMAESA).
==Africa==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Algeria has an embassy in Luanda.
* Angola has an embassy in Algiers.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in Gaborone.
* Botswana is accredited to Angola from its high commission in Windhoek, Namibia.
|- valign="top"
|||December 1975||See Angola–Cape Verde relations
Cape Verde signed a friendship accord with Angola in December 1975, shortly after Angola gained its independence. Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau served as stop-over points for Cuban troops on their way to Angola to fight UNITA rebels and South African troops. Prime Minister Pedro Pires sent FARP soldiers to Angola where they served as the personal bodyguards of Angolan President José Eduardo dos Santos.
* Angola has an embassy in Praia.
* Cape Verde has an embassy in Luanda and a consulate in Benguela.
|- valign="top"
|||||
Many thousands of Angolans fled the country after the civil war. More than 20,000 people were
|
Foreign relations of Angola
|
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] |
forced to leave the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2009, an action the DR Congo said was in retaliation for regular expulsion of Congolese diamond miners who were in Angola illegally. Angola sent a delegation to DR Congo's capital Kinshasa and succeeded in stopping government-forced expulsions which had become a "tit-for-tat" immigration dispute. "Congo and Angola have agreed to suspend expulsions from both sides of the border," said Lambert Mende, DR Congo information minister, in October 2009. "We never challenged the expulsions themselves; we challenged the way they were being conducted – all the beating of people and looting their goods, even sometimes their clothes," Mende said.
* Angola has an embassy in Kinshasa.
* DR Congo has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in Cairo.
* Egypt has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in Malabo.
* Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
* Ethiopia is accredited to Angola from its embassy in Harare, Zimbabwe.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in Accra.
* Ghana has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||
Following a request by the government of Guinea-Bissau, Angola sent there a contingent of about 300 troops meant to help
|
Foreign relations of Angola
|
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] |
putting an end to the political-military unrest in that country, and to reorganize the local military forces. In fact, these troops were perceived as a kind of Pretorian Guard for the ruling party, PAIGC. In the beginning of April 2012, when a new military Coup d'état was under preparation, the Angolan regime decided to withdraw its military mission from Guinea-Bissau.
* Angola has an embassy in Bissau.
* Guinea-Bissau has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Angola–Kenya relations
* Angola has an embassy in Nairobi.
* Kenya has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||5 September 1978||See Angola–Mozambique relations
* Angola has an embassy in Maputo.
* Mozambique has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Angola–Namibia relations
Namibia borders Angola to the south. In 1999, Namibia signed a mutual defense pact with its northern neighbor Angola.
This affected the Angolan Civil War that had been ongoing since Angola's independence in 1975. Namibia's ruling party SWAPO sought to support the ruling party MPLA in Angola against the rebel movement UNITA, whose stronghold is in southern Angola, bordering to Namibia. The defence pact allowed Angolan troops to use Namibian territory when attacking Jonas Savimbi's UNITA.
* Angola has an embassy in Windhoek and consulates-general in Oshakati and Rundu.
* Namibia has an embassy in Luanda and
|
Foreign relations of Angola
|
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] |
consulates-general in Menongue and Ondjiva.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Angola–Nigeria relations
Angolan-Nigerian relations are primarily based on their roles as oil exporting nations. Both are members of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, the African Union and other multilateral organizations.
* Angola has an embassy in Abuja.
* Nigeria has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in São Tomé.
* São Tomé and Príncipe has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Angola–South Africa relations
Angola-South Africa relations are quite strong as the ruling parties in both nations, the African National Congress in South Africa and the MPLA in Angola, fought together during the Angolan Civil War and South African Border War. They fought against UNITA rebels, based in Angola, and the apartheid-era government in South Africa who supported them. Nelson Mandela mediated between the MPLA and UNITA factions during the last years of Angola's civil war.
* Angola has an embassy in Pretoria and consulates-general in Cape Town and Johannesburg.
* South Africa has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in Lusaka.
* Zambia has an embassy in Luanda and a consulate-general in Luena.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Angola–Zimbabwe relations
Angola-Zimbabwe relations have remained cordial since the birth of both states, Angola in 1975 and Zimbabwe in 1979, during
|
Foreign relations of Angola
|
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] |
the Cold War. While Angola's foreign policy shifted to a pro-U.S. stance based on substantial economic ties, under the rule of President Robert Mugabe Zimbabwe's ties with the West soured in the late 1990s.
* Angola has an embassy in Harare.
* Zimbabwe has an embassy in Luanda.
|}
==Americas==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
|||2 September 1977||See Angola–Argentina relations
* Angola has an embassy in Buenos Aires.
* Argentina has an embassy in Luanda.
* Argentine Ministry of Foreign Relations: list of bilateral treaties with Angola (in Spanish only)
|- valign="top"
|||November 1975||See Angola–Brazil relations
Commercial and economic ties dominate the relations of each country. Parts of both countries were part of the Portuguese Empire from the early 16th century until Brazil's independence in 1822. As of November 2007, "trade between the two countries is booming as never before"ANGOLA-BRAZIL: Portuguese - the Common Language of Trade by Mario de Queiroz, ipsnews.net, 13 November 2007
* Angola has an embassy in Brasília and a consulates-general in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.
* Brazil has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||2001||
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 January 2001.
|- valign="top"
|||1978||
Canada-Angola relations were established in 1978, and Canada is accredited to Angola from its Embassy in
|
Foreign relations of Angola
|
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] |
Harare, Zimbabwe. Ties have grown since the end of the civil war in 2002, with increased engagement in areas of mutual interest. As Chair of the United Nations Security Council's Angola Sanctions Committee, Canada limited the ability of UNITA to continue its military campaign, sanctions helped to bring a ceasefire agreement to end Angola's conflict.
* Angola is accredited to Canada from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
* Canada is accredited to Angola from its embassy in Harare, Zimbabwe and maintains an honorary consulate in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Angola–Cuba relations
During Angola's civil war Cuban forces fought to install a Marxist–Leninist MPLA-PT government, against Western-backed UNITA and FLNA guerrillas and the South-African army.Piero Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington and Africa, 1959–1976
* Angola has an embassy in Havana.
* Cuba has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola is accredited to Ecuador from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.
* Ecuador does not have an accreditation to Angola.
|- valign="top"
|||24 July 1977||
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 July 1977.
|- valign="top"
|||January 1976||See Angola–Mexico relations
* Angola is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
* Mexico is accredited to Angola from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa and maintains an honorary consulate in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||See
|
Foreign relations of Angola
|
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] |
Angola–United States relations
From the mid-1980s through at least 1992, the United States was the primary source of military and other support for the UNITA rebel movement, which was led from its creation through 2002 by Jonas Savimbi. The U.S. refused to recognize Angola diplomatically during this period.
Relations between the United States of America and the Republic of Angola (formerly the People's Republic of Angola) have warmed since Angola's ideological renunciation of Communism before the 1992 elections.
* Angola has an embassy in Washington, D.C. and consulates-general in Houston and New York City.
* United States has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Angola–Uruguay relations
* Angola has a consulate-general in Montevideo.
* Uruguay is accredited to Angola from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has a consulate-general in Caracas.
* Venezuela has an embassy in Luanda.
|}
==Asia==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
|||3 October 1994||
* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 October 1994.
|- valign="top"
|||December 1994||See Angola–Azerbaijan relations
* Angola is accredited to Azerbaijan from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.
* Azerbaijan is accredited to Angola from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Angola–China relations
Chinese Prime Minister Wen Jiabao visited Angola in June 2006, offering a US$9 billion loan for
|
Foreign relations of Angola
|
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-0.44282233715057373,
-0.1691318154335022,
0.06428486853837967,
0.7959237098693848,
-0.0644836574792862,
-0.36816588044166565,
-0.11458923667669296,
0.1325785219669342,
-0.17814047634601593,
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0.3132956624031067,
-0.23478175699710846,
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] |
infrastructure improvements in return for petroleum. The PRC has invested heavily in Angola since the end of the civil war in 2002. João Manuel Bernardo, the current ambassador of Angola to China, visited the PRC in November 2007.
* Angola has an embassy in Beijing and a consulate-general in Macau.
* China has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola is accredited to East Timor from its embassy in Singapore.
* East Timor has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Angola–India relations
* Angola has an embassy in New Delhi.
* India has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Angola–Israel relations
Angola-Israel relations, primarily based on trade and pro-United States foreign policies, are excellent. In March 2006, the trade volume between the two countries amounted to $400 million. In 2005, President José Eduardo dos Santos visited Israel.
* Angola/Israel business volume amounted at USD 400 million Angola Press, 22 March 2006
* Israeli Ambassador Highlights Relations With Angola Angola Press
* Angola has an embassy in Tel Aviv.
* Israel has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||September 1976||See Angola–Japan relations
Diplomatic relations between Japan and Angola were established in September 1976. Japan has donated towards demining following the civil war.
* Angola has an embassy in Tokyo.
* Japan has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||
The Government of
|
Foreign relations of Angola
|
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] |
Angola called for the support of Pakistan for the candidature of Angola to the seat of non-permanent member of the UN Security Council, whose election is set for September this year, during the 69th session of the General Assembly of United Nations. On the fringes of the ceremony, the Angolan diplomat also met with officials in charge of the economic and commercial policy of Pakistan, to assess the business opportunities between the two states. It asked to discuss aspects related to the cooperation on several domains of common interest.
|- valign="top"
|||6 January 1992||
* Angola has an embassy in Seoul.
* South Korea has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||1975||See Angola–Turkey relations
* Angola has an embassy in Ankara.
*Turkey has an embassy in Luanda.
*Trade volume between the two countries was US$212 million in 2019.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in Abu Dhabi.
* UAE has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||August 1971||See Angola–Vietnam relations
Angola-Vietnam relations were established in August 1971, four years before Angola gained its independence, when future President of Angola Agostinho Neto visited Vietnam. Angola and Vietnam have steadfast partners as both transitioned from Cold War-era foreign policies of international communism to pro-Western pragmatism following the fall of the Soviet Union.
* Angola has an embassy
|
Foreign relations of Angola
|
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] |
in Hanoi.
* Vietnam has an embassy in Luanda.
|}
==Europe==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in Brussels.
* Belgium has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||20 November 1975||
* Date started: 1975-11-20
* Bulgaria has an embassy in Luanda.
* Angola is accredited to Bulgaria from its embassy in Ankara, Turkey.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola is accredited to Denmark from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.
* Denmark is accredited to Angola from its embassy in Lusaka, Zambia.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Angola–France relations
Relations between the two countries have not always been cordial due to the former French government's policy of supporting militant separatists in Angola's Cabinda province and the international Angolagate scandal embarrassed both governments by exposing corruption and illicit arms deals. Following French President Nicolas Sarkozy's visit in 2008, relations have improved.
* Angola has an embassy in Paris.
* France has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Angola–Germany relations
* Angola has an embassy in Berlin.
* Germany has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||14 April 1975||
* Date started: 1975-04-14
* Angola has an embassy to the Holy See based in Rome.
* Holy See has an Apostolic Nuncio to Angola.
|--valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in Budapest.
* Hungary has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in
|
Foreign relations of Angola
|
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] |
Rome.
* Italy has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in The Hague and a consulate-general in Rotterdam.
* Netherlands has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in Warsaw.
* Poland has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||11 November 1975||See Angola–Portugal relations
Angola-Portugal relations have significantly improved since the Angolan government abandoned communism and nominally embraced democracy in 1991, embracing a pro-U.S. and to a lesser degree pro-Europe foreign policy. Portugal ruled Angola for 400 years, colonizing the territory from 1483 until independence in 1975. Angola's war for independence did not end in a military victory for either side, but was suspended as a result of a coup in Portugal that replaced the Caetano regime.
* Angola has an embassy in Lisbon and a consulate-general in Porto.
* Portugal has an embassy in Luanda and a consulate-general in Benguela.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Angola–Russia relations
* Angola has an embassy in Moscow.
* Russia has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Angola–Serbia relations
The Defence Minister of Serbia, Dragan Šutanovac, stated in a 2011 meeting in Luanda that Serbia would negotiate with the Angolan military authorities for the construction of a new military hospital in Angola.
Angola supports Serbia's stance on Kosovo, and recognizes Serbia's territorial integrity.Angola: Head of
|
Foreign relations of Angola
|
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] |
State Sends Message to Serbian Counterpart, Angola Press Agency, 2008-06-24
* Angola has an embassy in Belgrade.
* Serbia has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||19 October 1977||See Angola–Spain relations
* Angola has an embassy in Madrid.
* Spain has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in Stockholm.
* Sweden has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in Bern.
* Switzerland has an embassy in Luanda.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola has an embassy in London.
* United Kingdom has an embassy in Luanda.
|}
==Oceania==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola is accredited to Australia from its embassy in Singapore.
* Australia is accredited to Angola from its high commission in Pretoria, South Africa.
|- valign="top"
|||||
* Angola is accredited to New Zealand from its embassy in Singapore.
* New Zealand is accredited to Angola from its high commission in Pretoria, South Africa.
|}
==See also==
* List of diplomatic missions in Angola
* List of diplomatic missions of Angola
* Visa requirements for Angolan citizens
==References==
==External links==
*
|
Foreign relations of Angola
|
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An acid is a molecule or ion capable of either donating a proton (i.e. hydrogen ion, H+), known as a Brønsted–Lowry acid, or forming a covalent bond with an electron pair, known as a Lewis acid.IUPAC Gold Book - acid
The first category of acids are the proton donors, or Brønsted–Lowry acids. In the special case of aqueous solutions, proton donors form the hydronium ion H3O+ and are known as Arrhenius acids. Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents. A Brønsted or Arrhenius acid usually contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a chemical structure that is still energetically favorable after loss of H+.
Aqueous Arrhenius acids have characteristic properties that provide a practical description of an acid. Acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste, can turn blue litmus red, and react with bases and certain metals (like calcium) to form salts. The word acid is derived from the Latin , meaning 'sour'.Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary: acid An aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as "acid" (as in "dissolved in acid"), while the strict definition refers only to the solute. A lower pH means a higher acidity, and
|
Acid
|
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] |
thus a higher concentration of positive hydrogen ions in the solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic.
Common aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid (a solution of hydrogen chloride that is found in gastric acid in the stomach and activates digestive enzymes), acetic acid (vinegar is a dilute aqueous solution of this liquid), sulfuric acid (used in car batteries), and citric acid (found in citrus fruits). As these examples show, acids (in the colloquial sense) can be solutions or pure substances, and can be derived from acids (in the strict sense) that are solids, liquids, or gases. Strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid.
The second category of acids are Lewis acids, which form a covalent bond with an electron pair. An example is boron trifluoride (BF3), whose boron atom has a vacant orbital that can form a covalent bond by sharing a lone pair of electrons on an atom in a base, for example the nitrogen atom in ammonia (NH3). Lewis considered this as a generalization of the Brønsted definition, so that an acid is a chemical species that accepts electron pairs
|
Acid
|
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] |
either directly or by releasing protons (H+) into the solution, which then accept electron pairs. Hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and most other Brønsted–Lowry acids cannot form a covalent bond with an electron pair, however, and are therefore not Lewis acids. Conversely, many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted–Lowry acids. In modern terminology, an acid is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid, since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as a Lewis acid.
==Definitions and concepts==
Modern definitions are concerned with the fundamental chemical reactions common to all acids.
Most acids encountered in everyday life are aqueous solutions, or can be dissolved in water, so the Arrhenius and Brønsted–Lowry definitions are the most relevant.
The Brønsted–Lowry definition is the most widely used definition; unless otherwise specified, acid–base reactions are assumed to involve the transfer of a proton (H+) from an acid to a base.
Hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted–Lowry acids, they can also function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms.
===Arrhenius acids===
In 1884, Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen ions (H+), later described as protons or
|
Acid
|
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] |
hydrons. An Arrhenius acid is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H+ ions in the water. Note that chemists often write H+(aq) and refer to the hydrogen ion when describing acid–base reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus, a proton, does not exist alone in water, it exists as the hydronium ion (H3O+) or other forms (H5O2+, H9O4+). Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as hydrogen chloride and acetic acid.
An Arrhenius base, on the other hand, is a substance that increases the concentration of hydroxide (OH−) ions when dissolved in water. This decreases the concentration of hydronium because the ions react to form H2O molecules:
:H3O + OH ⇌ H2O(liq) + H2O(liq)
Due to this equilibrium, any increase in the concentration of hydronium is accompanied by a decrease in the concentration of hydroxide. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, while an Arrhenius base increases it.
In an acidic solution, the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10−7 moles per liter. Since pH is defined as the negative logarithm
|
Acid
|
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] |
of the concentration of hydronium ions, acidic solutions thus have a pH of less than 7.
===Brønsted–Lowry acids===
While the Arrhenius concept is useful for describing many reactions, it is also quite limited in its scope. In 1923, chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin Lowry independently recognized that acid–base reactions involve the transfer of a proton. A Brønsted–Lowry acid (or simply Brønsted acid) is a species that donates a proton to a Brønsted–Lowry base. Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory has several advantages over Arrhenius theory. Consider the following reactions of acetic acid (CH3COOH), the organic acid that gives vinegar its characteristic taste:
:
:
Both theories easily describe the first reaction: CH3COOH acts as an Arrhenius acid because it acts as a source of H3O+ when dissolved in water, and it acts as a Brønsted acid by donating a proton to water. In the second example CH3COOH undergoes the same transformation, in this case donating a proton to ammonia (NH3), but does not relate to the Arrhenius definition of an acid because the reaction does not produce hydronium. Nevertheless, CH3COOH is both an Arrhenius and a Brønsted–Lowry acid.
Brønsted–Lowry theory can be used to describe reactions of molecular compounds in nonaqueous solution or the gas phase. Hydrogen
|
Acid
|
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] |
chloride (HCl) and ammonia combine under several different conditions to form ammonium chloride, NH4Cl. In aqueous solution HCl behaves as hydrochloric acid and exists as hydronium and chloride ions. The following reactions illustrate the limitations of Arrhenius's definition:
# H3O + Cl + NH3 → Cl + NH(aq) + H2O
# HCl(benzene) + NH3(benzene) → NH4Cl(s)
# HCl(g) + NH3(g) → NH4Cl(s)
As with the acetic acid reactions, both definitions work for the first example, where water is the solvent and hydronium ion is formed by the HCl solute. The next two reactions do not involve the formation of ions but are still proton-transfer reactions. In the second reaction hydrogen chloride and ammonia (dissolved in benzene) react to form solid ammonium chloride in a benzene solvent and in the third gaseous HCl and NH3 combine to form the solid.
===Lewis acids===
A third, only marginally related concept was proposed in 1923 by Gilbert N. Lewis, which includes reactions with acid–base characteristics that do not involve a proton transfer. A Lewis acid is a species that accepts a pair of electrons from another species; in other words, it is an electron pair acceptor. Brønsted acid–base reactions are proton transfer reactions while Lewis acid–base reactions are electron pair
|
Acid
|
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] |
transfers. Many Lewis acids are not Brønsted–Lowry acids. Contrast how the following reactions are described in terms of acid–base chemistry:
:374px
In the first reaction a fluoride ion, F−, gives up an electron pair to boron trifluoride to form the product tetrafluoroborate. Fluoride "loses" a pair of valence electrons because the electrons shared in the B—F bond are located in the region of space between the two atomic nuclei and are therefore more distant from the fluoride nucleus than they are in the lone fluoride ion. BF3 is a Lewis acid because it accepts the electron pair from fluoride. This reaction cannot be described in terms of Brønsted theory because there is no proton transfer. The second reaction can be described using either theory. A proton is transferred from an unspecified Brønsted acid to ammonia, a Brønsted base; alternatively, ammonia acts as a Lewis base and transfers a lone pair of electrons to form a bond with a hydrogen ion. The species that gains the electron pair is the Lewis acid; for example, the oxygen atom in H3O+ gains a pair of electrons when one of the H—O bonds is broken and the electrons shared in the bond become localized on oxygen.
|
Acid
|
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] |
Depending on the context, a Lewis acid may also be described as an oxidizer or an electrophile. Organic Brønsted acids, such as acetic, citric, or oxalic acid, are not Lewis acids. They dissociate in water to produce a Lewis acid, H+, but at the same time also yield an equal amount of a Lewis base (acetate, citrate, or oxalate, respectively, for the acids mentioned). This article deals mostly with Brønsted acids rather than Lewis acids.
==Dissociation and equilibrium==
Reactions of acids are often generalized in the form , where HA represents the acid and A− is the conjugate base. This reaction is referred to as protolysis. The protonated form (HA) of an acid is also sometimes referred to as the free acid.
Acid–base conjugate pairs differ by one proton, and can be interconverted by the addition or removal of a proton (protonation and deprotonation, respectively). Note that the acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could be written as . In solution there exists an equilibrium between the acid and its conjugate base. The equilibrium constant K is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or the ions
|
Acid
|
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] |
in solution. Brackets indicate concentration, such that [H2O] means the concentration of H2O. The acid dissociation constant Ka is generally used in the context of acid–base reactions. The numerical value of Ka is equal to the product (multiplication) of the concentrations of the products divided by the concentration of the reactants, where the reactant is the acid (HA) and the products are the conjugate base and H+.
:K_a = \frac\ce{[H+] [A^{-}]}\ce{[HA]}
The stronger of two acids will have a higher Ka than the weaker acid; the ratio of hydrogen ions to acid will be higher for the stronger acid as the stronger acid has a greater tendency to lose its proton. Because the range of possible values for Ka spans many orders of magnitude, a more manageable constant, pKa is more frequently used, where pKa = −log10 Ka. Stronger acids have a smaller pKa than weaker acids. Experimentally determined pKa at 25 °C in aqueous solution are often quoted in textbooks and reference material.
==Nomenclature==
Arrhenius acids are named according to their anions. In the classical naming system, the ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix, according to the table following. The prefix "hydro-" is used when the acid is made up
|
Acid
|
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0.5030995607376099,
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0.08110162615776062
] |
of just hydrogen and one other element. For example, HCl has chloride as its anion, so the hydro- prefix is used, and the -ide suffix makes the name take the form hydrochloric acid.
Classical naming system:
{| class="wikitable"
!Anion prefix
!Anion suffix
!Acid prefix
!Acid suffix
!Example
|-
|per
|ate
|per
|ic acid
|perchloric acid (HClO4)
|-
|
|ate
|
|ic acid
|chloric acid (HClO3)
|-
|
|ite
|
|ous acid
|chlorous acid (HClO2)
|-
|hypo
|ite
|hypo
|ous acid
|hypochlorous acid (HClO)
|-
|
|ide
|hydro
|ic acid
|hydrochloric acid (HCl)
|}
In the IUPAC naming system, "aqueous" is simply added to the name of the ionic compound. Thus, for hydrogen chloride, as an acid solution, the IUPAC name is aqueous hydrogen chloride.
==Acid strength==
The strength of an acid refers to its ability or tendency to lose a proton. A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water; in other words, one mole of a strong acid HA dissolves in water yielding one mole of H+ and one mole of the conjugate base, A−, and none of the protonated acid HA. In contrast, a weak acid only partially dissociates and at equilibrium both the acid and the conjugate base are in solution. Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydroiodic acid (HI), hydrobromic acid (HBr), perchloric acid (HClO4), nitric acid (HNO3) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In water each of these essentially ionizes 100%. The
|
Acid
|
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] |
stronger an acid is, the more easily it loses a proton, H+. Two key factors that contribute to the ease of deprotonation are the polarity of the H—A bond and the size of atom A, which determines the strength of the H—A bond. Acid strengths are also often discussed in terms of the stability of the conjugate base.
Stronger acids have a larger acid dissociation constant, Ka and a more negative pKa than weaker acids.
Sulfonic acids, which are organic oxyacids, are a class of strong acids. A common example is toluenesulfonic acid (tosylic acid). Unlike sulfuric acid itself, sulfonic acids can be solids. In fact, polystyrene functionalized into polystyrene sulfonate is a solid strongly acidic plastic that is filterable.
Superacids are acids stronger than 100% sulfuric acid. Examples of superacids are fluoroantimonic acid, magic acid and perchloric acid. Superacids can permanently protonate water to give ionic, crystalline hydronium "salts". They can also quantitatively stabilize carbocations.
While Ka measures the strength of an acid compound, the strength of an aqueous acid solution is measured by pH, which is an indication of the concentration of hydronium in the solution. The pH of a simple solution of an acid compound in water is determined by
|
Acid
|
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0.3385232985019684,
0.255744606256485
] |
the dilution of the compound and the compound's Ka.
==Lewis acid strength in non-aqueous solutions==
Lewis acids have been classified in the ECW model and it has been shown that there is no one order of acid strengths. The relative acceptor strength of Lewis acids toward a series of bases, versus other Lewis acids, can be illustrated by C-B plots.Laurence, C. and Gal, J-F. Lewis Basicity and Affinity Scales, Data and Measurement, (Wiley 2010) pp 50-51 ISBN 978-0-470-74957-9 The plots shown in this paper used older parameters. Improved E&C parameters are listed in ECW model. It has been shown that to define the order of Lewis acid strength at least two properties must be considered. For Pearson's qualitative HSAB theory the two properties are hardness and strength while for Drago's quantitative ECW model the two properties are electrostatic and covalent.
==Chemical characteristics==
===Monoprotic acids===
Monoprotic acids, also known as monobasic acids, are those acids that are able to donate one proton per molecule during the process of dissociation (sometimes called ionization) as shown below (symbolized by HA):
: Ka
Common examples of monoprotic acids in mineral acids include hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3). On the other hand, for organic acids the
|
Acid
|
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] |
term mainly indicates the presence of one carboxylic acid group and sometimes these acids are known as monocarboxylic acid. Examples in organic acids include formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH3COOH) and benzoic acid (C6H5COOH).
===Polyprotic acids===
Polyprotic acids, also known as polybasic acids, are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as diprotic (or dibasic) acid (two potential protons to donate), and triprotic (or tribasic) acid (three potential protons to donate). Some macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids can have a very large number of acidic protons.
A diprotic acid (here symbolized by H2A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, Ka1 and Ka2.
: Ka1
: Ka2
The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second (i.e., Ka1 > Ka2). For example, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion (HSO), for which Ka1 is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion (SO), wherein the Ka2 is intermediate strength. The large Ka1 for the
|
Acid
|
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] |
first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable carbonic acid can lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion and lose a second to form carbonate anion (CO). Both Ka values are small, but Ka1 > Ka2 .
A triprotic acid (H3A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3.
: Ka1
: Ka2
: Ka3
An inorganic example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4), usually just called phosphoric acid. All three protons can be successively lost to yield H2PO, then HPO, and finally PO, the orthophosphate ion, usually just called phosphate. Even though the positions of the three protons on the original phosphoric acid molecule are equivalent, the successive Ka values differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged. An organic example of a triprotic acid is citric acid, which can successively lose three protons to finally form the citrate ion.
Although the subsequent loss of each hydrogen ion is less favorable, all of the conjugate bases are present in solution. The fractional concentration, α (alpha), for each species
|
Acid
|
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] |
can be calculated. For example, a generic diprotic acid will generate 3 species in solution: H2A, HA−, and A2−. The fractional concentrations can be calculated as below when given either the pH (which can be converted to the [H+]) or the concentrations of the acid with all its conjugate bases:
:\begin{align}
\alpha_\ce{H2A} &= \frac{\ce{[H+]^2}}{\ce{[H+]^2} + [\ce{H+}]K_1 + K_1 K_2} = \frac{\ce{[H2A]}}{\ce{{[H2A]}} + [HA^-] + [A^{2-}]}\\
\alpha_\ce{HA^-} &= \frac{[\ce{H+}]K_1}{\ce{[H+]^2} + [\ce{H+}]K_1 + K_1 K_2} = \frac{\ce{[HA^-]}}{\ce{[H2A]}+{[HA^-]}+{[A^{2-}]}}\\
\alpha_\ce{A^{2-}}&= \frac{K_1 K_2}{\ce{[H+]^2} + [\ce{H+}]K_1 + K_1 K_2} = \frac{\ce{[A^{2-}]}}{\ce{{[H2A]}}+{[HA^-]}+{[A^{2-}]}}
\end{align}
A plot of these fractional concentrations against pH, for given K1 and K2, is known as a Bjerrum plot. A pattern is observed in the above equations and can be expanded to the general n -protic acid that has been deprotonated i -times:
:
\alpha_{\ce H_{n-i} A^{i-} }= { {[\ce{H+}]^{n-i} \displaystyle \prod_{j=0}^{i}K_j} \over { \displaystyle \sum_{i=0}^n \Big[ [\ce{H+}]^{n-i} \displaystyle \prod_{j=0}^{i}K_j} \Big] }
where K0 = 1 and the other K-terms are the dissociation constants for the acid.
===Neutralization===
Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base, producing a salt and neutralized base; for example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water:
:HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
Neutralization is the basis of titration, where
|
Acid
|
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] |
a pH indicator shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid. It is often wrongly assumed that neutralization should result in a solution with pH 7.0, which is only the case with similar acid and base strengths during a reaction.
Neutralization with a base weaker than the acid results in a weakly acidic salt. An example is the weakly acidic ammonium chloride, which is produced from the strong acid hydrogen chloride and the weak base ammonia. Conversely, neutralizing a weak acid with a strong base gives a weakly basic salt (e.g., sodium fluoride from hydrogen fluoride and sodium hydroxide).
===Weak acid–weak base equilibrium===
In order for a protonated acid to lose a proton, the pH of the system must rise above the pKa of the acid. The decreased concentration of H+ in that basic solution shifts the equilibrium towards the conjugate base form (the deprotonated form of the acid). In lower-pH (more acidic) solutions, there is a high enough H+ concentration in the solution to cause the acid to remain in its protonated form.
Solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form buffer solutions.
== Titration ==
To determine the concentration of an
|
Acid
|
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] |
acid in an aqueous solution, an acid–base titration is commonly performed. A strong base solution with a known concentration, usually NaOH or KOH, is added to neutralize the acid solution according to the color change of the indicator with the amount of base added. The titration curve of an acid titrated by a base has two axes, with the base volume on the x-axis and the solution's pH value on the y-axis. The pH of the solution always goes up as the base is added to the solution.
=== Example: Diprotic acid ===
For each diprotic acid titration curve, from left to right, there are two midpoints, two equivalence points, and two buffer regions.
==== Equivalence points ====
Due to the successive dissociation processes, there are two equivalence points in the titration curve of a diprotic acid. The first equivalence point occurs when all first hydrogen ions from the first ionization are titrated. In other words, the amount of OH− added equals the original amount of H2A at the first equivalence point. The second equivalence point occurs when all hydrogen ions are titrated. Therefore, the amount of OH− added equals twice the amount of H2A at this time. For a weak diprotic acid titrated
|
Acid
|
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] |
by a strong base, the second equivalence point must occur at pH above 7 due to the hydrolysis of the resulted salts in the solution. At either equivalence point, adding a drop of base will cause the steepest rise of the pH value in the system.
==== Buffer regions and midpoints ====
A titration curve for a diprotic acid contains two midpoints where pH=pKa. Since there are two different Ka values, the first midpoint occurs at pH=pKa1 and the second one occurs at pH=pKa2. Each segment of the curve that contains a midpoint at its center is called the buffer region. Because the buffer regions consist of the acid and its conjugate base, it can resist pH changes when base is added until the next equivalent points.
==Applications of acids==
===In industry===
Acids are fundamental reagents in treating almost all processes in modern industry. Sulfuric acid, a diprotic acid, is the most widely used acid in industry, and is also the most-produced industrial chemical in the world. It is mainly used in producing fertilizer, detergent, batteries and dyes, as well as used in processing many products such like removing impurities. According to the statistics data in 2011, the annual production of sulfuric acid was around
|
Acid
|
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] |
200 million tonnes in the world. For example, phosphate minerals react with sulfuric acid to produce phosphoric acid for the production of phosphate fertilizers, and zinc is produced by dissolving zinc oxide into sulfuric acid, purifying the solution and electrowinning.
In the chemical industry, acids react in neutralization reactions to produce salts. For example, nitric acid reacts with ammonia to produce ammonium nitrate, a fertilizer. Additionally, carboxylic acids can be esterified with alcohols, to produce esters.
Acids are often used to remove rust and other corrosion from metals in a process known as pickling. They may be used as an electrolyte in a wet cell battery, such as sulfuric acid in a car battery.
===In food===
Tartaric acid is an important component of some commonly used foods like unripened mangoes and tamarind. Natural fruits and vegetables also contain acids. Citric acid is present in oranges, lemon and other citrus fruits. Oxalic acid is present in tomatoes, spinach, and especially in carambola and rhubarb; rhubarb leaves and unripe carambolas are toxic because of high concentrations of oxalic acid. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is an essential vitamin for the human body and is present in such foods as amla (Indian gooseberry), lemon, citrus fruits, and guava.
Many
|
Acid
|
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] |
acids can be found in various kinds of food as additives, as they alter their taste and serve as preservatives. Phosphoric acid, for example, is a component of cola drinks. Acetic acid is used in day-to-day life as vinegar. Citric acid is used as a preservative in sauces and pickles.
Carbonic acid is one of the most common acid additives that are widely added in soft drinks. During the manufacturing process, CO2 is usually pressurized to dissolve in these drinks to generate carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is very unstable and tends to decompose into water and CO2 at room temperature and pressure. Therefore, when bottles or cans of these kinds of soft drinks are opened, the soft drinks fizz and effervesce as CO2 bubbles come out.
Certain acids are used as drugs. Acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) is used as a pain killer and for bringing down fevers.
===In human bodies===
Acids play important roles in the human body. The hydrochloric acid present in the stomach aids digestion by breaking down large and complex food molecules. Amino acids are required for synthesis of proteins required for growth and repair of body tissues. Fatty acids are also required for growth and repair of body tissues. Nucleic acids
|
Acid
|
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] |
are important for the manufacturing of DNA and RNA and transmitting of traits to offspring through genes. Carbonic acid is important for maintenance of pH equilibrium in the body.
Human bodies contain a variety of organic and inorganic compounds, among those dicarboxylic acids play an essential role in many biological behaviors. Many of those acids are amino acids, which mainly serve as materials for the synthesis of proteins. Other weak acids serve as buffers with their conjugate bases to keep the body's pH from undergoing large scale changes that would be harmful to cells. The rest of the dicarboxylic acids also participate in the synthesis of various biologically important compounds in human bodies.
===Acid catalysis===
Acids are used as catalysts in industrial and organic chemistry; for example, sulfuric acid is used in very large quantities in the alkylation process to produce gasoline. Some acids, such as sulfuric, phosphoric, and hydrochloric acids, also effect dehydration and condensation reactions. In biochemistry, many enzymes employ acid catalysis.
==Biological occurrence==
Many biologically important molecules are acids. Nucleic acids, which contain acidic phosphate groups, include DNA and RNA. Nucleic acids contain the genetic code that determines many of an organism's characteristics, and is passed from parents to offspring. DNA
|
Acid
|
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] |
contains the chemical blueprint for the synthesis of proteins, which are made up of amino acid subunits. Cell membranes contain fatty acid esters such as phospholipids.
An α-amino acid has a central carbon (the α or alpha carbon) that is covalently bonded to a carboxyl group (thus they are carboxylic acids), an amino group, a hydrogen atom and a variable group. The variable group, also called the R group or side chain, determines the identity and many of the properties of a specific amino acid. In glycine, the simplest amino acid, the R group is a hydrogen atom, but in all other amino acids it is contains one or more carbon atoms bonded to hydrogens, and may contain other elements such as sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen. With the exception of glycine, naturally occurring amino acids are chiral and almost invariably occur in the L-configuration. Peptidoglycan, found in some bacterial cell walls contains some D-amino acids. At physiological pH, typically around 7, free amino acids exist in a charged form, where the acidic carboxyl group (-COOH) loses a proton (-COO−) and the basic amine group (-NH2) gains a proton (-NH). The entire molecule has a net neutral charge and is a zwitterion,
|
Acid
|
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] |
with the exception of amino acids with basic or acidic side chains. Aspartic acid, for example, possesses one protonated amine and two deprotonated carboxyl groups, for a net charge of −1 at physiological pH.
Fatty acids and fatty acid derivatives are another group of carboxylic acids that play a significant role in biology. These contain long hydrocarbon chains and a carboxylic acid group on one end. The cell membrane of nearly all organisms is primarily made up of a phospholipid bilayer, a micelle of hydrophobic fatty acid esters with polar, hydrophilic phosphate "head" groups. Membranes contain additional components, some of which can participate in acid–base reactions.
In humans and many other animals, hydrochloric acid is a part of the gastric acid secreted within the stomach to help hydrolyze proteins and polysaccharides, as well as converting the inactive pro-enzyme, pepsinogen into the enzyme, pepsin. Some organisms produce acids for defense; for example, ants produce formic acid.
Acid–base equilibrium plays a critical role in regulating mammalian breathing. Oxygen gas (O2) drives cellular respiration, the process by which animals release the chemical potential energy stored in food, producing carbon dioxide (CO2) as a byproduct. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the lungs, and the body
|
Acid
|
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] |
responds to changing energy demands by adjusting the rate of ventilation. For example, during periods of exertion the body rapidly breaks down stored carbohydrates and fat, releasing CO2 into the blood stream. In aqueous solutions such as blood CO2 exists in equilibrium with carbonic acid and bicarbonate ion.
:
It is the decrease in pH that signals the brain to breathe faster and deeper, expelling the excess CO2 and resupplying the cells with O2.
Cell membranes are generally impermeable to charged or large, polar molecules because of the lipophilic fatty acyl chains comprising their interior. Many biologically important molecules, including a number of pharmaceutical agents, are organic weak acids that can cross the membrane in their protonated, uncharged form but not in their charged form (i.e., as the conjugate base). For this reason the activity of many drugs can be enhanced or inhibited by the use of antacids or acidic foods. The charged form, however, is often more soluble in blood and cytosol, both aqueous environments. When the extracellular environment is more acidic than the neutral pH within the cell, certain acids will exist in their neutral form and will be membrane soluble, allowing them to cross the phospholipid bilayer. Acids
|
Acid
|
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] |
that lose a proton at the intracellular pH will exist in their soluble, charged form and are thus able to diffuse through the cytosol to their target. Ibuprofen, aspirin and penicillin are examples of drugs that are weak acids.
==Common acids==
===Mineral acids (inorganic acids)===
* Hydrogen halides and their solutions: hydrofluoric acid (HF), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydroiodic acid (HI)
* Halogen oxoacids: hypochlorous acid (HClO), chlorous acid (HClO2), chloric acid (HClO3), perchloric acid (HClO4), and corresponding analogs for bromine and iodine
** Hypofluorous acid (HFO), the only known oxoacid for fluorine.
* Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
* Fluorosulfuric acid (HSO3F)
* Nitric acid (HNO3)
* Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
* Fluoroantimonic acid (HSbF6)
* Fluoroboric acid (HBF4)
* Hexafluorophosphoric acid (HPF6)
* Chromic acid (H2CrO4)
* Boric acid (H3BO3)
===Sulfonic acids===
A sulfonic acid has the general formula RS(=O)2–OH, where R is an organic radical.
* Methanesulfonic acid (or mesylic acid, CH3SO3H)
* Ethanesulfonic acid (or esylic acid, CH3CH2SO3H)
* Benzenesulfonic acid (or besylic acid, C6H5SO3H)
* p-Toluenesulfonic acid (or tosylic acid, CH3C6H4SO3H)
* Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (or triflic acid, CF3SO3H)
* Polystyrene sulfonic acid (sulfonated polystyrene, [CH2CH(C6H4)SO3H]n)
===Carboxylic acids===
A carboxylic acid has the general formula R-C(O)OH, where R is an organic radical. The carboxyl group -C(O)OH contains a carbonyl group, C=O, and a hydroxyl group, O-H.
* Acetic acid (CH3COOH)
* Citric acid
|
Acid
|
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] |
(C6H8O7)
* Formic acid (HCOOH)
* Gluconic acid HOCH2-(CHOH)4-COOH
* Lactic acid (CH3-CHOH-COOH)
* Oxalic acid (HOOC-COOH)
* Tartaric acid (HOOC-CHOH-CHOH-COOH)
===Halogenated carboxylic acids===
Halogenation at alpha position increases acid strength, so that the following acids are all stronger than acetic acid.
* Fluoroacetic acid
* Trifluoroacetic acid
* Chloroacetic acid
* Dichloroacetic acid
* Trichloroacetic acid
===Vinylogous carboxylic acids===
Normal carboxylic acids are the direct union of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl group. In vinylogous carboxylic acids, a carbon-carbon double bond separates the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups.
* Ascorbic acid
===Nucleic acids===
* Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
* Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
==References==
* Listing of strengths of common acids and bases
*
*
==External links==
* Curtipot: Acid–Base equilibria diagrams, pH calculation and titration curves simulation and analysis – freeware
Category:Acid–base chemistry
|
Acid
|
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The Austroasiatic languages , , also known as Mon–KhmerBradley (2012) notes, MK in the wider sense including the Munda languages of eastern South Asia is also known as Austroasiatic. , are a large language family in Mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. These languages are scattered throughout parts of Thailand, Laos, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Nepal, and southern China and are the majority languages of Vietnam and Cambodia. There are around 117 million speakers of Austroasiatic languages. Of these languages, only Vietnamese, Khmer, and Mon have a long-established recorded history. Only two have official status as modern national languages: Vietnamese in Vietnam and Khmer in Cambodia. The Mon language is a recognized indigenous language in Myanmar and Thailand. In Myanmar, the Wa language is the de facto official language of Wa State. Santali is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. The rest of the languages are spoken by minority groups and have no official status.
Ethnologue identifies 168 Austroasiatic languages. These form thirteen established families (plus perhaps Shompen, which is poorly attested, as a fourteenth), which have traditionally been grouped into two, as Mon–Khmer, and Munda. However, one recent classification posits three groups (Munda, Mon-Khmer, and Khasi–Khmuic),Diffloth
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
2005 while another has abandoned Mon–Khmer as a taxon altogether, making it synonymous with the larger family.Sidwell 2009
Austroasiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across Southeast Asia and parts of India, Bangladesh, Nepal and East Asia, separated by regions where other languages are spoken. They appear to be the extant original languages of Mainland Southeast Asia (excluding the Andaman Islands), with the neighboring, and sometimes surrounding, Kra–Dai, Hmong-Mien, Austronesian, and Sino-Tibetan languages being the result of later migrations.
==Etymology==
The name Austroasiatic comes from a combination of the Latin words for "South" and "Asia", hence "South Asia".
==Typology==
Regarding word structure, Austroasiatic languages are well known for having an iambic "sesquisyllabic" pattern, with basic nouns and verbs consisting of an initial, unstressed, reduced minor syllable followed by a stressed, full syllable. This reduction of presyllables has led to a variety among modern languages of phonological shapes of the same original Proto-Austroasiatic prefixes, such as the causative prefix, ranging from CVC syllables to consonant clusters to single consonants. As for word formation, most Austroasiatic languages have a variety of derivational prefixes, many have infixes, but suffixes are almost completely non-existent in most branches except Munda, and a few specialized exceptions in other Austroasiatic branches.Alves 2014, 2015
The
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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0.1697191298007965,
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] |
Austroasiatic languages are further characterized as having unusually large vowel inventories and employing some sort of register contrast, either between modal (normal) voice and breathy (lax) voice or between modal voice and creaky voice.Diffloth, Gérard (1989). "Proto-Austroasiatic creaky voice." Languages in the Pearic branch and some in the Vietic branch can have a three- or even four-way voicing contrast.
However, some Austroasiatic languages have lost the register contrast by evolving more diphthongs or in a few cases, such as Vietnamese, tonogenesis. Vietnamese has been so heavily influenced by Chinese that its original Austroasiatic phonological quality is obscured and now resembles that of South Chinese languages, whereas Khmer, which had more influence from Sanskrit, has retained a more typically Austroasiatic structure.
==Proto-language==
Much work has been done on the reconstruction of Proto-Mon–Khmer in Harry L. Shorto's Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary. Little work has been done on the Munda languages, which are not well documented. With their demotion from a primary branch, Proto-Mon–Khmer becomes synonymous with Proto-Austroasiatic. Paul Sidwell (2005) reconstructs the consonant inventory of Proto-Mon–Khmer as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| || || || ||
|-
| || || || ||
|-
| || || || ||
|-
| ||
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
[
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] |
|| || ||
|-
| || || || ||
|-
| || || || ||
|}
This is identical to earlier reconstructions except for . is better preserved in the Katuic languages, which Sidwell has specialized in.
==Internal classification==
Linguists traditionally recognize two primary divisions of Austroasiatic: the Mon–Khmer languages of Southeast Asia, Northeast India and the Nicobar Islands, and the Munda languages of East and Central India and parts of Bangladesh, parts of Nepal. However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published.
Each of the families that is written in boldface type below is accepted as a valid clade. By contrast, the relationships between these families within Austroasiatic are debated. In addition to the traditional classification, two recent proposals are given, neither of which accepts traditional "Mon–Khmer" as a valid unit. However, little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published, and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review.
In addition, there are suggestions that additional branches of Austroasiatic might be preserved in substrata of Acehnese in Sumatra (Diffloth), the Chamic languages of Vietnam, and the Land Dayak languages of Borneo (Adelaar 1995).Roger Blench, 2009. Are there four additional unrecognised branches of Austroasiatic? Presentation at
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
ICAAL-4, Bangkok, 29–30 October. Summarized in Sidwell and Blench (2011).
===Diffloth (1974)===
Diffloth's widely cited original classification, now abandoned by Diffloth himself, is used in Encyclopædia Britannica and—except for the breakup of Southern Mon–Khmer—in Ethnologue.
* Munda
** North Munda
*** Korku
*** Kherwarian
** South Munda
*** Kharia–Juang
*** Koraput Munda
* Mon–Khmer
** Eastern Mon–Khmer
*** Khmer (Cambodian)
*** Pearic
*** Bahnaric
*** Katuic
*** Vietic (Vietnamese, Muong)
** Northern Mon–Khmer
*** Khasi (Meghalaya, India)
*** Palaungic
*** Khmuic
** Southern Mon–Khmer
*** Mon
*** Aslian (Malaya)
*** Nicobarese (Nicobar Islands)
=== Peiros (2004) ===
Peiros is a lexicostatistic classification, based on percentages of shared vocabulary. This means that languages can appear to be more distantly related than they actually are due to language contact. Indeed, when Sidwell (2009) replicated Peiros's study with languages known well enough to account for loans, he did not find the internal (branching) structure below.
* Nicobarese
* Munda–Khmer
** Munda
** Mon–Khmer
*** Khasi
*** Nuclear Mon–Khmer
**** Mangic (Mang + Palyu) (perhaps in Northern MK)
**** Vietic (perhaps in Northern MK)
**** Northern Mon–Khmer
***** Palaungic
***** Khmuic
**** Central Mon–Khmer
***** Khmer dialects
***** Pearic
***** Asli-Bahnaric
****** Aslian
****** Mon–Bahnaric
******* Monic
******* Katu–Bahnaric
******** Katuic
******** Bahnaric
=== Diffloth (2005) ===
Diffloth compares reconstructions of various clades, and attempts to classify them based on shared innovations, though like other classifications the evidence has not been published. As a schematic, we have:
Or in more detail,
* Munda languages (India)
:*
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
Koraput: 7 languages
:*Core Munda languages
::* Kharian–Juang: 2 languages
::*North Munda languages
::: Korku
::: Kherwarian: 12 languages
* Khasi–Khmuic languages (Northern Mon–Khmer)
:* Khasian: 3 languages of north eastern India and adjacent region of Bangladesh
:*Palaungo-Khmuic languages
::* Khmuic: 13 languages of Laos and Thailand
::*Palaungo-Pakanic languages
::: Pakanic or Palyu: 4 or 5 languages of southern China and Vietnam
::: Palaungic: 21 languages of Burma, southern China, and Thailand
* Nuclear Mon–Khmer languages
:* Khmero-Vietic languages (Eastern Mon–Khmer)
::* Vieto-Katuic languages ?Sidwell (2005) casts doubt on Diffloth's Vieto-Katuic hypothesis, saying that the evidence is ambiguous, and that it is not clear where Katuic belongs in the family.
::: Vietic: 10 languages of Vietnam and Laos, including Muong and Vietnamese, which has the most speakers of any Austroasiatic language.
::: Katuic: 19 languages of Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand.
::* Khmero-Bahnaric languages
:::* Bahnaric: 40 languages of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
:::*Khmeric languages
:::: The Khmer dialects of Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam.
:::: Pearic: 6 languages of Cambodia.
:* Nico-Monic languages (Southern Mon–Khmer)
::* Nicobarese: 6 languages of the Nicobar Islands, a territory of India.
::* Asli-Monic languages
::: Aslian: 19 languages of peninsular Malaysia and Thailand.
::: Monic: 2 languages, the Mon language of Burma and the Nyahkur language of Thailand.
=== Sidwell (2009–2015) ===
Paul Sidwell (2009), in a lexicostatistical comparison of 36 languages which are
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
well known enough to exclude loanwords, finds little evidence for internal branching, though he did find an area of increased contact between the Bahnaric and Katuic languages, such that languages of all branches apart from the geographically distant Munda and Nicobarese show greater similarity to Bahnaric and Katuic the closer they are to those branches, without any noticeable innovations common to Bahnaric and Katuic.
He therefore takes the conservative view that the thirteen branches of Austroasiatic should be treated as equidistant on current evidence. Sidwell & Blench (2011) discuss this proposal in more detail, and note that there is good evidence for a Khasi–Palaungic node, which could also possibly be closely related to Khmuic.Sidwell, Paul, and Roger Blench. 2011. "The Austroasiatic Urheimat: the Southeastern Riverine Hypothesis." Enfield, NJ (ed.) Dynamics of Human Diversity, 317–345. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
If this would the case, Sidwell & Blench suggest that Khasic may have been an early offshoot of Palaungic that had spread westward. Sidwell & Blench (2011) suggest Shompen as an additional branch, and believe that a Vieto-Katuic connection is worth investigating. In general, however, the family is thought to have diversified too quickly for a deeply nested structure to have developed, since Proto-Austroasiatic speakers
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
are believed by Sidwell to have radiated out from the central Mekong river valley relatively quickly.
Subsequently, Sidwell (2015a: 179)Sidwell, Paul. 2015a. "Austroasiatic classification." In Jenny, Mathias and Paul Sidwell, eds (2015). The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages. Leiden: Brill. proposed that Nicobarese subgroups with Aslian, just as how Khasian and Palaungic subgroup with each other.
A subsequent computational phylogenetic analysis (Sidwell 2015b)Sidwell, Paul. 2015b. A comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the Austroasiatic languages. Presented at Diversity Linguistics: Retrospect and Prospect, 1–3 May 2015 (Leipzig, Germany), Closing conference of the Department of Linguistics at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. suggests that Austroasiatic branches may have a loosely nested structure rather than a completely rake-like structure, with an east–west division (consisting of Munda, Khasic, Palaungic, and Khmuic forming a western group as opposed to all of the other branches) occurring possibly as early as 7,000 years before present. However, he still considers the subbranching dubious.
Integrating computational phylogenetic linguistics with recent archaeological findings, Paul Sidwell (2015c)Sidwell, Paul. 2015c. Phylogeny, innovations, and correlations in the prehistory of Austroasiatic. Paper presented at the workshop Integrating inferences about our past: new findings and current issues in the peopling of the Pacific and South East Asia, 22–23 June
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
2015, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany. further expanded his Mekong riverine hypothesis by proposing that Austroasiatic had ultimately expanded into Indochina from the Lingnan area of southern China, with the subsequent Mekong riverine dispersal taking place after the initial arrival of Neolithic farmers from southern China.
Sidwell (2015c) tentatively suggests that Austroasiatic may have begun to split up 5,000 years B.P. during the Neolithic transition era of mainland Southeast Asia, with all the major branches of Austroasiatic formed by 4,000 B.P. Austroasiatic would have had two possible dispersal routes from the western periphery of the Pearl River watershed of Lingnan, which would have been either a coastal route down the coast of Vietnam, or downstream through the Mekong River via Yunnan. Both the reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic and the archaeological record clearly show that early Austroasiatic speakers around 4,000 B.P. cultivated rice and millet, kept livestock such as dogs, pigs, and chickens, and thrived mostly in estuarine rather than coastal environments.
At 4,500 B.P., this "Neolithic package" suddenly arrived in Indochina from the Lingnan area without cereal grains and displaced the earlier pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherer cultures, with grain husks found in northern Indochina by 4,100 B.P. and
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
in southern Indochina by 3,800 B.P. However, Sidwell (2015c) found that iron is not reconstructable in Proto-Austroasiatic, since each Austroasiatic branch has different terms for iron that had been borrowed relatively lately from Tai, Chinese, Tibetan, Malay, and other languages.
During the Iron Age about 2,500 B.P., relatively young Austroasiatic branches in Indochina such as Vietic, Katuic, Pearic, and Khmer were formed, while the more internally diverse Bahnaric branch (dating to about 3,000 B.P.) underwent more extensive internal diversification. By the Iron Age, all of the Austroasiatic branches were more or less in their present-day locations, with most of the diversification within Austroasiatic taking place during the Iron Age.
Paul Sidwell (2018)Sidwell, Paul. 2018. Austroasiatic deep chronology and the problem of cultural lexicon. Paper presented at the 28th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, held 17–19 May 2018 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. considers the Austroasiatic language family to have rapidly diversified around 4,000 years B.P. during the arrival of rice agriculture in Indochina, but notes that the origin of Proto-Austroasiatic itself is older than that date. The lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic can be divided into an early and late stratum. The early stratum consists of basic lexicon including body parts, animal names,
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Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
natural features, and pronouns, while the names of cultural items (agriculture terms and words for cultural artifacts, which are reconstructible in Proto-Austroasiatic) form part of the later stratum.
Roger Blench (2017)Blench, Roger. 2017. Waterworld: lexical evidence for aquatic subsistence strategies in Austroasiatic. Presented at ICAAL 7, Kiel, Germany. suggests that vocabulary related to aquatic subsistence strategies (such as boats, waterways, river fauna, and fish capture techniques) can be reconstructed for Proto-Austroasiatic. Blench (2017) finds widespread Austroasiatic roots for 'river, valley', 'boat', 'fish', 'catfish sp.', 'eel', 'prawn', 'shrimp' (Central Austroasiatic), 'crab', 'tortoise', 'turtle', 'otter', 'crocodile', 'heron, fishing bird', and 'fish trap'. Archaeological evidence for the presence of agriculture in northern Indochina (northern Vietnam, Laos, and other nearby areas) dates back to only about 4,000 years ago (2,000 BC), with agriculture ultimately being introduced from further up to the north in the Yangtze valley where it has been dated to 6,000 B.P.
Sidwell (2022)Sidwell, Paul. 2021. Austroasiatic Dispersal: the AA "Water-World" Extended. SEALS 2021. (Video) proposes that the locus of Proto-Austroasiatic was in the Red River Delta area about 4,000-4,500 years before present, instead of the Middle Mekong as he had previously proposed. Austroasiatic dispersed coastal maritime routes and also upstream through river valleys.
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
Khmuic, Palaungic, and Khasic resulted from a westward dispersal that ultimately came from the Red Valley valley. Based on their current distributions, about half of all Austroasiatic branches (including Nicobaric and Munda) can be traced to coastal maritime dispersals.
Hence, this points to a relatively late riverine dispersal of Austroasiatic as compared to Sino-Tibetan, whose speakers had a distinct non-riverine culture. In addition to living an aquatic-based lifestyle, early Austroasiatic speakers would have also had access to livestock, crops, and newer types of watercraft. As early Austroasiatic speakers dispersed rapidly via waterways, they would have encountered speakers of older language families who were already settled in the area, such as Sino-Tibetan.
===Sidwell (2018)===
Sidwell (2018)Sidwell, Paul. 2018. Austroasiatic deep chronology and the problem of cultural lexicon. Paper presented at the 28th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. Kaohsiung, Taiwan. (accessed 16 December 2020). (quoted in Sidwell 2021) gives a more nested classification of Austroasiatic branches as suggested by his computational phylogenetic analysis of Austroasiatic languages using a 200-word list. Many of the tentative groupings are likely linkages. Pakanic and Shompen were not included.
=== Possible extinct branches ===
Roger Blench (2009)Blench, Roger. 2009. "Are there four additional unrecognised branches of Austroasiatic?." also proposes
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
that there might have been other primary branches of Austroasiatic that are now extinct, based on substrate evidence in modern-day languages.
* Pre-Chamic languages (the languages of coastal Vietnam before the Chamic migrations). Chamic has various Austroasiatic loanwords that cannot be clearly traced to existing Austroasiatic branches (Sidwell 2006, 2007).Sidwell, Paul. 2006. "Dating the Separation of Acehnese and Chamic By Etymological Analysis of the Aceh-Chamic Lexicon ." In The Mon-Khmer Studies Journal, 36: 187–206.Sidwell, Paul. 2007. "The Mon-Khmer Substrate in Chamic: Chamic, Bahnaric and Katuic Contact." In SEALS XII Papers from the 12th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 2002, edited by Ratree Wayland et al.. Canberra, Australia, 113-128. Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University. Larish (1999)Larish, Michael David. 1999. The Position of Moken and Moklen Within the Austronesian Language Family. Doctoral dissertation, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa. also notes that Moklenic languages contain many Austroasiatic loanwords, some of which are similar to the ones found in Chamic.
* Acehnese substratum (Sidwell 2006). Acehnese has many basic words that are of Austroasiatic origin, suggesting that either Austronesian speakers have absorbed earlier Austroasiatic residents in northern Sumatra, or that words might have been borrowed
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
from Austroasiatic languages in southern Vietnam – or perhaps a combination of both. Sidwell (2006) argues that Acehnese and Chamic had often borrowed Austroasiatic words independently of each other, while some Austroasiatic words can be traced back to Proto-Aceh-Chamic. Sidwell (2006) accepts that Acehnese and Chamic are related, but that they had separated from each other before Chamic had borrowed most of its Austroasiatic lexicon.
* Bornean substrate languages (Blench 2010).Blench, Roger. 2010. "Was there an Austroasiatic Presence in Island Southeast Asia prior to the Austronesian Expansion?" In Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, Vol. 30. Blench cites Austroasiatic-origin words in modern-day Bornean branches such as Land Dayak (Bidayuh, Dayak Bakatiq, etc.), Dusunic (Central Dusun, Visayan, etc.), Kayan, and Kenyah, noting especially resemblances with Aslian. As further evidence for his proposal, Blench also cites ethnographic evidence such as musical instruments in Borneo shared in common with Austroasiatic-speaking groups in mainland Southeast Asia. Adelaar (1995)Adelaar, K.A. 1995. Borneo as a cross-roads for comparative Austronesian linguistics. In P. Bellwood, J.J. Fox and D. Tryon (eds.), The Austronesians, pp. 81-102. Canberra: Australian National University. has also noticed phonological and lexical similarities between Land Dayak and Aslian.
* Lepcha substratum ("Rongic").Blench, Roger. 2013. Rongic: a vanished
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
branch of Austroasiatic. m.s. Many words of Austroasiatic origin have been noticed in Lepcha, suggesting a Sino-Tibetan superstrate laid over an Austroasiatic substrate. Blench (2013) calls this branch "Rongic" based on the Lepcha autonym Róng.
Other languages with proposed Austroasiatic substrata are:
* Jiamao, based on evidence from the register system of Jiamao, a Hlai language (Thurgood 1992).Thurgood, Graham. 1992. "The aberrancy of the Jiamao dialect of Hlai: speculation on its origins and history". In Ratliff, Martha S. and Schiller, E. (eds.), Papers from the First Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, 417–433. Arizona State University, Program for Southeast Asian Studies. Jiamao is known for its highly aberrant vocabulary in relation to other Hlai languages.
* Kerinci: van Reijn (1974)van Reijn, E. O. (1974). "Some Remarks on the Dialects of North Kerintji: A link with Mon-Khmer Languages." Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 31, 2: 130–138. . notes that Kerinci, a Malayic language of central Sumatra, shares many phonological similarities with Austroasiatic languages, such as sesquisyllabic word structure and vowel inventory.
John Peterson (2017)Peterson, John (2017). "The prehistorical spread of Austro-Asiatic in South Asia". Presented at ICAAL 7, Kiel, Germany. suggests that "pre-Munda" ("proto-" in regular terminology) languages
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
may have once dominated the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain, and were then absorbed by Indo-Aryan languages at an early date as Indo-Aryan spread east. Peterson notes that eastern Indo-Aryan languages display many morphosyntactic features similar to those of Munda languages, while western Indo-Aryan languages do not.
== Writing systems ==
Other than Latin-based alphabets, many Austroasiatic languages are written with the Khmer, Thai, Lao, and Burmese alphabets. Vietnamese divergently had an indigenous script based on Chinese logographic writing. This has since been supplanted by the Latin alphabet in the 20th century. The following are examples of past-used alphabets or current alphabets of Austroasiatic languages.
* Chữ Nôm
* Khmer alphabet
* Khom script (used for a short period in the early 20th century for indigenous languages in Laos)
* Old Mon script
* Mon script
* Pahawh Hmong was once used to write Khmu, under the name "Pahawh Khmu"
* Tai Le (Palaung, Blang)
* Tai Tham (Blang)
* Ol Chiki alphabet (Santali alphabet)
* Mundari Bani (Mundari alphabet)
* Warang Citi (Ho alphabet)
* Ol Onal (Bhumij alphabet)
* Sorang Sompeng alphabet (Sora alphabet)
== External relations ==
=== Austric languages ===
Austroasiatic is an integral part of the controversial Austric hypothesis, which also includes the Austronesian languages, and in some proposals also the Kra–Dai languages and the
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
Hmong–Mien languages.
=== Hmong-Mien ===
Several lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic language families (Ratliff 2010), some of which had earlier been proposed by Haudricourt (1951). This could imply a relation or early language contact along the Yangtze.Haudricourt, André-Georges. 1951. Introduction à la phonologie historique des langues miao-yao [An introduction to the historical phonology of the Miao-Yao languages]. Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient 44(2). 555–576.
According to Cai (et al. 2011), Hmong–Mien is at least partially related to Austroasiatic but was heavily influenced by Sino-Tibetan, especially Tibeto-Burman languages.
===Indo-Aryan languages===
It is suggested that the Austroasiatic languages have some influence on Indo-Aryan languages including Sanskrit and middle Indo-Aryan languages. Indian linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji pointed that a specific number of substantives in languages such as Hindi, Punjabi and Bengali were borrowed from Munda languages. Additionally, French linguist Jean Przyluski suggested a similarity between the tales from the Austroasiatic realm and the Indian mythological stories of Matsyagandha (from Mahabharata) and the Nāgas.
== Austroasiatic migrations and archaeogenetics==
Mitsuru Sakitani suggests that Haplogroup O1b1, which is common in Austroasiatic people and some other ethnic groups in southern China, and haplogroup O1b2, which is common in today's Japanese, Koreans and some Manchu, are the carriers of early
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
rice-agriculturalists from Indochina.崎谷満『DNA・考古・言語の学際研究が示す新・日本列島史』（勉誠出版 2009年） Another study suggests that the haplogroup O1b1 is the major Austroasiatic paternal lineage and O1b2 the "para-Austroasiatic" lineage of the Manchu, Korean and Yayoi people.
A 2021 study by Tagore et al. found that the proto-Austroasiatic speakers split from an Basal East Asian source population, native to Mainland Southeast Asia and Northeast India, which also gave rise to other East Asian-related populations, including Northeast Asians and Indigenous peoples of the Americas. The proto-Austroasiatic speakers can be linked to the Hoabinhian material culture. From Mainland Southeast Asia, the Austroasiatic speakers expanded into the Indian-subcontinent and Maritime Southeast Asia. There is evidence that later back migration from more northerly East Asian groups (such as Kra-Dai speakers) merged with indigenous Southeast Asians, contributing to the fragmentation observed among modern day Austroasiatic-speakers. In the Indian subcontinent, Austroasiatic speakers, specifically Mundari, intermixed with the local population. Furthermore they concluded that their results do not support a genetic relationship between Ancient Southeast Asian hunter-gatherers (Hoabinhians) with Papuan-related groups, as previously suggested by McColl et al. 2018, but that these Ancient Southeast Asians are characterized by Basal East Asian ancestry. The authors finally concluded that genetics do not necessarily correspond with linguistic identity, pointing to
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
the fragmentation of modern Austroasiatic speakers.
Larena et al. 2021 could reproduce the genetic evidence for the origin of Basal East Asians in Mainland Southeast Asia, which are estimated to have formed about 50kya years ago, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards. Early Austroasiatic speakers are estimated to have originated from an lineage, which split from Ancestral East Asians between 25,000 and 15,000 years ago, and were among the first wave to replace distinct Australasian-related groups in Insular Southeast Asia. East Asian-related ancestry became dominant in Insular Southeast Asia already between 15,000 years to 12,000 years ago, and may be associated with Austroasiatic groups, which however got again replaced by later Austronesian groups some 10,000 to 7,000 years ago. Early Austroasiatic people were found to be best represented by the Mlabri people in modern day Thailand. Proposals for Austroasiatic substratum among later Austronesian languages in Western Indonesia, noteworthy among the Dayak languages, is strengthened by genetic data, suggesting Austroasiatic speakers were assimilated by Austronesian speakers.
A study in November 2021 (Guo et al.) found that modern East-Eurasians can be modeled from four ancestry components, which descended from a common ancestor in Mainland Southeast Asia, one being the "Ancestral Austroasiatic"
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
component (AAA), which is more prevalent among modern Southeast Asians, and making up the exclusive ancestry among Austroasiatic-speaking Lua and Mlabri people. The early Austroasiatic speakers are suggested to have been hunter-gatherers but became rice-agriculturalists quite early, spreading from Mainland Southeast Asia northwards to the Yangtze river, westwards into the Indian subcontinent, and southwards into Insular Southeast Asia. Evidence for these migrations are Austroasiatic loanwords related to rice-agriculture found among non-Austroasiatic languages, and the presence of Austroasiatic genetic ancestry.
According to a recent genetic study, Sundanese, Javanese, and Balinese, has almost an equal ratio of genetic marker shared between Austronesian and Austroasiatic heritages.
=== Migration into India ===
According to Chaubey et al., "Austro-Asiatic speakers in India today are derived from dispersal from Southeast Asia, followed by extensive sex-specific admixture with local Indian populations." According to Riccio et al., the Munda people are likely descended from Austroasiatic migrants from Southeast Asia.The Language Gulper, Austroasiatic Languages
According to Zhang et al., Austroasiatic migrations from Southeast Asia into India took place after the last Glacial maximum, circa 10,000 years ago. Arunkumar et al., suggest Austroasiatic migrations from Southeast Asia occurred into Northeast India 5.2 ± 0.6 kya and into East India 4.3 ± 0.2 kya.
== Notes ==
== References ==
==
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
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] |
Southeast Asia. Pacific Linguistics Series C, No. 142. Canberra: Australian National University.
* Shorto, Harry L. edited by Sidwell, Paul, Cooper, Doug and Bauer, Christian (2006). A Mon–Khmer comparative dictionary. Canberra: Australian National University. Pacific Linguistics.
* Shorto, H. L. Bibliographies of Mon–Khmer and Tai Linguistics. London oriental bibliographies, v. 2. London: Oxford University Press, 1963.
*
*
*
* van Driem, George. (2007). Austroasiatic phylogeny and the Austroasiatic homeland in light of recent population genetic studies. Mon-Khmer Studies, 37, 1-14.
* Zide, Norman H., and Milton E. Barker. (1966) Studies in Comparative Austroasiatic Linguistics, The Hague: Mouton (Indo-Iranian monographs, v. 5.).
*
== Further reading ==
*
* Mann, Noel, Wendy Smith and Eva Ujlakyova. 2009. Linguistic clusters of Mainland Southeast Asia: an overview of the language families. Chiang Mai: Payap University.
*
*
* Sidwell, Paul. 2016. Bibliography of Austroasiatic linguistics and related resources.
* E. K. Brown (ed.) Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier Press.
* Gregory D. S. Anderson and Norman H. Zide. 2002. Issues in Proto-Munda and Proto-Austroasiatic Nominal Derivation: The Bimoraic Constraint. In Marlys A. Macken (ed.) Papers from the 10th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University, South East Asian Studies Program, Monograph Series
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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] |
Press. pp. 55–74.
== External links ==
* Swadesh lists for Austro-Asiatic languages (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)
* Austro-Asiatic at the Linguist List MultiTree Project (not functional as of 2014): Genealogical trees attributed to Sebeok 1942, Pinnow 1959, Diffloth 2005, and Matisoff 2006
* Mon–Khmer.com: Lectures by Paul Sidwell
* Mon–Khmer Languages Project at SEAlang
* Munda Languages Project at SEAlang
* RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)
* http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66A4-2@view RWAAI Digital Archive
* Michel Ferlus's recordings of Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) languages (CNRS)
Category:Agglutinative languages
Category:Language families
Category:Sino-Austronesian languages
|
Austroasiatic languages
|
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